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What is the Treaty of Waitangi?
The Treaty of Waitangi is an agreement made in 1840 between representatives of the British Crown and more than 500 Māori chiefs. It resulted in the declaration of British sovereignty over New Zealand by Lieutenant-Governor William Hobson in May 1840. Most chiefs signed a Māori-language version of the treaty. The English- and Māori-language versions held different meanings, and Māori and Europeans therefore had different expectations of the treaty’s terms. Ever since, resolution of these differences has presented New Zealand with challenges.
New Zealand before the treaty
In the 1830s an independent, Māori-controlled New Zealand was a frontier outpost of the British penal colony of New South Wales. As New Zealand’s trade and shipping expanded, relations between Māori and Europeans depended on a good working accord, but violence sometimes flared up. British law did not extend to controlling unruly British subjects in New Zealand, so some European residents asked the British government to intervene to maintain order. It was reluctant to do so.
The British government was more concerned by other developments. European speculators were reported to have purchased vast areas of New Zealand. At the same time the London-based New Zealand Company had firm plans for organised settlement in New Zealand. In 1839 the company prepared to buy land on either side of the Cook Strait, and dispatched ships there carrying several hundred settlers.
From independence to British colony
The British government finally decided to take action on New Zealand in 1839. It appointed a naval captain, William Hobson, as consul to an independent New Zealand, and as lieutenant governor to any parts of the country that Māori would consent to becoming British. His instructions directed him to negotiate for the sovereignty of New Zealand, and to establish a British colony. En route from Britain Hobson received advice from George Gipps, the governor of New South Wales, about drafting a treaty with Māori.
Drafting and translating the treaty
Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands on 29 January 1840. With the help of his secretary, James Freeman, he drew up some notes for a treaty. James Busby, the British Resident (an official position), tidied these up and added to them. Over one evening, the notes were translated into Māori by the missionary Henry Williams and his son Edward.
Hobson presented this Māori-language treaty to a meeting of around 500 Māori invited to Waitangi on 5 February. They held a lively debate on the possible effects of the treaty on their chiefly authority, land and trade, but no agreement was reached when the day-long meeting closed.
One of the Ngāpuhi chiefs debating the treaty at Waitangi on 5 February 1840 was Rewa of Kororāreka (later renamed Russell). He may have been advised by Bishop Pompallier, who lived near him. Rewa told the meeting that Māori did not need a governor for they were neither ‘whites nor foreigners’. Although a good deal of land had already been taken up by Europeans, ‘this country is ours … we are the Governor – we, the chiefs of this our father’s land’.1
Treaty first signed
The following day, 6 February 1840, with little further debate, more than 40 chiefs agreed to sign the treaty. The French Catholic Bishop Jean Baptiste François Pompallier requested that all religious beliefs should be allowed in the new colony, and Hobson agreed to this. In the following days, meetings at Waimate North and Hokianga added further signatures and marks of agreement to the treaty. This agreement was not unanimous, and some chiefs expressed strong reservations about signing.
Hobson was quick to report to the British government that his mission was successful. He noted that he had secured agreement to British sovereignty, especially from a number of chiefs who had already signed the 1835 Declaration of Independence, in which 52 chiefs, mainly from Northland, had declared their sovereignty over New Zealand.
The missionaries involved in treaty meetings recognised the mana of chiefly women and took several signatures from them. Women who signed the treaty included Te Rangitopeora at Kāpiti; Kahe Te Rau-o-te-Rangi at Wellington; Rere-o-maki at Whanganui; Ana Hamu at Waitangi and Ereonora at Kaitāia.
Gathering further signatures
Before Hobson could collect further signatures he fell seriously ill. Two army officers and several missionaries were given responsibility for seeking agreement to the treaty elsewhere in the country. Several handwritten copies of the Māori-language treaty were taken around the country over the following seven months. Nine of these copies have survived and are under the statutory guardianship and care of Archives New Zealand.
More than 500 chiefs, including a number of women, signed the Treaty of Waitangi. Nearly all signed a Māori-language copy. The exception was an English-language copy signed by 39 chiefs at Manukau Harbour and Waikato Heads. Each treaty copy was also signed by European witnesses who varied from place to place. | <urn:uuid:b416752b-ed0d-4e52-856b-b8a408df38d2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/mi/treaty-of-waitangi/page-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.980014 | 1,073 | 4.625 | 5 | [
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0.562616407871... | 10 | What is the Treaty of Waitangi?
The Treaty of Waitangi is an agreement made in 1840 between representatives of the British Crown and more than 500 Māori chiefs. It resulted in the declaration of British sovereignty over New Zealand by Lieutenant-Governor William Hobson in May 1840. Most chiefs signed a Māori-language version of the treaty. The English- and Māori-language versions held different meanings, and Māori and Europeans therefore had different expectations of the treaty’s terms. Ever since, resolution of these differences has presented New Zealand with challenges.
New Zealand before the treaty
In the 1830s an independent, Māori-controlled New Zealand was a frontier outpost of the British penal colony of New South Wales. As New Zealand’s trade and shipping expanded, relations between Māori and Europeans depended on a good working accord, but violence sometimes flared up. British law did not extend to controlling unruly British subjects in New Zealand, so some European residents asked the British government to intervene to maintain order. It was reluctant to do so.
The British government was more concerned by other developments. European speculators were reported to have purchased vast areas of New Zealand. At the same time the London-based New Zealand Company had firm plans for organised settlement in New Zealand. In 1839 the company prepared to buy land on either side of the Cook Strait, and dispatched ships there carrying several hundred settlers.
From independence to British colony
The British government finally decided to take action on New Zealand in 1839. It appointed a naval captain, William Hobson, as consul to an independent New Zealand, and as lieutenant governor to any parts of the country that Māori would consent to becoming British. His instructions directed him to negotiate for the sovereignty of New Zealand, and to establish a British colony. En route from Britain Hobson received advice from George Gipps, the governor of New South Wales, about drafting a treaty with Māori.
Drafting and translating the treaty
Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands on 29 January 1840. With the help of his secretary, James Freeman, he drew up some notes for a treaty. James Busby, the British Resident (an official position), tidied these up and added to them. Over one evening, the notes were translated into Māori by the missionary Henry Williams and his son Edward.
Hobson presented this Māori-language treaty to a meeting of around 500 Māori invited to Waitangi on 5 February. They held a lively debate on the possible effects of the treaty on their chiefly authority, land and trade, but no agreement was reached when the day-long meeting closed.
One of the Ngāpuhi chiefs debating the treaty at Waitangi on 5 February 1840 was Rewa of Kororāreka (later renamed Russell). He may have been advised by Bishop Pompallier, who lived near him. Rewa told the meeting that Māori did not need a governor for they were neither ‘whites nor foreigners’. Although a good deal of land had already been taken up by Europeans, ‘this country is ours … we are the Governor – we, the chiefs of this our father’s land’.1
Treaty first signed
The following day, 6 February 1840, with little further debate, more than 40 chiefs agreed to sign the treaty. The French Catholic Bishop Jean Baptiste François Pompallier requested that all religious beliefs should be allowed in the new colony, and Hobson agreed to this. In the following days, meetings at Waimate North and Hokianga added further signatures and marks of agreement to the treaty. This agreement was not unanimous, and some chiefs expressed strong reservations about signing.
Hobson was quick to report to the British government that his mission was successful. He noted that he had secured agreement to British sovereignty, especially from a number of chiefs who had already signed the 1835 Declaration of Independence, in which 52 chiefs, mainly from Northland, had declared their sovereignty over New Zealand.
The missionaries involved in treaty meetings recognised the mana of chiefly women and took several signatures from them. Women who signed the treaty included Te Rangitopeora at Kāpiti; Kahe Te Rau-o-te-Rangi at Wellington; Rere-o-maki at Whanganui; Ana Hamu at Waitangi and Ereonora at Kaitāia.
Gathering further signatures
Before Hobson could collect further signatures he fell seriously ill. Two army officers and several missionaries were given responsibility for seeking agreement to the treaty elsewhere in the country. Several handwritten copies of the Māori-language treaty were taken around the country over the following seven months. Nine of these copies have survived and are under the statutory guardianship and care of Archives New Zealand.
More than 500 chiefs, including a number of women, signed the Treaty of Waitangi. Nearly all signed a Māori-language copy. The exception was an English-language copy signed by 39 chiefs at Manukau Harbour and Waikato Heads. Each treaty copy was also signed by European witnesses who varied from place to place. | 1,082 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The book of first and second Samuel talks about the rise and fall of the Israelite leaders. Most of the leaders were dethroned by YHWH because of their sin or disobedience to God. I Samuel talks about the fall of man’s king, Saul. It should be noted that prior to this, Israel had no king to govern them. They were ruled by YHWH the almighty God. Because of envying the nations around them, they asked Samuel to appoint for them a king. Samuel tried to warn them of the danger of a worldly king but they could not head to his advice. 1 Samuel also gives as back ground information about David. He was called from the sheepcote (1st Samuel, 16: 11-13.). He was given victory over Goliath (1st Samuel, 17). We are also introduced to the enmity between Saul and David. Saul persecutes David.
The second book of Samuel describes the enthronement of a king chosen by God, David and the eventual establishment of the house of David. This book is occupied with the story of David as king. David is made king over Judah (2nd Samuel, 2: 4) and the whole Israel. As a leader and king of Israel, David had both successes and failures. In 2nd Samuel 11, he sins by committing adultery with Uriah’s wife. In addition David plots the killing of Uriah. This paper will focus on 2nd Samuel 12:1-10 where Prophet Nathan rebukes David for the ills he committed against Uriah, thereby sinning before God. In this story David committed adultery and murder. We will then look at the text and translation. This paper will look also at the background events leading to David’s sinning. Furthermore, we will critically analyze 2nd Samuel 12:1-10 with the help of bible commentaries. Finally we will ascertain the application of 2nd Samuel 12:1-10.
Text and Translation
Buy Nathan Rebukes David essay paper online
Nathan Rebukes David (2nd Samuel, 12:1-10)
God sent Nathan to David. Nathan went to relay the message of God to David and narrated to him a story saying, “There were two men in a town, one poor and the other rich. 2 The rich man had an exceedingly large numbers of cattle and sheep, 3 but the poor man had nothing apart from one little lamb he had purchased. He raised it, and it matured in his company and the children. It drank from his cup, shared his food, and even slept in his hands. It was like his offspring. 4 “Now a guest visited the rich man, but the rich man did not take one of his own cattle or sheep to make a meal for the visitor, who had come to see him. Instead, he took the poor man’s lamb and prepared it for the visitor who had come see to him.”
5 David anger was kindled against the man and supposed to Nathan, “Surely as the Lord lives, the person, who did this must be put to death! 6 He must pay four times more for the ewe lamb, because he did such an abominable thing and had no compassion.”
7 Then Nathan told David, “You are the person! This is what the Lord, the Almighty God of Israel, says: ‘It is me, who anointed you king to rule over Israel, and I set you free from Saul’s hand. 8 I gave you everything your master owned, even your master’s own wives into your arms. All Judah and Israel, I gave it to you. Furthermore, if all this was too little to you, I would have given much more. 9 Therefore, Why did you look down on the word of God by doing what he detests? You put to death Uriah the Hittite using the sword; in addition, you possessed his wife. You used the sword of the Ammonites to kill him. 10 Now, therefore, this is what LORD, the God of Israel says, never will the sword depart from your house, since you despised me and got for yourself Uriah the Hittite’s wife.
Historical Background and Structure
The main subject discussed in the second Samuel is the reign of King David. The book is divided into three periods: the first, second and third periods. The first shows David’s early periods of reign. During the early period, David manifested a spiritual mind despite the engagement in the military campaigns of the age. The Amalekites, who claimed to have killed Saul are executed during this period (II Samuel, 1:2-16). David also laments for Jonathan and Saul. David is anointed king of Judah (II Samuel, 2:4) during this first period. The first period also portrays the battle between the servants of Ish-Bosheth and David’s followers (II Samuel, 2: 8-32).
The middle period starts from chapter ten of second Samuel. This period shows David’s great successes. It also shows his fall and punishment. He is tempted in chapter 11. His temptation finds him when he had not gone to war as was the custom of kings. He was just idling around. In the evening hours, David rose from his bed and decided to take a walk on the roof of his house. He saw the beautiful Bathsheba bathing and admired her. (II Samuel, 11:1, 2). He inquired about this woman and commanded that she brought to his apartment. David then committed adultery with Bathsheba (II Samuel, 11:4). To cover up for his sins he goes ahead to plan the murder of Uriah, Bathsheba’s husband. One year later God sends the prophet Nathan to David to charge him with his sin. The third and final period is David’s last years. These are recorded from chapter 20 to 24.
Critical Analysis of 2nd Samuel 12:1-10
In 2nd Samuel 12:1-10, three distinct voices can be heard. Samuel narrates the story to David (2nd Samuel, 12:1-5). David answers by giving his verdict (2nd Samuel, 12:5-6). Lastly, God proclaims judgment upon David (2nd Samuel, 12:7-10). The first voice Samuel narrates the story of two people, who are in totally different economic classes. One is a rich man while the other one is poor. The poor fellow has only one ewe lamb while the rich man has several herds of cattle and sheep. When a traveler visits the rich man he takes the poor man’s ewe lamb and slaughters it for his guest.
The rich man represents David (2nd Samuel, 12:7). According to McCarter represents the poor man. Vannoy points out that the traveler represents lust that visited David the evening he saw Bathsheba bathing. Taking away the poor man’s ewe lamb without permission is stealing according to Davidson. David was supposed to take care of the poor as a rich man (Exodus, 23:6). When Nathan came, he never wasted any time. This is because his message was not a soothing one but a rebuke. He does not start by greeting David and telling him I have a special message for you. He directly starts narrating; there were two men…… Nathan is bold and confident Vannoy acknowledges by declaring him the bravest man in the bible.
The second part talks about David’s response to the story that Nathan had narrated. David burns with anger. He declares his verdict as a wise judge. He says that the rich man demonstrated no compassion by taking a way the poor man’s only ewe lamb. David says that the victim deserves to be compensated four times. Furthermore, he declares that the oppressor should be killed (2nd Samuel, 12:5-6). Calvin says that David’s reaction and judgment on the rich man shows that he had not been walking with the Lord. He had fallen out of fellowship with the lord one year ago when he committed adultery with Bathsheba. According to Calvin, a person, who walks with God is kind, gentle and tender. A person, who is not in fellowship with God has no pity, is harsh, continually advocates for justice and is easily angered. All this characteristics is depicted in David’s reaction and judgment.
The third voice is the voice of God. God points out that the rich man is symbolic of David. David despite having several wives decided to take Uriah’s. It should be noted that Uriah had only one wife. Furthermore, Uriah was poor compared to David, who was a king rich and could access anything he wanted in the kingdom including other beautiful women. In verse 7 and 8, God outlines what he has done for David. He anointed him king of Israel and delivered him from Saul, who wanted to destroy him. In addition, God says that he gave David the house of Saul is property and wives. Israel and Judah were also given to David by God. God then tells David that if that was little to him all he needed to do was to ask and God would give him more.
Finally, God declares judgment to David. (Galatians, 6: 7). He says that the sword will not depart from David’s house (2nd Samuel, 12:10). Here God means that sin can be forgiven but one must bear the consequences. According to Baldwin God had given David time to realize and repent his sins yet he could not realize. The consequences that David would get were a result of his concealing his sins (proverbs, 28:13). In conclusion, through this story the mission of God is to declare that every sin has a consequence. God does not overlook sin but punishes the offenders.
People look at sin as small or minor wrong activities. However, sin is as deadly as cancer cells. Cancerous cells might be very small in the beginning but they grow and cause serious harm to the body and death if not dealt with in the early period. This is the same with sin. People might commit sin and thing they will get away with it since the consequences are not prevalent at the moment. The truth is that sins committed now carry heavy penalties in future.
In the case of David, he suffered severe consequences for his sins. Nathan had pronounced that since he had killed Uriah with the sword, the sword will never depart from his house. As a result, a myriad of death followed David’s house both when he was a live and after his death. To start with Amon tricked Tamar and he committed incest with her. When Absalom heard that his sister had been defiled by Amon he decided to revenge. Therefore, Absalom killed Amon. As if that is not enough, Absalom rebelled against his father David. He won the Israelites in Jerusalem by telling them the good things he would do for them if they chose him as king. Furthermore, Absalom threatened to kill his own father, David. This forced David to flee. Absalom later died in the forest when his long hair is caught between two trees. This caused a lot of agony to David.
The myriads of death continue even after David dies. Solomon killed his brother for thinking that he was scheming for his thrown. After Solomon’s death the Israelites rose up in arms against one another. The later led to the separation of thekingdom ofIsraelinto the north and south. All this began with the seed that David planted when he killed Uriah. In conclusion, we come to the understanding that God does not overlook sin, but punishes it whether in the present or time to come.
Related Free Book Report Essays
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:b7173153-b835-4e49-838e-963cb90d68b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/book-report/nathan-rebukes-david.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.981689 | 2,460 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.0742077305912... | 1 | The book of first and second Samuel talks about the rise and fall of the Israelite leaders. Most of the leaders were dethroned by YHWH because of their sin or disobedience to God. I Samuel talks about the fall of man’s king, Saul. It should be noted that prior to this, Israel had no king to govern them. They were ruled by YHWH the almighty God. Because of envying the nations around them, they asked Samuel to appoint for them a king. Samuel tried to warn them of the danger of a worldly king but they could not head to his advice. 1 Samuel also gives as back ground information about David. He was called from the sheepcote (1st Samuel, 16: 11-13.). He was given victory over Goliath (1st Samuel, 17). We are also introduced to the enmity between Saul and David. Saul persecutes David.
The second book of Samuel describes the enthronement of a king chosen by God, David and the eventual establishment of the house of David. This book is occupied with the story of David as king. David is made king over Judah (2nd Samuel, 2: 4) and the whole Israel. As a leader and king of Israel, David had both successes and failures. In 2nd Samuel 11, he sins by committing adultery with Uriah’s wife. In addition David plots the killing of Uriah. This paper will focus on 2nd Samuel 12:1-10 where Prophet Nathan rebukes David for the ills he committed against Uriah, thereby sinning before God. In this story David committed adultery and murder. We will then look at the text and translation. This paper will look also at the background events leading to David’s sinning. Furthermore, we will critically analyze 2nd Samuel 12:1-10 with the help of bible commentaries. Finally we will ascertain the application of 2nd Samuel 12:1-10.
Text and Translation
Buy Nathan Rebukes David essay paper online
Nathan Rebukes David (2nd Samuel, 12:1-10)
God sent Nathan to David. Nathan went to relay the message of God to David and narrated to him a story saying, “There were two men in a town, one poor and the other rich. 2 The rich man had an exceedingly large numbers of cattle and sheep, 3 but the poor man had nothing apart from one little lamb he had purchased. He raised it, and it matured in his company and the children. It drank from his cup, shared his food, and even slept in his hands. It was like his offspring. 4 “Now a guest visited the rich man, but the rich man did not take one of his own cattle or sheep to make a meal for the visitor, who had come to see him. Instead, he took the poor man’s lamb and prepared it for the visitor who had come see to him.”
5 David anger was kindled against the man and supposed to Nathan, “Surely as the Lord lives, the person, who did this must be put to death! 6 He must pay four times more for the ewe lamb, because he did such an abominable thing and had no compassion.”
7 Then Nathan told David, “You are the person! This is what the Lord, the Almighty God of Israel, says: ‘It is me, who anointed you king to rule over Israel, and I set you free from Saul’s hand. 8 I gave you everything your master owned, even your master’s own wives into your arms. All Judah and Israel, I gave it to you. Furthermore, if all this was too little to you, I would have given much more. 9 Therefore, Why did you look down on the word of God by doing what he detests? You put to death Uriah the Hittite using the sword; in addition, you possessed his wife. You used the sword of the Ammonites to kill him. 10 Now, therefore, this is what LORD, the God of Israel says, never will the sword depart from your house, since you despised me and got for yourself Uriah the Hittite’s wife.
Historical Background and Structure
The main subject discussed in the second Samuel is the reign of King David. The book is divided into three periods: the first, second and third periods. The first shows David’s early periods of reign. During the early period, David manifested a spiritual mind despite the engagement in the military campaigns of the age. The Amalekites, who claimed to have killed Saul are executed during this period (II Samuel, 1:2-16). David also laments for Jonathan and Saul. David is anointed king of Judah (II Samuel, 2:4) during this first period. The first period also portrays the battle between the servants of Ish-Bosheth and David’s followers (II Samuel, 2: 8-32).
The middle period starts from chapter ten of second Samuel. This period shows David’s great successes. It also shows his fall and punishment. He is tempted in chapter 11. His temptation finds him when he had not gone to war as was the custom of kings. He was just idling around. In the evening hours, David rose from his bed and decided to take a walk on the roof of his house. He saw the beautiful Bathsheba bathing and admired her. (II Samuel, 11:1, 2). He inquired about this woman and commanded that she brought to his apartment. David then committed adultery with Bathsheba (II Samuel, 11:4). To cover up for his sins he goes ahead to plan the murder of Uriah, Bathsheba’s husband. One year later God sends the prophet Nathan to David to charge him with his sin. The third and final period is David’s last years. These are recorded from chapter 20 to 24.
Critical Analysis of 2nd Samuel 12:1-10
In 2nd Samuel 12:1-10, three distinct voices can be heard. Samuel narrates the story to David (2nd Samuel, 12:1-5). David answers by giving his verdict (2nd Samuel, 12:5-6). Lastly, God proclaims judgment upon David (2nd Samuel, 12:7-10). The first voice Samuel narrates the story of two people, who are in totally different economic classes. One is a rich man while the other one is poor. The poor fellow has only one ewe lamb while the rich man has several herds of cattle and sheep. When a traveler visits the rich man he takes the poor man’s ewe lamb and slaughters it for his guest.
The rich man represents David (2nd Samuel, 12:7). According to McCarter represents the poor man. Vannoy points out that the traveler represents lust that visited David the evening he saw Bathsheba bathing. Taking away the poor man’s ewe lamb without permission is stealing according to Davidson. David was supposed to take care of the poor as a rich man (Exodus, 23:6). When Nathan came, he never wasted any time. This is because his message was not a soothing one but a rebuke. He does not start by greeting David and telling him I have a special message for you. He directly starts narrating; there were two men…… Nathan is bold and confident Vannoy acknowledges by declaring him the bravest man in the bible.
The second part talks about David’s response to the story that Nathan had narrated. David burns with anger. He declares his verdict as a wise judge. He says that the rich man demonstrated no compassion by taking a way the poor man’s only ewe lamb. David says that the victim deserves to be compensated four times. Furthermore, he declares that the oppressor should be killed (2nd Samuel, 12:5-6). Calvin says that David’s reaction and judgment on the rich man shows that he had not been walking with the Lord. He had fallen out of fellowship with the lord one year ago when he committed adultery with Bathsheba. According to Calvin, a person, who walks with God is kind, gentle and tender. A person, who is not in fellowship with God has no pity, is harsh, continually advocates for justice and is easily angered. All this characteristics is depicted in David’s reaction and judgment.
The third voice is the voice of God. God points out that the rich man is symbolic of David. David despite having several wives decided to take Uriah’s. It should be noted that Uriah had only one wife. Furthermore, Uriah was poor compared to David, who was a king rich and could access anything he wanted in the kingdom including other beautiful women. In verse 7 and 8, God outlines what he has done for David. He anointed him king of Israel and delivered him from Saul, who wanted to destroy him. In addition, God says that he gave David the house of Saul is property and wives. Israel and Judah were also given to David by God. God then tells David that if that was little to him all he needed to do was to ask and God would give him more.
Finally, God declares judgment to David. (Galatians, 6: 7). He says that the sword will not depart from David’s house (2nd Samuel, 12:10). Here God means that sin can be forgiven but one must bear the consequences. According to Baldwin God had given David time to realize and repent his sins yet he could not realize. The consequences that David would get were a result of his concealing his sins (proverbs, 28:13). In conclusion, through this story the mission of God is to declare that every sin has a consequence. God does not overlook sin but punishes the offenders.
People look at sin as small or minor wrong activities. However, sin is as deadly as cancer cells. Cancerous cells might be very small in the beginning but they grow and cause serious harm to the body and death if not dealt with in the early period. This is the same with sin. People might commit sin and thing they will get away with it since the consequences are not prevalent at the moment. The truth is that sins committed now carry heavy penalties in future.
In the case of David, he suffered severe consequences for his sins. Nathan had pronounced that since he had killed Uriah with the sword, the sword will never depart from his house. As a result, a myriad of death followed David’s house both when he was a live and after his death. To start with Amon tricked Tamar and he committed incest with her. When Absalom heard that his sister had been defiled by Amon he decided to revenge. Therefore, Absalom killed Amon. As if that is not enough, Absalom rebelled against his father David. He won the Israelites in Jerusalem by telling them the good things he would do for them if they chose him as king. Furthermore, Absalom threatened to kill his own father, David. This forced David to flee. Absalom later died in the forest when his long hair is caught between two trees. This caused a lot of agony to David.
The myriads of death continue even after David dies. Solomon killed his brother for thinking that he was scheming for his thrown. After Solomon’s death the Israelites rose up in arms against one another. The later led to the separation of thekingdom ofIsraelinto the north and south. All this began with the seed that David planted when he killed Uriah. In conclusion, we come to the understanding that God does not overlook sin, but punishes it whether in the present or time to come.
Related Free Book Report Essays
Most popular orders | 2,481 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are three different kinds of banks, which are central banks, retail or commercial banks, and investment banks. Central banks manage the money supply and other economic factors, retail banks act as a financial intermediary between parties, and investment banks assist and participate in the securities industry.
A great deal of the money in the world is managed by banks, and a number of the largest ones hold trillions of dollars in assets all by themselves. $15 trillion in assets are held by banks in the U.S. alone, and the world’s 4 biggest banks are actually in China these days, and these 4 hold almost that amount in assets themselves.
The stock market also holds a lot of assets, as does the bond market, but bank assets are right up there with these, in the tens of trillions of dollars. So the banking system does play a major role in the world’s economy, especially since it does keep money moving, and this is one of its main functions.
There are two basic forms of monetary assets, which are equity and debt. Equity would be holding stock in something, indicating the ownership of a company, shares in it in other words. Debt covers everything else, and it is debt that banks hold the most of, both debt that they owe and debt that they are looking to collect upon in the future.
Banks As Borrowers
The assets of a bank are primarily promises of others to repay money loaned to them. Of course there are other assets involved, for instance buildings that the bank owns, fees they collect, the value of the securities they hold, and other non interest earning assets, but their main asset is interest bearing loans, at least as far as retail banks go, which is what people normally think of when they think of a bank.
So where do banks get this money to loan out? Some of it comes from non interest bearing income, some of it comes from the profit they make on lending money at interest, but most of it comes from their borrowing money from their depositors, which they pay interest on in many cases.
Not all bank accounts are interest bearing, a lot of checking accounts don’t pay interest for instance, and even some savings accounts don’t, unless your money on deposit hits a certain minimum balance for instance.
In all cases though, whether the bank is paying interest on a deposit or not, the money on deposit with them is a loan by the depositor to the bank. The bank keeps part of this to handle withdrawals from their depositors, and uses the rest, most of it, to conduct their business, which primarily consists of loaning this money out to others at a profit, at a higher rate of interest than they are paying.
So while people think banks are a place to park their money, this really isn’t the case. They do park it there, but it just isn’t kept in a vault waiting for them to take it out, and if it were; then the bank would charge a fee for this, not pay for the privilege.
Instead, when you give your money to a bank, you are lending it to them, with their promise to pay it back, and this isn’t really any different than their lending money to you, other than banks tend to be a lot more reliable than borrowers as far as paying it back and in an orderly fashion as agreed.
So in both the cases of your lending money to a bank and their lending it to you, someone is holding the debt of the other and the other is indebted, the creditor in other words. So this really is all about money lending, on both sides of the equation.
Of course people do sometimes worry about the bank being able to pay their loans back to them, and banks sometimes do fail, and this is why some governments guarantee deposits at banks up to a certain amount, to ensure that people loan money to banks with a high degree of confidence.
So the safety part is a big reason people do business with banks, even more so than for the small amount of interest they earn, as having their money in a bank is safer than keeping it at home or elsewhere.
Banks As Lenders
Banks are involved in a number of different types of loans to people and businesses, and borrowing money from a bank or other lender is a huge part of everyday life nowadays.
Unless you are using cash, there is always some sort of borrowing involved, some sort of credit. If you use a credit card to make a purchase, the credit card issuer, usually a bank, is extending you credit, even though you may pay off the balance immediately.
Even using a debit card involves the use of credit in a sense, where you are agreeing to pay the merchant at a future time by way of a financial transaction between your bank and theirs. Even though these transactions settle within one of two days, there’s still short term credit involved.
People borrow money from banks for all sorts of reasons, especially in looking to buy a home. Mortgages consist of the majority of funds borrowed, and if one had to save up these huge amounts, it may take two or three decades to do so, and very few people want to wait this long.
So instead, people save up a small portion of the price, the downpayment, and the bank lends them the rest, which they pay back over a number of years, 25 or 30 typically. This allows them to enjoy living in the home as they pay off their loan.
People will also very often borrow to buy a car, or any big ticket item that they may not have the funds to pay for right away, but want it right away. This is the essence of credit, you get it now, you pay for it later, and this is an arrangement many people find most appealing.
Businesses will often borrow from banks as well, and the loans or lines of credit often are much larger than what consumers tend to borrow.
Banks make a profit on this lending by charging a higher rate to lend it than they pay to borrow it, although not all loans are repaid, and part of the interest charge is to compensate for losses due to default. This is why loans are often priced according to risk, with people who are seen to be less risky getting better rates.
Banks As Transaction Intermediaries
Another big role of banks is to facilitate financial transactions between parties. If two people want to exchange money, they usually agree to have their banks conduct the transaction between themselves on behalf of the parties. So if you buy something at a store, your bank and the store’s bank will get together and see that the funds are transferred.
If everyone paid in cash and held cash, then there wouldn’t really be the need for a bank for any of this, but this just isn’t efficient, and electronic payments have really taken over these days as the preferred means. Even if someone pays in cash, the merchant isn’t going to just hold the cash, they will be depositing it at a bank, so even in these cases banks are involved.
The money doesn’t specifically go from one person’s account to another as many people think. Transactions between banks are kept on a ledger and settled in bulk, by crediting or debiting accounts that banks have between themselves, or with the central bank. Otherwise the process would be very cumbersome and the fees charged would have to be much higher.
Many banks do charge fees for transactional accounts, and a lot of people think they should not be paying merely to gain access to their own money, but they fail to realize that banks do provide a service here and this does involve at least some expense on their part to process. Banks also do not make money on deposits that are only held for a brief period, and they are in the business of making money like all businesses are, so they have to justify this expense somehow.
A bank may offer free checking though as an incentive to attract business, where they lose money on these accounts but with the idea of making a profit on other services they may provide to these clients, and people do tend to bring more business to a bank if they have their main transactional account there.
Other Functions of Banks
While banks don’t exactly store your money in your vaults, waiting for you to come pick it up, they do typically offer safety deposit boxes which work this way, where one can securely store anything that can fit into one. These are offered for a fee of course.
Banks will often also provide investment advice, and access to various investments, anything from self directed online trading accounts to buying mutual funds and other investments face to face. Larger banks may even have their own mutual funds. One may even buy precious metals in a retail setting at a bank.
Banks may also be involved in the securities industry more directly, facilitating stock or bond issues, as well as both trading in securities themselves. Banks may also manage derivatives such as options, and also serve as market makers in financial markets, where they offer securities to be sold and also purchase them to be sold to others.
Banks even are dabbling in insurance these days, as well as a number of other financially related activities such as trusts and estate planning. Due to their very large asset base and expertise in finance, banks are well positioned to serve a wide variety of financial needs, all with the comfort of knowing that you are dealing with a very well regulated institution where trust is at the forefront, which is what banks are really all about, managing trust. | <urn:uuid:17217027-3b84-4c60-9e86-0cd05ecf0459> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.marketreview.com/how-banks-operate/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00383.warc.gz | en | 0.980883 | 1,971 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.0173397194594... | 13 | There are three different kinds of banks, which are central banks, retail or commercial banks, and investment banks. Central banks manage the money supply and other economic factors, retail banks act as a financial intermediary between parties, and investment banks assist and participate in the securities industry.
A great deal of the money in the world is managed by banks, and a number of the largest ones hold trillions of dollars in assets all by themselves. $15 trillion in assets are held by banks in the U.S. alone, and the world’s 4 biggest banks are actually in China these days, and these 4 hold almost that amount in assets themselves.
The stock market also holds a lot of assets, as does the bond market, but bank assets are right up there with these, in the tens of trillions of dollars. So the banking system does play a major role in the world’s economy, especially since it does keep money moving, and this is one of its main functions.
There are two basic forms of monetary assets, which are equity and debt. Equity would be holding stock in something, indicating the ownership of a company, shares in it in other words. Debt covers everything else, and it is debt that banks hold the most of, both debt that they owe and debt that they are looking to collect upon in the future.
Banks As Borrowers
The assets of a bank are primarily promises of others to repay money loaned to them. Of course there are other assets involved, for instance buildings that the bank owns, fees they collect, the value of the securities they hold, and other non interest earning assets, but their main asset is interest bearing loans, at least as far as retail banks go, which is what people normally think of when they think of a bank.
So where do banks get this money to loan out? Some of it comes from non interest bearing income, some of it comes from the profit they make on lending money at interest, but most of it comes from their borrowing money from their depositors, which they pay interest on in many cases.
Not all bank accounts are interest bearing, a lot of checking accounts don’t pay interest for instance, and even some savings accounts don’t, unless your money on deposit hits a certain minimum balance for instance.
In all cases though, whether the bank is paying interest on a deposit or not, the money on deposit with them is a loan by the depositor to the bank. The bank keeps part of this to handle withdrawals from their depositors, and uses the rest, most of it, to conduct their business, which primarily consists of loaning this money out to others at a profit, at a higher rate of interest than they are paying.
So while people think banks are a place to park their money, this really isn’t the case. They do park it there, but it just isn’t kept in a vault waiting for them to take it out, and if it were; then the bank would charge a fee for this, not pay for the privilege.
Instead, when you give your money to a bank, you are lending it to them, with their promise to pay it back, and this isn’t really any different than their lending money to you, other than banks tend to be a lot more reliable than borrowers as far as paying it back and in an orderly fashion as agreed.
So in both the cases of your lending money to a bank and their lending it to you, someone is holding the debt of the other and the other is indebted, the creditor in other words. So this really is all about money lending, on both sides of the equation.
Of course people do sometimes worry about the bank being able to pay their loans back to them, and banks sometimes do fail, and this is why some governments guarantee deposits at banks up to a certain amount, to ensure that people loan money to banks with a high degree of confidence.
So the safety part is a big reason people do business with banks, even more so than for the small amount of interest they earn, as having their money in a bank is safer than keeping it at home or elsewhere.
Banks As Lenders
Banks are involved in a number of different types of loans to people and businesses, and borrowing money from a bank or other lender is a huge part of everyday life nowadays.
Unless you are using cash, there is always some sort of borrowing involved, some sort of credit. If you use a credit card to make a purchase, the credit card issuer, usually a bank, is extending you credit, even though you may pay off the balance immediately.
Even using a debit card involves the use of credit in a sense, where you are agreeing to pay the merchant at a future time by way of a financial transaction between your bank and theirs. Even though these transactions settle within one of two days, there’s still short term credit involved.
People borrow money from banks for all sorts of reasons, especially in looking to buy a home. Mortgages consist of the majority of funds borrowed, and if one had to save up these huge amounts, it may take two or three decades to do so, and very few people want to wait this long.
So instead, people save up a small portion of the price, the downpayment, and the bank lends them the rest, which they pay back over a number of years, 25 or 30 typically. This allows them to enjoy living in the home as they pay off their loan.
People will also very often borrow to buy a car, or any big ticket item that they may not have the funds to pay for right away, but want it right away. This is the essence of credit, you get it now, you pay for it later, and this is an arrangement many people find most appealing.
Businesses will often borrow from banks as well, and the loans or lines of credit often are much larger than what consumers tend to borrow.
Banks make a profit on this lending by charging a higher rate to lend it than they pay to borrow it, although not all loans are repaid, and part of the interest charge is to compensate for losses due to default. This is why loans are often priced according to risk, with people who are seen to be less risky getting better rates.
Banks As Transaction Intermediaries
Another big role of banks is to facilitate financial transactions between parties. If two people want to exchange money, they usually agree to have their banks conduct the transaction between themselves on behalf of the parties. So if you buy something at a store, your bank and the store’s bank will get together and see that the funds are transferred.
If everyone paid in cash and held cash, then there wouldn’t really be the need for a bank for any of this, but this just isn’t efficient, and electronic payments have really taken over these days as the preferred means. Even if someone pays in cash, the merchant isn’t going to just hold the cash, they will be depositing it at a bank, so even in these cases banks are involved.
The money doesn’t specifically go from one person’s account to another as many people think. Transactions between banks are kept on a ledger and settled in bulk, by crediting or debiting accounts that banks have between themselves, or with the central bank. Otherwise the process would be very cumbersome and the fees charged would have to be much higher.
Many banks do charge fees for transactional accounts, and a lot of people think they should not be paying merely to gain access to their own money, but they fail to realize that banks do provide a service here and this does involve at least some expense on their part to process. Banks also do not make money on deposits that are only held for a brief period, and they are in the business of making money like all businesses are, so they have to justify this expense somehow.
A bank may offer free checking though as an incentive to attract business, where they lose money on these accounts but with the idea of making a profit on other services they may provide to these clients, and people do tend to bring more business to a bank if they have their main transactional account there.
Other Functions of Banks
While banks don’t exactly store your money in your vaults, waiting for you to come pick it up, they do typically offer safety deposit boxes which work this way, where one can securely store anything that can fit into one. These are offered for a fee of course.
Banks will often also provide investment advice, and access to various investments, anything from self directed online trading accounts to buying mutual funds and other investments face to face. Larger banks may even have their own mutual funds. One may even buy precious metals in a retail setting at a bank.
Banks may also be involved in the securities industry more directly, facilitating stock or bond issues, as well as both trading in securities themselves. Banks may also manage derivatives such as options, and also serve as market makers in financial markets, where they offer securities to be sold and also purchase them to be sold to others.
Banks even are dabbling in insurance these days, as well as a number of other financially related activities such as trusts and estate planning. Due to their very large asset base and expertise in finance, banks are well positioned to serve a wide variety of financial needs, all with the comfort of knowing that you are dealing with a very well regulated institution where trust is at the forefront, which is what banks are really all about, managing trust. | 1,918 | ENGLISH | 1 |
French King Henry IV head identified by scientists
LONDON (AP) -- After nine months of tests, researchers in France have identified the head of France's King Henry IV, who was assassinated in 1610 aged 57.
The scientific tests helped identify the monarch's embalmed head, which was shuffled between private collections ever since it disappeared during the French Revolution in 1793.
The results of the research identifying Henry IV's head were published online today in the medical journal, BMJ.
Henry IV was buried in the Basilica of Saint Denis near Paris, but during the frenzy of the French Revolution, the royal graves were dug up and revolutionaries chopped off Henry's head, which was then snatched.
"This case was considered with the same (level of severity) as if it were a recent forensic case," said Philippe Charlier, a forensic medical examiner of University Hospital R Poincare in Garches, France, who led the team.
In the scientists' examinations of the monarch's head, they found features often seen in the king's portraits, including a dark lesion above his right nostril.
They also found a healed bone fracture above his upper left jaw, which matched a stab wound the king suffered during an assassination attempt in 1594.
Radiocarbon testing confirmed the head dated from the 17th-century. Charlier and colleagues also compared the embalmed head to an autopsy report describing the particular embalming process used for French kings, written by the king's surgeon. Perfumers on the team used their professionally trained noses to identify specific embalming substances in the mouth used to hide nasty odors.
The French researchers also created a digital facial reconstruction and ran computer tomography scans which showed the skull was consistent with all known portraits of Henry IV and the plaster mold made of his face just after his death.
Frank Ruehli, of the University of Zurich and the Swiss Mummy project said the research was credible but that it would been more persuasive if the French scientists had found DNA evidence.
"They've narrowed it down considerably and it probably is Henry IV," he said. "But without the final DNA proof it is hard to say absolutely who it is." Ruehli was not linked to the research.
Still, Ruehli said the French scientists did the next best thing, by matching evidence of Henry IV's facial lesion and healed wounds to historical documentation of those traits, which were likely unique to the monarch.
The discovery comes at the end of King Henry IV year in France, which marks 400 years since the monarch, also known as the "Green Gallant," was murdered.
Next year, France will hold a national Mass and funeral for Henry IV. His head will then be reburied alongside the rest of the country's former kings and queens, in the Basilica of Saint Denis. | <urn:uuid:caef8980-0d6c-4a79-a82a-a88ef210b1a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nhregister.com/news/article/French-King-Henry-IV-head-identified-by-scientists-11615424.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.980635 | 584 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.1840613484382629... | 1 | French King Henry IV head identified by scientists
LONDON (AP) -- After nine months of tests, researchers in France have identified the head of France's King Henry IV, who was assassinated in 1610 aged 57.
The scientific tests helped identify the monarch's embalmed head, which was shuffled between private collections ever since it disappeared during the French Revolution in 1793.
The results of the research identifying Henry IV's head were published online today in the medical journal, BMJ.
Henry IV was buried in the Basilica of Saint Denis near Paris, but during the frenzy of the French Revolution, the royal graves were dug up and revolutionaries chopped off Henry's head, which was then snatched.
"This case was considered with the same (level of severity) as if it were a recent forensic case," said Philippe Charlier, a forensic medical examiner of University Hospital R Poincare in Garches, France, who led the team.
In the scientists' examinations of the monarch's head, they found features often seen in the king's portraits, including a dark lesion above his right nostril.
They also found a healed bone fracture above his upper left jaw, which matched a stab wound the king suffered during an assassination attempt in 1594.
Radiocarbon testing confirmed the head dated from the 17th-century. Charlier and colleagues also compared the embalmed head to an autopsy report describing the particular embalming process used for French kings, written by the king's surgeon. Perfumers on the team used their professionally trained noses to identify specific embalming substances in the mouth used to hide nasty odors.
The French researchers also created a digital facial reconstruction and ran computer tomography scans which showed the skull was consistent with all known portraits of Henry IV and the plaster mold made of his face just after his death.
Frank Ruehli, of the University of Zurich and the Swiss Mummy project said the research was credible but that it would been more persuasive if the French scientists had found DNA evidence.
"They've narrowed it down considerably and it probably is Henry IV," he said. "But without the final DNA proof it is hard to say absolutely who it is." Ruehli was not linked to the research.
Still, Ruehli said the French scientists did the next best thing, by matching evidence of Henry IV's facial lesion and healed wounds to historical documentation of those traits, which were likely unique to the monarch.
The discovery comes at the end of King Henry IV year in France, which marks 400 years since the monarch, also known as the "Green Gallant," was murdered.
Next year, France will hold a national Mass and funeral for Henry IV. His head will then be reburied alongside the rest of the country's former kings and queens, in the Basilica of Saint Denis. | 584 | ENGLISH | 1 |
KCCU and Credit Union History
The Roots of the Credit Union Movement
From their early origins, credit unions were created, not for profit, but to serve members as credit co-operatives. Co-operative financial institutions were born in Europe in the mid-1800s as an alternative for people of modest means, such as farmers and shopkeepers, who were forced to pay exorbitant rates to moneylenders. These financial co-operatives were democratically controlled by the people they served.
Credit Unions in Canada
The use of credit was an integral part of the lifestyle of the early settlers of Canada. As the early settlements developed, credit was demanded and universally granted by both merchants and professionals. Paying bills, whether with commodities produced or cash, usually took a long time and losses were quite high. As a result, laws were passed that allowed people to be sent to prison for unpaid debt.
Some reform-minded individuals believed farmers and other workers should not be at the mercy of the moneylenders. Many of these social reformers felt that the working classes and farmers needed an organization that would give them control of their own financial affairs.
Alphonse Desjardins, a legislative reporter, heard the growing debate over an anti-usury law. He had read about credit co-operatives in Europe and started thinking about co-operative credit as a possible solution. Desjardins studied co-operative literature and corresponded with European leaders such as Raiffeisen, Schultze-Delitzsch, Luzzatti and Wolff for the next 15 years.
In December 1900, Desjardins called a meeting of townspeople in Levis, Quebec to discuss a plan for a caisse populaire or people's bank, built on the concepts of co-operative self-help. Of the 128 people present, 80 signed up as members within a month. They contributed their savings in nickels and dimes, totalling $26.40. This sum started the immensely successful “Mouvement des Caisses populaires Desjardins” in Quebec.
Credit Unions in Ontario and nation-wide
In the early 1900s, most people had great difficulty getting credit. Banks were not in the business of lending to consumers; consequently, people had to resort to private lenders, who charged exorbitant rates of interest. But a unique type of financial institution offered people an alternative to this impossible situation.
For many years, credit unions struggled for existence. However, in 1908 the first financial co-operative, The Civil Service Savings and Loan Society, was formed. It was later incorporated under the Ontario Credit Unions Act, and re-named the Civil Service Co-operative Credit Society. In 1928, the Plymouth Cordage Employees' Credit Union was organized in Welland. This was the first financial co-operative in Ontario to be called a credit union.
During the '40s, '50s and '60s, hundreds of credit unions sprang up across Ontario. Credit unions found their niche in Ontario, primarily in parishes, employee groups, trade/professional associations, and, to a lesser degree, in ethnic and geographic communities.
By the '60s, there were over 1,400 credit unions and caisses populaires in the province. In the '70s, credit unions began to merge, resulting in fewer credit unions serving more members. | <urn:uuid:3a39634a-f3d6-42af-822b-546c754ef208> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kccu.ca/content/kccu-and-credit-union-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.981266 | 702 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.0072631... | 12 | KCCU and Credit Union History
The Roots of the Credit Union Movement
From their early origins, credit unions were created, not for profit, but to serve members as credit co-operatives. Co-operative financial institutions were born in Europe in the mid-1800s as an alternative for people of modest means, such as farmers and shopkeepers, who were forced to pay exorbitant rates to moneylenders. These financial co-operatives were democratically controlled by the people they served.
Credit Unions in Canada
The use of credit was an integral part of the lifestyle of the early settlers of Canada. As the early settlements developed, credit was demanded and universally granted by both merchants and professionals. Paying bills, whether with commodities produced or cash, usually took a long time and losses were quite high. As a result, laws were passed that allowed people to be sent to prison for unpaid debt.
Some reform-minded individuals believed farmers and other workers should not be at the mercy of the moneylenders. Many of these social reformers felt that the working classes and farmers needed an organization that would give them control of their own financial affairs.
Alphonse Desjardins, a legislative reporter, heard the growing debate over an anti-usury law. He had read about credit co-operatives in Europe and started thinking about co-operative credit as a possible solution. Desjardins studied co-operative literature and corresponded with European leaders such as Raiffeisen, Schultze-Delitzsch, Luzzatti and Wolff for the next 15 years.
In December 1900, Desjardins called a meeting of townspeople in Levis, Quebec to discuss a plan for a caisse populaire or people's bank, built on the concepts of co-operative self-help. Of the 128 people present, 80 signed up as members within a month. They contributed their savings in nickels and dimes, totalling $26.40. This sum started the immensely successful “Mouvement des Caisses populaires Desjardins” in Quebec.
Credit Unions in Ontario and nation-wide
In the early 1900s, most people had great difficulty getting credit. Banks were not in the business of lending to consumers; consequently, people had to resort to private lenders, who charged exorbitant rates of interest. But a unique type of financial institution offered people an alternative to this impossible situation.
For many years, credit unions struggled for existence. However, in 1908 the first financial co-operative, The Civil Service Savings and Loan Society, was formed. It was later incorporated under the Ontario Credit Unions Act, and re-named the Civil Service Co-operative Credit Society. In 1928, the Plymouth Cordage Employees' Credit Union was organized in Welland. This was the first financial co-operative in Ontario to be called a credit union.
During the '40s, '50s and '60s, hundreds of credit unions sprang up across Ontario. Credit unions found their niche in Ontario, primarily in parishes, employee groups, trade/professional associations, and, to a lesser degree, in ethnic and geographic communities.
By the '60s, there were over 1,400 credit unions and caisses populaires in the province. In the '70s, credit unions began to merge, resulting in fewer credit unions serving more members. | 710 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1918, when she was 25 years old, Christia Adair went door-to-door organizing for women’s right to vote in Texas.
"This effort was to pass a bill where women would be able to vote like men," Adair remembered later in a 1977 oral history interview with the Schlesinger Library at Radcliffe College.
"Well, we still didn't know that that didn't mean us. But we helped."
When the bill passed, Adair went to the polls for the first time. The memory of what happened stuck with her the rest of her life.
"The white women were going to vote," she said. "And we dressed up and went to vote, and when we got down there, well, we couldn't vote. They gave us all different kinds of excuses why. So finally one woman, a Mrs. Simmons, said, 'Are you saying that we can’t vote because we’re Negroes?' And he said, 'Yes, Negroes don’t vote in primary in Texas.' So that just hurt our hearts real bad."
After that experience, Adair began a long career as a civil rights leader in Houston. Because of efforts by her, by other African American women leaders and even a U.S Supreme Court case, black women in Texas would eventually win back their right to vote, decades after the state ratified women’s suffrage.
An iron curtain
June 28 marks 100 years since Texas ratified the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. A little over a year later, the amendment was adopted, giving women the right to vote. Whether all women were able to exercise that right was another story.
"There was poll tax, literacy test, grandfather clause, violence, economic coercion," said Merline Pitre, a Texas Southern University professor and the author of the book In Struggle Against Jim Crow: Lulu B. White and the NAACP, 1900-1957. She explained that while black women were able to vote in northern states, women’s suffrage in the South was a reality only for white women.
"There is a theory that where you have a larger congregation of blacks then you have more overt racism," Pitre said.
In 1923, Texas created the white primary, an additional institutional barrier that turned away black voters until 1944. The state determined the Democratic party was a private organization, which cleared the way for Democrats to allow only white people to vote in the primary.
At the time, the Republican party barely existed in Texas. The white primary was, in effect, the general election.
"The white primary, as one historian said, was like an iron curtain," Pitre said. "As long as you were black, you could not change the color of your skin so you could never vote in the most important election in the state of Texas."
Houston women and the NAACP
The white women's suffrage movement officially ended in 1920, but African American women continued working for years to exercise their right to the vote.
Historian Rosalyn Terborg-Penn wrote in African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850-1920:
"When the African American women suffragists sought assistance from the National Woman's Party, the party's leadership position was that, since Black women were discriminated against in the same ways as Black men, their problems were not women’s rights issues, but race issues. Therefore, the NWP felt no obligation to defend the right of African American women as voters."
In Houston, Lulu White was a suffragist who rose up through the ranks of the local NAACP chapter to become executive secretary. According to Pitre, White had been doubly excluded from other groups, like many African American women, by white women in the suffrage movement and black men in the civil rights struggle.
"The NAACP was one of the few black organizations that allowed women some kind of leadership position in the 1930s," Pitre said. "[White] was what some people would argue was just what the doctor ordered for the state of Texas. She had an acid tongue. She was unafraid to speak her mind to blacks or whites."
For years, White organized to grow the chapter's Houston membership and fight the Texas white primary in court.
"She always wanted to be in the forefront of trying to get the right to vote," Pitre said. "So in 1943 she got that chance.”
Thurgood Marshall, then a civil rights attorney at the NAACP, took a Houston lawsuit all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court. When he won the case, Smith v. Allwright, the Texas white primary was declared unconstitutional. African American women did critical work to support that effort.
"You don’t see very much written about them but who was going from door-to-door when they were trying to break down the white Democratic primary, raising money for the NAACP, because mostly blacks were contributing to it," Pitre said.
"In that quest to be out front and up front, even African American men pushed back to keep them from their rightful place," said Annie Johnson Benifield, a professor at Lone Star College. "They provided the backbone. But they were never prominently put out front. They were never allowed to speak up. It was still a man's world.”
Even after Smith v. Allwright, many black women in Texas still couldn't vote until the 1960s. Texas was one of the last five states that still required a poll tax in order to vote when the 24th Amendment banned the practice in 1964. Then in 1965, Congress passed the landmark Voting Rights Act, outlawing literacy tests and creating federal oversight of elections across the country.
"White middle class women got the right to vote with the 19th Amendment, for the most part. Poor working class white women did not," Johnson Benifield said. "Having to pay that poll tax served as a means to disenfranchise you because even though the poll tax was only $1.50 then became $1.75, that was a day's wages, and you could ill-afford, if you were poor, to spend a day's wages just simply trying to do that."
Now a board member of the League of Women Voters in Houston, Johnson Benifield said that voters today face new barriers like the Texas voter ID law and the recent statewide voter purge that removed 95,000 people from the rolls.
"You might make two steps forward but you’re always going to make one step back," she said. "But I think the pendulum is actually swinging farther back than it should be."
Still, Johnson Benifield said she thinks the next 100 years are going to be different than the last. In old photographs from the League of Women Voters a century ago, she sees exclusively white women. But today, Benifield, a woman of color, is a leader there. And that's changing the picture. | <urn:uuid:bfa59b7c-2e08-4c79-926c-6e3ab29133e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.keranews.org/post/how-texas-prevented-black-women-voting-decades-after-19th-amendment | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00352.warc.gz | en | 0.983795 | 1,444 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.3209148... | 3 | In 1918, when she was 25 years old, Christia Adair went door-to-door organizing for women’s right to vote in Texas.
"This effort was to pass a bill where women would be able to vote like men," Adair remembered later in a 1977 oral history interview with the Schlesinger Library at Radcliffe College.
"Well, we still didn't know that that didn't mean us. But we helped."
When the bill passed, Adair went to the polls for the first time. The memory of what happened stuck with her the rest of her life.
"The white women were going to vote," she said. "And we dressed up and went to vote, and when we got down there, well, we couldn't vote. They gave us all different kinds of excuses why. So finally one woman, a Mrs. Simmons, said, 'Are you saying that we can’t vote because we’re Negroes?' And he said, 'Yes, Negroes don’t vote in primary in Texas.' So that just hurt our hearts real bad."
After that experience, Adair began a long career as a civil rights leader in Houston. Because of efforts by her, by other African American women leaders and even a U.S Supreme Court case, black women in Texas would eventually win back their right to vote, decades after the state ratified women’s suffrage.
An iron curtain
June 28 marks 100 years since Texas ratified the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. A little over a year later, the amendment was adopted, giving women the right to vote. Whether all women were able to exercise that right was another story.
"There was poll tax, literacy test, grandfather clause, violence, economic coercion," said Merline Pitre, a Texas Southern University professor and the author of the book In Struggle Against Jim Crow: Lulu B. White and the NAACP, 1900-1957. She explained that while black women were able to vote in northern states, women’s suffrage in the South was a reality only for white women.
"There is a theory that where you have a larger congregation of blacks then you have more overt racism," Pitre said.
In 1923, Texas created the white primary, an additional institutional barrier that turned away black voters until 1944. The state determined the Democratic party was a private organization, which cleared the way for Democrats to allow only white people to vote in the primary.
At the time, the Republican party barely existed in Texas. The white primary was, in effect, the general election.
"The white primary, as one historian said, was like an iron curtain," Pitre said. "As long as you were black, you could not change the color of your skin so you could never vote in the most important election in the state of Texas."
Houston women and the NAACP
The white women's suffrage movement officially ended in 1920, but African American women continued working for years to exercise their right to the vote.
Historian Rosalyn Terborg-Penn wrote in African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850-1920:
"When the African American women suffragists sought assistance from the National Woman's Party, the party's leadership position was that, since Black women were discriminated against in the same ways as Black men, their problems were not women’s rights issues, but race issues. Therefore, the NWP felt no obligation to defend the right of African American women as voters."
In Houston, Lulu White was a suffragist who rose up through the ranks of the local NAACP chapter to become executive secretary. According to Pitre, White had been doubly excluded from other groups, like many African American women, by white women in the suffrage movement and black men in the civil rights struggle.
"The NAACP was one of the few black organizations that allowed women some kind of leadership position in the 1930s," Pitre said. "[White] was what some people would argue was just what the doctor ordered for the state of Texas. She had an acid tongue. She was unafraid to speak her mind to blacks or whites."
For years, White organized to grow the chapter's Houston membership and fight the Texas white primary in court.
"She always wanted to be in the forefront of trying to get the right to vote," Pitre said. "So in 1943 she got that chance.”
Thurgood Marshall, then a civil rights attorney at the NAACP, took a Houston lawsuit all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court. When he won the case, Smith v. Allwright, the Texas white primary was declared unconstitutional. African American women did critical work to support that effort.
"You don’t see very much written about them but who was going from door-to-door when they were trying to break down the white Democratic primary, raising money for the NAACP, because mostly blacks were contributing to it," Pitre said.
"In that quest to be out front and up front, even African American men pushed back to keep them from their rightful place," said Annie Johnson Benifield, a professor at Lone Star College. "They provided the backbone. But they were never prominently put out front. They were never allowed to speak up. It was still a man's world.”
Even after Smith v. Allwright, many black women in Texas still couldn't vote until the 1960s. Texas was one of the last five states that still required a poll tax in order to vote when the 24th Amendment banned the practice in 1964. Then in 1965, Congress passed the landmark Voting Rights Act, outlawing literacy tests and creating federal oversight of elections across the country.
"White middle class women got the right to vote with the 19th Amendment, for the most part. Poor working class white women did not," Johnson Benifield said. "Having to pay that poll tax served as a means to disenfranchise you because even though the poll tax was only $1.50 then became $1.75, that was a day's wages, and you could ill-afford, if you were poor, to spend a day's wages just simply trying to do that."
Now a board member of the League of Women Voters in Houston, Johnson Benifield said that voters today face new barriers like the Texas voter ID law and the recent statewide voter purge that removed 95,000 people from the rolls.
"You might make two steps forward but you’re always going to make one step back," she said. "But I think the pendulum is actually swinging farther back than it should be."
Still, Johnson Benifield said she thinks the next 100 years are going to be different than the last. In old photographs from the League of Women Voters a century ago, she sees exclusively white women. But today, Benifield, a woman of color, is a leader there. And that's changing the picture. | 1,460 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the first article of this pair about abandoned babies, I looked at the most popular story of a ‘foundling’, that of Moses. Although extensively painted from late classical times, none of those images considered the social issues of the abandonment of babies, despite it being longstanding practice and a growing problem in the cities of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
This article looks at one of the best-known classical myths of abandonment, that of the twins Romulus and Remus. In this case, the babies weren’t abandoned by their mother, but taken from her with the intention of infanticide, to prevent them from challenging for power when they grew up.
The early history of the city of Rome is shrouded in myth. Although there is consensus that twin brothers Romulus and Remus played a key part, Plutarch admits that some ancient authorities didn’t even believe that the city was named after Romulus, let alone acknowledge his existence. He opens his famous biography of Romulus with a short review of different accounts of the origin of the name Rome, before telling the story with the widest credence, about the twin brothers.
Although Romulus doesn’t seem to have engendered the same cult following as Theseus, mythical founder of Athens, he was revered by the Romans, and well into more modern times. The three Carraccis, Ludovico (cousin), Annibale and Agostino (brothers), told his story in a magnificent series of frescoes which they painted on the walls of the Palazzo Magnani in Bologna, Italy, between 1589 and 1592, one section of which I show below.
Aeneas, survivor of the fall of Troy, became king of the Latins and went on to found the city of Alba; his descendants ruled in their turn, until it came to the brothers Numitor and Amulius. They divided their inheritance, with Amulius taking the treasure which had been brought by Aeneas from Troy, and Numitor ruling Alba. Amulius then used his wealth to wrest the throne from his brother; to ensure that Numitor’s daughter couldn’t produce any male heirs, Amulius made her a priestess of Vesta, so she was sworn to remain a virgin.
Soon after that, Numitor’s daughter was discovered to be pregnant. Although this traditionally would have led to the death of any Vestal Virgin, Amulius’ daughter interceded, and she was merely kept in solitary confinement. She gave birth to twin boys, who were superhuman in their size and beauty. Amulius ordered one of his servants to take the twins away and drown them in the river, but they were put first into a trough which functioned as a boat. As a result they were washed ashore downstream still alive.
A she-wolf then fed the babies, and a woodpecker watched over them; both were later considered to be sacred to the god Mars.
One of the frescoes in the Palazzo Magnani, probably painted by Ludovico Carracci and/or Annibale Carracci, shows the She-Wolf Suckling Romulus and Remus (1589-92). The twins are still inside the trough in which they had survived their trip down the river, and on the opposite bank a woodpecker is keeping a close watch.
At the far right, a now rather diaphanous figure may be Faustulus, one of Amulius’ swineherds who discovered the twins, and took them to his wife.
Peter Paul Rubens shows Romulus and Remus being discovered by Faustulus, in his painting of 1615-16. Not only is the she-wolf taking care of the twins, but a family of woodpeckers are bringing worms and grubs to feed them, and there are empty shells and a little crab on the small beach as additional tasty tidbits. Rubens also provides a river god and water nymph as guardians.
Carlo Maratta advances the story slightly, and elaborates it with a large group of figures in The Finding of Romulus and Remus from 1680-92. Faustulus, his shepherd’s crook at his feet, is now presenting his wife with the first of the twins. This foreground group is still on the riverbank, in the company of the river god, and under the direction of another figure who is holding his horse (possibly the servant of Amulius).
This is multiplex narrative, though: in the distance is Faustulus’ quite substantial farmhouse, outside which the family is shown a second time, to indicate their destination. Maratta also retains the she-wolf from the earlier part of the story, as she leaves the scene to the right, although I can’t see any woodpeckers.
Pietro da Cortona depicts the closing scene of this story in his Romulus and Remus Sheltered by Faustulus from about 1643. Faustulus has brought the first of the twins up from the riverbank, where the flock is now grazing, and is about to present the infant to his wife at their cottage. In the distance at the right the other baby is still suckling from the she-wolf, beside which are two additional figures apparently in dispute.
Nicolas Mignard shows a very similar scene in The Shepherd Faustulus Bringing Romulus and Remus to His Wife from 1654, in which Faustulus has brought both of the twins up from the river, and his extended family appears most welcoming.
Romulus and Remus, as they were now named, were brought up without Amulius’ knowledge. Although both remained large and fine specimens of humans, Plutarch tells us that it was Romulus who appeared to have the better judgement, and behaved in a more commanding way. As they grew older, the brothers became renowned for their hard work and good deeds.
Whilst the great city of Rome may have been founded by two foundling children, as later cities in Europe grew, their foundlings became an increasing problem. In the Middle Ages, religious houses such as monasteries and convents had become places of refuge for unwanted infants, and at times they were heavily used for that purpose. These steadily became more formalised, with the development of dedicated institutions as ‘foundling homes’.
The eighteenth century saw the foundation of foundling homes by secular organisations too. They increased in number as demand rose: in the early nineteenth century, it’s estimated that as many as one in twenty of all live births in France were abandoned. The problem grew in the USA during the latter half of that century and into the twentieth: foundlings were often put together with other orphans and shipped west by railway train to work as farmhands and servants in the households which agreed to foster them. That seens little better than the lot of the foundling in imperial Rome.
William Hogarth’s painting of Moses Before Pharaoh’s Daughter from 1746 is unusual for depicting not his discovery as an abandoned baby, but his later presentation to the princess. This is one of the paintings in the Foundling Museum in London, formed from the collection of one of the foremost charitable institutions which cared for abandoned infants and children.
London’s Foundling Hospital was founded in 1739 by Thomas Coram, a successful master mariner from Dorset, England, who lived for a decade in Massachusetts, where he established a shipyard. His philanthropy started there, in giving a large plot of land for a school. When he returned to England, he grew prosperous by importing tar, and continued in charitable works. He was distressed by the sight of abandoned infants in the streets of London, and started to campaign for the foundation of an institution to care for these ‘foundlings’. After years of fundraising and hard work, the new Foundling Hospital opened in temporary premises in 1741, and four years later the first wing of its new purpose-built premises started to admit the foundlings of London. William Hogarth and Thomas Coram were good friends.
Coram and the Foundling Hospital attracted the support of artists of all disciplines: the composer Handel gave performances there in 1749 and 1750, for example. Sophie Gengembre Anderson’s undated painting of Foundling Girls in the Chapel shows these girls at prayers in the Hospital’s chapel in the late nineteenth century.
More than a century after it opening, Emma Brownlow, the daughter of one of the Hospital’s foundlings, painted a series of works depicting its work, including The Foundling Restored To Its Mother from 1858. John Brownlow, her father, is shown in his role as the Director of the Hospital, and is here engaged in the unusual task of reuniting one of the foundling children with their natural mother. In the background is Hogarth’s painting The March to Finchley, which he painted in 1750 to depict the Guards Division of the army setting out five years earlier to protect the city of London from the threat of the Jacobite Rebellion.
I find it surprising that, of all the social ills shown in paintings, particularly by Naturalists during the nineteenth century, the problem of the abandonment of babies never seems to have had significant presence. Perhaps we’re still too ashamed to admit it. | <urn:uuid:9e5783f0-3f51-44a6-933b-1ce66388fa08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eclecticlight.co/2019/12/29/foundling-paintings-of-romulus-and-remus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.982115 | 1,953 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.2226962745... | 14 | In the first article of this pair about abandoned babies, I looked at the most popular story of a ‘foundling’, that of Moses. Although extensively painted from late classical times, none of those images considered the social issues of the abandonment of babies, despite it being longstanding practice and a growing problem in the cities of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
This article looks at one of the best-known classical myths of abandonment, that of the twins Romulus and Remus. In this case, the babies weren’t abandoned by their mother, but taken from her with the intention of infanticide, to prevent them from challenging for power when they grew up.
The early history of the city of Rome is shrouded in myth. Although there is consensus that twin brothers Romulus and Remus played a key part, Plutarch admits that some ancient authorities didn’t even believe that the city was named after Romulus, let alone acknowledge his existence. He opens his famous biography of Romulus with a short review of different accounts of the origin of the name Rome, before telling the story with the widest credence, about the twin brothers.
Although Romulus doesn’t seem to have engendered the same cult following as Theseus, mythical founder of Athens, he was revered by the Romans, and well into more modern times. The three Carraccis, Ludovico (cousin), Annibale and Agostino (brothers), told his story in a magnificent series of frescoes which they painted on the walls of the Palazzo Magnani in Bologna, Italy, between 1589 and 1592, one section of which I show below.
Aeneas, survivor of the fall of Troy, became king of the Latins and went on to found the city of Alba; his descendants ruled in their turn, until it came to the brothers Numitor and Amulius. They divided their inheritance, with Amulius taking the treasure which had been brought by Aeneas from Troy, and Numitor ruling Alba. Amulius then used his wealth to wrest the throne from his brother; to ensure that Numitor’s daughter couldn’t produce any male heirs, Amulius made her a priestess of Vesta, so she was sworn to remain a virgin.
Soon after that, Numitor’s daughter was discovered to be pregnant. Although this traditionally would have led to the death of any Vestal Virgin, Amulius’ daughter interceded, and she was merely kept in solitary confinement. She gave birth to twin boys, who were superhuman in their size and beauty. Amulius ordered one of his servants to take the twins away and drown them in the river, but they were put first into a trough which functioned as a boat. As a result they were washed ashore downstream still alive.
A she-wolf then fed the babies, and a woodpecker watched over them; both were later considered to be sacred to the god Mars.
One of the frescoes in the Palazzo Magnani, probably painted by Ludovico Carracci and/or Annibale Carracci, shows the She-Wolf Suckling Romulus and Remus (1589-92). The twins are still inside the trough in which they had survived their trip down the river, and on the opposite bank a woodpecker is keeping a close watch.
At the far right, a now rather diaphanous figure may be Faustulus, one of Amulius’ swineherds who discovered the twins, and took them to his wife.
Peter Paul Rubens shows Romulus and Remus being discovered by Faustulus, in his painting of 1615-16. Not only is the she-wolf taking care of the twins, but a family of woodpeckers are bringing worms and grubs to feed them, and there are empty shells and a little crab on the small beach as additional tasty tidbits. Rubens also provides a river god and water nymph as guardians.
Carlo Maratta advances the story slightly, and elaborates it with a large group of figures in The Finding of Romulus and Remus from 1680-92. Faustulus, his shepherd’s crook at his feet, is now presenting his wife with the first of the twins. This foreground group is still on the riverbank, in the company of the river god, and under the direction of another figure who is holding his horse (possibly the servant of Amulius).
This is multiplex narrative, though: in the distance is Faustulus’ quite substantial farmhouse, outside which the family is shown a second time, to indicate their destination. Maratta also retains the she-wolf from the earlier part of the story, as she leaves the scene to the right, although I can’t see any woodpeckers.
Pietro da Cortona depicts the closing scene of this story in his Romulus and Remus Sheltered by Faustulus from about 1643. Faustulus has brought the first of the twins up from the riverbank, where the flock is now grazing, and is about to present the infant to his wife at their cottage. In the distance at the right the other baby is still suckling from the she-wolf, beside which are two additional figures apparently in dispute.
Nicolas Mignard shows a very similar scene in The Shepherd Faustulus Bringing Romulus and Remus to His Wife from 1654, in which Faustulus has brought both of the twins up from the river, and his extended family appears most welcoming.
Romulus and Remus, as they were now named, were brought up without Amulius’ knowledge. Although both remained large and fine specimens of humans, Plutarch tells us that it was Romulus who appeared to have the better judgement, and behaved in a more commanding way. As they grew older, the brothers became renowned for their hard work and good deeds.
Whilst the great city of Rome may have been founded by two foundling children, as later cities in Europe grew, their foundlings became an increasing problem. In the Middle Ages, religious houses such as monasteries and convents had become places of refuge for unwanted infants, and at times they were heavily used for that purpose. These steadily became more formalised, with the development of dedicated institutions as ‘foundling homes’.
The eighteenth century saw the foundation of foundling homes by secular organisations too. They increased in number as demand rose: in the early nineteenth century, it’s estimated that as many as one in twenty of all live births in France were abandoned. The problem grew in the USA during the latter half of that century and into the twentieth: foundlings were often put together with other orphans and shipped west by railway train to work as farmhands and servants in the households which agreed to foster them. That seens little better than the lot of the foundling in imperial Rome.
William Hogarth’s painting of Moses Before Pharaoh’s Daughter from 1746 is unusual for depicting not his discovery as an abandoned baby, but his later presentation to the princess. This is one of the paintings in the Foundling Museum in London, formed from the collection of one of the foremost charitable institutions which cared for abandoned infants and children.
London’s Foundling Hospital was founded in 1739 by Thomas Coram, a successful master mariner from Dorset, England, who lived for a decade in Massachusetts, where he established a shipyard. His philanthropy started there, in giving a large plot of land for a school. When he returned to England, he grew prosperous by importing tar, and continued in charitable works. He was distressed by the sight of abandoned infants in the streets of London, and started to campaign for the foundation of an institution to care for these ‘foundlings’. After years of fundraising and hard work, the new Foundling Hospital opened in temporary premises in 1741, and four years later the first wing of its new purpose-built premises started to admit the foundlings of London. William Hogarth and Thomas Coram were good friends.
Coram and the Foundling Hospital attracted the support of artists of all disciplines: the composer Handel gave performances there in 1749 and 1750, for example. Sophie Gengembre Anderson’s undated painting of Foundling Girls in the Chapel shows these girls at prayers in the Hospital’s chapel in the late nineteenth century.
More than a century after it opening, Emma Brownlow, the daughter of one of the Hospital’s foundlings, painted a series of works depicting its work, including The Foundling Restored To Its Mother from 1858. John Brownlow, her father, is shown in his role as the Director of the Hospital, and is here engaged in the unusual task of reuniting one of the foundling children with their natural mother. In the background is Hogarth’s painting The March to Finchley, which he painted in 1750 to depict the Guards Division of the army setting out five years earlier to protect the city of London from the threat of the Jacobite Rebellion.
I find it surprising that, of all the social ills shown in paintings, particularly by Naturalists during the nineteenth century, the problem of the abandonment of babies never seems to have had significant presence. Perhaps we’re still too ashamed to admit it. | 1,934 | ENGLISH | 1 |
FEW scientists have had the influence of Sir Isaac Newton, who largely built the edifice of modern science. He was the first to formulate the laws of motion. He discovered and explained the law of gravity, and provided the theoretical framework through which the observations of Galileo Galilei and the planetary laws of Johannes Kepler could be understood. His experiments with sunlight and glass prisms and mirrors helped him understand the origin of colours and create a new kind of telescope. He invented calculus, independently of Gottfried Leibniz, feuding with him over who was first. And he was the first to postulate that the laws of physics would be the same all over the universe.
Newton’s genius was recognised while he was a young scholar at Cambridge. At the age of 26, he was made Lucasian professor of mathematics. By the time he died in 1727, at the ripe old age of 84, he had become a national icon: President of the Royal Society, and warden and master of the Royal Mint. He was interred in Westminster Abbey.
As befits a man of such prodigious reputation, Newton left behind a voluminous trove of papers: more than 7m words filling hundreds of notebooks and loose sheets of paper. These included drafts of successive editions of his crowning achievement, “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica”, as well as his treatise on light, “Opticks”. There were also letters to scientists and other scholars, pages of derivations of mathematics and physics formulae, and copious writings on alchemy and religion. The solitary and eccentric Newton apparently saved everything he wrote; among his papers are recipes for ink that he scribbled as a scholar at Cambridge. But he was reticent about publishing his work, fearing controversy and criticism (his fight with Leibniz over calculus had made him extra-sensitive). At his death, more than half of his writings were unpublished, including all his thoughts on religion and alchemy.
Sarah Dry’s engaging book, “The Newton Papers”, traces what happened to Newton’s unpublished manuscripts after his death. A lifelong bachelor, Newton died without leaving a will. His papers were inherited by John Conduitt, who had married Newton’s closest relative and housekeeper, his half-niece Catherine Barton. Conduitt started an effort to publish a biography of Newton, but in the end it was unsuccessful. As Ms Dry makes clear, Conduitt had a vested interest in guarding Newton’s reputation as a paragon of science. Conduitt probably recognised the explosive nature of Newton’s religious writings, which showed him to favour the doctrine of one God, denying the unity of Father, Son and Holy Ghost. Such anti-Trinitarianism would have been considered heretical by Newton’s contemporaries. It was common at the time for Cambridge faculty members (all of them men) to take holy orders in the Church of England; Newton, true to himself, refused.
After Conduitt and his wife died, Newton’s papers passed to the family of the Earls of Portsmouth, and there they remained for the best part of 150 years. Ms Dry catalogues what happened to Newton’s manuscripts through three centuries, how they were sold, dispersed and then partially reunited through the efforts of John Maynard Keynes, a British economist who developed a fascination with Newton’s alchemical writings, and Abraham Yahuda, a Jewish rabbinical scholar who was interested in Newton’s theological explanations. Ms Dry explains how 19th-century Cambridge luminaries, such as George Gabriel Stokes (who, like Newton, became the Lucasian professor) and John Couch Adams (who used Newtonian mechanics to predict the existence of the planet Neptune) struggled with Newton’s manuscripts, in the hope that they would yield further insight into the great man’s thinking. However, the vastness of the archive and its often abstruse nature thwarted easy categorisation.
The Newton that emerges from the manuscripts is far from the popular image of a rational practitioner of cold and pure reason. The architect of modern science was himself not very modern. He was obsessed with alchemy. He spent hours copying alchemical recipes and trying to replicate them in his laboratory. He believed that the Bible contained numerological codes. The truth is that Newton was very much a product of his time. The colossus of science was not the first king of reason, Keynes wrote after reading Newton’s unpublished manuscripts. Instead “he was the last of the magicians”.
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0.09882678091526... | 1 | FEW scientists have had the influence of Sir Isaac Newton, who largely built the edifice of modern science. He was the first to formulate the laws of motion. He discovered and explained the law of gravity, and provided the theoretical framework through which the observations of Galileo Galilei and the planetary laws of Johannes Kepler could be understood. His experiments with sunlight and glass prisms and mirrors helped him understand the origin of colours and create a new kind of telescope. He invented calculus, independently of Gottfried Leibniz, feuding with him over who was first. And he was the first to postulate that the laws of physics would be the same all over the universe.
Newton’s genius was recognised while he was a young scholar at Cambridge. At the age of 26, he was made Lucasian professor of mathematics. By the time he died in 1727, at the ripe old age of 84, he had become a national icon: President of the Royal Society, and warden and master of the Royal Mint. He was interred in Westminster Abbey.
As befits a man of such prodigious reputation, Newton left behind a voluminous trove of papers: more than 7m words filling hundreds of notebooks and loose sheets of paper. These included drafts of successive editions of his crowning achievement, “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica”, as well as his treatise on light, “Opticks”. There were also letters to scientists and other scholars, pages of derivations of mathematics and physics formulae, and copious writings on alchemy and religion. The solitary and eccentric Newton apparently saved everything he wrote; among his papers are recipes for ink that he scribbled as a scholar at Cambridge. But he was reticent about publishing his work, fearing controversy and criticism (his fight with Leibniz over calculus had made him extra-sensitive). At his death, more than half of his writings were unpublished, including all his thoughts on religion and alchemy.
Sarah Dry’s engaging book, “The Newton Papers”, traces what happened to Newton’s unpublished manuscripts after his death. A lifelong bachelor, Newton died without leaving a will. His papers were inherited by John Conduitt, who had married Newton’s closest relative and housekeeper, his half-niece Catherine Barton. Conduitt started an effort to publish a biography of Newton, but in the end it was unsuccessful. As Ms Dry makes clear, Conduitt had a vested interest in guarding Newton’s reputation as a paragon of science. Conduitt probably recognised the explosive nature of Newton’s religious writings, which showed him to favour the doctrine of one God, denying the unity of Father, Son and Holy Ghost. Such anti-Trinitarianism would have been considered heretical by Newton’s contemporaries. It was common at the time for Cambridge faculty members (all of them men) to take holy orders in the Church of England; Newton, true to himself, refused.
After Conduitt and his wife died, Newton’s papers passed to the family of the Earls of Portsmouth, and there they remained for the best part of 150 years. Ms Dry catalogues what happened to Newton’s manuscripts through three centuries, how they were sold, dispersed and then partially reunited through the efforts of John Maynard Keynes, a British economist who developed a fascination with Newton’s alchemical writings, and Abraham Yahuda, a Jewish rabbinical scholar who was interested in Newton’s theological explanations. Ms Dry explains how 19th-century Cambridge luminaries, such as George Gabriel Stokes (who, like Newton, became the Lucasian professor) and John Couch Adams (who used Newtonian mechanics to predict the existence of the planet Neptune) struggled with Newton’s manuscripts, in the hope that they would yield further insight into the great man’s thinking. However, the vastness of the archive and its often abstruse nature thwarted easy categorisation.
The Newton that emerges from the manuscripts is far from the popular image of a rational practitioner of cold and pure reason. The architect of modern science was himself not very modern. He was obsessed with alchemy. He spent hours copying alchemical recipes and trying to replicate them in his laboratory. He believed that the Bible contained numerological codes. The truth is that Newton was very much a product of his time. The colossus of science was not the first king of reason, Keynes wrote after reading Newton’s unpublished manuscripts. Instead “he was the last of the magicians”.
This article appeared in the Books and arts section of the print edition under the headline "Magician’s brain" | 940 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A lot can be said about Alan Mathison Turing, whose contribution to mathematics, computer science, philosophy, and cryptography lay the major building blocks of our digital world.
Born in Maida Vale, London, the English genius went to Sherborne Boarding School, and although he's now known for his brilliant mind and his problem-solving abilities, he wasn't the brightest student, and his school report wasn't all that promising.
All of that changed, however, when 13-year-old Turing met the love and muse of his life, Christopher Morcum, a boy one year older at school. Morcum and Turing spent all their time together debating mathematics and geometry problems, and shortly after, Turing’s academic performance improved significantly.
Morcum, however, barely made it to the age of 18. In February 1930, he died from Tuberculosis. Devastated Turing kept believing that Morcum is still alive somewhere, which inspired a page that Turing wrote in one of his first scientific research papers titled “Nature of Spirits” on April 20, 1933, where he was trying to make sense of his friend’s physical loss and his sensed presence.
“As regards the question of why we have bodies at all; why we do not or cannot live free as spirits and communicate as such, we probably could do so but there would be nothing whatever to do. The body provides something for the spirit to look after and use,” he wrote.
Turing had to move on with his life and scientific career; still grieving over his first unrequited love, he earned a scholarship to study Mathematics in King’s University in Cambridge where he graduated with distinction in 1934. In his dissertation, he proved the central limit theorem, a major contribution to statistics and probability, which landed him a fellowship.
Two years later, Turing wrote a paper that's now recognized as the foundation of computer science, titled “On Computable Numbers,” in which he hypothesizes the reality that one day a machine could be built with the ability to compute any problem humanly solvable using 0s, 1s, and blanks.
He then proposed single-task machines called “Turing Machines” that would act as a “Universal computer” and that would decode and perform any set of instructions given to it. His ideas of memory storage in one single machine that carries out any task thrown became known as the “digital computer.”
Turing worked at Bletchley Park Government Code and Cypher School wartime station, Britain’s secret headquarter for codebreaking during World War II, and his contribution in code-breaking cut the war by two years and saved millions of lives.
He worked on improving a version of a Polish machine for code-breaking. With the help of his colleague, Gordon Welchman, they created the “Bombe,” an electro-mechanical device that helped the British cryptologists in deciphering and decoding over 4000 German messages every day.
When German U-boats were sinking ships of the Allied nations, Turing was working on deciphering German naval communications. His team managed to decode the German Enigma messages in 1941, aiding the Allied ships away from the German submarine attacks.
After WWII, he moved to London, where he produced a detailed design of the “Automatic Computing Engine” in March 1946.
Although the term “Artificial Intelligence” was not known until 1956, that is two years after his death, prescient Turing was already asking himself in 1950 “can machines think?” in his “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” paper, in which he proposed an experiment that is known as the “Turing Test.”
The test involved secluding a man and a woman from an interrogator who had to guess which is which by studying their replies to certain questions. In the Turing Test, a machine replaces the man.
Turing asked: "Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played between a man and a woman?" The machine’s success was then determined by comparing the results it showed with the results of the human interrogator.
“A computer would deserve to be called intelligent if it could deceive a human into believing that it was human,” he concluded.
Despite his major contributions, Turing was unfortunately charged with “gross indecency” for his homosexual relationship with young Arnold Murray.
After being convicted, Turing was forced to choose between going to jail or chemical castration, he chose the latter option and received hormonal treatment with injections of synthetic estrogen hormone.
A year later, he was found dead, and an autopsy revealed the presence of cyanide in his body. It's largely speculated that he committed suicide by poisoning himself, however, some suspect that he had "accidentally" inhaled the poison.
In September 2009, Queen Elizabeth II granted Turing a posthumous apology for the criminalization of his homosexuality; and recently, Bank of England Governor, Mark Carney, announced that Turing will be the new face of the £50 note by the end of 2021.
Turing had a glimpse of our digital present, as he once said: “One day ladies will take their computers for walks in the park and tell each other: 'My little computer said such a funny thing this morning,'" when such a thing was inconceivable to many during his lifetime.
An-Nahar is not responsible for the comments that users post below. We kindly ask you to keep this space a clean and respectful forum for discussion. | <urn:uuid:f909227a-c28a-4df5-9f1c-1dd63bea0623> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.annahar.com/article/1021681-the-great-thinkers--alan-turing-the-fathther-of-theoretical-computer-science-and | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.984153 | 1,165 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.1090045422315597... | 2 | A lot can be said about Alan Mathison Turing, whose contribution to mathematics, computer science, philosophy, and cryptography lay the major building blocks of our digital world.
Born in Maida Vale, London, the English genius went to Sherborne Boarding School, and although he's now known for his brilliant mind and his problem-solving abilities, he wasn't the brightest student, and his school report wasn't all that promising.
All of that changed, however, when 13-year-old Turing met the love and muse of his life, Christopher Morcum, a boy one year older at school. Morcum and Turing spent all their time together debating mathematics and geometry problems, and shortly after, Turing’s academic performance improved significantly.
Morcum, however, barely made it to the age of 18. In February 1930, he died from Tuberculosis. Devastated Turing kept believing that Morcum is still alive somewhere, which inspired a page that Turing wrote in one of his first scientific research papers titled “Nature of Spirits” on April 20, 1933, where he was trying to make sense of his friend’s physical loss and his sensed presence.
“As regards the question of why we have bodies at all; why we do not or cannot live free as spirits and communicate as such, we probably could do so but there would be nothing whatever to do. The body provides something for the spirit to look after and use,” he wrote.
Turing had to move on with his life and scientific career; still grieving over his first unrequited love, he earned a scholarship to study Mathematics in King’s University in Cambridge where he graduated with distinction in 1934. In his dissertation, he proved the central limit theorem, a major contribution to statistics and probability, which landed him a fellowship.
Two years later, Turing wrote a paper that's now recognized as the foundation of computer science, titled “On Computable Numbers,” in which he hypothesizes the reality that one day a machine could be built with the ability to compute any problem humanly solvable using 0s, 1s, and blanks.
He then proposed single-task machines called “Turing Machines” that would act as a “Universal computer” and that would decode and perform any set of instructions given to it. His ideas of memory storage in one single machine that carries out any task thrown became known as the “digital computer.”
Turing worked at Bletchley Park Government Code and Cypher School wartime station, Britain’s secret headquarter for codebreaking during World War II, and his contribution in code-breaking cut the war by two years and saved millions of lives.
He worked on improving a version of a Polish machine for code-breaking. With the help of his colleague, Gordon Welchman, they created the “Bombe,” an electro-mechanical device that helped the British cryptologists in deciphering and decoding over 4000 German messages every day.
When German U-boats were sinking ships of the Allied nations, Turing was working on deciphering German naval communications. His team managed to decode the German Enigma messages in 1941, aiding the Allied ships away from the German submarine attacks.
After WWII, he moved to London, where he produced a detailed design of the “Automatic Computing Engine” in March 1946.
Although the term “Artificial Intelligence” was not known until 1956, that is two years after his death, prescient Turing was already asking himself in 1950 “can machines think?” in his “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” paper, in which he proposed an experiment that is known as the “Turing Test.”
The test involved secluding a man and a woman from an interrogator who had to guess which is which by studying their replies to certain questions. In the Turing Test, a machine replaces the man.
Turing asked: "Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played between a man and a woman?" The machine’s success was then determined by comparing the results it showed with the results of the human interrogator.
“A computer would deserve to be called intelligent if it could deceive a human into believing that it was human,” he concluded.
Despite his major contributions, Turing was unfortunately charged with “gross indecency” for his homosexual relationship with young Arnold Murray.
After being convicted, Turing was forced to choose between going to jail or chemical castration, he chose the latter option and received hormonal treatment with injections of synthetic estrogen hormone.
A year later, he was found dead, and an autopsy revealed the presence of cyanide in his body. It's largely speculated that he committed suicide by poisoning himself, however, some suspect that he had "accidentally" inhaled the poison.
In September 2009, Queen Elizabeth II granted Turing a posthumous apology for the criminalization of his homosexuality; and recently, Bank of England Governor, Mark Carney, announced that Turing will be the new face of the £50 note by the end of 2021.
Turing had a glimpse of our digital present, as he once said: “One day ladies will take their computers for walks in the park and tell each other: 'My little computer said such a funny thing this morning,'" when such a thing was inconceivable to many during his lifetime.
An-Nahar is not responsible for the comments that users post below. We kindly ask you to keep this space a clean and respectful forum for discussion. | 1,137 | ENGLISH | 1 |
plot of many works forever.They were relevant in ancient times, we have not lost relevance today.These include a "wolf and the lamb."The first of them spoke Greek fabulist Aesop.Lamb, suffering from thirst on a hot summer day went to the creek and drank cold water.Wolf decided to eat it.Wishing to justify his act, he indicted that lamb muddied the water, because of what is now the predator can not get drunk.Lamb said that this can not be, because the water it just touches his lips, and is located downstream.Then Wolf said that last year he had insulted his father.Here kid found the arguments, because then it is not yet born, and even if I wanted to, I could not have done it.Wolf noted that Lamb knows his excuses, but it would still be eaten.If someone decided to commit an evil deed, it did not stop.This is the moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb."Then, on the same subject we created a fable Lafontaine, Sumarokov, Derzhavin.In the early 19th century fable of the same name written wings.
moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb"
work in the two main characters, the images of which are important and inconceivable one without the other.Fabulist immediately starts with morality, loudly declaring that when faced strong and weak, to blame in any case would be the last.Further, he assures the reader that there are many historical examples to support this conclusion, and the results are already known episode of the meeting of the Wolf and the Lamb by the stream.
Content. "The Wolf and the Lamb"
Moral work, however, is that the predator was already hungry and immediately had the intention of someone to eat.The kid was not lucky that in his way he got it.It would be in his place bunny or duck, they would have suffered.The moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb" tells of the despair of the weak.However, the wolf wants to justify his actions and says Lamb himself to blame, since prevented him drink some water clean.The elegant expressions Lamb says that this can not be, since it is downstream for 100 meters.Wolf this sensible and polite response is clearly not satisfactory.He starts to cry, that last year the lamb he was rude at the same place.So Wolf entire year could not forgive such insults, and now he will be able to take revenge.Learning that this could not be, since last year the lamb had not yet born, he replied that it was one of his relatives or friends.Lamb reasonably asks, and what have, in fact, he is.Wolf exclaims that he is guilty in the fact that wolf wants to eat.Then he stops to talk with the victim and drags him into the dark forest.
"The Wolf and the Lamb."Analysis
It is believed that in this fable shows powerlessness of the common man before the powers.It becomes clear that the winner is the one who is stronger, but not the one on which side justice.Wolf is rugged, realizing its full impunity.It is often those who have more strength and power, do not have to explain anything, and look for excuses.Krylov knows how difficult it is to stop those on whose side advantageous position.This is the moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb." | <urn:uuid:0ce6c76e-20f4-4417-8c91-e6ff53df7c7d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tipings.com/en/pages/24501 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00355.warc.gz | en | 0.983943 | 709 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.08840434... | 2 | plot of many works forever.They were relevant in ancient times, we have not lost relevance today.These include a "wolf and the lamb."The first of them spoke Greek fabulist Aesop.Lamb, suffering from thirst on a hot summer day went to the creek and drank cold water.Wolf decided to eat it.Wishing to justify his act, he indicted that lamb muddied the water, because of what is now the predator can not get drunk.Lamb said that this can not be, because the water it just touches his lips, and is located downstream.Then Wolf said that last year he had insulted his father.Here kid found the arguments, because then it is not yet born, and even if I wanted to, I could not have done it.Wolf noted that Lamb knows his excuses, but it would still be eaten.If someone decided to commit an evil deed, it did not stop.This is the moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb."Then, on the same subject we created a fable Lafontaine, Sumarokov, Derzhavin.In the early 19th century fable of the same name written wings.
moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb"
work in the two main characters, the images of which are important and inconceivable one without the other.Fabulist immediately starts with morality, loudly declaring that when faced strong and weak, to blame in any case would be the last.Further, he assures the reader that there are many historical examples to support this conclusion, and the results are already known episode of the meeting of the Wolf and the Lamb by the stream.
Content. "The Wolf and the Lamb"
Moral work, however, is that the predator was already hungry and immediately had the intention of someone to eat.The kid was not lucky that in his way he got it.It would be in his place bunny or duck, they would have suffered.The moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb" tells of the despair of the weak.However, the wolf wants to justify his actions and says Lamb himself to blame, since prevented him drink some water clean.The elegant expressions Lamb says that this can not be, since it is downstream for 100 meters.Wolf this sensible and polite response is clearly not satisfactory.He starts to cry, that last year the lamb he was rude at the same place.So Wolf entire year could not forgive such insults, and now he will be able to take revenge.Learning that this could not be, since last year the lamb had not yet born, he replied that it was one of his relatives or friends.Lamb reasonably asks, and what have, in fact, he is.Wolf exclaims that he is guilty in the fact that wolf wants to eat.Then he stops to talk with the victim and drags him into the dark forest.
"The Wolf and the Lamb."Analysis
It is believed that in this fable shows powerlessness of the common man before the powers.It becomes clear that the winner is the one who is stronger, but not the one on which side justice.Wolf is rugged, realizing its full impunity.It is often those who have more strength and power, do not have to explain anything, and look for excuses.Krylov knows how difficult it is to stop those on whose side advantageous position.This is the moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb." | 688 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lesson time 14:57 min
Your writer’s voice is what makes it possible for someone to pick up a page of text and recognize that you wrote it. Learn how to develop your voice and how to overcome the fear of making mistakes.
Topics include: Start With Imitation · Get the Bad Words Out · Finish Things · Finding the Voice of a Story
When you're a writer, starting out, the idea of your voice, of your style is huge. You want to know what your voice is. You don't really know. I once, years ago, ran into a quote from Jerry Garcia where he said, "style is the stuff that you get wrong. If you were actually playing the guitar perfectly-- if you were making music perfectly, there would be no style." And I thought this was such a great quote and remembered it, and years later, went to find it on the internet. And the only place I could ever find it was me saying it in interviews. So maybe he never said it at all. But I do think that a writer's voice, which is huge, which is important, which is actually the thing that the reader responds to more than anything else-- the end of the day, is a result of getting to the point where you discover this is what you sound like. And the problem, I think, that a lot of young writers have is they don't sound like anybody yet. I know when I was a young writer, I didn't really sound like anybody. What I did was sounded like everybody else. And it's what you do when you're starting out. You imitate. You find voices that you like. You go, "this person is doing something great." I would look at writers like Ari Lafferty or Harlan Ellison, Roger Zelazny, Ursula Le Guin. I go, "I love this thing that they do. I'll try and do that." It was very strange. I wrote a children's book when I was, what, 22? It was the first thing I ever wrote. It exists only in my attic and in manuscript. And it's not very good. But after "Coraline" came out, I thought, "hang on. I have that children's book in my attic. I wonder if it's any good?" And I went off. I found it. I read it to my daughter, Maddie, who at that point was six or seven. And at the end of the day, I sent it back up to the attic where it resides and will reside until the crack of doom. What really fascinated me about it was there was about a page and a half somewhere toward the end that read like me. It read like-- the rest of it, it read like Noel Langley and Roald Dahl. It read like every children's author I'd ever read. And it's all coming back out again. There's nothing really original. I haven't figured out how to do anything. And that's great. And that's absolutely fine, because you don't have to get it right at the beginning. You start out by making mistakes. You start out by getting it wrong. The most important thing you do is just write. But there was just a page. And I looked at it. I thought, "that's me. That actually reads like me." And seeing that felt wonderful, because it was the idea that, yeah, 22-year-old Neil-- actually, the voice was there. I just had to do a whole lot more writing. [MUSIC PLAYING] I think mistakes may be the most important thing for a writer. The question of how do you find your mistakes is very easy. You do stuff. The process of living, the process of trying to create, the process of getting out there and doing something is always a ...
Award-winning author Neil Gaiman has spent more than a quarter of a century crafting vivid, absorbing fiction. Now, the author of Stardust, Coraline, and The Sandman teaches his approach to imaginative storytelling in his online writing class. Learn how to find your unique voice, develop original ideas, and breathe life into your characters. Discover Neil’s philosophy on what drives a story—and open new windows to the stories inside you.
I have learnt lots of things about writing. All the chapters from the course have been enormously helpful and have inspired me to continue creating stuff and also think of new projects.
For those who write, Neil Gaiman is just a joy to listen to. For example, "the improvement in writing is quantum when you finish things."
Mr Gaiman is such an incredible storyteller. He tells everything straight from the heart. In the chapter there he speaks about rejection and writers block you feel it'd very personal and straight from the heart. Like his works. He inspires you to trust in yourself and your imagination. Go get that star!
While i do not write stories currently i like to bring creativity to my work. Knowing the importance of story telling and the process will help me to be more creative and better at expressing it. | <urn:uuid:6017135d-a2ac-4f86-a5a9-1e35ae3335fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.masterclass.com/classes/neil-gaiman-teaches-the-art-of-storytelling/chapters/finding-your-voice | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.982489 | 1,051 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.225952595472335... | 1 | Lesson time 14:57 min
Your writer’s voice is what makes it possible for someone to pick up a page of text and recognize that you wrote it. Learn how to develop your voice and how to overcome the fear of making mistakes.
Topics include: Start With Imitation · Get the Bad Words Out · Finish Things · Finding the Voice of a Story
When you're a writer, starting out, the idea of your voice, of your style is huge. You want to know what your voice is. You don't really know. I once, years ago, ran into a quote from Jerry Garcia where he said, "style is the stuff that you get wrong. If you were actually playing the guitar perfectly-- if you were making music perfectly, there would be no style." And I thought this was such a great quote and remembered it, and years later, went to find it on the internet. And the only place I could ever find it was me saying it in interviews. So maybe he never said it at all. But I do think that a writer's voice, which is huge, which is important, which is actually the thing that the reader responds to more than anything else-- the end of the day, is a result of getting to the point where you discover this is what you sound like. And the problem, I think, that a lot of young writers have is they don't sound like anybody yet. I know when I was a young writer, I didn't really sound like anybody. What I did was sounded like everybody else. And it's what you do when you're starting out. You imitate. You find voices that you like. You go, "this person is doing something great." I would look at writers like Ari Lafferty or Harlan Ellison, Roger Zelazny, Ursula Le Guin. I go, "I love this thing that they do. I'll try and do that." It was very strange. I wrote a children's book when I was, what, 22? It was the first thing I ever wrote. It exists only in my attic and in manuscript. And it's not very good. But after "Coraline" came out, I thought, "hang on. I have that children's book in my attic. I wonder if it's any good?" And I went off. I found it. I read it to my daughter, Maddie, who at that point was six or seven. And at the end of the day, I sent it back up to the attic where it resides and will reside until the crack of doom. What really fascinated me about it was there was about a page and a half somewhere toward the end that read like me. It read like-- the rest of it, it read like Noel Langley and Roald Dahl. It read like every children's author I'd ever read. And it's all coming back out again. There's nothing really original. I haven't figured out how to do anything. And that's great. And that's absolutely fine, because you don't have to get it right at the beginning. You start out by making mistakes. You start out by getting it wrong. The most important thing you do is just write. But there was just a page. And I looked at it. I thought, "that's me. That actually reads like me." And seeing that felt wonderful, because it was the idea that, yeah, 22-year-old Neil-- actually, the voice was there. I just had to do a whole lot more writing. [MUSIC PLAYING] I think mistakes may be the most important thing for a writer. The question of how do you find your mistakes is very easy. You do stuff. The process of living, the process of trying to create, the process of getting out there and doing something is always a ...
Award-winning author Neil Gaiman has spent more than a quarter of a century crafting vivid, absorbing fiction. Now, the author of Stardust, Coraline, and The Sandman teaches his approach to imaginative storytelling in his online writing class. Learn how to find your unique voice, develop original ideas, and breathe life into your characters. Discover Neil’s philosophy on what drives a story—and open new windows to the stories inside you.
I have learnt lots of things about writing. All the chapters from the course have been enormously helpful and have inspired me to continue creating stuff and also think of new projects.
For those who write, Neil Gaiman is just a joy to listen to. For example, "the improvement in writing is quantum when you finish things."
Mr Gaiman is such an incredible storyteller. He tells everything straight from the heart. In the chapter there he speaks about rejection and writers block you feel it'd very personal and straight from the heart. Like his works. He inspires you to trust in yourself and your imagination. Go get that star!
While i do not write stories currently i like to bring creativity to my work. Knowing the importance of story telling and the process will help me to be more creative and better at expressing it. | 1,046 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At our school, learning to be kind and patient is just as important as learning math and science, particularly in Kindergarten. Our teachers work to create fun ways to incorporate social-emotional learning into their daily projects in order to set a solid developmental foundation in Westside’s youngest students.
To celebrate the arrival of fall, Kindergarten studied apples! During a recent project where students learned all about apples and incorporated their apple interests into different subject areas, students were also hard at work on communication, cooperation, and trouble-shooting with each other. One of Westside’s Kindergarten teachers, Michaela, explains the project here:
Kindergarten began our unit by tasting a variety of different types of apples. After we taste-tested the apples, the kids created a bar graph of their favorite kinds. The students were able to see the data from both classes and were surprised by the similarities and differences they saw between their classmates.
The book, Ten Apples Up On Top by Dr. Seuss inspired us to try out this task of stacking apples on top of each other, a STEM project that combined each area of science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and as a bonus, we added literacy to the mix as well. (In this book, there are animals balancing apples on top of their heads one at a time and eventually getting up to ten apples.)
The Kindergarteners were divided into groups and given five apples to begin with. While working together in teams, they had to communicate and brainstorm with each other to figure out ways and strategies to successfully stack their apples.
Many of the groups began with just two apples and quickly figured out different ways to stack them. Some groups organized the apples by shape, keeping the larger apples on the bottom to create a base, and other groups decided to organize their apples by their shape and flipping the apples upside down, almost like they were puzzle pieces fitting together.
After some students were finding success stacking smaller groups of apples, we added five more apples for them to work with. The kids were up for it, but it proved to be quite the challenge! Many attempted the same strategies as they were before, but they were becoming frustrated as the apple stacks were tumbling over or rolling off their tables the higher they tried to stack the apples.
The teachers then introduced a small wooden dowel to use and the kids quickly began asking how to use them. We told them that they were to make stacking easier, but did not offer any additional advice or instruction. One student decided to take the wooden dowel and stick it through the apple.
This began a chain reaction and the kids started stabbing their apples with great force. Once the kids got the first apple on a dowel, it became easier and easier. Within minutes the kids had several apples on a dowel and could see the groups of five they created standing without assistance.
During this project, the kids constantly were sharing new ideas with each other and collaborating to construct and build a stable apple stack of ten. They had a blast stacking the apples and truly persevered through the challenges and frustrations as individuals and as teams.
Unfortunately and not surprisingly, most groups did not make it to ten apples up on top. The success of the project was seen in the fact that our Kindergarteners had a blast building, collaborating, constructing, and creating with each other (which was part of our plan all along.) | <urn:uuid:74b95b99-7558-4250-9943-1c3434c27477> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.westsideschool.org/about-westside-school/blog/p/~board/westside-stories/post/ten-apples-up-on-top-integrating-stem-and-social-emotional-learning-in-kindergarten | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.982459 | 703 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.28210985660... | 4 | At our school, learning to be kind and patient is just as important as learning math and science, particularly in Kindergarten. Our teachers work to create fun ways to incorporate social-emotional learning into their daily projects in order to set a solid developmental foundation in Westside’s youngest students.
To celebrate the arrival of fall, Kindergarten studied apples! During a recent project where students learned all about apples and incorporated their apple interests into different subject areas, students were also hard at work on communication, cooperation, and trouble-shooting with each other. One of Westside’s Kindergarten teachers, Michaela, explains the project here:
Kindergarten began our unit by tasting a variety of different types of apples. After we taste-tested the apples, the kids created a bar graph of their favorite kinds. The students were able to see the data from both classes and were surprised by the similarities and differences they saw between their classmates.
The book, Ten Apples Up On Top by Dr. Seuss inspired us to try out this task of stacking apples on top of each other, a STEM project that combined each area of science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and as a bonus, we added literacy to the mix as well. (In this book, there are animals balancing apples on top of their heads one at a time and eventually getting up to ten apples.)
The Kindergarteners were divided into groups and given five apples to begin with. While working together in teams, they had to communicate and brainstorm with each other to figure out ways and strategies to successfully stack their apples.
Many of the groups began with just two apples and quickly figured out different ways to stack them. Some groups organized the apples by shape, keeping the larger apples on the bottom to create a base, and other groups decided to organize their apples by their shape and flipping the apples upside down, almost like they were puzzle pieces fitting together.
After some students were finding success stacking smaller groups of apples, we added five more apples for them to work with. The kids were up for it, but it proved to be quite the challenge! Many attempted the same strategies as they were before, but they were becoming frustrated as the apple stacks were tumbling over or rolling off their tables the higher they tried to stack the apples.
The teachers then introduced a small wooden dowel to use and the kids quickly began asking how to use them. We told them that they were to make stacking easier, but did not offer any additional advice or instruction. One student decided to take the wooden dowel and stick it through the apple.
This began a chain reaction and the kids started stabbing their apples with great force. Once the kids got the first apple on a dowel, it became easier and easier. Within minutes the kids had several apples on a dowel and could see the groups of five they created standing without assistance.
During this project, the kids constantly were sharing new ideas with each other and collaborating to construct and build a stable apple stack of ten. They had a blast stacking the apples and truly persevered through the challenges and frustrations as individuals and as teams.
Unfortunately and not surprisingly, most groups did not make it to ten apples up on top. The success of the project was seen in the fact that our Kindergarteners had a blast building, collaborating, constructing, and creating with each other (which was part of our plan all along.) | 680 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most parents are told that spending quality time with their kids is essential to help develop a bond and improve the mental skills of their children. However, what a parent does in that time with his child also matters. A new study has found that children whose parents speak to them for long periods of time tend to develop higher intelligence and better cognitive skills. For the study, the researchers fit tiny audio recorders into the clothing of children aged between two and four.
They surveyed almost 107 children and their parents for a period of 16 hours per day for three days to help collect substantial data. During this time, parents were also asked to complete certain tasks with their children like story reading, drawing, copying and matching tasks etc.
"Using the audio recorders allowed us to study real-life interactions between young children and their families in an unobtrusive way within the home environment rather than a lab setting. We found that the quantity of adult spoken words that children hear is positively associated with their cognitive ability. However, further research is needed to explore the reasons behind this link - it could be that greater exposure to language provides more learning opportunities for children, but it could also be the case that more intelligent children evoke more words from adults in their environment," said the lead author of the study.
The study found that when parents used high-quality speeches to interact with their kids, the kids also developed better linguistic skills and vocabulary. So kids who were exposed to better speeches turned out to have better speech skills themselves. The researchers also tried to see what kind of impact different parenting skills would have on children. They found that kids who had supportive parents who encouraged exploration and self-development showed fewer signs of being restless, disobedient and aggressive.
"This study is the largest naturalistic observation of early life home environments to date. We found that the quantity of adult spoken words that children were exposed to varied greatly within families. Some kids heard twice as many words on one day as they did on the next.” Stay tuned for more updates. | <urn:uuid:ee9905b6-3567-4357-a745-ba72b4c178b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.misskyra.com/lifestyle/did-you-know-talking-to-your-children-could-help-improve-their-cognitive-skills/articleshow/69145640.cms | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.984285 | 410 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.43018612265... | 2 | Most parents are told that spending quality time with their kids is essential to help develop a bond and improve the mental skills of their children. However, what a parent does in that time with his child also matters. A new study has found that children whose parents speak to them for long periods of time tend to develop higher intelligence and better cognitive skills. For the study, the researchers fit tiny audio recorders into the clothing of children aged between two and four.
They surveyed almost 107 children and their parents for a period of 16 hours per day for three days to help collect substantial data. During this time, parents were also asked to complete certain tasks with their children like story reading, drawing, copying and matching tasks etc.
"Using the audio recorders allowed us to study real-life interactions between young children and their families in an unobtrusive way within the home environment rather than a lab setting. We found that the quantity of adult spoken words that children hear is positively associated with their cognitive ability. However, further research is needed to explore the reasons behind this link - it could be that greater exposure to language provides more learning opportunities for children, but it could also be the case that more intelligent children evoke more words from adults in their environment," said the lead author of the study.
The study found that when parents used high-quality speeches to interact with their kids, the kids also developed better linguistic skills and vocabulary. So kids who were exposed to better speeches turned out to have better speech skills themselves. The researchers also tried to see what kind of impact different parenting skills would have on children. They found that kids who had supportive parents who encouraged exploration and self-development showed fewer signs of being restless, disobedient and aggressive.
"This study is the largest naturalistic observation of early life home environments to date. We found that the quantity of adult spoken words that children were exposed to varied greatly within families. Some kids heard twice as many words on one day as they did on the next.” Stay tuned for more updates. | 406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A previous version of the 2020-2021 school calendar that was published contained an error The...
Using both BYU and STEM grants, Canyon Crest third grade teacher, Mrs. Stone, had her third graders perform an experiment dealing with force, angles and rockets.
Using the Canyon Crest gym, the goal was to find a way to launch rockets with enough force to reach a dinner plate across the width of a basketball court.The rocket launchers had two settings to manipulate: the angle that the rocket was launched and the force that it was launched with. The angle was determined by a small pump-like needle that could move along a protractor. On the other hand, the force was accomplished by raising a rod, with numbered markings to indicate force, and letting it fall down a tube that forced air out of the needle.
In groups, the students wrote down data such as mass of the rocket, angle, force used and length the rocket flew. After each try, they would go back to the side of the gym, record their data and, using their knowledge of newtons’s three laws, work together to see what else they could try. One group tried using a force of 10 at a 30 degree angle and were only able to get their rocket to fly 14 feet. Since the dinner plate was 30 feet away, they adjusted their force to make it to their goal. When they tried a force of 16 at a 30 degree angle, their rocket was able to fly 20 feet. While this was close, they were still off by 10 feet so they continued their attempts until their rocket was able to hit the plate.
This experiment was both fun for the students and achieved the third grade common core to “describe the relationship between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text, using language that pertains to time, sequence, and cause/effect” through encouraging students to use the scientific process in their own way. | <urn:uuid:14f0238a-f40a-4db9-b450-0d4d9f8c5acd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://provo.edu/news/launching-into-the-scientific-method/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.984878 | 402 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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-0.125744566321... | 1 | A previous version of the 2020-2021 school calendar that was published contained an error The...
Using both BYU and STEM grants, Canyon Crest third grade teacher, Mrs. Stone, had her third graders perform an experiment dealing with force, angles and rockets.
Using the Canyon Crest gym, the goal was to find a way to launch rockets with enough force to reach a dinner plate across the width of a basketball court.The rocket launchers had two settings to manipulate: the angle that the rocket was launched and the force that it was launched with. The angle was determined by a small pump-like needle that could move along a protractor. On the other hand, the force was accomplished by raising a rod, with numbered markings to indicate force, and letting it fall down a tube that forced air out of the needle.
In groups, the students wrote down data such as mass of the rocket, angle, force used and length the rocket flew. After each try, they would go back to the side of the gym, record their data and, using their knowledge of newtons’s three laws, work together to see what else they could try. One group tried using a force of 10 at a 30 degree angle and were only able to get their rocket to fly 14 feet. Since the dinner plate was 30 feet away, they adjusted their force to make it to their goal. When they tried a force of 16 at a 30 degree angle, their rocket was able to fly 20 feet. While this was close, they were still off by 10 feet so they continued their attempts until their rocket was able to hit the plate.
This experiment was both fun for the students and achieved the third grade common core to “describe the relationship between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text, using language that pertains to time, sequence, and cause/effect” through encouraging students to use the scientific process in their own way. | 414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout the the Civil Rights era, there were a number of demonstrations, sit-in’s and marches that took place across the Southern U.S. states. Many were peaceful, while others turned violent. Among the most violent demonstrations was one over the the voting rights of African Americans. This particular demonstration shocked Americans across the country, as well as others around the world. This event is known as “Bloody Sunday”
March 7th, 1965…the date when around 600 civil rights marchers were brutally attacked by state and local police in Montgomery, Alabama.
Residents of Selma were intimidated and descriminated against being able to vote three weeks earlier. There was an uproar after the death of Jimmie Lee Jackson who died in the hospital after being shot by an Alabama State Trooper on February 18th, 1965. Black residents angered by the violations against them hoped to bring attention to the matter. The march, guided by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was put together to seek protection by Governor George Wallas for black residents seeking registration. Wallace was against the march, denouncing it as a threat to public safety and fought to see that the march would not take place. The march was led by Rev. Hosea Williams and John Lewis. Rosa Parks was among the demonstrators that participated in the march. They made it about six blocks into their demonstration route before being blocked by state troopers. Although it was a peaceful demonstration, the marchers were brutally beated by officers with billy clubs and bull whips. Tear gas was thrown into the crowd….all in front of the media.
The beatings were televised and watched by horrified viewers…which ultimately helped in the U.S. Civil Rights Movement. One demonstrator, Amelia Boynton Robinson, was photographed near death. She was beaten and gassed. Her photographs were published on the front page of many newspapers and magazines around the world. The day was named “Bloody Sunday” due to its violent attack on the demonstrators from Selma. There were 17 people hospitalized due to the attack.
Dr. King organized a second demonstration for March 9th, this time calling for outraged citizens around the country to participate. Around 2,500 angry viewers and community members responded to the call and marched from Selma to Montgomery. They attempted to seek protection through the courts to ensure a repeat assult would not take place, but instead the courts prevented the march from taking place by issuing a retraining order until they could hold additional hearings on the matter. So, at that time, there was a “ceremonial” march.
A third attempt was made and this time was successful, without the repeat of violence.
**Today, the original route of the march is known as the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail** | <urn:uuid:a7b9effa-83b2-45ba-bf6b-cf0fad17ed5e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yuptab.com/black-history-month-remembering-bloody-sunday/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.988076 | 572 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.05663657933... | 2 | Throughout the the Civil Rights era, there were a number of demonstrations, sit-in’s and marches that took place across the Southern U.S. states. Many were peaceful, while others turned violent. Among the most violent demonstrations was one over the the voting rights of African Americans. This particular demonstration shocked Americans across the country, as well as others around the world. This event is known as “Bloody Sunday”
March 7th, 1965…the date when around 600 civil rights marchers were brutally attacked by state and local police in Montgomery, Alabama.
Residents of Selma were intimidated and descriminated against being able to vote three weeks earlier. There was an uproar after the death of Jimmie Lee Jackson who died in the hospital after being shot by an Alabama State Trooper on February 18th, 1965. Black residents angered by the violations against them hoped to bring attention to the matter. The march, guided by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was put together to seek protection by Governor George Wallas for black residents seeking registration. Wallace was against the march, denouncing it as a threat to public safety and fought to see that the march would not take place. The march was led by Rev. Hosea Williams and John Lewis. Rosa Parks was among the demonstrators that participated in the march. They made it about six blocks into their demonstration route before being blocked by state troopers. Although it was a peaceful demonstration, the marchers were brutally beated by officers with billy clubs and bull whips. Tear gas was thrown into the crowd….all in front of the media.
The beatings were televised and watched by horrified viewers…which ultimately helped in the U.S. Civil Rights Movement. One demonstrator, Amelia Boynton Robinson, was photographed near death. She was beaten and gassed. Her photographs were published on the front page of many newspapers and magazines around the world. The day was named “Bloody Sunday” due to its violent attack on the demonstrators from Selma. There were 17 people hospitalized due to the attack.
Dr. King organized a second demonstration for March 9th, this time calling for outraged citizens around the country to participate. Around 2,500 angry viewers and community members responded to the call and marched from Selma to Montgomery. They attempted to seek protection through the courts to ensure a repeat assult would not take place, but instead the courts prevented the march from taking place by issuing a retraining order until they could hold additional hearings on the matter. So, at that time, there was a “ceremonial” march.
A third attempt was made and this time was successful, without the repeat of violence.
**Today, the original route of the march is known as the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail** | 575 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For humans, recognizing family members or familiar faces is a more or less simple task, primarily facilitated by our own neurological development. But perhaps we have not stopped to think about how other animals, such as dogs, recognize those of the same species or other close beings. In this article, we give you all the details.
The dog and his senses
There is no doubt that the dog is one of the most faithful and inseparable pets. Your dog will likely be the first to hear you come home and then receive you enthusiastically. It is known to all that the speed of recognition has to do with the sharp smell of dogs.
You could say that smell is the most developed sense of dogs. An example is the number of olfactory receptors that they have. The smell of dogs, without a doubt, is one of their most reliable ‘tools’ when it comes to recognizing objects or people.
But it is clear that, apart from the smell, hearing, and sight, they are also important senses in dogs. And it is precisely by combining smell and sight how dogs can recognize different people or animals.
How do dogs recognize us?
Regarding this issue, there are several studies and researches that state that the areas that are stimulated in the cerebral cortex when a dog sees a face are the same as ours. This implies that dogs use their sight to discriminate between familiar and alien faces.
If we go further, there is scientific evidence that dogs use purely facial recognition: they just have to look at anyone’s face to know if they are known or not. In this sense, it has also been known that they have more difficulty discriminating faces when their owners have it covered. Perhaps in these cases, his advanced sense of smell comes into play.
Beyond mere facial recognition, dogs can also discriminate between the different expressions. And, what is more curious, it is known that dogs prefer to see faces of beings of the same species before any other.
Do Dogs Recognize Their Parents?
Once we have solved the ‘mystery’ of how dogs are able to recognize us, the next question is that do dogs remember their Siblings? And to answer this, we must turn, once again, to science and research.
The procedure began when puppies were placed in front of two adult female dogs, one of them the mother. The results showed that a high percentage of the time, the puppy preferred to approach and spend more time with his biological mother.
But what if the puppy grows and becomes an adult? To test whether this recognition was still accurate, garments were impregnated with the smell of the biological mother and specimens of the same race and age. The result was positive again since the juveniles – around two years old – continued to recognize her mother’s smell.
The biochemical mechanism behind this phenomenon is not yet well known, but it is undoubtedly one more proof that dogs are able to recognize their loved ones. | <urn:uuid:40c8dd97-240a-47d8-b5f5-a998f9fc1806> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hai-ky.com/how-can-dogs-recognize-their-family-members/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00338.warc.gz | en | 0.980977 | 601 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.16912135481834... | 1 | For humans, recognizing family members or familiar faces is a more or less simple task, primarily facilitated by our own neurological development. But perhaps we have not stopped to think about how other animals, such as dogs, recognize those of the same species or other close beings. In this article, we give you all the details.
The dog and his senses
There is no doubt that the dog is one of the most faithful and inseparable pets. Your dog will likely be the first to hear you come home and then receive you enthusiastically. It is known to all that the speed of recognition has to do with the sharp smell of dogs.
You could say that smell is the most developed sense of dogs. An example is the number of olfactory receptors that they have. The smell of dogs, without a doubt, is one of their most reliable ‘tools’ when it comes to recognizing objects or people.
But it is clear that, apart from the smell, hearing, and sight, they are also important senses in dogs. And it is precisely by combining smell and sight how dogs can recognize different people or animals.
How do dogs recognize us?
Regarding this issue, there are several studies and researches that state that the areas that are stimulated in the cerebral cortex when a dog sees a face are the same as ours. This implies that dogs use their sight to discriminate between familiar and alien faces.
If we go further, there is scientific evidence that dogs use purely facial recognition: they just have to look at anyone’s face to know if they are known or not. In this sense, it has also been known that they have more difficulty discriminating faces when their owners have it covered. Perhaps in these cases, his advanced sense of smell comes into play.
Beyond mere facial recognition, dogs can also discriminate between the different expressions. And, what is more curious, it is known that dogs prefer to see faces of beings of the same species before any other.
Do Dogs Recognize Their Parents?
Once we have solved the ‘mystery’ of how dogs are able to recognize us, the next question is that do dogs remember their Siblings? And to answer this, we must turn, once again, to science and research.
The procedure began when puppies were placed in front of two adult female dogs, one of them the mother. The results showed that a high percentage of the time, the puppy preferred to approach and spend more time with his biological mother.
But what if the puppy grows and becomes an adult? To test whether this recognition was still accurate, garments were impregnated with the smell of the biological mother and specimens of the same race and age. The result was positive again since the juveniles – around two years old – continued to recognize her mother’s smell.
The biochemical mechanism behind this phenomenon is not yet well known, but it is undoubtedly one more proof that dogs are able to recognize their loved ones. | 582 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the 17th century, two very different types of governments developed in Europe.In France, Louis XIV established an Absolutist State, while in England, Elizabeth I followed a Parliamentary government. Even though, Louis XIV and Elizabeth I saw a brilliant flourishing in their kingdoms, only one of them had the power to rule successfully.
In France, Louis XIV ruled by Divine Right and had the absolute control of his kingdom during his long reign.He took several steps to assure his authority above everyone in France.First, he only allowed the nobles who supported him to retain their titles.Second, he revoked Edict of Nantes that forced the Hugnenots (French Protestants) to convert to Catholicism or die.Then, he started his move toward building his splendid palace, which known as the Versailles (located outside Paris).He needed a finance minister, so he hired Colbert to strengthen the economy and trade of France.Louis XIV was an extremely authoritive king, but people called him the Sun King for they witnessed how France was a place of art and glory.
In England, Elizabeth I followed a Parliamentary government, which allowed her to rule her people, and in the time, satisfy Parliament with her kingdom policies.Elizabeth I aimed for peace and security to England, which was why she didn't allow any religious strives to arise in her it.Therefore, herfirst step was to promote Protestantism within England.Then, she chose excellent advisors and she expanded the English Navy which stunned the world of its defeat to the Spanish Armada.Elizabeth I never got married and was wedded to England, that was why people called her the Virgin Queen.
France and England had excellent rulers, however, England was ruled successfully, without any economical or political problems.Even though Louis XIV ruled with absolute control, he still wasn't completely wise in the decisions he took toward the H | <urn:uuid:9b24f435-47dc-4cbf-bf18-1200a5d5dde4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/france-vs-england-during-17th-century/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.987203 | 379 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.2837081551... | 1 | During the 17th century, two very different types of governments developed in Europe.In France, Louis XIV established an Absolutist State, while in England, Elizabeth I followed a Parliamentary government. Even though, Louis XIV and Elizabeth I saw a brilliant flourishing in their kingdoms, only one of them had the power to rule successfully.
In France, Louis XIV ruled by Divine Right and had the absolute control of his kingdom during his long reign.He took several steps to assure his authority above everyone in France.First, he only allowed the nobles who supported him to retain their titles.Second, he revoked Edict of Nantes that forced the Hugnenots (French Protestants) to convert to Catholicism or die.Then, he started his move toward building his splendid palace, which known as the Versailles (located outside Paris).He needed a finance minister, so he hired Colbert to strengthen the economy and trade of France.Louis XIV was an extremely authoritive king, but people called him the Sun King for they witnessed how France was a place of art and glory.
In England, Elizabeth I followed a Parliamentary government, which allowed her to rule her people, and in the time, satisfy Parliament with her kingdom policies.Elizabeth I aimed for peace and security to England, which was why she didn't allow any religious strives to arise in her it.Therefore, herfirst step was to promote Protestantism within England.Then, she chose excellent advisors and she expanded the English Navy which stunned the world of its defeat to the Spanish Armada.Elizabeth I never got married and was wedded to England, that was why people called her the Virgin Queen.
France and England had excellent rulers, however, England was ruled successfully, without any economical or political problems.Even though Louis XIV ruled with absolute control, he still wasn't completely wise in the decisions he took toward the H | 373 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The blame for the Cold War cannot be placed on one person — it developed as a series of chain reactions as a struggle for supremacy. It can be argued that the Cold War was inevitable, and therefore no one’s fault, due to the differences in the capitalist and communist ideologies.
It was only the need for self-preservation that had caused the two countries to sink their differences temporarily during the Second World War. Yet many of the tensions that existed in the Cold War can be attributed to Stalin’s policy of Soviet expansion. It is necessary, therefore, to examine the role of Stalin as a catalyst to the Cold War.
Stalin’s foreign policies contributed an enormous amount to the tensions of the Cold War. His aim, to take advantage of the military situation in post-war Europe to strengthen Russian influence, was perceived to be a threat to the Americans. Stalin was highly effective in his goal to gain territory, with victories in Poland, Romania, and Finland. To the western world, this success looked as if it were the beginning of serious Russian aggressions. The western view of the time saw Stalin as doing one of two things: either continuing the expansionist policies of the tsars that preceded him, or worse, spreading communism across the world now that his “one-state” notion had been fulfilled. It also must be mentioned that Stalin is seen as wanting “unchalleged personal power and a rebuilt Russia strong enough to withstand ‘caplitalist encirclement.'”1
Admittedly, thefirst view of Stalin, as an imperialist leader, may be skewed. The Russians claim, and have always claimed, that Stalin’s motives were purely defensive. Stalin’s wished to create a buffer zone of Communist states around him to protect Soviet Russia from the capitalist West. In this sense, his moves were not aggressive at all — they were truly defensive moves to protect the Soviet system. His suspicions of Western hostility were not unfounded: the British an…
The cold war erupted in 1945 for various reasons. To a large extent of hostility arose from the American's side, as well as from the Soviet's side.There were many things that occurred during 1945-1948, from thefirst conflicts between Russia and the U.S. in Iran to the Berlin Blockade in 1948. As well as past conflicts contributed to the Cold War. And as time passed, more and more tension grew between the two nations.From past conflicts to apposing worldviews, tension grew.
One of thefirst things that sparked tension between the U.S. and Russia was the conflicts between Russia and the U.S. in Iran. For six months after the war, there was to be no foreign troops in Iran.However, the Soviet did not remove their troops. What's even worse the Soviets decided while they're there, why don't the help spread communism in Azerbaijan.I ran also began to take over parts of northern Iran.This began to spark a little tension out of the Americans and the British, for they feared that if not acted upon sooner, the entire country would have been taken.Therefore the British and the Americans decided to put some pressure upon the Soviets and push them from Iran.
Another problem during 1946 was the intrusion of the eastern Mediterranean.America saw the threat when Stalin decided to send 25 Soviet divisions into Turkey. SO America decided to flex her arms and really show how powerful the U.S. is by showing off their nuclear weapons.That did the trick, and before you know it the Soviets went into submission.
As the Soviet power began to take more and more in Western Europe, The Americans were getting more and more nervous.They Americans knew that the economy of Western Europe was at a low, and was not equipped enough to defend them against Russia.So the Americans decided to do something about it, they produced the Marshall Plan.This gave economic help to nations outside of the Soviet control. | <urn:uuid:a38c92fd-0a36-4846-b3f5-1ff1669b016d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/cold-war-6/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00430.warc.gz | en | 0.981778 | 807 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.52077782154083... | 1 | The blame for the Cold War cannot be placed on one person — it developed as a series of chain reactions as a struggle for supremacy. It can be argued that the Cold War was inevitable, and therefore no one’s fault, due to the differences in the capitalist and communist ideologies.
It was only the need for self-preservation that had caused the two countries to sink their differences temporarily during the Second World War. Yet many of the tensions that existed in the Cold War can be attributed to Stalin’s policy of Soviet expansion. It is necessary, therefore, to examine the role of Stalin as a catalyst to the Cold War.
Stalin’s foreign policies contributed an enormous amount to the tensions of the Cold War. His aim, to take advantage of the military situation in post-war Europe to strengthen Russian influence, was perceived to be a threat to the Americans. Stalin was highly effective in his goal to gain territory, with victories in Poland, Romania, and Finland. To the western world, this success looked as if it were the beginning of serious Russian aggressions. The western view of the time saw Stalin as doing one of two things: either continuing the expansionist policies of the tsars that preceded him, or worse, spreading communism across the world now that his “one-state” notion had been fulfilled. It also must be mentioned that Stalin is seen as wanting “unchalleged personal power and a rebuilt Russia strong enough to withstand ‘caplitalist encirclement.'”1
Admittedly, thefirst view of Stalin, as an imperialist leader, may be skewed. The Russians claim, and have always claimed, that Stalin’s motives were purely defensive. Stalin’s wished to create a buffer zone of Communist states around him to protect Soviet Russia from the capitalist West. In this sense, his moves were not aggressive at all — they were truly defensive moves to protect the Soviet system. His suspicions of Western hostility were not unfounded: the British an…
The cold war erupted in 1945 for various reasons. To a large extent of hostility arose from the American's side, as well as from the Soviet's side.There were many things that occurred during 1945-1948, from thefirst conflicts between Russia and the U.S. in Iran to the Berlin Blockade in 1948. As well as past conflicts contributed to the Cold War. And as time passed, more and more tension grew between the two nations.From past conflicts to apposing worldviews, tension grew.
One of thefirst things that sparked tension between the U.S. and Russia was the conflicts between Russia and the U.S. in Iran. For six months after the war, there was to be no foreign troops in Iran.However, the Soviet did not remove their troops. What's even worse the Soviets decided while they're there, why don't the help spread communism in Azerbaijan.I ran also began to take over parts of northern Iran.This began to spark a little tension out of the Americans and the British, for they feared that if not acted upon sooner, the entire country would have been taken.Therefore the British and the Americans decided to put some pressure upon the Soviets and push them from Iran.
Another problem during 1946 was the intrusion of the eastern Mediterranean.America saw the threat when Stalin decided to send 25 Soviet divisions into Turkey. SO America decided to flex her arms and really show how powerful the U.S. is by showing off their nuclear weapons.That did the trick, and before you know it the Soviets went into submission.
As the Soviet power began to take more and more in Western Europe, The Americans were getting more and more nervous.They Americans knew that the economy of Western Europe was at a low, and was not equipped enough to defend them against Russia.So the Americans decided to do something about it, they produced the Marshall Plan.This gave economic help to nations outside of the Soviet control. | 795 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Eliana Lindenberg, Staff Writer
The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 brought together some of the brightest political minds of the generation. Men like James Madison and Alexander Hamilton gathered to revise the Articles of Confederation, which had been ineffective in getting the new nation on her feet after the war.
Their goal was to create a central government that would be strong and stable, but still democratic. After a lot of discussion and dissent, the delegates managed to pull together a constitution that satisfied most states.
Towards the end of the convention, however, the problem of a bill of rights arose. Several delegates were concerned that excluding a bill of rights would be dangerous. They feared that the lack of a bill of rights would leave the individual rights of the people vulnerable to attack from the much stronger national government outlined in the Constitution. Their fellow lawmakers accused them of stalling the Convention, though, and the new Constitution was finalized and signed without a bill of rights. Because of the exclusion, George Mason, Elbridge Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia did not sign it.
The new Constitution was then sent to the Congress of the Articles of Confederation, and then to each state’s legislature to be reviewed. Several states proposed amendments upon review, and refused to ratify the Constitution until the amendments were passed.
There were originally seventeen amendments proposed to the new Constitution. James Madison himself had been originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights — but after seeing the contentious debates over the inclusion of a bill of rights, he feared that a second convention would be called and undo all of the work put into crafting the new Constitution. He came to understand the need for a bill of rights and thus took the task of writing one upon himself.
Madison had many sources of inspiration for the Bill of Rights. The Magna Carta and the English Bill of Rights served as a solid basis. Madison also turned to existing state constitutions for inspiration. Virginia’s Declaration of Rights was especially used for this purpose. Madison’s original version of the Bill of Rights was also based on the requests of the states. One amendment that he did include, however, was not requested by anyone. He included, “No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases.” He also excluded an amendment that was highly requested — an amendment that would make tax assessments voluntary. Madison himself came up with nine amendments to the Constitution to be submitted to Congress.
Once Madison’s amendments hit Congress, they went through many changes. The House committee in charge of dealing with it made a lot of changes to start with. They eliminated his preamble and added the phrase “freedom of speech, and of the press.” Debate lasted for eleven days in the House. After all of the revisions in the House, seventeen were sent on to the Senate, where further changes were made. The Senate made 26 changes to the draft the House had sent it, and condensed it down to twelve amendments. Then, they were sent to the state legislatures for ratification.
New Jersey was the first to ratify the Bill of Rights on November 20, 1789. It took until December 15, 1791 for the required eleven states to ratify the Bill of Rights. The first two articles were not ratified at the time– Articles Three through Twelve became the first ten Amendments. Article One remains pending and Article Two was ratified in 1992 to become the Twenty-Seventh Amendment. Once Virginia ratified Articles Three through Twelve, the Bill of Rights became the Law of the Land, and George Washington informed Congress of this fact on January 18, 1792. | <urn:uuid:8e104b59-e4ee-4324-bb60-a2a6ba318871> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yuobserver.org/2019/12/this-day-in-history-december-15-ratification-of-the-bill-of-rights/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00028.warc.gz | en | 0.981401 | 751 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.3515727221... | 2 | By Eliana Lindenberg, Staff Writer
The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 brought together some of the brightest political minds of the generation. Men like James Madison and Alexander Hamilton gathered to revise the Articles of Confederation, which had been ineffective in getting the new nation on her feet after the war.
Their goal was to create a central government that would be strong and stable, but still democratic. After a lot of discussion and dissent, the delegates managed to pull together a constitution that satisfied most states.
Towards the end of the convention, however, the problem of a bill of rights arose. Several delegates were concerned that excluding a bill of rights would be dangerous. They feared that the lack of a bill of rights would leave the individual rights of the people vulnerable to attack from the much stronger national government outlined in the Constitution. Their fellow lawmakers accused them of stalling the Convention, though, and the new Constitution was finalized and signed without a bill of rights. Because of the exclusion, George Mason, Elbridge Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia did not sign it.
The new Constitution was then sent to the Congress of the Articles of Confederation, and then to each state’s legislature to be reviewed. Several states proposed amendments upon review, and refused to ratify the Constitution until the amendments were passed.
There were originally seventeen amendments proposed to the new Constitution. James Madison himself had been originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights — but after seeing the contentious debates over the inclusion of a bill of rights, he feared that a second convention would be called and undo all of the work put into crafting the new Constitution. He came to understand the need for a bill of rights and thus took the task of writing one upon himself.
Madison had many sources of inspiration for the Bill of Rights. The Magna Carta and the English Bill of Rights served as a solid basis. Madison also turned to existing state constitutions for inspiration. Virginia’s Declaration of Rights was especially used for this purpose. Madison’s original version of the Bill of Rights was also based on the requests of the states. One amendment that he did include, however, was not requested by anyone. He included, “No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases.” He also excluded an amendment that was highly requested — an amendment that would make tax assessments voluntary. Madison himself came up with nine amendments to the Constitution to be submitted to Congress.
Once Madison’s amendments hit Congress, they went through many changes. The House committee in charge of dealing with it made a lot of changes to start with. They eliminated his preamble and added the phrase “freedom of speech, and of the press.” Debate lasted for eleven days in the House. After all of the revisions in the House, seventeen were sent on to the Senate, where further changes were made. The Senate made 26 changes to the draft the House had sent it, and condensed it down to twelve amendments. Then, they were sent to the state legislatures for ratification.
New Jersey was the first to ratify the Bill of Rights on November 20, 1789. It took until December 15, 1791 for the required eleven states to ratify the Bill of Rights. The first two articles were not ratified at the time– Articles Three through Twelve became the first ten Amendments. Article One remains pending and Article Two was ratified in 1992 to become the Twenty-Seventh Amendment. Once Virginia ratified Articles Three through Twelve, the Bill of Rights became the Law of the Land, and George Washington informed Congress of this fact on January 18, 1792. | 755 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Competitive sports such as running races, ball games and wrestling have long been a part of many societies, as a way of testing the physical qualities of individuals and bringing communities together.
However, the origins of most modern sports can be traced to British society during the 18th and 19th centuries. New Zealand was predominantly settled by the British at the same time as the ‘games revolution’ was occurring in Britain – a period of change which coincided with the industrial revolution, and saw sports and games become generally more organised and orderly.
Older British sports such as cricket, horse racing and rowing were quickly established and New Zealand was only slightly behind Britain in taking up newly organised sports such as rugby and tennis.
The American difference
The United States declared its independence from Britain in 1776, before organised sport became firmly established in Britain. As a result, American sporting culture produced its own unique games such as baseball, rather than cricket, and American football, rather than rugby or association football.
Origins of modern sport
In pre-industrial English society the nobility had the time and wealth for sports such as hunting, but the majority of people played sport only when work patterns allowed, such as after the busy harvest period, or on religious holidays.
Most games were local, and the rules seldom written down. Local varieties of football were staged in and around the village rather than on measured fields, and were marked by landmarks such as trees or churches.
From the 18th century industrial growth drew people from villages to towns for factory and other work. Common rules had to be developed if people were to play sport together. The new industries required regular working hours. Sport was therefore confined to certain times each week, especially Saturday afternoons.
A religious Puritanism and a ‘civilising process’, which encouraged a more orderly, sober and disciplined society, did not tolerate the wilder excesses of traditional sports. Local authorities, seeking to discipline their growing urban populations, suppressed uncontrolled folk football along with blood sports such as animal fighting.
Rules and competitions
Some sports, such as boxing, cricket, horse racing and rowing, became more organised from the early 18th century because they attracted support from a wealthy and influential elite who gambled large sums on the outcome of matches. Gambling required the creation of common rules to avoid disputes between both players and gamblers.
A foot in both camps
Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, is often credited with first formalising the game of rugby football. However, the first meeting to draw up rules for association football (soccer) was in 1848 at Trinity College, Cambridge University, and this meeting included a representative from Rugby School along with people from Eton, Harrow, Winchester and Shrewsbury. The rules then drawn up included the right to run with the ball in hand.
Organised sport also began to take hold within the elite British public boys’ schools, as headmasters realised that controlled leisure time outside the classroom could teach boys the values of cooperation and good behaviour, helpful in life beyond school. The public schools shaped traditional forms of football into predominantly handling games (rugby) and kicking games (soccer or football).
During the 19th century regular working hours, more disposable income, improved transport networks and a growing sporting press produced a following for sport among the urban working class.
Sport remained sharply divided along class or amateur and professional lines. The emerging distinction between those who played for pay (professionals) and those who played for pleasure (amateurs) kept working-class influence to a minimum.
Some sports, especially rowing and rugby, imposed strict definitions of amateurism that excluded many working-class participants who were unable to play without some form of payment. Other sports, cricket and football in particular, allowed professionalism in a way that was strictly controlled by amateur administrations. | <urn:uuid:5e7b7fa6-0e2d-4cc4-bbc5-fb478f723b4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://admin.teara.govt.nz/en/sport-and-society/page-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.980498 | 792 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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-0.0823700651526... | 4 | Competitive sports such as running races, ball games and wrestling have long been a part of many societies, as a way of testing the physical qualities of individuals and bringing communities together.
However, the origins of most modern sports can be traced to British society during the 18th and 19th centuries. New Zealand was predominantly settled by the British at the same time as the ‘games revolution’ was occurring in Britain – a period of change which coincided with the industrial revolution, and saw sports and games become generally more organised and orderly.
Older British sports such as cricket, horse racing and rowing were quickly established and New Zealand was only slightly behind Britain in taking up newly organised sports such as rugby and tennis.
The American difference
The United States declared its independence from Britain in 1776, before organised sport became firmly established in Britain. As a result, American sporting culture produced its own unique games such as baseball, rather than cricket, and American football, rather than rugby or association football.
Origins of modern sport
In pre-industrial English society the nobility had the time and wealth for sports such as hunting, but the majority of people played sport only when work patterns allowed, such as after the busy harvest period, or on religious holidays.
Most games were local, and the rules seldom written down. Local varieties of football were staged in and around the village rather than on measured fields, and were marked by landmarks such as trees or churches.
From the 18th century industrial growth drew people from villages to towns for factory and other work. Common rules had to be developed if people were to play sport together. The new industries required regular working hours. Sport was therefore confined to certain times each week, especially Saturday afternoons.
A religious Puritanism and a ‘civilising process’, which encouraged a more orderly, sober and disciplined society, did not tolerate the wilder excesses of traditional sports. Local authorities, seeking to discipline their growing urban populations, suppressed uncontrolled folk football along with blood sports such as animal fighting.
Rules and competitions
Some sports, such as boxing, cricket, horse racing and rowing, became more organised from the early 18th century because they attracted support from a wealthy and influential elite who gambled large sums on the outcome of matches. Gambling required the creation of common rules to avoid disputes between both players and gamblers.
A foot in both camps
Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, is often credited with first formalising the game of rugby football. However, the first meeting to draw up rules for association football (soccer) was in 1848 at Trinity College, Cambridge University, and this meeting included a representative from Rugby School along with people from Eton, Harrow, Winchester and Shrewsbury. The rules then drawn up included the right to run with the ball in hand.
Organised sport also began to take hold within the elite British public boys’ schools, as headmasters realised that controlled leisure time outside the classroom could teach boys the values of cooperation and good behaviour, helpful in life beyond school. The public schools shaped traditional forms of football into predominantly handling games (rugby) and kicking games (soccer or football).
During the 19th century regular working hours, more disposable income, improved transport networks and a growing sporting press produced a following for sport among the urban working class.
Sport remained sharply divided along class or amateur and professional lines. The emerging distinction between those who played for pay (professionals) and those who played for pleasure (amateurs) kept working-class influence to a minimum.
Some sports, especially rowing and rugby, imposed strict definitions of amateurism that excluded many working-class participants who were unable to play without some form of payment. Other sports, cricket and football in particular, allowed professionalism in a way that was strictly controlled by amateur administrations. | 786 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women in Afghanistan experienced different ups and downs before the United States invasion, during the war, and even after the war. Before the American invasion, Afghanistan as a country went through a number of transitions that drastically impacted on the quality of life of Afghan women with regards to health, education, jobs/ career, and family life.
Before the war, women in Afghanistan lived a life of discrimination and no equality. They could hardly access resources equally as their male counterparts. During the war, the women experienced a lot of challenges that are commonly related to war e.g. hunger and strive. Most of them were forced into exile and lived without their male relatives who were involved in the war. Currently, even after the end of the war, it is very hard to believe that life has become any better for the Afghan women. Women are still unable to compete for the few opportunities that are available after the war. For this reason, it is not wrong to say that, the quality of life for Afghan women has not become any better as a result of the American invasion and occupation.
Quality of Life of Women in Afghanistan before the war
Buy Women in Afghanistan essay paper online
Before the Russian invasion of the 1979, life for women was determined by the environment under which they existed. In urban areas, girls managed to access education and in fact, many even went to college (Skaine 16). Most of them did not wear the chadari that was designed to completely cover the woman's body. Arranged marriages were the order of the day and not the exception. In rural areas it was only the boys who managed to benefit from education. The women lived in seclusion unless they were working in the fields. Still, their work was long and hard simply because they also had to care for their children and the home (Skaine 16).
It was unfortunate that, during this time in Afghanistan the leftist group that was in power had promised full equality for women, but in reality they actually provided nothing. The women were visible in Kabul, but had no real decision making or even power sharing roles. In 1978, after the overthrowing of president Daoud, Afghanistan became a democratic regime. They elected Nur Mohammad Taraki as the chairman of the Revolutionary Council and president as well as prime minister. This still, did not mean any change for women as, President Taraki was a conservationist who believed that, the women's place was in the home and in fact, counted none of them as his followers (Skaine 16).
After the death of President Taraki, President Amin was elected and later eliminated by the Soviet Union for trying to normalize relations with the United States (Skaine 17). The Women Democratic Organization of Afghanistan was the only women's group that supported the Russian invasion. This was the point when the women and men were declared equal in all economic, political, cultural, social and civil aspects. In fact, the first woman to become a doctor in Afghanistan, DR. Anahita Ratebzad won a seat in parliament. When the soviets took over completely, they instituted changes in the status of women that, advocated the liberation of women (Kedourie 2).
This campaign looked like a direct and open attack on the Afghan culture especially among the men. The men felt like the new marriage regulation together with the compulsory education for girls rule raised the threat of women refusing to obey and submit to their families, and more so, the male authority (Weiner & Banuazizi 86).
These incidences led to some relative amount of rebellion among the locals whose objections were a product of male chauvinism. Others felt that, educating women brought about dishonor to the women themselves and the household, the simple reason being that, women were not in purdah. Others who made objections simply felt that these policies were simply unbearable interference in domestic life (Kedourie 5).
The dissent expressed by the Afghans over the total disdain for their values unfortunately, led to the bombing of civilians. Most of the times, this included attacks on mud-brick housing occupied only by women and children. As a result, this led many Afghan women to flee without their male relatives. Skaine (19), profiles the story of one woman known as Nooria Jehan. Jehan participated in the Jihad war where two of her seven children were killed. This woman fought because she felt the Russians came to play with the dignity of women. For this reason they were convinced that, they had to protect themselves and their children since, to them dignity meant all things rooted in her country, land and property rights, children, education, economy and military resources. At some point when she was approached to join the military, she declined since she was not comfortable killing people, but instead, she learned explosive techniques and taught other men. She was later captured by the Russians, and sentenced to eighteen years in prison for being a leader. In 1980, The Revolution Association of the Women of Afghanistan resisted the Soviet occupation, and from here more women joined the struggle (Weiner & Banuazizi 86).
Years after the communist coup that overthrew the Afghan Republic, the basic human rights of women in Afghanistan were still being violated. As a result of the divisions, conflict remained unresolved thus, leaving the victims exposed to multiple abuses. When the Taliban gained dominance, many freedoms for men and women alike came to a halt. However, freedoms of formal education, work outside the home, freedom of movement, and healthcare ceased primarily for the women. Taliban basically meant seekers of wisdom, who out in search of their version of a true Islamic state. Their description of such a state was one where, an adultery could be stoned to death as ell as where women were forbidden to work outside the home (Skaine 22).
During the Taliban regime, the reforms of the male dominated political government had granted the women in the early 20th century allowing them to vote, travel, and seek education were also taken away (Skaine 23). Life for afghan women was one of inferiority and one that discriminated right from birth. Since the male child was the most preferred, he inherited the properties and carried on the family name. Women were bought and sold, and their virginity was the only symbol of honor. In most cases, a woman who did not remain a virgin until marriage was considered scandalous and subjected to death by her family. In general, women were subjected to strict social traditions that forbid them to talk with strangers, and even separated them from the men at such events as funerals and in public transportation (Skaine 24).
Women's involvement outside the home was seen as something that weakened the tradition that women are the heart of the family. This was so because, the honor and status of the family was considered to lie with the women who were controlled and protected by the men. The Afghan society for along time was consistent in its innate belief in male superiority that, gave the men the prerogative to determine the dos and don'ts for women in their society. The Taliban regime aggressively reinforced these patriarchic norms that were wrapped in the mantle of Islam. This was unfortunate since, the Taliban interpretation of Islam was viewed as extreme, harsh, and unacceptable. As the struggle for liberation continued, the increase of widowhood that had begun during the Soviet occupation continued. Since all the women were to be protected by a male family member, widows no longer had the right to employment, benefits or guarantees of security. Still, they had to support their families hence the lives of the widows became unbearable (Skaine 26).
Quality of Life of Women in Afghanistan during the war
The high levels of lawlessness that was promoted by the Taliban made Afghanistan a hub of terrorists. The September 11th bombing in the US was to mark the beginning of a different course for Afghanistan. After evidence was made clear that al-Qaeda used Afghanistan as a base of operations, and the Afghan government refused to aid in the apprehension of the culprits who had been part of the attacks on the United States, the US supported by the world invaded Afghanistan in 2002. The US government in an attempt to aid its attacks secured a military base in Turkmenistan and in the same year deployed troupes to Pakistan (Rostami 41).
It is important to mention that, the American led invasion of Afghanistan was not about peace, security, health, and development or women's liberation and democracy. The alliance was aimed at rationalizing a system of governance in Afghanistan to facilitate the West's desire to control Central Asia (Rostami 41). During the period of the war, one of the major issues of concern was the abuse of women's rights. There were claims of terrorists and the Taliban pulling out women's fingernails for wearing nail polish.
The situation in Afghanistan during the war was pathetic; women were being killed, losing their family members and homes as a result of the liberation bombing carried out by the American forces. One Afghan woman going by the name of Nurgessa, in the process of roaming the deserted streets of Kandahar while accompanied by her son mentioned of an incidence where her home was bombed by the American military forces. She woke up that morning to the sights of her husband shattered into pieces, and if that was not enough, her other two sons' heads were also blown away. She ended up homeless, widowed, and helpless as she had lost the bread winner of her family.
A lot of women just like Nurgessa were left widowed and helpless, and it took a very long time before they could access help from the American rescue missions. The American government continued to make claims that they were liberating the Afghan women who were no longer imprisoned in their homes. It must be noted that, the fight against terrorism was not only fight against terrorist acts, but also a fight for the dignity and rights of women. This indeed, was something that this war was failing on so badly (Rostami 41).
The so called fight against terrorism and liberation of women as mentioned by Laura Bush proved to be hollow dream that turned into a nightmare more terrifying as the war continued. It created social ills and infested Afghan society beyond repair. It made the access to basic effects such as healthcare and education quite inaccessible. With the rare access to clean water and food, women and their children who were left behind by their husbands and sons, were exposed to dangerous health conditions. This was made even worse by the destruction and inaccessibility of most heath facilities during this moment (Rostami 44).
Poverty and unequal access to resources was often the heart of women's neglect and abuse as evident in a war economy. Resources such as food and medical materials were often withheld and directed to male soldiers. As a result, there was a high level of malnutrition, hunger, and hunger related diseases that affected the women population.
A survey carried out by the organization popularly referred to as the Physicians for Human Rights showed that, only 20% of the women population both in Kabul and in refugee camps in Pakistan who were employed, were the only ones still employed (Rostami 44).
During the period of the war, most children and even adults were out of school and colleges as a result of the unrest. Security issues made it impossible for many of the girls and young women to leave their homes or camps. This is because they were not equipped effectively as their male counterparts with weapons and war materials to defend themselves. Still they were not also equipped elaborately with information that would enable them to survive in environments of war. For this reason their movements were limited (Rostami 45).
Quality of Life of Women in Afghanistan after the war
A week after the Afghan elections in 2004, the then American first lady Laura Bush mentioned a very long list of offences that were committed against the Afghan women under the Taliban. She went ahead to specifically emphasize the progress that the Afghan women made and continue to make within a newly democratic Afghanistan. In fact, she travelled the following year to Afghanistan, spending a couple of hours announcing that she felt great pride seeing courageous women across the country take on leadership roles as students, teachers, doctors, community leaders, judges, ministers and governors. The rhetoric against the Taliban's abuse of Afghan women before the American led invasion made the Feminist Majority's Eleanor Smeal and the then administration into strange bedfellows. The popular image of fully veiled women was evidence to the fact that the war had far reaching devastating effects (Neugebauer 13).
The war in Afghanistan is now over and although, there have been limited improvements for women in Kabul; conditions for women throughout the country still remain grim. The quality of life for Afghan women with regards to health, education, jobs/ career, and family life is still poor.
Competing warlords vying for power and control, the sectarian and tribal rule, disintegration of national authority, and the mobility and strength of criminal gangs have made conditions far less secure for the women in Afghanistan (Mghir & Raskin 29). Women and girls are being subjected to social ills such as rape, beatings, kidnappings and other kinds of intimidation that prevents them from attending school and jobs. They are even finding it hard to register to vote and go about their daily activities without worrying (Neugebauer 13).
Comparison of the three time periods
It is very difficult to support the idea that, the American led invasion, and occupation, has enhanced the quality of life for women in Afghanistan. This is evident of the fact that, quality of life after the war has not changed much as compared to the period before and during the war. Just like before, even after the war women and girls are still being subjected to social ills such as rape, beatings, kidnappings and other kinds of intimidation that prevents them from attending school and jobs. Women's rights are still being violated and are denied equal opportunities in all aspects e.g. social, economical, physical, social and civil. Current, they are still finding it hard to register to vote and go about their daily activities without worrying. This is as a result of the sectarian and tribal rule, disintegration of national authority, and the mobility and strength of criminal gangs which make conditions far less secure for the women in Afghanistan.
It would be wrong for anyone to say that, the quality of life for Afghan women has become any better as a result of the American invasion and occupation. Before the war, women in Afghanistan lived a life of discrimination and no equality. They could hardly access resources equally as their male counterparts. During the war, the women experienced a lot of challenges that are usually related with war e.g. hunger and strive. Most of them were forced into exile and lived without their male relatives who were involved in the war. Currently, even after the end of the war, it is very hard to believe that life has become any better for the Afghan women. Women are still unable to compete for the few opportunities that are available after the war. A lot more has to be done now economically and socially in order to change the current situation for the better.
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Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:8721b484-781d-41f5-acad-065928101088> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/critical-analysis/women-in-afghanistan.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.986273 | 3,083 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.0481250099837... | 1 | Women in Afghanistan experienced different ups and downs before the United States invasion, during the war, and even after the war. Before the American invasion, Afghanistan as a country went through a number of transitions that drastically impacted on the quality of life of Afghan women with regards to health, education, jobs/ career, and family life.
Before the war, women in Afghanistan lived a life of discrimination and no equality. They could hardly access resources equally as their male counterparts. During the war, the women experienced a lot of challenges that are commonly related to war e.g. hunger and strive. Most of them were forced into exile and lived without their male relatives who were involved in the war. Currently, even after the end of the war, it is very hard to believe that life has become any better for the Afghan women. Women are still unable to compete for the few opportunities that are available after the war. For this reason, it is not wrong to say that, the quality of life for Afghan women has not become any better as a result of the American invasion and occupation.
Quality of Life of Women in Afghanistan before the war
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Before the Russian invasion of the 1979, life for women was determined by the environment under which they existed. In urban areas, girls managed to access education and in fact, many even went to college (Skaine 16). Most of them did not wear the chadari that was designed to completely cover the woman's body. Arranged marriages were the order of the day and not the exception. In rural areas it was only the boys who managed to benefit from education. The women lived in seclusion unless they were working in the fields. Still, their work was long and hard simply because they also had to care for their children and the home (Skaine 16).
It was unfortunate that, during this time in Afghanistan the leftist group that was in power had promised full equality for women, but in reality they actually provided nothing. The women were visible in Kabul, but had no real decision making or even power sharing roles. In 1978, after the overthrowing of president Daoud, Afghanistan became a democratic regime. They elected Nur Mohammad Taraki as the chairman of the Revolutionary Council and president as well as prime minister. This still, did not mean any change for women as, President Taraki was a conservationist who believed that, the women's place was in the home and in fact, counted none of them as his followers (Skaine 16).
After the death of President Taraki, President Amin was elected and later eliminated by the Soviet Union for trying to normalize relations with the United States (Skaine 17). The Women Democratic Organization of Afghanistan was the only women's group that supported the Russian invasion. This was the point when the women and men were declared equal in all economic, political, cultural, social and civil aspects. In fact, the first woman to become a doctor in Afghanistan, DR. Anahita Ratebzad won a seat in parliament. When the soviets took over completely, they instituted changes in the status of women that, advocated the liberation of women (Kedourie 2).
This campaign looked like a direct and open attack on the Afghan culture especially among the men. The men felt like the new marriage regulation together with the compulsory education for girls rule raised the threat of women refusing to obey and submit to their families, and more so, the male authority (Weiner & Banuazizi 86).
These incidences led to some relative amount of rebellion among the locals whose objections were a product of male chauvinism. Others felt that, educating women brought about dishonor to the women themselves and the household, the simple reason being that, women were not in purdah. Others who made objections simply felt that these policies were simply unbearable interference in domestic life (Kedourie 5).
The dissent expressed by the Afghans over the total disdain for their values unfortunately, led to the bombing of civilians. Most of the times, this included attacks on mud-brick housing occupied only by women and children. As a result, this led many Afghan women to flee without their male relatives. Skaine (19), profiles the story of one woman known as Nooria Jehan. Jehan participated in the Jihad war where two of her seven children were killed. This woman fought because she felt the Russians came to play with the dignity of women. For this reason they were convinced that, they had to protect themselves and their children since, to them dignity meant all things rooted in her country, land and property rights, children, education, economy and military resources. At some point when she was approached to join the military, she declined since she was not comfortable killing people, but instead, she learned explosive techniques and taught other men. She was later captured by the Russians, and sentenced to eighteen years in prison for being a leader. In 1980, The Revolution Association of the Women of Afghanistan resisted the Soviet occupation, and from here more women joined the struggle (Weiner & Banuazizi 86).
Years after the communist coup that overthrew the Afghan Republic, the basic human rights of women in Afghanistan were still being violated. As a result of the divisions, conflict remained unresolved thus, leaving the victims exposed to multiple abuses. When the Taliban gained dominance, many freedoms for men and women alike came to a halt. However, freedoms of formal education, work outside the home, freedom of movement, and healthcare ceased primarily for the women. Taliban basically meant seekers of wisdom, who out in search of their version of a true Islamic state. Their description of such a state was one where, an adultery could be stoned to death as ell as where women were forbidden to work outside the home (Skaine 22).
During the Taliban regime, the reforms of the male dominated political government had granted the women in the early 20th century allowing them to vote, travel, and seek education were also taken away (Skaine 23). Life for afghan women was one of inferiority and one that discriminated right from birth. Since the male child was the most preferred, he inherited the properties and carried on the family name. Women were bought and sold, and their virginity was the only symbol of honor. In most cases, a woman who did not remain a virgin until marriage was considered scandalous and subjected to death by her family. In general, women were subjected to strict social traditions that forbid them to talk with strangers, and even separated them from the men at such events as funerals and in public transportation (Skaine 24).
Women's involvement outside the home was seen as something that weakened the tradition that women are the heart of the family. This was so because, the honor and status of the family was considered to lie with the women who were controlled and protected by the men. The Afghan society for along time was consistent in its innate belief in male superiority that, gave the men the prerogative to determine the dos and don'ts for women in their society. The Taliban regime aggressively reinforced these patriarchic norms that were wrapped in the mantle of Islam. This was unfortunate since, the Taliban interpretation of Islam was viewed as extreme, harsh, and unacceptable. As the struggle for liberation continued, the increase of widowhood that had begun during the Soviet occupation continued. Since all the women were to be protected by a male family member, widows no longer had the right to employment, benefits or guarantees of security. Still, they had to support their families hence the lives of the widows became unbearable (Skaine 26).
Quality of Life of Women in Afghanistan during the war
The high levels of lawlessness that was promoted by the Taliban made Afghanistan a hub of terrorists. The September 11th bombing in the US was to mark the beginning of a different course for Afghanistan. After evidence was made clear that al-Qaeda used Afghanistan as a base of operations, and the Afghan government refused to aid in the apprehension of the culprits who had been part of the attacks on the United States, the US supported by the world invaded Afghanistan in 2002. The US government in an attempt to aid its attacks secured a military base in Turkmenistan and in the same year deployed troupes to Pakistan (Rostami 41).
It is important to mention that, the American led invasion of Afghanistan was not about peace, security, health, and development or women's liberation and democracy. The alliance was aimed at rationalizing a system of governance in Afghanistan to facilitate the West's desire to control Central Asia (Rostami 41). During the period of the war, one of the major issues of concern was the abuse of women's rights. There were claims of terrorists and the Taliban pulling out women's fingernails for wearing nail polish.
The situation in Afghanistan during the war was pathetic; women were being killed, losing their family members and homes as a result of the liberation bombing carried out by the American forces. One Afghan woman going by the name of Nurgessa, in the process of roaming the deserted streets of Kandahar while accompanied by her son mentioned of an incidence where her home was bombed by the American military forces. She woke up that morning to the sights of her husband shattered into pieces, and if that was not enough, her other two sons' heads were also blown away. She ended up homeless, widowed, and helpless as she had lost the bread winner of her family.
A lot of women just like Nurgessa were left widowed and helpless, and it took a very long time before they could access help from the American rescue missions. The American government continued to make claims that they were liberating the Afghan women who were no longer imprisoned in their homes. It must be noted that, the fight against terrorism was not only fight against terrorist acts, but also a fight for the dignity and rights of women. This indeed, was something that this war was failing on so badly (Rostami 41).
The so called fight against terrorism and liberation of women as mentioned by Laura Bush proved to be hollow dream that turned into a nightmare more terrifying as the war continued. It created social ills and infested Afghan society beyond repair. It made the access to basic effects such as healthcare and education quite inaccessible. With the rare access to clean water and food, women and their children who were left behind by their husbands and sons, were exposed to dangerous health conditions. This was made even worse by the destruction and inaccessibility of most heath facilities during this moment (Rostami 44).
Poverty and unequal access to resources was often the heart of women's neglect and abuse as evident in a war economy. Resources such as food and medical materials were often withheld and directed to male soldiers. As a result, there was a high level of malnutrition, hunger, and hunger related diseases that affected the women population.
A survey carried out by the organization popularly referred to as the Physicians for Human Rights showed that, only 20% of the women population both in Kabul and in refugee camps in Pakistan who were employed, were the only ones still employed (Rostami 44).
During the period of the war, most children and even adults were out of school and colleges as a result of the unrest. Security issues made it impossible for many of the girls and young women to leave their homes or camps. This is because they were not equipped effectively as their male counterparts with weapons and war materials to defend themselves. Still they were not also equipped elaborately with information that would enable them to survive in environments of war. For this reason their movements were limited (Rostami 45).
Quality of Life of Women in Afghanistan after the war
A week after the Afghan elections in 2004, the then American first lady Laura Bush mentioned a very long list of offences that were committed against the Afghan women under the Taliban. She went ahead to specifically emphasize the progress that the Afghan women made and continue to make within a newly democratic Afghanistan. In fact, she travelled the following year to Afghanistan, spending a couple of hours announcing that she felt great pride seeing courageous women across the country take on leadership roles as students, teachers, doctors, community leaders, judges, ministers and governors. The rhetoric against the Taliban's abuse of Afghan women before the American led invasion made the Feminist Majority's Eleanor Smeal and the then administration into strange bedfellows. The popular image of fully veiled women was evidence to the fact that the war had far reaching devastating effects (Neugebauer 13).
The war in Afghanistan is now over and although, there have been limited improvements for women in Kabul; conditions for women throughout the country still remain grim. The quality of life for Afghan women with regards to health, education, jobs/ career, and family life is still poor.
Competing warlords vying for power and control, the sectarian and tribal rule, disintegration of national authority, and the mobility and strength of criminal gangs have made conditions far less secure for the women in Afghanistan (Mghir & Raskin 29). Women and girls are being subjected to social ills such as rape, beatings, kidnappings and other kinds of intimidation that prevents them from attending school and jobs. They are even finding it hard to register to vote and go about their daily activities without worrying (Neugebauer 13).
Comparison of the three time periods
It is very difficult to support the idea that, the American led invasion, and occupation, has enhanced the quality of life for women in Afghanistan. This is evident of the fact that, quality of life after the war has not changed much as compared to the period before and during the war. Just like before, even after the war women and girls are still being subjected to social ills such as rape, beatings, kidnappings and other kinds of intimidation that prevents them from attending school and jobs. Women's rights are still being violated and are denied equal opportunities in all aspects e.g. social, economical, physical, social and civil. Current, they are still finding it hard to register to vote and go about their daily activities without worrying. This is as a result of the sectarian and tribal rule, disintegration of national authority, and the mobility and strength of criminal gangs which make conditions far less secure for the women in Afghanistan.
It would be wrong for anyone to say that, the quality of life for Afghan women has become any better as a result of the American invasion and occupation. Before the war, women in Afghanistan lived a life of discrimination and no equality. They could hardly access resources equally as their male counterparts. During the war, the women experienced a lot of challenges that are usually related with war e.g. hunger and strive. Most of them were forced into exile and lived without their male relatives who were involved in the war. Currently, even after the end of the war, it is very hard to believe that life has become any better for the Afghan women. Women are still unable to compete for the few opportunities that are available after the war. A lot more has to be done now economically and socially in order to change the current situation for the better.
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The word “renaissance” is known to mean rebirth and the way the Italians used this term was to completely revolutionize their culture. They did this by reviving old styles of architecture from the past and modernized them to be their own style that would be recognized for years.
The architecture of the middle ages was very massive and structurally sound, meaning they were build with the intent that their structures would last forever. The middle ages brought new techniques into the architects’ handbook, allowing them to create domes, vaults, groin vaults, arches and buttresses. With these new techniques the architects’ of the Middle Ages were able to produce some outstanding and mind boggling building that were both functional and aesthetically appealing. The use of the arch is widely used in their structures since they are self supporting and can be built as big and wide as the architect wants.
When the Italian renaissance came about the people of this period wanted their structures and sculptures to be as elegant and esthetically appealing as the forms were during the Middle Ages. They also wanted to take these techniques and make them work with the beliefs and lifestyle that the people of this time had. Three Italian renaissance architects that are most notable for their innovation and structures they created throughout this time period were Brunelleschi, Alberti, and Palladio.
Filippo Brunelleschi is one of the first architects of the Italian renaissance. He started his career as a gold smith but after traveling to Rome and studying their ancient architecture he turned his interests to becoming an architect himself. One of his greatest achievements was engineering the dome of the Florence Cathedral. Another thing he is noted for is bringing back the ancient doric, ionic and Corinthian orders and using them in ways that were appropriate to the Italians lifestyle. His structures seem simple but are very proportionate creating a sense of harmony throughout them.
Leon Battista Alberti was an artist who had many mediums under his belt. He was not only an architect but he was a sculpture and a painter. He had the understanding of the ancient principles of… | <urn:uuid:65d103d1-66d5-4546-8563-57a673232b93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/John-Fowler-545697.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.990731 | 430 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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-0.01260460447520... | 1 | The word “renaissance” is known to mean rebirth and the way the Italians used this term was to completely revolutionize their culture. They did this by reviving old styles of architecture from the past and modernized them to be their own style that would be recognized for years.
The architecture of the middle ages was very massive and structurally sound, meaning they were build with the intent that their structures would last forever. The middle ages brought new techniques into the architects’ handbook, allowing them to create domes, vaults, groin vaults, arches and buttresses. With these new techniques the architects’ of the Middle Ages were able to produce some outstanding and mind boggling building that were both functional and aesthetically appealing. The use of the arch is widely used in their structures since they are self supporting and can be built as big and wide as the architect wants.
When the Italian renaissance came about the people of this period wanted their structures and sculptures to be as elegant and esthetically appealing as the forms were during the Middle Ages. They also wanted to take these techniques and make them work with the beliefs and lifestyle that the people of this time had. Three Italian renaissance architects that are most notable for their innovation and structures they created throughout this time period were Brunelleschi, Alberti, and Palladio.
Filippo Brunelleschi is one of the first architects of the Italian renaissance. He started his career as a gold smith but after traveling to Rome and studying their ancient architecture he turned his interests to becoming an architect himself. One of his greatest achievements was engineering the dome of the Florence Cathedral. Another thing he is noted for is bringing back the ancient doric, ionic and Corinthian orders and using them in ways that were appropriate to the Italians lifestyle. His structures seem simple but are very proportionate creating a sense of harmony throughout them.
Leon Battista Alberti was an artist who had many mediums under his belt. He was not only an architect but he was a sculpture and a painter. He had the understanding of the ancient principles of… | 420 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Two ancient cities were found in Mexico during archaeological digs. Further investigation of the cities may reveal the full history of the earliest capitals, such as Palenque and Tikal.
It is believed that the newly discovered ancient cities were abandoned by the Mayans in order to relocate to the Yucatan Peninsula, where they founded one of the most emblematic cities of antiquity - Chichen Itza. The 2 new archaeological discoveries are located in the southeastern Mexican state of Campeche.
The first city, known as Tamchen, contains plazas, palace-like structures and a 49 ft (15 m) pyramid. The second city is called Lagunita. American researcher Eric Von Euw was the first to document this site 40 years ago.
Typical Mayan buildings could be seen in his drawings but they were never published in any official publications and with time the exact location of the site was lost.
However, his drawings and photographs of the area greatly helped archaeologists reach the ancient city. The experts state that Lagunita was a city of great regional significance for the Mayans.
The 2 sites are remarkably important and will help the experts gain a deeper understanding of the political and cultural history of the ancient Mayan civilization.
Last year, another Mayan city was found among the jungles of Eastern Mexico. The ancient center was in its heyday in the period 600 - 900 AD. The find was made by a Slovenian expedition, led by Ivan Sprajc.
That particular city was called Chactún, which translates as "Red Stone". It is thought that between 30 000 and 40 000 people lived in the city.
The archaeologists themselves said that they didn't find it as difficult to locate the ancient city as it was to reach it through the impassable jungle paths. The expedition journeyed for 3 whole weeks before they reached it.See more | <urn:uuid:3a83c1c2-6955-4259-b228-48ac32178797> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteries24.com/n3-49689-New_Mayan_Cities_Discovered_in_Mexico | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.984097 | 384 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.2470626... | 3 | Two ancient cities were found in Mexico during archaeological digs. Further investigation of the cities may reveal the full history of the earliest capitals, such as Palenque and Tikal.
It is believed that the newly discovered ancient cities were abandoned by the Mayans in order to relocate to the Yucatan Peninsula, where they founded one of the most emblematic cities of antiquity - Chichen Itza. The 2 new archaeological discoveries are located in the southeastern Mexican state of Campeche.
The first city, known as Tamchen, contains plazas, palace-like structures and a 49 ft (15 m) pyramid. The second city is called Lagunita. American researcher Eric Von Euw was the first to document this site 40 years ago.
Typical Mayan buildings could be seen in his drawings but they were never published in any official publications and with time the exact location of the site was lost.
However, his drawings and photographs of the area greatly helped archaeologists reach the ancient city. The experts state that Lagunita was a city of great regional significance for the Mayans.
The 2 sites are remarkably important and will help the experts gain a deeper understanding of the political and cultural history of the ancient Mayan civilization.
Last year, another Mayan city was found among the jungles of Eastern Mexico. The ancient center was in its heyday in the period 600 - 900 AD. The find was made by a Slovenian expedition, led by Ivan Sprajc.
That particular city was called Chactún, which translates as "Red Stone". It is thought that between 30 000 and 40 000 people lived in the city.
The archaeologists themselves said that they didn't find it as difficult to locate the ancient city as it was to reach it through the impassable jungle paths. The expedition journeyed for 3 whole weeks before they reached it.See more | 399 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When it comes to legendary stories about samurai, most of them, if not all of them, feature only male samurai warriors. But contrary to popular belief, there were female samurai warriors. And they were some of the deadliest ones. They were just as fierce and skillful as their malecounterparts.
Called Onna-bugeisha, which translates to “female martial artist”, they were female warriors belonging to the Japanese nobility. They engage in battle, commonly alongside samurai men. Members of the bushi (samurai) class in feudal Japan, they were trained in the use of weapons so that they protect their household, family, and honor. Some of the legendary and storied female samurai warriors include Tomoe Gozen, Hojo Masako, and Nakano Takeko.
The history of Onna-bugeisha dates long before the samurai. In fact, even before the emergence of samurai, Japanese fighters were trained to wield a sword and a spear. Women, on the other hand, learned to use naginata, and the art of tantojutsu in battle.
This training ensured protection in households and communities that lacked male fighters. Empress Jingu, is considered one of the first female warriors in Japan. She used her skills to inspire economic and social change. Her legacy is she led an invasion of Korea in 200 AD after her husband was slain in battle.
The legend goes to say that she led a Japanese conquest of Korea without shedding a drop of blood. She was a perfect example of onna bugeisha in its entity. Years after her death, she helped instill the female warriors society in Japan. In 1881, she was the first woman to be featured on a Japanese banknote.
The history of Onna-bugeisha dates back to the early Heian and Kamakura period. Back then, women who were prominent on the battlefield were the exception rather than the rule. The problem was Japanese ideals of femininity, which predisposed most women to powerlessness, in conflict with a female warrior role.
As mentioned previously, women were taught how to handle naginata. This weapon was a versatile and conventional polearm with a curved blade at the tip. Favored for its length, the weapon could easily compensate for the strength and body size which male opponents had as an advantage.
Think of the naginata as something between the katana and the yari. It was quite effective in close quarter melee combat when the opponent is kept at bay, and efficient against cavalry as well.
During the Edo period in Japanese history, many schools focused on the use of naginata.
Another popular weapon option was knife. Women were trained in the knife fighting art of tantojutsu, using a dagger known as the kaiken. Because women had to safeguard their homes from marauders, a huge emphasis was also put on ranged weapons to be shot from a defensive structure.
We mentioned some of the popular female samurai warriors. Those include Tomoe Gozen, Hangaku Gozen, and Nakano Takeko.
Tomoe Gozen is best known for her loyalty and courage. She fought during the Battle of Awazu in 1184. She was beautiful with white skin, long hair, and charming features. But she was also remarkable strong archer, and a great swordsman. She could confront any opponent, be it mounted or on foot. Tomoe was usually sent as a first captain when a battle was eminent. She had a strong armor, oversized sword, and a mighty bow.
Hangaku Gozen was also a leader and a captain. She once commanded 3,000 warriors to defend against an army of 10,000 soldiers. In Japanese literature, she is described as “fearless as a man and beautiful as a flower”.
Nakano Takeko fought and died during the Boshin War. She had a kill count of 172 samurai. In her honor, during the Aizu Autumn Festival, a group of young girls wear hakama and shiro headbands to take part in the procession, commemorating the actions of Nakano.
The Romanovs were a high-ranking family in Russia during the 16th and 17th century. In 1613, Mikhail Romanov became the first Romanov czar of Russia, following a fifteen-year...
Hieroglyphs are characters used in a system of pictorial writing. They were used on ancient Egyptian monuments. They can represent objects that they depict, but usually they ...
Marco Polo was an Italian merchant, explorer, and writer. He traveled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. He traveled with his family, but also a crew. Du... | <urn:uuid:0d89f081-5d2d-4593-8c9a-23bdcc07faab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.documentarytube.com/articles/onna-bugeisha-the-female-samurai-warriors-were-just-as-strong-as-male | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.985386 | 971 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.5805245041847229... | 1 | When it comes to legendary stories about samurai, most of them, if not all of them, feature only male samurai warriors. But contrary to popular belief, there were female samurai warriors. And they were some of the deadliest ones. They were just as fierce and skillful as their malecounterparts.
Called Onna-bugeisha, which translates to “female martial artist”, they were female warriors belonging to the Japanese nobility. They engage in battle, commonly alongside samurai men. Members of the bushi (samurai) class in feudal Japan, they were trained in the use of weapons so that they protect their household, family, and honor. Some of the legendary and storied female samurai warriors include Tomoe Gozen, Hojo Masako, and Nakano Takeko.
The history of Onna-bugeisha dates long before the samurai. In fact, even before the emergence of samurai, Japanese fighters were trained to wield a sword and a spear. Women, on the other hand, learned to use naginata, and the art of tantojutsu in battle.
This training ensured protection in households and communities that lacked male fighters. Empress Jingu, is considered one of the first female warriors in Japan. She used her skills to inspire economic and social change. Her legacy is she led an invasion of Korea in 200 AD after her husband was slain in battle.
The legend goes to say that she led a Japanese conquest of Korea without shedding a drop of blood. She was a perfect example of onna bugeisha in its entity. Years after her death, she helped instill the female warriors society in Japan. In 1881, she was the first woman to be featured on a Japanese banknote.
The history of Onna-bugeisha dates back to the early Heian and Kamakura period. Back then, women who were prominent on the battlefield were the exception rather than the rule. The problem was Japanese ideals of femininity, which predisposed most women to powerlessness, in conflict with a female warrior role.
As mentioned previously, women were taught how to handle naginata. This weapon was a versatile and conventional polearm with a curved blade at the tip. Favored for its length, the weapon could easily compensate for the strength and body size which male opponents had as an advantage.
Think of the naginata as something between the katana and the yari. It was quite effective in close quarter melee combat when the opponent is kept at bay, and efficient against cavalry as well.
During the Edo period in Japanese history, many schools focused on the use of naginata.
Another popular weapon option was knife. Women were trained in the knife fighting art of tantojutsu, using a dagger known as the kaiken. Because women had to safeguard their homes from marauders, a huge emphasis was also put on ranged weapons to be shot from a defensive structure.
We mentioned some of the popular female samurai warriors. Those include Tomoe Gozen, Hangaku Gozen, and Nakano Takeko.
Tomoe Gozen is best known for her loyalty and courage. She fought during the Battle of Awazu in 1184. She was beautiful with white skin, long hair, and charming features. But she was also remarkable strong archer, and a great swordsman. She could confront any opponent, be it mounted or on foot. Tomoe was usually sent as a first captain when a battle was eminent. She had a strong armor, oversized sword, and a mighty bow.
Hangaku Gozen was also a leader and a captain. She once commanded 3,000 warriors to defend against an army of 10,000 soldiers. In Japanese literature, she is described as “fearless as a man and beautiful as a flower”.
Nakano Takeko fought and died during the Boshin War. She had a kill count of 172 samurai. In her honor, during the Aizu Autumn Festival, a group of young girls wear hakama and shiro headbands to take part in the procession, commemorating the actions of Nakano.
The Romanovs were a high-ranking family in Russia during the 16th and 17th century. In 1613, Mikhail Romanov became the first Romanov czar of Russia, following a fifteen-year...
Hieroglyphs are characters used in a system of pictorial writing. They were used on ancient Egyptian monuments. They can represent objects that they depict, but usually they ...
Marco Polo was an Italian merchant, explorer, and writer. He traveled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. He traveled with his family, but also a crew. Du... | 985 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery played an important role in shaping southern society during the mid 19th century. As the cotton industry grew in the South, the number of slaves also increased to work on the plantations. The value of slaves increased as they became an important part in helping the Southern economy thrive with the demand of cotton production. The number of slaves one had attained also determined their social class in the South. Slavery had dominated the reality of Southern life when it came to economic and social aspects as the Southern economy relied heavily on cotton which called for an increase in the number of slaves in the South to work the plantation. Those slaves then developed their own sense of identity and culture within southern society. The demand for cotton in the 1840s contributed to the increase number of slaves in the South. As cotton became the most valuable cash crop in the United States, it made the South committed to slavery. Southerners relied on cotton for economic growth and with this came the need for more slaves to work the plantation in order to meet these new demands for cotton production. Slaves also worked as servants in homes and some were even craftsmen and factory workers; however, a majority of slaves worked on plantations picking cotton and harvesting crops. Labor, harsh punishments, a poor diet and living conditions contributed to an increase in infant mortality for slave families. Due to the fact that the South were reliant on cotton and slaves, they were behind in urbanization and industrialization compared to the North. In regards to social life, slaves were at the bottom of the Southern aristocracy. Wealthy white landowning planters determined economic and social life of their land in the South. One would imagine that everyone in the South had owned slaves, however, it was very rare. About 3/4 of Southern whites did not own slaves and those who did own slaves did not own many. Southerners who did not own slaves, mostly yeoman farmers, defended the institution of slavery. Non slave owners were envious of those who did own slaves and the wealth and power of they acquired. Slavery allowed white people to feel superior to black slaves because although some of them were poor, they did not have to live the life of a slave nor work like one. Slaveholders often had sexual relations with their female slaves to increase the number of slaves that would become apart of the plantation labor union. Female household slaves were often victims of sexual abuse by their owners and were mistreated by their wives due to the fact that they hated the sexual relations their husbands had with the slaves. Slaves were not able to hold property or leave their owner’s property without permission. They lived in slave quarters and worked in harsh conditions in the fields. Slave owners were determined to keep a healthy slave population despite treating them unfairly as slaves became an important and valuable addition to their society when it came down to plantation labor and cotton production. Slaves resisted the unfair treatment in various ways by slowing down their work effort, destroying tools and crops and pretending to be sick. Slaves were also able to turn to religion develop their own sense of identity, and their religion was a combination of Christianity and African beliefs and practices. | <urn:uuid:936ae153-92ca-41e0-a8b9-935f3ed6b6d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/slavery-of-the-southern-aristocracy-wealthy-white-landowning-planters/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.989455 | 633 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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... | 5 | Slavery played an important role in shaping southern society during the mid 19th century. As the cotton industry grew in the South, the number of slaves also increased to work on the plantations. The value of slaves increased as they became an important part in helping the Southern economy thrive with the demand of cotton production. The number of slaves one had attained also determined their social class in the South. Slavery had dominated the reality of Southern life when it came to economic and social aspects as the Southern economy relied heavily on cotton which called for an increase in the number of slaves in the South to work the plantation. Those slaves then developed their own sense of identity and culture within southern society. The demand for cotton in the 1840s contributed to the increase number of slaves in the South. As cotton became the most valuable cash crop in the United States, it made the South committed to slavery. Southerners relied on cotton for economic growth and with this came the need for more slaves to work the plantation in order to meet these new demands for cotton production. Slaves also worked as servants in homes and some were even craftsmen and factory workers; however, a majority of slaves worked on plantations picking cotton and harvesting crops. Labor, harsh punishments, a poor diet and living conditions contributed to an increase in infant mortality for slave families. Due to the fact that the South were reliant on cotton and slaves, they were behind in urbanization and industrialization compared to the North. In regards to social life, slaves were at the bottom of the Southern aristocracy. Wealthy white landowning planters determined economic and social life of their land in the South. One would imagine that everyone in the South had owned slaves, however, it was very rare. About 3/4 of Southern whites did not own slaves and those who did own slaves did not own many. Southerners who did not own slaves, mostly yeoman farmers, defended the institution of slavery. Non slave owners were envious of those who did own slaves and the wealth and power of they acquired. Slavery allowed white people to feel superior to black slaves because although some of them were poor, they did not have to live the life of a slave nor work like one. Slaveholders often had sexual relations with their female slaves to increase the number of slaves that would become apart of the plantation labor union. Female household slaves were often victims of sexual abuse by their owners and were mistreated by their wives due to the fact that they hated the sexual relations their husbands had with the slaves. Slaves were not able to hold property or leave their owner’s property without permission. They lived in slave quarters and worked in harsh conditions in the fields. Slave owners were determined to keep a healthy slave population despite treating them unfairly as slaves became an important and valuable addition to their society when it came down to plantation labor and cotton production. Slaves resisted the unfair treatment in various ways by slowing down their work effort, destroying tools and crops and pretending to be sick. Slaves were also able to turn to religion develop their own sense of identity, and their religion was a combination of Christianity and African beliefs and practices. | 640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The unicorn has been a mythical symbol since ancient times. Some of the earliest depictions of the unicorn are from ancient China and featured a creature resembling a large horse with a single horn protruding from its forehead. The writings and drawings of many ancient cultures throughout Asia and Europe included unicorns and ever they evolved into religious symbols.
By the middle ages, the unicorn was considered both a religious and secular symbol by most of Christian Europe. The unicorn represented chastity, holiness, and purity, and was even used as a symbol for Christ. Because of the unicorn's important symbolism, it was often featured in tapestries and other art of the period. There are even references to unicorns in the bible, although some historians question their inclusion in the Bible because of translations issues. References to unicorns can be seen in Deuteronomy 33:17, Psalm 22:21, 29: 6 and 92:10; Numbers 23:22 and 24: 8; and Isaiah 34: 7. These passage do not infer that the references to unicorns are fictitious or that unicorns are not in fact real animals.
There are many examples of medieval art and tapestries that feature unicorns and once they were accepted as a religious symbol they became very popular subjects. Unicorns represented purity and the myth perpetuated by their holy meaning was that only a virgin could tame a unicorn. Tapestries were common among the aristocracy in the Middle ages and were used as decoration as well as insulation for windows and openings. The most common tapestry designs were biblical allegories including unicorns. One of the most famous sets of tapestries are the Lady and the Unicorn tapestries, Created in France in the late 1400's.
The Lady and the Unicorn tapestries are somehow the most famous examples of unicorns in art in the entire world. They were not discovered until late in the 1800's by Proper Merimee in a castle in Boussac France. They were damaged but were later restored and then put on display in the Cluny Museum in France in a room specifically designed to house them. The novelist Georges Sands was responsible for making them so popular and included them in her writings.
It is not known who designed and wove the Lady and the Unicorn tapestries, but historians do know who they were created for. The coat of arms on the tapestries belong to the Le Viste family and the tapestries were probably created for this family in the late 1400's. Like other tapestries and art depicting unicorns, the Lady and the Unicorn tapestries are said to represent the human senses with the subject of the tapestries a virgin maiden and a unicorn. Five of the six tapestries represent the five senses, hearing, tough, taste, feeling, and sight. The sixth tapestry is one that carries some debate as some say it represents love, other think it stands for the "6th sense" while other other think it represents understanding or empathy. Unicorns have long been a part of art and folk lore, and are still symbols of holiness and purity today. | <urn:uuid:9fc12302-7586-41ca-9539-c749b9bff8b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wallpapers2008.com/wall/backgrounds/let-it-burn-my-worlds-burn-worlds/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00355.warc.gz | en | 0.983548 | 634 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.328181654214... | 1 | The unicorn has been a mythical symbol since ancient times. Some of the earliest depictions of the unicorn are from ancient China and featured a creature resembling a large horse with a single horn protruding from its forehead. The writings and drawings of many ancient cultures throughout Asia and Europe included unicorns and ever they evolved into religious symbols.
By the middle ages, the unicorn was considered both a religious and secular symbol by most of Christian Europe. The unicorn represented chastity, holiness, and purity, and was even used as a symbol for Christ. Because of the unicorn's important symbolism, it was often featured in tapestries and other art of the period. There are even references to unicorns in the bible, although some historians question their inclusion in the Bible because of translations issues. References to unicorns can be seen in Deuteronomy 33:17, Psalm 22:21, 29: 6 and 92:10; Numbers 23:22 and 24: 8; and Isaiah 34: 7. These passage do not infer that the references to unicorns are fictitious or that unicorns are not in fact real animals.
There are many examples of medieval art and tapestries that feature unicorns and once they were accepted as a religious symbol they became very popular subjects. Unicorns represented purity and the myth perpetuated by their holy meaning was that only a virgin could tame a unicorn. Tapestries were common among the aristocracy in the Middle ages and were used as decoration as well as insulation for windows and openings. The most common tapestry designs were biblical allegories including unicorns. One of the most famous sets of tapestries are the Lady and the Unicorn tapestries, Created in France in the late 1400's.
The Lady and the Unicorn tapestries are somehow the most famous examples of unicorns in art in the entire world. They were not discovered until late in the 1800's by Proper Merimee in a castle in Boussac France. They were damaged but were later restored and then put on display in the Cluny Museum in France in a room specifically designed to house them. The novelist Georges Sands was responsible for making them so popular and included them in her writings.
It is not known who designed and wove the Lady and the Unicorn tapestries, but historians do know who they were created for. The coat of arms on the tapestries belong to the Le Viste family and the tapestries were probably created for this family in the late 1400's. Like other tapestries and art depicting unicorns, the Lady and the Unicorn tapestries are said to represent the human senses with the subject of the tapestries a virgin maiden and a unicorn. Five of the six tapestries represent the five senses, hearing, tough, taste, feeling, and sight. The sixth tapestry is one that carries some debate as some say it represents love, other think it stands for the "6th sense" while other other think it represents understanding or empathy. Unicorns have long been a part of art and folk lore, and are still symbols of holiness and purity today. | 664 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sexual Harassment is first traced from the Middle Ages in the feudal era, custom stipulated that all vassals or serfs were required to give their brides to satisfy their masters sexually. The only way this could be avoided was where the bride or the bridegroom paid a specific amount of produce in redemption dues. While this may seem different from sexual harassment on the job, in fact, in feudal times, the feudal lord was the employer of his vassals and serfs, and their brides became his sexual property. The masters appear to have enforced this custom regularly and with great enthusiasm.
During slavery, slave women were forced into dual exploitation: as laborers and sexual partners. Their physical labor and their sexual favors belonged to their male masters. Slaves had no legal right to refuse advances from their masters, since legally the concept of raping did not exist. A female slave was frequently used by her owner for his sexual and recreational pleasure. This sexual privilege was a hierarchical right that spilled over to the slave owner's neighbors, visitors, and younger sons eager for initiation into the mysteries of sex.
As slavery was replaced by lowly paid domestic help, female servants, particularly the young maids, were often forced to become the sexual playthings of the members of their employers' families. A domestic servant was afforded little privacy, dignity, or freedom to socialize with others. The employer expected sexual favors to go along with the rest of the duties exacted from the domestic servants. The domestic servant who became pregnant could no longer anticipate marriage. If she bore an illegitimate child, she would be dismissed from her job and shunned by society. As a last resort, unemployed domestic servants frequently turned to prostitution. They lost not only their means of earning a living but also their homes. The insecurity, isolation, and loneliness that characterized domestic service made unemployed domestics particularly vulnerable to the recruitment efforts of madams and pimps.
In fact there is evidence that the most common occupation followed by women before they became prostitutes was that of domestic service. Ironically, this knowledge of the pattern-of-employment shift from domestic perpetrated against domestic servants. Louisa May Alcott, herself a victim of this abuse, wrote a fascinating account of sexual harassment over a century ago. Faced with financial problems, Alcott had accepted employment as a companion to middle-aged lady. She quickly learned, to her dismay, that she was also accountable to the lady's brother, who thought he had hired the attractive woman for his sister and his own pleasure. When Alcott resisted his attentions, he assigned her dirtier and heavier household work. Despite spirited resistance Alcott was unable to convince her employer to stop his amorous advances, and she was eventually forced to leave the job rather than submit. (Sexual Harassment on the Job, by... | <urn:uuid:84133344-e27c-461f-be63-cfc29bf21651> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/sexual-harassment-in-the-workplace-from-the-middle-ages-to-today | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.98776 | 570 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1862125694751739... | 1 | Sexual Harassment is first traced from the Middle Ages in the feudal era, custom stipulated that all vassals or serfs were required to give their brides to satisfy their masters sexually. The only way this could be avoided was where the bride or the bridegroom paid a specific amount of produce in redemption dues. While this may seem different from sexual harassment on the job, in fact, in feudal times, the feudal lord was the employer of his vassals and serfs, and their brides became his sexual property. The masters appear to have enforced this custom regularly and with great enthusiasm.
During slavery, slave women were forced into dual exploitation: as laborers and sexual partners. Their physical labor and their sexual favors belonged to their male masters. Slaves had no legal right to refuse advances from their masters, since legally the concept of raping did not exist. A female slave was frequently used by her owner for his sexual and recreational pleasure. This sexual privilege was a hierarchical right that spilled over to the slave owner's neighbors, visitors, and younger sons eager for initiation into the mysteries of sex.
As slavery was replaced by lowly paid domestic help, female servants, particularly the young maids, were often forced to become the sexual playthings of the members of their employers' families. A domestic servant was afforded little privacy, dignity, or freedom to socialize with others. The employer expected sexual favors to go along with the rest of the duties exacted from the domestic servants. The domestic servant who became pregnant could no longer anticipate marriage. If she bore an illegitimate child, she would be dismissed from her job and shunned by society. As a last resort, unemployed domestic servants frequently turned to prostitution. They lost not only their means of earning a living but also their homes. The insecurity, isolation, and loneliness that characterized domestic service made unemployed domestics particularly vulnerable to the recruitment efforts of madams and pimps.
In fact there is evidence that the most common occupation followed by women before they became prostitutes was that of domestic service. Ironically, this knowledge of the pattern-of-employment shift from domestic perpetrated against domestic servants. Louisa May Alcott, herself a victim of this abuse, wrote a fascinating account of sexual harassment over a century ago. Faced with financial problems, Alcott had accepted employment as a companion to middle-aged lady. She quickly learned, to her dismay, that she was also accountable to the lady's brother, who thought he had hired the attractive woman for his sister and his own pleasure. When Alcott resisted his attentions, he assigned her dirtier and heavier household work. Despite spirited resistance Alcott was unable to convince her employer to stop his amorous advances, and she was eventually forced to leave the job rather than submit. (Sexual Harassment on the Job, by... | 570 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mahdists captured Khartoum in 1885 and Egyptian administration of the Sudan collapsed, and the extreme southern province Equatoria was nearly cut off from the outside world, located as it was on the upper reaches of the Nile near Lake Albert. Emin Pasha was an Ottoman doctor and naturalist who had been appointed Governor of Equatoria. He was able to send and receive letters via Buganda and Zanzibar and had been informed in February 1886 that the Egyptian government would abandon Equatoria. In July, he was encouraged by missionary Alexander Mackay to invite the British government to annex Equatoria itself. The government was not interested in such a doubtful venture, but the British public came to see Emin as a second General Gordon in mortal danger from the Mahdists.
Scottish businessman and philanthropist William Mackinnon had been involved in various colonial ventures, and by November he had approached Stanley about leading a relief expedition. Stanley declared himself ready "at a moment's notice" to go. Mackinnon then approached J. F. Hutton, a business acquaintance also involved in colonial activities, and together they organized the "Emin Pasha Relief Committee", mostly consisting of Mackinnon's friends, whose first meeting was on 19 December 1886. The Committee raised a total of about £32,000.
Stanley was officially still in the employment of Léopold II of Belgium, by whom he had been employed in carving out Léopold's 'Congo Free State'. As a compromise for letting Stanley go, it was arranged in a meeting in Brussels between Stanley and the king, that the expedition would take a longer route up the Congo River, contrary to plans for a shorter route inland from the eastern African coast. In return, Léopold would provide his Free State steamers for the transportation of the expedition up the river, from Stanley Pool (now Pool Malebo) as far as the mouth of the Aruwimi River.
By 1 January 1887, Stanley was back in London preparing the expedition to widespread public acclaim. Stanley himself was intent that the expedition be one of humanitarian assistance rather than of military conquest. He declared:
"The expedition is non-military--that is to say, its purpose is not to fight, destroy, or waste; its purpose is to save, to relieve distress, to carry comfort. Emin Pasha may be a good man, a brave officer, a gallant fellow deserving of a strong effort of relief, but I decline to believe, and I have not been able to gather from any one in England an impression, that his life, or the lives of the few hundreds under him, would overbalance the lives of thousands of natives, and the devastation of immense tracts of country which an expedition strictly military would naturally cause. The expedition is a mere powerful caravan, armed with rifles for the purpose of insuring the safe conduct of the ammunition to Emin Pasha, and for the more certain protection of his people during the retreat home. But it also has means of purchasing the friendship of tribes and chiefs, of buying food and paying its way liberally."
In a number of publications made after the expedition, Stanley asserts that the purpose of the effort was singular; to offer relief to Emin Pasha. For example, he writes the following while explaining the final route decision.
"The advantages of the Congo route were about five hundred miles shorter land journey, and less opportunities for deserting. It also quieted the fears of the French and Germans that, behind this professedly humanitarian quest, we might have annexation projects."
However, Stanley's other writings point to a secondary goal which was precisely territorial annexation. He writes in his book on the expedition, about his meeting with the Sultan of Zanzibar, when he arrived there at the start of the expedition, and a certain matter that was discussed at that meeting. At first, he is not explicit on the agenda but it is clear enough.
"We then entered heartily into our business; how absolutely necessary it was that he should promptly enter into an agreement with the English within the limits assigned by Anglo-German treaty. It would take too long to describe the details of the conversation, but I obtained from him the answer needed."
A few pages further in the same book, Stanley explains what the matter was about and this time, he makes it clear that indeed, it had to do with annexation.
"I have settled several little commissions at Zanzibar satisfactorily. One was to get the Sultan to sign the concessions which Mackinnon tried to obtain a long time ago. As the Germans have magnificent territory east of Zanzibar, it was but fair that England should have some portion for the protection she has accorded to Zanzibar since 1841 .... The concession that we wished to obtain embraced a portion of East African coast, of which Mombasa and Melindi were the principal towns. For eight years, to my knowledge, the matter had been placed before His Highness, but the Sultan's signature was difficult to obtain."
The records at the National Archives at Kew, London, offer an even deeper insight and show that annexation was a purpose he had been aware of for the expedition. This is because there are a number of treaties curated there (and gathered by Stanley himself from what is present day Uganda during the Emin Pasha Expedition), ostensibly gaining British protection for a number of African chiefs. Amongst these were a number that have long been identified as possible frauds. A good example is treaty number 56, supposedly agreed upon between Stanley and the people of “Mazamboni, Katto, and Kalenge”. These people had signed over to Stanley, “the Sovereign Right and Right of Government over our country for ever in consideration of value received and for the protection he has accorded us and our Neighbours against KabbaRega and his Warasura.”
The plan of the expedition was to go to Cairo, then to Zanzibar to hire porters, then south of Africa, around the Cape to the mouth of the Congo, up the Congo by Leopold's steamers, branching off at the Aruwimi River. Stanley intended to establish a camp on the Aruwimi, then go east overland through unknown territory to reach Lake Albert and Equatoria. He then expected that Emin would send the families of Emin's Egyptian employees back along the just-pioneered route, along with a large store of ivory accumulated in Equatoria, while Stanley, Emin, and Emin's soldiers would proceed eastward to Zanzibar. Coincidentally, public doubts over the plan centered around whether it could be achieved; the possibility that Emin might not want to leave seems not to have been considered.
The expedition was the largest and best-equipped to go to Africa; a 28-foot steel boat named the Advance was designed to be divided into 12 sections for carrying over land, and Hiram Maxim presented the expedition with one of his recently invented Maxim guns, which was the first to be brought to Africa. Merely 'exhibiting' the gun was thought to be a scare, which would spare the expedition problems with troublesome natives.
The Relief Committee received 400 applications by hopeful participants. From these, Stanley chose the officers who were to accompany him to Africa:James S. Jameson, John Rose Troup, and Herbert Ward had all travelled in Africa before, Jameson as a big game hunter, artist, and traveller, Troup and Ward as employees of the Congo Free State.
Robert H. Nelson, William Bonny, William G. Stairs, and Edmund Barttelot were all military men. Barttelot had been doing service in India.
A. J. Mounteney-Jephson was a young 'gentleman of leisure' coming from the merchant marine who was hired on the quality of his face only, but he paid £1,000 to the Relief Committee, as did Jameson, in order to participate in the expedition.
The expedition's doctor Thomas Heazle Parke was hired in Alexandria where he did military service, as a last-minute disposition, while the expedition was underway to Zanzibar.
William Hoffmann was Stanley's personal servant, curiously enough scarcely mentioned at all in Stanley's own account of the events.
Stanley departed London on 21 January 1887 and arrived in Cairo on 27 January. Egyptian objections to the Congo route were overridden by a telegram from Lord Salisbury, and the expedition was permitted to march under the Egyptian flag. Stanley also met with Mason Bey, Schweinfurth, and Junker, who had more up-to-date information about Equatoria.
Stanley left Cairo on 3 February, joined up with expedition members during stops in Suez and Aden, and arrived in Zanzibar on 22 February. The next three days were spent packing for the expedition, loading the Madura, and negotiating. Stanley acted as a representative of Mackinnon in convincing the Sultan of Zanzibar to grant a concession for what later became the Imperial British East Africa Company (I.B.E.A.C.), and made two agreements with Tippu Tib. The first included appointing him as Governor of Stanley Falls, an arrangement much criticized in Europe as a deal with a slave-trader, and the second agreement regarded the provisions of carriers for the expedition. In addition to transporting stores, the carriers were now also expected to bring out some 75 tons of ivory stored in Equatoria. Stanley posted letters to Emin predicting his arrival on Lake Albert around August.
The expedition left Zanzibar on 25 February and arrived at Banana at the mouth of the Congo on 18 March. Their arrival was somewhat unexpected, because a telegraph cable had broken and local officials had received no instructions. Chartered steamers brought the expedition to Matadi, where the carriers took over, bringing some 800 loads of stores and ammunition to Leopoldville on the Stanley Pool. Progress was slow, since the rainy season was at its height, and food was short - a problem that was to be persistent throughout the expedition (the area along the route rarely had spare food for 1,000 hardworking men, as it was a subsistence economy).
On 21 April, the expedition arrived at Leopoldville. King Leopold had promised a flotilla of river steamers, but only one worked: the Stanley. Stanley requisitioned two (Peace and Henry Reed) from missionaries of the Baptist Mission and the Livingstone Inland Mission, whose protests were overridden, as well as the Florida, which was still under construction and so used as a barge. Even these were insufficient, so many of the stores were left at Leopoldville and more at Bolobo. At this point, Stanley also announced the division of the expedition: a "Rear Column" would encamp at Yambuya on the Aruwimi, while the "Advance Column" pressed on to Equatoria.
The voyage up the Congo started 1 May and was generally uneventful. At Bangala Station, Barttelot and Tippu Tib continued up to Stanley Falls in the Henry Reed, while Stanley took the Aruwimi to Yambuya. The inhabitants of Yambuya refused permission to reside in their village, so Stanley attacked and drove the villagers away, turning the deserted village into a fortified camp. Meanwhile, at Stanley Falls, Tippu Tib attempted to acquire carriers, but he believed that Stanley had broken his part of their agreement by leaving ammunition behind, and Barttelot came to Yambuya with only an indefinite promise that carriers would arrive in several weeks.
Stanley, however, insisted on speed, and left for Lake Albert on 28 June, originally expecting to take two months. The Advance Column, however, was unprepared for the extreme difficulties of travel through the Ituri forest and did not reach the lake until December. Only 169 of the 389 who set out from Yambuya were still alive. The trees of the forest were so tall and dense that little light reached the floor (thus the phrase "darkest Africa"), food was scarcely to be found, and the local Pygmies took the expedition for an Arab raiding party, shooting at them with poisoned arrows. The expedition stopped at two Arab settlements, Ugarrowwa's and Ipoto, in each case leaving more of their equipment behind in exchange for food.
The forest eventually gave way to grassland, and on 13 December the expedition was looking down on Lake Albert. However, Emin was not there, and the locals had not seen a European in many years. Stanley decided to return to the village of Ibwiri on the plateau above the lake, where they built Fort Bodo. Stairs went back to Ipoto to collect men and equipment, and returned 12 February. A second trip went back to Ugarrowwa's to collect more equipment. Meanwhile, on 2 April Stanley returned to Lake Albert, this time with the Advance. On 18 April they received a letter from Emin, who had heard about the expedition a year earlier, and had come down the lake in March after hearing rumors of Stanley's arrival.
Jephson was sent on ahead to the lake with the Advance, took the boat up to Mswa, and met Emin on 27 April 1888. Emin brought his steamer to the south end of the lake, and there met Stanley on the 29th, who was surprised to find the figure of Emin to have "not a trace on it of ill-health or anxiety", and celebrated with three bottles of champagne that had been carried all the way up the Congo. Emin provided Stanley with food and other supplies, thus rescuing the rescuers.
At this point things became difficult. Emin was primarily interested in ammunition and other supplies, and a communications route, all of which would assist him in remaining in Equatoria, while Stanley's main goal was to bring Emin out. A month of discussion produced no agreement, and on 24 May Stanley went back to Fort Bodo, arriving there 8 June and meeting Stairs, who had returned from Ugarrowwa's with just fourteen surviving men. On the way Stanley saw the Ruwenzori Mountains for the first time (although Parke and Jephson had seen them on 20 April).
On 16 June, Stanley left the fort in search of the Rear Column; no word of them or from them had been received in a long time. Finally, on 17 August at Banalya, 90 miles upstream from Yambuya, Stanley found Bonny the sole European left in charge of the Column, along with a handful of starving carriers. Barttelot had been shot in a dispute, Jameson was at Bangala dying of a fever, Troup had been invalided home, and Herbert Ward had gone back down the Congo a second time to telegraph the Relief Committee in London for further instructions (the Column had not heard from Stanley in over a year). The original purpose of the Rear Column — to wait for the additional carriers from Tippu Tib — had not been accomplished, since without the ammunition supplied by the expedition, Tippu Tib had nothing with which to recruit. After several side trips, Barttelot decided to send Troup and others on the sick list down the Congo, and 11 June 1888, after the arrival of a group of Manyema bringing Barttelot's total to 560, set off in search of Stanley.
But the march soon disintegrated into chaos, with large-scale desertion and multiple trips to try to bring up stores; then on 19 July Barttelot was shot while trying to interfere with a Manyema festival. Jameson decided to go down to Bangala to bring up extra loads and left on 9 August, shortly before Stanley's arrival. Stanley was incensed at the state of the Rear Column, blaming them for lack of motion despite his previous orders that they wait for him at Yambuya. From surviving officers Stanley also heard stories of Barttelot's brutality and of another officer, Jameson, who was alleged to have purchased a young female slave and given her to cannibals so he could record her being killed and eaten. After the dispatch of a number of letters down-Congo, the expedition returned to Fort Bodo, taking a different route that proved no better for food supply, and it reached the Fort on 20 December, now reduced to 412 men, of whom 124 were too ill to carry any loads.
On 16 January 1889, near Lake Albert, Stanley received letters from Emin and Jephson, who had been made prisoner by Emin's officers for several months, while at the same time the Mahdists had been capturing additional stations of Equatoria. Since Stanley's arrival, numerous rumors had gone around about Emin's intentions and the likely fate of the soldiers, and in August of the previous year matters had come to a head; a number of officers rebelled, deposed Emin as governor, and kept him and Jephson under a sort of house arrest in Dufile until November. Even so, Emin was still reluctant to abandon the province.
By 17 February all the surviving members of the expedition, and Emin with a group of about 65 loyal soldiers, met at Stanley's camp above Lake Albert, and during the subsequent weeks several hundred more of Emin's followers, many of them the families of the soldiers, accumulated there. Emin still had not expressed a firm intention to leave Equatoria, and 5 April, after a heated argument, Stanley determined to leave shortly, and the expedition departed Kavalli's for the coast on 10 April.
The trip to the coast passed first south, along the western flank of the Ruwenzoris, and Stairs attempted to ascend to a summit, reaching 10,677 ft before having to turn around. They then passed by Lake Edward and Lake George, then across to the southernmost point of Lake Victoria, passing through the kingdoms of Ankole and Karagwe. Stanley made "treaties" with the various rulers; although it is most likely that these were not regarded as such by the locals, they were later used to establish I.B.E.A claims in the area.
Lake Victoria was seen on 15 August, and the expedition reached Mackay's missionary station at Usambiro on 28 August. At this point they began to learn of the complicated changing situation in East Africa, with British and German interests scrambling to stake their claims, and a second relief expedition under Frederick John Jackson. After waiting fruitlessly for news of the Jackson expedition, Stanley left on 17 September, with a party now reduced to some 700 by a combination of death and desertion.
As the expedition approached the coast, they encountered parties of Germans and other signs of German activity in the interior, and were met by commissioner Wissmann on 4 December and escorted into Bagamoyo. That evening a banquet was held, during which an inebriated Emin fell out of a 2nd-story window he mistook for a balcony, and from which he did not recover until the end of January 1890. In the meantime, the rest of the expedition had dispersed; Stanley went to Zanzibar and then to Cairo, where he wrote the 900 pages of In Darkest Africa in just 50 days. The Zanzibari carriers were paid off or (in the case of prisoners) returned to their masters, the Sudanese and Egyptians were transported back to Egypt, some later returning to work for the I.B.E.A. Emin took service with the Germans in February, and the other Europeans returned to England.
Stanley returned to Europe in May 1890 to tremendous public acclaim; both he and his officers received numerous awards, honorary degrees, and speaking engagements. In June his just-published book sold 150,000 copies alone. But the adulation was to be short-lived. By autumn, as the true cost of the expedition became known, and as the families of Barttelot and Jameson reacted to Stanley's accusations of incompetence in the Rear Column, criticism and condemnation became widespread. In the end, it came to be the last expedition of its type; future African expeditions would be government-run in pursuit of military or political goals, or conducted purely for science.
From 1898 to 1900, a devastating sleeping sickness epidemic spread into territories that are now Democratic Republic of Congo, western Uganda and south of Sudan. Native cattle traveling with the expedition may have introduced the parasite into previously-unaffected regions. However, not all authors agree.
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0.03200312703847... | 1 | The Mahdists captured Khartoum in 1885 and Egyptian administration of the Sudan collapsed, and the extreme southern province Equatoria was nearly cut off from the outside world, located as it was on the upper reaches of the Nile near Lake Albert. Emin Pasha was an Ottoman doctor and naturalist who had been appointed Governor of Equatoria. He was able to send and receive letters via Buganda and Zanzibar and had been informed in February 1886 that the Egyptian government would abandon Equatoria. In July, he was encouraged by missionary Alexander Mackay to invite the British government to annex Equatoria itself. The government was not interested in such a doubtful venture, but the British public came to see Emin as a second General Gordon in mortal danger from the Mahdists.
Scottish businessman and philanthropist William Mackinnon had been involved in various colonial ventures, and by November he had approached Stanley about leading a relief expedition. Stanley declared himself ready "at a moment's notice" to go. Mackinnon then approached J. F. Hutton, a business acquaintance also involved in colonial activities, and together they organized the "Emin Pasha Relief Committee", mostly consisting of Mackinnon's friends, whose first meeting was on 19 December 1886. The Committee raised a total of about £32,000.
Stanley was officially still in the employment of Léopold II of Belgium, by whom he had been employed in carving out Léopold's 'Congo Free State'. As a compromise for letting Stanley go, it was arranged in a meeting in Brussels between Stanley and the king, that the expedition would take a longer route up the Congo River, contrary to plans for a shorter route inland from the eastern African coast. In return, Léopold would provide his Free State steamers for the transportation of the expedition up the river, from Stanley Pool (now Pool Malebo) as far as the mouth of the Aruwimi River.
By 1 January 1887, Stanley was back in London preparing the expedition to widespread public acclaim. Stanley himself was intent that the expedition be one of humanitarian assistance rather than of military conquest. He declared:
"The expedition is non-military--that is to say, its purpose is not to fight, destroy, or waste; its purpose is to save, to relieve distress, to carry comfort. Emin Pasha may be a good man, a brave officer, a gallant fellow deserving of a strong effort of relief, but I decline to believe, and I have not been able to gather from any one in England an impression, that his life, or the lives of the few hundreds under him, would overbalance the lives of thousands of natives, and the devastation of immense tracts of country which an expedition strictly military would naturally cause. The expedition is a mere powerful caravan, armed with rifles for the purpose of insuring the safe conduct of the ammunition to Emin Pasha, and for the more certain protection of his people during the retreat home. But it also has means of purchasing the friendship of tribes and chiefs, of buying food and paying its way liberally."
In a number of publications made after the expedition, Stanley asserts that the purpose of the effort was singular; to offer relief to Emin Pasha. For example, he writes the following while explaining the final route decision.
"The advantages of the Congo route were about five hundred miles shorter land journey, and less opportunities for deserting. It also quieted the fears of the French and Germans that, behind this professedly humanitarian quest, we might have annexation projects."
However, Stanley's other writings point to a secondary goal which was precisely territorial annexation. He writes in his book on the expedition, about his meeting with the Sultan of Zanzibar, when he arrived there at the start of the expedition, and a certain matter that was discussed at that meeting. At first, he is not explicit on the agenda but it is clear enough.
"We then entered heartily into our business; how absolutely necessary it was that he should promptly enter into an agreement with the English within the limits assigned by Anglo-German treaty. It would take too long to describe the details of the conversation, but I obtained from him the answer needed."
A few pages further in the same book, Stanley explains what the matter was about and this time, he makes it clear that indeed, it had to do with annexation.
"I have settled several little commissions at Zanzibar satisfactorily. One was to get the Sultan to sign the concessions which Mackinnon tried to obtain a long time ago. As the Germans have magnificent territory east of Zanzibar, it was but fair that England should have some portion for the protection she has accorded to Zanzibar since 1841 .... The concession that we wished to obtain embraced a portion of East African coast, of which Mombasa and Melindi were the principal towns. For eight years, to my knowledge, the matter had been placed before His Highness, but the Sultan's signature was difficult to obtain."
The records at the National Archives at Kew, London, offer an even deeper insight and show that annexation was a purpose he had been aware of for the expedition. This is because there are a number of treaties curated there (and gathered by Stanley himself from what is present day Uganda during the Emin Pasha Expedition), ostensibly gaining British protection for a number of African chiefs. Amongst these were a number that have long been identified as possible frauds. A good example is treaty number 56, supposedly agreed upon between Stanley and the people of “Mazamboni, Katto, and Kalenge”. These people had signed over to Stanley, “the Sovereign Right and Right of Government over our country for ever in consideration of value received and for the protection he has accorded us and our Neighbours against KabbaRega and his Warasura.”
The plan of the expedition was to go to Cairo, then to Zanzibar to hire porters, then south of Africa, around the Cape to the mouth of the Congo, up the Congo by Leopold's steamers, branching off at the Aruwimi River. Stanley intended to establish a camp on the Aruwimi, then go east overland through unknown territory to reach Lake Albert and Equatoria. He then expected that Emin would send the families of Emin's Egyptian employees back along the just-pioneered route, along with a large store of ivory accumulated in Equatoria, while Stanley, Emin, and Emin's soldiers would proceed eastward to Zanzibar. Coincidentally, public doubts over the plan centered around whether it could be achieved; the possibility that Emin might not want to leave seems not to have been considered.
The expedition was the largest and best-equipped to go to Africa; a 28-foot steel boat named the Advance was designed to be divided into 12 sections for carrying over land, and Hiram Maxim presented the expedition with one of his recently invented Maxim guns, which was the first to be brought to Africa. Merely 'exhibiting' the gun was thought to be a scare, which would spare the expedition problems with troublesome natives.
The Relief Committee received 400 applications by hopeful participants. From these, Stanley chose the officers who were to accompany him to Africa:James S. Jameson, John Rose Troup, and Herbert Ward had all travelled in Africa before, Jameson as a big game hunter, artist, and traveller, Troup and Ward as employees of the Congo Free State.
Robert H. Nelson, William Bonny, William G. Stairs, and Edmund Barttelot were all military men. Barttelot had been doing service in India.
A. J. Mounteney-Jephson was a young 'gentleman of leisure' coming from the merchant marine who was hired on the quality of his face only, but he paid £1,000 to the Relief Committee, as did Jameson, in order to participate in the expedition.
The expedition's doctor Thomas Heazle Parke was hired in Alexandria where he did military service, as a last-minute disposition, while the expedition was underway to Zanzibar.
William Hoffmann was Stanley's personal servant, curiously enough scarcely mentioned at all in Stanley's own account of the events.
Stanley departed London on 21 January 1887 and arrived in Cairo on 27 January. Egyptian objections to the Congo route were overridden by a telegram from Lord Salisbury, and the expedition was permitted to march under the Egyptian flag. Stanley also met with Mason Bey, Schweinfurth, and Junker, who had more up-to-date information about Equatoria.
Stanley left Cairo on 3 February, joined up with expedition members during stops in Suez and Aden, and arrived in Zanzibar on 22 February. The next three days were spent packing for the expedition, loading the Madura, and negotiating. Stanley acted as a representative of Mackinnon in convincing the Sultan of Zanzibar to grant a concession for what later became the Imperial British East Africa Company (I.B.E.A.C.), and made two agreements with Tippu Tib. The first included appointing him as Governor of Stanley Falls, an arrangement much criticized in Europe as a deal with a slave-trader, and the second agreement regarded the provisions of carriers for the expedition. In addition to transporting stores, the carriers were now also expected to bring out some 75 tons of ivory stored in Equatoria. Stanley posted letters to Emin predicting his arrival on Lake Albert around August.
The expedition left Zanzibar on 25 February and arrived at Banana at the mouth of the Congo on 18 March. Their arrival was somewhat unexpected, because a telegraph cable had broken and local officials had received no instructions. Chartered steamers brought the expedition to Matadi, where the carriers took over, bringing some 800 loads of stores and ammunition to Leopoldville on the Stanley Pool. Progress was slow, since the rainy season was at its height, and food was short - a problem that was to be persistent throughout the expedition (the area along the route rarely had spare food for 1,000 hardworking men, as it was a subsistence economy).
On 21 April, the expedition arrived at Leopoldville. King Leopold had promised a flotilla of river steamers, but only one worked: the Stanley. Stanley requisitioned two (Peace and Henry Reed) from missionaries of the Baptist Mission and the Livingstone Inland Mission, whose protests were overridden, as well as the Florida, which was still under construction and so used as a barge. Even these were insufficient, so many of the stores were left at Leopoldville and more at Bolobo. At this point, Stanley also announced the division of the expedition: a "Rear Column" would encamp at Yambuya on the Aruwimi, while the "Advance Column" pressed on to Equatoria.
The voyage up the Congo started 1 May and was generally uneventful. At Bangala Station, Barttelot and Tippu Tib continued up to Stanley Falls in the Henry Reed, while Stanley took the Aruwimi to Yambuya. The inhabitants of Yambuya refused permission to reside in their village, so Stanley attacked and drove the villagers away, turning the deserted village into a fortified camp. Meanwhile, at Stanley Falls, Tippu Tib attempted to acquire carriers, but he believed that Stanley had broken his part of their agreement by leaving ammunition behind, and Barttelot came to Yambuya with only an indefinite promise that carriers would arrive in several weeks.
Stanley, however, insisted on speed, and left for Lake Albert on 28 June, originally expecting to take two months. The Advance Column, however, was unprepared for the extreme difficulties of travel through the Ituri forest and did not reach the lake until December. Only 169 of the 389 who set out from Yambuya were still alive. The trees of the forest were so tall and dense that little light reached the floor (thus the phrase "darkest Africa"), food was scarcely to be found, and the local Pygmies took the expedition for an Arab raiding party, shooting at them with poisoned arrows. The expedition stopped at two Arab settlements, Ugarrowwa's and Ipoto, in each case leaving more of their equipment behind in exchange for food.
The forest eventually gave way to grassland, and on 13 December the expedition was looking down on Lake Albert. However, Emin was not there, and the locals had not seen a European in many years. Stanley decided to return to the village of Ibwiri on the plateau above the lake, where they built Fort Bodo. Stairs went back to Ipoto to collect men and equipment, and returned 12 February. A second trip went back to Ugarrowwa's to collect more equipment. Meanwhile, on 2 April Stanley returned to Lake Albert, this time with the Advance. On 18 April they received a letter from Emin, who had heard about the expedition a year earlier, and had come down the lake in March after hearing rumors of Stanley's arrival.
Jephson was sent on ahead to the lake with the Advance, took the boat up to Mswa, and met Emin on 27 April 1888. Emin brought his steamer to the south end of the lake, and there met Stanley on the 29th, who was surprised to find the figure of Emin to have "not a trace on it of ill-health or anxiety", and celebrated with three bottles of champagne that had been carried all the way up the Congo. Emin provided Stanley with food and other supplies, thus rescuing the rescuers.
At this point things became difficult. Emin was primarily interested in ammunition and other supplies, and a communications route, all of which would assist him in remaining in Equatoria, while Stanley's main goal was to bring Emin out. A month of discussion produced no agreement, and on 24 May Stanley went back to Fort Bodo, arriving there 8 June and meeting Stairs, who had returned from Ugarrowwa's with just fourteen surviving men. On the way Stanley saw the Ruwenzori Mountains for the first time (although Parke and Jephson had seen them on 20 April).
On 16 June, Stanley left the fort in search of the Rear Column; no word of them or from them had been received in a long time. Finally, on 17 August at Banalya, 90 miles upstream from Yambuya, Stanley found Bonny the sole European left in charge of the Column, along with a handful of starving carriers. Barttelot had been shot in a dispute, Jameson was at Bangala dying of a fever, Troup had been invalided home, and Herbert Ward had gone back down the Congo a second time to telegraph the Relief Committee in London for further instructions (the Column had not heard from Stanley in over a year). The original purpose of the Rear Column — to wait for the additional carriers from Tippu Tib — had not been accomplished, since without the ammunition supplied by the expedition, Tippu Tib had nothing with which to recruit. After several side trips, Barttelot decided to send Troup and others on the sick list down the Congo, and 11 June 1888, after the arrival of a group of Manyema bringing Barttelot's total to 560, set off in search of Stanley.
But the march soon disintegrated into chaos, with large-scale desertion and multiple trips to try to bring up stores; then on 19 July Barttelot was shot while trying to interfere with a Manyema festival. Jameson decided to go down to Bangala to bring up extra loads and left on 9 August, shortly before Stanley's arrival. Stanley was incensed at the state of the Rear Column, blaming them for lack of motion despite his previous orders that they wait for him at Yambuya. From surviving officers Stanley also heard stories of Barttelot's brutality and of another officer, Jameson, who was alleged to have purchased a young female slave and given her to cannibals so he could record her being killed and eaten. After the dispatch of a number of letters down-Congo, the expedition returned to Fort Bodo, taking a different route that proved no better for food supply, and it reached the Fort on 20 December, now reduced to 412 men, of whom 124 were too ill to carry any loads.
On 16 January 1889, near Lake Albert, Stanley received letters from Emin and Jephson, who had been made prisoner by Emin's officers for several months, while at the same time the Mahdists had been capturing additional stations of Equatoria. Since Stanley's arrival, numerous rumors had gone around about Emin's intentions and the likely fate of the soldiers, and in August of the previous year matters had come to a head; a number of officers rebelled, deposed Emin as governor, and kept him and Jephson under a sort of house arrest in Dufile until November. Even so, Emin was still reluctant to abandon the province.
By 17 February all the surviving members of the expedition, and Emin with a group of about 65 loyal soldiers, met at Stanley's camp above Lake Albert, and during the subsequent weeks several hundred more of Emin's followers, many of them the families of the soldiers, accumulated there. Emin still had not expressed a firm intention to leave Equatoria, and 5 April, after a heated argument, Stanley determined to leave shortly, and the expedition departed Kavalli's for the coast on 10 April.
The trip to the coast passed first south, along the western flank of the Ruwenzoris, and Stairs attempted to ascend to a summit, reaching 10,677 ft before having to turn around. They then passed by Lake Edward and Lake George, then across to the southernmost point of Lake Victoria, passing through the kingdoms of Ankole and Karagwe. Stanley made "treaties" with the various rulers; although it is most likely that these were not regarded as such by the locals, they were later used to establish I.B.E.A claims in the area.
Lake Victoria was seen on 15 August, and the expedition reached Mackay's missionary station at Usambiro on 28 August. At this point they began to learn of the complicated changing situation in East Africa, with British and German interests scrambling to stake their claims, and a second relief expedition under Frederick John Jackson. After waiting fruitlessly for news of the Jackson expedition, Stanley left on 17 September, with a party now reduced to some 700 by a combination of death and desertion.
As the expedition approached the coast, they encountered parties of Germans and other signs of German activity in the interior, and were met by commissioner Wissmann on 4 December and escorted into Bagamoyo. That evening a banquet was held, during which an inebriated Emin fell out of a 2nd-story window he mistook for a balcony, and from which he did not recover until the end of January 1890. In the meantime, the rest of the expedition had dispersed; Stanley went to Zanzibar and then to Cairo, where he wrote the 900 pages of In Darkest Africa in just 50 days. The Zanzibari carriers were paid off or (in the case of prisoners) returned to their masters, the Sudanese and Egyptians were transported back to Egypt, some later returning to work for the I.B.E.A. Emin took service with the Germans in February, and the other Europeans returned to England.
Stanley returned to Europe in May 1890 to tremendous public acclaim; both he and his officers received numerous awards, honorary degrees, and speaking engagements. In June his just-published book sold 150,000 copies alone. But the adulation was to be short-lived. By autumn, as the true cost of the expedition became known, and as the families of Barttelot and Jameson reacted to Stanley's accusations of incompetence in the Rear Column, criticism and condemnation became widespread. In the end, it came to be the last expedition of its type; future African expeditions would be government-run in pursuit of military or political goals, or conducted purely for science.
From 1898 to 1900, a devastating sleeping sickness epidemic spread into territories that are now Democratic Republic of Congo, western Uganda and south of Sudan. Native cattle traveling with the expedition may have introduced the parasite into previously-unaffected regions. However, not all authors agree.
The fate of the Rear Column is the subject of Simon Gray's 1978 play The Rear Column, which features Barttelot, Jameson, Ward, Bonny, Troup and Stanley as characters. | 4,356 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The front of this post card shows a bit of history that no longer exists. You are looking at one of 31 snow sheds built by the Canadian Pacific Railway
The railway was built through Rogers Pass in 1884. In a previous post, last year, I showcased a post card of the Stoney Creek Bridge, one of the largest bridges on the CPR right of way. This was only one of many bridges that had to be built. The tracks also followed a series of loops in order to maintain a safe grade for the locomotives. Despite all of their efforts to avoid steep hills and avalanche areas, danger lurked each winter. So much so that after the winter of 1885 31 different snow sheds were constructed over a total of six and a half kilometers of tracks. Despite their best efforts, avalanches continued to wreck havoc on the railway. Eight people lost their lives when, in 1899, an avalanche took out a train station in the pass. The worse loss of life occurred on March 4, 1910 when the crew clearing out one avalanche were killed by a second avalanche that came from the other side of the tracks. Sixty two people died that day.
This is when the railway decided that it was the safest option to build the Connaught Tunnel. It was completed in 1916. The rails you see in this post card were abandoned and removed.
The post card was published by the Canadian office for Valentine’s of Dundee, Scotland. From 1907 to 1923 they published souvenir books, | <urn:uuid:690c1bf4-d50f-4625-bb70-8a4e48117b05> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aboutmytrains.blogspot.com/2020/01/build-tunnel.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.986205 | 304 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.098451547324657... | 2 | The front of this post card shows a bit of history that no longer exists. You are looking at one of 31 snow sheds built by the Canadian Pacific Railway
The railway was built through Rogers Pass in 1884. In a previous post, last year, I showcased a post card of the Stoney Creek Bridge, one of the largest bridges on the CPR right of way. This was only one of many bridges that had to be built. The tracks also followed a series of loops in order to maintain a safe grade for the locomotives. Despite all of their efforts to avoid steep hills and avalanche areas, danger lurked each winter. So much so that after the winter of 1885 31 different snow sheds were constructed over a total of six and a half kilometers of tracks. Despite their best efforts, avalanches continued to wreck havoc on the railway. Eight people lost their lives when, in 1899, an avalanche took out a train station in the pass. The worse loss of life occurred on March 4, 1910 when the crew clearing out one avalanche were killed by a second avalanche that came from the other side of the tracks. Sixty two people died that day.
This is when the railway decided that it was the safest option to build the Connaught Tunnel. It was completed in 1916. The rails you see in this post card were abandoned and removed.
The post card was published by the Canadian office for Valentine’s of Dundee, Scotland. From 1907 to 1923 they published souvenir books, | 331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thanksgiving is the most American of all holidays. Now highly commercialized, the real meaning of the holiday has been essentially pushed aside so stores can get on with the Black Friday and Christmas shopping rush.
The first Thanksgiving involved bringing in the harvest in a little English colony struggling to get a foothold in what would later become Massachusetts.
The year was 1621, and the celebration was to be observed by order of Governor William Bradford.
After suffering through a near-disastrous previous winter and early spring during which nearly half of the original colonists died, this harvest was intended as a religious celebration. Thus, Thanksgiving has definitive historical roots in religion, though it has long been celebrated as a secular holiday as well.
Some of the men of the Pilgrim colony went out into the woods and shot assorted foul including ducks, geese or even turkeys, and brought them back to be served as part of the festive dinner.
Edward Winslow described the first Thanksgiving in a letter written later to a friend. It wasn’t just a one-day event. He wrote,
“Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men out fowling, that so we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruits of our labor. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their greatest king, Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which we brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.”
The people also enjoyed venison, onions, herbs, cranberries, currants and watercress, all of which grew wild in the area. The celebration may have included some wild honey, too.
In addition, walnuts, chestnuts and beechnuts were served. There was some shellfish, as fishing was so common, as well as beans, pumpkins, squash and corn (served in the form of porridge), thanks to the Wampanoag tribe.
What the Pilgrims and Indians did not eat were potatoes (white or sweet), bread stuffing, pie, (wheat flour was extremely rare) or green bean casserole.
The first official Thanksgiving proclamation was issued by President Washington in 1789, setting aside a day of Thanksgiving for Congress to adopt.
President Lincoln made it a national holiday in 1863, to be celebrated on the last Thursday of November.
Having been blessed with comparative prosperity ever since, and high standards of living most of the time, there are many reasons to be thankful in these United States. | <urn:uuid:67c56749-b78e-4237-814c-5f49113a3567> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lccentral.com/2019/12/05/thanksgiving-reflections/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00310.warc.gz | en | 0.980286 | 617 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.325354993... | 1 | Thanksgiving is the most American of all holidays. Now highly commercialized, the real meaning of the holiday has been essentially pushed aside so stores can get on with the Black Friday and Christmas shopping rush.
The first Thanksgiving involved bringing in the harvest in a little English colony struggling to get a foothold in what would later become Massachusetts.
The year was 1621, and the celebration was to be observed by order of Governor William Bradford.
After suffering through a near-disastrous previous winter and early spring during which nearly half of the original colonists died, this harvest was intended as a religious celebration. Thus, Thanksgiving has definitive historical roots in religion, though it has long been celebrated as a secular holiday as well.
Some of the men of the Pilgrim colony went out into the woods and shot assorted foul including ducks, geese or even turkeys, and brought them back to be served as part of the festive dinner.
Edward Winslow described the first Thanksgiving in a letter written later to a friend. It wasn’t just a one-day event. He wrote,
“Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men out fowling, that so we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruits of our labor. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their greatest king, Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which we brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.”
The people also enjoyed venison, onions, herbs, cranberries, currants and watercress, all of which grew wild in the area. The celebration may have included some wild honey, too.
In addition, walnuts, chestnuts and beechnuts were served. There was some shellfish, as fishing was so common, as well as beans, pumpkins, squash and corn (served in the form of porridge), thanks to the Wampanoag tribe.
What the Pilgrims and Indians did not eat were potatoes (white or sweet), bread stuffing, pie, (wheat flour was extremely rare) or green bean casserole.
The first official Thanksgiving proclamation was issued by President Washington in 1789, setting aside a day of Thanksgiving for Congress to adopt.
President Lincoln made it a national holiday in 1863, to be celebrated on the last Thursday of November.
Having been blessed with comparative prosperity ever since, and high standards of living most of the time, there are many reasons to be thankful in these United States. | 613 | ENGLISH | 1 |
James Cook, born in 1728, rose from the lowest ranks of the merchant marine, then through the Royal Navy, to become one of the most celebrated men of his time, the last and the greatest of the romantic navigator/explorers. His voyages to the eastern and western seaboards of North America, the North and South Pacific, the Arctic and the Antarctic, brought a new understanding of the world's geography and of the peoples, flora, and fauna of the lands he discovered.Richard Hough's meticulously researched narrative captures all the excitement of this age of discovery and establishes Cook as a link between the vague scientific speculations of the early eighteenth century and the industrial revolution to come. He pioneered the use of new navigational technology, measuring and recording endlessly, producing maps of unprecedented accuracy. He revolutionized the seaman's diet, all but eliminating scurvy. Always seeking the truth of geography Cook was also an exploder of myths, among them that of the great southern continent imagined by earlier geographers and scientists.
Cook was an interesting man, ahead of his time in many ways. The bulk of the book details his three voyages in which he served as captain and commander. The first voyage, main purpose to complete an astronomical observation that the Royal Society wanted done on a certain day in a certain spot on earth. The second voyage was primarily to discover the rumored great southern continent. The third voyage, to discover the also rumored Northwest Passage.
For the first 2 voyages, Cook was constantly on top of his game and never lost sight of the mission. He was humane, both with his crew and with natives on the various islands that were discovered or visited. He was loved and respected by his officers and crew.
Something happenend to Cook which affected him mentally, and on his third voyage he frequently seemed to lose sight of the mission, have erratic and inexplicable explosions of temper, which were sometimes taken out on his crew, and more frequently on the natives that he had been so respectful of on earlier trips.
His questionable actions cost him his life on his third voyage, where after first being welcomed on the Hawaiian Islands as a god, he was in the end brutally murdered by these same natives. | <urn:uuid:67ddd247-f5b5-48f7-923e-0536083ae8e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.librarycat.org/lib/FolioSeattle/item/124331245 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00520.warc.gz | en | 0.98176 | 451 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.148319661617... | 1 | James Cook, born in 1728, rose from the lowest ranks of the merchant marine, then through the Royal Navy, to become one of the most celebrated men of his time, the last and the greatest of the romantic navigator/explorers. His voyages to the eastern and western seaboards of North America, the North and South Pacific, the Arctic and the Antarctic, brought a new understanding of the world's geography and of the peoples, flora, and fauna of the lands he discovered.Richard Hough's meticulously researched narrative captures all the excitement of this age of discovery and establishes Cook as a link between the vague scientific speculations of the early eighteenth century and the industrial revolution to come. He pioneered the use of new navigational technology, measuring and recording endlessly, producing maps of unprecedented accuracy. He revolutionized the seaman's diet, all but eliminating scurvy. Always seeking the truth of geography Cook was also an exploder of myths, among them that of the great southern continent imagined by earlier geographers and scientists.
Cook was an interesting man, ahead of his time in many ways. The bulk of the book details his three voyages in which he served as captain and commander. The first voyage, main purpose to complete an astronomical observation that the Royal Society wanted done on a certain day in a certain spot on earth. The second voyage was primarily to discover the rumored great southern continent. The third voyage, to discover the also rumored Northwest Passage.
For the first 2 voyages, Cook was constantly on top of his game and never lost sight of the mission. He was humane, both with his crew and with natives on the various islands that were discovered or visited. He was loved and respected by his officers and crew.
Something happenend to Cook which affected him mentally, and on his third voyage he frequently seemed to lose sight of the mission, have erratic and inexplicable explosions of temper, which were sometimes taken out on his crew, and more frequently on the natives that he had been so respectful of on earlier trips.
His questionable actions cost him his life on his third voyage, where after first being welcomed on the Hawaiian Islands as a god, he was in the end brutally murdered by these same natives. | 453 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Xerxes the Great was one of the most significant Persian rulers of his time, born to Darius I and Atossa. The Greeks and Persians had been at war many times and whilst Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palace at Susa. Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64. Xerxes was crowned following his father’s death when he was 36 years old. From 483 BC Xerxes prepared an expedition to conquer Greece for the final time, the Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the army, they came from from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Macedonians, European Thracians, Greeks, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, and many more. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Persian Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants but we will never know for sure.
At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated as most of you will know from your school history lessons or from Hollywood offerings. Later at the Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) the Persians were defeated by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been continued unrest in Babylon, which being a key province of the empire required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive in Greece for good. Our depiction of Xerxes shows him in magnificent Persian regalia addressing his men with the traditional Persian symbol of encouragement, a severed Greek head!
This is a limited edition of 150 pieces worldwide.
Scale 1:30 / 60mm. | <urn:uuid:f5ff3718-ee28-4c4d-9c17-97ff36555e95> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sierratoysoldier.com/ourstore/pc/XE010-Xerxes-the-Great-1664p24875.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.981305 | 584 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.3733076453208... | 2 | Xerxes the Great was one of the most significant Persian rulers of his time, born to Darius I and Atossa. The Greeks and Persians had been at war many times and whilst Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palace at Susa. Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64. Xerxes was crowned following his father’s death when he was 36 years old. From 483 BC Xerxes prepared an expedition to conquer Greece for the final time, the Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the army, they came from from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Macedonians, European Thracians, Greeks, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, and many more. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Persian Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants but we will never know for sure.
At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated as most of you will know from your school history lessons or from Hollywood offerings. Later at the Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) the Persians were defeated by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been continued unrest in Babylon, which being a key province of the empire required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive in Greece for good. Our depiction of Xerxes shows him in magnificent Persian regalia addressing his men with the traditional Persian symbol of encouragement, a severed Greek head!
This is a limited edition of 150 pieces worldwide.
Scale 1:30 / 60mm. | 626 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Srinivasa Ramanujan – India’s greatest mathematical genius who made substantial contributions to the analytical theory of numbers and worked on elliptic functions, continued fractions, and infinite series.
At the age of 5, Ramanujan entered the primary school in Kumbakonam in January 1898. At the Town High School, Ramanujan was to do well in all his school subjects and showed himself an able all round scholar.
Few glimpse of his house at Kumbakonam..
In 1900 he began to work on his own on mathematics summing geometric and arithmetic series.
Ramanujan was shown how to solve cubic equations in 1902 and he went on to find his own method to solve the quartic. The following year, not knowing that the quintic could not be solved by radicals, he tried (and of course failed) to solve the quintic.
In 1917 he was diagnosed with tuberculosis and worryingly low vitamin levels. He spent months being cared for in sanitariums and nursing homes.
In February 1919 his health seemed to have recovered sufficiently for him to return to India, but sadly he would only live for about a year on his return. His death was most likely caused by hepatic amoebiasis caused by liver parasites on April 26, 1920.
Ramanujan left a number of unpublished notebooks filled with theorems that mathematicians have continued to study. Ramanujan’s methods were so terse and novel and his presentation so lacking in clearness and precision, that the ordinary unaccustomed to such intellectual gymnastics, could hardly follow him
3,534 total views, 2 views today | <urn:uuid:ed87687a-f504-4aeb-867b-342a86d079bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jovemac.in/srinivasa-ramanujan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.984726 | 342 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Srinivasa Ramanujan – India’s greatest mathematical genius who made substantial contributions to the analytical theory of numbers and worked on elliptic functions, continued fractions, and infinite series.
At the age of 5, Ramanujan entered the primary school in Kumbakonam in January 1898. At the Town High School, Ramanujan was to do well in all his school subjects and showed himself an able all round scholar.
Few glimpse of his house at Kumbakonam..
In 1900 he began to work on his own on mathematics summing geometric and arithmetic series.
Ramanujan was shown how to solve cubic equations in 1902 and he went on to find his own method to solve the quartic. The following year, not knowing that the quintic could not be solved by radicals, he tried (and of course failed) to solve the quintic.
In 1917 he was diagnosed with tuberculosis and worryingly low vitamin levels. He spent months being cared for in sanitariums and nursing homes.
In February 1919 his health seemed to have recovered sufficiently for him to return to India, but sadly he would only live for about a year on his return. His death was most likely caused by hepatic amoebiasis caused by liver parasites on April 26, 1920.
Ramanujan left a number of unpublished notebooks filled with theorems that mathematicians have continued to study. Ramanujan’s methods were so terse and novel and his presentation so lacking in clearness and precision, that the ordinary unaccustomed to such intellectual gymnastics, could hardly follow him
3,534 total views, 2 views today | 363 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Where did music start, and where is it going? The solutions are surprising. There is a modern-day motion leading humanity back to the music it initially produced 10s of thousands of years ago. A contradictory activity is developing ever much more intricate noises, and developing a world of smaller sized target markets for even more musicians.
Before mankind might write, and even prior to they could talk, rhythm as well as single tones were made use of to communicate. The song of a bird may have motivated a primitive man to mimic and improve the noise. Proof of prehistoric music is thin, considering that there was no language to explain the audio to descendants. Drumming objects and also resembling are considered to be the very first “music”. This proceeded with words being added as speech was uncovered.
After the development of composing, songs came to be more refined. Crafted tools were included. Harmonies were developed. Pipes, flutes, basic stringed instruments, as well as comparable tools were made use of to create the first audios that modern guy could easily recognize as songs. The earliest recognized song mores than 4000 years old, written in picture writing, and also uses the diatonic scale. This period is referred to as “ancient” music.
Additional growths produced more local sound, as different modern technology explorations in various areas brought about unique tools. While “classical music” is normally presumed to be the noises of composers like Bach or Beethoven, it in fact describes any music of this period. The music was normally religiously influenced or supported, as well as typically educated officially as a skill rather than established through experimentation. As musical notation combined regionally, the composed masterworks of the location were generally carried out according to the stiff written work.
Individual music continued right after. This was generally the noise of the unlearned courses, those that can not create or read. Learned orally, this music was discovered and also modified time and time again to show the individual creativity of the performer. This type of music usually represented the worries of the uneducated class. It was normally not sustained, but tolerated, but the government as well as spiritual management. The practice of people songs still continues as a category of songs to this particular day throughout the globe.
Symphonic music became a much less rigid modern-day design of music, blending with the principle of individual virtuosity from people songs. Performers would still utilize either written or discovered pieces, but would add their individual touch. The music would seem various each time it was played, also when played by the very same entertainer.
The development of recorded music as well as radio began the slide in reverse. Recorded songs is really rigid. It never changes. Target markets started to anticipate real-time efficiencies to be as near to the taped music they have actually been listening to as feasible. Sheet songs permitted amatures to carefully imitate the initial entertainer. To attract a bigger target market, music began to come to be less an expression of what the artist wanted to claim, as well as a lot more what the audience would certainly pay to listen to.
This pattern proceeds today in the kind of ever streamlining music. Music needs to fast and simple to identify. Intricacy would certainly result in missed sales. Lots of modern-day designs pass up either the lyrics or the melody entirely. Reusing previous songs in the form of tasting offers a musician an instantaneous audience, while restricting the artistry feasible.
Luckily, the Web permits any kind of artists from any designs to deal with the decline in songs creativity. The low cost of access makes it possible for almost anyone to gain a target market. The inexpensive additionally permits musicians to do what they wish, as opposed to cater a larger audience. With any luck, this will enable the patterns in popular music to turn around, developing ever extra imaginative as well as unique music in the future. | <urn:uuid:c262d36d-438d-4bfe-b98d-27f427b02de2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.poetryatthepub.com/the-history-of-music-from-grunts-to-guitars/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00008.warc.gz | en | 0.982425 | 802 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.150314092636108... | 2 | Where did music start, and where is it going? The solutions are surprising. There is a modern-day motion leading humanity back to the music it initially produced 10s of thousands of years ago. A contradictory activity is developing ever much more intricate noises, and developing a world of smaller sized target markets for even more musicians.
Before mankind might write, and even prior to they could talk, rhythm as well as single tones were made use of to communicate. The song of a bird may have motivated a primitive man to mimic and improve the noise. Proof of prehistoric music is thin, considering that there was no language to explain the audio to descendants. Drumming objects and also resembling are considered to be the very first “music”. This proceeded with words being added as speech was uncovered.
After the development of composing, songs came to be more refined. Crafted tools were included. Harmonies were developed. Pipes, flutes, basic stringed instruments, as well as comparable tools were made use of to create the first audios that modern guy could easily recognize as songs. The earliest recognized song mores than 4000 years old, written in picture writing, and also uses the diatonic scale. This period is referred to as “ancient” music.
Additional growths produced more local sound, as different modern technology explorations in various areas brought about unique tools. While “classical music” is normally presumed to be the noises of composers like Bach or Beethoven, it in fact describes any music of this period. The music was normally religiously influenced or supported, as well as typically educated officially as a skill rather than established through experimentation. As musical notation combined regionally, the composed masterworks of the location were generally carried out according to the stiff written work.
Individual music continued right after. This was generally the noise of the unlearned courses, those that can not create or read. Learned orally, this music was discovered and also modified time and time again to show the individual creativity of the performer. This type of music usually represented the worries of the uneducated class. It was normally not sustained, but tolerated, but the government as well as spiritual management. The practice of people songs still continues as a category of songs to this particular day throughout the globe.
Symphonic music became a much less rigid modern-day design of music, blending with the principle of individual virtuosity from people songs. Performers would still utilize either written or discovered pieces, but would add their individual touch. The music would seem various each time it was played, also when played by the very same entertainer.
The development of recorded music as well as radio began the slide in reverse. Recorded songs is really rigid. It never changes. Target markets started to anticipate real-time efficiencies to be as near to the taped music they have actually been listening to as feasible. Sheet songs permitted amatures to carefully imitate the initial entertainer. To attract a bigger target market, music began to come to be less an expression of what the artist wanted to claim, as well as a lot more what the audience would certainly pay to listen to.
This pattern proceeds today in the kind of ever streamlining music. Music needs to fast and simple to identify. Intricacy would certainly result in missed sales. Lots of modern-day designs pass up either the lyrics or the melody entirely. Reusing previous songs in the form of tasting offers a musician an instantaneous audience, while restricting the artistry feasible.
Luckily, the Web permits any kind of artists from any designs to deal with the decline in songs creativity. The low cost of access makes it possible for almost anyone to gain a target market. The inexpensive additionally permits musicians to do what they wish, as opposed to cater a larger audience. With any luck, this will enable the patterns in popular music to turn around, developing ever extra imaginative as well as unique music in the future. | 788 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Shakespeare’s “Othello” was set in the late 1570’s in Venice, Italy. The play follows the destruction of Othello, a general of African descent who is essentially looked down upon by society due to his ethnicity. Throughout out the play, it becomes evident that he too, views himself as inferior to the venetian society. Othello’s self-doubts in his interracial marriage result in him being easily manipulated by Iago and his thirst to raise his position in the hierarchical social system, which leads to the destruction of his sanity and in return Othello’s honour. Shakespeare’s incorporation of dramatic techniques and literary devices, allows for the audience to feel as if they are part of play and in return understand the importance of every scene.
Othello was composed in the year 1622 by William Shakespeare. When it was first presented, the public did not view the play as being primarily focused on race as society does today. This is where the new historicist readings come into play. New historicism is centrally focused on understanding the way people in a certain time thought, through the interpretation of literature. It is often argued on whether race was an element used when presenting non-English people in the Elizabethan Era. Race plays a huge role in the play Othello, as the protagonist, Othello, stands out from the rest because of his difference in appearance and in return his African descent. Othello’s race is what essentially leads to his downfall, as it can be interpreted throughout the play, that Othello considers his ethnicity as what makes him inferior to the other Venetian citizens and an outsider in society. The thought of the feeling of being inferior to the rest is reinforced though his actions of eloping Desdemona. It can be interpreted that this done because he does not view himself as good enough for Desdemona and thinks Desdemona’s father, Brabantio, will refuse to accept him as his son-in-law. Iago uses this fact to his advantage and advises Brabantio of the marriage. “Damned as thou art, thou hast enchanted her!”- Brabantio (1.2.65). Through the allusion of black magic, Brabantio insists that Othello has casted a spell on Desdemona as he believes Othello is not worthy of his daughter and she, in the right mind would never give consent to marry him. This reinforces his struggle to come to terms with the fact that his daughter would marry someone of African descent. Subsequent to Brabantio’s reaction to his marriage, with the help of Iago’s accusations, Othello’s self-esteem takes a turn and is further persuaded and indoctrinated to believe he is not good enough for Desdemona. Once told of Desdemona’s infidelity, Othello deems it as true and almost immediately wants to take revenge on Desdemona as he believes his insecurities were true, that she indeed did not love him, and his race was to blame. “Her name, that was as fresh, As Dian’s visage, is now begrimed and black, As mine own face.”- Othello (3.3.397). Shakespeare incorporates a simile in the attempt to make evident the severity of Iago’s accusations and Desdemona’s actions. The comparison of Desdemona’s unfaithfulness and Othello’s dark skin, reinforces the seriousness of Othello’s insecurity. It is made evident he is not happy with being black when he describes Desdemona’s face as being grimy and black. Black and white imagery is heavily present here as Desdemona is not seen as pure and innocent anymore rather dark and not trustable. Othello is no longer happy to be married to Desdemona. Infidelity still resonates today, the concept of “homewreckers” is unfortunately quite popular in today’s society.
...(download the rest of the essay above) | <urn:uuid:ab4811b7-ed95-483d-bf1a-67433e8a25d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.essaysauce.com/english-literature-essays/william-shakespeares-othello/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.980781 | 873 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.3874973... | 3 | William Shakespeare’s “Othello” was set in the late 1570’s in Venice, Italy. The play follows the destruction of Othello, a general of African descent who is essentially looked down upon by society due to his ethnicity. Throughout out the play, it becomes evident that he too, views himself as inferior to the venetian society. Othello’s self-doubts in his interracial marriage result in him being easily manipulated by Iago and his thirst to raise his position in the hierarchical social system, which leads to the destruction of his sanity and in return Othello’s honour. Shakespeare’s incorporation of dramatic techniques and literary devices, allows for the audience to feel as if they are part of play and in return understand the importance of every scene.
Othello was composed in the year 1622 by William Shakespeare. When it was first presented, the public did not view the play as being primarily focused on race as society does today. This is where the new historicist readings come into play. New historicism is centrally focused on understanding the way people in a certain time thought, through the interpretation of literature. It is often argued on whether race was an element used when presenting non-English people in the Elizabethan Era. Race plays a huge role in the play Othello, as the protagonist, Othello, stands out from the rest because of his difference in appearance and in return his African descent. Othello’s race is what essentially leads to his downfall, as it can be interpreted throughout the play, that Othello considers his ethnicity as what makes him inferior to the other Venetian citizens and an outsider in society. The thought of the feeling of being inferior to the rest is reinforced though his actions of eloping Desdemona. It can be interpreted that this done because he does not view himself as good enough for Desdemona and thinks Desdemona’s father, Brabantio, will refuse to accept him as his son-in-law. Iago uses this fact to his advantage and advises Brabantio of the marriage. “Damned as thou art, thou hast enchanted her!”- Brabantio (1.2.65). Through the allusion of black magic, Brabantio insists that Othello has casted a spell on Desdemona as he believes Othello is not worthy of his daughter and she, in the right mind would never give consent to marry him. This reinforces his struggle to come to terms with the fact that his daughter would marry someone of African descent. Subsequent to Brabantio’s reaction to his marriage, with the help of Iago’s accusations, Othello’s self-esteem takes a turn and is further persuaded and indoctrinated to believe he is not good enough for Desdemona. Once told of Desdemona’s infidelity, Othello deems it as true and almost immediately wants to take revenge on Desdemona as he believes his insecurities were true, that she indeed did not love him, and his race was to blame. “Her name, that was as fresh, As Dian’s visage, is now begrimed and black, As mine own face.”- Othello (3.3.397). Shakespeare incorporates a simile in the attempt to make evident the severity of Iago’s accusations and Desdemona’s actions. The comparison of Desdemona’s unfaithfulness and Othello’s dark skin, reinforces the seriousness of Othello’s insecurity. It is made evident he is not happy with being black when he describes Desdemona’s face as being grimy and black. Black and white imagery is heavily present here as Desdemona is not seen as pure and innocent anymore rather dark and not trustable. Othello is no longer happy to be married to Desdemona. Infidelity still resonates today, the concept of “homewreckers” is unfortunately quite popular in today’s society.
...(download the rest of the essay above) | 822 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Self Determination of Guam
Government is the institution through which a society makes and enforces its public policies. Throughout the relatively brief history of Guam, the indigenous people have never had the opportunity to determine their political status or decide democratically which type of governmental system to implement. Since the island's earliest days the original inhabitants always had to endure whatever political system the current local leadership put into place. This meant the island's political status was in what seemed to be a never-ending carousel of change.
Weather it was the caste system of ancient Guam, Spanish, Japanese, or American rule, the people have never had the right to choose. The chamorros of the past have never had say in the way the island they call home would be run. Although, as the years passed some powers and essential rights were gained. The people of Guam still lacked the power to determine their own political and governmental standing.
The United Nations has finally recognized this age-old injustice, and on July 1, 2000 the people of Guam will finally have what past generations of chamorros could only dream of. A chance for Self --Determination. This opportunity is news to many, and unfortunately some think that this is the island's first attempt to achieve self-determination. Though, there are those locals who are aware of the long struggle that began with the earliest attempts by the local people to limit the powers of government. Then came the first Guam legislature, followed by the long hard struggle to gain American citizenship. This was achieved by the passing of the Organic Act, a document that serves as the island's constitution. The historic passing of this document brought various rights to the people of the island. Although, the local people and the political leaders always thirsted for something more.
The Organic act did bring about great change on the island with the lifting of military clearance to come to the island, and then the right of an elected governor being granted to the people. The people of the island were though still greatly subject to the rule of Washington. This was rather disturbing to many of the locals because although the organic made many provisions for the rights of the people of Guam. The document failed to provide suffrage rights for the people of Guam.
Throughout the later years of the 20th century a movement was beginning to strengthen on the island. This was one in favor of self --determination. There was a run-off vote in 1982 between statehood and commonwealth, though no majority could be decided. Due to the fact that no political ideological consensus could be reached, the issue was put on the "back burner" until the drafting of the commonwealth act of 1987. Though the act never became reality due to numerous factors. After the act essentially fizzled out, the Guam commission on decolonization was formed to once again give the... | <urn:uuid:fd26b26e-b1c4-4146-b801-6de15bdede07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/self-determination-of-guam | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.980193 | 572 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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Government is the institution through which a society makes and enforces its public policies. Throughout the relatively brief history of Guam, the indigenous people have never had the opportunity to determine their political status or decide democratically which type of governmental system to implement. Since the island's earliest days the original inhabitants always had to endure whatever political system the current local leadership put into place. This meant the island's political status was in what seemed to be a never-ending carousel of change.
Weather it was the caste system of ancient Guam, Spanish, Japanese, or American rule, the people have never had the right to choose. The chamorros of the past have never had say in the way the island they call home would be run. Although, as the years passed some powers and essential rights were gained. The people of Guam still lacked the power to determine their own political and governmental standing.
The United Nations has finally recognized this age-old injustice, and on July 1, 2000 the people of Guam will finally have what past generations of chamorros could only dream of. A chance for Self --Determination. This opportunity is news to many, and unfortunately some think that this is the island's first attempt to achieve self-determination. Though, there are those locals who are aware of the long struggle that began with the earliest attempts by the local people to limit the powers of government. Then came the first Guam legislature, followed by the long hard struggle to gain American citizenship. This was achieved by the passing of the Organic Act, a document that serves as the island's constitution. The historic passing of this document brought various rights to the people of the island. Although, the local people and the political leaders always thirsted for something more.
The Organic act did bring about great change on the island with the lifting of military clearance to come to the island, and then the right of an elected governor being granted to the people. The people of the island were though still greatly subject to the rule of Washington. This was rather disturbing to many of the locals because although the organic made many provisions for the rights of the people of Guam. The document failed to provide suffrage rights for the people of Guam.
Throughout the later years of the 20th century a movement was beginning to strengthen on the island. This was one in favor of self --determination. There was a run-off vote in 1982 between statehood and commonwealth, though no majority could be decided. Due to the fact that no political ideological consensus could be reached, the issue was put on the "back burner" until the drafting of the commonwealth act of 1987. Though the act never became reality due to numerous factors. After the act essentially fizzled out, the Guam commission on decolonization was formed to once again give the... | 578 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Abraham Lincoln did not free the slaves. The Emancipation Proclamation was originally intended to get the enslaved Africans that were rebelling and killing whites by the thousands out of the country. The slave revolts were so bad; what often resulted was land, life ,and crops being taken. As well as African factions growing in strength. Not to mention the fact that the Native Americans were grouping up with the factions of slaves that fought and killed for their freedom!
That's right you read correctly, many Native Americans hated the Europeans responsible for bringing the disease, and war, and the custom of abuse of resources as well as murder, rape, molestation, and torture of women and children to the Native Land. So they would quite often join forces with the slaves that freed themselves. If you read the Emancipation Proclamation you will see that only the states that frequently REVOLTED were set free with the option to pursue "True Freedom." In other words they were being invited to leave. "Where to?" you might ask. He actually planned to send the African factions that were fighting to free all of the slaves back to Africa, or even Haiti.
To be frank the Civil War was going to happen regardless of the institution of slavery because of the very well known opposing ideologies between the North and the South. White people were not fighting for the equal treatment of man regardless of the location in America North or South. There was actually an EXTREMELY small number of whites that would even consider helping blacks, certainly not the Entire population that made up Americas northern states! With the rising tension from the south, as well as the revolts that resulted in the loss of crops and life which affected America's economic stability. The revolts seriously threatened to result in an extremely large faction of Africans that would not only have freed themselves, but taken over whole parts of the country. Not to mention the newly found alliance between the Native Americans and the Africans.
Lincoln had no other choice but to try and remove those that successfully combated the institution of slavery and Won! Lincolns move to free the "STATES IN REBELLION" served two purposes; get rid of the enslaved Africans that threatened the very convenient institution of slavery, as well as increase manpower for the North. (Over 200,000 human shields that can shoot is very convenient during times of war.) Slaves that fought for the North were often times ill equipped and sent to the front lines to protect the whites that fought to further the Real agenda of the North, which was NOT some bleeding heart Campaign to end slavery. There were even times when African Regiments were abandon or even SABOTAGED by the North! Some whites just could not get behind the idea of enslaved Africans killing whites. Over 350,000 African people fought in the Civil war on both sides.
The irony is that in spite of the fact that Abraham Lincoln was a known White Supremacist. Who only wrote the Emancipation Proclamation to save the institution of slavery by sending Slaves that fought for the freedom of all slaves back to Africa. He is credited as some philanthropic leader of freedom. In Charleston Illinois 1858 during a race for US Senate against Stephen Douglas, Lincoln himself states and I quote," I will say then that I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races." He continues his rant stating things like blacks should not be allowed to marry whites and things of that nature. It is all really interesting but I feel I've concluded my soapbox time.
PLEASE READ THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION!!!!!!! The Ancestors of the African American did not sit by and wait for a white man to free them. The ancestors of the African American people fought for their freedom, and TOOK THEIR FREEDOM WITH THEIR OWN HANDS! The illusion of these facts has kept the heads of the Black people in America low for yeas. So I researched the facts that are hidden in plain sight, and wrote this in hopes of raising those chins and removing some of that self loathing. The African American people has fought on the winning side of every war ever fought in this COUNTRY! Yes that includes the Revolutionary War, I believe that the common denominator of these victories was the presence of these warriors from AFRICA. It is time we stopped these White Supremacist teachings that keep people in a state of being separate and unequal, it is time we spoke truth. | <urn:uuid:471c5d1f-c889-467f-8922-9d2d76a1db00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vivaspecifico.com/2015/04/did-abraham-lincoln-really-abolish.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00036.warc.gz | en | 0.980341 | 927 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.29326650500... | 2 | Abraham Lincoln did not free the slaves. The Emancipation Proclamation was originally intended to get the enslaved Africans that were rebelling and killing whites by the thousands out of the country. The slave revolts were so bad; what often resulted was land, life ,and crops being taken. As well as African factions growing in strength. Not to mention the fact that the Native Americans were grouping up with the factions of slaves that fought and killed for their freedom!
That's right you read correctly, many Native Americans hated the Europeans responsible for bringing the disease, and war, and the custom of abuse of resources as well as murder, rape, molestation, and torture of women and children to the Native Land. So they would quite often join forces with the slaves that freed themselves. If you read the Emancipation Proclamation you will see that only the states that frequently REVOLTED were set free with the option to pursue "True Freedom." In other words they were being invited to leave. "Where to?" you might ask. He actually planned to send the African factions that were fighting to free all of the slaves back to Africa, or even Haiti.
To be frank the Civil War was going to happen regardless of the institution of slavery because of the very well known opposing ideologies between the North and the South. White people were not fighting for the equal treatment of man regardless of the location in America North or South. There was actually an EXTREMELY small number of whites that would even consider helping blacks, certainly not the Entire population that made up Americas northern states! With the rising tension from the south, as well as the revolts that resulted in the loss of crops and life which affected America's economic stability. The revolts seriously threatened to result in an extremely large faction of Africans that would not only have freed themselves, but taken over whole parts of the country. Not to mention the newly found alliance between the Native Americans and the Africans.
Lincoln had no other choice but to try and remove those that successfully combated the institution of slavery and Won! Lincolns move to free the "STATES IN REBELLION" served two purposes; get rid of the enslaved Africans that threatened the very convenient institution of slavery, as well as increase manpower for the North. (Over 200,000 human shields that can shoot is very convenient during times of war.) Slaves that fought for the North were often times ill equipped and sent to the front lines to protect the whites that fought to further the Real agenda of the North, which was NOT some bleeding heart Campaign to end slavery. There were even times when African Regiments were abandon or even SABOTAGED by the North! Some whites just could not get behind the idea of enslaved Africans killing whites. Over 350,000 African people fought in the Civil war on both sides.
The irony is that in spite of the fact that Abraham Lincoln was a known White Supremacist. Who only wrote the Emancipation Proclamation to save the institution of slavery by sending Slaves that fought for the freedom of all slaves back to Africa. He is credited as some philanthropic leader of freedom. In Charleston Illinois 1858 during a race for US Senate against Stephen Douglas, Lincoln himself states and I quote," I will say then that I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races." He continues his rant stating things like blacks should not be allowed to marry whites and things of that nature. It is all really interesting but I feel I've concluded my soapbox time.
PLEASE READ THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION!!!!!!! The Ancestors of the African American did not sit by and wait for a white man to free them. The ancestors of the African American people fought for their freedom, and TOOK THEIR FREEDOM WITH THEIR OWN HANDS! The illusion of these facts has kept the heads of the Black people in America low for yeas. So I researched the facts that are hidden in plain sight, and wrote this in hopes of raising those chins and removing some of that self loathing. The African American people has fought on the winning side of every war ever fought in this COUNTRY! Yes that includes the Revolutionary War, I believe that the common denominator of these victories was the presence of these warriors from AFRICA. It is time we stopped these White Supremacist teachings that keep people in a state of being separate and unequal, it is time we spoke truth. | 929 | ENGLISH | 1 |
President Abraham Lincoln was very impactful man who had a legacy throughout our nation, and the Civil War, during his election, speeches, writings, tactics, and even his death.
Right after Abraham Lincoln was elected into office, the southern states seceded. His election did have an effect on this event. The southerners believed that a Republican as their president would not have their best interests at heart. Lincoln clearly stated in his First Inaugural Address, The government will not assail you we are not enemies, but friends (President Lincolns First Inaugural Address, 1861, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History). However, the South still ended up seceding, which was indirectly Lincolns fault.
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Two years into the war, Lincoln decided he wanted to issue an Emancipation Proclamation to free the slaves in the area of rebellion in the country. At first, Lincolns Cabinet did not support the Proclamation. However, he was so persistent about the necessity of it, his advisors eventually changed their minds. First, he issued a preliminary proclamation. It stated that if the rebellion did not cease by the new year, the real Proclamation would go into effect. Finally, five days after the Battle of Antietam, a Union victory, the Emancipation Proclamation was put into effect. TheAn Impac Proclamation itself had many effects on the Civil War. Firstly, the nature of the war had changed from just preserving the Union to ending slavery once and for all. Secondly, African Americans were now allowed to fight for the Union. By the end of the war, over 200,000 African Americans had served in either the Union army or navy. Lastly, it helped take advantage of the Souths economy. Part of the Souths economy was based on slavery, but now the slaves were technically free, hurting the economy.
Lincolns leadership skills were very obvious, and they can be shown through his writings. About 500,000 of his letters were in the hands of citizens all across the nation. This was no accident, Lincoln wanted to become known as more of a person, not just a political figure. Of these letters, the Bixby Letter was one of the most famous. Lincoln wrote this letter to a woman in Boston who lost five sons while they were fighting for the Union. However, there is some speculation on whether Lincoln wrote this letter, or his secretary did. Assuming Lincoln did in fact write it, it showed just how great of a leader he was. I pray that our Heavenly Father may leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost ( Letter to Mrs. Bixby, Abraham Lincoln Online Speeches and Writings). He took the time to express his condolences to a grieving mother who lost her children to a war which he, in a way, helped to start.
As the war raged, Lincoln had a large impact on the nation and the war itself. During that fearsome time, he not only managed the war, but he also passed the some very important laws for our country. The first was the Revenue Act of 1862, the nations first income tax to help pay off some of the costs of the war. The second was the Morrill Act of 1862, which established the basis of the state university system. Third was the Homestead Act of 1862, which offered 160 free acres of land in the West to encourage the settlement of the area. Lincoln also helped found the Department of Agriculture. The Department of Agriculture was created to help farmers get the most out of what they have, and produce, to help feed people around the country and the world. During the war, Lincoln also managed the Trent Affair of 1861. The Trent Affair was an incident when a Union general captured two Confederate envoys, or messengers, who were on a British ship. Britain took this as the Union violating their neutrality, and Lincoln managed event by sending a message to the British Prime Minister, essentially apologizing for what happened, and the Prime Minister agreed to let the envoys go. Thus the conflict was resolved as a result of Lincolns masterful leadership outside of the war.
Lincoln also played a key role in how the war was fought, as he was the Commander-in-Chief, and even as a learner. First of all, he was the Commander-in-Chief, yet he had very little military experience. The only previous experience he had was being the captain of a militia unit, but the unit never saw any action. Second of all, he took the opportunity to be a learner, or student, of war strategy and war in general. He learned from his mistakes, his enemies strategies, and he read about strategies he could use. At first, he struggled with finding generals who properly suited the criteria for the job which he was asking. For example, General George McClellan was far too cautious. But he soon found one who had the same goals as he did, Ulysses S. Grant, who had the perfect balance of ambitiousness and integrity.
President Lincoln also had a very specific, and successful, offensive strategy to win the war. He tried to invade into Virginia at the First Battle of Bull Run, but the Union was not aggressive enough because of the general in command at the time. He also planned to use the Anaconda Plan, which was to blockade the Souths coastlines to put them under economic pressure. Finally, he wanted to invade the Souths rivers, particularly the Mississippi River, and the Tennessee River. Taking control of these rivers was especially important, because it would cut off some of the transportation of men and resources for the Confederates.
Throughout, and towards the end, of the war, Lincolns leadership affected the Unions victory. He was very firm with his sometimes, not-to-bright generals, such as General Ambrose Burnside, or General Joseph Hooker, or even the generals he trusted such as Ulysses S. Grant. He told them exactly what they needed to get done. The Union won many victories under Lincolns commands.
Though Lincoln made very large impact during his life, he also made an impact through his death. He was officially declared dead on Easter Sunday, 1865. Easter of that year should have been an exceptionally happy one. Not only was it a celebration of Christs Resurrection, it was also a day to celebrate the end of the war. However, the news of Lincolns death sucked all the happiness out of the day, at least for most people. Lincolns supporters described the way they were feeling in two simple words, Very sad: Those two words conveyed the heavy sorrow that had mixed with the initial shock from the first moment Lincolns supporters had counted the news as credible. (Lincolns Assassination Stuns the Nation, National Endowment for the Humanities).
Freed people in the South were especially sorrowful because of they had done for them. However, the North and the South had very different reactions. In the North, almost everyone was grieving, black and white alike. The white people felt they had lost their powerful voice, while the African Americans felt they had lost their liberator. The New York Times described how many northerners were feeling. An article described just how shocking Lincolns death was to the nation, and how sad the event was, for the northerners at least. However, it goes on to explain that even though they were losing a leader, the nation would still be intact. The country was run by the people, and it always would be, no matter the leader. Nevertheless, it is well to remember that the peculiar nature of our institutions makes it impossible that any one man should be absolutely indispensable to their preservation and successful working. Our government is of the people. They not only elect our rulers, but their spirit, their temper, their will pervade and control all the acts and all the measures of the government. (The Effect of President Lincolns Death on National Affairs, The New York Times Archives). In the South, most of the reactions were very different. While there were a few who were sad about the presidents death, most were happy. In fact, some even threw parties, and some were arrested for celebrating the presidents death.
Although President Lincoln had an impact on our nation, he also had an impact on a number of other things. He had major effects on the secession of the South. He had a very large effect on the Civil War itself, and he wrote the Emancipation Proclamation which also had a very large impact on the war. He played a huge role in how the war was fought, strategy wise, and how it progressed. His leadership lead to the victory of the Union, and even his death had an impact on our nation.
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... | 1 | President Abraham Lincoln was very impactful man who had a legacy throughout our nation, and the Civil War, during his election, speeches, writings, tactics, and even his death.
Right after Abraham Lincoln was elected into office, the southern states seceded. His election did have an effect on this event. The southerners believed that a Republican as their president would not have their best interests at heart. Lincoln clearly stated in his First Inaugural Address, The government will not assail you we are not enemies, but friends (President Lincolns First Inaugural Address, 1861, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History). However, the South still ended up seceding, which was indirectly Lincolns fault.
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Two years into the war, Lincoln decided he wanted to issue an Emancipation Proclamation to free the slaves in the area of rebellion in the country. At first, Lincolns Cabinet did not support the Proclamation. However, he was so persistent about the necessity of it, his advisors eventually changed their minds. First, he issued a preliminary proclamation. It stated that if the rebellion did not cease by the new year, the real Proclamation would go into effect. Finally, five days after the Battle of Antietam, a Union victory, the Emancipation Proclamation was put into effect. TheAn Impac Proclamation itself had many effects on the Civil War. Firstly, the nature of the war had changed from just preserving the Union to ending slavery once and for all. Secondly, African Americans were now allowed to fight for the Union. By the end of the war, over 200,000 African Americans had served in either the Union army or navy. Lastly, it helped take advantage of the Souths economy. Part of the Souths economy was based on slavery, but now the slaves were technically free, hurting the economy.
Lincolns leadership skills were very obvious, and they can be shown through his writings. About 500,000 of his letters were in the hands of citizens all across the nation. This was no accident, Lincoln wanted to become known as more of a person, not just a political figure. Of these letters, the Bixby Letter was one of the most famous. Lincoln wrote this letter to a woman in Boston who lost five sons while they were fighting for the Union. However, there is some speculation on whether Lincoln wrote this letter, or his secretary did. Assuming Lincoln did in fact write it, it showed just how great of a leader he was. I pray that our Heavenly Father may leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost ( Letter to Mrs. Bixby, Abraham Lincoln Online Speeches and Writings). He took the time to express his condolences to a grieving mother who lost her children to a war which he, in a way, helped to start.
As the war raged, Lincoln had a large impact on the nation and the war itself. During that fearsome time, he not only managed the war, but he also passed the some very important laws for our country. The first was the Revenue Act of 1862, the nations first income tax to help pay off some of the costs of the war. The second was the Morrill Act of 1862, which established the basis of the state university system. Third was the Homestead Act of 1862, which offered 160 free acres of land in the West to encourage the settlement of the area. Lincoln also helped found the Department of Agriculture. The Department of Agriculture was created to help farmers get the most out of what they have, and produce, to help feed people around the country and the world. During the war, Lincoln also managed the Trent Affair of 1861. The Trent Affair was an incident when a Union general captured two Confederate envoys, or messengers, who were on a British ship. Britain took this as the Union violating their neutrality, and Lincoln managed event by sending a message to the British Prime Minister, essentially apologizing for what happened, and the Prime Minister agreed to let the envoys go. Thus the conflict was resolved as a result of Lincolns masterful leadership outside of the war.
Lincoln also played a key role in how the war was fought, as he was the Commander-in-Chief, and even as a learner. First of all, he was the Commander-in-Chief, yet he had very little military experience. The only previous experience he had was being the captain of a militia unit, but the unit never saw any action. Second of all, he took the opportunity to be a learner, or student, of war strategy and war in general. He learned from his mistakes, his enemies strategies, and he read about strategies he could use. At first, he struggled with finding generals who properly suited the criteria for the job which he was asking. For example, General George McClellan was far too cautious. But he soon found one who had the same goals as he did, Ulysses S. Grant, who had the perfect balance of ambitiousness and integrity.
President Lincoln also had a very specific, and successful, offensive strategy to win the war. He tried to invade into Virginia at the First Battle of Bull Run, but the Union was not aggressive enough because of the general in command at the time. He also planned to use the Anaconda Plan, which was to blockade the Souths coastlines to put them under economic pressure. Finally, he wanted to invade the Souths rivers, particularly the Mississippi River, and the Tennessee River. Taking control of these rivers was especially important, because it would cut off some of the transportation of men and resources for the Confederates.
Throughout, and towards the end, of the war, Lincolns leadership affected the Unions victory. He was very firm with his sometimes, not-to-bright generals, such as General Ambrose Burnside, or General Joseph Hooker, or even the generals he trusted such as Ulysses S. Grant. He told them exactly what they needed to get done. The Union won many victories under Lincolns commands.
Though Lincoln made very large impact during his life, he also made an impact through his death. He was officially declared dead on Easter Sunday, 1865. Easter of that year should have been an exceptionally happy one. Not only was it a celebration of Christs Resurrection, it was also a day to celebrate the end of the war. However, the news of Lincolns death sucked all the happiness out of the day, at least for most people. Lincolns supporters described the way they were feeling in two simple words, Very sad: Those two words conveyed the heavy sorrow that had mixed with the initial shock from the first moment Lincolns supporters had counted the news as credible. (Lincolns Assassination Stuns the Nation, National Endowment for the Humanities).
Freed people in the South were especially sorrowful because of they had done for them. However, the North and the South had very different reactions. In the North, almost everyone was grieving, black and white alike. The white people felt they had lost their powerful voice, while the African Americans felt they had lost their liberator. The New York Times described how many northerners were feeling. An article described just how shocking Lincolns death was to the nation, and how sad the event was, for the northerners at least. However, it goes on to explain that even though they were losing a leader, the nation would still be intact. The country was run by the people, and it always would be, no matter the leader. Nevertheless, it is well to remember that the peculiar nature of our institutions makes it impossible that any one man should be absolutely indispensable to their preservation and successful working. Our government is of the people. They not only elect our rulers, but their spirit, their temper, their will pervade and control all the acts and all the measures of the government. (The Effect of President Lincolns Death on National Affairs, The New York Times Archives). In the South, most of the reactions were very different. While there were a few who were sad about the presidents death, most were happy. In fact, some even threw parties, and some were arrested for celebrating the presidents death.
Although President Lincoln had an impact on our nation, he also had an impact on a number of other things. He had major effects on the secession of the South. He had a very large effect on the Civil War itself, and he wrote the Emancipation Proclamation which also had a very large impact on the war. He played a huge role in how the war was fought, strategy wise, and how it progressed. His leadership lead to the victory of the Union, and even his death had an impact on our nation.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 1,878 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is hard to imagine that a whole national language spoken by millions of people can disappear into thin air, but history has proven it possible. The survival of a language in ancient days highly depended on how mighty the speakers were, but even the languages of the mightiest empires have disappeared. Language is one of the oldest tools of interaction for human beings; they define humanity. The loss of a language means the loss of a piece of humanity. Sad as it may sound, time is no friend of languages, as people die and new generations are born, new cultures come up and with that, new languages. This change in times has affected even the languages spoken by the greatest civilizations that have ever ruled the Earth including the Romans and the Greeks. Of the most spoken ancient languages, these are the ten most famous that have since been lost to time.
Alongside Latin, Ancient Greek is the second language that provided the roots to most European languages. The modern version was developed mostly from the Attic dialect of ancient Greek which was mostly spoken in Athens. The other dialects which have since been lost totally included ionic, Aeolic and Doric which were saved on clay tablets. Alexander the Great’s conquests helped spread the language all the way to Egypt as his armies needed to communicate in one language. Attic became the most popular dialect later combining with other languages to form Medieval Greek which later became modern Greek.
This was the first language in Europe that used an alphabet, a trick that amazed both Alexander the Great and even the Romans leading to the adoption of Greek plays and literature until 6th Century AD. The modern Alphabet actually borrows greatly from both Linear A and Linear B versions of this language. It is almost impossible to tell any part of history that would be alive today if not for Ancient Greek. This language enabled historians to connect different pieces throughout history running back to 2500 BCE. The language once spoken by people throughout Europe into parts of Africa has since disappeared entirely despite its contribution to almost every modern European language.
The Etruscan Civilization was a powerful nation that occupied most of modern-day Italy until the 4th century when the Romans conquered them. At its peak, the civilization was so vast spanning from Milan to the Adriatic Sea. They actually ruled Capua and Pompeii at one point as well. Both Greek and Roman History contain evidence of Etruscan as a famous language. They had a powerful language that influenced Latin with some texts even appearing in modern languages, but the language was totally subdued by Latin.
Despite its popularity, very few people have been able to decode over 10,000 texts of the language excavated across Europe so far. The only substantial surviving writing in Etruscan was surprisingly found in Egypt wrapped on the mummified body of an Unidentified woman. The language was advanced with the text stating religious rites, dates, names of gods among other significant activities of the civilization. Linguists try to use known similarities in Latin and Greek to decode Etruscan texts, but the language seems gone for good.
Attempts to revive this language has actually given it more speakers in the west than the Mediterranean where it had millions of native speakers. Hieroglyphs, the language of the gods, as many people call it was at one point the greatest language around the Mediterranean. Ancient Egypt is one of the greatest civilizations in history dating back to 3000 BC with advanced culture and language that still amaze people today. Writings on papyrus and stone tablets have since helped historians understand the culture of Egypt, but the language is not spoken anymore.
Ancient Egypt still has so many mysteries that are yet to be fully deciphered, and the greatest of them is their language. Unlike Greek and Latin which were forced onto conquered nations, the Egyptians don’t seem to have forcefully spread their language, but it was still spoken by millions of people both inside and outside the kingdom. When Alexander the Great invaded in 323BC, the culture died, and most of the written texts were buried under the dust. The Roman and Arabic invasions later forced the people into multilingualism, but they have since stuck with Arabic. The closest form to ancient Egyptian is Coptic which is spoken by just a few people mostly on religious occasions.
The Original Hebrew language was closely related to Phoenician, but its current form known as the official language of Israel is different. Modern Hebrew is a hybrid of Greek, Arabic, and Aramaic among other languages. The original version of the language is believed to have existed between 13th and 9th century BC to 3rd century BC when most of the OLD testament was written. This language lost spoken popularity through many conquests of the Hebrew people who started speaking languages of the conquering nations.
The written versions were however maintained as confirmed by writings of Prophet Isaiah. Most of the writings done on leather and papyri scrolls were destroyed over the years. The language evolved into Medieval Hebrew and later modern Hebrew which was literally developed from scratch. The modern bible translated through the years is based on nearly 6000 ancient texts most of which were found in the dead sea. These texts were mostly written in Medieval Hebrew although some scholars say ancient Hebrew survived until the 8th century BC.
Alongside Germanic languages and Greek, Latin is the other is the major Indo-European language that changed the world. It gained popularity with the expansion of the Roman empire. The Romans influenced every nation they conquered to speak Latin making it the most spoken language in the world for over 500 years. The language that named almost every body part, plant, animals and even legal documents has since lost popularity to very few speakers in less than a century. Despite its presence in many languages, this language Is not spoken nationally anywhere, not even in Italy where the Catholic Church kept it alive until 1965. Up until the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD, Latin was the most spoken language in the whole world. When the empire fell, the language broke down too many languages that formed the roots of other European languages. It still has some fluent speakers, but its relevance is fading fast as most of them die or lose interest.
Huns were great Nomadic warriors who are mentioned throughout history as powerful fighters even mentioned by early Christians as the scary warriors from hell. The Hunnish tribes covered many parts of the Hungarian plains from where they spread terror to Constantinople and the Eastern Roman Empire from 370 AD to 450 AD. They are believed to have terrorized the Chinese empire earlier before descending on Rome, but their language has no trace in Asia either. They were the most formidable threat to the Roman civilization that forced a treaty with the empire for gold in exchange for peace. Despite their might and influence, No one really knows much about their language in Europe. They were mostly interested in gold and fertile fields for their animals than spreading their culture. They did not use much-written literature either which made it almost impossible to reconstruct their language. The only existing evidence is names and a few words saved by Roman and Greek historians. Most of the Huns were eventually assimilated into the Roman provinces, and the Germanic tribes and so was their language.
This was the primary language of the ancient Nubian civilization that occupied modern Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia all the way to Northwestern Kenya. The kingdom was vast and powerful even conquering and ruling Egypt at one point for nearly a century. Initially, Egyptian was their primary language, but as the kingdom advanced, they developed their own literature becoming Africa’s first written language. Meroitic was the most widely spoken dialect throughout the region by both nobles and commoners.
They were mostly multilingual, but Meroitic survived until the 4th century. Existing records of the language were primarily found in Egypt and Ancient Greece believed to have been carried by travelers. They are mostly writing of religious and royal nature written from right to left. This national language was however lost because most written records which were on papyri were destroyed. Some versions of languages spoken by Cushite communities including Somali are firmly related to the mother language but not as famous.
Old Norse is actually derived from the term Northmen which was the name given to the Vikings when they came to Europe. It became a very significant language in Medieval Europe as local communities were forced to learn it to communicate with the Vikings. Old Norse is actually the mother language of modern-day Icelandic, Norwegian and Faroese. It was widely spoken throughout Scandinavia making it the most famous Viking language that influenced some European languages as well.
It came to Europe through Viking invasions. The language structure is close to both ancient Norwegian and Icelandic leading to the interchangeable use, but the original old Norse is not even spoken in Scandinavia anymore. It was spoken widely through the 12th and the 14th century. Its influence died because of Roman invasions as more people were forced to speak Latin. A few people still speak the language in the remote Scottish Highlands where Roman influence did not spread as much.
There is a popular Indo-European language called Hittite, but this is not it. Hattic was spoken by the earlier inhabitants on the Anatolia plateau (Turkey) over 4000 years ago and later assimilated into Indo-European languages. Hattians, the original speakers, was a powerful community that Invaded the Akkadians and established one of the most powerful civilizations of the time. They formed a powerful fortified nation that is believed to have lasted until 1140 BCE when the Hittites finally conquered them.
This is one of the most mysterious languages in history that linguists don’t even know what the Hattians themselves called it. The Hattic name was settled on because of what the bible called the speakers of this language. It was so scantly documented that it has been impossible to determine precisely how widely it was spoken. It was however used in both Anatolia and Mesopotamia through the trade routes until 2700BC.
This was the language of the Indus Valley Civilization whom scholars believe spoke in many languages but wrote in one. The Indus Valley Civilization thought to have had over 5 million citizens is one of the most mysterious ancient civilizations. It occupied most parts of modern-day Pakistan although their artifacts have been found even further away. Unlike Egyptian which was deciphered with the help of the Rosetta stone, The Indus valley languages have never been deciphered. It is harder because no one actually knows the actual descendants of these great people. Over the years, many artifacts have been unearthed containing symbols and pictures of what is believed to have been this people’s language. There has been no way to link it to any existing languages although some scientists lately associated It to Sumerian, a finding still contested by many scholars. | <urn:uuid:8735f620-4116-4b56-8f4d-a571c5843ede> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://listgecko.com/famous-ancient-languages/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00330.warc.gz | en | 0.98188 | 2,186 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.16635242104... | 4 | It is hard to imagine that a whole national language spoken by millions of people can disappear into thin air, but history has proven it possible. The survival of a language in ancient days highly depended on how mighty the speakers were, but even the languages of the mightiest empires have disappeared. Language is one of the oldest tools of interaction for human beings; they define humanity. The loss of a language means the loss of a piece of humanity. Sad as it may sound, time is no friend of languages, as people die and new generations are born, new cultures come up and with that, new languages. This change in times has affected even the languages spoken by the greatest civilizations that have ever ruled the Earth including the Romans and the Greeks. Of the most spoken ancient languages, these are the ten most famous that have since been lost to time.
Alongside Latin, Ancient Greek is the second language that provided the roots to most European languages. The modern version was developed mostly from the Attic dialect of ancient Greek which was mostly spoken in Athens. The other dialects which have since been lost totally included ionic, Aeolic and Doric which were saved on clay tablets. Alexander the Great’s conquests helped spread the language all the way to Egypt as his armies needed to communicate in one language. Attic became the most popular dialect later combining with other languages to form Medieval Greek which later became modern Greek.
This was the first language in Europe that used an alphabet, a trick that amazed both Alexander the Great and even the Romans leading to the adoption of Greek plays and literature until 6th Century AD. The modern Alphabet actually borrows greatly from both Linear A and Linear B versions of this language. It is almost impossible to tell any part of history that would be alive today if not for Ancient Greek. This language enabled historians to connect different pieces throughout history running back to 2500 BCE. The language once spoken by people throughout Europe into parts of Africa has since disappeared entirely despite its contribution to almost every modern European language.
The Etruscan Civilization was a powerful nation that occupied most of modern-day Italy until the 4th century when the Romans conquered them. At its peak, the civilization was so vast spanning from Milan to the Adriatic Sea. They actually ruled Capua and Pompeii at one point as well. Both Greek and Roman History contain evidence of Etruscan as a famous language. They had a powerful language that influenced Latin with some texts even appearing in modern languages, but the language was totally subdued by Latin.
Despite its popularity, very few people have been able to decode over 10,000 texts of the language excavated across Europe so far. The only substantial surviving writing in Etruscan was surprisingly found in Egypt wrapped on the mummified body of an Unidentified woman. The language was advanced with the text stating religious rites, dates, names of gods among other significant activities of the civilization. Linguists try to use known similarities in Latin and Greek to decode Etruscan texts, but the language seems gone for good.
Attempts to revive this language has actually given it more speakers in the west than the Mediterranean where it had millions of native speakers. Hieroglyphs, the language of the gods, as many people call it was at one point the greatest language around the Mediterranean. Ancient Egypt is one of the greatest civilizations in history dating back to 3000 BC with advanced culture and language that still amaze people today. Writings on papyrus and stone tablets have since helped historians understand the culture of Egypt, but the language is not spoken anymore.
Ancient Egypt still has so many mysteries that are yet to be fully deciphered, and the greatest of them is their language. Unlike Greek and Latin which were forced onto conquered nations, the Egyptians don’t seem to have forcefully spread their language, but it was still spoken by millions of people both inside and outside the kingdom. When Alexander the Great invaded in 323BC, the culture died, and most of the written texts were buried under the dust. The Roman and Arabic invasions later forced the people into multilingualism, but they have since stuck with Arabic. The closest form to ancient Egyptian is Coptic which is spoken by just a few people mostly on religious occasions.
The Original Hebrew language was closely related to Phoenician, but its current form known as the official language of Israel is different. Modern Hebrew is a hybrid of Greek, Arabic, and Aramaic among other languages. The original version of the language is believed to have existed between 13th and 9th century BC to 3rd century BC when most of the OLD testament was written. This language lost spoken popularity through many conquests of the Hebrew people who started speaking languages of the conquering nations.
The written versions were however maintained as confirmed by writings of Prophet Isaiah. Most of the writings done on leather and papyri scrolls were destroyed over the years. The language evolved into Medieval Hebrew and later modern Hebrew which was literally developed from scratch. The modern bible translated through the years is based on nearly 6000 ancient texts most of which were found in the dead sea. These texts were mostly written in Medieval Hebrew although some scholars say ancient Hebrew survived until the 8th century BC.
Alongside Germanic languages and Greek, Latin is the other is the major Indo-European language that changed the world. It gained popularity with the expansion of the Roman empire. The Romans influenced every nation they conquered to speak Latin making it the most spoken language in the world for over 500 years. The language that named almost every body part, plant, animals and even legal documents has since lost popularity to very few speakers in less than a century. Despite its presence in many languages, this language Is not spoken nationally anywhere, not even in Italy where the Catholic Church kept it alive until 1965. Up until the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD, Latin was the most spoken language in the whole world. When the empire fell, the language broke down too many languages that formed the roots of other European languages. It still has some fluent speakers, but its relevance is fading fast as most of them die or lose interest.
Huns were great Nomadic warriors who are mentioned throughout history as powerful fighters even mentioned by early Christians as the scary warriors from hell. The Hunnish tribes covered many parts of the Hungarian plains from where they spread terror to Constantinople and the Eastern Roman Empire from 370 AD to 450 AD. They are believed to have terrorized the Chinese empire earlier before descending on Rome, but their language has no trace in Asia either. They were the most formidable threat to the Roman civilization that forced a treaty with the empire for gold in exchange for peace. Despite their might and influence, No one really knows much about their language in Europe. They were mostly interested in gold and fertile fields for their animals than spreading their culture. They did not use much-written literature either which made it almost impossible to reconstruct their language. The only existing evidence is names and a few words saved by Roman and Greek historians. Most of the Huns were eventually assimilated into the Roman provinces, and the Germanic tribes and so was their language.
This was the primary language of the ancient Nubian civilization that occupied modern Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia all the way to Northwestern Kenya. The kingdom was vast and powerful even conquering and ruling Egypt at one point for nearly a century. Initially, Egyptian was their primary language, but as the kingdom advanced, they developed their own literature becoming Africa’s first written language. Meroitic was the most widely spoken dialect throughout the region by both nobles and commoners.
They were mostly multilingual, but Meroitic survived until the 4th century. Existing records of the language were primarily found in Egypt and Ancient Greece believed to have been carried by travelers. They are mostly writing of religious and royal nature written from right to left. This national language was however lost because most written records which were on papyri were destroyed. Some versions of languages spoken by Cushite communities including Somali are firmly related to the mother language but not as famous.
Old Norse is actually derived from the term Northmen which was the name given to the Vikings when they came to Europe. It became a very significant language in Medieval Europe as local communities were forced to learn it to communicate with the Vikings. Old Norse is actually the mother language of modern-day Icelandic, Norwegian and Faroese. It was widely spoken throughout Scandinavia making it the most famous Viking language that influenced some European languages as well.
It came to Europe through Viking invasions. The language structure is close to both ancient Norwegian and Icelandic leading to the interchangeable use, but the original old Norse is not even spoken in Scandinavia anymore. It was spoken widely through the 12th and the 14th century. Its influence died because of Roman invasions as more people were forced to speak Latin. A few people still speak the language in the remote Scottish Highlands where Roman influence did not spread as much.
There is a popular Indo-European language called Hittite, but this is not it. Hattic was spoken by the earlier inhabitants on the Anatolia plateau (Turkey) over 4000 years ago and later assimilated into Indo-European languages. Hattians, the original speakers, was a powerful community that Invaded the Akkadians and established one of the most powerful civilizations of the time. They formed a powerful fortified nation that is believed to have lasted until 1140 BCE when the Hittites finally conquered them.
This is one of the most mysterious languages in history that linguists don’t even know what the Hattians themselves called it. The Hattic name was settled on because of what the bible called the speakers of this language. It was so scantly documented that it has been impossible to determine precisely how widely it was spoken. It was however used in both Anatolia and Mesopotamia through the trade routes until 2700BC.
This was the language of the Indus Valley Civilization whom scholars believe spoke in many languages but wrote in one. The Indus Valley Civilization thought to have had over 5 million citizens is one of the most mysterious ancient civilizations. It occupied most parts of modern-day Pakistan although their artifacts have been found even further away. Unlike Egyptian which was deciphered with the help of the Rosetta stone, The Indus valley languages have never been deciphered. It is harder because no one actually knows the actual descendants of these great people. Over the years, many artifacts have been unearthed containing symbols and pictures of what is believed to have been this people’s language. There has been no way to link it to any existing languages although some scientists lately associated It to Sumerian, a finding still contested by many scholars. | 2,214 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Robert E. Lee’s Day is a state holiday in many parts of the U.S that commemorates the birthday of Robert E. Lee. It is a legal state holiday in Alabama, and Mississippi and in those states, it is observed on the third Monday of January – the same day as Martin Luther King Jr. Day. It is also a legal holiday in the state of Florida and is celebrated on January 19th. Because it commemorates the birthday of a Confederate General, this holiday is mainly celebrated in southern states in the United States. In Virginia, Robert E. Lee’s Birthday is celebrated as part of Lee-Jackson Day on the Friday before Martin Luther King Jr. Day.
Robert E. Lee’s Biography
Robert E. Lee was born on January 19, 1807, in Stratford, Virginia. He came from a prominent family which includes members such as Chief Justice Edward Douglass White; Thomas Lee – a member of the Virginia House of Burgess; signers of the U.S Declaration – Francis Lightfoot Lee & Richard Lee; and U.S President Zachary Taylor. Lee saw his family as a great one and he saw himself as an extension of that great family so he joined West Point at the age of 18 in 1825. He worked diligently at West Point and studied hard. In fact, he was one of the few graduating students of West Point to graduate without a single demerit and finished his studies with perfect scores in cavalry, infantry, and artillery units.
After his graduation from West Point, Robert E. Lee met Mary Custis and married her. Robert and Mary had seven children together and Mary stayed with the children on Mary’s father plantation while Robert served at various military posts all over the United States. Eventually, in 1846, he was able to distinguish himself under General Winfield Scott during the Mexican War. Robert E. Lee was noted as being a brave battle commander during this war. After the war, Robert was praised as a hero and he returned back to the plantation. However, he didn’t feel suited for plantation life and had a hard time with it.
In 1859, Robert Lee would eventually return back to the Army and accepted a position at a Texas cavalry outpost. Later on that year, he was called upon to put an end to the slave insurrection led by John Brown at Harper’s Ferry. He managed to put down the insurrection in an hour. This victory was so impressive that Robert Lee caught the attention of President Abraham Lincoln, who offered him a position to command the Union Forces. But he turned down the offer, resigned from the Army and returned home instead.
Robert E. Lee didn’t like the idea of a Civil War beginning over the issue of slavery, but he nonetheless agreed to lead the Confederate forces when Virginia seceded from the nation on April 18th, 1861. He would then proceed to give the Confederate Army a number of victories over the next year. He drove the Union Army back from Richmond and he was victorious at the Second Manassas. However, not all of his military campaigns were successful.
When he tried to cross the Potomac, nearly 14,000 of his men were killed, wounded or captured and he narrowly escaped the Battle of Antietam. He would then go on to suffer another loss in July of 1863 at the Battle of Gettysburg. This battle ended his invasion of the North and helped to turn the tide for Union forces. By 1865, it was clear that the war was coming to an end and in April of that year, Robert E. Lee was forced to give up Richmond, Virginia. The next week, he surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox, Virginia.
President Lincoln and General Grant saved him from being hanged as a traitor and he returned to his family. He would then go on to become president of a college in western Virginia. In October of 1870, he suffered a stroke at his home and died at the age of 63 years old.
History of Robert E. Lee’s Day
Since almost the end of the Civil War, four states celebrated Robert E. Lee’s Birthday in January. These four states were Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia and Mississippi. Later on, Florida began to commemorate the holiday as well. Recently, however, some states have changed the day they celebrate Robert E. Lee’s Day.
In 2015, Georgia decided to change its observance of this day from the third Monday in January to November 27th. Up until March of 2017, Robert E. Lee’s Day was celebrated on Martin Luther King’s Day in Arkansas. It has since been split from that holiday and is now celebrated on the second Saturday in October as a memorial day and not a state holiday.
Robert E. Lee’s Day Customs & Traditions
On Robert E. Lee’s Day, many people celebrate the General and events are held in many southern states. These events can include BBQs, parades, fireworks displays, marches, Civil War re-enactments, wreath laying ceremonies and people dressing up in historical Civil War Confederate uniforms. There may even be musket salutes at Confederate graves. Some people use the day to visit historic Civil War memorials or simply to spend some time with their friends and families.
When is Robert E Lee’s Birthday?
|This year (2020)||January 19 (Sunday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Next year (2021)||January 19 (Tuesday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)||January 19 (Saturday)||Multiple dates - more| | <urn:uuid:48b1a191-c6c6-42bf-b33f-06dfb9ad1e2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.holidayscalendar.com/event/robert-e-lees-birthday/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.981206 | 1,162 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.23533804714679718... | 5 | Robert E. Lee’s Day is a state holiday in many parts of the U.S that commemorates the birthday of Robert E. Lee. It is a legal state holiday in Alabama, and Mississippi and in those states, it is observed on the third Monday of January – the same day as Martin Luther King Jr. Day. It is also a legal holiday in the state of Florida and is celebrated on January 19th. Because it commemorates the birthday of a Confederate General, this holiday is mainly celebrated in southern states in the United States. In Virginia, Robert E. Lee’s Birthday is celebrated as part of Lee-Jackson Day on the Friday before Martin Luther King Jr. Day.
Robert E. Lee’s Biography
Robert E. Lee was born on January 19, 1807, in Stratford, Virginia. He came from a prominent family which includes members such as Chief Justice Edward Douglass White; Thomas Lee – a member of the Virginia House of Burgess; signers of the U.S Declaration – Francis Lightfoot Lee & Richard Lee; and U.S President Zachary Taylor. Lee saw his family as a great one and he saw himself as an extension of that great family so he joined West Point at the age of 18 in 1825. He worked diligently at West Point and studied hard. In fact, he was one of the few graduating students of West Point to graduate without a single demerit and finished his studies with perfect scores in cavalry, infantry, and artillery units.
After his graduation from West Point, Robert E. Lee met Mary Custis and married her. Robert and Mary had seven children together and Mary stayed with the children on Mary’s father plantation while Robert served at various military posts all over the United States. Eventually, in 1846, he was able to distinguish himself under General Winfield Scott during the Mexican War. Robert E. Lee was noted as being a brave battle commander during this war. After the war, Robert was praised as a hero and he returned back to the plantation. However, he didn’t feel suited for plantation life and had a hard time with it.
In 1859, Robert Lee would eventually return back to the Army and accepted a position at a Texas cavalry outpost. Later on that year, he was called upon to put an end to the slave insurrection led by John Brown at Harper’s Ferry. He managed to put down the insurrection in an hour. This victory was so impressive that Robert Lee caught the attention of President Abraham Lincoln, who offered him a position to command the Union Forces. But he turned down the offer, resigned from the Army and returned home instead.
Robert E. Lee didn’t like the idea of a Civil War beginning over the issue of slavery, but he nonetheless agreed to lead the Confederate forces when Virginia seceded from the nation on April 18th, 1861. He would then proceed to give the Confederate Army a number of victories over the next year. He drove the Union Army back from Richmond and he was victorious at the Second Manassas. However, not all of his military campaigns were successful.
When he tried to cross the Potomac, nearly 14,000 of his men were killed, wounded or captured and he narrowly escaped the Battle of Antietam. He would then go on to suffer another loss in July of 1863 at the Battle of Gettysburg. This battle ended his invasion of the North and helped to turn the tide for Union forces. By 1865, it was clear that the war was coming to an end and in April of that year, Robert E. Lee was forced to give up Richmond, Virginia. The next week, he surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox, Virginia.
President Lincoln and General Grant saved him from being hanged as a traitor and he returned to his family. He would then go on to become president of a college in western Virginia. In October of 1870, he suffered a stroke at his home and died at the age of 63 years old.
History of Robert E. Lee’s Day
Since almost the end of the Civil War, four states celebrated Robert E. Lee’s Birthday in January. These four states were Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia and Mississippi. Later on, Florida began to commemorate the holiday as well. Recently, however, some states have changed the day they celebrate Robert E. Lee’s Day.
In 2015, Georgia decided to change its observance of this day from the third Monday in January to November 27th. Up until March of 2017, Robert E. Lee’s Day was celebrated on Martin Luther King’s Day in Arkansas. It has since been split from that holiday and is now celebrated on the second Saturday in October as a memorial day and not a state holiday.
Robert E. Lee’s Day Customs & Traditions
On Robert E. Lee’s Day, many people celebrate the General and events are held in many southern states. These events can include BBQs, parades, fireworks displays, marches, Civil War re-enactments, wreath laying ceremonies and people dressing up in historical Civil War Confederate uniforms. There may even be musket salutes at Confederate graves. Some people use the day to visit historic Civil War memorials or simply to spend some time with their friends and families.
When is Robert E Lee’s Birthday?
|This year (2020)||January 19 (Sunday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Next year (2021)||January 19 (Tuesday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)||January 19 (Saturday)||Multiple dates - more| | 1,180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today we are used to the idea that the best way to counter a submarine is another submarine.
Quiet, sleek and lethal, the attack sub hunts its opposite number using acoustic hydrophones and sonar, stalking one another before dispatching them with torpedoes.
But this is a modern idea, surely? When one looks at the cluttered designs of the First and Second World Wars, these are not the streamlined killers of today.
From when the first modern submarines took to the seas at the end of the 19th century until the end of World War 2, these craft were designed to spend most of their time on the surface, even being designed to attack their targets primarily with guns.
Submarines were intended to submerge only when faced with threat, saving their precious stores of lethal torpedoes for dangerous and defended targets. They were actually more like surface ships with the ability to submerge; hit-and-hide raiders designed to be the scourge of merchantmen.
This told in their performance specifications. Until the commissioning of the famous Type-XXI U-boats in 1944, all submarines had been designed to spend most of their time on the surface. They were faster there than submerged, and the German’s were given credit for creating the true fighting submarine, a vessel designed to perform best underwater.
Except they didn’t.
Meet the R-class.
Commissioned in 1918 these submarines were the first to be built that had an emphasis on underwater performance.
With a streamlined hull, clean lines and large battery capacity for their size, the R-’s were faster underwater than on the surface.
But that wasn’t what was the most remarkable thing about them. The R-‘s weren’t designed to hunt merchantmen on the surface with their guns; indeed, they didn’t even have guns.
They were designed to hunt and kill submarines.
Ordered in December 1917, the R-Class were one of a raft of measures designed to try to combat the scourge of U-boat attacks on British shipping.
For many people, when the concept of unrestricted submarine warfare is bought up they think of the Second World War. The Battle of the Atlantic and the US submarine campaign against Japan tend to get a lot of attention for the crucial parts they played.
But it’s easy to forget that in 1917, the German Kreigsmarine unleashed their U-boats in a campaign that came within a hair of knocking the British out of the First World War.
So bad were things that at one point the UK only had six weeks of wheat left to feed the population; a margin far too close for comfort.
Desperate for a counter, the British explored a range of measures to counter the U-Boat menace. Amongst these was the idea of using submarines to attack the U-boats when on the surface.
The problem was that whenever a submarine detected a threat they would, naturally, submerge.
One design, the L-class, mounted it’s 4-inch gun in the conning tower, the idea being that on detecting a submarine the crew could surface and rapidly engage it. But this was recognised as a rather poor measure.
The R-class got round this by being true underwater hunters. Capable of 14 to 15 knts under water, they were the fastest submarines built until 1938.
Small subs at 410 tons on the surface, they were fitted with two large electric motors for their size that could generate 1200 horse power that was delivered to one shaft in a design scheme that still looks modern today.
But as true predators the R-‘s didn’t just rely on their higher speed. The class was fitted with a 25hp “creeping” motor that would allow them sneak up on unwary targets quietly – another feature that is absolutely critical in modern submarines.
They were also the first Royal Navy subs commissioned with six bow torpedoes. Unlike other submarines of their time they had 18-inch torpedoes, not the then standard 21-inch weapons.
This allowed for the fitting of the six tubes, plus the ability to carry more reloads, as it was recognised that their prey didn’t need the heavy hit of a big torpedo to sink them.
The intention behind the R-class was that they could hunt U-boats that were surfaced and, using their ability to creep and/or dash, close in so as to ensure a kill with their bigger spread of lighter torpedoes.
But what if the U-boat became aware of the lurking submarine and submerged? This occurred several times during the war, leading to the somewhat comical event of both submarines sailing around observing each other’s periscope before finally giving up and slipping away.
Submarines at this time were being fitted with hydrophones – hence the need for the R-‘s creeping motor – but these served as general detection instruments on most submarines. They were used for basic awareness when not on the surface or at periscope depth.
But the R-class was the first class to mount multiple hydrophones with the intention of providing target data on a submerged target.
Five hydrophones were mounted in the bow section, allowing some gauging of target position. Should a U-boat submerge, they would not be safe from a spread of torpedoes from one of the R-‘s.
And this was in 1918!
Unfortunately, timing is everything. Though they correctly predicted the ultimate form and function the submarine would take, the R-class were both too early in conception and too late in their fielding.
Only getting into service in the last months before the end of the war, the R-‘s saw hardly any service, though one may have launched an unsuccessful attack on a U-boat just before the armistice.
They therefore never got the chance to prove their design philosophy.
Also, their revolutionary design meant they were unpleasant ships to handle. Submarines were still effectively in their infancy and underwater handling was only just beginning to be explored. It would be some decades before this was resolved.
Ten were built, but their specialist nature meant that there was no role for them in the post-war navy and all but two were scrapped. The survivors, R-10 and R-4, survived for a few more years serving as underwater targets for anti-submarine warfare training.
So ended the R-class submarines – a great example of the right idea at the wrong time.
Ed Nash has spent years traveling around the world. Between June 2015 and July 2016 he volunteered with the Kurdish YPG in its battle against ISIS in Syria; his book on his experiences, Desert Sniper, was published in the UK by Little, Brown in September 2018. | <urn:uuid:660b1af6-5fbc-41ee-99fe-16640280429f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://militarymatters.online/the-first-of-the-hunter-killer-submarines-the-r-class/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.984424 | 1,398 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.360909700393... | 2 | Today we are used to the idea that the best way to counter a submarine is another submarine.
Quiet, sleek and lethal, the attack sub hunts its opposite number using acoustic hydrophones and sonar, stalking one another before dispatching them with torpedoes.
But this is a modern idea, surely? When one looks at the cluttered designs of the First and Second World Wars, these are not the streamlined killers of today.
From when the first modern submarines took to the seas at the end of the 19th century until the end of World War 2, these craft were designed to spend most of their time on the surface, even being designed to attack their targets primarily with guns.
Submarines were intended to submerge only when faced with threat, saving their precious stores of lethal torpedoes for dangerous and defended targets. They were actually more like surface ships with the ability to submerge; hit-and-hide raiders designed to be the scourge of merchantmen.
This told in their performance specifications. Until the commissioning of the famous Type-XXI U-boats in 1944, all submarines had been designed to spend most of their time on the surface. They were faster there than submerged, and the German’s were given credit for creating the true fighting submarine, a vessel designed to perform best underwater.
Except they didn’t.
Meet the R-class.
Commissioned in 1918 these submarines were the first to be built that had an emphasis on underwater performance.
With a streamlined hull, clean lines and large battery capacity for their size, the R-’s were faster underwater than on the surface.
But that wasn’t what was the most remarkable thing about them. The R-‘s weren’t designed to hunt merchantmen on the surface with their guns; indeed, they didn’t even have guns.
They were designed to hunt and kill submarines.
Ordered in December 1917, the R-Class were one of a raft of measures designed to try to combat the scourge of U-boat attacks on British shipping.
For many people, when the concept of unrestricted submarine warfare is bought up they think of the Second World War. The Battle of the Atlantic and the US submarine campaign against Japan tend to get a lot of attention for the crucial parts they played.
But it’s easy to forget that in 1917, the German Kreigsmarine unleashed their U-boats in a campaign that came within a hair of knocking the British out of the First World War.
So bad were things that at one point the UK only had six weeks of wheat left to feed the population; a margin far too close for comfort.
Desperate for a counter, the British explored a range of measures to counter the U-Boat menace. Amongst these was the idea of using submarines to attack the U-boats when on the surface.
The problem was that whenever a submarine detected a threat they would, naturally, submerge.
One design, the L-class, mounted it’s 4-inch gun in the conning tower, the idea being that on detecting a submarine the crew could surface and rapidly engage it. But this was recognised as a rather poor measure.
The R-class got round this by being true underwater hunters. Capable of 14 to 15 knts under water, they were the fastest submarines built until 1938.
Small subs at 410 tons on the surface, they were fitted with two large electric motors for their size that could generate 1200 horse power that was delivered to one shaft in a design scheme that still looks modern today.
But as true predators the R-‘s didn’t just rely on their higher speed. The class was fitted with a 25hp “creeping” motor that would allow them sneak up on unwary targets quietly – another feature that is absolutely critical in modern submarines.
They were also the first Royal Navy subs commissioned with six bow torpedoes. Unlike other submarines of their time they had 18-inch torpedoes, not the then standard 21-inch weapons.
This allowed for the fitting of the six tubes, plus the ability to carry more reloads, as it was recognised that their prey didn’t need the heavy hit of a big torpedo to sink them.
The intention behind the R-class was that they could hunt U-boats that were surfaced and, using their ability to creep and/or dash, close in so as to ensure a kill with their bigger spread of lighter torpedoes.
But what if the U-boat became aware of the lurking submarine and submerged? This occurred several times during the war, leading to the somewhat comical event of both submarines sailing around observing each other’s periscope before finally giving up and slipping away.
Submarines at this time were being fitted with hydrophones – hence the need for the R-‘s creeping motor – but these served as general detection instruments on most submarines. They were used for basic awareness when not on the surface or at periscope depth.
But the R-class was the first class to mount multiple hydrophones with the intention of providing target data on a submerged target.
Five hydrophones were mounted in the bow section, allowing some gauging of target position. Should a U-boat submerge, they would not be safe from a spread of torpedoes from one of the R-‘s.
And this was in 1918!
Unfortunately, timing is everything. Though they correctly predicted the ultimate form and function the submarine would take, the R-class were both too early in conception and too late in their fielding.
Only getting into service in the last months before the end of the war, the R-‘s saw hardly any service, though one may have launched an unsuccessful attack on a U-boat just before the armistice.
They therefore never got the chance to prove their design philosophy.
Also, their revolutionary design meant they were unpleasant ships to handle. Submarines were still effectively in their infancy and underwater handling was only just beginning to be explored. It would be some decades before this was resolved.
Ten were built, but their specialist nature meant that there was no role for them in the post-war navy and all but two were scrapped. The survivors, R-10 and R-4, survived for a few more years serving as underwater targets for anti-submarine warfare training.
So ended the R-class submarines – a great example of the right idea at the wrong time.
Ed Nash has spent years traveling around the world. Between June 2015 and July 2016 he volunteered with the Kurdish YPG in its battle against ISIS in Syria; his book on his experiences, Desert Sniper, was published in the UK by Little, Brown in September 2018. | 1,385 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Robert Bruce King from 1306-1329
The most famous king that Scotland ever had was Robert Bruce. He lived in the days when Edward I, Edward II, and Edward III were kings of England .
During the reign of Edward I the king of Scotland died and thirteen men claimed the throne. Instead of fighting to decide which of them should be king they asked Edward to settle the question. When he met the Scottish nobles and the rivals, each of whom thought that next day he would be wearing the crown, Edward told them that he would himself be their king. Just then an English army marched up. What could the nobles do but kneel at the feet of Edward and promise to be his vassals? This they did; and so Scotland became a part of Edward's kingdom and Baliol (Ba'-li-ol), one of the rivals who claimed the Scottish throne, was made the vassal king.
Some time after this Edward ordered Baliol to raise an army and help him fight the French. Baliol refused to do this, so Edward marched with an army into Scotland and took him prisoner. He was determined that the Scotch should have no more kings of their own. So he carried away the sacred stone of Scone (scoon), on which all kings of Scotland had to sit when they were crowned, and put it in Westminster Abbey in London, and there it is to this day. It is underneath the chair on which the sovereigns of England always sit when the crown of England , Scotland , and Ireland is placed upon their heads. It is said to have been the very stone that Jacob used for a pillow on the night that he saw, in his dream, angels ascending and descending on the ladder that reached from earth to heaven.
Edward now supposed, as he had this sacred stone and had put King Baliol in prison, that Scotland was conquered.
But the men whom he appointed to govern the Scotch ruled unwisely and nearly all the people were discontented. Suddenly an army of Scots was raised. It was led by Sir William Wallace, a knight who was almost a giant in size. Wallace's men drove the English out of the country and Wallace was made the "Guardian of the Realm."
Edward then led a great army against him. The Scottish soldiers were nearly all on foot. Wallace arranged them in hollow squares — spearmen on the outside, bowmen within. The English horsemen dashed vainly against the walls of spear-points. But King Edward now brought his archers to the front. Thousands of arrows flew from their bows and thousands of Wallace's men fell dead. The spears were broken and the Scotch were defeated. Wallace barely escaped with his life. He was afterwards betrayed to Edward, who cruelly put him to death. | <urn:uuid:e2c19669-0e1d-407a-80dc-a448a318cd70> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/83/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.990404 | 567 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.090049467980... | 1 | Robert Bruce King from 1306-1329
The most famous king that Scotland ever had was Robert Bruce. He lived in the days when Edward I, Edward II, and Edward III were kings of England .
During the reign of Edward I the king of Scotland died and thirteen men claimed the throne. Instead of fighting to decide which of them should be king they asked Edward to settle the question. When he met the Scottish nobles and the rivals, each of whom thought that next day he would be wearing the crown, Edward told them that he would himself be their king. Just then an English army marched up. What could the nobles do but kneel at the feet of Edward and promise to be his vassals? This they did; and so Scotland became a part of Edward's kingdom and Baliol (Ba'-li-ol), one of the rivals who claimed the Scottish throne, was made the vassal king.
Some time after this Edward ordered Baliol to raise an army and help him fight the French. Baliol refused to do this, so Edward marched with an army into Scotland and took him prisoner. He was determined that the Scotch should have no more kings of their own. So he carried away the sacred stone of Scone (scoon), on which all kings of Scotland had to sit when they were crowned, and put it in Westminster Abbey in London, and there it is to this day. It is underneath the chair on which the sovereigns of England always sit when the crown of England , Scotland , and Ireland is placed upon their heads. It is said to have been the very stone that Jacob used for a pillow on the night that he saw, in his dream, angels ascending and descending on the ladder that reached from earth to heaven.
Edward now supposed, as he had this sacred stone and had put King Baliol in prison, that Scotland was conquered.
But the men whom he appointed to govern the Scotch ruled unwisely and nearly all the people were discontented. Suddenly an army of Scots was raised. It was led by Sir William Wallace, a knight who was almost a giant in size. Wallace's men drove the English out of the country and Wallace was made the "Guardian of the Realm."
Edward then led a great army against him. The Scottish soldiers were nearly all on foot. Wallace arranged them in hollow squares — spearmen on the outside, bowmen within. The English horsemen dashed vainly against the walls of spear-points. But King Edward now brought his archers to the front. Thousands of arrows flew from their bows and thousands of Wallace's men fell dead. The spears were broken and the Scotch were defeated. Wallace barely escaped with his life. He was afterwards betrayed to Edward, who cruelly put him to death. | 568 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Inspiration for A Christmas Carol
Charles Dickens was inspired to write A Christmas Carol in 1843, he was appalled by the abuse going on in factories to women and children in London at that time. It is a timeless classic that has stayed in the hearts of many. There has been many movie adaptations and spin offs. At the time of publication there was nine stage plays based on the novel. Although Charles Dickens was not happy with the stage play’s violation of his work, the novel impacted the literary world. The literature is beautiful, true to Charles Dickens style. The Carol has memorable quotes, such as Ebenezer scrooge’s “Bah Humbug,” and Tiny Tim’s “God Bless us, everyone.” A Christmas Carol has become part of the Christmas tradition.
A Christmas Carol
For those of us who wish to live in a cave, A Christmas Carol’s plot goes like this. Ebenezer Scrooge is a rich miser that is consumed by his only goal, of achieving wealth. He is cruel and unfeeling to the people around him, including his employee Bob Cratchit. On Christmas Eve he is visited by the ghost of his deceased business partner Jacob Marley. Who warns him that if he does not change his ways, he will be doomed to share the same fate as himself, trapped with his spirit doomed to walk the earth and remain in chains for eternity. He informs scrooge that he will be visited by three spirits, the ghost of Christmas past, the ghost of Christmas present, and the ghost of Christmas future. The ghost of Christmas past shows Ebenezer’s past Christmases of his childhood and youth. The ghost of Christmas present shows scrooge the Christmas celebrations of the present, including that of his nephew’s and his employe’s Bob Cratchit. Scrooge asks the spirit about Tiny Tim, Chratchit’s son who is in poor health and needs a crutch to walk. The spirit warns that if the shadows of the future remain unaltered the child will die. The most terrifying spectre, the ghost of Christmas future shows scrooge the circumstances of his own death and presents him with his grave. Scrooge Vows he will cherish Christmas in his heart. Ebenezer Scrooge awakens on Christmas morning a changed man.
Inspiration Of Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens was involved in charities and social issues throughout his entire life. In early 1843 he read a government report describing the conditions of women and children employed in mines and factories, it described the abuse of the laborers. He was stricken down by these victims. Dickens vowed he would strike a “sledge hammer blow,” on behalf of the “poor man’s child.” The idea for the Carol came to him in October 1843, while doing a talk; he thought the best way to bring attention to the horror that was happening, would be to write a story instead of an article.
He was determined to publish the novel the Christmas of that year. He composed it in frenzy, even as he walked the black streets of London. It only took him six weeks to write the manuscript.
Dickens later wrote in a letter that he “saw,” his characters much like the way that Dickens wrote the Cratchits, they were “ever tugging at his coat sleeve, as if impatient for him to get back to his desk and continue the story of their lives.”
Ignorance and Want
Charles Dickens was concerned with impoverished children who turned to crime and delinquency in order to survive. The poverty in London was very great at that time, it was known as the “hungry forties.” There was a fear in London in that period, that there would be a revolution as there had been in France. Charles Dickens touches on this, with the Metaphor of the children “Ignorance and Want.” In the Novel the ghost of Christmas Present reveals two children, a girl and a boy “Ignorance and Want,’’ hidden in his robes. He warns to beware of them, “for on his brow I see that written which is doom, unless the writing be erased.”
The publishers spared no expense. The illustrations were hand sketched and painted by John Leech, on steel and woodcuts. Some of the pictures were beautifully colored. The novel was expensive to buy, at the price of five shillings. The illustration of the children was depicted in a terrifying manner. The spirit shows scrooge the children, ignorance and want, “Beware them both.’’ Leech drew the terrible children with claw like feet. Drawn in the background are factories, a definite symbol for the abuse of children who labored, since factory houses were not stationed in Manchester.
Charles Dickens character of scrooge was well named after the words screw and gouge. He is a perfect metaphor for the poor’s terrible misfortune and abuse caused by wealthy men. Scrooge’s greed is beautifully woven into the novel.
“Every idiot who goes about with ‘Merry Christmas’ on his lips, should be boiled with his own pudding, and buried with a stake of holly through his heart.”-Ebenezer Scrooge
“It is required of every man, that the spirit within him should walk abroad among his fellow- men, and travel far and wide; and if that spirit goes not forth in life, it is condemned to do so after death.”-Marley
“Another idol has displaced me; and if it can cheer and comfort you in time to come, as I would have tried to do, I have no just cause to grieve.” -Bell
“They are Man’s, and they cling to me, appealing from their fathers. This boy is Ignorance. This girl is Want. Beware them both, and all of their degree, but most of all beware this boy, for on his brow I see that written which is doom, unless the writing be erased. Deny it! Slander those who tell it ye! Admit it for your factious purposes, and make it worse. And bide the end! - The spirit of Christmas present
It was well liked by the public. It was published the December of 1843, and sold 6000 copies in only five days. It was the most successful book of the 1843 Christmas holiday season.
In 1867 Dickens read A Christmas Carol in Chicago at a public reading. One of the audience members, Mr. Fairbanks who was a scale manufacturer, was deeply moved by the quote, “Break the custom we have hitherto observed of opening the works on Christmas day.” Fairbanks closed the factory on Christmas day and gave Christmas turkeys to all his employees.
The preface of the novel reads as such:
I have endeavored in this Ghostly little book, to raise the Ghost of an Idea, which shall not put my readers out of humour with themselves, with each other, with the season, or with me. May it haunt their houses pleasantly, and no one wish to lay it.
Their faithful Friend and Servant,
It is so! The book has pleasantly haunted us. One hundred and seventy four years after its publication, it is still as popular now as it was then. Charles Dickens supernatural plot was original in its Christmas theme. The story of three spirits, a man experiencing a change of heart, and Tiny Tim has touched the heart of millions. Scrooge’s “Bah Humbug” has become synonymous with not having the Christmas spirit. A Christmas Carol has remained part of the tradition of Christmas in a magical way that Charles Dickens composed.
“A Christmas Carol” by Charles Dickens. ISBN:978-1-4351-4910-6
“The origins of a Christmas Carol”- Presented by The British Library
Questions & Answers
What issues or themes does the book "A Christmas Carol" bring out?
Issues of greed and the effects of rich men's power over the poor. The main theme of the book is the importance of kindness and generosity.Helpful 3 | <urn:uuid:bdbccbf7-e711-44cf-8a4e-d38f65818b76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Inspiration-for-A-Christmas-Carol | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00317.warc.gz | en | 0.980722 | 1,728 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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Charles Dickens was inspired to write A Christmas Carol in 1843, he was appalled by the abuse going on in factories to women and children in London at that time. It is a timeless classic that has stayed in the hearts of many. There has been many movie adaptations and spin offs. At the time of publication there was nine stage plays based on the novel. Although Charles Dickens was not happy with the stage play’s violation of his work, the novel impacted the literary world. The literature is beautiful, true to Charles Dickens style. The Carol has memorable quotes, such as Ebenezer scrooge’s “Bah Humbug,” and Tiny Tim’s “God Bless us, everyone.” A Christmas Carol has become part of the Christmas tradition.
A Christmas Carol
For those of us who wish to live in a cave, A Christmas Carol’s plot goes like this. Ebenezer Scrooge is a rich miser that is consumed by his only goal, of achieving wealth. He is cruel and unfeeling to the people around him, including his employee Bob Cratchit. On Christmas Eve he is visited by the ghost of his deceased business partner Jacob Marley. Who warns him that if he does not change his ways, he will be doomed to share the same fate as himself, trapped with his spirit doomed to walk the earth and remain in chains for eternity. He informs scrooge that he will be visited by three spirits, the ghost of Christmas past, the ghost of Christmas present, and the ghost of Christmas future. The ghost of Christmas past shows Ebenezer’s past Christmases of his childhood and youth. The ghost of Christmas present shows scrooge the Christmas celebrations of the present, including that of his nephew’s and his employe’s Bob Cratchit. Scrooge asks the spirit about Tiny Tim, Chratchit’s son who is in poor health and needs a crutch to walk. The spirit warns that if the shadows of the future remain unaltered the child will die. The most terrifying spectre, the ghost of Christmas future shows scrooge the circumstances of his own death and presents him with his grave. Scrooge Vows he will cherish Christmas in his heart. Ebenezer Scrooge awakens on Christmas morning a changed man.
Inspiration Of Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens was involved in charities and social issues throughout his entire life. In early 1843 he read a government report describing the conditions of women and children employed in mines and factories, it described the abuse of the laborers. He was stricken down by these victims. Dickens vowed he would strike a “sledge hammer blow,” on behalf of the “poor man’s child.” The idea for the Carol came to him in October 1843, while doing a talk; he thought the best way to bring attention to the horror that was happening, would be to write a story instead of an article.
He was determined to publish the novel the Christmas of that year. He composed it in frenzy, even as he walked the black streets of London. It only took him six weeks to write the manuscript.
Dickens later wrote in a letter that he “saw,” his characters much like the way that Dickens wrote the Cratchits, they were “ever tugging at his coat sleeve, as if impatient for him to get back to his desk and continue the story of their lives.”
Ignorance and Want
Charles Dickens was concerned with impoverished children who turned to crime and delinquency in order to survive. The poverty in London was very great at that time, it was known as the “hungry forties.” There was a fear in London in that period, that there would be a revolution as there had been in France. Charles Dickens touches on this, with the Metaphor of the children “Ignorance and Want.” In the Novel the ghost of Christmas Present reveals two children, a girl and a boy “Ignorance and Want,’’ hidden in his robes. He warns to beware of them, “for on his brow I see that written which is doom, unless the writing be erased.”
The publishers spared no expense. The illustrations were hand sketched and painted by John Leech, on steel and woodcuts. Some of the pictures were beautifully colored. The novel was expensive to buy, at the price of five shillings. The illustration of the children was depicted in a terrifying manner. The spirit shows scrooge the children, ignorance and want, “Beware them both.’’ Leech drew the terrible children with claw like feet. Drawn in the background are factories, a definite symbol for the abuse of children who labored, since factory houses were not stationed in Manchester.
Charles Dickens character of scrooge was well named after the words screw and gouge. He is a perfect metaphor for the poor’s terrible misfortune and abuse caused by wealthy men. Scrooge’s greed is beautifully woven into the novel.
“Every idiot who goes about with ‘Merry Christmas’ on his lips, should be boiled with his own pudding, and buried with a stake of holly through his heart.”-Ebenezer Scrooge
“It is required of every man, that the spirit within him should walk abroad among his fellow- men, and travel far and wide; and if that spirit goes not forth in life, it is condemned to do so after death.”-Marley
“Another idol has displaced me; and if it can cheer and comfort you in time to come, as I would have tried to do, I have no just cause to grieve.” -Bell
“They are Man’s, and they cling to me, appealing from their fathers. This boy is Ignorance. This girl is Want. Beware them both, and all of their degree, but most of all beware this boy, for on his brow I see that written which is doom, unless the writing be erased. Deny it! Slander those who tell it ye! Admit it for your factious purposes, and make it worse. And bide the end! - The spirit of Christmas present
It was well liked by the public. It was published the December of 1843, and sold 6000 copies in only five days. It was the most successful book of the 1843 Christmas holiday season.
In 1867 Dickens read A Christmas Carol in Chicago at a public reading. One of the audience members, Mr. Fairbanks who was a scale manufacturer, was deeply moved by the quote, “Break the custom we have hitherto observed of opening the works on Christmas day.” Fairbanks closed the factory on Christmas day and gave Christmas turkeys to all his employees.
The preface of the novel reads as such:
I have endeavored in this Ghostly little book, to raise the Ghost of an Idea, which shall not put my readers out of humour with themselves, with each other, with the season, or with me. May it haunt their houses pleasantly, and no one wish to lay it.
Their faithful Friend and Servant,
It is so! The book has pleasantly haunted us. One hundred and seventy four years after its publication, it is still as popular now as it was then. Charles Dickens supernatural plot was original in its Christmas theme. The story of three spirits, a man experiencing a change of heart, and Tiny Tim has touched the heart of millions. Scrooge’s “Bah Humbug” has become synonymous with not having the Christmas spirit. A Christmas Carol has remained part of the tradition of Christmas in a magical way that Charles Dickens composed.
“A Christmas Carol” by Charles Dickens. ISBN:978-1-4351-4910-6
“The origins of a Christmas Carol”- Presented by The British Library
Questions & Answers
What issues or themes does the book "A Christmas Carol" bring out?
Issues of greed and the effects of rich men's power over the poor. The main theme of the book is the importance of kindness and generosity.Helpful 3 | 1,659 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of Karl Marx
15Karl Marx was born on May 5, 1818 to Heinrich and Henrietta Marx in the historical city of Trier. Karl was one of seven children raised within a comfortable middle class home provided by his father. Marx’s father worked as a counselor-at-law at the High-Court of Appeal in Trier. David McClellan believes that, “Trier first imbued Marx with his abiding passion for history.”1 Although the Marx family was linked to a long lineage of Jewish ancestry, Heinrich converted his family to Protestantism in order to keep his position at the courthouse. “Some have considered this rabbinic ancestry to be the key to Marx’s ideas and see him as a secularized version of an Old Testament prophet.”2 Overall, Marx was raised in a very loving, supportive, environment, and maintained a special relationship with his father throughout his life.3
In 1830, Marx began school at the Friedrich-Wilhelm-Gymnasium, a Jesuit foundation that had become a respectable high school with a liberal headmaster. While in high school, Marx was known as a bully and acted more as a leader to the students than as a close friend. His marks were less than average in history related subjects, French, and mathematics. Marx, however, did earn excellent marks in Greek, Latin, and German.4
In 1835, Marx graduated from high school and fell in love with Jenny von Westphalen the daughter of a powerful politician. The couple was secretly engaged in the summer of 1836, but, because of their conflicting ancestries, their families would not allow the wedding to commence for seven years.5
After the couples engagement, Marx was enrolled into the University of Bonn on October 17,1835 as a student of jurisprudence. While in college, Marx spent much more time and energy focusing on his academics. Even in college, Karl and his father maintained a very close relationship. This relationship can be seen through this letter written by Marx’s father in November of 1835:
I wish to see you in you what I might have become, had I first seen the light of day under move favorable auspices…it may be unjust and ill-advised as well to put one’s greatest hopes in a single person and thus perhaps undermine one’s own equanimity.6
However, Marx took up drinking and found himself in a bar fight which resulted in his transfer to the University of Berlin .7 At Berlin, Marx studied law, philosophy, and history until the death of his father in October of 1836. After his father’s death, Marx abandoned law and focused his studies mainly on philosophy. He then became an atheist, a democrat, and a critic of the Prussian government.8
In 1841, Karl Marx successfully submitted his doctoral thesis on the philosophy of Epicurus and Democritus to the University of Jena . The following year, he began working for a liberal newspaper called the Rheinische Zeitung, and was finally allowed to... | <urn:uuid:6596750b-c88c-4f4d-8ed9-f2c56aef896e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/biography-of-karl-marx-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.987182 | 639 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.06919... | 1 | Biography of Karl Marx
15Karl Marx was born on May 5, 1818 to Heinrich and Henrietta Marx in the historical city of Trier. Karl was one of seven children raised within a comfortable middle class home provided by his father. Marx’s father worked as a counselor-at-law at the High-Court of Appeal in Trier. David McClellan believes that, “Trier first imbued Marx with his abiding passion for history.”1 Although the Marx family was linked to a long lineage of Jewish ancestry, Heinrich converted his family to Protestantism in order to keep his position at the courthouse. “Some have considered this rabbinic ancestry to be the key to Marx’s ideas and see him as a secularized version of an Old Testament prophet.”2 Overall, Marx was raised in a very loving, supportive, environment, and maintained a special relationship with his father throughout his life.3
In 1830, Marx began school at the Friedrich-Wilhelm-Gymnasium, a Jesuit foundation that had become a respectable high school with a liberal headmaster. While in high school, Marx was known as a bully and acted more as a leader to the students than as a close friend. His marks were less than average in history related subjects, French, and mathematics. Marx, however, did earn excellent marks in Greek, Latin, and German.4
In 1835, Marx graduated from high school and fell in love with Jenny von Westphalen the daughter of a powerful politician. The couple was secretly engaged in the summer of 1836, but, because of their conflicting ancestries, their families would not allow the wedding to commence for seven years.5
After the couples engagement, Marx was enrolled into the University of Bonn on October 17,1835 as a student of jurisprudence. While in college, Marx spent much more time and energy focusing on his academics. Even in college, Karl and his father maintained a very close relationship. This relationship can be seen through this letter written by Marx’s father in November of 1835:
I wish to see you in you what I might have become, had I first seen the light of day under move favorable auspices…it may be unjust and ill-advised as well to put one’s greatest hopes in a single person and thus perhaps undermine one’s own equanimity.6
However, Marx took up drinking and found himself in a bar fight which resulted in his transfer to the University of Berlin .7 At Berlin, Marx studied law, philosophy, and history until the death of his father in October of 1836. After his father’s death, Marx abandoned law and focused his studies mainly on philosophy. He then became an atheist, a democrat, and a critic of the Prussian government.8
In 1841, Karl Marx successfully submitted his doctoral thesis on the philosophy of Epicurus and Democritus to the University of Jena . The following year, he began working for a liberal newspaper called the Rheinische Zeitung, and was finally allowed to... | 646 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Even though a Titan himself, together with his brother Epimetheushe sided with Zeus during the Titanomachy.
Prometheus was the god of fire and one of the Titans. He was a master craftsman and considered to be very clever and mischievous. He was the son of a Titan and a sea nymph. He would escape imprisonment during the war against the Olympians and become a pillar in some of the most important Greek myths.
Origins Prometheus was one of the Titans, the family of giants who ruled the earth until eventually being overthrown by the Olympians. He ended up fighting with the Olympians after the Titans refused to follow his advice to use trickery to win the war.
Rather than disappearing from Greek mythology when the Titans were sent to Tartarus after the war, Prometheus remained to be an important asset. Legends and Stories The myths surrounding Prometheus are many and some focus on the most important chapters of Greek mythology, including the creation of man.
Creation of Man While the other Titans were imprisoned in Tartarus, Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus escaped by fighting against their fellow Titans. They were then given the task of creating man. Prometheus used mud to make the shape of man while Athena breathed life into the sculpture.
Prometheus then asked his brother to give all creatures of the earth their unique qualities. Some were fast while some were smart. He also gave them their physical qualities, such as fur or wings.
Epimetheus worked hard to complete his task but by the time he reached man, he had given out all the good qualities that were available. Prometheus stepped in and gave man the ability to stand upright just like the gods.
He also gave them fire. Even though Prometheus had fought with the Olympians during the war with the Titans, he was more loyal to man than he was the Olympians. So when Zeus demanded that man must give up a portion of each animal they sacrificed, Prometheus knew he had to find a way to help man and trick Zeus.
He made two piles, one with meat hidden inside an animal hide and another with bones wrapped in fat. He asked Zeus to pick which he would prefer.
Zeus chose the bones because he could see the fat. He was unable to see the delicious meat hidden in the animal hide. Realizing that he had been tricked, Zeus sought revenge by taking fire away from man.
Prometheus knew he had to give man back fire as they would not survive without it. He took a torch and lit it from the sun. He then used it to give fire back to man, which again enraged Zeus.
It is easy to see that Prometheus considered man to be more important than his loyalty to the gods. Zeus was still upset about man having fire and he needed a way to punish man as well.
He asked Hephaestus to create a beautiful mortal. The mortal was the first woman, named Pandora. The final gift from the gods was a jar. Pandora was told that she was forbidden from opening the jar and was quickly sent to Epimetheus who lived among man. Prometheus knew that Pandora was a creation of Zeus and warned his brother of possible ill intentions.
But Pandora was strikingly beautiful and Epimetheus could not turn her away. During her stay, Pandora grew more curious about what was in the jar.
One day, her curiosity finally got the best of her and she opened it, releasing plagues, evils, sorrows and misfortunes that man had been oblivious to before. At the bottom of the jar there was hope.Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound (extant play), Prometheus Unbound, Prometheus Fire-Bringer, Prometheus Fire-Kindler (lost plays) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.): Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound was the second of a trilogy of plays describing the story of the Titan Prometheus.
Prometheus was the god of fire and one of the Titans. He was a master craftsman and considered to be very clever and mischievous. He was the son of a Titan and a sea nymph. He would escape imprisonment during the war against the Olympians and become a pillar in some of the most important Greek .
Greek Mythology is the set of stories about the gods, goddesses, heroes and rituals of Ancient Greeks. Greek Mythology was part of the religion in Ancient Greece. The most popular Greek Mythology figures include Greek Gods like Zeus, Poseidon & Apollo, Greek Goddesses like Aphrodite, Hera & Athena and Titans like Atlas.
This led to Prometheus stealing the fire from the gods and gifting it to humanity, which resulted in Zeus chaining Prometheus and sending an eagle to prey upon his continually regenerating liver. After some time, Zeus ’ son Heracles shot the eagle and freed Prometheus, and the Titan subsequently made peace with his savior’s father.
In Greek mythology, the Titan Prometheus had a reputation as being something of a clever trickster and he famously gave the human race the gift of fire. Prometheus is a Titan in Greek mythology best-known for bringing fire to mankind.
Legend suggests that it was Prometheus who bestowed this fiery miracle upon us. He is . | <urn:uuid:36eae7a1-9d60-4b20-b50a-4083e2bd17c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vunajyp.ashio-midori.com/greek-mythology-and-prometheus-31869xp.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.984972 | 1,062 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.3469293713569... | 2 | Even though a Titan himself, together with his brother Epimetheushe sided with Zeus during the Titanomachy.
Prometheus was the god of fire and one of the Titans. He was a master craftsman and considered to be very clever and mischievous. He was the son of a Titan and a sea nymph. He would escape imprisonment during the war against the Olympians and become a pillar in some of the most important Greek myths.
Origins Prometheus was one of the Titans, the family of giants who ruled the earth until eventually being overthrown by the Olympians. He ended up fighting with the Olympians after the Titans refused to follow his advice to use trickery to win the war.
Rather than disappearing from Greek mythology when the Titans were sent to Tartarus after the war, Prometheus remained to be an important asset. Legends and Stories The myths surrounding Prometheus are many and some focus on the most important chapters of Greek mythology, including the creation of man.
Creation of Man While the other Titans were imprisoned in Tartarus, Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus escaped by fighting against their fellow Titans. They were then given the task of creating man. Prometheus used mud to make the shape of man while Athena breathed life into the sculpture.
Prometheus then asked his brother to give all creatures of the earth their unique qualities. Some were fast while some were smart. He also gave them their physical qualities, such as fur or wings.
Epimetheus worked hard to complete his task but by the time he reached man, he had given out all the good qualities that were available. Prometheus stepped in and gave man the ability to stand upright just like the gods.
He also gave them fire. Even though Prometheus had fought with the Olympians during the war with the Titans, he was more loyal to man than he was the Olympians. So when Zeus demanded that man must give up a portion of each animal they sacrificed, Prometheus knew he had to find a way to help man and trick Zeus.
He made two piles, one with meat hidden inside an animal hide and another with bones wrapped in fat. He asked Zeus to pick which he would prefer.
Zeus chose the bones because he could see the fat. He was unable to see the delicious meat hidden in the animal hide. Realizing that he had been tricked, Zeus sought revenge by taking fire away from man.
Prometheus knew he had to give man back fire as they would not survive without it. He took a torch and lit it from the sun. He then used it to give fire back to man, which again enraged Zeus.
It is easy to see that Prometheus considered man to be more important than his loyalty to the gods. Zeus was still upset about man having fire and he needed a way to punish man as well.
He asked Hephaestus to create a beautiful mortal. The mortal was the first woman, named Pandora. The final gift from the gods was a jar. Pandora was told that she was forbidden from opening the jar and was quickly sent to Epimetheus who lived among man. Prometheus knew that Pandora was a creation of Zeus and warned his brother of possible ill intentions.
But Pandora was strikingly beautiful and Epimetheus could not turn her away. During her stay, Pandora grew more curious about what was in the jar.
One day, her curiosity finally got the best of her and she opened it, releasing plagues, evils, sorrows and misfortunes that man had been oblivious to before. At the bottom of the jar there was hope.Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound (extant play), Prometheus Unbound, Prometheus Fire-Bringer, Prometheus Fire-Kindler (lost plays) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.): Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound was the second of a trilogy of plays describing the story of the Titan Prometheus.
Prometheus was the god of fire and one of the Titans. He was a master craftsman and considered to be very clever and mischievous. He was the son of a Titan and a sea nymph. He would escape imprisonment during the war against the Olympians and become a pillar in some of the most important Greek .
Greek Mythology is the set of stories about the gods, goddesses, heroes and rituals of Ancient Greeks. Greek Mythology was part of the religion in Ancient Greece. The most popular Greek Mythology figures include Greek Gods like Zeus, Poseidon & Apollo, Greek Goddesses like Aphrodite, Hera & Athena and Titans like Atlas.
This led to Prometheus stealing the fire from the gods and gifting it to humanity, which resulted in Zeus chaining Prometheus and sending an eagle to prey upon his continually regenerating liver. After some time, Zeus ’ son Heracles shot the eagle and freed Prometheus, and the Titan subsequently made peace with his savior’s father.
In Greek mythology, the Titan Prometheus had a reputation as being something of a clever trickster and he famously gave the human race the gift of fire. Prometheus is a Titan in Greek mythology best-known for bringing fire to mankind.
Legend suggests that it was Prometheus who bestowed this fiery miracle upon us. He is . | 1,035 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the variations in the myths of 6) Tiresias is that 7) Athena blinded him as punishment for accidentally seeing her bathe naked. This seems to have been first written down by the poet Pherecydes in the 450s BC.
Both Tiresias and Athena also appear in the epic poem “The Odyssey” by Homer, both taking on the role of advisor to Odysseus. Tiresias appears when Odysseus summons up the spirits of the dead in the hope that they may provide directions to get him back home. He had been advised that he must not speak to any ghost, even that of his mother, until he had spoken to the spirit of Tiresias first.
Tiresias explains to Odysseus that his difficult journey home was being manipulated by the god Poseidon as punishment for blinding his Cyclops son. He offers advice on how to tackle future dangers and warns Odysseus of the difficult affairs back home with the many unwanted suitors of his wife Penelope.
Athena was also keen to advise Odysseus, as well as his son Telemachus. On several occasions she appeared to them in the form of a man. The Greek gods were frequent shape-shifters. Only on very rare occasions did they change gender temporarily. This is in contrast to several Asian deities whose transgender manifestations tend to be permanent.
Athena’s transformation was to disguise her identity rather than as an expression of her sexuality. She chose to appear in the form of one specific person, a friend of Odysseus called Mentor. The two friends had served in the army together, and when Odysseus went off to fight in the Trojan War he left Mentor to watch over his palace, his wife Penelope and is son Telemachus.
Whether the real Mentor was any good as a guardian is uncertain, but it was Athena in his form who encouraged Telemachus to stand up to his mother’s unwanted suitors. She, as Mentor, also suggested to Telemachus that he should find out what had really happened to his father.
The role of Athena as Mentor came to be regarded as a model for the type of personal advisor that now bears his name. I wonder how many people who regard themselves as a mentor realise they are following in the footsteps of female deity who transformed herself into a man for the purpose.
Athena also had an important influence as the patron of the city of Athens. A legend tells how the founder of the city, rather unusually, didn’t name it after himself but said it would be named after the god who gave the city the best gift. Athena and Poseidon stepped up to the challenge. Poseidon hit the ground with his trident and produced a never-ending supply of water – salt water. Other myths say he created the first horse. Athena, on the other hand, created the first olive tree. The citizens chose the olive tree as the best gift and named their city Athens.
Athens is the home to one of the most magnificent temple sites in ancient Greece dedicated to Athens, and the most famous. The Parthenon stands proudly on top of the Acropolis and had several huge statues of Athena which have long since been destroyed. At least three statues of Athena were made by the same artist, 8) Phidias (living 5th century BC), often stated to have been the greatest sculptor in ancient Greece, and the man who created a style that is still being copied in modern buildings.
Phidias acted as chief architect and designer of the temple complex on the Acropolis. It is his most famous work, but another work that has also long since been destroyed, earned a spot on the famous list of the Seven Wonders of the World. This was another massive statue, this time to Zeus, in the temple at Olympia where the ancient Olympics took place. During my 2012 Olympic Countdown series I wrote about this statue and the fact that Phidias carved a little inscription onto it saying “Pantarkes is gorgeous”. Pantarkes was one of Phidias’s apprentices, aged around 12, who was also his eromenos – boy lover. Pantarkes was also the boys wrestling champion at the Olympic Games of 436 BC, the year before Phidias completed his statue of Zeus.
Today the Seven Wonders are well-known. Before Phidias’s day, however, only three of the Wonders on the traditional list were in existence – the Great Pyramid at Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. No-one listed any Wonders until over 300 years after Phidias died and there was never any consensus of what went on the list until the Renaissance and the invention of printing and the spread of printed books. There may easily be some long lost list of Ancient Wonders that included Phidias’s temple complex on the Acropolis and its huge statues in addition to his statue of Zeus.
Some ancient writers, however, didn’t share the view that these structures were anything to wonder at. They regarded them as evidence of the tyranny of rulers. One of these writers was the famous Aristotle. He criticised the construction of all huge monuments and buildings, even temples, because their construction meant taxing the citizens to pay for them. That’s not entirely true and Aristotle is over-simplifying the motives of the rulers who constructed them. But it’s a criticism that is still often levelled in modern times when new, big construction projects begin.
Among the structures Aristotle criticised were the pyramids, the monuments in Corinth and the statue of Zeus in Athens (not the same at the statue at Olympia by Phidias), among others. Aristotle singled out one tyrant by name in his list, 9) Polycrates of Samos (d.522 BC).
Next time of “80 More Gays”: We develop a psychological complex and visit the opera to see the revival of an ancient king. | <urn:uuid:3b47acd8-9595-49d9-8fbd-b12293ddab3e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://queerstoryfiles.blogspot.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.986672 | 1,250 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.5241538286209106... | 1 | One of the variations in the myths of 6) Tiresias is that 7) Athena blinded him as punishment for accidentally seeing her bathe naked. This seems to have been first written down by the poet Pherecydes in the 450s BC.
Both Tiresias and Athena also appear in the epic poem “The Odyssey” by Homer, both taking on the role of advisor to Odysseus. Tiresias appears when Odysseus summons up the spirits of the dead in the hope that they may provide directions to get him back home. He had been advised that he must not speak to any ghost, even that of his mother, until he had spoken to the spirit of Tiresias first.
Tiresias explains to Odysseus that his difficult journey home was being manipulated by the god Poseidon as punishment for blinding his Cyclops son. He offers advice on how to tackle future dangers and warns Odysseus of the difficult affairs back home with the many unwanted suitors of his wife Penelope.
Athena was also keen to advise Odysseus, as well as his son Telemachus. On several occasions she appeared to them in the form of a man. The Greek gods were frequent shape-shifters. Only on very rare occasions did they change gender temporarily. This is in contrast to several Asian deities whose transgender manifestations tend to be permanent.
Athena’s transformation was to disguise her identity rather than as an expression of her sexuality. She chose to appear in the form of one specific person, a friend of Odysseus called Mentor. The two friends had served in the army together, and when Odysseus went off to fight in the Trojan War he left Mentor to watch over his palace, his wife Penelope and is son Telemachus.
Whether the real Mentor was any good as a guardian is uncertain, but it was Athena in his form who encouraged Telemachus to stand up to his mother’s unwanted suitors. She, as Mentor, also suggested to Telemachus that he should find out what had really happened to his father.
The role of Athena as Mentor came to be regarded as a model for the type of personal advisor that now bears his name. I wonder how many people who regard themselves as a mentor realise they are following in the footsteps of female deity who transformed herself into a man for the purpose.
Athena also had an important influence as the patron of the city of Athens. A legend tells how the founder of the city, rather unusually, didn’t name it after himself but said it would be named after the god who gave the city the best gift. Athena and Poseidon stepped up to the challenge. Poseidon hit the ground with his trident and produced a never-ending supply of water – salt water. Other myths say he created the first horse. Athena, on the other hand, created the first olive tree. The citizens chose the olive tree as the best gift and named their city Athens.
Athens is the home to one of the most magnificent temple sites in ancient Greece dedicated to Athens, and the most famous. The Parthenon stands proudly on top of the Acropolis and had several huge statues of Athena which have long since been destroyed. At least three statues of Athena were made by the same artist, 8) Phidias (living 5th century BC), often stated to have been the greatest sculptor in ancient Greece, and the man who created a style that is still being copied in modern buildings.
Phidias acted as chief architect and designer of the temple complex on the Acropolis. It is his most famous work, but another work that has also long since been destroyed, earned a spot on the famous list of the Seven Wonders of the World. This was another massive statue, this time to Zeus, in the temple at Olympia where the ancient Olympics took place. During my 2012 Olympic Countdown series I wrote about this statue and the fact that Phidias carved a little inscription onto it saying “Pantarkes is gorgeous”. Pantarkes was one of Phidias’s apprentices, aged around 12, who was also his eromenos – boy lover. Pantarkes was also the boys wrestling champion at the Olympic Games of 436 BC, the year before Phidias completed his statue of Zeus.
Today the Seven Wonders are well-known. Before Phidias’s day, however, only three of the Wonders on the traditional list were in existence – the Great Pyramid at Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. No-one listed any Wonders until over 300 years after Phidias died and there was never any consensus of what went on the list until the Renaissance and the invention of printing and the spread of printed books. There may easily be some long lost list of Ancient Wonders that included Phidias’s temple complex on the Acropolis and its huge statues in addition to his statue of Zeus.
Some ancient writers, however, didn’t share the view that these structures were anything to wonder at. They regarded them as evidence of the tyranny of rulers. One of these writers was the famous Aristotle. He criticised the construction of all huge monuments and buildings, even temples, because their construction meant taxing the citizens to pay for them. That’s not entirely true and Aristotle is over-simplifying the motives of the rulers who constructed them. But it’s a criticism that is still often levelled in modern times when new, big construction projects begin.
Among the structures Aristotle criticised were the pyramids, the monuments in Corinth and the statue of Zeus in Athens (not the same at the statue at Olympia by Phidias), among others. Aristotle singled out one tyrant by name in his list, 9) Polycrates of Samos (d.522 BC).
Next time of “80 More Gays”: We develop a psychological complex and visit the opera to see the revival of an ancient king. | 1,234 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The USS Landing Ship Tank 393 has had many roles and jobs throughout its career. During World War II, these ships were one of the largest shipbuilding innovations of its time. The ship had a modern ballast system that allows the ship to sit higher and lower in the water. This was done by pumping the water out of the system which would raise the ship allowing it to beach on land. This helped out greatly during wars to unload supplies. This technique can be seen when it was used in submarines at this time. This landing ship tank (LST) is one of the only two remaining in the United States. The other living USS landing ship tank is on the Ohio River in Evansville, Indiana. USS LST 325 is also now a museum and memorabilia ship like the LST 393. For World War II, more than 1,051 LSTs were built in three years with eighteen shipyards constructing, and 113 of them produced for Britain. Once the war was over, many of the ships were scrapped or sunk. In fact, only 26 of the ships were lost in action. This ship can be seen throughout history as a warship, a United States Highway, and nowadays a history museum.
The USS Landing Ship Tank was an ocean ship created for infantry divisions to invade by sea. The Landing Ship Tank was used to deliver troops, tanks, and assault vehicles. The United States was asked by Prime Minister Winston Churchill to design a ship large enough to travel the ocean, but efficient enough to deliver equipment and troops to different types of coasts. The USS landing ship tank is the smallest vessel the navy considered a ship. Anything smaller is considered a boat. The landing ship is 328 feet long and has a beamwidth of 50 feet. Beamwidth is the widest width the ship has. When they first wanted to construct the LST ships, they tried to assemble three tankers together. This test ship was used in operation torch landings in 1942. Once a design was accepted, through the Lend-Lease agreement, the Royal Navy asked for 200 LST’s to begin production. Once this happened, the first boat set sail in Newport News, Virginia, and the rest of the production Landing Ship Tanks started following four months after. Due to this high demand, steel industry plants shifted their focus to the ship production to help aid the military. When the boat was not carrying tanks, it could ship and house 500 military personnel. However, when the boat was carrying supplies, there would only be about 150 soldiers. When you calculate that out with 28 tanks on board, this meant crews of five-six men per tank. You can see that they need other ships and vehicles to bring troops other than just the landing ship tank. The landing ship tanks have five decks that all hold different responsibilities for the ship and its different jobs. The hold of the ship contains all the engine rooms. The drive shafts, electrical, and two diesel engines are found in the “basement” of the ship. The next level of the boat held all of the tanks and the only laundry room on the ship, and this level is known as the tank deck. Next, the berthing deck, is where the troops would sleep and wash up. The fourth deck up was known as the officer and galley deck, this is where the officers would rest and the troops would get in line for food. Finally, the top section was known as the navigation deck. This was where the radio room and chart room would be found. The USS Landing Ship Tank 393 was one of two ships to still have the original arrangement, so preserving this artifact is necessary to maintain the history. This ship allowed for different types of work depending on the need at the time.
The Birth of the Ship
The USS Landing Ship Tank 393 was set in motion in Newport News, Virginia on November 11, 1942. When a ship is launched into the water, it must go through the ceremonial ship launching and other traditions that are intended to give the ship good luck on its voyage. One major part of the ceremony is the tradition of christening a ship. When a ship is christened, a bottle of champagne is broken over the bow of the ship as it is launched and the name of the ship is spoken. To prepare a champagne bottle for christening, you must wrap the bottle in mesh and place red, white, and blue ribbons along the top of the bottle. This was done by the Purchase Department. When the ship was christened, this becomes the boat’s birthday so this means the LST 393 is now 77 years old. In the USS LST 393 museum, the honoring ribbon and pieces of the broken wine class can be viewed. These tokens were donated by Lucy Sorensen Pape, the 11-year-old girl who christened the ship. Lucy Pape was the daughter of L.R. Sorenson a yard assistant naval architect and shipbuilding executive. This ceremony took place at the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company. The day of the launch also happened to be on the same day as Veteran’s Day. This day of remembrance however was not picked as the same day as the boat launch on purpose. The date for Veteran’s Day was chosen as November 11th because that was the day an agreement with Germany was signed and ended World War I. Once the boat was launched and bid farewell, it had to pass all of its sea test trials before it could set sail for work in Europe. For the USS landing ship tank 393, its career had only just begun as a ship.
Now that the USS landing ship tank 393 was ready for action, it set sail to provide aid in the European Theater of World War II. The landing ship earned three battle stars for its service during World War II invasions in Sicily, Italy, and at Omaha Beach. During its three years of service in the European Theater, the ship was known for making a powerful statement by swinging open its large doors at the end of the ship and releasing the tanks on the beaches. The LST’s most memorable service was at Omaha Beach in Normandy, France. The ship came in during the second day of the invasion. When visiting the ship, you can find the American flag that was flown on the day it landed on Omaha Beach. The boat would dock at the beach during high tide to deliver food, tanks, and ammunition to the troops already on the island. The landing ship took 30 round trips to the beaches along the coast of Normandy. The troops at Omaha Beach only came on board once to eat. This is because the boat has such a flat bottom that the waters were rough and they were so used to not eating that much that the soldiers were sick from a real meal. After supplies were unloaded, the boat would leave again before the tides lowered. During the war, the landing ship tank did more than delivering men and tanks, it also was designed to withstand the brodie system. This system allowed scout planes to take off and land on the ship without having a runway or a landing deck. This was able to be done with the help of a trolley and elevated cable. The scout plane would be lifted up to the trolley and would roll along the cable to pick up speed for takeoff. For landing, the plane would line up with the cable and would be reeled in like a fishing pole action until the plane slowed. At this time the German U-boats were controlling the Pacific Ocean, so adapting the brodie system helped protect other ships and was able to aid in the anti-submarine missions. After supplies were unloaded, the boat would leave again before the tides lowered. When the boats would take off to head to base in Britain, they would take back soldiers that needed to hospital care and prisoners of war. After its time spent in World War II, the USS LST 393 was sent to Texas to be repainted camo for the invasion of Japan. However, once finished, the boat did not get to see action because the atomic bombs ended the war before it could start. The USS LST 393 was later decommissioned on March 1, 1946 after traveling 51,817 nautical miles, transporting 3,248 vehicles, carrying over nine thousand soldiers, and delivering over five thousand prisoners. The trips of travel across the Pacific Ocean prepared the ship for its next job.
New Role as a Car Ferry
After the boat was decommissioned in 1946, the ship was sent to New Orleans, Louisiana to be painted black and sold. The Wisconsin and Michigan Steamship Company of Milwaukee bought the LST 393 to become a merchant ship, bringing cars from Detroit, Michigan to Muskegon, Michigan to Milwaukee, Wisconsin until 1973. During this new phase of work for the ship, it was given a new name of M/V Highway 16. The new car ferry did not change much to the existing warship. The only major change was the mess room turned into a place to play board games and have meetings. The berthing rooms stayed to allow crew members to sleep or rest during the trip across the Great Lakes. The USS LST 393 can only go 12 knots which equates to almost 14 miles per hour. If there are 252 nautical miles between Detroit and Milwaukee, this would take about 18 hours to arrive at the next destination in good weather. Soldiers would joke that the LST initials stood for large slow target, but the LST ships altogether suffered fewer losses compared to the number of operations that participated in. In Detroit, the ship would be loaded with Ford Motors and General Motors Corporation vehicles. Once it made it to Milwaukee, the LST would be unloaded and American Motors Corporation vehicles would be loaded on and sent back to Detroit. The M/V highway 16 did not have the budget to compete with the larger car companies in Detroit such as Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler and started to lose customers. Once Milwaukee was not able to keep up, the nautical highway interactions slowed soon causing the highway to close. At this time, US 16 was created on land that went from Muskegon to Detroit. After this period, the USS LST 393 was restored to its former glory and was stationed in Muskegon, Michigan.
In 2000, a Muskegon museum group and the Michigan LST Association started to refurbish the LST 393 back to the original state. However, two years into the restoration the two groups ran out of steam and work stopped. Then in 2005, a new group gained permission from the owners at Sand Products Corporation to continue where the previous team had left off. The new group led by Dan Weikel and Bob Wygant spent most of their time cleaning and painting to bring the tour to a state that would be tourable. For the tours, the boat was painted back the camo color scheme that it adopted for the war against Japan. The biggest feat by this group was unwelding the bow doors at the end of the boat. This became the new entry to the museum and the doors had not been opened since the late 1940s. Recently, in 2015, the boat was repainted to the grey scheme that it was during World War II, and this was done to restore the boat to its former wartime greatness. The museum features exhibits with artifacts from the Civil War all the way up until the Iraq War. It also services as a museum about the landing ship tank itself. The Veterans Museum is a non-profit corporation that was designed to restore and preserve the one of only two LST’s remaining. It was also created to honor all of those who served in America’s branches of service for all eras and to educate the public about history. The landing ship tank also hosts corporate, social, and special events. Boy scout troops can sign up for trips to tour the ship and sleepover in the beds that past Americans slept in. This is a great experience for the troops to be put in soldiers’ footsteps for a day. Many boy scouts have said this trip was one of the most memorable nights of their journey with the troop. This is why the USS LST 393 board puts in so much effort to restore and maintain the artifact.
The LST still has some maintenance issues it needs to take care of to prevent wrecking the exhibits. During a private tour, the hoses were run outside to drain out water from the melting snow on the top deck. The leaking issue used to be far worse when the local firefighters would have to drain the water out of the ship when it started to sink. Since then the lowest deck was resealed when it was painted in 2015. When speaking with Scott Grant, the president of the board, the future of the ship and museum is looking to be placed on land to prevent any other leaking and to allow the paint to last longer. The two engines of the ship were last fired up in the late 1990s. Since this is quite recent, this shows the ship still has the potential to run again. The USS Landing Ship Tank 393 was one of two ships to still have the original arrangement, so preserving this artifact is necessary to maintain the history.
- “USS LST 393 Ship” Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, 27 July 1942. Muskegon, Michigan.
- “USS LST-393 Information.” Historic Naval Ships Association Database, 14 May 2014.
- “LST 393 War Diary, June 1944.” Navy History, LST 393.
- Chen, C. Peter. “LST-Class Landing Ship.” World War II Database, April 2007.
- Sherman, Elizabeth B.. Beyond the Windswept Dunes: The Story of Maritime Muskegon. United States, Wayne State University Press, 2003.
- USS LST 393 Museum, “LST History.” LST 393 Preservation Association, 9 November 2019.
- Grant, Scott, “Personal Interview.” 9 November 2019.
- PeriscopeFilm. “LST STORY- Landing Ship Tanks” YouTube, 6 Nov. 2009. | <urn:uuid:f5c19141-84b8-41fb-9592-1269fcac5abf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ss.sites.mtu.edu/mhugl/2019/10/27/uss-lst-393-dllakato/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.980207 | 2,902 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.283113211393356... | 11 | The USS Landing Ship Tank 393 has had many roles and jobs throughout its career. During World War II, these ships were one of the largest shipbuilding innovations of its time. The ship had a modern ballast system that allows the ship to sit higher and lower in the water. This was done by pumping the water out of the system which would raise the ship allowing it to beach on land. This helped out greatly during wars to unload supplies. This technique can be seen when it was used in submarines at this time. This landing ship tank (LST) is one of the only two remaining in the United States. The other living USS landing ship tank is on the Ohio River in Evansville, Indiana. USS LST 325 is also now a museum and memorabilia ship like the LST 393. For World War II, more than 1,051 LSTs were built in three years with eighteen shipyards constructing, and 113 of them produced for Britain. Once the war was over, many of the ships were scrapped or sunk. In fact, only 26 of the ships were lost in action. This ship can be seen throughout history as a warship, a United States Highway, and nowadays a history museum.
The USS Landing Ship Tank was an ocean ship created for infantry divisions to invade by sea. The Landing Ship Tank was used to deliver troops, tanks, and assault vehicles. The United States was asked by Prime Minister Winston Churchill to design a ship large enough to travel the ocean, but efficient enough to deliver equipment and troops to different types of coasts. The USS landing ship tank is the smallest vessel the navy considered a ship. Anything smaller is considered a boat. The landing ship is 328 feet long and has a beamwidth of 50 feet. Beamwidth is the widest width the ship has. When they first wanted to construct the LST ships, they tried to assemble three tankers together. This test ship was used in operation torch landings in 1942. Once a design was accepted, through the Lend-Lease agreement, the Royal Navy asked for 200 LST’s to begin production. Once this happened, the first boat set sail in Newport News, Virginia, and the rest of the production Landing Ship Tanks started following four months after. Due to this high demand, steel industry plants shifted their focus to the ship production to help aid the military. When the boat was not carrying tanks, it could ship and house 500 military personnel. However, when the boat was carrying supplies, there would only be about 150 soldiers. When you calculate that out with 28 tanks on board, this meant crews of five-six men per tank. You can see that they need other ships and vehicles to bring troops other than just the landing ship tank. The landing ship tanks have five decks that all hold different responsibilities for the ship and its different jobs. The hold of the ship contains all the engine rooms. The drive shafts, electrical, and two diesel engines are found in the “basement” of the ship. The next level of the boat held all of the tanks and the only laundry room on the ship, and this level is known as the tank deck. Next, the berthing deck, is where the troops would sleep and wash up. The fourth deck up was known as the officer and galley deck, this is where the officers would rest and the troops would get in line for food. Finally, the top section was known as the navigation deck. This was where the radio room and chart room would be found. The USS Landing Ship Tank 393 was one of two ships to still have the original arrangement, so preserving this artifact is necessary to maintain the history. This ship allowed for different types of work depending on the need at the time.
The Birth of the Ship
The USS Landing Ship Tank 393 was set in motion in Newport News, Virginia on November 11, 1942. When a ship is launched into the water, it must go through the ceremonial ship launching and other traditions that are intended to give the ship good luck on its voyage. One major part of the ceremony is the tradition of christening a ship. When a ship is christened, a bottle of champagne is broken over the bow of the ship as it is launched and the name of the ship is spoken. To prepare a champagne bottle for christening, you must wrap the bottle in mesh and place red, white, and blue ribbons along the top of the bottle. This was done by the Purchase Department. When the ship was christened, this becomes the boat’s birthday so this means the LST 393 is now 77 years old. In the USS LST 393 museum, the honoring ribbon and pieces of the broken wine class can be viewed. These tokens were donated by Lucy Sorensen Pape, the 11-year-old girl who christened the ship. Lucy Pape was the daughter of L.R. Sorenson a yard assistant naval architect and shipbuilding executive. This ceremony took place at the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company. The day of the launch also happened to be on the same day as Veteran’s Day. This day of remembrance however was not picked as the same day as the boat launch on purpose. The date for Veteran’s Day was chosen as November 11th because that was the day an agreement with Germany was signed and ended World War I. Once the boat was launched and bid farewell, it had to pass all of its sea test trials before it could set sail for work in Europe. For the USS landing ship tank 393, its career had only just begun as a ship.
Now that the USS landing ship tank 393 was ready for action, it set sail to provide aid in the European Theater of World War II. The landing ship earned three battle stars for its service during World War II invasions in Sicily, Italy, and at Omaha Beach. During its three years of service in the European Theater, the ship was known for making a powerful statement by swinging open its large doors at the end of the ship and releasing the tanks on the beaches. The LST’s most memorable service was at Omaha Beach in Normandy, France. The ship came in during the second day of the invasion. When visiting the ship, you can find the American flag that was flown on the day it landed on Omaha Beach. The boat would dock at the beach during high tide to deliver food, tanks, and ammunition to the troops already on the island. The landing ship took 30 round trips to the beaches along the coast of Normandy. The troops at Omaha Beach only came on board once to eat. This is because the boat has such a flat bottom that the waters were rough and they were so used to not eating that much that the soldiers were sick from a real meal. After supplies were unloaded, the boat would leave again before the tides lowered. During the war, the landing ship tank did more than delivering men and tanks, it also was designed to withstand the brodie system. This system allowed scout planes to take off and land on the ship without having a runway or a landing deck. This was able to be done with the help of a trolley and elevated cable. The scout plane would be lifted up to the trolley and would roll along the cable to pick up speed for takeoff. For landing, the plane would line up with the cable and would be reeled in like a fishing pole action until the plane slowed. At this time the German U-boats were controlling the Pacific Ocean, so adapting the brodie system helped protect other ships and was able to aid in the anti-submarine missions. After supplies were unloaded, the boat would leave again before the tides lowered. When the boats would take off to head to base in Britain, they would take back soldiers that needed to hospital care and prisoners of war. After its time spent in World War II, the USS LST 393 was sent to Texas to be repainted camo for the invasion of Japan. However, once finished, the boat did not get to see action because the atomic bombs ended the war before it could start. The USS LST 393 was later decommissioned on March 1, 1946 after traveling 51,817 nautical miles, transporting 3,248 vehicles, carrying over nine thousand soldiers, and delivering over five thousand prisoners. The trips of travel across the Pacific Ocean prepared the ship for its next job.
New Role as a Car Ferry
After the boat was decommissioned in 1946, the ship was sent to New Orleans, Louisiana to be painted black and sold. The Wisconsin and Michigan Steamship Company of Milwaukee bought the LST 393 to become a merchant ship, bringing cars from Detroit, Michigan to Muskegon, Michigan to Milwaukee, Wisconsin until 1973. During this new phase of work for the ship, it was given a new name of M/V Highway 16. The new car ferry did not change much to the existing warship. The only major change was the mess room turned into a place to play board games and have meetings. The berthing rooms stayed to allow crew members to sleep or rest during the trip across the Great Lakes. The USS LST 393 can only go 12 knots which equates to almost 14 miles per hour. If there are 252 nautical miles between Detroit and Milwaukee, this would take about 18 hours to arrive at the next destination in good weather. Soldiers would joke that the LST initials stood for large slow target, but the LST ships altogether suffered fewer losses compared to the number of operations that participated in. In Detroit, the ship would be loaded with Ford Motors and General Motors Corporation vehicles. Once it made it to Milwaukee, the LST would be unloaded and American Motors Corporation vehicles would be loaded on and sent back to Detroit. The M/V highway 16 did not have the budget to compete with the larger car companies in Detroit such as Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler and started to lose customers. Once Milwaukee was not able to keep up, the nautical highway interactions slowed soon causing the highway to close. At this time, US 16 was created on land that went from Muskegon to Detroit. After this period, the USS LST 393 was restored to its former glory and was stationed in Muskegon, Michigan.
In 2000, a Muskegon museum group and the Michigan LST Association started to refurbish the LST 393 back to the original state. However, two years into the restoration the two groups ran out of steam and work stopped. Then in 2005, a new group gained permission from the owners at Sand Products Corporation to continue where the previous team had left off. The new group led by Dan Weikel and Bob Wygant spent most of their time cleaning and painting to bring the tour to a state that would be tourable. For the tours, the boat was painted back the camo color scheme that it adopted for the war against Japan. The biggest feat by this group was unwelding the bow doors at the end of the boat. This became the new entry to the museum and the doors had not been opened since the late 1940s. Recently, in 2015, the boat was repainted to the grey scheme that it was during World War II, and this was done to restore the boat to its former wartime greatness. The museum features exhibits with artifacts from the Civil War all the way up until the Iraq War. It also services as a museum about the landing ship tank itself. The Veterans Museum is a non-profit corporation that was designed to restore and preserve the one of only two LST’s remaining. It was also created to honor all of those who served in America’s branches of service for all eras and to educate the public about history. The landing ship tank also hosts corporate, social, and special events. Boy scout troops can sign up for trips to tour the ship and sleepover in the beds that past Americans slept in. This is a great experience for the troops to be put in soldiers’ footsteps for a day. Many boy scouts have said this trip was one of the most memorable nights of their journey with the troop. This is why the USS LST 393 board puts in so much effort to restore and maintain the artifact.
The LST still has some maintenance issues it needs to take care of to prevent wrecking the exhibits. During a private tour, the hoses were run outside to drain out water from the melting snow on the top deck. The leaking issue used to be far worse when the local firefighters would have to drain the water out of the ship when it started to sink. Since then the lowest deck was resealed when it was painted in 2015. When speaking with Scott Grant, the president of the board, the future of the ship and museum is looking to be placed on land to prevent any other leaking and to allow the paint to last longer. The two engines of the ship were last fired up in the late 1990s. Since this is quite recent, this shows the ship still has the potential to run again. The USS Landing Ship Tank 393 was one of two ships to still have the original arrangement, so preserving this artifact is necessary to maintain the history.
- “USS LST 393 Ship” Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, 27 July 1942. Muskegon, Michigan.
- “USS LST-393 Information.” Historic Naval Ships Association Database, 14 May 2014.
- “LST 393 War Diary, June 1944.” Navy History, LST 393.
- Chen, C. Peter. “LST-Class Landing Ship.” World War II Database, April 2007.
- Sherman, Elizabeth B.. Beyond the Windswept Dunes: The Story of Maritime Muskegon. United States, Wayne State University Press, 2003.
- USS LST 393 Museum, “LST History.” LST 393 Preservation Association, 9 November 2019.
- Grant, Scott, “Personal Interview.” 9 November 2019.
- PeriscopeFilm. “LST STORY- Landing Ship Tanks” YouTube, 6 Nov. 2009. | 3,032 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To understand ancient Egypt, one must understand ancient Egyptian art. Studying ancient Egyptian art, one can understand how they lived, worked and what they believed in including religion. The ancient Egyptians also believed in the afterlife so tomb painting, was also an important part of ancient Egyptian art.
The ancient Egyptians made their paintbrushes from either coarse palm leaves or knotted rope that was beaten at one end to form stiff bristles. Paint was made from finely ground minerals mixed with vegetable gum or egg. Yellow and red came from yellow and red ochre. White paint came from chalk or gypsum. Green was a mixture of blue powdered copper and yellow ochre. Black paint came from soot and blue paint came from the lapis lazuli stone or was made from a compound of silica, copper, and calcium. The Egyptians began to use a palette and began mixing colors. They made gray from black and white, pink from red and white, and brown from red and black (James 12). If the surface they were painting on was too rough, it was coated with a layer of chalky liquid that dried to make a hard surface smooth (James 10-12).
The artists were technicians, classified together with metal smiths, carpenters and quarrymen, who created the tomb. The artists were always left anonymous. The tomb decorations were always done collaboratively under the supervision of one master (James 8).
The people in Egyptian painting look differently then what we know today. Men were painted a reddish-brown tone and women were painted a pale yellow tone. Important people were painted larger than others. Heads, arms and legs were shown from the side. Eyes and the top half of the body was shown from the front. A foot was always shown from the inner side (Powell 32-33). “The Egyptians believed that this combination of views gave the most complete image” (Powell 33). The pictures of the men never grasped an object in their hands for fear of getting their fingers caught behind an object. The hands are placed above or below an... | <urn:uuid:049d500f-a533-4b9c-9573-03264761d812> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/ancient-egyptian-art | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00531.warc.gz | en | 0.981515 | 424 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.205549016594... | 1 | To understand ancient Egypt, one must understand ancient Egyptian art. Studying ancient Egyptian art, one can understand how they lived, worked and what they believed in including religion. The ancient Egyptians also believed in the afterlife so tomb painting, was also an important part of ancient Egyptian art.
The ancient Egyptians made their paintbrushes from either coarse palm leaves or knotted rope that was beaten at one end to form stiff bristles. Paint was made from finely ground minerals mixed with vegetable gum or egg. Yellow and red came from yellow and red ochre. White paint came from chalk or gypsum. Green was a mixture of blue powdered copper and yellow ochre. Black paint came from soot and blue paint came from the lapis lazuli stone or was made from a compound of silica, copper, and calcium. The Egyptians began to use a palette and began mixing colors. They made gray from black and white, pink from red and white, and brown from red and black (James 12). If the surface they were painting on was too rough, it was coated with a layer of chalky liquid that dried to make a hard surface smooth (James 10-12).
The artists were technicians, classified together with metal smiths, carpenters and quarrymen, who created the tomb. The artists were always left anonymous. The tomb decorations were always done collaboratively under the supervision of one master (James 8).
The people in Egyptian painting look differently then what we know today. Men were painted a reddish-brown tone and women were painted a pale yellow tone. Important people were painted larger than others. Heads, arms and legs were shown from the side. Eyes and the top half of the body was shown from the front. A foot was always shown from the inner side (Powell 32-33). “The Egyptians believed that this combination of views gave the most complete image” (Powell 33). The pictures of the men never grasped an object in their hands for fear of getting their fingers caught behind an object. The hands are placed above or below an... | 427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tupac Amaru Shakur was born on June 16, 1971 in New York, but many people do not know that this is not the actual birth name of the legendary rapper. When he was born, Tupac was first registered as Lesane Parish Crooks, but three days later (according to his birth certificate) his mother Alice Faye Walker (Afeni Shakur) changed his name to Tupac Amaru Shakur.
Changing the name of Tupac was part of the whole upbringing that Afeni gave to her son in the spirit of revolutionary movements, the battle for equality and social justice that black people in America, and not just there, continue to fight without interruption. Both parents of the future rap artist, Afeni Shakur and William “Billy” Garland, are active members of the far-right Black Panther party, actively fighting for more rights for the African-American citizens in the United States.
Moreover, just one month before Tupac was born, his mother, Afeni, had stood trial. She faced more than 150 charges of conspiracy against the government, but was ultimately justified.
Many rap fans probably don’t know that Tupac was named after a real-life person. This is the leader of the 18th-century Peruvian Indians Túpac Amaru II, who was the leader of the rebellion against the Spanish conquerors invading the South American continent. The name “Tupac” is derived from the Indian language “Quechua” and means “royal”
Talking about her decision to rename Tupac while he was still only a year old, Afeni Shakur shared: “I wanted him to bear the name of the revolutionaries, of the world’s indigenous people. I wanted him to know that he was part of a world culture, and not just the neighbourhood we live in. “
Tupac proudly carried his name to the very end of his life, and never betrayed the ideas of the “Black Panthers”. It is of no doubt that he was as courageous as Tupac Amaru, the Indian leader of Peru, who opposed the mighty Spanish conquistadors.
When he made his first steps into the hip-hop industry, Tupac decided to use his name as his artistic nickname. However, he made a slight modification of its spelling – 2Pac, and this is a name that has been known worldwide ever since. | <urn:uuid:9e710ba2-2dd0-41d6-93c5-40723fd77a3d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://2paclegacy.net/what-is-tupacs-real-name/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00367.warc.gz | en | 0.985352 | 503 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.026076726615428925,... | 5 | Tupac Amaru Shakur was born on June 16, 1971 in New York, but many people do not know that this is not the actual birth name of the legendary rapper. When he was born, Tupac was first registered as Lesane Parish Crooks, but three days later (according to his birth certificate) his mother Alice Faye Walker (Afeni Shakur) changed his name to Tupac Amaru Shakur.
Changing the name of Tupac was part of the whole upbringing that Afeni gave to her son in the spirit of revolutionary movements, the battle for equality and social justice that black people in America, and not just there, continue to fight without interruption. Both parents of the future rap artist, Afeni Shakur and William “Billy” Garland, are active members of the far-right Black Panther party, actively fighting for more rights for the African-American citizens in the United States.
Moreover, just one month before Tupac was born, his mother, Afeni, had stood trial. She faced more than 150 charges of conspiracy against the government, but was ultimately justified.
Many rap fans probably don’t know that Tupac was named after a real-life person. This is the leader of the 18th-century Peruvian Indians Túpac Amaru II, who was the leader of the rebellion against the Spanish conquerors invading the South American continent. The name “Tupac” is derived from the Indian language “Quechua” and means “royal”
Talking about her decision to rename Tupac while he was still only a year old, Afeni Shakur shared: “I wanted him to bear the name of the revolutionaries, of the world’s indigenous people. I wanted him to know that he was part of a world culture, and not just the neighbourhood we live in. “
Tupac proudly carried his name to the very end of his life, and never betrayed the ideas of the “Black Panthers”. It is of no doubt that he was as courageous as Tupac Amaru, the Indian leader of Peru, who opposed the mighty Spanish conquistadors.
When he made his first steps into the hip-hop industry, Tupac decided to use his name as his artistic nickname. However, he made a slight modification of its spelling – 2Pac, and this is a name that has been known worldwide ever since. | 490 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The average size of single family houses in the United States has grown significantly in recent times. Our McMansion lifestyle, created out of a need for prestige, was slowed down by changing economic times in 2008 and Hurricane Katrina’s wide-ranging housing damage in the Gulf area. There was suddenly a need for inexpensive housing that could be assembled quickly for the storm survivors. Inexpensive and quick assembly are terms that describe building the houses we’ve seen on the islands out in the bays from Nassau County to the Hamptons out east. These bay houses are how our ancestors who were commercial fishermen were able to work the waters and still see their families before bridges and ferries made the islands more accessible
The Town of Islip dates back to the late 1600s and has lease records for islands in the Great South Bay dating back to the 1700s. The first leaseholders may have been the baymen who rowed to the islands to harvest salt hay for the farmers to feed their livestock in the winter. Rowing to the islands, cutting the salt hay and rowing back took a lot of time and energy and the solution was to spend the night on the island, reducing the travel time and energy expended to one trip.To withstand the high tides of storms, a bay house was constructed on a foundation of dock piles (big trees, untreated lumber and later on, telephone poles) driven by men early on, and later by waterjet pumps. The houses sit on a platform-like mud sill that rests on the marshland and on top of the pilings. There were trap doors in the floor to let the water out that came in at extreme high tides.
Commercial fishermen and shellfishermen were probably the first to put up permanent structures on the islands. The towns leased the land and the leaseholders put up the buildings. The annual cost of leases in the Town of Hempstead ranged from $5 in 1890 to $1,050 in 1991. Currently, the Town of Islip lease fees are around $1,000 a year for a ten year lease.
At one time there were hundreds of bay houses or bay shacks of varying sizes and designs. These were not houses built by builders or designed by architects. Most started out as minimal shelters and were added to and improved over the years. They were built by owners and friends of salvaged wood, old garages, sheds and doors. Most of the houses had a porch and a deck and were usually built to face south to take advantage of the sunlight and prevailing breezes.
There was no particular style to how bay houses were built and with the constant need to repair and replace doors, windows, roofs, flag poles and other victims of wind, storms and high tides, the same house might look different a few years down the road. The houses were stacked onto the mud sills and mostly were framed with 2 x 4’s to enclose rooms in plywood. Being lightweight and easy to move is important when your property includes shoreline that moves closer to your house.
With few exceptions the houses were one-story. The two-story Doxsee house on Meadow Island was moved to Point Lookout in 1936. The two-story bay house Gloria Swanson had built in the 1920s on Great Sand Creek was more of a mansion than a bay house, having Italian mosaic tile and a swimming pool.
The houses were furnished with everything from nice wooden furniture like people had back home to cast-offs, and some brought their beds from home in the spring and took them ashore again in the fall. On Meadow Island Eddie Cantor had a nice furnished bay house built and the Vanderwater family house was also known to be luxuriously furnished.
Filling an important need for each new bay house was the building of the outhouse. They were sometimes called “backhouses” because they were usually located about ten feet behind the houses. Fresh water was available down about 30 feet into the marsh and wells were driven, sinking a very long metal pipe into the marsh with a hand pump at the end. Homeowners collected rainwater in rain barrels. Wood, kerosene and coal stoves provided heat and cooked the food. Ice had to come from the mainland several times a week for the iceboxes until propane appliances became available.
An example of bay house living was provided by Mary Schaper. Her story…
Mary and Lou Schaper got married right after World War II and lived in Babylon. He was a commercial fisherman with Sunrise Fish Company, his family’s company, located on Captree Island. He needed to be at the work site in the summer and would need a house for the family. When the hospital in Central Islip was closing and getting rid of sheds and other small buildings, Lou bought the blueprint office, a 20’x 30’ shed, for $30. He took it away on his truck to the boat, brought it across the bay to the beach and that was the first part of the Schapers’ bay house. As the family expanded to five children, Lou added to the house. They had a living room, two bedrooms, a bathroom, kitchen and porch. What was different about Mary and Lou’s house was the inside bathroom that had a sink, toilet and running water.
Sunrise Fish Company, along with Short Beach and Long Island Fish Company of West Sayville, shared the island. Sunrise had the most southerly part. There were equipment sheds, cookhouses and bunk houses for the fishermen and some built their own family houses. Each company had a cookhouse with a cook who fed the fishermen all their meals. They slept in the bunk houses.
In the 1930s and 1940s, Sunrise had four pound nets out in the ocean. They had developed their own nets that guided fish from the larger areas of the nets to the smallest chamber at the end. Normally the fishermen would empty the nets, going out after breakfast at 6:30 and coming back around Noon for lunch. After lunch they’d go to the mainland, unload the fish and pack them in ice. On a day with a light catch, some of the fishermen would stay on the island to mend the nets and maintain the boats and gear.
What was it like, spending a whole summer away from the conveniences of modern living that the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s offered? The tubs for the wash were brought out every Saturday night and everybody had a bath so they were clean for Sunday school. One of the women had a piano and Mary taught the island’s Sunday school classes.
The season started on the last day of school in June. They would pack up everything – clothes, whatever they wanted to read, bedding and beds. Mary and Lou sometimes asked the kids if they wanted to go ashore during the summer, but they never did. They loved the island way of life—swimming, clamming and rowing, visiting kids on other islands and putting on skits for their parents.
The big event of the day was going to the dock to meet the pound boat and see the catch of the day. Mary and Lou’s sons all worked on the fish boats every summer they were old enough and it gave them a better understanding of how hard their father worked to provide their college tuition money.
In Mary’s own words, from a paper she wrote for a class when at 55, it was her turn to go to college…
“Life at the beach was, and remains today, a rustic and meaningful lifestyle, a simple time set aside from the many pressures of modern life. Family members of the original fishermen who labored long and hard in their generation have endowed their children’s families with the same deep regard and appreciation of the past: the fishing industry, the historic lifestyle, the beach life as it was then lived It is those families who now occupy the beach houses who have a fervent desire to preserve the past. It is their heritage and their dream to carry this meaningful life on for themselves and future generations—a way of life which sometimes seems as fleeting as the sands along the shoreline.”
Mary, now almost 95, was happy to tell me that she has given the house to her daughter, Robin, who was not only interested in having the house, but very capable. She is able to repair and replace to keep the house in good shape and has already replaced roof tiles and dug a new cesspool to replace the one Superstorm Sandy washed away.
If you’d like a closer look at a bay house, Long Island Traditions sponsors Annual Bay House tours. The August 26th boat leaves Freeport at 11 am and at 1 pm. The September 9th trip will leave at 11 am and 1 pm from Long Beach. There is limited space, so an early call or email should get you a seat on the boat. The boat stops for a look at two houses and you get a brief history of the houses. The boat then proceeds to other nearby houses. Executive Director Nancy Solomon is the folklorist who saw beauty and cultural significance in the bay houses and is largely responsible for their survival. The Town of Hempstead in 1965 decided to get rid of the houses by 1993. Bringing the issue to the attention of the public, writing the book, “On the Bay” and getting help from the South Shore Bay House Owners Association and other agencies helped persuade the Town to save the houses. Long Island Traditions can be reached by calling (516)767-8803 or emailing to email@example.com | <urn:uuid:915a95b6-ec1d-462b-bad2-86621608d97b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.liboatingworld.com/single-post/2017/08/12/When-Less-is-More---The-Bay-House-Way-of-Life | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00338.warc.gz | en | 0.98564 | 1,969 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.253329753... | 3 | The average size of single family houses in the United States has grown significantly in recent times. Our McMansion lifestyle, created out of a need for prestige, was slowed down by changing economic times in 2008 and Hurricane Katrina’s wide-ranging housing damage in the Gulf area. There was suddenly a need for inexpensive housing that could be assembled quickly for the storm survivors. Inexpensive and quick assembly are terms that describe building the houses we’ve seen on the islands out in the bays from Nassau County to the Hamptons out east. These bay houses are how our ancestors who were commercial fishermen were able to work the waters and still see their families before bridges and ferries made the islands more accessible
The Town of Islip dates back to the late 1600s and has lease records for islands in the Great South Bay dating back to the 1700s. The first leaseholders may have been the baymen who rowed to the islands to harvest salt hay for the farmers to feed their livestock in the winter. Rowing to the islands, cutting the salt hay and rowing back took a lot of time and energy and the solution was to spend the night on the island, reducing the travel time and energy expended to one trip.To withstand the high tides of storms, a bay house was constructed on a foundation of dock piles (big trees, untreated lumber and later on, telephone poles) driven by men early on, and later by waterjet pumps. The houses sit on a platform-like mud sill that rests on the marshland and on top of the pilings. There were trap doors in the floor to let the water out that came in at extreme high tides.
Commercial fishermen and shellfishermen were probably the first to put up permanent structures on the islands. The towns leased the land and the leaseholders put up the buildings. The annual cost of leases in the Town of Hempstead ranged from $5 in 1890 to $1,050 in 1991. Currently, the Town of Islip lease fees are around $1,000 a year for a ten year lease.
At one time there were hundreds of bay houses or bay shacks of varying sizes and designs. These were not houses built by builders or designed by architects. Most started out as minimal shelters and were added to and improved over the years. They were built by owners and friends of salvaged wood, old garages, sheds and doors. Most of the houses had a porch and a deck and were usually built to face south to take advantage of the sunlight and prevailing breezes.
There was no particular style to how bay houses were built and with the constant need to repair and replace doors, windows, roofs, flag poles and other victims of wind, storms and high tides, the same house might look different a few years down the road. The houses were stacked onto the mud sills and mostly were framed with 2 x 4’s to enclose rooms in plywood. Being lightweight and easy to move is important when your property includes shoreline that moves closer to your house.
With few exceptions the houses were one-story. The two-story Doxsee house on Meadow Island was moved to Point Lookout in 1936. The two-story bay house Gloria Swanson had built in the 1920s on Great Sand Creek was more of a mansion than a bay house, having Italian mosaic tile and a swimming pool.
The houses were furnished with everything from nice wooden furniture like people had back home to cast-offs, and some brought their beds from home in the spring and took them ashore again in the fall. On Meadow Island Eddie Cantor had a nice furnished bay house built and the Vanderwater family house was also known to be luxuriously furnished.
Filling an important need for each new bay house was the building of the outhouse. They were sometimes called “backhouses” because they were usually located about ten feet behind the houses. Fresh water was available down about 30 feet into the marsh and wells were driven, sinking a very long metal pipe into the marsh with a hand pump at the end. Homeowners collected rainwater in rain barrels. Wood, kerosene and coal stoves provided heat and cooked the food. Ice had to come from the mainland several times a week for the iceboxes until propane appliances became available.
An example of bay house living was provided by Mary Schaper. Her story…
Mary and Lou Schaper got married right after World War II and lived in Babylon. He was a commercial fisherman with Sunrise Fish Company, his family’s company, located on Captree Island. He needed to be at the work site in the summer and would need a house for the family. When the hospital in Central Islip was closing and getting rid of sheds and other small buildings, Lou bought the blueprint office, a 20’x 30’ shed, for $30. He took it away on his truck to the boat, brought it across the bay to the beach and that was the first part of the Schapers’ bay house. As the family expanded to five children, Lou added to the house. They had a living room, two bedrooms, a bathroom, kitchen and porch. What was different about Mary and Lou’s house was the inside bathroom that had a sink, toilet and running water.
Sunrise Fish Company, along with Short Beach and Long Island Fish Company of West Sayville, shared the island. Sunrise had the most southerly part. There were equipment sheds, cookhouses and bunk houses for the fishermen and some built their own family houses. Each company had a cookhouse with a cook who fed the fishermen all their meals. They slept in the bunk houses.
In the 1930s and 1940s, Sunrise had four pound nets out in the ocean. They had developed their own nets that guided fish from the larger areas of the nets to the smallest chamber at the end. Normally the fishermen would empty the nets, going out after breakfast at 6:30 and coming back around Noon for lunch. After lunch they’d go to the mainland, unload the fish and pack them in ice. On a day with a light catch, some of the fishermen would stay on the island to mend the nets and maintain the boats and gear.
What was it like, spending a whole summer away from the conveniences of modern living that the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s offered? The tubs for the wash were brought out every Saturday night and everybody had a bath so they were clean for Sunday school. One of the women had a piano and Mary taught the island’s Sunday school classes.
The season started on the last day of school in June. They would pack up everything – clothes, whatever they wanted to read, bedding and beds. Mary and Lou sometimes asked the kids if they wanted to go ashore during the summer, but they never did. They loved the island way of life—swimming, clamming and rowing, visiting kids on other islands and putting on skits for their parents.
The big event of the day was going to the dock to meet the pound boat and see the catch of the day. Mary and Lou’s sons all worked on the fish boats every summer they were old enough and it gave them a better understanding of how hard their father worked to provide their college tuition money.
In Mary’s own words, from a paper she wrote for a class when at 55, it was her turn to go to college…
“Life at the beach was, and remains today, a rustic and meaningful lifestyle, a simple time set aside from the many pressures of modern life. Family members of the original fishermen who labored long and hard in their generation have endowed their children’s families with the same deep regard and appreciation of the past: the fishing industry, the historic lifestyle, the beach life as it was then lived It is those families who now occupy the beach houses who have a fervent desire to preserve the past. It is their heritage and their dream to carry this meaningful life on for themselves and future generations—a way of life which sometimes seems as fleeting as the sands along the shoreline.”
Mary, now almost 95, was happy to tell me that she has given the house to her daughter, Robin, who was not only interested in having the house, but very capable. She is able to repair and replace to keep the house in good shape and has already replaced roof tiles and dug a new cesspool to replace the one Superstorm Sandy washed away.
If you’d like a closer look at a bay house, Long Island Traditions sponsors Annual Bay House tours. The August 26th boat leaves Freeport at 11 am and at 1 pm. The September 9th trip will leave at 11 am and 1 pm from Long Beach. There is limited space, so an early call or email should get you a seat on the boat. The boat stops for a look at two houses and you get a brief history of the houses. The boat then proceeds to other nearby houses. Executive Director Nancy Solomon is the folklorist who saw beauty and cultural significance in the bay houses and is largely responsible for their survival. The Town of Hempstead in 1965 decided to get rid of the houses by 1993. Bringing the issue to the attention of the public, writing the book, “On the Bay” and getting help from the South Shore Bay House Owners Association and other agencies helped persuade the Town to save the houses. Long Island Traditions can be reached by calling (516)767-8803 or emailing to email@example.com | 1,996 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The long-running controversy about the origins of the Etruscan people appears to be very close to being settled once and for all. Professor Alberto Piazza, from the University of Turin, Italy, will say that there is overwhelming evidence that the Etruscans, whose brilliant civilisation flourished 3000 years ago in what is now Tuscany, were settlers from old Anatolia (now in southern Turkey). Etruscan culture was very advanced and quite different from other known Italian cultures that flourished at the same time, and highly influential in the development of Roman civilisation. Its origins have been debated by archaeologists, historians and linguists since time immemorial. Three main theories have emerged: that the Etruscans came from Anatolia, Southern Turkey, as propounded by the Greek historian Herotodus; that they were indigenous to the region and developed from the Iron Age Villanovan society, as suggested by another Greek historian, Dionysius of Halicarnassus; or that they originated from Northern Europe. Now modern genetic techniques have given scientists the tools to answer this puzzle. Professor Piazza and his colleagues set out to study genetic samples from three present-day Italian populations living in Murlo, Volterra, and Casentino in Tuscany, central Italy.
“We already knew that people living in this area were genetically different from those in the surrounding regions”, he says. “Murlo and Volterra are among the most archaeologically important Etruscan sites in a region of Tuscany also known for having Etruscan-derived place names and local dialects. The Casentino valley sample was taken from an area bordering the area where Etruscan influence has been preserved.” The scientists compared DNA samples taken from healthy males living in Tuscany, Northern Italy, the Southern Balkans, the island of Lemnos in Greece, and the Italian islands of Sicily and Sardinia. The Tuscan samples were taken from individuals who had lived in the area for at least three generations, and were selected on the basis of their surnames, which were required to have a geographical distribution not extending beyond the linguistic area of sampling. The samples were compared with data from modern Turkish, South Italian, European and Middle-Eastern populations.“We found that the DNA samples from individuals from Murlo and Volterra were more closely related those from near Eastern people than those of the other Italian samples”, says Professor Piazza.
“In Murlo particularly, one genetic variant is shared only by people from Turkey, and, of the samples we obtained, the Tuscan ones also show the closest affinity with those from Lemnos.”Scientists had previously shown this same relationship for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in order to analyse female lineages. And in a further study, analysis of mtDNA of ancient breeds of cattle still living in the former Etruria found that they too were related to breeds currently living in the near East. The history of the Etruscans extends before the Iron Age to the end of the Roman Republic or from c. 1200 BC to c. 100BC Many archaeological sites of the major Etruscan cities were continuously occupied since the Iron Age, and the people who lived in the Etruria region did not appear suddenly, nor did they suddenly start to speak Etruscan. Rather they learned to write from their Greek neighbours and thus revealed their language.
Archaeologists and linguists are in agreement that the Etruscans had been developing their culture and language in situ before the first historical record of their existence. “But the question that remained to be answered was – how long was this process between pre-history and history”” says Professor Piazza. In 1885 a stele carrying an inscription in a pre-Greek language was found on the island of Lemnos, and dated to about the 6th century BC. Philologists agree that this has many similarities with the Etruscan language both in its form and structure and its vocabulary. But genetic links between the two regions have been difficult to find until now. Herodotus’ theory, much criticised by subsequent historians, states that the Etruscans emigrated from the ancient region of Lydia, on what is now the southern coast of Turkey, because of a long-running famine. Half the population was sent by the king to look for a better life elsewhere, says his account, and sailed from Smyrna (now Izmir) until they reached Umbria in Italy.
“We think that our research provides convincing proof that Herodotus was right”, says Professor Piazza, “and that the Etruscans did indeed arrive from ancient Lydia. However, to be 100% certain we intend to sample other villages in Tuscany, and also to test whether there is a genetic continuity between the ancient Etruscans and modern-day Tuscans. This will have to be done by extracting DNA from fossils; this has been tried before but the technique for doing so has proved to be very difficult. Interestingly, this study of historical origins will give us some pointers for carrying out case-control studies of disease today,” says Professor Piazza. “In order to obtain a reliable result, we had to select the control population much more carefully that would normally be done, and we believe that this kind of careful selection would also help in studies of complex genetic diseases.” ( Source: European Society of Human Genetics – Via Science20.com ) | <urn:uuid:e25bf3fa-cbfb-4a87-9b1e-3e0688f50974> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.5election.com/2014/06/14/the-ancient-italians-came-from-turkey/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.980399 | 1,143 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.02671895... | 3 | The long-running controversy about the origins of the Etruscan people appears to be very close to being settled once and for all. Professor Alberto Piazza, from the University of Turin, Italy, will say that there is overwhelming evidence that the Etruscans, whose brilliant civilisation flourished 3000 years ago in what is now Tuscany, were settlers from old Anatolia (now in southern Turkey). Etruscan culture was very advanced and quite different from other known Italian cultures that flourished at the same time, and highly influential in the development of Roman civilisation. Its origins have been debated by archaeologists, historians and linguists since time immemorial. Three main theories have emerged: that the Etruscans came from Anatolia, Southern Turkey, as propounded by the Greek historian Herotodus; that they were indigenous to the region and developed from the Iron Age Villanovan society, as suggested by another Greek historian, Dionysius of Halicarnassus; or that they originated from Northern Europe. Now modern genetic techniques have given scientists the tools to answer this puzzle. Professor Piazza and his colleagues set out to study genetic samples from three present-day Italian populations living in Murlo, Volterra, and Casentino in Tuscany, central Italy.
“We already knew that people living in this area were genetically different from those in the surrounding regions”, he says. “Murlo and Volterra are among the most archaeologically important Etruscan sites in a region of Tuscany also known for having Etruscan-derived place names and local dialects. The Casentino valley sample was taken from an area bordering the area where Etruscan influence has been preserved.” The scientists compared DNA samples taken from healthy males living in Tuscany, Northern Italy, the Southern Balkans, the island of Lemnos in Greece, and the Italian islands of Sicily and Sardinia. The Tuscan samples were taken from individuals who had lived in the area for at least three generations, and were selected on the basis of their surnames, which were required to have a geographical distribution not extending beyond the linguistic area of sampling. The samples were compared with data from modern Turkish, South Italian, European and Middle-Eastern populations.“We found that the DNA samples from individuals from Murlo and Volterra were more closely related those from near Eastern people than those of the other Italian samples”, says Professor Piazza.
“In Murlo particularly, one genetic variant is shared only by people from Turkey, and, of the samples we obtained, the Tuscan ones also show the closest affinity with those from Lemnos.”Scientists had previously shown this same relationship for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in order to analyse female lineages. And in a further study, analysis of mtDNA of ancient breeds of cattle still living in the former Etruria found that they too were related to breeds currently living in the near East. The history of the Etruscans extends before the Iron Age to the end of the Roman Republic or from c. 1200 BC to c. 100BC Many archaeological sites of the major Etruscan cities were continuously occupied since the Iron Age, and the people who lived in the Etruria region did not appear suddenly, nor did they suddenly start to speak Etruscan. Rather they learned to write from their Greek neighbours and thus revealed their language.
Archaeologists and linguists are in agreement that the Etruscans had been developing their culture and language in situ before the first historical record of their existence. “But the question that remained to be answered was – how long was this process between pre-history and history”” says Professor Piazza. In 1885 a stele carrying an inscription in a pre-Greek language was found on the island of Lemnos, and dated to about the 6th century BC. Philologists agree that this has many similarities with the Etruscan language both in its form and structure and its vocabulary. But genetic links between the two regions have been difficult to find until now. Herodotus’ theory, much criticised by subsequent historians, states that the Etruscans emigrated from the ancient region of Lydia, on what is now the southern coast of Turkey, because of a long-running famine. Half the population was sent by the king to look for a better life elsewhere, says his account, and sailed from Smyrna (now Izmir) until they reached Umbria in Italy.
“We think that our research provides convincing proof that Herodotus was right”, says Professor Piazza, “and that the Etruscans did indeed arrive from ancient Lydia. However, to be 100% certain we intend to sample other villages in Tuscany, and also to test whether there is a genetic continuity between the ancient Etruscans and modern-day Tuscans. This will have to be done by extracting DNA from fossils; this has been tried before but the technique for doing so has proved to be very difficult. Interestingly, this study of historical origins will give us some pointers for carrying out case-control studies of disease today,” says Professor Piazza. “In order to obtain a reliable result, we had to select the control population much more carefully that would normally be done, and we believe that this kind of careful selection would also help in studies of complex genetic diseases.” ( Source: European Society of Human Genetics – Via Science20.com ) | 1,123 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slaves used resistance as a powerful tool to fight against slavery on board of the slave ships used to transport them across the Atlantic Trade. Before becoming cargo on board slave ships, slaves suffered as captives on land at the hands of both Africans and European. Slavery in Africa was not as harsh as slavery on board the slave ship, yet slaves still endured horrific treatment. It was on land that resistance began amongst those being held captive. Equiano, a slave who was brought onto a slave ship at the age of eleven, resisted against African slavery in ways that reflected similar resistance on board of the slave ship. Equiano and his sister, “when offered food…refused to eat” and also “took deep solace in the companionship of [each other].” By resisting, slaves separated themselves from being ordinary cargo. They did not stay silent; they acted out and made sure that their displeased presence was known on board the slave ship and to their captors. This resistance forced all the non-slaves present to think about slavery in a context other than trade and profit. The most effective form of resistance to slavery on board of slave ships was the creation of relationships with other slaves because those relationships gave way to a culture of resistance that forced the people of authority involved with slave ships to take action.
Resistance amongst slaves heading to the slave ship and on board the slave ship was so prevalent that it became part of the culture. Resistance was used as a form of expression because it gave slaves on board the ship an identity. By resisting, slaves were showing their oppressors that they were people who had a voice and control over their own body. There were several different kinds of resistance, including: suicide, refusal to eat, refusal to answer to names given to them by their captors, understanding how the shipped worked, communicating with other slaves, and starting rebellions. Refusal to eat food given to them by their captors was “commonplace on the slave ship.” It does not make sense for someone who is starving and not had food or water to refuse it when it is offered to him or her. Slaves weren’t being stupid when they refused to eat or drink, they were making a statement. Slaves were showing that they were in control and that they had autonomy. Suicide was form of resistance because it gave the slaves control over their lives and destiny. By committing suicide, slaves weren’t ending their lives; instead they were finding a way to get back home to their family. Slaves were escaping their torment and finding their own freedom through resistance.
The most powerful response to slave resistance was separating slaves from their friends and ‘fictive kin.’ This stripped slaves of their identity and took away any companionship and solace they might have found aboard the ship. Despite the fact that “many of [the slaves spoke] differently,” slaves were still able to communicate with one another and build relationships. Slaves created a family among their “shipmates” and turned to them for comfort “when [they] were in distress,” just like one would with his or her own family. Through communication, slaves became companions and created a culture formed out of resistance. Communication and the formation of relationships between slaves had a significant impact on slavery because slavers had to be weary of rebellion and what resistance meant for the survival of the slave ship and the practice of slavery.
Resistance meant that the slaver now also had to be concerned with the safety of their ship and the people on board of the ship. The impact of resistance was that slave ships began to account for some of the resistance. The resistance also impacted the physical slave ship; netting was placed on the sides of the ship to prevent suicides. Captains and those not enslaved on the slave ship cared about the suicide rate, not because they cared for the well being of slaves but because they cared about an increase in riots and resistance. Also, a slave life cost them a lot of money. Merchant owners wrote in letters to captains that “the enslaved must be constrained by netting and chains” because “merchants feared suicide and especially insurrection among the enslaved.” Merchant investors made explicit instructions in letters to slave ship captains that detailed how the captain and crew could try to contain and prevent resistance because they understood the power resistance had to destroy the slave ship and the practice of slavery. Slave resistance had a direct impact on profit because resistance meant that investors and the ship’s crew would have to make proper adjustments to keep their ship safe from rebellions. Some captain took this to mean that they had to inflict further torture and abuse to slaves to prove that they were “the absolute in his command” and therefore had a “savage and insensible spirit.” Resistance could not be ignored on the slave ship or else the trade of slavery would be negatively affected.
Although resistance on and before getting to the slave ship did not give slaves freedom, it did give them a voice in which their dissent could be heard. Captains, sailors, and Merchant investors all understood the severity of resistance and took careful measures to dispel resistance, which they viewed as a form of rebellion. Resistance took many forms amongst the slaves, but the most important aspect of resistance was the culture that was created because of it. Resistance allowed slaves to form a community and have individual identities. The bond made between slaves was an act of resistance that threatened the longevity and profitableness of slave ships. In order to still capitalize on slavery, investors, captains, and crew members had to precautions against resistance by altering the slave ship.
Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship, Penguin Group (New York, 2007), Page 113.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, page113.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, page 3.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, page 130.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, 196.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, page 220. | <urn:uuid:3c65b2c1-d2a5-429a-bff1-ca5c8cf404d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.umdjanus.com/single-post/2018/04/02/The-Power-of-Resistance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.987752 | 1,229 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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-0.131235599517... | 4 | Slaves used resistance as a powerful tool to fight against slavery on board of the slave ships used to transport them across the Atlantic Trade. Before becoming cargo on board slave ships, slaves suffered as captives on land at the hands of both Africans and European. Slavery in Africa was not as harsh as slavery on board the slave ship, yet slaves still endured horrific treatment. It was on land that resistance began amongst those being held captive. Equiano, a slave who was brought onto a slave ship at the age of eleven, resisted against African slavery in ways that reflected similar resistance on board of the slave ship. Equiano and his sister, “when offered food…refused to eat” and also “took deep solace in the companionship of [each other].” By resisting, slaves separated themselves from being ordinary cargo. They did not stay silent; they acted out and made sure that their displeased presence was known on board the slave ship and to their captors. This resistance forced all the non-slaves present to think about slavery in a context other than trade and profit. The most effective form of resistance to slavery on board of slave ships was the creation of relationships with other slaves because those relationships gave way to a culture of resistance that forced the people of authority involved with slave ships to take action.
Resistance amongst slaves heading to the slave ship and on board the slave ship was so prevalent that it became part of the culture. Resistance was used as a form of expression because it gave slaves on board the ship an identity. By resisting, slaves were showing their oppressors that they were people who had a voice and control over their own body. There were several different kinds of resistance, including: suicide, refusal to eat, refusal to answer to names given to them by their captors, understanding how the shipped worked, communicating with other slaves, and starting rebellions. Refusal to eat food given to them by their captors was “commonplace on the slave ship.” It does not make sense for someone who is starving and not had food or water to refuse it when it is offered to him or her. Slaves weren’t being stupid when they refused to eat or drink, they were making a statement. Slaves were showing that they were in control and that they had autonomy. Suicide was form of resistance because it gave the slaves control over their lives and destiny. By committing suicide, slaves weren’t ending their lives; instead they were finding a way to get back home to their family. Slaves were escaping their torment and finding their own freedom through resistance.
The most powerful response to slave resistance was separating slaves from their friends and ‘fictive kin.’ This stripped slaves of their identity and took away any companionship and solace they might have found aboard the ship. Despite the fact that “many of [the slaves spoke] differently,” slaves were still able to communicate with one another and build relationships. Slaves created a family among their “shipmates” and turned to them for comfort “when [they] were in distress,” just like one would with his or her own family. Through communication, slaves became companions and created a culture formed out of resistance. Communication and the formation of relationships between slaves had a significant impact on slavery because slavers had to be weary of rebellion and what resistance meant for the survival of the slave ship and the practice of slavery.
Resistance meant that the slaver now also had to be concerned with the safety of their ship and the people on board of the ship. The impact of resistance was that slave ships began to account for some of the resistance. The resistance also impacted the physical slave ship; netting was placed on the sides of the ship to prevent suicides. Captains and those not enslaved on the slave ship cared about the suicide rate, not because they cared for the well being of slaves but because they cared about an increase in riots and resistance. Also, a slave life cost them a lot of money. Merchant owners wrote in letters to captains that “the enslaved must be constrained by netting and chains” because “merchants feared suicide and especially insurrection among the enslaved.” Merchant investors made explicit instructions in letters to slave ship captains that detailed how the captain and crew could try to contain and prevent resistance because they understood the power resistance had to destroy the slave ship and the practice of slavery. Slave resistance had a direct impact on profit because resistance meant that investors and the ship’s crew would have to make proper adjustments to keep their ship safe from rebellions. Some captain took this to mean that they had to inflict further torture and abuse to slaves to prove that they were “the absolute in his command” and therefore had a “savage and insensible spirit.” Resistance could not be ignored on the slave ship or else the trade of slavery would be negatively affected.
Although resistance on and before getting to the slave ship did not give slaves freedom, it did give them a voice in which their dissent could be heard. Captains, sailors, and Merchant investors all understood the severity of resistance and took careful measures to dispel resistance, which they viewed as a form of rebellion. Resistance took many forms amongst the slaves, but the most important aspect of resistance was the culture that was created because of it. Resistance allowed slaves to form a community and have individual identities. The bond made between slaves was an act of resistance that threatened the longevity and profitableness of slave ships. In order to still capitalize on slavery, investors, captains, and crew members had to precautions against resistance by altering the slave ship.
Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship, Penguin Group (New York, 2007), Page 113.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, page113.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, page 3.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, page 130.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, 196.
Rediker, The Slave Ship, page 220. | 1,203 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gender and Women
Since the beginning of human civilization man has looked down on women. With the average role in a woman’s life is at home mom. But it was not till recently that, that role was look down on. Not all civilizations were treated women with poor conditions. In many ancient civilizations women were basically equal to men besides in Rome, women could not have political power. In Egypt women were equal to men in all ways under the law and could become pharaohs both civilizations treated women better than the world does now in the recent one hundred years.
These conditions were better than the ones in the more recent years. Back then women stood home and since then it has become the norm for women to be there. Usually it would be men out working and women in the house taking care of the kids. Sexism. What is it sexism? Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior. Define by SOCIOLOGY A Brief Introduction by Richard T. Schaefer. Stereotypes and sexism go hand in hand because of sexism forces a stereotype and makes it seem natural “common sense” for a person.
“People organize their knowledge about the world around them by sorting and simplifying received information. Therefore, they create cognitive schemes, which are certain representations of the reality displaying its most typical and fundamental elements and properties. These schemes are responsible for defining the essence of our worldview and have a significant influence on social cognition – understanding, anticipation, and situation and emotion control. ” (Wolska). Stereotypes sometimes produce a false image of the actual photo. It’s customary to think patriarchy is the way to go with a family.
Because growing up they’re gender roles being placed on us. As kids we’re being programed to know and believe these gender roles, by the time kids reach the ages of 3 or 4 children they start to identify the stereotypes of male and female (AdvertEnticement). The main way these roles and stereotypes are fed to us through media consumption. As kids girls are giving Barbie dolls with cooking at home play sets. Young girls start to accept this stereotype. Boys are given G. I. Joe “Action Figures” with military weapons like rifles and grenades don’t forget the cars.
The clothes we wear, the colors we like, are all programmed into our heads before we’re in grade school. A boy cannot wear a dress without him being looked down on and being teased and made fun of (AdvertEnticement). The way they do it through media is through commercials. Boys and girls have set stereotypes of their own “More and more commercials are directed to children. They indicate ‘the proper place’ in the society for girls and boys. Girls are shown as babysitters nursing dolls or cleaning house with a pink cleaning kit, whereas boys do sports or play computer games” (Wolska).
Commercials are a huge way of aiming products at people and they follow the stereotypes of sexism. “Commercials are the vast source of gender stereotyping, because they are adapted to the specific, either male or female target, and are ‘the reflection of the recipient’. The aim of the modern commercial is not only the satisfaction of needs but also their creation. ” Women and Men are targeted differently when it comes to commercials. “Women are more often presented in commercials, because they are seen as responsible for making everyday purchases.
Men generally advertise cars, cigarettes, business products or investments, whereas women are shown rather in the commercials with cosmetics and domestic products. ” (Wolska). Women are usually shown in doors as a man is shown outdoor. A common commercial for women is “a housewife obsessed by a steam on a new tablecloth or a woman whose main problem is lack of ideas for dinner. ” Men as shown as “athletic, successful, professional, seducer with a beautiful woman by his side. He also has a branded car and a smartphone. ” In media men are shown as big and strong, supplier of the family.
Commercials still see the world as a patriarchy, mass media, and uses gender stereotypes because, they are well known to everyone and help the receivers to understand the content of the message. (Wolska). During World War II men were sent to war and women were in charge of maintain things while there were gone. This created an idea where these roles of man working and women at home customary. Women didn’t start seeing any change in their rights until the 1920s with the 19th amendment giving them hope helping out the suffrage movement gave women independence.
Fast forward 20 years men are going to war and commercials and ads are different. During World War II women have to start doing the “manly” jobs women become factory workers. Different advertising being release with the icon of women like Rosie the Riveter strong and hard working. “When the United States entered the war, 12 million women (one quarter of the workforce) were already working and by the end of the war, the number was up to 18 million (one third of the workforce). While ultimately 3 million women worked in war plants, the majority of women who worked during World War II worked in traditionally female occupations, like
the service sector. The number of women in skilled jobs was actually few. Most women worked in tedious and poorly paid jobs in order to free men to take better paying jobs or to join the service. The only area that there was a true mixing of the sexes was in semiskilled and unskilled blue-collar work in factories. Traditionally female clerical positions were able to maintain their numbers and recruit new women. These jobs were attractive because the hours were shorter, were white-collar, had better job security, had competitive wages, and were less physically strenuous and dirty.
The demand for clerical workers was so great that it exceeded the supply” (NSP). Women can only work factory jobs when men were out to war. Prior to the war women had nursing jobs or were just domesticated. Once the men leave for their “superior role” women start doing the factory work. They still had to do a double shift in the sense that they had their at home job, taking care of the kids and, their job, job. Even though we now have women working and supporting the family we still have the gender roles applying here on a bigger scale.
The men would leave the country to support the country while the women would stay in the country taking care of the kids and making sure everything was still in place when the man came back. “After the war, the cultural division of labor by sex reasserted itself. Many women remained in the workforce but employers forced them back into lower-paying female jobs. Most women were laid off and told to go back to their homes. ”(NSP) After the men came back women were just kicked out. Nothing changed and that’s the problem with sexism everyone is brainwashed into thinking these things it suggest are real and it’s impossible to break the norms. | <urn:uuid:2d119fec-5b5b-43b1-a520-1bdbace9408a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-gender-and-women/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.980397 | 1,473 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.07147584855556488... | 5 | Gender and Women
Since the beginning of human civilization man has looked down on women. With the average role in a woman’s life is at home mom. But it was not till recently that, that role was look down on. Not all civilizations were treated women with poor conditions. In many ancient civilizations women were basically equal to men besides in Rome, women could not have political power. In Egypt women were equal to men in all ways under the law and could become pharaohs both civilizations treated women better than the world does now in the recent one hundred years.
These conditions were better than the ones in the more recent years. Back then women stood home and since then it has become the norm for women to be there. Usually it would be men out working and women in the house taking care of the kids. Sexism. What is it sexism? Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior. Define by SOCIOLOGY A Brief Introduction by Richard T. Schaefer. Stereotypes and sexism go hand in hand because of sexism forces a stereotype and makes it seem natural “common sense” for a person.
“People organize their knowledge about the world around them by sorting and simplifying received information. Therefore, they create cognitive schemes, which are certain representations of the reality displaying its most typical and fundamental elements and properties. These schemes are responsible for defining the essence of our worldview and have a significant influence on social cognition – understanding, anticipation, and situation and emotion control. ” (Wolska). Stereotypes sometimes produce a false image of the actual photo. It’s customary to think patriarchy is the way to go with a family.
Because growing up they’re gender roles being placed on us. As kids we’re being programed to know and believe these gender roles, by the time kids reach the ages of 3 or 4 children they start to identify the stereotypes of male and female (AdvertEnticement). The main way these roles and stereotypes are fed to us through media consumption. As kids girls are giving Barbie dolls with cooking at home play sets. Young girls start to accept this stereotype. Boys are given G. I. Joe “Action Figures” with military weapons like rifles and grenades don’t forget the cars.
The clothes we wear, the colors we like, are all programmed into our heads before we’re in grade school. A boy cannot wear a dress without him being looked down on and being teased and made fun of (AdvertEnticement). The way they do it through media is through commercials. Boys and girls have set stereotypes of their own “More and more commercials are directed to children. They indicate ‘the proper place’ in the society for girls and boys. Girls are shown as babysitters nursing dolls or cleaning house with a pink cleaning kit, whereas boys do sports or play computer games” (Wolska).
Commercials are a huge way of aiming products at people and they follow the stereotypes of sexism. “Commercials are the vast source of gender stereotyping, because they are adapted to the specific, either male or female target, and are ‘the reflection of the recipient’. The aim of the modern commercial is not only the satisfaction of needs but also their creation. ” Women and Men are targeted differently when it comes to commercials. “Women are more often presented in commercials, because they are seen as responsible for making everyday purchases.
Men generally advertise cars, cigarettes, business products or investments, whereas women are shown rather in the commercials with cosmetics and domestic products. ” (Wolska). Women are usually shown in doors as a man is shown outdoor. A common commercial for women is “a housewife obsessed by a steam on a new tablecloth or a woman whose main problem is lack of ideas for dinner. ” Men as shown as “athletic, successful, professional, seducer with a beautiful woman by his side. He also has a branded car and a smartphone. ” In media men are shown as big and strong, supplier of the family.
Commercials still see the world as a patriarchy, mass media, and uses gender stereotypes because, they are well known to everyone and help the receivers to understand the content of the message. (Wolska). During World War II men were sent to war and women were in charge of maintain things while there were gone. This created an idea where these roles of man working and women at home customary. Women didn’t start seeing any change in their rights until the 1920s with the 19th amendment giving them hope helping out the suffrage movement gave women independence.
Fast forward 20 years men are going to war and commercials and ads are different. During World War II women have to start doing the “manly” jobs women become factory workers. Different advertising being release with the icon of women like Rosie the Riveter strong and hard working. “When the United States entered the war, 12 million women (one quarter of the workforce) were already working and by the end of the war, the number was up to 18 million (one third of the workforce). While ultimately 3 million women worked in war plants, the majority of women who worked during World War II worked in traditionally female occupations, like
the service sector. The number of women in skilled jobs was actually few. Most women worked in tedious and poorly paid jobs in order to free men to take better paying jobs or to join the service. The only area that there was a true mixing of the sexes was in semiskilled and unskilled blue-collar work in factories. Traditionally female clerical positions were able to maintain their numbers and recruit new women. These jobs were attractive because the hours were shorter, were white-collar, had better job security, had competitive wages, and were less physically strenuous and dirty.
The demand for clerical workers was so great that it exceeded the supply” (NSP). Women can only work factory jobs when men were out to war. Prior to the war women had nursing jobs or were just domesticated. Once the men leave for their “superior role” women start doing the factory work. They still had to do a double shift in the sense that they had their at home job, taking care of the kids and, their job, job. Even though we now have women working and supporting the family we still have the gender roles applying here on a bigger scale.
The men would leave the country to support the country while the women would stay in the country taking care of the kids and making sure everything was still in place when the man came back. “After the war, the cultural division of labor by sex reasserted itself. Many women remained in the workforce but employers forced them back into lower-paying female jobs. Most women were laid off and told to go back to their homes. ”(NSP) After the men came back women were just kicked out. Nothing changed and that’s the problem with sexism everyone is brainwashed into thinking these things it suggest are real and it’s impossible to break the norms. | 1,432 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He was part of the great movement for reform in the 15th-century French church. His approach was to reform the recruitment and education of the clergy, along very ascetic lines, heavily influenced by the hermit saint Francis of Paola. To this end he founded many colleges, all of them strictly controlled and dedicated to poor students with real vocations. Chief amongst them was the Collège de Montaigu, latterly part of the University of Paris. He lived at a time when this model of reform was under increasing pressure from more thoroughgoing critiques—including that of one of his most famous students, Erasmus.
He was born in Mechelen (at that time part of the Burgundian Netherlands) into extremely humble circumstances, the son of a poor cobbler. He received his early education there but quickly transferred to Gouda, where the Brothers of the Common Life ran a famous school along monastic lines. Here Jan developed his preference for a mystical, as opposed to an intellectual, approach to religion, together with a determinedly ascetic approach to religious life. The education he received from the Brothers was a traditional Medieval one, including Grammar and Logic, conducted during long days, interrupted by religious devotions, and accompanied by frugal meals, cold beds and many punishments. However, the ancient writers were not neglected—Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Cicero and Cato were much studied with a view to producing a good Latin style and many moral messages. But he was warned against the views of these pagan authors, to counterbalance which he studied the Bible and the Church Fathers. In particular, he studied the Devotio Moderna; a mystical approach based on Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of Christ—in particular, imitation of his sufferings. Jan paid for his studies, as many poor boys did, by serving in the kitchen, or attending to richer students, and performing menial tasks, such as ringing the bell. According to the anonymous monk who was his first biographer (1519), he could not afford candles, so he read, after a hard day, high up in the bell tower by the light of the moon. He never managed to develop a good Latin style—it was apparently always rough and full of mistakes—and he knew nothing of the Greek that was kindling the enthusiasm of so many of his contemporaries, but he never lost his love of the severe religious life learned at Gouda.
On 22 November 1469 he enrolled at Leuven University but seems to have moved on to Paris very soon afterwards. Here he again performed menial services—this time for the monks of Sainte Genevieve—in return for his education. He got his degree in 1475. He was immediately asked to become Regent—that is, student-master—in the Collège de Montaigu, where he also began his (more advanced) studies in Theology. Soon afterwards, he visited a renowned Italian hermit who had been invited to France by the King, Charles VIII. This was St Francis of Paola, who had given up all possessions, (he had walked to France from Italy), including the personal use of money, and subjected himself to severe privations in terms of food, clothing, cleanliness, heat and bedding. Jan was tremendously struck by Francis's air of saintliness.
Collège de Montaigu
On 30 May 1483, he became Master of the Collège de Montaigu, a home for poor students from far away. The College had been founded in 1314 by Giles Aycelin, in Normandy, France—who was the Archbishop of Rouen from 1311 to 1319). Later that year, he was also made the librarian for the Sorbonne, the famous Theology Faculty of the University of Paris.
The College was in great disrepair when Jan Standonck took over—some of the walls were falling down. It had become known as the Collège de Montaigu, after the Archbishop's brother, and Jan was to make it famous. He imposed a very severe regime on the students. They could leave only with his permission and had to return before nightfall—he took the key from the porter every night. They wore only a single cloth gown and were given only a piece of bread each day to eat. They had to go to the door of a nearby monastery at eleven o'clock each morning to receive a hand-out of food. They were punished for the slightest fault, and were encouraged—out of pure charity—to inform of any misdemeanours, and to criticise each other's conduct. Erasmus, one of the students, later said he did not think anyone could forget—or even survive unscathed—their time at the College.
On 16 December 1485, Standonck was elected Rector of the University. The students rose up in violent protest, such was his reputation for severity and strictness. (On 10 April 1490 he made a formal complaint to the authorities that students were not attending his lectures).
Reform of the clergy
In 1490 he received his Doctorate in Theology, though he never made any original contribution to Theology. He just was not interested in this abstract speculation. Indeed, in the disputations that he is recorded as having carried out, with other University Doctors, he always comes off second best. He was more interested in the practical means of salvation—in his terms, a return to poverty and complete self-denial—and these he preached, in a Flemish accent, but in powerful French. He followed the rule of Francis of Paola very strictly and preached that all priests and monks should do so too. By 1493, there were 80 students at the College. They only left when they went to a monastery or to become a parish priest. Standonck hoped by this means to reform the church. In the same year, the King had set up a Commission to examine abuses in the church and he was asked to give a lecture to them, which he did on 12 November at Tours. In this he set out a long list of demands. Most of these were familiar to church reformers—only fit and proper persons should be priests, there should be no money charged for their services, or for accepting a post. There should be free election (by fit and proper priests) of their bishops, or monks of their abbots, and all other religious positions (including teachers at the University). He added demands that the priests and monks should lead exemplary lives. This meant his by now well known strictly ascetic life—including enforcing celibacy among the clergy.
Meanwhile, his reputation for saintliness was growing. He was made a Canon of Beauvais on 11 November 1493. In the following year, he asked the monks of Chartreux to oversee the spiritual welfare of his college, which he had set on a firmer footing, with regular rules, approved by the Chapter of Notre Dame Cathedral. The Admiral of France, Louis Malet de Graville gave him a property which brought in 120 livres a year, which he used for the College. The Admiral also paid for a new building. He got another gift to the same value the following year from Jean de Rochechouart, which he dedicated to the college. When he preached at St Georges at Abbéville during Lent in 1496, the only payment he asked for was some black and grey cloth to clothe his students.
In 1498, king Manuel I of Portugal complained officially to France for the sale of Portuguese merchandise taken by French corsairs via Admiral Graville. To appease the king, Standonck offered two scholarships for worthy Portuguese students in the college. The king accepted, becoming a benefactor of Collège de Montaigu, sending Diogo de Gouveia to study there in 1499.
His message of a reformed clergy was in great demand (though interestingly, he had to call for armed help from the Admiral's men to evict an Augustinian friar from the pulpit at Abbéville). Later that year he tried to bring a heretic to see the error of his ways. Jean Langlois was a priest who had travelled widely—in Spain, Provence, Italy and Bohemia where he had picked up some dangerous ideas. On 3 June 1496 he pushed the priest serving Mass at Notre Dame Cathedral and scattered the Hosts from the chalice before stamping all over them and declaring the idea of the real presence of Christ in them to be a superstition. He was also a brother of one of Standonck's students, so Jan visited him in prison to try to get him to repent, which he did. However, when he learned he was to be handed over to the civil authorities—to be put to death—he retracted his repentance. He was ceremoniously stripped of his priesthood in front of Notre Dame, and the public executioner chopped off the hand that had offensively touched the sacred chalice. He was then put backwards on a donkey and led to the pig market to be burned. Standonck followed him all the way, preaching and imploring him to repent until he was so exhausted he could not speak. Langlois repented just as he was being burned. Standonck declared that from henceforth he would maintain a strict Lenten fast.
The demands for his services were so much that he had to went for help to the Brothers of the Common Life of Windesheim in the Netherlands, who agreed to send him six priests, led by Jean de Bruxelles, and including an interpreter. These, along with Montaigu graduates, he sent to monasteries and bishops who asked for help in reforming their priests. They would work by setting an example of a strict ascetic life of prayer and devotion. Many monks began to suspect some order of take-over. Still others began resenting the suggestion they did not know how to live a holy life, while still others felt that Standonck's approach was too extreme. He had mixed success, and the Dutch brothers returned home. He won some powerful enemies in several prestigious convents, including St Victor.
On 27 October 1496, the Chapter of Notre Dame Cathedral ordered all the priests in the diocese to give up any women they were living with. There was violent opposition to this. The following year he got one vote in the election for Archbishop of Rheims and Jan was persuaded to use this as a challenge to the dubious methods used by the winner, the candidate of the King. Charles VIII had died and the new king, Louis XII was crowned by the new archbishop at Rheims Cathedral on 17 December 1498. To consolidate his position, Louis divorced his wife, Jeanne, and married the widow, Queen Anne, of the late King, who had been his nephew. Jan unwisely advised the Queen against the marriage and preached against divorce (interestingly enough, except in cases of adultery). Early the following year, he, along with the other Doctors in the University went on strike in protest against what they saw as unlawful interference in their affairs by the King. He was prominent in setting out their case. He also helped one of the more forceful opponents of the divorce escape. The King got his divorce and set about punishing his opponents. Standonck was lucky to get only two years exile. He handed over direction of the College to Noël Béda and John Mair and set off to Cambrai in his native Flanders, where he was welcomed by the Bishop.
He used the time in exile to continue preaching and he founded schools, based on the rule of the Collège de Montaigu in various towns, including his hometown of Mechlin, Breda and his old University of Leuven. Later he founded one at Beauvais, where he was canon of the Cathedral. In Brussels he preached to the Archduke Philip of Austria and he visited the Brothers at Windesheim and Gouda. Louis XII, under pressure, relented in 1500, signing very fulsome testimonial on 17 April. On 21 August that year, Pope Alexander VI formally agreed to the rules Standonck had set out for his colleges and the following year, he set out to visit new ones at Valenciennes, Leyden and Harlem, as well as re-Mechlin. In 1502, he received one vote for the Bishopric of Paris, but wisely did not follow this up. He tried to convert another heretic, but this time he failed, but he had not lost his typically medieval taste for litigation. In 1503, he took one of the College masters (Jacques Almain) to court for leaving, taking some students with him. They were ordered to return. He later fell ill with a fever, so bad that the doctors insisted he take some meat, which he did. He echoed St Francis of Assis in welcoming the fever bouts with "Welcome, Sister Fever!". He recovered a little but had a relapse in early 1504. He died during the night of 4 and 5 February, aged 50, and was immediately buried without ceremony at the door of the chapel, so that people could walk over his grave. The inscription was "Souvenez-vous du pauvre homme Standonck"—remember the poor man, Standonck.
There is no doubting the tremendous influence of Standonck at the time and the college founded was for centuries one of the most prestigious in the world, producing scholars and ardent reformers of all camps, including Béda, John Mair, Erasmus and later Calvin and Loyola. His form of reform—the education of exemplary clergy—was taken over in the Catholic Reformation but was rejected by the more radical reform demanded by Luther, Calvin and Knox, for whom personal mortification rather missed the point. The Catholic reformer Erasmus agreed. His judgement on Jan Standonk was that his intentions were good, but he lacked judgement. Erasmus's own judgement on the Collège de Montaigu was brutal indeed. Others—John Mair, for example—looked back on it with immense gratitude and respect.
- Renaudet, Augustin Jean Standonk, un réformateur catholique avant la réforme Paris, Société de l’histoire du protestantisme français, 1908. Extract from Bulletin de la Société de l’histoire du protestantisme français (Janvier-Février 1908) University of Michigan Library
- Renaudet, Augustin Préréforme et Humanisme à Paris pendant les premières guerres d'Italie (1494–1516) Bibliotèque del l'Institut Français de Florence (Université de Grenobles 1st series Volume VI)' Édouard Champion Paris 1916
- Renaudet, Augustin Humanisme et Renaissance : Dante, Pétrarque, Standonck, Érasme, Lefèvre d’Étaples, Marguerite de Navarre, Rabelais, Guichardin, Giordano Bruno. Geneva : E. Droz, 1958. 279 pp. Series: Travaux d’humanisme et Renaissance ; no 30
- Otherwise Gilles Aycelin (the elder), Gilles Asselin de Montaigu, or Montaigut.
- LACH, Donald F. (1994). Asia in the making of Europe: Volume II, A century of wonder. University of Chicago Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-226-46733-3.
- PELLERIN, Agnès, Anne Lima, Xavier de Castro (2009). Les Portugais à Paris: au fil des siècles & des arrondissements. France: Editions Chandeigne. p. 45. ISBN 2-915540-35-7.
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-0.0015444857... | 1 | He was part of the great movement for reform in the 15th-century French church. His approach was to reform the recruitment and education of the clergy, along very ascetic lines, heavily influenced by the hermit saint Francis of Paola. To this end he founded many colleges, all of them strictly controlled and dedicated to poor students with real vocations. Chief amongst them was the Collège de Montaigu, latterly part of the University of Paris. He lived at a time when this model of reform was under increasing pressure from more thoroughgoing critiques—including that of one of his most famous students, Erasmus.
He was born in Mechelen (at that time part of the Burgundian Netherlands) into extremely humble circumstances, the son of a poor cobbler. He received his early education there but quickly transferred to Gouda, where the Brothers of the Common Life ran a famous school along monastic lines. Here Jan developed his preference for a mystical, as opposed to an intellectual, approach to religion, together with a determinedly ascetic approach to religious life. The education he received from the Brothers was a traditional Medieval one, including Grammar and Logic, conducted during long days, interrupted by religious devotions, and accompanied by frugal meals, cold beds and many punishments. However, the ancient writers were not neglected—Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Cicero and Cato were much studied with a view to producing a good Latin style and many moral messages. But he was warned against the views of these pagan authors, to counterbalance which he studied the Bible and the Church Fathers. In particular, he studied the Devotio Moderna; a mystical approach based on Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of Christ—in particular, imitation of his sufferings. Jan paid for his studies, as many poor boys did, by serving in the kitchen, or attending to richer students, and performing menial tasks, such as ringing the bell. According to the anonymous monk who was his first biographer (1519), he could not afford candles, so he read, after a hard day, high up in the bell tower by the light of the moon. He never managed to develop a good Latin style—it was apparently always rough and full of mistakes—and he knew nothing of the Greek that was kindling the enthusiasm of so many of his contemporaries, but he never lost his love of the severe religious life learned at Gouda.
On 22 November 1469 he enrolled at Leuven University but seems to have moved on to Paris very soon afterwards. Here he again performed menial services—this time for the monks of Sainte Genevieve—in return for his education. He got his degree in 1475. He was immediately asked to become Regent—that is, student-master—in the Collège de Montaigu, where he also began his (more advanced) studies in Theology. Soon afterwards, he visited a renowned Italian hermit who had been invited to France by the King, Charles VIII. This was St Francis of Paola, who had given up all possessions, (he had walked to France from Italy), including the personal use of money, and subjected himself to severe privations in terms of food, clothing, cleanliness, heat and bedding. Jan was tremendously struck by Francis's air of saintliness.
Collège de Montaigu
On 30 May 1483, he became Master of the Collège de Montaigu, a home for poor students from far away. The College had been founded in 1314 by Giles Aycelin, in Normandy, France—who was the Archbishop of Rouen from 1311 to 1319). Later that year, he was also made the librarian for the Sorbonne, the famous Theology Faculty of the University of Paris.
The College was in great disrepair when Jan Standonck took over—some of the walls were falling down. It had become known as the Collège de Montaigu, after the Archbishop's brother, and Jan was to make it famous. He imposed a very severe regime on the students. They could leave only with his permission and had to return before nightfall—he took the key from the porter every night. They wore only a single cloth gown and were given only a piece of bread each day to eat. They had to go to the door of a nearby monastery at eleven o'clock each morning to receive a hand-out of food. They were punished for the slightest fault, and were encouraged—out of pure charity—to inform of any misdemeanours, and to criticise each other's conduct. Erasmus, one of the students, later said he did not think anyone could forget—or even survive unscathed—their time at the College.
On 16 December 1485, Standonck was elected Rector of the University. The students rose up in violent protest, such was his reputation for severity and strictness. (On 10 April 1490 he made a formal complaint to the authorities that students were not attending his lectures).
Reform of the clergy
In 1490 he received his Doctorate in Theology, though he never made any original contribution to Theology. He just was not interested in this abstract speculation. Indeed, in the disputations that he is recorded as having carried out, with other University Doctors, he always comes off second best. He was more interested in the practical means of salvation—in his terms, a return to poverty and complete self-denial—and these he preached, in a Flemish accent, but in powerful French. He followed the rule of Francis of Paola very strictly and preached that all priests and monks should do so too. By 1493, there were 80 students at the College. They only left when they went to a monastery or to become a parish priest. Standonck hoped by this means to reform the church. In the same year, the King had set up a Commission to examine abuses in the church and he was asked to give a lecture to them, which he did on 12 November at Tours. In this he set out a long list of demands. Most of these were familiar to church reformers—only fit and proper persons should be priests, there should be no money charged for their services, or for accepting a post. There should be free election (by fit and proper priests) of their bishops, or monks of their abbots, and all other religious positions (including teachers at the University). He added demands that the priests and monks should lead exemplary lives. This meant his by now well known strictly ascetic life—including enforcing celibacy among the clergy.
Meanwhile, his reputation for saintliness was growing. He was made a Canon of Beauvais on 11 November 1493. In the following year, he asked the monks of Chartreux to oversee the spiritual welfare of his college, which he had set on a firmer footing, with regular rules, approved by the Chapter of Notre Dame Cathedral. The Admiral of France, Louis Malet de Graville gave him a property which brought in 120 livres a year, which he used for the College. The Admiral also paid for a new building. He got another gift to the same value the following year from Jean de Rochechouart, which he dedicated to the college. When he preached at St Georges at Abbéville during Lent in 1496, the only payment he asked for was some black and grey cloth to clothe his students.
In 1498, king Manuel I of Portugal complained officially to France for the sale of Portuguese merchandise taken by French corsairs via Admiral Graville. To appease the king, Standonck offered two scholarships for worthy Portuguese students in the college. The king accepted, becoming a benefactor of Collège de Montaigu, sending Diogo de Gouveia to study there in 1499.
His message of a reformed clergy was in great demand (though interestingly, he had to call for armed help from the Admiral's men to evict an Augustinian friar from the pulpit at Abbéville). Later that year he tried to bring a heretic to see the error of his ways. Jean Langlois was a priest who had travelled widely—in Spain, Provence, Italy and Bohemia where he had picked up some dangerous ideas. On 3 June 1496 he pushed the priest serving Mass at Notre Dame Cathedral and scattered the Hosts from the chalice before stamping all over them and declaring the idea of the real presence of Christ in them to be a superstition. He was also a brother of one of Standonck's students, so Jan visited him in prison to try to get him to repent, which he did. However, when he learned he was to be handed over to the civil authorities—to be put to death—he retracted his repentance. He was ceremoniously stripped of his priesthood in front of Notre Dame, and the public executioner chopped off the hand that had offensively touched the sacred chalice. He was then put backwards on a donkey and led to the pig market to be burned. Standonck followed him all the way, preaching and imploring him to repent until he was so exhausted he could not speak. Langlois repented just as he was being burned. Standonck declared that from henceforth he would maintain a strict Lenten fast.
The demands for his services were so much that he had to went for help to the Brothers of the Common Life of Windesheim in the Netherlands, who agreed to send him six priests, led by Jean de Bruxelles, and including an interpreter. These, along with Montaigu graduates, he sent to monasteries and bishops who asked for help in reforming their priests. They would work by setting an example of a strict ascetic life of prayer and devotion. Many monks began to suspect some order of take-over. Still others began resenting the suggestion they did not know how to live a holy life, while still others felt that Standonck's approach was too extreme. He had mixed success, and the Dutch brothers returned home. He won some powerful enemies in several prestigious convents, including St Victor.
On 27 October 1496, the Chapter of Notre Dame Cathedral ordered all the priests in the diocese to give up any women they were living with. There was violent opposition to this. The following year he got one vote in the election for Archbishop of Rheims and Jan was persuaded to use this as a challenge to the dubious methods used by the winner, the candidate of the King. Charles VIII had died and the new king, Louis XII was crowned by the new archbishop at Rheims Cathedral on 17 December 1498. To consolidate his position, Louis divorced his wife, Jeanne, and married the widow, Queen Anne, of the late King, who had been his nephew. Jan unwisely advised the Queen against the marriage and preached against divorce (interestingly enough, except in cases of adultery). Early the following year, he, along with the other Doctors in the University went on strike in protest against what they saw as unlawful interference in their affairs by the King. He was prominent in setting out their case. He also helped one of the more forceful opponents of the divorce escape. The King got his divorce and set about punishing his opponents. Standonck was lucky to get only two years exile. He handed over direction of the College to Noël Béda and John Mair and set off to Cambrai in his native Flanders, where he was welcomed by the Bishop.
He used the time in exile to continue preaching and he founded schools, based on the rule of the Collège de Montaigu in various towns, including his hometown of Mechlin, Breda and his old University of Leuven. Later he founded one at Beauvais, where he was canon of the Cathedral. In Brussels he preached to the Archduke Philip of Austria and he visited the Brothers at Windesheim and Gouda. Louis XII, under pressure, relented in 1500, signing very fulsome testimonial on 17 April. On 21 August that year, Pope Alexander VI formally agreed to the rules Standonck had set out for his colleges and the following year, he set out to visit new ones at Valenciennes, Leyden and Harlem, as well as re-Mechlin. In 1502, he received one vote for the Bishopric of Paris, but wisely did not follow this up. He tried to convert another heretic, but this time he failed, but he had not lost his typically medieval taste for litigation. In 1503, he took one of the College masters (Jacques Almain) to court for leaving, taking some students with him. They were ordered to return. He later fell ill with a fever, so bad that the doctors insisted he take some meat, which he did. He echoed St Francis of Assis in welcoming the fever bouts with "Welcome, Sister Fever!". He recovered a little but had a relapse in early 1504. He died during the night of 4 and 5 February, aged 50, and was immediately buried without ceremony at the door of the chapel, so that people could walk over his grave. The inscription was "Souvenez-vous du pauvre homme Standonck"—remember the poor man, Standonck.
There is no doubting the tremendous influence of Standonck at the time and the college founded was for centuries one of the most prestigious in the world, producing scholars and ardent reformers of all camps, including Béda, John Mair, Erasmus and later Calvin and Loyola. His form of reform—the education of exemplary clergy—was taken over in the Catholic Reformation but was rejected by the more radical reform demanded by Luther, Calvin and Knox, for whom personal mortification rather missed the point. The Catholic reformer Erasmus agreed. His judgement on Jan Standonk was that his intentions were good, but he lacked judgement. Erasmus's own judgement on the Collège de Montaigu was brutal indeed. Others—John Mair, for example—looked back on it with immense gratitude and respect.
- Renaudet, Augustin Jean Standonk, un réformateur catholique avant la réforme Paris, Société de l’histoire du protestantisme français, 1908. Extract from Bulletin de la Société de l’histoire du protestantisme français (Janvier-Février 1908) University of Michigan Library
- Renaudet, Augustin Préréforme et Humanisme à Paris pendant les premières guerres d'Italie (1494–1516) Bibliotèque del l'Institut Français de Florence (Université de Grenobles 1st series Volume VI)' Édouard Champion Paris 1916
- Renaudet, Augustin Humanisme et Renaissance : Dante, Pétrarque, Standonck, Érasme, Lefèvre d’Étaples, Marguerite de Navarre, Rabelais, Guichardin, Giordano Bruno. Geneva : E. Droz, 1958. 279 pp. Series: Travaux d’humanisme et Renaissance ; no 30
- Otherwise Gilles Aycelin (the elder), Gilles Asselin de Montaigu, or Montaigut.
- LACH, Donald F. (1994). Asia in the making of Europe: Volume II, A century of wonder. University of Chicago Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-226-46733-3.
- PELLERIN, Agnès, Anne Lima, Xavier de Castro (2009). Les Portugais à Paris: au fil des siècles & des arrondissements. France: Editions Chandeigne. p. 45. ISBN 2-915540-35-7.
Lua error in Module:Authority_control at line 346: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value). | 3,393 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Category: Ancient Egypt Views: 2873
Ancient Egyptian Religion
Every aspect of Egyptian life was guided by religion. Egyptian religion was based on polytheism that means the worship of many deities. The Egyptians had as many as 2000 gods and goddesses such as Amun, who was worshiped throughout the whole country. Some of the Egyptian gods and goddesses were represented as part animal and human.
Egyptians considered animals like the bull, the cat and the crocodile to be holy. Amon-Ra and Osiris were their two chief gods. The Egyptian Book of the Dead contains the major ideas and beliefs of the ancient religion. Egyptian religion stressed an afterlife, because of which Egyptians spent much wealth and time to prepare for survival in the next world.
The temples were considered the dwelling places for the gods, and were constructed everywhere. The purpose of the temple was to be a cosmic center to be used by men to communicate with the gods. As the priests gained more power, tombs became a part of the great temple. The duties of the priest involved taking care of the gods and attending to their need. Priests also had other duties such as teaching in school, performing the funeral rites, supervising artists and their work and advising people on their problems.
Death and Funeral
The Egyptian people saw death as a transitional stage in the progress to a better life. They believed that full potential was possible only after death. The Egyptians believed that each person had three souls – the ka, ba and akh. It was considered essential for the body to survive intact if these were to function properly. It was the Egyptian belief in life after death that became the driving force behind their funeral practices.
After a person died, the priests recited prayers and made a final attempt to revive the person. Once this was done, the body was washed and purified in a special shelter called an ibu. Then the body was taken to a wabet which is the embalmer’s workshop. The organs were removed from the body after making a cut on the left hand side and then packed for 40 days with a salt called natron. Once the forty days had passed, the inside of the body was filled with sawdust or linen, resin and natron. The body was then wrapped in bandages with amulets and jewelry between the layers. The chief embalmer who wore a jackal mask to represent Anubis placed a portrait mask over the head of the deceased. Once this was done, the wrapped body, or mummy was placed in a coffin.
After 70 days had passed, in which the mummification took place, the mummy was placed in a decorated coffin. Statues, furniture, food, games and other items that would be useful to the next life were also buried with the mummy. Opening of the mouth was the last right performed by the priest. This ceremony was to magically provide the deceased the ability to eat, speak and make full use of his body. The tomb was sealed after placing the mummy in the sarcophagus.
Ancient Egyptian Gods
Osiris was usually represented as a bearded, mummified human with green skin and wearing the atef crown. Osiris was the god of vegetation and earth. In his death, Osiris symbolized the yearly drought and in his miraculous rebirth the periodic flooding of the Nile and the growth of the grain. Osiris was god-king who was believed to have given Egypt civilization.
Horus was one of the most ancient deities of the Ancient Egyptian religion. Horus was the god of the sky and the sun of Osiris. Horus was depicted as a falcon, or a falcon-headed man which led to the name Horus which meant the distant one.
Anubis is the jackal-headed god of Egypt. Anubis was the guardian of the dead, whose task was to take the souls to the underworld and protect them on their journey. It was Anubis who deemed the deceased worthy of becoming a star. Texts reveal that Anubis weighed the heart of the dead against the feather symbol of Ma’at, the goddess of truth.
Ancient Egyptian Goddesses
Isis was an important Egyptian goddess. She is depicted as a woman wearing a vulture headdress and the solar disk between a pair of horns. Sometimes she is depicted wearing double-crowns of the North and the South with the feather of the Ma’at or a pair of ram’s horns. The most important functions that Isis performed were those of motherhood, marital devotion, healing the sick and working of magical spells and charms.
Sekhmet was generally portrayed as a woman with the head of a lioness surmounted by the solar disk and the uraeus. The name Sekhmet is derived from the root sekhem which means to be strong, mighty and violent.
Hathor was the cow-goddess of love and also the deity of dance, happiness and music. Not only that, Hathor was the protector of women too. She was depicted as a woman with the head of a cow, or a woman who wears the stylized cow horns which hold in them the solar disk. The papyrus reed, the snake and the rattle are some of her other symbols.
By Rachna Gupta
ॐ Namasté - Blessings!
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Ancient Egyptian Religion
Every aspect of Egyptian life was guided by religion. Egyptian religion was based on polytheism that means the worship of many deities. The Egyptians had as many as 2000 gods and goddesses such as Amun, who was worshiped throughout the whole country. Some of the Egyptian gods and goddesses were represented as part animal and human.
Egyptians considered animals like the bull, the cat and the crocodile to be holy. Amon-Ra and Osiris were their two chief gods. The Egyptian Book of the Dead contains the major ideas and beliefs of the ancient religion. Egyptian religion stressed an afterlife, because of which Egyptians spent much wealth and time to prepare for survival in the next world.
The temples were considered the dwelling places for the gods, and were constructed everywhere. The purpose of the temple was to be a cosmic center to be used by men to communicate with the gods. As the priests gained more power, tombs became a part of the great temple. The duties of the priest involved taking care of the gods and attending to their need. Priests also had other duties such as teaching in school, performing the funeral rites, supervising artists and their work and advising people on their problems.
Death and Funeral
The Egyptian people saw death as a transitional stage in the progress to a better life. They believed that full potential was possible only after death. The Egyptians believed that each person had three souls – the ka, ba and akh. It was considered essential for the body to survive intact if these were to function properly. It was the Egyptian belief in life after death that became the driving force behind their funeral practices.
After a person died, the priests recited prayers and made a final attempt to revive the person. Once this was done, the body was washed and purified in a special shelter called an ibu. Then the body was taken to a wabet which is the embalmer’s workshop. The organs were removed from the body after making a cut on the left hand side and then packed for 40 days with a salt called natron. Once the forty days had passed, the inside of the body was filled with sawdust or linen, resin and natron. The body was then wrapped in bandages with amulets and jewelry between the layers. The chief embalmer who wore a jackal mask to represent Anubis placed a portrait mask over the head of the deceased. Once this was done, the wrapped body, or mummy was placed in a coffin.
After 70 days had passed, in which the mummification took place, the mummy was placed in a decorated coffin. Statues, furniture, food, games and other items that would be useful to the next life were also buried with the mummy. Opening of the mouth was the last right performed by the priest. This ceremony was to magically provide the deceased the ability to eat, speak and make full use of his body. The tomb was sealed after placing the mummy in the sarcophagus.
Ancient Egyptian Gods
Osiris was usually represented as a bearded, mummified human with green skin and wearing the atef crown. Osiris was the god of vegetation and earth. In his death, Osiris symbolized the yearly drought and in his miraculous rebirth the periodic flooding of the Nile and the growth of the grain. Osiris was god-king who was believed to have given Egypt civilization.
Horus was one of the most ancient deities of the Ancient Egyptian religion. Horus was the god of the sky and the sun of Osiris. Horus was depicted as a falcon, or a falcon-headed man which led to the name Horus which meant the distant one.
Anubis is the jackal-headed god of Egypt. Anubis was the guardian of the dead, whose task was to take the souls to the underworld and protect them on their journey. It was Anubis who deemed the deceased worthy of becoming a star. Texts reveal that Anubis weighed the heart of the dead against the feather symbol of Ma’at, the goddess of truth.
Ancient Egyptian Goddesses
Isis was an important Egyptian goddess. She is depicted as a woman wearing a vulture headdress and the solar disk between a pair of horns. Sometimes she is depicted wearing double-crowns of the North and the South with the feather of the Ma’at or a pair of ram’s horns. The most important functions that Isis performed were those of motherhood, marital devotion, healing the sick and working of magical spells and charms.
Sekhmet was generally portrayed as a woman with the head of a lioness surmounted by the solar disk and the uraeus. The name Sekhmet is derived from the root sekhem which means to be strong, mighty and violent.
Hathor was the cow-goddess of love and also the deity of dance, happiness and music. Not only that, Hathor was the protector of women too. She was depicted as a woman with the head of a cow, or a woman who wears the stylized cow horns which hold in them the solar disk. The papyrus reed, the snake and the rattle are some of her other symbols.
By Rachna Gupta
ॐ Namasté - Blessings!
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The lives of Victorian women were quite different from the lives of Western women today. I don’t just mean in relation to the fact that we have cars, telephones, labour saving devices, computers, etc. I mean the clothes that we wear, and the ways that we live our lives in general. The fact that we are able to vote when we reach the age of majority, the fact that we can own property. We are indebted to those Victorian women who paved the way for us to live the lives we live today.
How did the lives of Victorian women’s differ from our own? Most Western women today have a great deal of freedom and can have their own possessions but this was not always so.
Victorian Women. At one end of the spectrum there are those from relatively well to do backgrounds such as Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, Florence Nightingale and Elizabeth Barrett Browning to those who made a living anyway they could, such as Jack the Ripper’s victims Elizabeth Stride and Annie Chapman. How else did they differ from our lives today?
Some of the differences are evident: they wore long dresses, which look as though they may have been very uncomfortable to wear whereas we today are able wear trousers if we choose, and shorter dresses and skirts, which are far more comfortable and practical. We have computers, mobile ‘phones, televisions, electric irons, vacuum cleaners, etc, etc. Victorian women had none of these things. The irons were the old pairs of irons that had to be heated in front of a fire, and the “washing machine” would have been a scrubbing board and a mangle.
The population of the country as a whole was growing and the industrial revolution was either still underway, or had, taken place, depending on the exact date in question. Industrialisation meant that there were more jobs available in the towns and cities. Although people in the UK had started to migrate to towns as far back as 1350, after the Black Death had changed the face of farming in Britain forever, this migration escalated in Victorian times.
Despite our vision of the man of the house being the breadwinner, many families just couldn’t survive without the income of the wife and the offspring. All members of the family who could work were expected to contribute to the household. Big families equal big bills. The truth of the matter was (and still is, in many cases, despite legislation to the contrary) that women were cheaper to employ than men.
|Victorian London Street Life in Historic Photographs|
Classic document of social realism contains 37 photographs by famed Victorian photographer John Thomson, accompanied by individual essays — by Thomson himself or social activist...
|Victorian London: The Life of a City 1840-1870|
From rag-gatherers to royalty, from fish knives to Freemasons: everyday life in Victorian London.Like its acclaimed companion volumes, Elizabeth's London, Restoration London and...
|The Victorian City: Everyday Life in Dickens' London|
The nineteenth century was a time of unprecedented change, and nowhere was this more apparent than London, which, in only a few decades, grew from a compact Regency town into th...
It’s difficult to be exact about how much Victoria women earned. Some of them worked from home, or as part of a family run business. Some were treated as casual labour or only worked part-time so their wages were never correctly recorded. Maybe a bit of Victorian “cash-in-hand?” Some worked in sweatshops, which may have been shady; to say the least, and work such as prostitution isn’t generally recorded even now. (I read about one lady in that line of work who showed herself as a self-employed demonstrator on her tax return!)
The largest single occupation for women at this time was domestic service, estimated at 40% of all female work. I remember clearly my grandmother telling me of her days in service, and working her way up to cook, like Mrs Patmore in Downton Abbey. In fact, think about the staff in the household at Downton and you can see why there was so much employment for women. Whilst there may have been promotion after a fashion in service, the days were long and the work was hard, and if your employers were not as nice as Lord and Lady Grantham, well, woe betide you.
The rag trade (clothing and textiles) was the next biggest occupation for women, although there were regional variations in work availability. For example, in the area known as The Potteries (six towns in Staffordshire, including Stoke-on-Trent), large numbers of women were employed in the pottery and ceramics factories prevalent in that area. Other major employments for women were cleaning; retail and laundry work, and these types of work would have been available across the whole country.
Women rarely set up in business in their own right, at least, not legal businesses; it wasn’t uncommon for women to run brothels. Married women were, effectively, the chattel of their husbands, meaning they couldn’t own anything. Anything they did own was made over to their husband on marriage. It wasn’t easy for single women either, although they would often be involved in family businesses. (Victorian women were not allowed to vote, nor own property and the women’s suffrage movement didn’t start in earnest until the end of the Victorian era.) However, if the woman became a widow, it was up to her to carry on or the business would fold or be sold. Double standards there methinks. Of course, even when women worked, there was still the house to be maintained. In most cases, it was the woman who did this, as well as her job, unless the household was wealthy enough to have servants.
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|Unmentionable: The Victorian Lady's Guide to Sex, Marriage, and Manners|
The New York Times bestselling, "hysterically funny and unsettlingly fascinating" (Jenny Lawson) guide to the secrets of Victorian womanhood. Have you ever wished you could live...
The Victorians, or at least, middle class Victorians, thought cities were dangerous places to be, and they feared for women. It wasn’t just crime (or the perception of crime) that was the problem; they believed that diseases were carried from the slum areas in the air. Not just by germs being passed from one person to another, but in the air itself. It is not true that respectable women didn’t travel alone. When the Underground opened in 1863, women travelling alone did use it as a means of travel. Perhaps women were not quite the delicate flowers that they were portrayed to be?
In Victorian Britain, it wasn’t uncommon for families to have 10 or more children, although many died in infancy, often from diseases such as smallpox or diphtheria. Queen Victoria herself gave birth to nine children. (There was no effective contraception to speak of until 1868 when the first intra-uterine device was developed.) In addition to this, the woman had no say in the number of children, nor their fate once they were born. As I said above, she was the chattel of the husband so it was down to him. It was quite acceptable for a husband to beat his wife if she dared to refuse to have sex with him. In the unlikely event of a divorce, the woman had no say in the custody of her children - it wasn’t uncommon for a husband to withhold access to the children just out of spite, particularly if the woman had wronged him in some way.
Women were not considered to need education in the way we think of it nowadays. For the most part, it was confined to learning about running the home and bringing up the children. In most cases, women stood no chance of being able to learn maths nor any of the sciences.
All in all, life was very different and, I think, much harder for our Victorian forbears, particularly if you were born into poverty. No National Health Service and no social security benefits. Makes you think, doesn’t it? | <urn:uuid:019d9fe2-38bc-4d42-b413-b31258e52beb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wizzley.com/victorian-women/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.982625 | 1,851 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.39407151937... | 1 | The lives of Victorian women were quite different from the lives of Western women today. I don’t just mean in relation to the fact that we have cars, telephones, labour saving devices, computers, etc. I mean the clothes that we wear, and the ways that we live our lives in general. The fact that we are able to vote when we reach the age of majority, the fact that we can own property. We are indebted to those Victorian women who paved the way for us to live the lives we live today.
How did the lives of Victorian women’s differ from our own? Most Western women today have a great deal of freedom and can have their own possessions but this was not always so.
Victorian Women. At one end of the spectrum there are those from relatively well to do backgrounds such as Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, Florence Nightingale and Elizabeth Barrett Browning to those who made a living anyway they could, such as Jack the Ripper’s victims Elizabeth Stride and Annie Chapman. How else did they differ from our lives today?
Some of the differences are evident: they wore long dresses, which look as though they may have been very uncomfortable to wear whereas we today are able wear trousers if we choose, and shorter dresses and skirts, which are far more comfortable and practical. We have computers, mobile ‘phones, televisions, electric irons, vacuum cleaners, etc, etc. Victorian women had none of these things. The irons were the old pairs of irons that had to be heated in front of a fire, and the “washing machine” would have been a scrubbing board and a mangle.
The population of the country as a whole was growing and the industrial revolution was either still underway, or had, taken place, depending on the exact date in question. Industrialisation meant that there were more jobs available in the towns and cities. Although people in the UK had started to migrate to towns as far back as 1350, after the Black Death had changed the face of farming in Britain forever, this migration escalated in Victorian times.
Despite our vision of the man of the house being the breadwinner, many families just couldn’t survive without the income of the wife and the offspring. All members of the family who could work were expected to contribute to the household. Big families equal big bills. The truth of the matter was (and still is, in many cases, despite legislation to the contrary) that women were cheaper to employ than men.
|Victorian London Street Life in Historic Photographs|
Classic document of social realism contains 37 photographs by famed Victorian photographer John Thomson, accompanied by individual essays — by Thomson himself or social activist...
|Victorian London: The Life of a City 1840-1870|
From rag-gatherers to royalty, from fish knives to Freemasons: everyday life in Victorian London.Like its acclaimed companion volumes, Elizabeth's London, Restoration London and...
|The Victorian City: Everyday Life in Dickens' London|
The nineteenth century was a time of unprecedented change, and nowhere was this more apparent than London, which, in only a few decades, grew from a compact Regency town into th...
It’s difficult to be exact about how much Victoria women earned. Some of them worked from home, or as part of a family run business. Some were treated as casual labour or only worked part-time so their wages were never correctly recorded. Maybe a bit of Victorian “cash-in-hand?” Some worked in sweatshops, which may have been shady; to say the least, and work such as prostitution isn’t generally recorded even now. (I read about one lady in that line of work who showed herself as a self-employed demonstrator on her tax return!)
The largest single occupation for women at this time was domestic service, estimated at 40% of all female work. I remember clearly my grandmother telling me of her days in service, and working her way up to cook, like Mrs Patmore in Downton Abbey. In fact, think about the staff in the household at Downton and you can see why there was so much employment for women. Whilst there may have been promotion after a fashion in service, the days were long and the work was hard, and if your employers were not as nice as Lord and Lady Grantham, well, woe betide you.
The rag trade (clothing and textiles) was the next biggest occupation for women, although there were regional variations in work availability. For example, in the area known as The Potteries (six towns in Staffordshire, including Stoke-on-Trent), large numbers of women were employed in the pottery and ceramics factories prevalent in that area. Other major employments for women were cleaning; retail and laundry work, and these types of work would have been available across the whole country.
Women rarely set up in business in their own right, at least, not legal businesses; it wasn’t uncommon for women to run brothels. Married women were, effectively, the chattel of their husbands, meaning they couldn’t own anything. Anything they did own was made over to their husband on marriage. It wasn’t easy for single women either, although they would often be involved in family businesses. (Victorian women were not allowed to vote, nor own property and the women’s suffrage movement didn’t start in earnest until the end of the Victorian era.) However, if the woman became a widow, it was up to her to carry on or the business would fold or be sold. Double standards there methinks. Of course, even when women worked, there was still the house to be maintained. In most cases, it was the woman who did this, as well as her job, unless the household was wealthy enough to have servants.
|PrettyGuide Women Stand-Up Collar Lotus Ruffle Shirts Blouse M Ivory|
The materical can stretch a bit and not easy to get creased
|Choies Women's Vintage White with Black Lace Stand-Up Collar Puff Long Sleeve Shirts|
S:Shoulder:14.3" / Bust:37.8" / Waist:31.5" / Length:26.6" / Sleeve Length:26.8" M:Shoulder:14.7" / Bust:39.8" / Waist:33.5" / Length:27.0" / Sleeve Length:27.2" L:Shoulder:15.2...
|Unmentionable: The Victorian Lady's Guide to Sex, Marriage, and Manners|
The New York Times bestselling, "hysterically funny and unsettlingly fascinating" (Jenny Lawson) guide to the secrets of Victorian womanhood. Have you ever wished you could live...
The Victorians, or at least, middle class Victorians, thought cities were dangerous places to be, and they feared for women. It wasn’t just crime (or the perception of crime) that was the problem; they believed that diseases were carried from the slum areas in the air. Not just by germs being passed from one person to another, but in the air itself. It is not true that respectable women didn’t travel alone. When the Underground opened in 1863, women travelling alone did use it as a means of travel. Perhaps women were not quite the delicate flowers that they were portrayed to be?
In Victorian Britain, it wasn’t uncommon for families to have 10 or more children, although many died in infancy, often from diseases such as smallpox or diphtheria. Queen Victoria herself gave birth to nine children. (There was no effective contraception to speak of until 1868 when the first intra-uterine device was developed.) In addition to this, the woman had no say in the number of children, nor their fate once they were born. As I said above, she was the chattel of the husband so it was down to him. It was quite acceptable for a husband to beat his wife if she dared to refuse to have sex with him. In the unlikely event of a divorce, the woman had no say in the custody of her children - it wasn’t uncommon for a husband to withhold access to the children just out of spite, particularly if the woman had wronged him in some way.
Women were not considered to need education in the way we think of it nowadays. For the most part, it was confined to learning about running the home and bringing up the children. In most cases, women stood no chance of being able to learn maths nor any of the sciences.
All in all, life was very different and, I think, much harder for our Victorian forbears, particularly if you were born into poverty. No National Health Service and no social security benefits. Makes you think, doesn’t it? | 1,800 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Help Now >
St. Olaf Haraldson
FREE Catholic Classes
Martyr and King of Norway (1015-30), b. 995; d. 29 July, 1030. He was a son of King Harald Grenske of Norway. According to Snorre, he was baptized in 998 in Norway, but more probably about 1010 in Rouen, France, by Archbishop Robert. In his early youth he went as a viking to England, where he partook in many battles and became earnestly interested in Christianity. After many difficulties he was elected King of Norway, and made it his object to extirpate heathenism and make the Christian religion the basis of his kingdom. He is the great Norwegian legislator for the Church, and like his ancestor (Olaf Trygvesson), made frequent severe attacks on the old faith and customs, demolishing the temples and building Christian churches in their place. He brought many bishops and priests from England, as King Saint Cnut later did to Denmark. Some few are known by name (Grimkel, Sigfrid, Rudolf, Bernhard). He seems on the whole to have taken the Anglo-Saxon conditions as a model for the ecclesiastical organization of his kingdom. But at last the exasperation against him got so strong that the mighty clans rose in rebellion against him and applied to King Cnut of Denmark and England for help. This was willingly given, whereupon Olaf was expelled and Cnut elected King of Norway. It must be remembered that the resentment against Olaf was due not alone to his Christianity, but also in a high degree to his unflinching struggle against the old constitution of shires and for the unity of Norway. He is thus regarded by the Norwegians of our days as the great champion of national independence, and Catholic and Protestant alike may find in Saint Olaf their great idea.
After two years' exile he returned to Norway with an army and met his rebellious subjects at Stiklestad, where the celebrated battle took place 29 July, 1030. Neither King Cnut nor the Danes took part at that battle. King Olaf fought with great courage, but was mortally wounded and fell on the battlefield, praying " God help me". Many miraculous occurrences are related in connection with his death and his disinterment a year later, after belief in his sanctity had spread widely. His friends, Bishop Grimkel and Earl Einar Tambeskjelver, laid the corpse in a coffin and set it on the high-altar in the church of St. Clement in Nidaros (now Trondhjem ). Olaf has since been held as a saint, not only by the people of Norway, but also by Rome. His cult spread widely in the Middle Ages, not only in Norway, but also in Denmark and Sweden ; even in London, there is on Hart Street a St. Olave's Church, long dedicated to the canonized King of Norway. In 1856 a fine St. Olave's Church was erected in Christiania, the capital of Norway, where a large relic of St. Olaf (a donation from the Danish Royal Museum) is preserved and venerated. The arms of Norway are a lion with the battle-axe of St. Olaf in the forepaws. | <urn:uuid:a6122a13-dd5c-4952-8e65-3db1cd7e170a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=8689 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00359.warc.gz | en | 0.987938 | 686 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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St. Olaf Haraldson
FREE Catholic Classes
Martyr and King of Norway (1015-30), b. 995; d. 29 July, 1030. He was a son of King Harald Grenske of Norway. According to Snorre, he was baptized in 998 in Norway, but more probably about 1010 in Rouen, France, by Archbishop Robert. In his early youth he went as a viking to England, where he partook in many battles and became earnestly interested in Christianity. After many difficulties he was elected King of Norway, and made it his object to extirpate heathenism and make the Christian religion the basis of his kingdom. He is the great Norwegian legislator for the Church, and like his ancestor (Olaf Trygvesson), made frequent severe attacks on the old faith and customs, demolishing the temples and building Christian churches in their place. He brought many bishops and priests from England, as King Saint Cnut later did to Denmark. Some few are known by name (Grimkel, Sigfrid, Rudolf, Bernhard). He seems on the whole to have taken the Anglo-Saxon conditions as a model for the ecclesiastical organization of his kingdom. But at last the exasperation against him got so strong that the mighty clans rose in rebellion against him and applied to King Cnut of Denmark and England for help. This was willingly given, whereupon Olaf was expelled and Cnut elected King of Norway. It must be remembered that the resentment against Olaf was due not alone to his Christianity, but also in a high degree to his unflinching struggle against the old constitution of shires and for the unity of Norway. He is thus regarded by the Norwegians of our days as the great champion of national independence, and Catholic and Protestant alike may find in Saint Olaf their great idea.
After two years' exile he returned to Norway with an army and met his rebellious subjects at Stiklestad, where the celebrated battle took place 29 July, 1030. Neither King Cnut nor the Danes took part at that battle. King Olaf fought with great courage, but was mortally wounded and fell on the battlefield, praying " God help me". Many miraculous occurrences are related in connection with his death and his disinterment a year later, after belief in his sanctity had spread widely. His friends, Bishop Grimkel and Earl Einar Tambeskjelver, laid the corpse in a coffin and set it on the high-altar in the church of St. Clement in Nidaros (now Trondhjem ). Olaf has since been held as a saint, not only by the people of Norway, but also by Rome. His cult spread widely in the Middle Ages, not only in Norway, but also in Denmark and Sweden ; even in London, there is on Hart Street a St. Olave's Church, long dedicated to the canonized King of Norway. In 1856 a fine St. Olave's Church was erected in Christiania, the capital of Norway, where a large relic of St. Olaf (a donation from the Danish Royal Museum) is preserved and venerated. The arms of Norway are a lion with the battle-axe of St. Olaf in the forepaws. | 708 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Blennerhassett Island is and island in the middle of the Ohio River, near Parkersburg, West Virginia, named after Harman Blennerhassett and his wife, Margaret Blennerhasset, who were Irish aristocrats who settled there in 1798. President Thomas Jefferson accused Harman Blennerhassett, along with Aaron Burr, of trying to create an empire in the Southwest. The mansion Blennerhassett constructed on the Island burned in 1811. However, its foundation was rediscovered in 1973 and the mansion was recreated through historical and architectural research.
Blennerhassett Island was first inhabited by Native Americans from the Deleware tribe in the mid-18th century. The island was purchased by Elijah Backus in the 1790s, and it was known by locals as Backus Island. Backus sold a portion of the island to the Blennerhassetts for the construction of their home around 1798.
Harman Blennerhassett was a wealthy, Irish aristocrat who attended Trinity College in Dublin and attended law school at King's Inn, London. Harman immigrated to the United States after being ostracized by his family for marrying his niece, Margaret. Blennerhassett and his wife moved from Ireland to New York in 1795 and a few short years later, they began construction on their mansion on the Ohio River.
Like George Washington's Mount Vernon, the Blennerhassett mansion was built in a Palladian style, and it contained 7,000 square feet of floor space. The rooms were furnished with British furniture and Parisian porcelain. The lamps which hung from the ceilings were alabaster, and the hardware on the doors was silver.
Although Blennerhassett and his wife put in a great deal of hard work and dedication into building such a magnificent home, they fled their home after he became entangled in the Aaron Burr's expedition plans. Blennerhassett opened his island to Burr to hold base there while trying to expand his plan and gave Burr large amounts of money.
In 1806, Harmon Blennerhassett and Aaron Burr were accused of working together and planning a scheme to have the westernmost parts of the United States secede from the Union for exploiting the West. However, when rumors crossed the ears of the Federalists, they began to seize Blennerhassett's estate and property on grounds of treason. Blennerhassett fled to Lexington, Kentucky, but he was arrested, and eventually, released.
Blennerhassett was then broke and settled on a cotton plantation in Mississippi, but lost all of his money and eventually moved back to Europe and settled in England. He died in 1831.
The mansion accidentally burned to the ground in 1811, leaving no trace of what was once there. However, archaeologists rediscovered the foundation of the structure in 1973. Through historical and architectural research, the mansion has been recreated at its original site for visitors to see.
The replica of the mansion features a library, parlors, a separate kitchen, and is decorated with period correct furniture, oil paintings and sculptures which give visitors an idea of what the interior of the mansion originally might have looked like.
The island is now owned by the state of West Virginia and is operated as a state park. To get to the park, a tourist must ride a sternwheeler down the Ohio River from Parkersburg, WV to the island. This 1.9 mile long boat ride to the island takes approximately twenty minutes. The island closes for inclement weather and is not open during the winter months. | <urn:uuid:926602c0-5e77-4d9d-b9e1-a1b190446471> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/19137 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.984141 | 764 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.4596306681... | 2 | Blennerhassett Island is and island in the middle of the Ohio River, near Parkersburg, West Virginia, named after Harman Blennerhassett and his wife, Margaret Blennerhasset, who were Irish aristocrats who settled there in 1798. President Thomas Jefferson accused Harman Blennerhassett, along with Aaron Burr, of trying to create an empire in the Southwest. The mansion Blennerhassett constructed on the Island burned in 1811. However, its foundation was rediscovered in 1973 and the mansion was recreated through historical and architectural research.
Blennerhassett Island was first inhabited by Native Americans from the Deleware tribe in the mid-18th century. The island was purchased by Elijah Backus in the 1790s, and it was known by locals as Backus Island. Backus sold a portion of the island to the Blennerhassetts for the construction of their home around 1798.
Harman Blennerhassett was a wealthy, Irish aristocrat who attended Trinity College in Dublin and attended law school at King's Inn, London. Harman immigrated to the United States after being ostracized by his family for marrying his niece, Margaret. Blennerhassett and his wife moved from Ireland to New York in 1795 and a few short years later, they began construction on their mansion on the Ohio River.
Like George Washington's Mount Vernon, the Blennerhassett mansion was built in a Palladian style, and it contained 7,000 square feet of floor space. The rooms were furnished with British furniture and Parisian porcelain. The lamps which hung from the ceilings were alabaster, and the hardware on the doors was silver.
Although Blennerhassett and his wife put in a great deal of hard work and dedication into building such a magnificent home, they fled their home after he became entangled in the Aaron Burr's expedition plans. Blennerhassett opened his island to Burr to hold base there while trying to expand his plan and gave Burr large amounts of money.
In 1806, Harmon Blennerhassett and Aaron Burr were accused of working together and planning a scheme to have the westernmost parts of the United States secede from the Union for exploiting the West. However, when rumors crossed the ears of the Federalists, they began to seize Blennerhassett's estate and property on grounds of treason. Blennerhassett fled to Lexington, Kentucky, but he was arrested, and eventually, released.
Blennerhassett was then broke and settled on a cotton plantation in Mississippi, but lost all of his money and eventually moved back to Europe and settled in England. He died in 1831.
The mansion accidentally burned to the ground in 1811, leaving no trace of what was once there. However, archaeologists rediscovered the foundation of the structure in 1973. Through historical and architectural research, the mansion has been recreated at its original site for visitors to see.
The replica of the mansion features a library, parlors, a separate kitchen, and is decorated with period correct furniture, oil paintings and sculptures which give visitors an idea of what the interior of the mansion originally might have looked like.
The island is now owned by the state of West Virginia and is operated as a state park. To get to the park, a tourist must ride a sternwheeler down the Ohio River from Parkersburg, WV to the island. This 1.9 mile long boat ride to the island takes approximately twenty minutes. The island closes for inclement weather and is not open during the winter months. | 788 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An Indian Woman In Guatemala: Without A Trace Of Bitterness In Her Voice
Guatemala is the land of Eternal Springs and the home of the richly cultured and historic Mayan people. It it also the country of Rigoberta Menchu, an illeterite farm worker, turned voice of oppressed people everywhere. Guatemala also has the sad distinction of being home to Latin America’s oldest civil war. “For more than three decades, left-wing guerrillas have fought a series of rightist governments in Guatemala. The war has killed an estimated 140,000 in the country, which has 11 million people. ” (N. Y. Times June 14, 1996 pA4 col 2)
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This is a story of a people in crisis, and one woman’s struggle to use truth, as means of setting her people free. The majority of the population are Indians, and much of the struggles arise out of the ashes of the past. Spain conquered Guatemala in 1524, which was the start of the oppression of the native people of Guatemala. Since this time the native people have been ruled by the Spanish speaking minority, the Ladinos, many of which are descended from the Spanish colonists.
Beginning in 1954, when Guatemala’s elected government was overthrown by the army, the military began a brutal war against the Indian people. This type of torture and oppression continued, and during the 1970’s the repression was specially harsh; during this time more and more Indians began to resist. It was during this time that Rigoberta Menchu’s family became involved in the resistance. The situation in Guatemala is similar to South Africa, where the black majority are ruled with absolute power by the white minority. Like South Africa, the Indians in Guatemala are lacking in even the most basic of human rights.
Indeed the so-called forest Indians are being systematically exterminated in the name of progress. But unlike the Indian rebels of the past, who wanted to go back to pre-Columbian times, Rigoberta Menchu is not fighting in the name f an idealized or mythical past. ” (Menchu xiii) Rigoberta is working toward drawing attention to the plight of native people around the globe. Once an illiterate farm worker, she has taught herself to read and write Spanish, the language of her oppressor, as a means of relating her story to the world.
She tells the story of her life with honesty and integrity in hopes of impressing upon the world the indignation of the oppressed. In addition to the Spanish language, Rigoberta borrows such things as the bible and trade union organization in order to use them against their original owners. There is othing like the bible in her culture. She says, “The Bible is written, and that gives us one more weapon. ” ( Menchu xviii ) Her people need to base their actions on the laws that come down from the past, on prophecy.
Her own history and the history of her family is told with great detail in the book I, Rigoberta Menchu. Not only does one learn about the culture of her people and about the community in which she lives, but an understanding is gained as to impetus to react against ones oppressor. Born the sixth child to an already impoverished but well respected family, Rigoberta remembers growing p in the mountains on land that no one else wanted, spending months at a time going with her family to work on the fincas (plantations).
A lorry owned by the finca would come to their village, and the workers, along with their children and animals, would ride together, in filthy and overcrowded conditions. Each lorry would hold approximately forty people, and the trip to the finca took two nights and one day, with no stops allowed for the bathroom, it is easy to imagine the unsanitary condition that resulted. Each worker would take with them a cup and a plate and a bottle for water when they worked in the ields.
The youngest of the children that were not yet able to work had no need for their own cup and plate since, if they did not work, they would not be fed by the finca. These children’s mothers would share with them their own ration of tortilla and beans, though many of the children were severely malnourished, and two of Rigoberta’s own brothers died while on the finca. At the tender age of eight Rigoberta was earning money to help her family, and as proof of her own personal fortitude, by age ten she was picking the quotas of an adult and was paid as such.
Her first experience in the city was at twelve ears old in the capital of Guatemala where she worked as a maid. She retells the story of how when she met the lady of the house, she was told that she needed new clothes, since hers were so worn and dirty from working on the finca, and how she was given a salary advance of two months pay which was to be used for the new clothes. Remembering back, Rigoberta describes how she was treated, “The mistress used to watch me all the time and was very nasty to me. She treated me like… I don’t know what… not like a dog because she treated the dog well.
She used to hug the dog. (Menchu 94) The first night she recalls being given her dinner the same time that the dog had been fed, she was given a hard tortilla and some beans, while the dog was given “bits of meat, rice, things that the family ate. ” (Menchu 92) It hurt her to see that in the eyes of this family she was lower than a dog. She left her job when one of her brothers came to tell her that her father was in prison. This was the beginning of her father’s involvement with the unions, and the beginning of the awakening for her family, but also, the beginning of their troubles with the government.
Three months after getting out of prison, her father was “tortured and abandoned-They had torn off the hair on his head on one side. His skin was cut all over and they’d broken so many of his bones that he couldn’t walk, lift himself or move a single finger. ” (Menchu 112) When her father was arrested the second time, he was considered a political prisoner. This prompted Rigoberta to begin to learn to speak Spanish as a means of helping her father. After spending fifteen days in prison and meeting a man who was being held for helping the peasants, her father found his calling and continued to fight against the government.
He had to leave his family in order to protect them and as of 1977 went into hiding. The village began to study the bible as text to educate the people. “Many relationships in the bible are like those we have with our ancestors, our ancestors whose lives were very much like our own. ” (Menchu 131) They learned about revenge and fashioned weapons based on the descriptions in the bible. There were many attacks on the village and many of her friends and family members were killed In September 1979, when she was 19, her younger brother was kidnapped by the Guatemalan army and accused of trying to help the peasants win the right to wn land.
They cut off his finger-nails, then his fingers, then the skin on his face, then the soles of his feet. He was then marched to the village square where, in front of his family, he was doused with gasoline and set aflame. A few months later her father was also burned to death. Several weeks after that the army arrested, tortured, and killed her mother, then left her body hanging from a tree to be eaten by dogs. Menchu fled to Mexico, but continued her struggle to help her people. as a result of her work on the rights of indigenous people around the world, she was warded the honor of receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992.
She still remains a controversial figure in Guatemala, where government officials criticized her selection for the prize. She has been accused of supporting the country’s leftist actions and harming Guatemala’s image abroad. In awarding the prize, the Nobel committee wanted to draw attention to the plight of Guatemala’s Indians in the hope that it would lead to improved conditions. Recently, Guatemalans have found cause for that hope, as a peace accord is due to be signed in January 1997, ending the fighting between the ebels and the government.
In addition, a truth commission has been formed to help families of disappeared members find answers relating to their deaths, by uncovering the country’s many unmarked mass graves. Rigoberta Menchu continues to live in exile under death threghts upon her return to Guatemala. She is well adapted to the life which has been handed down to her, by generations of poor and oppressed Indians. Yet when she speaks, she speaks of her beautiful culture, and of the many joys that her family had over the years, all without a trace of bitterness in her voice. | <urn:uuid:13db5e1c-52d2-4845-a58c-aac479dd919c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://benjaminbarber.org/an-indian-woman-in-guatemala-without-a-trace-of-bitterness-in-her-voice/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.988707 | 1,911 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.1662525385618209... | 1 | An Indian Woman In Guatemala: Without A Trace Of Bitterness In Her Voice
Guatemala is the land of Eternal Springs and the home of the richly cultured and historic Mayan people. It it also the country of Rigoberta Menchu, an illeterite farm worker, turned voice of oppressed people everywhere. Guatemala also has the sad distinction of being home to Latin America’s oldest civil war. “For more than three decades, left-wing guerrillas have fought a series of rightist governments in Guatemala. The war has killed an estimated 140,000 in the country, which has 11 million people. ” (N. Y. Times June 14, 1996 pA4 col 2)
Need Help with Your Essay?
Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help
This is a story of a people in crisis, and one woman’s struggle to use truth, as means of setting her people free. The majority of the population are Indians, and much of the struggles arise out of the ashes of the past. Spain conquered Guatemala in 1524, which was the start of the oppression of the native people of Guatemala. Since this time the native people have been ruled by the Spanish speaking minority, the Ladinos, many of which are descended from the Spanish colonists.
Beginning in 1954, when Guatemala’s elected government was overthrown by the army, the military began a brutal war against the Indian people. This type of torture and oppression continued, and during the 1970’s the repression was specially harsh; during this time more and more Indians began to resist. It was during this time that Rigoberta Menchu’s family became involved in the resistance. The situation in Guatemala is similar to South Africa, where the black majority are ruled with absolute power by the white minority. Like South Africa, the Indians in Guatemala are lacking in even the most basic of human rights.
Indeed the so-called forest Indians are being systematically exterminated in the name of progress. But unlike the Indian rebels of the past, who wanted to go back to pre-Columbian times, Rigoberta Menchu is not fighting in the name f an idealized or mythical past. ” (Menchu xiii) Rigoberta is working toward drawing attention to the plight of native people around the globe. Once an illiterate farm worker, she has taught herself to read and write Spanish, the language of her oppressor, as a means of relating her story to the world.
She tells the story of her life with honesty and integrity in hopes of impressing upon the world the indignation of the oppressed. In addition to the Spanish language, Rigoberta borrows such things as the bible and trade union organization in order to use them against their original owners. There is othing like the bible in her culture. She says, “The Bible is written, and that gives us one more weapon. ” ( Menchu xviii ) Her people need to base their actions on the laws that come down from the past, on prophecy.
Her own history and the history of her family is told with great detail in the book I, Rigoberta Menchu. Not only does one learn about the culture of her people and about the community in which she lives, but an understanding is gained as to impetus to react against ones oppressor. Born the sixth child to an already impoverished but well respected family, Rigoberta remembers growing p in the mountains on land that no one else wanted, spending months at a time going with her family to work on the fincas (plantations).
A lorry owned by the finca would come to their village, and the workers, along with their children and animals, would ride together, in filthy and overcrowded conditions. Each lorry would hold approximately forty people, and the trip to the finca took two nights and one day, with no stops allowed for the bathroom, it is easy to imagine the unsanitary condition that resulted. Each worker would take with them a cup and a plate and a bottle for water when they worked in the ields.
The youngest of the children that were not yet able to work had no need for their own cup and plate since, if they did not work, they would not be fed by the finca. These children’s mothers would share with them their own ration of tortilla and beans, though many of the children were severely malnourished, and two of Rigoberta’s own brothers died while on the finca. At the tender age of eight Rigoberta was earning money to help her family, and as proof of her own personal fortitude, by age ten she was picking the quotas of an adult and was paid as such.
Her first experience in the city was at twelve ears old in the capital of Guatemala where she worked as a maid. She retells the story of how when she met the lady of the house, she was told that she needed new clothes, since hers were so worn and dirty from working on the finca, and how she was given a salary advance of two months pay which was to be used for the new clothes. Remembering back, Rigoberta describes how she was treated, “The mistress used to watch me all the time and was very nasty to me. She treated me like… I don’t know what… not like a dog because she treated the dog well.
She used to hug the dog. (Menchu 94) The first night she recalls being given her dinner the same time that the dog had been fed, she was given a hard tortilla and some beans, while the dog was given “bits of meat, rice, things that the family ate. ” (Menchu 92) It hurt her to see that in the eyes of this family she was lower than a dog. She left her job when one of her brothers came to tell her that her father was in prison. This was the beginning of her father’s involvement with the unions, and the beginning of the awakening for her family, but also, the beginning of their troubles with the government.
Three months after getting out of prison, her father was “tortured and abandoned-They had torn off the hair on his head on one side. His skin was cut all over and they’d broken so many of his bones that he couldn’t walk, lift himself or move a single finger. ” (Menchu 112) When her father was arrested the second time, he was considered a political prisoner. This prompted Rigoberta to begin to learn to speak Spanish as a means of helping her father. After spending fifteen days in prison and meeting a man who was being held for helping the peasants, her father found his calling and continued to fight against the government.
He had to leave his family in order to protect them and as of 1977 went into hiding. The village began to study the bible as text to educate the people. “Many relationships in the bible are like those we have with our ancestors, our ancestors whose lives were very much like our own. ” (Menchu 131) They learned about revenge and fashioned weapons based on the descriptions in the bible. There were many attacks on the village and many of her friends and family members were killed In September 1979, when she was 19, her younger brother was kidnapped by the Guatemalan army and accused of trying to help the peasants win the right to wn land.
They cut off his finger-nails, then his fingers, then the skin on his face, then the soles of his feet. He was then marched to the village square where, in front of his family, he was doused with gasoline and set aflame. A few months later her father was also burned to death. Several weeks after that the army arrested, tortured, and killed her mother, then left her body hanging from a tree to be eaten by dogs. Menchu fled to Mexico, but continued her struggle to help her people. as a result of her work on the rights of indigenous people around the world, she was warded the honor of receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992.
She still remains a controversial figure in Guatemala, where government officials criticized her selection for the prize. She has been accused of supporting the country’s leftist actions and harming Guatemala’s image abroad. In awarding the prize, the Nobel committee wanted to draw attention to the plight of Guatemala’s Indians in the hope that it would lead to improved conditions. Recently, Guatemalans have found cause for that hope, as a peace accord is due to be signed in January 1997, ending the fighting between the ebels and the government.
In addition, a truth commission has been formed to help families of disappeared members find answers relating to their deaths, by uncovering the country’s many unmarked mass graves. Rigoberta Menchu continues to live in exile under death threghts upon her return to Guatemala. She is well adapted to the life which has been handed down to her, by generations of poor and oppressed Indians. Yet when she speaks, she speaks of her beautiful culture, and of the many joys that her family had over the years, all without a trace of bitterness in her voice. | 1,910 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Spanish explorer and soldier, Juan Ponce de Leon was the first European to set foot in Florida. He also established the oldest European settlement in Puerto Rico and discovered the Gulf Stream. He is most famous for his search for the legendary Fountain of Youth and other riches.
Born in Santervas, Spain, in about 1460, Ponce de Leon grew up to become a soldier and was fighting Muslims in southern Spain in the early 1490s. In 1493, Ponce de Leon sailed with Christopher Columbus on Columbus’ second voyage to the Americas. He and his family settled on an island in the Caribbean named Hispaniola (Dominican Republic). He became a military commander at this post and was appointed deputy governor. In 1506, he discovered a nearby island named Borinquen and there, he found large deposits of gold. He returned to the island in 1508 on orders from the king of Spain to explore and colonize it. He renamed the island Puerto Rico and became the island’s governor for two years until the king replaced him with Columbus’ son.
Hurt by the King’s action, Ponce de Leon sailed again, this time north through the Bahamas heading towards Florida. He was in search of new lands and treasures. He had also heard of a mythical fountain of youth. Indians spoke of a legendary, magical spring whose water was believed to make older people young again. León explored many areas, including the Bahamas and Bimini, for both gold and the mythical fountain, but he never found either.
In early April 1513, his ships landed on Florida’s east coast near present-day St. Augustine. He claimed the area for Spain and named it La Florida or “place of flowers.” He continued his exploration of the coast. After returning to Puerto Rico, he was caught up in fighting with the Native Americans to put down their rebellions against Spanish rule. He returned to Spain and was named a Captain-General by the King of Spain on September 27, 1514. His last expedition was searching for the island of Bimini in 1521. His force of 200 men landed on the west coast of Florida, but, was met by Native American warriors, who wounded many of the men with arrows, including Ponce de Leon. He later died in Havana, Cuba from this wound in July 1521. He is buried in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Compiled by Kathy Weiser-Alexander, updated December 2019. | <urn:uuid:bcf98267-b9f0-45d0-b085-bcf687f64623> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.legendsofamerica.com/juan-ponce-de-leon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.983137 | 510 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.565936505794... | 5 | A Spanish explorer and soldier, Juan Ponce de Leon was the first European to set foot in Florida. He also established the oldest European settlement in Puerto Rico and discovered the Gulf Stream. He is most famous for his search for the legendary Fountain of Youth and other riches.
Born in Santervas, Spain, in about 1460, Ponce de Leon grew up to become a soldier and was fighting Muslims in southern Spain in the early 1490s. In 1493, Ponce de Leon sailed with Christopher Columbus on Columbus’ second voyage to the Americas. He and his family settled on an island in the Caribbean named Hispaniola (Dominican Republic). He became a military commander at this post and was appointed deputy governor. In 1506, he discovered a nearby island named Borinquen and there, he found large deposits of gold. He returned to the island in 1508 on orders from the king of Spain to explore and colonize it. He renamed the island Puerto Rico and became the island’s governor for two years until the king replaced him with Columbus’ son.
Hurt by the King’s action, Ponce de Leon sailed again, this time north through the Bahamas heading towards Florida. He was in search of new lands and treasures. He had also heard of a mythical fountain of youth. Indians spoke of a legendary, magical spring whose water was believed to make older people young again. León explored many areas, including the Bahamas and Bimini, for both gold and the mythical fountain, but he never found either.
In early April 1513, his ships landed on Florida’s east coast near present-day St. Augustine. He claimed the area for Spain and named it La Florida or “place of flowers.” He continued his exploration of the coast. After returning to Puerto Rico, he was caught up in fighting with the Native Americans to put down their rebellions against Spanish rule. He returned to Spain and was named a Captain-General by the King of Spain on September 27, 1514. His last expedition was searching for the island of Bimini in 1521. His force of 200 men landed on the west coast of Florida, but, was met by Native American warriors, who wounded many of the men with arrows, including Ponce de Leon. He later died in Havana, Cuba from this wound in July 1521. He is buried in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Compiled by Kathy Weiser-Alexander, updated December 2019. | 529 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Perceived differences between Jamestown settlement leaders resulted in Bacon’s rebellion. The rebellion was aimed at dealing with problems from Indians problems in areas close to the settlement. Retired indentured servants were eligible to get extensive land, 50 acres, after completion of their assignments. The land set aside for these indentured servants was usually on the settlement’s peripheries, where there were more Indians. Nathaniel Bacon organized his own battle squad, which attacked several Indian settlements including some that had been friendly to the settlers (Historydoctor.net, n.d.). Jamestown Assembly declined to help the settlers with their attacks, which resulted in collision between the two communities(Historydoctor.net, n.d.). When Bacon commanded the militia to attack Jamestown Assembly, he claimed that his actions were triggered by of a number of things that the Assembly did.
He accused them of protecting, supporting, and inspiring the Indiansagainst the settlers.He claimed that the support that the Assembly gave to the Indians encouraged them to invade, rob and murder the settlers. Although the settlers had succeeded in their attacks to the Indians who they burnt, murdered and destroyed with ease, the Assembly had tried to counter their efforts. Even though the Indians had shown hostility towards the settlers, Bacon claimed that the Assembly had expressly blocked and sent back their army when they wereclose to attacking the Indians(Historydoctor.net, n.d.). The Assembly vouched for the Indians saying that they were peace loving. However,this was not the case because the Indians executed their evil intentions, committing murder and robbery against the settlers, immediately after the army went back.
The rebellion was significant for being the first rebellion against the British American authority. The rebellion also contributed to loss of confidence in the Indentured servants as a reliable source of labor for the farmers. Consequently, the Indentured servants were replaced with African slaves (Historydoctor.net, n.d.). Bacon died shortly after the commencement of the rebellion, and that hugely contributed to its failure.
Order Unique Answer Now | <urn:uuid:23ecd71f-5164-45c5-9f55-ff8d5b024bff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://uniquewritersbay.com/blog/bacons-rebellion-causes-outcomes-overall-significance/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00455.warc.gz | en | 0.986021 | 416 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.32160043716430... | 1 | Perceived differences between Jamestown settlement leaders resulted in Bacon’s rebellion. The rebellion was aimed at dealing with problems from Indians problems in areas close to the settlement. Retired indentured servants were eligible to get extensive land, 50 acres, after completion of their assignments. The land set aside for these indentured servants was usually on the settlement’s peripheries, where there were more Indians. Nathaniel Bacon organized his own battle squad, which attacked several Indian settlements including some that had been friendly to the settlers (Historydoctor.net, n.d.). Jamestown Assembly declined to help the settlers with their attacks, which resulted in collision between the two communities(Historydoctor.net, n.d.). When Bacon commanded the militia to attack Jamestown Assembly, he claimed that his actions were triggered by of a number of things that the Assembly did.
He accused them of protecting, supporting, and inspiring the Indiansagainst the settlers.He claimed that the support that the Assembly gave to the Indians encouraged them to invade, rob and murder the settlers. Although the settlers had succeeded in their attacks to the Indians who they burnt, murdered and destroyed with ease, the Assembly had tried to counter their efforts. Even though the Indians had shown hostility towards the settlers, Bacon claimed that the Assembly had expressly blocked and sent back their army when they wereclose to attacking the Indians(Historydoctor.net, n.d.). The Assembly vouched for the Indians saying that they were peace loving. However,this was not the case because the Indians executed their evil intentions, committing murder and robbery against the settlers, immediately after the army went back.
The rebellion was significant for being the first rebellion against the British American authority. The rebellion also contributed to loss of confidence in the Indentured servants as a reliable source of labor for the farmers. Consequently, the Indentured servants were replaced with African slaves (Historydoctor.net, n.d.). Bacon died shortly after the commencement of the rebellion, and that hugely contributed to its failure.
Order Unique Answer Now | 400 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Skylab 2, launched today in 1973, was the first manned mission to NASA’s orbiting Skylab space station, prior to setting a new record of 28 days for the longest time spent in space (back in those days it was a lot more about setting records to get one over on the Russians than it is now). The actual Skylab station had already been launched, unmanned, on May 14th, in what was to be the final mission of the gigantic Saturn V rocket.
The crew comprised three astronauts; a famous veteran and two rookies. Flight commander, Charles “Pete” Conrad, third man on the Moon, was on his fourth mission, pilot Paul Weitz was making the first of his two (the other would be on the maiden voyage of the shuttle Challenger), and Joseph Kerwin was on his only venture beyond the atmosphere (which made him the first physician in space).
Following their launch atop a Saturn 1B, at 13:00 UTC, the crew took less than a day to reach Skylab, after which they set about trying to minimise the impact of the damage the staion had sustained at launch. It was missing its micrometeorite shield and part of the solar power array. Also, the remaining solar panel was jammed by a strap, possibly from the meteorite shield.
Fortunately, it was known there would be a few issues before the crew lifted-off, so launch was delayed by ten days to allow for training on how to conduct repairs in orbit. It took some doing (they almost reached double figures in docking attempts, and had to use a foldable parasol to protect parts of the already blistered station from overheating) but eventually Skylab was brought up to a level that would allow future mission to be less stressful. | <urn:uuid:7f814b6a-ffe2-4f0d-9285-1a16a4b389f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://iagout.wordpress.com/2019/05/25/may-25-launch-of-skylab-2-sl-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.987551 | 365 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3459200859069... | 3 | Skylab 2, launched today in 1973, was the first manned mission to NASA’s orbiting Skylab space station, prior to setting a new record of 28 days for the longest time spent in space (back in those days it was a lot more about setting records to get one over on the Russians than it is now). The actual Skylab station had already been launched, unmanned, on May 14th, in what was to be the final mission of the gigantic Saturn V rocket.
The crew comprised three astronauts; a famous veteran and two rookies. Flight commander, Charles “Pete” Conrad, third man on the Moon, was on his fourth mission, pilot Paul Weitz was making the first of his two (the other would be on the maiden voyage of the shuttle Challenger), and Joseph Kerwin was on his only venture beyond the atmosphere (which made him the first physician in space).
Following their launch atop a Saturn 1B, at 13:00 UTC, the crew took less than a day to reach Skylab, after which they set about trying to minimise the impact of the damage the staion had sustained at launch. It was missing its micrometeorite shield and part of the solar power array. Also, the remaining solar panel was jammed by a strap, possibly from the meteorite shield.
Fortunately, it was known there would be a few issues before the crew lifted-off, so launch was delayed by ten days to allow for training on how to conduct repairs in orbit. It took some doing (they almost reached double figures in docking attempts, and had to use a foldable parasol to protect parts of the already blistered station from overheating) but eventually Skylab was brought up to a level that would allow future mission to be less stressful. | 370 | ENGLISH | 1 |
End of Prohibition
On December 5, 1933 the 21st Amendment was ratified, ending prohibition after nearly 15 years.
On January 16, 1919, the eighteenth amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified. The final triumph of the temperance movement, whose followers believed alcohol caused immoral behavior and various social ills, it called for the prohibition of the “manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquor” in the United States.
Tens of millions of Americans thought Prohibition would be a cure for the nation’s poverty, crime, and violence. Evangelist Billy Sunday held a mock funeral for alcohol stating that “the reign of tears is over…we will turn our prisons into factories and our jails into storehouses and corncribs.” Americans were so convinced that alcohol was the cause of almost all crime that some communities even sold their jails!
The facts turned out to be much different from the hopes and dreams, however. Prohibition actually led to an increase in crime, and the organization of crime. It was a time when many citizens broke the law, and as crime increased, the courts and prison systems were stretched to breaking. Instead of reducing prison populations, as was hoped by those who supported Prohibition, the Federal expenses for prisons increased 1,000%. Worst of all, many found it easier to turn to substances like opium, cocaine, and other dangerous drugs for relaxation, starting yet another problem.
This crime wave was most evident in cities such as Chicago, where illegal bars, called “speakeasies,” were a common sight. These bars were often protected by corrupt police officers, and thus patrons had little fear of being punished for their actions. Chicago’s huge boom in organized crime was led by Al Capone. Capone was the leader of a $60-million-a-year illegal liquor ring. This running of alcohol was often punctuated by violence. The most striking example of this was the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre of 1929, when four members of Capone’s gang, disguised as police officers, shot down seven members of a rival gang.
Because of these unintended results, public opinion began to change from prohibiting alcohol sales to legalizing them again. In 1933, America was in the midst of the Great Depression and Franklin Roosevelt became President. He knew the country needed immediate relief and a plan for recovery in the future. FDR pledged to help the “forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid.” His plan was known as the New Deal, and he began implementing it as soon as he came to office.
On March 22, 1933, Roosevelt signed into law the Beer and Wine Revenue Act, which placed a Federal tax on alcohol. He stated the law “was of the highest importance” as it would bring in needed tax dollars to help pay for the New Deal programs that were to help Americans during the Depression.
Just prior to this, in February 1933, Congress proposed the 21st Amendment, to repeal prohibition. The issue was then sent to the states, which each held their own state ratifying conventions. Michigan was the first state to ratify the amendment on April 10. On December 5, 1933, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the 21st Amendment, securing the 3/4ths majority needed to pass it. The repeal officially became effective 10 days later on December 15, but many people began openly drinking upon news of the ratification.
After this, states were given the authority to make their own laws concerning alcohol sales. And the Federal government increased its revenue by taxing all types of alcohol.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History.
Click here for more Christmas stamps. | <urn:uuid:d9f18239-0a4e-4261-af36-ecaa20481773> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mysticstamp.com/info/this-day-in-history-december-5-1933/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.984624 | 761 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.0203965865... | 2 | End of Prohibition
On December 5, 1933 the 21st Amendment was ratified, ending prohibition after nearly 15 years.
On January 16, 1919, the eighteenth amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified. The final triumph of the temperance movement, whose followers believed alcohol caused immoral behavior and various social ills, it called for the prohibition of the “manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquor” in the United States.
Tens of millions of Americans thought Prohibition would be a cure for the nation’s poverty, crime, and violence. Evangelist Billy Sunday held a mock funeral for alcohol stating that “the reign of tears is over…we will turn our prisons into factories and our jails into storehouses and corncribs.” Americans were so convinced that alcohol was the cause of almost all crime that some communities even sold their jails!
The facts turned out to be much different from the hopes and dreams, however. Prohibition actually led to an increase in crime, and the organization of crime. It was a time when many citizens broke the law, and as crime increased, the courts and prison systems were stretched to breaking. Instead of reducing prison populations, as was hoped by those who supported Prohibition, the Federal expenses for prisons increased 1,000%. Worst of all, many found it easier to turn to substances like opium, cocaine, and other dangerous drugs for relaxation, starting yet another problem.
This crime wave was most evident in cities such as Chicago, where illegal bars, called “speakeasies,” were a common sight. These bars were often protected by corrupt police officers, and thus patrons had little fear of being punished for their actions. Chicago’s huge boom in organized crime was led by Al Capone. Capone was the leader of a $60-million-a-year illegal liquor ring. This running of alcohol was often punctuated by violence. The most striking example of this was the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre of 1929, when four members of Capone’s gang, disguised as police officers, shot down seven members of a rival gang.
Because of these unintended results, public opinion began to change from prohibiting alcohol sales to legalizing them again. In 1933, America was in the midst of the Great Depression and Franklin Roosevelt became President. He knew the country needed immediate relief and a plan for recovery in the future. FDR pledged to help the “forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid.” His plan was known as the New Deal, and he began implementing it as soon as he came to office.
On March 22, 1933, Roosevelt signed into law the Beer and Wine Revenue Act, which placed a Federal tax on alcohol. He stated the law “was of the highest importance” as it would bring in needed tax dollars to help pay for the New Deal programs that were to help Americans during the Depression.
Just prior to this, in February 1933, Congress proposed the 21st Amendment, to repeal prohibition. The issue was then sent to the states, which each held their own state ratifying conventions. Michigan was the first state to ratify the amendment on April 10. On December 5, 1933, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the 21st Amendment, securing the 3/4ths majority needed to pass it. The repeal officially became effective 10 days later on December 15, but many people began openly drinking upon news of the ratification.
After this, states were given the authority to make their own laws concerning alcohol sales. And the Federal government increased its revenue by taxing all types of alcohol.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History.
Click here for more Christmas stamps. | 791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Every day sees humanity more victorious in the struggle with
space and time.
Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937), Physicist, Inventor
Guglielmo Marconi is best known for his pioneering work on the long-distance radio transmission. He is also famous for his contributions in the development of Marconi’s law and the radio telegraph system. Today, he is often credited as the inventor of the radio.
|Marconi in His Naval Uniform|
Marconi was born on 25 April 1874, in Bologna, the second son of an Italian landowner. He was at first educated privately in Bologna. As child, he had a great interests in electricity and science. His early scientific development was influenced by Heinrich Hertz. In 1888 Hertz had demonstrated that a person could produce and even detect electromagnetic radiation (now known as radio waves). Following Hertz's death in 1894 and his rejection by the Italian Naval Academy, Marconi attended the University of Bologna. Within a year, Marconi sent long wave signals over a distance of more than a mile. In 1897 he went to England to develop his invention and set up the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company (better known as the Marconi Company). In December 1901 he was able to transmit a signal from Cornwall to Newfoundland.
Between 1902 and 1912, Marconi developed a directional aerial receiver and a method for producing continuous waves. In 1909 he shared the Nobel Prize with Karl Braun for the development of wireless telegraphy. He was world famous by the age 35.
In 1914 Marconi became a senator in the Italian Senate. The next year when Italy joined the Allied side, Marconi was placed in charge of the country’s military radio service. He was commissioned in the Italian Army as a lieutenant then later promoted to captain. In 1916 Marconi transferred to the Navy with the rank of commander. He was a member of the Italian government mission to the United States in 1917. After the Armistice, he was appointed Italian plenipotentiary delegate to the Paris Peace Conference and received the Italian Military Medal in recognition of his war service.
During his war service in Italy he returned to his investigation of short waves, which he had used in his first experiments. After further tests by his collaborators in England and an intensive series of trials conducted in 1923, this work led to the establishment of the beam system for long-distance wireless communication. In the 1930s he invented the microwave radio beacon and worked on radar.
Guglielmo Marconi died on 20 July 1937 from heart problems. Italy held a state funeral for him. As a tribute, all the radio stations worldwide observed two minutes of silence. | <urn:uuid:4313f5ea-ae00-4b44-9185-e9bf3715b3f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://roadstothegreatwar-ww1.blogspot.com/2020/01/marconi-at-war.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.984229 | 561 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.4801873862743... | 3 | Every day sees humanity more victorious in the struggle with
space and time.
Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937), Physicist, Inventor
Guglielmo Marconi is best known for his pioneering work on the long-distance radio transmission. He is also famous for his contributions in the development of Marconi’s law and the radio telegraph system. Today, he is often credited as the inventor of the radio.
|Marconi in His Naval Uniform|
Marconi was born on 25 April 1874, in Bologna, the second son of an Italian landowner. He was at first educated privately in Bologna. As child, he had a great interests in electricity and science. His early scientific development was influenced by Heinrich Hertz. In 1888 Hertz had demonstrated that a person could produce and even detect electromagnetic radiation (now known as radio waves). Following Hertz's death in 1894 and his rejection by the Italian Naval Academy, Marconi attended the University of Bologna. Within a year, Marconi sent long wave signals over a distance of more than a mile. In 1897 he went to England to develop his invention and set up the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company (better known as the Marconi Company). In December 1901 he was able to transmit a signal from Cornwall to Newfoundland.
Between 1902 and 1912, Marconi developed a directional aerial receiver and a method for producing continuous waves. In 1909 he shared the Nobel Prize with Karl Braun for the development of wireless telegraphy. He was world famous by the age 35.
In 1914 Marconi became a senator in the Italian Senate. The next year when Italy joined the Allied side, Marconi was placed in charge of the country’s military radio service. He was commissioned in the Italian Army as a lieutenant then later promoted to captain. In 1916 Marconi transferred to the Navy with the rank of commander. He was a member of the Italian government mission to the United States in 1917. After the Armistice, he was appointed Italian plenipotentiary delegate to the Paris Peace Conference and received the Italian Military Medal in recognition of his war service.
During his war service in Italy he returned to his investigation of short waves, which he had used in his first experiments. After further tests by his collaborators in England and an intensive series of trials conducted in 1923, this work led to the establishment of the beam system for long-distance wireless communication. In the 1930s he invented the microwave radio beacon and worked on radar.
Guglielmo Marconi died on 20 July 1937 from heart problems. Italy held a state funeral for him. As a tribute, all the radio stations worldwide observed two minutes of silence. | 610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Growing up, I've always admired Rosa Parks. My church would have a Black History Month program where we dress up as and speak on pivotal civil rights leaders. Rosa was always my favorite. My admiration for Rosa has grown over the years. It started just as most civil rights favorites do, through repeated exposure. Rosa Parks, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Harriet Tubman are just a few of the names most talked about in February, history class, and black history programs. As I got older, I learned about more influential figures in history, but I still drawn to Rosa Parks. We all know that Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on the bus, got arrested, and gave people the momentum to start the civil rights movement. But did Rosa start the day thinking that she was going to sit on the bus and refuse to give up her seat? She probably had that thought all the time. We all have grandiose thoughts about what we would say to our boss, our parents, or the bully in the hallway, but rarely do we act on them. We play out scenarios in our mind of what each person says and does. If you're anything like me, you have a vivid imagination and sometimes your scenarios go a little too far! But it's just that, our thoughts and imagination. Rosa's story started on December 1, 1955. She, and many other African Americans, were forced to live a segregated life. At the end of a long day's work, she would get on the bus through the front door to pay her bus fare, then re-enter through the back of the bus to find a seat. Rosa found a seat behind the "Colored Only" sign. While it wasn't law that black people give up their seat to white people as the bus filled up, it was customary for bus drivers to require it, enforce it, and make it punishable should one refuse. As the bus made its way through the city, more and more white people were left standing in the aisles. The bus driver asked the black people to give up their seats to make room for the white people and all complied, except for one. Rosa was arrested, and the rest is history. What intrigues me most about Rosa's story is that she made one decision and that one decision facilitated a major change in America. Unlike Dr. King, Rosa didn't have a platform or extensive education that propelled her into the civil rights spotlight. Rosa was an unknown woman living the segregated life like everyone else. She was just like you and me. She went to work everyday amidst the injustices that are occurring in the world. She watched the news everyday and heard stories of black men being killed because they "made eyes" with a white woman. She watched the news and heard about Emmett Till being beaten, tortured, shot, and killed at the age of 14 because he "flirted" with a white woman. Rosa was tired, both physically and mentally. She was tired of people who looked like her being treated unfairly and losing their lives over these injustices, but what could she do about it? She was a seamstress. Nobody would listen to a seamstress. Nobody would listen to a woman. Nobody would listen to a black woman. The odds of Rosa making an impact were slim. She thought like we think. She thought like I thought. I am a small, insignificant person in this world, incapable of making a difference. Rosa proved us wrong. She proved me wrong! One decision, made not that long ago, allows me, a young, African American woman to be here today, on this platform, writing to you. What decision would you make if you knew that that decision would have an impact on someone 60 years later? One small decision can start a revolution. Some of us decide to go to school for an advanced degree. Some of us decide to start a family. Some of us decide to start our own businesses. Some of us decide to speak out against injustices. What will you decide? I decided to be authentically me. There were so many times I tried to be like someone else so I could be successful. I didn't realize that the best way for me to be successful, is to be myself. I decided to use my education and experience to increase the presence and effectiveness of minority groups in the workplace. I don't know if I will make a huge difference, but I have decided to try. If Rosa had decided to give up her seat on the bus, where would we be today? What is the world missing out on, because you haven't decided? I Decide Diversity. What do you decide? | <urn:uuid:b043b3e7-5a8b-464a-a13f-c4b430bdd0d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://decidediversity.blogspot.com/2016/08/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.986927 | 946 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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-0.0376609489321708... | 1 | Growing up, I've always admired Rosa Parks. My church would have a Black History Month program where we dress up as and speak on pivotal civil rights leaders. Rosa was always my favorite. My admiration for Rosa has grown over the years. It started just as most civil rights favorites do, through repeated exposure. Rosa Parks, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Harriet Tubman are just a few of the names most talked about in February, history class, and black history programs. As I got older, I learned about more influential figures in history, but I still drawn to Rosa Parks. We all know that Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on the bus, got arrested, and gave people the momentum to start the civil rights movement. But did Rosa start the day thinking that she was going to sit on the bus and refuse to give up her seat? She probably had that thought all the time. We all have grandiose thoughts about what we would say to our boss, our parents, or the bully in the hallway, but rarely do we act on them. We play out scenarios in our mind of what each person says and does. If you're anything like me, you have a vivid imagination and sometimes your scenarios go a little too far! But it's just that, our thoughts and imagination. Rosa's story started on December 1, 1955. She, and many other African Americans, were forced to live a segregated life. At the end of a long day's work, she would get on the bus through the front door to pay her bus fare, then re-enter through the back of the bus to find a seat. Rosa found a seat behind the "Colored Only" sign. While it wasn't law that black people give up their seat to white people as the bus filled up, it was customary for bus drivers to require it, enforce it, and make it punishable should one refuse. As the bus made its way through the city, more and more white people were left standing in the aisles. The bus driver asked the black people to give up their seats to make room for the white people and all complied, except for one. Rosa was arrested, and the rest is history. What intrigues me most about Rosa's story is that she made one decision and that one decision facilitated a major change in America. Unlike Dr. King, Rosa didn't have a platform or extensive education that propelled her into the civil rights spotlight. Rosa was an unknown woman living the segregated life like everyone else. She was just like you and me. She went to work everyday amidst the injustices that are occurring in the world. She watched the news everyday and heard stories of black men being killed because they "made eyes" with a white woman. She watched the news and heard about Emmett Till being beaten, tortured, shot, and killed at the age of 14 because he "flirted" with a white woman. Rosa was tired, both physically and mentally. She was tired of people who looked like her being treated unfairly and losing their lives over these injustices, but what could she do about it? She was a seamstress. Nobody would listen to a seamstress. Nobody would listen to a woman. Nobody would listen to a black woman. The odds of Rosa making an impact were slim. She thought like we think. She thought like I thought. I am a small, insignificant person in this world, incapable of making a difference. Rosa proved us wrong. She proved me wrong! One decision, made not that long ago, allows me, a young, African American woman to be here today, on this platform, writing to you. What decision would you make if you knew that that decision would have an impact on someone 60 years later? One small decision can start a revolution. Some of us decide to go to school for an advanced degree. Some of us decide to start a family. Some of us decide to start our own businesses. Some of us decide to speak out against injustices. What will you decide? I decided to be authentically me. There were so many times I tried to be like someone else so I could be successful. I didn't realize that the best way for me to be successful, is to be myself. I decided to use my education and experience to increase the presence and effectiveness of minority groups in the workplace. I don't know if I will make a huge difference, but I have decided to try. If Rosa had decided to give up her seat on the bus, where would we be today? What is the world missing out on, because you haven't decided? I Decide Diversity. What do you decide? | 954 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How does your cat think? Does he rely solely on instinct, or are there other factors piloting the kitty brain?
Well, according to psychologist Hank Davis, non-humans are a lot smarter and less “instinct-based” than most of us think. He surmises that perhaps we are not quite as clever as we think we are and cats are smarter than we believed.
If cats think, can they use deductive reasoning? As a matter of fact, they can.
Perhaps it would be good to start with some definitions. Inductive reasoning starts with a conclusion, then moves from specific instances to a generalized conclusion.
On the other hand, deductive reasoning moves from generalized ideas known to be true to a specific conclusion. For an example, here is a very famous illustration of this concept from Aristotle. He said, “All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.”
Can you think of examples of your cat’s activities when he observed generalized happenings in his world and came to a specific conclusion about these events?
In the Journal of Animal Cognition, Katherine Ellen Foley authored a paper with a heading I love, so have to quote it for you: “Cats use physics to get what they want, scientists have found.”
In this intriguing article, the author reports that scientists from Kyoto University in Japan have been researching cat behavior. They have found that cats can grasp the concept of gravity and cause and effect.
Sounds are of great value to the cat, and is useful for him. From sounds he hears, the cat can make his own predictions as to what he will see next. The sound he hears alerts him to the location of his prey.
An experiment was done by Saho Takagi and her colleagues. They collected 30 domestic cats for this experiment. Each cat was subjected to the test. For the experiment, a box was shaken. Sometimes the box made a rattling sound and sometimes no sound.
Then the researcher flipped the box over so the cat could see what was inside. Sometimes when the rattling box was turned over, nothing fell out. When the soundless box was turned over, sometimes an object fell out.
When the view of the inside of the box did not meet the cat’s expectations, the animal became confused. Why did something fall out of that silent box? Why did the other box rattle and nothing fell to the ground? The cats stared for long periods of time at the box that made a sound but there was no object inside.
The researchers concluded that the cat believed that, if the box rattled, when it was turned over, the object inside would fall out. Therefore, the cats were applying rules of physics — unattached objects in a box should fall to the ground because of gravity.
The cat has a basic understanding of the connection between sound and gravity. This understanding can improve his hunting skills, because often when they hunt they are in places with little light. They have to infer the location and the distance away of their prey from sounds alone.
I watched four videos of different cats climbing into a small, round fishbowl. You would think that none of them would fit in that fishbowl. The cat checked the bowl carefully. He might walk around it, or tip it on its side. In all four videos, the cat went in headfirst. If he could get a third foot into the bowl, he would go the whole distance .
All four of those cats got into the fishbowls. It was funny to watch them. It made me wonder what the fascination is with getting into small bowls, baskets, or boxes. My cats all did that. Somehow, they seemed to know if they would fit.
I can think of several instances in the actions of my own cats that seemed to show deductive reasoning. Have your cats ever tried to turn the door handle? We lived in a third-floor apartment for a while and I didn’t want to let the cats out.
My one cat really, really wanted to escape. He saw us turn the door handle and open the door. He got on a chair and tried to copy our behavior, but his paws just couldn’t grip that handle the right way to get it open…fortunately for us.
I think I wrote about my Carlos and the gate-jumping incident. When I moved to my Gustavus house, I had a six-foot-high fence built around my yard, and installed four gates, one on each side.
When the fence was done, we put in temporary plywood gates until I could get real ones built. Three of these were about as tall as the fence. The fourth, a double gate in front, contained gate pieces that were only about five feet high.
Before I had a cat door put in the fence, I watched Carlos one day, as he cruised the entire yard. He walked past all the gates, looking up at the top. He concluded that the front gate was lower than the other three, so he returned to it, got as far back from that gate as he could, and made a run for it. He got most of the way up, clawed his way to the top, tipped forward, and jumped out.
He might have thought, “There are four gates. One gate is shorter than the other three. Therefore, I will jump that one.”
Have you ever seen a cat jump across a wide space? How does he know he can do that? Somehow he can assess the distance and deduce that he can make it across.
Perhaps a simple example occurs at suppertime. The cat’s inner clock lets him know when it is time to eat. He knows he gets his food from me. Therefore, he must alert me that it is time to feed him. At night this process is simple. He simply meows and generally makes a nuisance of himself until he is fed.
In the morning, he has to get me up if he wants to eat. Cats can be extremely creative in getting you out of bed, whether you want to get up or not.
Readers, pause and think of ways your own cat displays deductive reasoning. Please send me a comment. Certainly, those of you who are owned by a cat or two can probably come up with several examples.
That phrase, “owned by a cat,” reminds me of something else I read online. The article stated that research shows that dogs and cats see humans differently. Dogs see people as being different from them. (Someone said that dogs see us as gods.)
Cats, on the other hand, recognize that we are bigger than they, but they do not show by their behavior that they see us as different. Personally, I believe that is because cats view humans as their equals. It fits, doesn’t it? I do love my kitties! | <urn:uuid:9235329d-595f-4251-a10a-4089037ecd31> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theliteratecat.com/how-does-your-cat-think | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00163.warc.gz | en | 0.984864 | 1,433 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.520021915435791... | 10 | How does your cat think? Does he rely solely on instinct, or are there other factors piloting the kitty brain?
Well, according to psychologist Hank Davis, non-humans are a lot smarter and less “instinct-based” than most of us think. He surmises that perhaps we are not quite as clever as we think we are and cats are smarter than we believed.
If cats think, can they use deductive reasoning? As a matter of fact, they can.
Perhaps it would be good to start with some definitions. Inductive reasoning starts with a conclusion, then moves from specific instances to a generalized conclusion.
On the other hand, deductive reasoning moves from generalized ideas known to be true to a specific conclusion. For an example, here is a very famous illustration of this concept from Aristotle. He said, “All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.”
Can you think of examples of your cat’s activities when he observed generalized happenings in his world and came to a specific conclusion about these events?
In the Journal of Animal Cognition, Katherine Ellen Foley authored a paper with a heading I love, so have to quote it for you: “Cats use physics to get what they want, scientists have found.”
In this intriguing article, the author reports that scientists from Kyoto University in Japan have been researching cat behavior. They have found that cats can grasp the concept of gravity and cause and effect.
Sounds are of great value to the cat, and is useful for him. From sounds he hears, the cat can make his own predictions as to what he will see next. The sound he hears alerts him to the location of his prey.
An experiment was done by Saho Takagi and her colleagues. They collected 30 domestic cats for this experiment. Each cat was subjected to the test. For the experiment, a box was shaken. Sometimes the box made a rattling sound and sometimes no sound.
Then the researcher flipped the box over so the cat could see what was inside. Sometimes when the rattling box was turned over, nothing fell out. When the soundless box was turned over, sometimes an object fell out.
When the view of the inside of the box did not meet the cat’s expectations, the animal became confused. Why did something fall out of that silent box? Why did the other box rattle and nothing fell to the ground? The cats stared for long periods of time at the box that made a sound but there was no object inside.
The researchers concluded that the cat believed that, if the box rattled, when it was turned over, the object inside would fall out. Therefore, the cats were applying rules of physics — unattached objects in a box should fall to the ground because of gravity.
The cat has a basic understanding of the connection between sound and gravity. This understanding can improve his hunting skills, because often when they hunt they are in places with little light. They have to infer the location and the distance away of their prey from sounds alone.
I watched four videos of different cats climbing into a small, round fishbowl. You would think that none of them would fit in that fishbowl. The cat checked the bowl carefully. He might walk around it, or tip it on its side. In all four videos, the cat went in headfirst. If he could get a third foot into the bowl, he would go the whole distance .
All four of those cats got into the fishbowls. It was funny to watch them. It made me wonder what the fascination is with getting into small bowls, baskets, or boxes. My cats all did that. Somehow, they seemed to know if they would fit.
I can think of several instances in the actions of my own cats that seemed to show deductive reasoning. Have your cats ever tried to turn the door handle? We lived in a third-floor apartment for a while and I didn’t want to let the cats out.
My one cat really, really wanted to escape. He saw us turn the door handle and open the door. He got on a chair and tried to copy our behavior, but his paws just couldn’t grip that handle the right way to get it open…fortunately for us.
I think I wrote about my Carlos and the gate-jumping incident. When I moved to my Gustavus house, I had a six-foot-high fence built around my yard, and installed four gates, one on each side.
When the fence was done, we put in temporary plywood gates until I could get real ones built. Three of these were about as tall as the fence. The fourth, a double gate in front, contained gate pieces that were only about five feet high.
Before I had a cat door put in the fence, I watched Carlos one day, as he cruised the entire yard. He walked past all the gates, looking up at the top. He concluded that the front gate was lower than the other three, so he returned to it, got as far back from that gate as he could, and made a run for it. He got most of the way up, clawed his way to the top, tipped forward, and jumped out.
He might have thought, “There are four gates. One gate is shorter than the other three. Therefore, I will jump that one.”
Have you ever seen a cat jump across a wide space? How does he know he can do that? Somehow he can assess the distance and deduce that he can make it across.
Perhaps a simple example occurs at suppertime. The cat’s inner clock lets him know when it is time to eat. He knows he gets his food from me. Therefore, he must alert me that it is time to feed him. At night this process is simple. He simply meows and generally makes a nuisance of himself until he is fed.
In the morning, he has to get me up if he wants to eat. Cats can be extremely creative in getting you out of bed, whether you want to get up or not.
Readers, pause and think of ways your own cat displays deductive reasoning. Please send me a comment. Certainly, those of you who are owned by a cat or two can probably come up with several examples.
That phrase, “owned by a cat,” reminds me of something else I read online. The article stated that research shows that dogs and cats see humans differently. Dogs see people as being different from them. (Someone said that dogs see us as gods.)
Cats, on the other hand, recognize that we are bigger than they, but they do not show by their behavior that they see us as different. Personally, I believe that is because cats view humans as their equals. It fits, doesn’t it? I do love my kitties! | 1,381 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It’s silly season in the news and as always at this time of year tabloids and social media are awash with scare stories of adder ‘invasions’ and ‘attacks’ on dogs. More often than not these are full of misinformation and accompanied by panicked comments from worried owners and calls for snakes to be removed from particular areas or even killed.
So what’s the truth about this elusive species and how can we keep our dogs safe whilst enjoying summer walks?
The adder Vipera berus is the UK’s only venomous snake. Adults can grow up to 60cm in length. Colour is variable including grey, brown and sometimes black but adders are easily identified by the distinctive dark ‘zig-zag’ pattern along the back, which is both unmistakable and extremely effective camouflage.
The species is considered to be at risk of extinction in the next 15-20 years, having declined significantly over the last few decades due to public pressure/disturbance and loss or poor management of their habitat (Gardner et al, 20191).
They occur most frequently in heaths, moors and coastal areas but also in dry, lowland habitats such as rough grassland (especially with dense scrub or bracken), clearings, rides and tracks in woodland, felled plantation, disused quarries and embankments along roads and railways.
Like all reptiles, adders are ectothermic, meaning that they are unable to generate body heat internally and rely on external warmth to raise their body temperature. Dry areas to bask undisturbed in the sun next to dense cover (such as bracken or scrub) are a key habitat requirement for adder and this influences when and where they are likely to be found.
Adder bites can be serious or even fatal to humans and dogs in a small number of cases but are easily treatable if dealt with quickly. Adders are shy and secretive creatures and will not bite unless threatened or antagonised, preferring to quietly move away if they can. Bites are actually extremely rare with between 50-100 cases of bites to humans2 and 100 reported cases of bites to dogs annually and only ten recorded deaths in the last century3.
However, if your dog loves to explore the undergrowth they may inadvertently disturb adders in suitable habitat between March and October. So what can you do to keep your best friend safe and prevent disturbance to this threatened and misunderstood reptile?
How to stay safe
If your dog is very unlucky and does get bitten, follow the advice here and get them to a vet as soon as possible.
More information on adders and our other native reptile species can be found on the Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust website: https://www.arc-trust.org/
Guest post by the talented Caroline O’Rourke, a gifted Ecologist and a star member of our Genius Class
We often get asked why our classes are just ongoing and we don’t offer courses, so I thought I’d share my story and the motivation for offering year-round training for puppies.
When Luna came to live with us a puppy the first thing we did was research and find the best-reviewed, most comprehensive puppy class we could find. Knowing she had come from a working farm we knew we would have our hands full and we wanted to do things right, we would probably do agility later in life also so I researched places I could take her when she was old enough.
Though still naive, we researched and read up until we could recite the books. A puppy guide, a book on border collies, trick training and brain games. We felt we were really prepared.
By the time her vaccinations were complete and classes were about to begin we had already taught her all the basic commands. Luna could sit, down, stay, spin and twirl, give paw and rollover. Of course, she’s a border collie!
We were still excited and turned up eagerly to our first class, we gave each other little smiles as the trainer explained what we would be doing, knowing Luna was going to do well.
As the weeks went on Luna continued to excel in all of the behaviours and even some extra tricks in class, but cracks were beginning to show.
She’d sit under the chair, if another puppy knocked the metal water bowl she’d flee and become a whirlwind on the end of the lead, during the off lead ‘socialisation’ at the end of each class she would constantly be squashed by the other dogs.
The six weeks quickly came to an end and we were first to ask, what next? ‘If there are enough people I can put on an advanced course, I’ll let you know about dates’ we were told. We emailed a few times but it was never organised.
We worked diligently on what we had learnt. We were told if we can just make her sit stronger or heel better she won’t lunge and bark at things.
The truth is none of what we learnt would have helped her, she needed confidence building, calmness, an expert keeping an eye on how she was developing and spotting her struggles before they became what would be life-limiting behaviour problems that potentially could have been prevented with the right help.
She would go on to develop severe noise sensitivity, separation anxiety, resource guarding and reactivity towards other dogs.
The thing is, at the time I didn’t even know the storm that was brewing. I didn’t know the signs of what was to come. If only I had had a knowledgeable trainer on tap for the first six months or year of her life advising, guiding and upskilling me to raise a confident, calm, happy dog.
To help her, I had to learn and fast, I was lucky to have some amazing mentors and have developed into the dog trainer I am now.
It drives me to strive to ensure that I provide the best service I possibly can. For me that looks like: a trainer on tap, support for as long as you need it and to give you and your puppy the skills to navigate puppy-hood with ease and confidence.
Classes every week, become a member and be part of a fab community or drop in as and when you need. Access to the knowledge and resources to defeat any challenge you encounter. An expert eye and listening ear, reading between the lines, spotting little things before they even become a problem.
Recently one of our members noticed a change in her puppy’s reactions to other dogs and we have been able to give her some advice and training around it, through this and our ongoing support we will prevent this ever becoming an issue.
Luna continues to grow and still teaches me things all of the time. She is more optimistic and no longer thinks everyone is out to steal her prized possessions, often she’d rather stay at home on the sofa with a chew than traipse around places with me, she even has a rescue sister who teaches me very different lessons but that’s a whole different story.
She knows I have her back, the strength of our relationship and her trust in me has got us through thick and thin. We’ve got this.
It has taken a lot of work, and been a long journey but it does not need to be that way for you. Whether this is your first puppy and you want piece of mind, you’re already experiencing some struggles and want support to get back onto the right track or have already done a puppy course we would love to welcome you to join our classes. | <urn:uuid:990ca8b5-d3b0-4136-9093-39401e0d83c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.boomerangdogs.com/blog/2019/08/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.98055 | 1,583 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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... | 5 | It’s silly season in the news and as always at this time of year tabloids and social media are awash with scare stories of adder ‘invasions’ and ‘attacks’ on dogs. More often than not these are full of misinformation and accompanied by panicked comments from worried owners and calls for snakes to be removed from particular areas or even killed.
So what’s the truth about this elusive species and how can we keep our dogs safe whilst enjoying summer walks?
The adder Vipera berus is the UK’s only venomous snake. Adults can grow up to 60cm in length. Colour is variable including grey, brown and sometimes black but adders are easily identified by the distinctive dark ‘zig-zag’ pattern along the back, which is both unmistakable and extremely effective camouflage.
The species is considered to be at risk of extinction in the next 15-20 years, having declined significantly over the last few decades due to public pressure/disturbance and loss or poor management of their habitat (Gardner et al, 20191).
They occur most frequently in heaths, moors and coastal areas but also in dry, lowland habitats such as rough grassland (especially with dense scrub or bracken), clearings, rides and tracks in woodland, felled plantation, disused quarries and embankments along roads and railways.
Like all reptiles, adders are ectothermic, meaning that they are unable to generate body heat internally and rely on external warmth to raise their body temperature. Dry areas to bask undisturbed in the sun next to dense cover (such as bracken or scrub) are a key habitat requirement for adder and this influences when and where they are likely to be found.
Adder bites can be serious or even fatal to humans and dogs in a small number of cases but are easily treatable if dealt with quickly. Adders are shy and secretive creatures and will not bite unless threatened or antagonised, preferring to quietly move away if they can. Bites are actually extremely rare with between 50-100 cases of bites to humans2 and 100 reported cases of bites to dogs annually and only ten recorded deaths in the last century3.
However, if your dog loves to explore the undergrowth they may inadvertently disturb adders in suitable habitat between March and October. So what can you do to keep your best friend safe and prevent disturbance to this threatened and misunderstood reptile?
How to stay safe
If your dog is very unlucky and does get bitten, follow the advice here and get them to a vet as soon as possible.
More information on adders and our other native reptile species can be found on the Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust website: https://www.arc-trust.org/
Guest post by the talented Caroline O’Rourke, a gifted Ecologist and a star member of our Genius Class
We often get asked why our classes are just ongoing and we don’t offer courses, so I thought I’d share my story and the motivation for offering year-round training for puppies.
When Luna came to live with us a puppy the first thing we did was research and find the best-reviewed, most comprehensive puppy class we could find. Knowing she had come from a working farm we knew we would have our hands full and we wanted to do things right, we would probably do agility later in life also so I researched places I could take her when she was old enough.
Though still naive, we researched and read up until we could recite the books. A puppy guide, a book on border collies, trick training and brain games. We felt we were really prepared.
By the time her vaccinations were complete and classes were about to begin we had already taught her all the basic commands. Luna could sit, down, stay, spin and twirl, give paw and rollover. Of course, she’s a border collie!
We were still excited and turned up eagerly to our first class, we gave each other little smiles as the trainer explained what we would be doing, knowing Luna was going to do well.
As the weeks went on Luna continued to excel in all of the behaviours and even some extra tricks in class, but cracks were beginning to show.
She’d sit under the chair, if another puppy knocked the metal water bowl she’d flee and become a whirlwind on the end of the lead, during the off lead ‘socialisation’ at the end of each class she would constantly be squashed by the other dogs.
The six weeks quickly came to an end and we were first to ask, what next? ‘If there are enough people I can put on an advanced course, I’ll let you know about dates’ we were told. We emailed a few times but it was never organised.
We worked diligently on what we had learnt. We were told if we can just make her sit stronger or heel better she won’t lunge and bark at things.
The truth is none of what we learnt would have helped her, she needed confidence building, calmness, an expert keeping an eye on how she was developing and spotting her struggles before they became what would be life-limiting behaviour problems that potentially could have been prevented with the right help.
She would go on to develop severe noise sensitivity, separation anxiety, resource guarding and reactivity towards other dogs.
The thing is, at the time I didn’t even know the storm that was brewing. I didn’t know the signs of what was to come. If only I had had a knowledgeable trainer on tap for the first six months or year of her life advising, guiding and upskilling me to raise a confident, calm, happy dog.
To help her, I had to learn and fast, I was lucky to have some amazing mentors and have developed into the dog trainer I am now.
It drives me to strive to ensure that I provide the best service I possibly can. For me that looks like: a trainer on tap, support for as long as you need it and to give you and your puppy the skills to navigate puppy-hood with ease and confidence.
Classes every week, become a member and be part of a fab community or drop in as and when you need. Access to the knowledge and resources to defeat any challenge you encounter. An expert eye and listening ear, reading between the lines, spotting little things before they even become a problem.
Recently one of our members noticed a change in her puppy’s reactions to other dogs and we have been able to give her some advice and training around it, through this and our ongoing support we will prevent this ever becoming an issue.
Luna continues to grow and still teaches me things all of the time. She is more optimistic and no longer thinks everyone is out to steal her prized possessions, often she’d rather stay at home on the sofa with a chew than traipse around places with me, she even has a rescue sister who teaches me very different lessons but that’s a whole different story.
She knows I have her back, the strength of our relationship and her trust in me has got us through thick and thin. We’ve got this.
It has taken a lot of work, and been a long journey but it does not need to be that way for you. Whether this is your first puppy and you want piece of mind, you’re already experiencing some struggles and want support to get back onto the right track or have already done a puppy course we would love to welcome you to join our classes. | 1,524 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Curious Nature: The Utes are the original Coloradans
Walking Mountains Science Center
According to tribal legend, the Ute Indians have lived in the mountains of Colorado since the beginning of time. They hunted, fished, and foraged for food in a land of plenty for centuries. They were already expert hunters when Spanish-speaking explorers arrived in the 16th Century. With the help of guns and horses, the Utes became even more fearsome hunters and warriors.
The Utes’ ancestral land was high in the Rocky Mountains. As Anglo-American settlers began to pour into Colorado early in the 19th Century, the Utes were insulated from their encroachment by a buffer of plains tribes and the rugged peaks of Colorado’s Front Range. In 1863, Colorado Governor John Evans signed a treaty with nine Ute chiefs, including Chief Ouray, giving all land east of the continental divide to the United States and preserving all land west of the divide for the Utes. By 1868, however, the white people of Colorado decided that they had given too much land to the Utes. Ouray and nine other chiefs were invited to Washington to negotiate a new treaty.
In the end, Ouray signed a treaty that allowed his people to keep 16 million acres. This was still a substantial sacrifice to the United States, but was much less than what the white negotiators had hoped to obtain. Ouray also had language added to the treaty which stated that no unauthorized white man would “ever be permitted to pass over, reside in or settle upon” the land allotted to the Utes.
This clause did little to keep homesteaders and prospectors from trespassing on Ute land. Among them was Frederick Pitkin who had made a fortune in mining and was a powerful advocate in Denver for the state’s acquisition of the San Juan Mountains, amounting to a quarter of what remained of Ute land. Pitkin and others eventually convinced the Utes that if they did not sell, the land would simply be taken. In the end, the Utes agreed to sell for $25,000.
In 1878, E.H. Danforth, a relatively friendly agent from the Bureau of Indian Affairs, was replaced by the paternalistic Nathan Meeker. Meeker was committed to bringing the Utes out of the “savage state” and into the “enlightened, scientific, and religious stage.”
A series of insensitive acts on Meeker’s part helped to alienate the Utes over a period of several years. Eventually, Meeker began fabricating reports that a band of Utes was tormenting nearby settlers. By this time, Frederick Pitkin, no friend of the Utes, was Governor of Colorado and tales of savagery on the part of Indians meshed well with his opinion of Native Americans.
Finally, Meeker wrote to Pitkin that he was in fear for his life. Two-hundred soldiers were sent to bolster Meeker’s post. The arrival of the troops concerned and frightened the peaceful Utes and some young warriors began to prepare for a confrontation. Cool-headed elder chiefs rode out under a flag of truce to meet the column of soldiers and came to an agreement with their commander, Major Thornburgh, that he would stop his troops outside Ute territory to avoid conflict.
When Thornburgh crossed into Ute lands however, he did not stop as he had said he would. This decision led his troops directly into the path of a group of angry, young Ute braves. A skirmish ensued. It was not clear who fired the first shot. When the Utes near the agency heard that their brothers had been attacked, they shot all the white men at the agency and absconded with three female prisoners.
When tales of the conflict reached Denver, Governor Pitkin and his allies gladly exaggerated stories of Ute brutality. In 1880, the ailing Chief Ouray returned to Washington to negotiate a new treaty, but he was not the shrewd negotiator he had once been. He did not live to see the government force his people onto a reservation in Utah a year later, carved out of land the Mormon settlers did not want.
Pete Wadden formerly worked at Walking Mountains Science Center and is currently the Watershed Education Coordinator at the Town of Vail.
Thanks to a partnership between The Community Market and Colorado Mountain College Vail Valley, students can now access nutritious food at no cost to them without having to leave campus. | <urn:uuid:d70766c5-4027-410c-b45d-f31667b549a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vaildaily.com/opinion/curious-nature-the-utes-are-the-original-coloradans/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.984073 | 930 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.024263117462396... | 1 | Curious Nature: The Utes are the original Coloradans
Walking Mountains Science Center
According to tribal legend, the Ute Indians have lived in the mountains of Colorado since the beginning of time. They hunted, fished, and foraged for food in a land of plenty for centuries. They were already expert hunters when Spanish-speaking explorers arrived in the 16th Century. With the help of guns and horses, the Utes became even more fearsome hunters and warriors.
The Utes’ ancestral land was high in the Rocky Mountains. As Anglo-American settlers began to pour into Colorado early in the 19th Century, the Utes were insulated from their encroachment by a buffer of plains tribes and the rugged peaks of Colorado’s Front Range. In 1863, Colorado Governor John Evans signed a treaty with nine Ute chiefs, including Chief Ouray, giving all land east of the continental divide to the United States and preserving all land west of the divide for the Utes. By 1868, however, the white people of Colorado decided that they had given too much land to the Utes. Ouray and nine other chiefs were invited to Washington to negotiate a new treaty.
In the end, Ouray signed a treaty that allowed his people to keep 16 million acres. This was still a substantial sacrifice to the United States, but was much less than what the white negotiators had hoped to obtain. Ouray also had language added to the treaty which stated that no unauthorized white man would “ever be permitted to pass over, reside in or settle upon” the land allotted to the Utes.
This clause did little to keep homesteaders and prospectors from trespassing on Ute land. Among them was Frederick Pitkin who had made a fortune in mining and was a powerful advocate in Denver for the state’s acquisition of the San Juan Mountains, amounting to a quarter of what remained of Ute land. Pitkin and others eventually convinced the Utes that if they did not sell, the land would simply be taken. In the end, the Utes agreed to sell for $25,000.
In 1878, E.H. Danforth, a relatively friendly agent from the Bureau of Indian Affairs, was replaced by the paternalistic Nathan Meeker. Meeker was committed to bringing the Utes out of the “savage state” and into the “enlightened, scientific, and religious stage.”
A series of insensitive acts on Meeker’s part helped to alienate the Utes over a period of several years. Eventually, Meeker began fabricating reports that a band of Utes was tormenting nearby settlers. By this time, Frederick Pitkin, no friend of the Utes, was Governor of Colorado and tales of savagery on the part of Indians meshed well with his opinion of Native Americans.
Finally, Meeker wrote to Pitkin that he was in fear for his life. Two-hundred soldiers were sent to bolster Meeker’s post. The arrival of the troops concerned and frightened the peaceful Utes and some young warriors began to prepare for a confrontation. Cool-headed elder chiefs rode out under a flag of truce to meet the column of soldiers and came to an agreement with their commander, Major Thornburgh, that he would stop his troops outside Ute territory to avoid conflict.
When Thornburgh crossed into Ute lands however, he did not stop as he had said he would. This decision led his troops directly into the path of a group of angry, young Ute braves. A skirmish ensued. It was not clear who fired the first shot. When the Utes near the agency heard that their brothers had been attacked, they shot all the white men at the agency and absconded with three female prisoners.
When tales of the conflict reached Denver, Governor Pitkin and his allies gladly exaggerated stories of Ute brutality. In 1880, the ailing Chief Ouray returned to Washington to negotiate a new treaty, but he was not the shrewd negotiator he had once been. He did not live to see the government force his people onto a reservation in Utah a year later, carved out of land the Mormon settlers did not want.
Pete Wadden formerly worked at Walking Mountains Science Center and is currently the Watershed Education Coordinator at the Town of Vail.
Thanks to a partnership between The Community Market and Colorado Mountain College Vail Valley, students can now access nutritious food at no cost to them without having to leave campus. | 927 | ENGLISH | 1 |
February 1 is the feast of St. Brigid of Ireland, often called Mary of the Gael. Her feast day is one of the official holy days of the Ladies Ancient Order of Hibernians, Inc. Hibernians throughout the country gather annually for celebrations in her honor. St. Brigid's life was a remarkable one, next to St. Patrick she is the most revered saint in all of Ireland.
At about 453 AD, a child was born out of wedlock between Dubhtach and one of his Christian slaves named Brocca. The slave girl was sent to a cabin at the foot of the Cooley Mountains near Dundalk, Co Louth, to have the child. The baby was a healthy girl, which was no great joy to Dubhtach who wanted a son. The mother was sold to a Chieftain in Connaught, and the child was given to a Druid to be raised and educated. The child was named Brigid, perhaps to seek the blessing of the Goddess, from the very beginning, there were indications that she was special. It was reported that she was born at sunrise, and that the cottage in which she was born glowed with flames.
Brigid was born in a society ruled by the old Gaelic Order and the Druidic religion. St. Patrick had already reached Ireland, and was in the process of changing all that, but though his message had reached the court of Dubhtach, the powerful Leinster Chieftain held firm to the old religion. In his religion, one of the most powerful Goddesses was Brid or Brigid, the Goddess of Fire whose manifestations were song and poetry, which the Celts considered the flame of knowledge. Her feast day was the first festival of the year and was held on February 1. It was the beginning of Spring; the working season for farmers and fishermen, and a time of husbanding of animals, and the Celts called on Brid to bless their work, and bonfires were lit in her honor.
Brigid grew in beauty, and her love for all of God’s creatures knew no bounds. After her fosterage, she returned to her father’s house as a slave, although she enjoyed the privileges of family. She was given to solitude, and loved to wander the woods befriending the animals. She was renowned for her generosity, giving much of her father’s wealth away to the poor. Many are the stories attributed to this remarkable lady, including her journey on foot from Leinster to Connaught to find her mother, whom she freed from bondage, and returned to the house of Dubhtach.
The exact circumstances of her conversion to Christianity are unknown, though it is certain that her Christian mother was a guiding influence. Some claim that she personally met St Patrick, which is possible since she was ten years old before he died. Whatever the circumstances, Brigid and her companions in service to Brid, all accepted the Christian faith, and formed Ireland’s first Christian religious community of women. Legend tells that upon her acceptance of her vows, fire appeared above her head.
Even as a young girl Brigid evinced an interest for a religious life and took the veil in her youth from St. Macaille at Croghan and probably was professed by St. Mel of Armagh, who is believed to have conferred abbotial authority on her. Needing a place to establish the first community of religious women in Ireland, Brigid settled on Kildare, and about the year 470 she founded a double monastery at Cill-Dara (Kildare) and was Abbess of the convent, the first in Ireland. Her monastery was at the site (coincidentally) of a shrine to the Celtic Goddess Brigid. In time the eternal flame that virgins had guarded for the Goddess was tended instead by nuns who dedicated it to Christ. She extinguished the ritual fire of the Druids, and lit a flame dedicated to Christ which was thereafter maintained by her followers until it was doused by the forces of Henry VIII. The monastery that became a joint facility for nuns and monks under Brigid’s leadership also became a center of learning and school for the arts. The monastery developed into a center of learning and spirituality, around it grew up the Cathedral city of Kildare. She founded a school of art at Kildare and its illuminated manuscripts became famous, notably the Book of Kildare, which was praised as one of the finest of all illuminated Irish manuscripts before its disappearance three centuries ago. Brigid was one of the most remarkable women of her times, and despite the numerous legendary, extravagant, and even fantastic miracles attributed to her, there is no doubt that her extraordinary spirituality, boundless charity, and compassion for those in distress were real.
Brigid’s wisdom and generosity became legend, and people traveled from all over the country to share her wisdom. Her monastery at Kildare became one of the greatest centers of learning in Europe. She continued her holy and charitable work until her death. Brigid died at Kildare on February 1 in 525 AD, she was laid to rest in a jeweled casket at Kil Dara. In 835, her remains were moved to protect them from Norse invaders, and interred in the same grave that holds the remains of St Patrick and St Columcille at Downpatrick. She is sometimes known as Bridget, Bride and Mary of the Gael. Her feast day is February 1.
So strong was the respect and reverence for this holy lady that she became the patroness of parishes, towns, and counties, not only in Ireland, but all across Europe and the America’s. She even had a symbol. As the shamrock became associated with St Patrick, a tiny cross made of rushes was linked with St Brigid. Woven by her while she explained the passion of Christ to a dying pagan, he was baptized before he died. Similar crosses are fashioned to this day as a defense against harm, and placed in the rafters of a cottage on the feast day of St Brigid – February 1.
The Irish and the Ladies AOH all honor Saint Brigid through a variety of ways! | <urn:uuid:fc0a3117-4d9b-4d1d-997e-f04fae423d43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://laohomaha.com/st-brigid | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00183.warc.gz | en | 0.990186 | 1,278 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.36167645454... | 3 | February 1 is the feast of St. Brigid of Ireland, often called Mary of the Gael. Her feast day is one of the official holy days of the Ladies Ancient Order of Hibernians, Inc. Hibernians throughout the country gather annually for celebrations in her honor. St. Brigid's life was a remarkable one, next to St. Patrick she is the most revered saint in all of Ireland.
At about 453 AD, a child was born out of wedlock between Dubhtach and one of his Christian slaves named Brocca. The slave girl was sent to a cabin at the foot of the Cooley Mountains near Dundalk, Co Louth, to have the child. The baby was a healthy girl, which was no great joy to Dubhtach who wanted a son. The mother was sold to a Chieftain in Connaught, and the child was given to a Druid to be raised and educated. The child was named Brigid, perhaps to seek the blessing of the Goddess, from the very beginning, there were indications that she was special. It was reported that she was born at sunrise, and that the cottage in which she was born glowed with flames.
Brigid was born in a society ruled by the old Gaelic Order and the Druidic religion. St. Patrick had already reached Ireland, and was in the process of changing all that, but though his message had reached the court of Dubhtach, the powerful Leinster Chieftain held firm to the old religion. In his religion, one of the most powerful Goddesses was Brid or Brigid, the Goddess of Fire whose manifestations were song and poetry, which the Celts considered the flame of knowledge. Her feast day was the first festival of the year and was held on February 1. It was the beginning of Spring; the working season for farmers and fishermen, and a time of husbanding of animals, and the Celts called on Brid to bless their work, and bonfires were lit in her honor.
Brigid grew in beauty, and her love for all of God’s creatures knew no bounds. After her fosterage, she returned to her father’s house as a slave, although she enjoyed the privileges of family. She was given to solitude, and loved to wander the woods befriending the animals. She was renowned for her generosity, giving much of her father’s wealth away to the poor. Many are the stories attributed to this remarkable lady, including her journey on foot from Leinster to Connaught to find her mother, whom she freed from bondage, and returned to the house of Dubhtach.
The exact circumstances of her conversion to Christianity are unknown, though it is certain that her Christian mother was a guiding influence. Some claim that she personally met St Patrick, which is possible since she was ten years old before he died. Whatever the circumstances, Brigid and her companions in service to Brid, all accepted the Christian faith, and formed Ireland’s first Christian religious community of women. Legend tells that upon her acceptance of her vows, fire appeared above her head.
Even as a young girl Brigid evinced an interest for a religious life and took the veil in her youth from St. Macaille at Croghan and probably was professed by St. Mel of Armagh, who is believed to have conferred abbotial authority on her. Needing a place to establish the first community of religious women in Ireland, Brigid settled on Kildare, and about the year 470 she founded a double monastery at Cill-Dara (Kildare) and was Abbess of the convent, the first in Ireland. Her monastery was at the site (coincidentally) of a shrine to the Celtic Goddess Brigid. In time the eternal flame that virgins had guarded for the Goddess was tended instead by nuns who dedicated it to Christ. She extinguished the ritual fire of the Druids, and lit a flame dedicated to Christ which was thereafter maintained by her followers until it was doused by the forces of Henry VIII. The monastery that became a joint facility for nuns and monks under Brigid’s leadership also became a center of learning and school for the arts. The monastery developed into a center of learning and spirituality, around it grew up the Cathedral city of Kildare. She founded a school of art at Kildare and its illuminated manuscripts became famous, notably the Book of Kildare, which was praised as one of the finest of all illuminated Irish manuscripts before its disappearance three centuries ago. Brigid was one of the most remarkable women of her times, and despite the numerous legendary, extravagant, and even fantastic miracles attributed to her, there is no doubt that her extraordinary spirituality, boundless charity, and compassion for those in distress were real.
Brigid’s wisdom and generosity became legend, and people traveled from all over the country to share her wisdom. Her monastery at Kildare became one of the greatest centers of learning in Europe. She continued her holy and charitable work until her death. Brigid died at Kildare on February 1 in 525 AD, she was laid to rest in a jeweled casket at Kil Dara. In 835, her remains were moved to protect them from Norse invaders, and interred in the same grave that holds the remains of St Patrick and St Columcille at Downpatrick. She is sometimes known as Bridget, Bride and Mary of the Gael. Her feast day is February 1.
So strong was the respect and reverence for this holy lady that she became the patroness of parishes, towns, and counties, not only in Ireland, but all across Europe and the America’s. She even had a symbol. As the shamrock became associated with St Patrick, a tiny cross made of rushes was linked with St Brigid. Woven by her while she explained the passion of Christ to a dying pagan, he was baptized before he died. Similar crosses are fashioned to this day as a defense against harm, and placed in the rafters of a cottage on the feast day of St Brigid – February 1.
The Irish and the Ladies AOH all honor Saint Brigid through a variety of ways! | 1,271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The word autumn comes from the ancient Etruscan root autu- and has within it connotations of the passing of the year. It was borrowed by the neighbouring Romans, and became the Latin word autumnus. After the Roman era the word continued to be used as the Old French word autompne (automne in modern French), and was later normalised to the original Latin. In the Medieval period there are rare examples of its use as early as the 12th century, but by the 16th century it was in common use.
Before the 16th century, harvest was the term usually used to refer to the season, as it is common in other West Germanic languages to this day (cf. Dutch herfst, German Herbst and Scots hairst). However, as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns, the word harvest lost its reference to the time of year and came to refer only to the actual activity of reaping, and autumn, as well as fall, began to replace it as a reference to the season.
The alternative word fall for the season traces its origins to old Germanic languages. The exact derivation is unclear, with the Old English fiæll or feallan and the Old Norse fall all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning “to fall from a height” and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like “fall of the leaf” and “fall of the year”.
During the 17th century, English emigration to the British colonies in North America was at its peak, and the new settlers took the English language with them. While the term fall gradually became obsolete in Britain, it became the more common term in North America.
Source: Wikipedia page “Autumn”, “Etymology” section. | <urn:uuid:c1a89266-a197-4bba-a631-10e4d2bb455c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://themes.redradar.net/umbra/2014/09/04/autumn-forest-and-river.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.983479 | 404 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.0623424574732... | 2 | The word autumn comes from the ancient Etruscan root autu- and has within it connotations of the passing of the year. It was borrowed by the neighbouring Romans, and became the Latin word autumnus. After the Roman era the word continued to be used as the Old French word autompne (automne in modern French), and was later normalised to the original Latin. In the Medieval period there are rare examples of its use as early as the 12th century, but by the 16th century it was in common use.
Before the 16th century, harvest was the term usually used to refer to the season, as it is common in other West Germanic languages to this day (cf. Dutch herfst, German Herbst and Scots hairst). However, as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns, the word harvest lost its reference to the time of year and came to refer only to the actual activity of reaping, and autumn, as well as fall, began to replace it as a reference to the season.
The alternative word fall for the season traces its origins to old Germanic languages. The exact derivation is unclear, with the Old English fiæll or feallan and the Old Norse fall all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning “to fall from a height” and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like “fall of the leaf” and “fall of the year”.
During the 17th century, English emigration to the British colonies in North America was at its peak, and the new settlers took the English language with them. While the term fall gradually became obsolete in Britain, it became the more common term in North America.
Source: Wikipedia page “Autumn”, “Etymology” section. | 396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nobody could beat Samuel Adams (1722-1803) when it came to radical political activism. If you wanted to set up an organization, stage a protest or overthrow a government, he was your man.
Adams (cousin of another great Revolutionary, John Adams) had considered becoming a preacher—his style was evangelical enough—but studied law instead, and found his true calling as a politician. He first became interested in the politics of the day as a result of his father's troubles with the authorities. Samuel's own clashes with the powers that be helped him hone his combat abilities. One thing he learned was "put your adversaries in the wrong. And keep him there." When his house was at risk of being sold at auction to pay off old debts, Adams took out ads warning the new sheriff to keep his mitts off it.
Like Benjamin Franklin, though, Adams knew how to communicate his opinions with delicacy. "As he mingled at the taverns, the lodges and the volunteer fire companies, he asked shopkeepers and shipworkers their opnions and seemed to take their answers seriously," writes A.J. Langguth in his study of the American Revolution, Patriots. "He could explain political injustice to an illiterate sailor without condescending, and he had no use for Thomas Hutchinson's kind of social divisions. His own ideas were unshakable, but he offered them in a tentative way that flattered his listeners....He criticized such aristocrats as Hutchinson not as if he were a humble man who envied the lieutenant governor his wealth or position but as a moral superior."
Adams had operated a brewing company with his father, but when his father died the business collapsed. He was never very well off financially, nor did he ever make much of an attempt to gain wealth. He spent a few years as one of Boston's five general tax collectors (Thomas Paine, too, had been a tax collector), but the town didn't receive many taxes through Samuel Adams. He was neither an entrepreneur nor a plunderer.
His true calling was politics, preferably of the revolutionary variety; and the times were certainly ripe for it. When Great Britain stepped up its efforts to extract more cash from the colonies in the 1760s, Adams flew into action, helping set up the Boston chapters of the Committees of Correspondence and Sons of Liberty, publishing his own Declaration of Colonial Rights, and arguing as forcefully as possible that his compatriots should throw off the colonial shackles. He was a constant presence in the pre-revolutionary struggle against British rule.
In 1770 Adams led the response to the Boston Massacre (an incident in which redcoats fired into a crowd of taunting civilians), exaggerating the dimensions of the tragedy to increase pressure on the British to withdraw. By 1773 Adams was helping organize the so-called Boston Tea Party, in which Bostonians protested the British monopoly on tea trade by dressing up as Indians and tossing tea into Boston Harbor. When the Brits responded by shutting down the Harbor and clamping restrictions on Town Meetings, Adams urged a general boycott of British trade.
Adams served in both the First and Second Continental Congress, and was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Although initially opposed to the Constitution that would supersede the Articles of Confederation, he ultimately supported its ratification. He also helped draft the Massachusetts state constitution, and served as the state's governor from 1793 to 1797.
Copyright © 2000, The Daily Objectivist - Reprinted with permission of The Daily Objectivist and Davidmbrown.com.
25 Nov 2008 | <urn:uuid:f4beae1b-c9ed-4431-82f7-6527057d4c78> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.freedomcircle.com/source/samuel-adams-hero-of-the-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.98662 | 734 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.19706395268... | 5 | Nobody could beat Samuel Adams (1722-1803) when it came to radical political activism. If you wanted to set up an organization, stage a protest or overthrow a government, he was your man.
Adams (cousin of another great Revolutionary, John Adams) had considered becoming a preacher—his style was evangelical enough—but studied law instead, and found his true calling as a politician. He first became interested in the politics of the day as a result of his father's troubles with the authorities. Samuel's own clashes with the powers that be helped him hone his combat abilities. One thing he learned was "put your adversaries in the wrong. And keep him there." When his house was at risk of being sold at auction to pay off old debts, Adams took out ads warning the new sheriff to keep his mitts off it.
Like Benjamin Franklin, though, Adams knew how to communicate his opinions with delicacy. "As he mingled at the taverns, the lodges and the volunteer fire companies, he asked shopkeepers and shipworkers their opnions and seemed to take their answers seriously," writes A.J. Langguth in his study of the American Revolution, Patriots. "He could explain political injustice to an illiterate sailor without condescending, and he had no use for Thomas Hutchinson's kind of social divisions. His own ideas were unshakable, but he offered them in a tentative way that flattered his listeners....He criticized such aristocrats as Hutchinson not as if he were a humble man who envied the lieutenant governor his wealth or position but as a moral superior."
Adams had operated a brewing company with his father, but when his father died the business collapsed. He was never very well off financially, nor did he ever make much of an attempt to gain wealth. He spent a few years as one of Boston's five general tax collectors (Thomas Paine, too, had been a tax collector), but the town didn't receive many taxes through Samuel Adams. He was neither an entrepreneur nor a plunderer.
His true calling was politics, preferably of the revolutionary variety; and the times were certainly ripe for it. When Great Britain stepped up its efforts to extract more cash from the colonies in the 1760s, Adams flew into action, helping set up the Boston chapters of the Committees of Correspondence and Sons of Liberty, publishing his own Declaration of Colonial Rights, and arguing as forcefully as possible that his compatriots should throw off the colonial shackles. He was a constant presence in the pre-revolutionary struggle against British rule.
In 1770 Adams led the response to the Boston Massacre (an incident in which redcoats fired into a crowd of taunting civilians), exaggerating the dimensions of the tragedy to increase pressure on the British to withdraw. By 1773 Adams was helping organize the so-called Boston Tea Party, in which Bostonians protested the British monopoly on tea trade by dressing up as Indians and tossing tea into Boston Harbor. When the Brits responded by shutting down the Harbor and clamping restrictions on Town Meetings, Adams urged a general boycott of British trade.
Adams served in both the First and Second Continental Congress, and was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Although initially opposed to the Constitution that would supersede the Articles of Confederation, he ultimately supported its ratification. He also helped draft the Massachusetts state constitution, and served as the state's governor from 1793 to 1797.
Copyright © 2000, The Daily Objectivist - Reprinted with permission of The Daily Objectivist and Davidmbrown.com.
25 Nov 2008 | 753 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is a Public Option?
The public option refers to a portion of Obamacare that would have created a Medicare-like policy that most U.S. residents could purchase as an alternative to purchasing policies from private health insurers. The public option was eventually left out of the health care legislation after various parties objected to it.
How Does a Public Option Work?
The public option would have operated much like Medicare, whereby people under age 65 could buy health insurance from the federal government. The federal government, under these plans, would dictate or negotiate what they would pay to health care providers.
There was some question about whether medical providers would have been forced to participate (and therefore forced to work for less money even when private insurers would have paid them more). Additionally, the premiums for the public option plans would likely have been artificially lower than the market rates offered by private insurers, raising antitrust issues, though at least one version of the legislation involved charging premiums that were higher than the premiums offered by private insurers.
Why Does a Public Option Matter?
The theory behind the public option was that it would lower the cost of single-payer system, in which would provide coverage to all via the government, driving private insurance largely out of business.by introducing competitive pressure on insurers and thus allow more people to purchase coverage. The idea was introduced into the legislative reform process as an alternative to a | <urn:uuid:f9b057fc-4e64-47fd-93a1-44a8b2bed91c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://investinganswers.com/dictionary/p/public-option | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.984169 | 278 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0... | 6 | What is a Public Option?
The public option refers to a portion of Obamacare that would have created a Medicare-like policy that most U.S. residents could purchase as an alternative to purchasing policies from private health insurers. The public option was eventually left out of the health care legislation after various parties objected to it.
How Does a Public Option Work?
The public option would have operated much like Medicare, whereby people under age 65 could buy health insurance from the federal government. The federal government, under these plans, would dictate or negotiate what they would pay to health care providers.
There was some question about whether medical providers would have been forced to participate (and therefore forced to work for less money even when private insurers would have paid them more). Additionally, the premiums for the public option plans would likely have been artificially lower than the market rates offered by private insurers, raising antitrust issues, though at least one version of the legislation involved charging premiums that were higher than the premiums offered by private insurers.
Why Does a Public Option Matter?
The theory behind the public option was that it would lower the cost of single-payer system, in which would provide coverage to all via the government, driving private insurance largely out of business.by introducing competitive pressure on insurers and thus allow more people to purchase coverage. The idea was introduced into the legislative reform process as an alternative to a | 272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Literature is a powerful and persuasive tool. History holds the proof that a well-written novel, even a work of fiction, has the power to profoundly impact society. One such novel is Upton Sinclair’s 1906 expose of the American immigrant, infamously titled The Jungle. The story is of the trials and tribulations of a Lithuanian family struggling to earn a living in the slaughterhouses of Chicago. The issues faced by this family are some of the most disturbing fictional depictions of the lower class, and some of the most well-read in the past century. The Jungle, now hailed as a literary masterpiece, is credited with being the reason for the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act of the early 1900’s (Ewers). Though Sinclair’s story is revered for supposedly helping to reform a corrupt industry, research of both the current day meat packing industry and life of the twenty-first century immigrant proves that the story actually had very little consequence. In addition, research about Sinclair himself raises a number of questions about his motives and credibility. Although Sinclair’s novel was well received and thought to have made a major impact on society, it actually had very little effect on anything but the American psyche.
To further understand what has not changed because of The Jungle, it is first important to understand what the initial impact of the story was, and how it is perceived today. The very famous words of Upton Sinclair explain the forceful impact of his story perfectly, “I aimed at the public’s heart, and by accident I hit it in the stomach (Cohen).” When The Jungle was first published in 1906, it was a series of short stories describing the plight of the main character, Jurgis, and his poverty-stricken family. The details of starving children and power-hungry big
business leaders were not what startled the American public however, but the details of men and rats being made into meat, and of the disease and filth that was entering the American meat supply. Americans were shocked and horrified by Sinclair’s portrayal of the unsanitary conditions of meat packing facilities, of workers losing fingers into the ground beef, of diseased animal carcasses being adulterated with chemicals and sent to market (Abrahamson). Though the story was meant to have a deeper meaning, more specifically a political one, the public was far too disgusted and fascinated by the details of the food they were purchasing than anything else.
The uproar that was caused by Sinclair’s supposed research of these factories received the attention of President Theodore Roosevelt, who performed research of his own that led to the creation of new food inspection acts. The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 put tough restrictions on packing facilities, instituting a system that allowed certified federal meat inspectors to check all carcasses as they traveled throughout the process. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was the other act created, and it... | <urn:uuid:a61b9d2a-3d87-46b7-8ada-2318bb0fde98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/exploring-the-jungle-the-true-impact-of-a-literary-masterpiece | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.984258 | 597 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0... | 1 | Literature is a powerful and persuasive tool. History holds the proof that a well-written novel, even a work of fiction, has the power to profoundly impact society. One such novel is Upton Sinclair’s 1906 expose of the American immigrant, infamously titled The Jungle. The story is of the trials and tribulations of a Lithuanian family struggling to earn a living in the slaughterhouses of Chicago. The issues faced by this family are some of the most disturbing fictional depictions of the lower class, and some of the most well-read in the past century. The Jungle, now hailed as a literary masterpiece, is credited with being the reason for the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act of the early 1900’s (Ewers). Though Sinclair’s story is revered for supposedly helping to reform a corrupt industry, research of both the current day meat packing industry and life of the twenty-first century immigrant proves that the story actually had very little consequence. In addition, research about Sinclair himself raises a number of questions about his motives and credibility. Although Sinclair’s novel was well received and thought to have made a major impact on society, it actually had very little effect on anything but the American psyche.
To further understand what has not changed because of The Jungle, it is first important to understand what the initial impact of the story was, and how it is perceived today. The very famous words of Upton Sinclair explain the forceful impact of his story perfectly, “I aimed at the public’s heart, and by accident I hit it in the stomach (Cohen).” When The Jungle was first published in 1906, it was a series of short stories describing the plight of the main character, Jurgis, and his poverty-stricken family. The details of starving children and power-hungry big
business leaders were not what startled the American public however, but the details of men and rats being made into meat, and of the disease and filth that was entering the American meat supply. Americans were shocked and horrified by Sinclair’s portrayal of the unsanitary conditions of meat packing facilities, of workers losing fingers into the ground beef, of diseased animal carcasses being adulterated with chemicals and sent to market (Abrahamson). Though the story was meant to have a deeper meaning, more specifically a political one, the public was far too disgusted and fascinated by the details of the food they were purchasing than anything else.
The uproar that was caused by Sinclair’s supposed research of these factories received the attention of President Theodore Roosevelt, who performed research of his own that led to the creation of new food inspection acts. The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 put tough restrictions on packing facilities, instituting a system that allowed certified federal meat inspectors to check all carcasses as they traveled throughout the process. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was the other act created, and it... | 600 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"In 1840 the old idea of mercantilism, which had always been good for colonial Canada and was still strong at the time. The economic relationship between the colonies and Britain gave the colonies a significant advantage, so most people wanted to remain under the British rule. Raw"
"to take over a territory and add it to the territory of another county the confederation needed a country to even be a thing, so when the colony of Canada started in 1791 and only grew to become what is now known as Canada. After the confederation, Canada needed to expand its te"
"The rebellion of 1837 was two uprisings in upper and lower Canada. They happened from Dec 7th, 1837 to Dec 4th, 1838. The government in upper and lower Canada was created so that a one council would have more power than the one elected by the people. This basically made Canada an"
"laws that protected architecture in the British empire by limiting the import of grain from other countries. In 1846, the British government repealed the corn laws, which were apart of the navigation acts and gave preferential treatment to British colonies. When the corn laws we"
"This bill was to affect all the people who lost property or money in the rebellion of 1837 between lower and upper Canada. It is a bill that states that citizens tax money will be given to those who lost property even if part of the rebellion. This bill was instated in 1849, over"
"a period of low economic activity marked by high unemployment. It started at the end of the corn laws, and the ripple affect ended up being the economic depression, even though there were still exports being produced but the product development went down, less and less factories "
"This treaty was a treaty to make the trade of raw materials free between the British colonies, and the US. This was made so that there were no custom tariffs between the British colonies and the US. This boost the Canadian economy because no longer would they have to trade with t"
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-0.028885120... | 2 | "In 1840 the old idea of mercantilism, which had always been good for colonial Canada and was still strong at the time. The economic relationship between the colonies and Britain gave the colonies a significant advantage, so most people wanted to remain under the British rule. Raw"
"to take over a territory and add it to the territory of another county the confederation needed a country to even be a thing, so when the colony of Canada started in 1791 and only grew to become what is now known as Canada. After the confederation, Canada needed to expand its te"
"The rebellion of 1837 was two uprisings in upper and lower Canada. They happened from Dec 7th, 1837 to Dec 4th, 1838. The government in upper and lower Canada was created so that a one council would have more power than the one elected by the people. This basically made Canada an"
"laws that protected architecture in the British empire by limiting the import of grain from other countries. In 1846, the British government repealed the corn laws, which were apart of the navigation acts and gave preferential treatment to British colonies. When the corn laws we"
"This bill was to affect all the people who lost property or money in the rebellion of 1837 between lower and upper Canada. It is a bill that states that citizens tax money will be given to those who lost property even if part of the rebellion. This bill was instated in 1849, over"
"a period of low economic activity marked by high unemployment. It started at the end of the corn laws, and the ripple affect ended up being the economic depression, even though there were still exports being produced but the product development went down, less and less factories "
"This treaty was a treaty to make the trade of raw materials free between the British colonies, and the US. This was made so that there were no custom tariffs between the British colonies and the US. This boost the Canadian economy because no longer would they have to trade with t"
"Canada was in a tight spot during the American civil war. Canada consisting of Colonies and not yet being a true nation couldn’t really do a lot in the American civil war. The Canadian colonies were officially neutral in the matter but despite this, tensions were still high betwe" | 487 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The United States Exploring Expedition, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes, arrived in Port Jackson on 29th November 1839. The Officers and crew soon disembarked to explore the streets of Sydney. The expedition was made welcome and although Captain Wilkes was too busy to undertake any expeditions other than to Parramatta at the invitation of Governor Gipps, other members did manage to investigate further afield. Two young men from the Expedition, Alfred Agate and Horatio Hale made their way to Newcastle and Lake Macquarie where they met with Rev. Lancelot Threlkeld.
Alfred Agate was born in New York in 1812. He was a brilliant artist, capable of drawing landscapes, portraits and scientific illustrations. He created many works of art during his time with the United States Exploring Expedition and was the designated portrait and botanical artist of the expedition. On his visit to Lake Macquarie in 1839 he produced the well known portrait of Biraban. Alfred Agate died of consumption in 1846 aged 34. He was 27 years old on his visit to Lake Macquarie.
Twenty two year old Horatio Hale served as a philologist on the Expedition and became an expert in his field. Hale's volume Ethnography and Philology of the Expedition printed in 1846 is said to have laid the foundations of the ethnography of Polynesia.
Bamboo Kain of the Newcastle Tribe by Alfred T. Agate
Excerpt from Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedtition
'Mr. Hale and Mr. Agate made a jaunt to the Hunter river, and thence to Lake Macquarie, to the establishment of Mr. Threlkeld, the missionary employed among the aborigines.
The passage to Hunter river, a distance of eighty miles to the north of Sydney, is made in a steamer. The boat was small and ill-adapted for the sea.
Leaving Sydney just before dark, they reached Newcastle, at the mouth of the Hunter river, about noon the next day. They, however, had a head wind and much sea to contend against.
Among other accidents, the shipping of a sea caused much fright among the women on board, and threw one poor girl into hysterics. They were all glad to pass within the island of Nobby, off the mouth of Hunter river, and to get on shore at Newcastle.
The town of Newcastle is a small village of seventy or eighty houses, built on the side of a hill; it contains two taverns and several grog-shops, a jail, convict stockade, hospital, court-house, and a venerable old-looking church. On one of the neighbouring hills is a flagstaff, and on another a windmill. The business of a
coal-mine and that of the building of a breakwater for the protection of the harbour, give the place an air of life and animation.
Our travellers put up at (John) Rowell's 'Commercial Hotel;' and on proceeding to make inquiries relative to the mode of reaching Mr. Threlkeld's, they were referred to Dr. Brooks, the surgeon of the hospital, and a friend of Mr. Threlkeld. He offered them every attention, and advised them to wait for Mr. Threlkeld's conveyance. This delay gave them an opportunity of seeing something of the place, and the natives, as well as to make drawings. The view of the surrounding country from the windmill was extensive, overlooking the town; the Hunter river was seen winding through a well-wooded country, rising occasionally into low hills. At a bend of the river the steamer was seen aground, on her way to Maitland, about twenty five miles farther up the river. The coast trended to the north, and was visible as far as
Port Stephens, about fifty miles distant.
There are two coal-pits, one on the hill, the other in the valley. The former is the older, and has been worked about eight years. Both are the property of the Australian Agricultural Company, and are under the direction of Mr. James Steel. The coal is first seen along the cliffs, forming black horizontal strata, separated by sandstone and clay shale, from twenty feet to forty feet in thickness. They formerly quarried it from the cliff, but the greater part of the coal is now obtained by mining.
From the older coal-pit they have excavated an area of twenty-four acres. The shafts are carried down about one hundred feet, to the fifth or lowermost coal-seam, which is about sixty feet below the level of the sea. The coal is at first taken out in small narrow areas, the passages in which are but four feet high, leaving about as much standing as is removed, the roof above being of fragile shale, and requiring propping every three or four feet. The work is all performed by convicts, who, after digging the coal out, take it in small carriages on railways, which pass to the shaft, where it is raised by steam-power. The lower bed only is considered sufficiently extensive and pure to pay for its exploration, and is about three feet thick. The coal is pure, except a layer of one and a half inches of bluish sandstone. It is bituminous, and burns readily, with abundance of flame, somewhat like kennel coal. It is compact, though less so than the best Pittsburg and Liverpool, and is of fair quality, although sometimes impregnated with clay, which causes it to leave a large quantity of ashes.
Pyrites is occasionally disseminated in masses through it. Coal abounds throughout the valley of the Hunter, appearing at the surface in many places.
The average quantity of coal produced is sixty tons a day, which is piled up near the mouth of the pit, and thence sent to the pier on a railway, where it is shipped to Sydney, Van Diemen's Land, and even to the Cape of Good Hope.
The new shaft in the valley is only sixty feet deep, the difference of the two being in the height of the hill.
Marriage of Convicts
Dr. Brooks was formerly superintendent of this station, and gave a droll account of the summary manner in which marriages were concluded with the female convicts. If he saw a man who had just come in from the country with a clean shirt on, he was sure he had come for a wife, and the event always justified his surmise. The man usually intimated his wish with a modest sheepish grin. The fair frail candidates for matrimony were paraded for his inspection, and if he found one whose looks pleased him, he put the plain question at once, 'Will you have me'? He was seldom answered in the negative, for marriage liberates the lady from the restraint she was under. The banns were then announced by the parson for three Sundays, when the lucky swain returned to claim his bride.
From the known licentious and unruly character of the female convicts, it is not to be supposed that these marriages can be very fruitful of happiness; but as both parties had been felons, they are probably as well matched as could be expected.
The greatest difficulty the superintendent of a station has to contend with, is the management of the female convicts.
Newcastle Convict Stockade
Captain Furlong, commandant of the garrison, was kind enough to show the convict stockade; it encloses a prison for the convicts, and a guard-house for the soldiers. The convicts all belong to the irongang, composed here, as at Sydney, of those who have been guilty of some crime in the colony. They were kept constantly in irons, and are employed on the public works. They eat and sleep in the same apartments, and their bed is a blanket on the floor; to guard two hundred convicts, there are seventy soldiers stationed here.
At Dr. Brook's they had the pleasure of meeting with Mr. (Robert )Dawson, the first agent of the Australian Land Company, and the founder of Port Stephens, who is well acquainted with this colony, and has published a popular work in relation to it. He of course possessed much information, and among other opinions seemed to entertain the idea that no free colony can succeed, and that in all cases the first settlers of a new country ought to have the use of slave labour, in order to be successful. He argued that these only had realized fortunes; where they had been left to their own resources they had generally failed, and left it to their successors to reap the advantages of their labour. As evidence of this opinion he contrasted the settlements of New South Wales and Swan River. At the latter establishment it is well known that the first settlers have lost almost every thing, and have struggled with every difficulty, and that they now desire to have the advantages of convict labour. This remark, however, is not true as respects South Australia; and its general accuracy would undoubtedly much depend upon the location.
Remnants of the Newcastle Tribe
In their walks they came across a group of several blacks (natives) seated around a small fire; they were pointed out as the remnant of the tribes which about forty years ago wandered in freedom over the plains of the Hunter and around the borders of Lake Macquarie. Their appearance was wretched in the extreme: emaciated limbs, shapeless bodies, immense heads, deep-set glaring eyes, thickly matted hair, and the whole begrimed with dirt and red paint, gave them an aspect hardly human. The dress (if such it could be called) of the women, was a loose ragged gown, and of the men, a strip of blanket wrapped round the middle, or a pair of tattered pantaloons, which but half performed their office.
Mr. Threlkeld's conveyance did not arrive, and not being able to get another, they determined to walk to Lake Macquarie, and for this purpose they resorted to the natives as guides, and by a great deal of coaxing and promises of bull (grog), their natural repugnance to make an exertion was overcome. An evidence of the pride which characterizes these natives was shown in this interview. One of them, whose sobriquet was Big-headed Blackboy, was stretched out before the fire, and no answer could be obtained from him, but a drawling repetition, in grunts of displeasure, of 'Bel (not) me want to go.' After promises and expostulations enough to overcome all patience, Mr. Hale, tired of his obstinacy and stupidity, touched him slightly with his foot, telling him to get up and listen. He immediately arose, and seizing his spear, which was lying near him, turned his side towards Mr. Hale, and stood looking at him askance, with an expression of demoniac malice, as though he would have run him through with pleasure; but he did not speak a word in reply to all that was said to him.
Newcastle to Lake Macquarie
Friday, 13th December, the morning being chilly, the blacks, who are very susceptible to cold, did not make their appearance till some hours after sunrise. At half-past eight our travellers set out in company with a troop of natives, headed by the two whom they had hired. The first of these was named Jemmy, the best-natured and most intelligent of all; the other was Big-headed Blackboy, who had got over his sulks. Jemmy refused to start until he had received a couple of shillings, which he forthwith converted into a loaf of bread and a bottle of grog. When about a mile from the town he asked permission to take a drink; and a cup of bark was produced from a thicket where it had been hidden, whereupon the contents of the bottle as well as the loaf were shared out among the troop. The two guides took no more than an equal portion; for, according to the custom of the natives, all share alike. The cup was made of a piece of the bark of the ti tree, which resembles that of the birch, about a foot square. The ends were folded in and tied together, to form a cavity of trough-like shape. Such cups are called by them taudé. The path or cart-road they followed, passed through a hilly country covered with forests.
The gum trees were the most prevalent, and many of them were of great size, growing close together without any underwood. The gum tree, of which there are many kinds, is peculiar to New Holland. It has an inner bark of about an inch thick, enclosed by an outer one which is quite thin. The latter is shed every year, which gives their trunks and branches a peculiar appearance of many colours, from pure white, through all the shades of yellow, olive, and red, to a deep brown. These colours, showing through the green foliage, produce a very striking effect on a stranger, and the contrast is heightened by an occasional sight of a black and withered trunk, from which the bark had been stripped by the natives to make canoes, or by settlers to roof their houses.
Ten miles brought them to Lake Macquarie, but on the opposite side to Mr. Threlkeld's house, and they found themselves disappointed in finding a canoe, which they were assured would be met with at a settler's on the banks of the lake. They were thus obliged to walk ten miles further. The guides were here again taken with sullenness, and refused to proceed. They were proof against all promises and abuse, and kept replying, ' Me marry (very) tired, bel (not) me want to go.' Through the kindness of Mr. Warren, the settler referred to, this obstacle was overcome, by his offering to send his son as guide, with a horse to carry the portmanteau. This offer was thankfully accepted.
After proceeding a few miles they came upon a little encampment of natives, crouching around fires in front of their huts, which were as rude as possible, made of a few pieces of bark laid against a stump and covered with bushes; they barely sufficed as a screen to keep off the wind. One of the women was quite good-looking, with large black eyes, white teeth, and small features. She was better dressed, too, than any of the others, and the pretty half-caste child that was clinging to her skirts, made it sufficiently evident in what manner her finery had been obtained. As a part of the lake was said to be fordable, it was determined to take advantage of it, in order to shorten the route. One mounted the horse to pass over. Whilst they were proceeding quietly along, the horse suddenly reared and plunged, relieving himself of his rider and load, which were thrown into water two feet deep, without any further injury than a good ducking, and the disparagement of the wardrobe. It was found that the horse had trodden upon a stingray, which fully accounted for his sudden gambols.
It was sunset when they arrived at Mr. Threlkeld's station, which at first sight appeared like a comfortable farm-house, such as is often seen in our western country. Mr. Threlkeld was found busy attending to his cattle, and gave them a warm and friendly reception, which made them at once feel at home.
As Mr. Threlkeld has occupied a conspicuous place in this colony, it may be well to give a short sketch of his labours in the missionary field, in order to show the progress he has made, and the difficulties he has had to contend with. I do this more readily from the feeling that great injustice has been done him, and that he has suffered much contumely and persecution from those who were too prone to listen to the scandalous reports of interested individuals.
Mr. Threlkeld left England in 1814, as a missionary to the Society Islands; he resided with Mr. Williams, at Raiatea, until 1824, when the death of his wife determined him to pay a visit to England. About this time the inspectors of missionaries, Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet, arrived at the islands, and he took passage with them to Sydney. On their arrival at Sydney, these gentlemen, supposing that a favourable opportunity offered to establish a mission among the Australian aborigines, requested him to take charge of it, which he consented to do. Moreton Bay was at first proposed as the location, but it was afterwards changed to Lake Macquarie, the latter place being a favourite resort of the natives. Ten thousand acres were granted by government to the Missionary Society, in trust for the natives.
The establishment was accordingly begun on this lake, on the opposite side to that now occupied by Mr. Threlkeld, who at once planned his station on the only footing by which he thought a reasonable chance of success would be insured, that of a farming establishment, extensive enough to give employment to the natives, and induce them to settle. Their number, as is usually the case, had been greatly overrated; he soon, however, collected about fifty around him, and began to employ them in felling trees, turning up the ground, and building; at the same time labouring with them himself, in order to obtain such a knowledge of their character, language, habits, etc, as might enable him to become useful on the great subjects of his mission.
The expense of forming such an establishment was far greater than had been anticipated, but was indispensable in a country like New South Wales, where all the necessaries of life, at the commencement of a settlement, have to be purchased. Added to this are the droughts to which they are subject, and the expenses of transportation.
In consequence of the demands made upon them, the directors of the Society became alarmed, and after reproving him severely for his extravagance, finally dishonoured one of his drafts, and refused to pay it until compelled by a lawsuit. This, of course, broke his connexion with the Society, as Mr. Threlkeld was naturally indignant at the undeserved disgrace to which they had subjected him.
The directors offered to pay his passage to England, but this he refused, having determined to carry on the work by his own unassisted efforts.
That he might be independent of any funds of the Society, and to prevent its being said that he had derived any profit from them, he removed in 1828 to the opposite side of the lake (Ebenezer), a position far less advantageous.
After struggling for two years to conduct the mission and maintain his large family, he received a stipend of one hundred and fifty pounds from the government, with the assignment of four convicts. With this assistance he has been able to provide for his family, and devote himself to the instruction of the aborigines; but he has found his means inadequate to keep a number employed about his station, in such a manner as to overcome their natural tendency to a wandering life.
The consequence was, that the blacks, from the attraction held out to them of indulging in drunkenness and other vices, left his neighbourhood to frequent the towns, where they had been rapidly diminishing in number.
Mr. Threlkeld did not find the natives deficient in intelligence; but he has not been able to overcome their aversion to a fixed residence. In proof of this, they abandoned comfortable and substantial huts, which he built for them, after a few days' residence, on the plea that they were infested with vermin.
Frequently, they would all quit him to attend some meeting of their tribe, for war, hunting, or some religious ceremony, and stay away for months.
He laboured in vain against these disadvantages, and it is not difficult to perceive how impossible, under such circumstances, it would be to meet with success in teaching and converting a set of savages, so wedded to their usages.
Rev. Threlkeld's Book of Grammar
Mr. Threlkeld's labours have, however, been turned to some advantage. He has published a grammar, and translated several of the books of the New Testament. His influence has been productive of a better tone of feeling between the blacks and the settlers than prevails elsewhere, and has prevented those outrages which have occurred in other parts of the country. He has been able to render essential service as an interpreter, both to the natives and government, in the courts.
Rev. John Dunmore Lang
A circumstance occurred about two years ago, which was the means of setting Mr. Threlkeld's whole conduct in its true light before the public
The Rev. Dr. Lang, a minister of considerable notoriety in New South Wales, established a newspaper, which was in the habit of holding up and assailing all the abuses in the colony. Among others, he attacked Mr. Threlkeld, accusing him of malversation, unfaithfulness, and incapacity in his trust, and in a style of gross abuse, seconded by vulgar doggerel, gave grounds to the belief that he was actuated by any other than a proper zeal in the cause of missions. After great forbearance, Mr. Threlkeld wrote him a letter of remonstrance, which was at once published in the newspaper, accompanied with insulting comments. Mr. Threlkeld then instituted an action for libel, and obtained a verdict in his favour, which, although the damages were only nominal, is an uncommon thing in New South Wales, when a libel case is submitted to a jury. In the progress of the trial, the merits and sacrifices of the missionary were made apparent, and the faithfulness and diligence with which he had laboured, under so many disadvantages, became well known, for ever silencing the aspersions of his enemies. He had, in consequence, the satisfaction, not long since, of receiving a letter from the directors of the London Missionary Society, expressing their regret that they should have been led into such unjust suspicions and misplaced severity towards him.
Description of Lake Macquarie
Macquarie Lake communicates with the sea by a narrow inlet. Its shape is irregular, having several long narrow bays extending into the land, and from this cause it is in reality much more extensive than it appears. The soil around is sterile, and its principal ingredient is sandstone. The lake is surrounded by the sombre green of the gum trees, and the landscape is uninviting.
Many ant-hills were passed, each appearing to contain a numerous colony of different species of ants. They are of various colours, red, black, gray, and yellow, and of all sizes, from that of minute animalculae, to that of a wasp. Most of them were said to give poisonous bites, and those of the largest kinds had visible stings. Most of the snakes, small as well as large, are venomous to a high degree.
Mr. Threlkeld, like many others in the colony, had convict servants assigned for the use of the station. It is thought almost impossible for a settler to manage his affairs without them, and it is somewhat curious to see a clergyman associated and in daily intercourse with thieves and abandoned felons. There is scarcely a person in comfortable circumstances, who has not derived much of his fortune from their exertions, although not without suffering very much from the constant vexations attendant on such aid. Mr. Threlkeld had hired a family of emigrants as intermediate assistants, but he was doubtful if he had benefited himself by it.
(*Emigrants hired by Rev. Thelkeld in 1839 included Richard Edwards, Abraham Golby and John Reeves)
The difference between the two kinds of servants is great. The convict, on the one hand, is obliged to do the work his master appoints, and in the exact manner he directs; but the master suffers from his vices and dishonesty; and on the other hand, the emigrant is under all his English prejudices: self-willed, and conscious of his superiority over the other servants, he will not be driven, and is hardly to be coaxed into adopting the necessary alterations which the difference of soil and climate requires. Both try, in no small degree, the temper of a settler in New South Wales.
At Mr. Threlkeld's, Mr. Hale saw M'Gill, who was reputed to be one of the most intelligent natives; and his portrait was taken by Mr. Agate.
..Biraban portrait (John McGill) UON Cultural Collections
His physiognomy was much more agreeable than that of the other blacks, being less strongly marked with the peculiarities of his race. He was about the middle size, of a dark chocolate colour, with fine glossy black hair and whiskers, a good forehead, eyes not deeply set, a nose that might be described as aquiline, although depressed and broad at the base. It was very evident that M'Gill was accustomed to teach his native language, for when he was asked the name of any thing, he pronounced the word very distinctly, syllable by syllable, so that it was impossible to mistake it. Though acquainted with the doctrines of Christianity, and all the comforts and advantages of civilization, it was impossible for him to overcome his attachment to the customs of his people, and he is always a prominent leader in the corrobories and other assemblies.
Mr. Threlkeld has a son, who is also engaged in missionary labours near Darling river, about three hundred miles in the interior, and who understands the language. A boy was sent down by the son for the father to take charge of. There was no difference perceived between him and the natives of the Hunter river.
Inquiries for their implements of the chase and warfare, caused M'Gill, King Ben, and Shingleman, to set to work to furbish up their arms, including spears, shields, boomerengs, clubs, etc The natives are seldom seen without arms, for they have not only to fear attacks from other tribes, but assaults from their own. This not unfrequently happens; and it is not long since the brother of King Ben was speared while asleep, for some private grudge, by Dismal; and it is said that Big-headed Blackboy, who has already been introduced to the reader, has committed several murders, and not long since burnt his mother nearly to death, in revenge for the loss of his brother, who died whilst under her care. This was not because he had any suspicions of unfair conduct, but simply from one of the unaccountable customs or superstitions of these people, which holds the nearest relative of a person accountable for his death, if it takes place under his care.
Demise of the Tribes
From the destructive influence of their own vices, and those of the community, these blacks are rapidly dying off. As an instance of this, Mr. Threlkeld mentioned that a tribe which occasionally visited the lake, and consisted at the time of his arrival of sixty, is now reduced, after a lapse of fifteen years, to twenty, only five of whom are females.
During our travellers' stay, two natives of some note arrived: King Ben and King Shingleman. The natives had no distinctions of rank among themselves, but when a native had performed any great service for one of the settlers, he was rewarded by giving him a large oval brass plate, with his royal title inscribed thereon. At first the natives were greatly pleased and proud of this mark of distinction, but as is the case every where, when the novelty was over, and these honorary medals became common, they began to hold them in disrepute, and now prefer the hard silver.
Sheep Shearing at Lake Macquarie
Sheep-shearing is performed in the neighbourhood of Lake Macquarie by men who make it their business. This operation was witnessed by some of our party, and was thought to be performed in a slovenly manner. It generally takes place in November and December.
Journey to the Upper Hunter
Some others of our gentlemen paid a visit to Peuen Beuen, the seat of Mr. Stevens, near the head waters of the Hunter river. The route was by Steamboat to Newcastle and thence to Maitland. The river at Newcastle is about one-third of a mile across, and the distance to Maitland, by water, about thirty miles, although it is only about twenty miles by land. The tide reaches Maitland, where the water is found to be brackish.
The banks of the river are extended flats. This is one of the principal agricultural districts of the colony, the soil enjoying the advantages of being naturally irrigated; but on the other hand, the crops are liable to destruction from heavy floods. These floods frequently occur, when there has been no sign of bad weather on the coast; but storms of rain occur seventy or eighty miles in the interior, which raise the streams thirty or forty feet, doing great damage.
On the way up the Hunter, a steamboat was seen building. The best ship-timber is said to be the flooded gum tree. The steamboat stopped at Green Hill, and they rode to Maitland, about three miles. Maitland is a widely-scattered village, with many neat dwellings, stores, and shops, etc, built of brick and other materials, and much better than could have been anticipated. Near Harper's Hill, a place noted for the fossils which have been found there, a chain-gang was seen at work on the road, with their attendant guard. They were generally young and hearty-looking men.
Some natives were passed who were quite naked, but they did not attempt to approach. There are no wild tribes in this vicinity. These poor creatures are becoming rapidly exterminated by the whites, who are not over-scrupulous as to the means. The natives have now and then committed a murder, but in general they are more sinned against than sinning. It is remarkable that they do not complain of their lands being taken from them, but confine their lamentations to the destruction of the kangaroos by the whites; and they think it very hard that they should be punished for killing the white man's kangaroo, (a sheep or a bullock.)' | <urn:uuid:307b8406-6811-4221-89a9-0820526409a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jenwilletts.com/united_states_expedition.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00263.warc.gz | en | 0.987712 | 6,351 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | The United States Exploring Expedition, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes, arrived in Port Jackson on 29th November 1839. The Officers and crew soon disembarked to explore the streets of Sydney. The expedition was made welcome and although Captain Wilkes was too busy to undertake any expeditions other than to Parramatta at the invitation of Governor Gipps, other members did manage to investigate further afield. Two young men from the Expedition, Alfred Agate and Horatio Hale made their way to Newcastle and Lake Macquarie where they met with Rev. Lancelot Threlkeld.
Alfred Agate was born in New York in 1812. He was a brilliant artist, capable of drawing landscapes, portraits and scientific illustrations. He created many works of art during his time with the United States Exploring Expedition and was the designated portrait and botanical artist of the expedition. On his visit to Lake Macquarie in 1839 he produced the well known portrait of Biraban. Alfred Agate died of consumption in 1846 aged 34. He was 27 years old on his visit to Lake Macquarie.
Twenty two year old Horatio Hale served as a philologist on the Expedition and became an expert in his field. Hale's volume Ethnography and Philology of the Expedition printed in 1846 is said to have laid the foundations of the ethnography of Polynesia.
Bamboo Kain of the Newcastle Tribe by Alfred T. Agate
Excerpt from Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedtition
'Mr. Hale and Mr. Agate made a jaunt to the Hunter river, and thence to Lake Macquarie, to the establishment of Mr. Threlkeld, the missionary employed among the aborigines.
The passage to Hunter river, a distance of eighty miles to the north of Sydney, is made in a steamer. The boat was small and ill-adapted for the sea.
Leaving Sydney just before dark, they reached Newcastle, at the mouth of the Hunter river, about noon the next day. They, however, had a head wind and much sea to contend against.
Among other accidents, the shipping of a sea caused much fright among the women on board, and threw one poor girl into hysterics. They were all glad to pass within the island of Nobby, off the mouth of Hunter river, and to get on shore at Newcastle.
The town of Newcastle is a small village of seventy or eighty houses, built on the side of a hill; it contains two taverns and several grog-shops, a jail, convict stockade, hospital, court-house, and a venerable old-looking church. On one of the neighbouring hills is a flagstaff, and on another a windmill. The business of a
coal-mine and that of the building of a breakwater for the protection of the harbour, give the place an air of life and animation.
Our travellers put up at (John) Rowell's 'Commercial Hotel;' and on proceeding to make inquiries relative to the mode of reaching Mr. Threlkeld's, they were referred to Dr. Brooks, the surgeon of the hospital, and a friend of Mr. Threlkeld. He offered them every attention, and advised them to wait for Mr. Threlkeld's conveyance. This delay gave them an opportunity of seeing something of the place, and the natives, as well as to make drawings. The view of the surrounding country from the windmill was extensive, overlooking the town; the Hunter river was seen winding through a well-wooded country, rising occasionally into low hills. At a bend of the river the steamer was seen aground, on her way to Maitland, about twenty five miles farther up the river. The coast trended to the north, and was visible as far as
Port Stephens, about fifty miles distant.
There are two coal-pits, one on the hill, the other in the valley. The former is the older, and has been worked about eight years. Both are the property of the Australian Agricultural Company, and are under the direction of Mr. James Steel. The coal is first seen along the cliffs, forming black horizontal strata, separated by sandstone and clay shale, from twenty feet to forty feet in thickness. They formerly quarried it from the cliff, but the greater part of the coal is now obtained by mining.
From the older coal-pit they have excavated an area of twenty-four acres. The shafts are carried down about one hundred feet, to the fifth or lowermost coal-seam, which is about sixty feet below the level of the sea. The coal is at first taken out in small narrow areas, the passages in which are but four feet high, leaving about as much standing as is removed, the roof above being of fragile shale, and requiring propping every three or four feet. The work is all performed by convicts, who, after digging the coal out, take it in small carriages on railways, which pass to the shaft, where it is raised by steam-power. The lower bed only is considered sufficiently extensive and pure to pay for its exploration, and is about three feet thick. The coal is pure, except a layer of one and a half inches of bluish sandstone. It is bituminous, and burns readily, with abundance of flame, somewhat like kennel coal. It is compact, though less so than the best Pittsburg and Liverpool, and is of fair quality, although sometimes impregnated with clay, which causes it to leave a large quantity of ashes.
Pyrites is occasionally disseminated in masses through it. Coal abounds throughout the valley of the Hunter, appearing at the surface in many places.
The average quantity of coal produced is sixty tons a day, which is piled up near the mouth of the pit, and thence sent to the pier on a railway, where it is shipped to Sydney, Van Diemen's Land, and even to the Cape of Good Hope.
The new shaft in the valley is only sixty feet deep, the difference of the two being in the height of the hill.
Marriage of Convicts
Dr. Brooks was formerly superintendent of this station, and gave a droll account of the summary manner in which marriages were concluded with the female convicts. If he saw a man who had just come in from the country with a clean shirt on, he was sure he had come for a wife, and the event always justified his surmise. The man usually intimated his wish with a modest sheepish grin. The fair frail candidates for matrimony were paraded for his inspection, and if he found one whose looks pleased him, he put the plain question at once, 'Will you have me'? He was seldom answered in the negative, for marriage liberates the lady from the restraint she was under. The banns were then announced by the parson for three Sundays, when the lucky swain returned to claim his bride.
From the known licentious and unruly character of the female convicts, it is not to be supposed that these marriages can be very fruitful of happiness; but as both parties had been felons, they are probably as well matched as could be expected.
The greatest difficulty the superintendent of a station has to contend with, is the management of the female convicts.
Newcastle Convict Stockade
Captain Furlong, commandant of the garrison, was kind enough to show the convict stockade; it encloses a prison for the convicts, and a guard-house for the soldiers. The convicts all belong to the irongang, composed here, as at Sydney, of those who have been guilty of some crime in the colony. They were kept constantly in irons, and are employed on the public works. They eat and sleep in the same apartments, and their bed is a blanket on the floor; to guard two hundred convicts, there are seventy soldiers stationed here.
At Dr. Brook's they had the pleasure of meeting with Mr. (Robert )Dawson, the first agent of the Australian Land Company, and the founder of Port Stephens, who is well acquainted with this colony, and has published a popular work in relation to it. He of course possessed much information, and among other opinions seemed to entertain the idea that no free colony can succeed, and that in all cases the first settlers of a new country ought to have the use of slave labour, in order to be successful. He argued that these only had realized fortunes; where they had been left to their own resources they had generally failed, and left it to their successors to reap the advantages of their labour. As evidence of this opinion he contrasted the settlements of New South Wales and Swan River. At the latter establishment it is well known that the first settlers have lost almost every thing, and have struggled with every difficulty, and that they now desire to have the advantages of convict labour. This remark, however, is not true as respects South Australia; and its general accuracy would undoubtedly much depend upon the location.
Remnants of the Newcastle Tribe
In their walks they came across a group of several blacks (natives) seated around a small fire; they were pointed out as the remnant of the tribes which about forty years ago wandered in freedom over the plains of the Hunter and around the borders of Lake Macquarie. Their appearance was wretched in the extreme: emaciated limbs, shapeless bodies, immense heads, deep-set glaring eyes, thickly matted hair, and the whole begrimed with dirt and red paint, gave them an aspect hardly human. The dress (if such it could be called) of the women, was a loose ragged gown, and of the men, a strip of blanket wrapped round the middle, or a pair of tattered pantaloons, which but half performed their office.
Mr. Threlkeld's conveyance did not arrive, and not being able to get another, they determined to walk to Lake Macquarie, and for this purpose they resorted to the natives as guides, and by a great deal of coaxing and promises of bull (grog), their natural repugnance to make an exertion was overcome. An evidence of the pride which characterizes these natives was shown in this interview. One of them, whose sobriquet was Big-headed Blackboy, was stretched out before the fire, and no answer could be obtained from him, but a drawling repetition, in grunts of displeasure, of 'Bel (not) me want to go.' After promises and expostulations enough to overcome all patience, Mr. Hale, tired of his obstinacy and stupidity, touched him slightly with his foot, telling him to get up and listen. He immediately arose, and seizing his spear, which was lying near him, turned his side towards Mr. Hale, and stood looking at him askance, with an expression of demoniac malice, as though he would have run him through with pleasure; but he did not speak a word in reply to all that was said to him.
Newcastle to Lake Macquarie
Friday, 13th December, the morning being chilly, the blacks, who are very susceptible to cold, did not make their appearance till some hours after sunrise. At half-past eight our travellers set out in company with a troop of natives, headed by the two whom they had hired. The first of these was named Jemmy, the best-natured and most intelligent of all; the other was Big-headed Blackboy, who had got over his sulks. Jemmy refused to start until he had received a couple of shillings, which he forthwith converted into a loaf of bread and a bottle of grog. When about a mile from the town he asked permission to take a drink; and a cup of bark was produced from a thicket where it had been hidden, whereupon the contents of the bottle as well as the loaf were shared out among the troop. The two guides took no more than an equal portion; for, according to the custom of the natives, all share alike. The cup was made of a piece of the bark of the ti tree, which resembles that of the birch, about a foot square. The ends were folded in and tied together, to form a cavity of trough-like shape. Such cups are called by them taudé. The path or cart-road they followed, passed through a hilly country covered with forests.
The gum trees were the most prevalent, and many of them were of great size, growing close together without any underwood. The gum tree, of which there are many kinds, is peculiar to New Holland. It has an inner bark of about an inch thick, enclosed by an outer one which is quite thin. The latter is shed every year, which gives their trunks and branches a peculiar appearance of many colours, from pure white, through all the shades of yellow, olive, and red, to a deep brown. These colours, showing through the green foliage, produce a very striking effect on a stranger, and the contrast is heightened by an occasional sight of a black and withered trunk, from which the bark had been stripped by the natives to make canoes, or by settlers to roof their houses.
Ten miles brought them to Lake Macquarie, but on the opposite side to Mr. Threlkeld's house, and they found themselves disappointed in finding a canoe, which they were assured would be met with at a settler's on the banks of the lake. They were thus obliged to walk ten miles further. The guides were here again taken with sullenness, and refused to proceed. They were proof against all promises and abuse, and kept replying, ' Me marry (very) tired, bel (not) me want to go.' Through the kindness of Mr. Warren, the settler referred to, this obstacle was overcome, by his offering to send his son as guide, with a horse to carry the portmanteau. This offer was thankfully accepted.
After proceeding a few miles they came upon a little encampment of natives, crouching around fires in front of their huts, which were as rude as possible, made of a few pieces of bark laid against a stump and covered with bushes; they barely sufficed as a screen to keep off the wind. One of the women was quite good-looking, with large black eyes, white teeth, and small features. She was better dressed, too, than any of the others, and the pretty half-caste child that was clinging to her skirts, made it sufficiently evident in what manner her finery had been obtained. As a part of the lake was said to be fordable, it was determined to take advantage of it, in order to shorten the route. One mounted the horse to pass over. Whilst they were proceeding quietly along, the horse suddenly reared and plunged, relieving himself of his rider and load, which were thrown into water two feet deep, without any further injury than a good ducking, and the disparagement of the wardrobe. It was found that the horse had trodden upon a stingray, which fully accounted for his sudden gambols.
It was sunset when they arrived at Mr. Threlkeld's station, which at first sight appeared like a comfortable farm-house, such as is often seen in our western country. Mr. Threlkeld was found busy attending to his cattle, and gave them a warm and friendly reception, which made them at once feel at home.
As Mr. Threlkeld has occupied a conspicuous place in this colony, it may be well to give a short sketch of his labours in the missionary field, in order to show the progress he has made, and the difficulties he has had to contend with. I do this more readily from the feeling that great injustice has been done him, and that he has suffered much contumely and persecution from those who were too prone to listen to the scandalous reports of interested individuals.
Mr. Threlkeld left England in 1814, as a missionary to the Society Islands; he resided with Mr. Williams, at Raiatea, until 1824, when the death of his wife determined him to pay a visit to England. About this time the inspectors of missionaries, Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet, arrived at the islands, and he took passage with them to Sydney. On their arrival at Sydney, these gentlemen, supposing that a favourable opportunity offered to establish a mission among the Australian aborigines, requested him to take charge of it, which he consented to do. Moreton Bay was at first proposed as the location, but it was afterwards changed to Lake Macquarie, the latter place being a favourite resort of the natives. Ten thousand acres were granted by government to the Missionary Society, in trust for the natives.
The establishment was accordingly begun on this lake, on the opposite side to that now occupied by Mr. Threlkeld, who at once planned his station on the only footing by which he thought a reasonable chance of success would be insured, that of a farming establishment, extensive enough to give employment to the natives, and induce them to settle. Their number, as is usually the case, had been greatly overrated; he soon, however, collected about fifty around him, and began to employ them in felling trees, turning up the ground, and building; at the same time labouring with them himself, in order to obtain such a knowledge of their character, language, habits, etc, as might enable him to become useful on the great subjects of his mission.
The expense of forming such an establishment was far greater than had been anticipated, but was indispensable in a country like New South Wales, where all the necessaries of life, at the commencement of a settlement, have to be purchased. Added to this are the droughts to which they are subject, and the expenses of transportation.
In consequence of the demands made upon them, the directors of the Society became alarmed, and after reproving him severely for his extravagance, finally dishonoured one of his drafts, and refused to pay it until compelled by a lawsuit. This, of course, broke his connexion with the Society, as Mr. Threlkeld was naturally indignant at the undeserved disgrace to which they had subjected him.
The directors offered to pay his passage to England, but this he refused, having determined to carry on the work by his own unassisted efforts.
That he might be independent of any funds of the Society, and to prevent its being said that he had derived any profit from them, he removed in 1828 to the opposite side of the lake (Ebenezer), a position far less advantageous.
After struggling for two years to conduct the mission and maintain his large family, he received a stipend of one hundred and fifty pounds from the government, with the assignment of four convicts. With this assistance he has been able to provide for his family, and devote himself to the instruction of the aborigines; but he has found his means inadequate to keep a number employed about his station, in such a manner as to overcome their natural tendency to a wandering life.
The consequence was, that the blacks, from the attraction held out to them of indulging in drunkenness and other vices, left his neighbourhood to frequent the towns, where they had been rapidly diminishing in number.
Mr. Threlkeld did not find the natives deficient in intelligence; but he has not been able to overcome their aversion to a fixed residence. In proof of this, they abandoned comfortable and substantial huts, which he built for them, after a few days' residence, on the plea that they were infested with vermin.
Frequently, they would all quit him to attend some meeting of their tribe, for war, hunting, or some religious ceremony, and stay away for months.
He laboured in vain against these disadvantages, and it is not difficult to perceive how impossible, under such circumstances, it would be to meet with success in teaching and converting a set of savages, so wedded to their usages.
Rev. Threlkeld's Book of Grammar
Mr. Threlkeld's labours have, however, been turned to some advantage. He has published a grammar, and translated several of the books of the New Testament. His influence has been productive of a better tone of feeling between the blacks and the settlers than prevails elsewhere, and has prevented those outrages which have occurred in other parts of the country. He has been able to render essential service as an interpreter, both to the natives and government, in the courts.
Rev. John Dunmore Lang
A circumstance occurred about two years ago, which was the means of setting Mr. Threlkeld's whole conduct in its true light before the public
The Rev. Dr. Lang, a minister of considerable notoriety in New South Wales, established a newspaper, which was in the habit of holding up and assailing all the abuses in the colony. Among others, he attacked Mr. Threlkeld, accusing him of malversation, unfaithfulness, and incapacity in his trust, and in a style of gross abuse, seconded by vulgar doggerel, gave grounds to the belief that he was actuated by any other than a proper zeal in the cause of missions. After great forbearance, Mr. Threlkeld wrote him a letter of remonstrance, which was at once published in the newspaper, accompanied with insulting comments. Mr. Threlkeld then instituted an action for libel, and obtained a verdict in his favour, which, although the damages were only nominal, is an uncommon thing in New South Wales, when a libel case is submitted to a jury. In the progress of the trial, the merits and sacrifices of the missionary were made apparent, and the faithfulness and diligence with which he had laboured, under so many disadvantages, became well known, for ever silencing the aspersions of his enemies. He had, in consequence, the satisfaction, not long since, of receiving a letter from the directors of the London Missionary Society, expressing their regret that they should have been led into such unjust suspicions and misplaced severity towards him.
Description of Lake Macquarie
Macquarie Lake communicates with the sea by a narrow inlet. Its shape is irregular, having several long narrow bays extending into the land, and from this cause it is in reality much more extensive than it appears. The soil around is sterile, and its principal ingredient is sandstone. The lake is surrounded by the sombre green of the gum trees, and the landscape is uninviting.
Many ant-hills were passed, each appearing to contain a numerous colony of different species of ants. They are of various colours, red, black, gray, and yellow, and of all sizes, from that of minute animalculae, to that of a wasp. Most of them were said to give poisonous bites, and those of the largest kinds had visible stings. Most of the snakes, small as well as large, are venomous to a high degree.
Mr. Threlkeld, like many others in the colony, had convict servants assigned for the use of the station. It is thought almost impossible for a settler to manage his affairs without them, and it is somewhat curious to see a clergyman associated and in daily intercourse with thieves and abandoned felons. There is scarcely a person in comfortable circumstances, who has not derived much of his fortune from their exertions, although not without suffering very much from the constant vexations attendant on such aid. Mr. Threlkeld had hired a family of emigrants as intermediate assistants, but he was doubtful if he had benefited himself by it.
(*Emigrants hired by Rev. Thelkeld in 1839 included Richard Edwards, Abraham Golby and John Reeves)
The difference between the two kinds of servants is great. The convict, on the one hand, is obliged to do the work his master appoints, and in the exact manner he directs; but the master suffers from his vices and dishonesty; and on the other hand, the emigrant is under all his English prejudices: self-willed, and conscious of his superiority over the other servants, he will not be driven, and is hardly to be coaxed into adopting the necessary alterations which the difference of soil and climate requires. Both try, in no small degree, the temper of a settler in New South Wales.
At Mr. Threlkeld's, Mr. Hale saw M'Gill, who was reputed to be one of the most intelligent natives; and his portrait was taken by Mr. Agate.
..Biraban portrait (John McGill) UON Cultural Collections
His physiognomy was much more agreeable than that of the other blacks, being less strongly marked with the peculiarities of his race. He was about the middle size, of a dark chocolate colour, with fine glossy black hair and whiskers, a good forehead, eyes not deeply set, a nose that might be described as aquiline, although depressed and broad at the base. It was very evident that M'Gill was accustomed to teach his native language, for when he was asked the name of any thing, he pronounced the word very distinctly, syllable by syllable, so that it was impossible to mistake it. Though acquainted with the doctrines of Christianity, and all the comforts and advantages of civilization, it was impossible for him to overcome his attachment to the customs of his people, and he is always a prominent leader in the corrobories and other assemblies.
Mr. Threlkeld has a son, who is also engaged in missionary labours near Darling river, about three hundred miles in the interior, and who understands the language. A boy was sent down by the son for the father to take charge of. There was no difference perceived between him and the natives of the Hunter river.
Inquiries for their implements of the chase and warfare, caused M'Gill, King Ben, and Shingleman, to set to work to furbish up their arms, including spears, shields, boomerengs, clubs, etc The natives are seldom seen without arms, for they have not only to fear attacks from other tribes, but assaults from their own. This not unfrequently happens; and it is not long since the brother of King Ben was speared while asleep, for some private grudge, by Dismal; and it is said that Big-headed Blackboy, who has already been introduced to the reader, has committed several murders, and not long since burnt his mother nearly to death, in revenge for the loss of his brother, who died whilst under her care. This was not because he had any suspicions of unfair conduct, but simply from one of the unaccountable customs or superstitions of these people, which holds the nearest relative of a person accountable for his death, if it takes place under his care.
Demise of the Tribes
From the destructive influence of their own vices, and those of the community, these blacks are rapidly dying off. As an instance of this, Mr. Threlkeld mentioned that a tribe which occasionally visited the lake, and consisted at the time of his arrival of sixty, is now reduced, after a lapse of fifteen years, to twenty, only five of whom are females.
During our travellers' stay, two natives of some note arrived: King Ben and King Shingleman. The natives had no distinctions of rank among themselves, but when a native had performed any great service for one of the settlers, he was rewarded by giving him a large oval brass plate, with his royal title inscribed thereon. At first the natives were greatly pleased and proud of this mark of distinction, but as is the case every where, when the novelty was over, and these honorary medals became common, they began to hold them in disrepute, and now prefer the hard silver.
Sheep Shearing at Lake Macquarie
Sheep-shearing is performed in the neighbourhood of Lake Macquarie by men who make it their business. This operation was witnessed by some of our party, and was thought to be performed in a slovenly manner. It generally takes place in November and December.
Journey to the Upper Hunter
Some others of our gentlemen paid a visit to Peuen Beuen, the seat of Mr. Stevens, near the head waters of the Hunter river. The route was by Steamboat to Newcastle and thence to Maitland. The river at Newcastle is about one-third of a mile across, and the distance to Maitland, by water, about thirty miles, although it is only about twenty miles by land. The tide reaches Maitland, where the water is found to be brackish.
The banks of the river are extended flats. This is one of the principal agricultural districts of the colony, the soil enjoying the advantages of being naturally irrigated; but on the other hand, the crops are liable to destruction from heavy floods. These floods frequently occur, when there has been no sign of bad weather on the coast; but storms of rain occur seventy or eighty miles in the interior, which raise the streams thirty or forty feet, doing great damage.
On the way up the Hunter, a steamboat was seen building. The best ship-timber is said to be the flooded gum tree. The steamboat stopped at Green Hill, and they rode to Maitland, about three miles. Maitland is a widely-scattered village, with many neat dwellings, stores, and shops, etc, built of brick and other materials, and much better than could have been anticipated. Near Harper's Hill, a place noted for the fossils which have been found there, a chain-gang was seen at work on the road, with their attendant guard. They were generally young and hearty-looking men.
Some natives were passed who were quite naked, but they did not attempt to approach. There are no wild tribes in this vicinity. These poor creatures are becoming rapidly exterminated by the whites, who are not over-scrupulous as to the means. The natives have now and then committed a murder, but in general they are more sinned against than sinning. It is remarkable that they do not complain of their lands being taken from them, but confine their lamentations to the destruction of the kangaroos by the whites; and they think it very hard that they should be punished for killing the white man's kangaroo, (a sheep or a bullock.)' | 6,314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Khrushchev was the first Soviet leader who tried to humanise the Soviet Union. This huge monolithic state that represented tyranny and state control had been created by Stalin and though Stalin himself brought Khrushchev into his inner circle, it was Khrushchev who later rejected the brutality of the Soviet State.
Khrushchev openly criticised the Stalin era and began a new, more open era of government. Alarm bells had begun to ring in the Kremlin though and by 1964 Khrushchev’s colleagues were not so happy with what he was doing. Brezhnev organised the removal of Khrushchev and soon had taken the top spot for himself.
Brezhnev remained in power till his old age and when he died in 1982 a group of old men successively took over, Andropov 1982-84, then Chernenko 1984-85 and then in 1985 came a younger man, Mikhail Gorbachev.
Gorbachev felt reforms were necessary and began two initiatives, Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost (Openness). He dealt with the issues of war in Afghanistan and the nuclear disaster of Chernobyl. His determination to bring in elected bodies such as the Congress of People’s Deputies and further democratisation of the Soviet Union seemed only to undermine his position. He once dismissed Boris Yeltsin from the Communist party but was forced to deal with him again when he was elected President of Russia.
In 1991 an attempted coup by Communist hard liners failed but this seemed to give the political impetus to Yeltsin. Yetsin banned the Communist party that had once rejected him and soon the Soviet Union collapsed underneath Gorbachev. He gave a television address to announce that the Soviet Union would formally end at midnight on 31st December, 1991.
In retirement Gorbachev created the Gorbachev Foundation with the aims of publishing material on the history of Perestroika and of presenting his ideas and philosophy to the world. Ironically, although Gorbachev was revered outside of the Soviet Union, within the country his fellow citizens accused him of destroying the economy as well as the communist party.
No longer President, Gorbachev needed money to maintain his foundation and his family and so he undertook to begin lecture tours, charging large amounts of money. He began to suffer the same fate as many of his fellow former soviet citizens, his pension, 4000 roubles per month, given him by the Russian Federation, was not index linked to inflation and by 1994 his pension cheque was worth very little.
The Foundation began to struggle and even the lecture fees were not enough to pay bills and staff wages. In order to stay in Russia Gorbachev needed money, much more money.
McDonald’s opened in Moscow in 1990 and in that same year Pizza Hut opened its Moscow doors. By 1997, Pizza Hut’s international arm was looking for new ways of reaching out to the public. It wanted a global campaign that would play in any country in the world.
What about a TV ad using Mikhail Gorbachev?
Pizza Hut’s advertising people approached Gorbachev but the negotiations took months. Partly, this represented a negotiating tactic: The longer the negotiations drew out, the higher Gorbachev’s talent fee would be. But it also represented real hesitation on Gorbachev’s part.
However it happened, the core idea of the ad remained stable throughout the long process of negotiating and filming it. It would not focus on Gorbachev but on an ordinary Russian family eating at Pizza Hut. It would be shot on location, featuring as many visual references to Russia as possible.
Gorbachev finally assented but with conditions. First, he would have final approval over the script. That was acceptable. Second, he would not eat pizza on film. That disappointed Pizza Hut.
Gorbachev held firm.
A compromise was suggested: A family member would appear in the spot instead. Gorbachev’s granddaughter Anastasia Virganskaya ended up eating the slice. Pizza Hut accepted.
The advertising concept exploited the shock value of having a former world leader appear. But the ad also played on the fact that Gorbachev was far more popular outside Russia than inside it.
Either way, the former leader of the Soviet Union would be advertising pizza. Gorbachev had lost his presidency and in a sense his country, after all the Soviet Union was gone, replaced by the Russian Federation. I wonder if Gorbachev ever thought for a moment about Nicholas II, another man forced to resign his country’s leadership. Perhaps, perhaps not.
Khrushchev ended his days living in a small dacha in Moscow constantly spied on by the KGB. He wrote his memoirs and they were smuggled out to the west although Khrushchev was forced to deny sending them to a western publisher. He died in 1971.
Gorbachev reportedly received a million dollars for the promotion. The badly needed funds enabled him to pay his staff and continue working for reform in Russia. | <urn:uuid:6ad4cd6d-41a8-4549-a9ac-31298946c649> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://stevehigginslive.com/tag/youtube/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00503.warc.gz | en | 0.988234 | 1,042 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.506783723831176... | 18 | Khrushchev was the first Soviet leader who tried to humanise the Soviet Union. This huge monolithic state that represented tyranny and state control had been created by Stalin and though Stalin himself brought Khrushchev into his inner circle, it was Khrushchev who later rejected the brutality of the Soviet State.
Khrushchev openly criticised the Stalin era and began a new, more open era of government. Alarm bells had begun to ring in the Kremlin though and by 1964 Khrushchev’s colleagues were not so happy with what he was doing. Brezhnev organised the removal of Khrushchev and soon had taken the top spot for himself.
Brezhnev remained in power till his old age and when he died in 1982 a group of old men successively took over, Andropov 1982-84, then Chernenko 1984-85 and then in 1985 came a younger man, Mikhail Gorbachev.
Gorbachev felt reforms were necessary and began two initiatives, Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost (Openness). He dealt with the issues of war in Afghanistan and the nuclear disaster of Chernobyl. His determination to bring in elected bodies such as the Congress of People’s Deputies and further democratisation of the Soviet Union seemed only to undermine his position. He once dismissed Boris Yeltsin from the Communist party but was forced to deal with him again when he was elected President of Russia.
In 1991 an attempted coup by Communist hard liners failed but this seemed to give the political impetus to Yeltsin. Yetsin banned the Communist party that had once rejected him and soon the Soviet Union collapsed underneath Gorbachev. He gave a television address to announce that the Soviet Union would formally end at midnight on 31st December, 1991.
In retirement Gorbachev created the Gorbachev Foundation with the aims of publishing material on the history of Perestroika and of presenting his ideas and philosophy to the world. Ironically, although Gorbachev was revered outside of the Soviet Union, within the country his fellow citizens accused him of destroying the economy as well as the communist party.
No longer President, Gorbachev needed money to maintain his foundation and his family and so he undertook to begin lecture tours, charging large amounts of money. He began to suffer the same fate as many of his fellow former soviet citizens, his pension, 4000 roubles per month, given him by the Russian Federation, was not index linked to inflation and by 1994 his pension cheque was worth very little.
The Foundation began to struggle and even the lecture fees were not enough to pay bills and staff wages. In order to stay in Russia Gorbachev needed money, much more money.
McDonald’s opened in Moscow in 1990 and in that same year Pizza Hut opened its Moscow doors. By 1997, Pizza Hut’s international arm was looking for new ways of reaching out to the public. It wanted a global campaign that would play in any country in the world.
What about a TV ad using Mikhail Gorbachev?
Pizza Hut’s advertising people approached Gorbachev but the negotiations took months. Partly, this represented a negotiating tactic: The longer the negotiations drew out, the higher Gorbachev’s talent fee would be. But it also represented real hesitation on Gorbachev’s part.
However it happened, the core idea of the ad remained stable throughout the long process of negotiating and filming it. It would not focus on Gorbachev but on an ordinary Russian family eating at Pizza Hut. It would be shot on location, featuring as many visual references to Russia as possible.
Gorbachev finally assented but with conditions. First, he would have final approval over the script. That was acceptable. Second, he would not eat pizza on film. That disappointed Pizza Hut.
Gorbachev held firm.
A compromise was suggested: A family member would appear in the spot instead. Gorbachev’s granddaughter Anastasia Virganskaya ended up eating the slice. Pizza Hut accepted.
The advertising concept exploited the shock value of having a former world leader appear. But the ad also played on the fact that Gorbachev was far more popular outside Russia than inside it.
Either way, the former leader of the Soviet Union would be advertising pizza. Gorbachev had lost his presidency and in a sense his country, after all the Soviet Union was gone, replaced by the Russian Federation. I wonder if Gorbachev ever thought for a moment about Nicholas II, another man forced to resign his country’s leadership. Perhaps, perhaps not.
Khrushchev ended his days living in a small dacha in Moscow constantly spied on by the KGB. He wrote his memoirs and they were smuggled out to the west although Khrushchev was forced to deny sending them to a western publisher. He died in 1971.
Gorbachev reportedly received a million dollars for the promotion. The badly needed funds enabled him to pay his staff and continue working for reform in Russia. | 1,088 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In government, Queen Elizabeth I was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was
“video et taceo”
(“I see but say nothing”)
In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570 and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers’ secret service. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. England’s defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. Elizabeth’s reign became known as the Elizabethan era. The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, who enjoyed more than her share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer and a dogged survivor in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity.
The portrait was made to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (depicted in the background). | <urn:uuid:93f89075-f3ff-43a6-b594-ef13e7ce8ca0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bidoonism.com/people/political-figures/queen-elizabeth-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.980581 | 413 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.25412121415138... | 10 | In government, Queen Elizabeth I was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was
“video et taceo”
(“I see but say nothing”)
In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570 and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers’ secret service. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. England’s defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. Elizabeth’s reign became known as the Elizabethan era. The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, who enjoyed more than her share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer and a dogged survivor in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity.
The portrait was made to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (depicted in the background). | 412 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cleopatra was a ruler of Egypt’s Ptolemaic Kingdom and was also considered to be a Pharaoh. She was born on early 69 BC at Alexandria and ruled for 21 years from 51 BC to 30 BC. She used to speak in the Koine Greek language and her legacy can be found mostly in the Roman historiography and Latin poetry and she has been a subject of different works in Renaissance and Baroque Art.
One of the most famous topics of discussion among historians has been the mystery behind the death of Cleopatra. Cleopatra died at the age of 39 during 30 BC but there are different stories and accounts found about the actual reasons behind her death. One of them has been her suicide. A large number of Greek and Roman historians say that she intentionally made an Egyptian cobra called asp to bite her and some are of the opinion that she poisoned herself with a toxic ointment.
The debate of her suicide has been a topic among the scholars from decades. Some academics have said that Octavian who was the political rival of Cleopatra forced her and her husband, Mark Antony to commit suicide by stabbing themselves with a sword and both of them were buried together. However, apart from all these, Olympus, who was the personal physician of Cleopatra completely disagree with the fact that an Egyptian cobra led to her death and on the opposite, Plutarch says that the cobra was in a basket of figs and Cleopatra used a hairpin to scratch open her skin and inject the toxin into her body. Roman physician Galen is of the opinion that the snake venom was brought in a container and she bit her arm to introduce the toxin in her body. The artistic depictions in various historical sites clearly shows small snakes biting her and this clearly doesn’t prove the accuracy of the story.
William Maloney, who is a Clinical Associate Professor at New York University has said that though the weight of Egyptian cobra is very less, its venom is too powerful to kill a human being. Another professor named Robert A. Gurval has said that although 15 – 20 mg of neurotoxin is harmful for human beings, the bite of an Egyptian cobra is not powerful enough to kill someone in a few seconds and normally, a human being can survive up to a few hours in such cases.
Two other professors, namely, Gregory Tsoucalas and Markos Sgantzos claim that the poisoning of Cleopatra was ordered by Octavian himself and its details were covered up by the Roman authorities. Some of them are also of the opinion that maybe Octavian gave Cleopatra a choice of how she would like to die and this led to her suicide. François Peter Retief says that the snake was not small enough to fit into a basket of figs.
Cleopatra had planned an exile for her son Caesarion to Nubia, Ethiopia or India during her final days though he was executed on Octavian’s orders following the advice of Alexandrian Greek philosopher Arius Didymus. Her death ended the war between Antony and Octavian and was also one of the main reasons behind the decline of Ptolemaic rule thereby leading to the beginning of Roman Empire. Egypt became a province of Roman Empire and Octavian, who was renamed Augustus became the first Roman Emperor. Cleopatra’s three children were spared and sent to Rome. The accounts of Caesarion reigning for a small period of time was used as an element of fiction to explain the gap between the death of Cleopatra and the crowning of Octavian as the Pharaoh. | <urn:uuid:a4e4d82b-d5a1-4dfe-80b1-71350d429114> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.procaffenation.com/cleopatra-and-her-dramatic-death-jeeta-neog/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.98644 | 746 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Cleopatra was a ruler of Egypt’s Ptolemaic Kingdom and was also considered to be a Pharaoh. She was born on early 69 BC at Alexandria and ruled for 21 years from 51 BC to 30 BC. She used to speak in the Koine Greek language and her legacy can be found mostly in the Roman historiography and Latin poetry and she has been a subject of different works in Renaissance and Baroque Art.
One of the most famous topics of discussion among historians has been the mystery behind the death of Cleopatra. Cleopatra died at the age of 39 during 30 BC but there are different stories and accounts found about the actual reasons behind her death. One of them has been her suicide. A large number of Greek and Roman historians say that she intentionally made an Egyptian cobra called asp to bite her and some are of the opinion that she poisoned herself with a toxic ointment.
The debate of her suicide has been a topic among the scholars from decades. Some academics have said that Octavian who was the political rival of Cleopatra forced her and her husband, Mark Antony to commit suicide by stabbing themselves with a sword and both of them were buried together. However, apart from all these, Olympus, who was the personal physician of Cleopatra completely disagree with the fact that an Egyptian cobra led to her death and on the opposite, Plutarch says that the cobra was in a basket of figs and Cleopatra used a hairpin to scratch open her skin and inject the toxin into her body. Roman physician Galen is of the opinion that the snake venom was brought in a container and she bit her arm to introduce the toxin in her body. The artistic depictions in various historical sites clearly shows small snakes biting her and this clearly doesn’t prove the accuracy of the story.
William Maloney, who is a Clinical Associate Professor at New York University has said that though the weight of Egyptian cobra is very less, its venom is too powerful to kill a human being. Another professor named Robert A. Gurval has said that although 15 – 20 mg of neurotoxin is harmful for human beings, the bite of an Egyptian cobra is not powerful enough to kill someone in a few seconds and normally, a human being can survive up to a few hours in such cases.
Two other professors, namely, Gregory Tsoucalas and Markos Sgantzos claim that the poisoning of Cleopatra was ordered by Octavian himself and its details were covered up by the Roman authorities. Some of them are also of the opinion that maybe Octavian gave Cleopatra a choice of how she would like to die and this led to her suicide. François Peter Retief says that the snake was not small enough to fit into a basket of figs.
Cleopatra had planned an exile for her son Caesarion to Nubia, Ethiopia or India during her final days though he was executed on Octavian’s orders following the advice of Alexandrian Greek philosopher Arius Didymus. Her death ended the war between Antony and Octavian and was also one of the main reasons behind the decline of Ptolemaic rule thereby leading to the beginning of Roman Empire. Egypt became a province of Roman Empire and Octavian, who was renamed Augustus became the first Roman Emperor. Cleopatra’s three children were spared and sent to Rome. The accounts of Caesarion reigning for a small period of time was used as an element of fiction to explain the gap between the death of Cleopatra and the crowning of Octavian as the Pharaoh. | 746 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"No Master Over Me" is a story of freedom, but freedom without equality. Students will discover that not all black people were slaves in the 18th and 19th centuries, but racial intolerance created barriers that affected even free blacks. Matthew Ashby was a free man of mixed racial heritage who lived in Williamsburg just before the Revolution. Although he was free, his wife and children were not. Students will learn how Matthew worked through the legal system to ultimately buy his family and ultimately free them from slavery. "No Master Over Me" is also the story of a black couple who lived in Indiana following the Civil War. The man was a professional and they were not slaves, yet they still faced racially imposed barriers.
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-0.0533078... | 1 | "No Master Over Me" is a story of freedom, but freedom without equality. Students will discover that not all black people were slaves in the 18th and 19th centuries, but racial intolerance created barriers that affected even free blacks. Matthew Ashby was a free man of mixed racial heritage who lived in Williamsburg just before the Revolution. Although he was free, his wife and children were not. Students will learn how Matthew worked through the legal system to ultimately buy his family and ultimately free them from slavery. "No Master Over Me" is also the story of a black couple who lived in Indiana following the Civil War. The man was a professional and they were not slaves, yet they still faced racially imposed barriers.
Colonial Williamsburg Productions <email@example.com> | 157 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The stone church of Gamla Uppsala, built over the pagan temple, dates from the early 12th century. Due to fire and renovations, the present church is only a remnant of the original cathedral.
Before the arrival of Christianity in Sweden, Gamla Uppsala was the seat of Swedish kings and a ceremonial site known all over northern Europe. The settlement was home to royal palaces, a royal burial ground, and a great pagan temple. The Uppsala temple, which was described in detail by Adam of Bremen in the 1070s, housed wooden statues of the Norse gods Odin, Thor and Freyr. A golden chain hung across its gables and the inside was richly decorated with gold. The temple had priests, who sacrificed to the gods according to the needs of the people.
The first Christian cathedral was probably built in the 11th century, but finished in the 12th century. The stone building may have been preceded by a wooden church and probably by the large pagan temple. The church was the Archbishopric of Sweden prior to 1273, when the archbishopric was moved to Östra Aros (Östra Aros was then renamed Uppsala due to a papal request). After a fire in 1240, the nave and transepts of the cathedral were removed leaving only the choir and central tower, and with the addition of the sacristy and the porch gave the church its present outer appearance.
In the 15th century, vaults were added as well as chalk paintings. Among the medieval wooden sculptures there are three crucifixes from the 12th, 13th and 15th centuries. Valerius (Archbishop of Uppsala) is buried here. Eric IX of Sweden was as well, before being moved to Uppsala Cathedral.References:
Medvedgrad is a medieval fortified town located on the south slopes of Medvednica mountain, approximately halfway from the Croatian capital Zagreb to the mountain top Sljeme. For defensive purposes it was built on a hill, Mali Plazur, that is a spur of the main ridge of the mountain that overlooks the city. On a clear day the castle can be seen from far away, especially the high main tower. Below the main tower of the castle is Oltar Domovine (Altar of the homeland) which is dedicated to Croatian soldiers killed in the Croatian War of Independence.
In 1242, Mongols invaded Zagreb. The city was destroyed and burned to the ground. This prompted the building of Medvedgrad. Encouraged by Pope Innocent IV, Philip Türje, bishop of Zagreb, built the fortress between 1249 and 1254. It was later owned by bans of Slavonia. Notable Croatian and Hungarian poet and ban of Slavonia Janus Pannonius (Ivan Česmički) died in the Medvedgrad castle on March 27, 1472.
The last Medvedgrad owners and inhabitants was the Gregorijanec family, who gained possession of Medvedgrad in 1562. In 1574, the walls of Medvedgrad were reinforced, but after the 1590 Neulengbach earthquake, the fortress was heavily damaged and ultimately abandoned. It remained in ruins until the late 20th century, when it was partly restored and now offers a panoramic view of the city from an altitude of over 500 meters. | <urn:uuid:7cf6089b-1ee0-4938-8b61-1b3b9b747dc2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.spottinghistory.com/view/768/gamla-uppsala-church/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.981921 | 701 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.208660662174224... | 1 | The stone church of Gamla Uppsala, built over the pagan temple, dates from the early 12th century. Due to fire and renovations, the present church is only a remnant of the original cathedral.
Before the arrival of Christianity in Sweden, Gamla Uppsala was the seat of Swedish kings and a ceremonial site known all over northern Europe. The settlement was home to royal palaces, a royal burial ground, and a great pagan temple. The Uppsala temple, which was described in detail by Adam of Bremen in the 1070s, housed wooden statues of the Norse gods Odin, Thor and Freyr. A golden chain hung across its gables and the inside was richly decorated with gold. The temple had priests, who sacrificed to the gods according to the needs of the people.
The first Christian cathedral was probably built in the 11th century, but finished in the 12th century. The stone building may have been preceded by a wooden church and probably by the large pagan temple. The church was the Archbishopric of Sweden prior to 1273, when the archbishopric was moved to Östra Aros (Östra Aros was then renamed Uppsala due to a papal request). After a fire in 1240, the nave and transepts of the cathedral were removed leaving only the choir and central tower, and with the addition of the sacristy and the porch gave the church its present outer appearance.
In the 15th century, vaults were added as well as chalk paintings. Among the medieval wooden sculptures there are three crucifixes from the 12th, 13th and 15th centuries. Valerius (Archbishop of Uppsala) is buried here. Eric IX of Sweden was as well, before being moved to Uppsala Cathedral.References:
Medvedgrad is a medieval fortified town located on the south slopes of Medvednica mountain, approximately halfway from the Croatian capital Zagreb to the mountain top Sljeme. For defensive purposes it was built on a hill, Mali Plazur, that is a spur of the main ridge of the mountain that overlooks the city. On a clear day the castle can be seen from far away, especially the high main tower. Below the main tower of the castle is Oltar Domovine (Altar of the homeland) which is dedicated to Croatian soldiers killed in the Croatian War of Independence.
In 1242, Mongols invaded Zagreb. The city was destroyed and burned to the ground. This prompted the building of Medvedgrad. Encouraged by Pope Innocent IV, Philip Türje, bishop of Zagreb, built the fortress between 1249 and 1254. It was later owned by bans of Slavonia. Notable Croatian and Hungarian poet and ban of Slavonia Janus Pannonius (Ivan Česmički) died in the Medvedgrad castle on March 27, 1472.
The last Medvedgrad owners and inhabitants was the Gregorijanec family, who gained possession of Medvedgrad in 1562. In 1574, the walls of Medvedgrad were reinforced, but after the 1590 Neulengbach earthquake, the fortress was heavily damaged and ultimately abandoned. It remained in ruins until the late 20th century, when it was partly restored and now offers a panoramic view of the city from an altitude of over 500 meters. | 742 | ENGLISH | 1 |
0428 GMT January 29, 2020
According to a survey of students aged 18-33 at Western Sydney University, young women are eight times more likely to believe processes of climate change will affect their lives than their male counterparts, smh.com.au wrote.
Tonia Gray, associate professor at Western Sydney University's School of Education and a coauthor of the study, said she believed the result was, in part, because women are more likely to possess a legacy mindset.
"They are concerned for the next generation. They are thinking: What am I going to leave? How am I going to make the world a better place."
The results are in line with US and European studies, which have also shown women are more likely to believe in climate change than men. A 2005 University of Oregon analysis found countries with higher numbers of women in parliament were more likely to have ratified environmental treaties.
Globally, women are also more likely to be impacted by the effects of climate change than men. The UN estimates 80 percent of the people displaced by climate change are women.
The group surveyed by Western Sydney University had, like all people born after February 1985, only ever lived in a world with rising monthly temperatures.
While all those surveyed said they had heard about climate change, only half were able to name a key event that had occurred in the previous year related to climate change.
When asked to describe their emotions towards climate change, ‘fear’ was the most common response, with 47 percent of survey participants choosing this emotion. In contrast, 17 percent of respondents said they had ‘no emotion’ about climate change, a response given by nearly twice as many surveyed men than women.
Just over half (51 percent) of those surveyed thought they could not personally change the course of climate change, with women more optimistic about the impact of their individual contribution.
The young people surveyed cited climate scientists as the people they trusted most for information about climate change. Politicians were rated as the least reliable source of information on climate change, followed by social media. | <urn:uuid:b991e278-bc26-4723-845e-fd457656e353> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.iran-daily.com/News/232210.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00175.warc.gz | en | 0.980968 | 423 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.22781090438365936... | 1 | 0428 GMT January 29, 2020
According to a survey of students aged 18-33 at Western Sydney University, young women are eight times more likely to believe processes of climate change will affect their lives than their male counterparts, smh.com.au wrote.
Tonia Gray, associate professor at Western Sydney University's School of Education and a coauthor of the study, said she believed the result was, in part, because women are more likely to possess a legacy mindset.
"They are concerned for the next generation. They are thinking: What am I going to leave? How am I going to make the world a better place."
The results are in line with US and European studies, which have also shown women are more likely to believe in climate change than men. A 2005 University of Oregon analysis found countries with higher numbers of women in parliament were more likely to have ratified environmental treaties.
Globally, women are also more likely to be impacted by the effects of climate change than men. The UN estimates 80 percent of the people displaced by climate change are women.
The group surveyed by Western Sydney University had, like all people born after February 1985, only ever lived in a world with rising monthly temperatures.
While all those surveyed said they had heard about climate change, only half were able to name a key event that had occurred in the previous year related to climate change.
When asked to describe their emotions towards climate change, ‘fear’ was the most common response, with 47 percent of survey participants choosing this emotion. In contrast, 17 percent of respondents said they had ‘no emotion’ about climate change, a response given by nearly twice as many surveyed men than women.
Just over half (51 percent) of those surveyed thought they could not personally change the course of climate change, with women more optimistic about the impact of their individual contribution.
The young people surveyed cited climate scientists as the people they trusted most for information about climate change. Politicians were rated as the least reliable source of information on climate change, followed by social media. | 433 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of this authors and don’t necessarily reflect the views of LawTeacher.
The USA PATRIOT Act (Patriot Act) was established after September 11, 2001 (9/11) when terrorists attacked the United States.
The Patriot Act has raised many concerns about whether or not it infringes in the civil liberties of the people of the nation. Looking back of all time, our past presidents developed laws that have been the stepping stone for the ideas that created the Patriot Act. The government’s job is to protect the social people, nonetheless it has a bigger job which is to protect the world. This has raised many issues involving the Patriot Act and whether or otherwise not it really is more detrimental to us than it is helpful. Pertaining to the Patriot Act and how it deprives those accused under it of Constitutional rights, the American people should be focused on how much power our government has when developing laws governing our civil liberties.
On September 11, 2001 the usa (US) experienced the unthinkable when terrorists attacked the country by itself soil. It was a eye that is serious or must I say reality look for the usa. The usa has many of the most extremely counter that is sophisticated in the world but was not able to prevent such a tragedy. Why didn’t it is seen by them coming? Plenty of thing could be today that is different that question could half been answered prior to 9/11.
This act was compiled from two documents, the Provide Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (PATRIOT) through the homely house of Representatives (House) as well as the Uniting and Strengthening American (USA) Act through the Senate, was merged together creating the Patriot Act. Based on Lemieux, previous laws that are developed by previous presidents to eliminate conflicts were similar to the Patriot Act they just had different names Lemieux, M. (n.d.). Reputation for the united states Patriot Act. Retrieved 9, 2011, from http://www.constitutiondenied.com/Media/History-Patriot-Act.pdf april. The Aliens and Sedition Act of 1798 was developed through the pugilative war with France considering that the US was afraid for the country and also the people and wanted to make sure the enemy failed to sleep amongst us. With this specific power the president managed to have anyone that was believed to be a threat to the government would be arrested and deported. Throughout the Civil War the president suspended Habeas Corpus for the safety benefits of the world, giving the us government the energy to imprison someone without sufficient evidence. During World War II, the President ordered over 10,000 American citizens that had not shown any disloyalty to your United States into confinement camps simply because they were of Japanese descent Lemieux, M. (n.d.). Reputation for the USA Patriot Act. Retrieved 9, 2011, from http://www.constitutiondenied.com/Media/History-Patriot-Act.pdf april. These are the stone that is stepping the introduction of the Patriot Act.
The Patriot Act had become as an answer towards the tragic events of 9/11. The bill that will come to be referred to as Patriot Act was introduced to Congress just days after 9/11. It had been revised as a result of concerns from many congressmen that the balance allowed for too broad of a scope of power to authorities that are federal. Eventually following the bill was revised and reintroduced, Congress passed it with little opposition on 26, 2001 october. Senator Russell Feingold (D-WI), would up being the senator that is only vote resistant to the Patriot Act. Even though the Patriot Act would not enter into existence until after 9/11, it will have roots in earlier legislation. On April 25, 1996, President Clinton signed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act into law. The balance because of this statutory law was introduced following the Oklahoma City Bombing. The main provision of the act made it illegal to give support that is“material to any organization banned because of the State Department. The balance was greatly criticized by Republicans for granting too much capacity to authorities. The bill had to undergo modifications that are major it had been passed in 1996. The bill that wound up becoming law was reported to be a “watered down version” for the original that President Clinton wanted passed. Strangely enough, it absolutely was this act which was broadened and revamped to generate the Patriot Act (Creative Commons, n.d.).
The Patriot Act has been highly criticized for being extremely broad and too open for interpretation since becoming law. In 2004, a judge ruled that parts of the Patriot Act were unconstitutional since they were too vague as well as in violation regarding the First and Fifth Amendments. Another criticism associated with the Patriot Act is the fact that it generally does not guarantee oversight that is enough ensure that the ones that are given power because of the act try not to misuse it. On March 9, 2006 President Bush signed the Patriot Act Reauthorization, but attached a signing statement in which he said that he would ignore specific mandates printed in the balance that will give more judicial and Congressional oversight to agencies authorized utilization of the act. The Attorney General at the time, requesting to have the administration rescind the signing statement since they do not have force of law in late March, letters were written to Alberto Gonzales. In those letters, they cited Article 1, Section 7 regarding the Constitution which states that ‘Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives additionally the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of this united states of america; If he approve he shall sign it, however, if not he shall send it back.’ Alberto Gonzales and President Bush both ignored the letters and never responded. Their argument was that the president could not change legislation that were passed by Congress and say which he did not agree with that he would ignore part of it. On 10, 2007, an appeals court upheld the 2004 ruling that parts of the Patriot Act were unconstitutional december. The court stated that a statute must allow for a person of average intelligence to be able to read and understand the law in the ruling. They found that certain elements of the act were too vague. They determined that then the average person would not know if they were committing a crime (Creative Commons, n.d.) if the law was worded in a way that the average person could not understand,.
Even though many genuinely believe that our terrorist threat from other countries is fantastic, additionally there is driving a car of terrorist attacks from the US by a unique citizens. The Oklahoma City Bombing is a example that is tragic. In some cases, there is certainly a need when it comes to government to suspect an American citizen and do surveillance to safeguard the country from another tragedy that is such. The federal government happens to be doing espionage work for extended than most people think. It isn’t a new practice, but with the technology we now have today, it really is easier for authorities to gather intelligence. Even though they usually have this technology at their disposal that doesn’t imply that the Constitution can be ignored within paper writer the true name of protecting the united states.
One of these of the Patriot Act being used this kind of a way is within the case of Jose Padilla.
He was a Puerto Rican born citizen who later inside the life converted to Islam. He traveled throughout the Middle East and allegedly plotted with al Qaeda terrorists to detonate a bomb” that is“dirty a US city. As soon he was detained as he stepped off a plane in the United States. The Bush Administration claimed though he was an American citizen because he had been deemed an “enemy combatant” by the president that he could be detained even. He was then held in a brig that is military three . 5 years and was allegedly subjected to torture at the hands of US officials trying to elicit information from him. During those times, he was not faced with any crimes though it was said there was clearly evidence that is overwhelming him. He was also cut off from all communication along with his attorney and family(Martinez, 2007). | <urn:uuid:7673dc9b-7f27-48b8-a536-fde9ad975d8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://fashiondiva.org/2019/09/07/this-really-is-a-good-example-essay-on-results-of/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00419.warc.gz | en | 0.98145 | 1,702 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of this authors and don’t necessarily reflect the views of LawTeacher.
The USA PATRIOT Act (Patriot Act) was established after September 11, 2001 (9/11) when terrorists attacked the United States.
The Patriot Act has raised many concerns about whether or not it infringes in the civil liberties of the people of the nation. Looking back of all time, our past presidents developed laws that have been the stepping stone for the ideas that created the Patriot Act. The government’s job is to protect the social people, nonetheless it has a bigger job which is to protect the world. This has raised many issues involving the Patriot Act and whether or otherwise not it really is more detrimental to us than it is helpful. Pertaining to the Patriot Act and how it deprives those accused under it of Constitutional rights, the American people should be focused on how much power our government has when developing laws governing our civil liberties.
On September 11, 2001 the usa (US) experienced the unthinkable when terrorists attacked the country by itself soil. It was a eye that is serious or must I say reality look for the usa. The usa has many of the most extremely counter that is sophisticated in the world but was not able to prevent such a tragedy. Why didn’t it is seen by them coming? Plenty of thing could be today that is different that question could half been answered prior to 9/11.
This act was compiled from two documents, the Provide Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (PATRIOT) through the homely house of Representatives (House) as well as the Uniting and Strengthening American (USA) Act through the Senate, was merged together creating the Patriot Act. Based on Lemieux, previous laws that are developed by previous presidents to eliminate conflicts were similar to the Patriot Act they just had different names Lemieux, M. (n.d.). Reputation for the united states Patriot Act. Retrieved 9, 2011, from http://www.constitutiondenied.com/Media/History-Patriot-Act.pdf april. The Aliens and Sedition Act of 1798 was developed through the pugilative war with France considering that the US was afraid for the country and also the people and wanted to make sure the enemy failed to sleep amongst us. With this specific power the president managed to have anyone that was believed to be a threat to the government would be arrested and deported. Throughout the Civil War the president suspended Habeas Corpus for the safety benefits of the world, giving the us government the energy to imprison someone without sufficient evidence. During World War II, the President ordered over 10,000 American citizens that had not shown any disloyalty to your United States into confinement camps simply because they were of Japanese descent Lemieux, M. (n.d.). Reputation for the USA Patriot Act. Retrieved 9, 2011, from http://www.constitutiondenied.com/Media/History-Patriot-Act.pdf april. These are the stone that is stepping the introduction of the Patriot Act.
The Patriot Act had become as an answer towards the tragic events of 9/11. The bill that will come to be referred to as Patriot Act was introduced to Congress just days after 9/11. It had been revised as a result of concerns from many congressmen that the balance allowed for too broad of a scope of power to authorities that are federal. Eventually following the bill was revised and reintroduced, Congress passed it with little opposition on 26, 2001 october. Senator Russell Feingold (D-WI), would up being the senator that is only vote resistant to the Patriot Act. Even though the Patriot Act would not enter into existence until after 9/11, it will have roots in earlier legislation. On April 25, 1996, President Clinton signed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act into law. The balance because of this statutory law was introduced following the Oklahoma City Bombing. The main provision of the act made it illegal to give support that is“material to any organization banned because of the State Department. The balance was greatly criticized by Republicans for granting too much capacity to authorities. The bill had to undergo modifications that are major it had been passed in 1996. The bill that wound up becoming law was reported to be a “watered down version” for the original that President Clinton wanted passed. Strangely enough, it absolutely was this act which was broadened and revamped to generate the Patriot Act (Creative Commons, n.d.).
The Patriot Act has been highly criticized for being extremely broad and too open for interpretation since becoming law. In 2004, a judge ruled that parts of the Patriot Act were unconstitutional since they were too vague as well as in violation regarding the First and Fifth Amendments. Another criticism associated with the Patriot Act is the fact that it generally does not guarantee oversight that is enough ensure that the ones that are given power because of the act try not to misuse it. On March 9, 2006 President Bush signed the Patriot Act Reauthorization, but attached a signing statement in which he said that he would ignore specific mandates printed in the balance that will give more judicial and Congressional oversight to agencies authorized utilization of the act. The Attorney General at the time, requesting to have the administration rescind the signing statement since they do not have force of law in late March, letters were written to Alberto Gonzales. In those letters, they cited Article 1, Section 7 regarding the Constitution which states that ‘Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives additionally the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of this united states of america; If he approve he shall sign it, however, if not he shall send it back.’ Alberto Gonzales and President Bush both ignored the letters and never responded. Their argument was that the president could not change legislation that were passed by Congress and say which he did not agree with that he would ignore part of it. On 10, 2007, an appeals court upheld the 2004 ruling that parts of the Patriot Act were unconstitutional december. The court stated that a statute must allow for a person of average intelligence to be able to read and understand the law in the ruling. They found that certain elements of the act were too vague. They determined that then the average person would not know if they were committing a crime (Creative Commons, n.d.) if the law was worded in a way that the average person could not understand,.
Even though many genuinely believe that our terrorist threat from other countries is fantastic, additionally there is driving a car of terrorist attacks from the US by a unique citizens. The Oklahoma City Bombing is a example that is tragic. In some cases, there is certainly a need when it comes to government to suspect an American citizen and do surveillance to safeguard the country from another tragedy that is such. The federal government happens to be doing espionage work for extended than most people think. It isn’t a new practice, but with the technology we now have today, it really is easier for authorities to gather intelligence. Even though they usually have this technology at their disposal that doesn’t imply that the Constitution can be ignored within paper writer the true name of protecting the united states.
One of these of the Patriot Act being used this kind of a way is within the case of Jose Padilla.
He was a Puerto Rican born citizen who later inside the life converted to Islam. He traveled throughout the Middle East and allegedly plotted with al Qaeda terrorists to detonate a bomb” that is“dirty a US city. As soon he was detained as he stepped off a plane in the United States. The Bush Administration claimed though he was an American citizen because he had been deemed an “enemy combatant” by the president that he could be detained even. He was then held in a brig that is military three . 5 years and was allegedly subjected to torture at the hands of US officials trying to elicit information from him. During those times, he was not faced with any crimes though it was said there was clearly evidence that is overwhelming him. He was also cut off from all communication along with his attorney and family(Martinez, 2007). | 1,732 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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8 God called Abraham to go away to a place which he would have as his own. Because Abraham believed God, he obeyed him. He went even though he did not know where he was to go.
9 Because he believed God, he lived like a stranger in the land God promised him. He lived in tents with Isaac and Jacob. They had the same promise he had.Read full chapter | <urn:uuid:bd6aacf4-897d-4b9d-8303-abae323c8f66> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://beta.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hebrews%2011:7-9&version=WE | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.995582 | 158 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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7 God told Noah about things that would happen. These things had never happened before. Noah believed God; he respected God. He built a big house on a boat, and so his family was saved [from the big flood]. By believing God he showed that the other people were wrong. He was put right with God because he believed.
8 God called Abraham to go away to a place which he would have as his own. Because Abraham believed God, he obeyed him. He went even though he did not know where he was to go.
9 Because he believed God, he lived like a stranger in the land God promised him. He lived in tents with Isaac and Jacob. They had the same promise he had.Read full chapter | 154 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today we're heading not into history, where Ludwig van Beethoven composed some of history's greatest music, but into the science lab, where researchers are trying to answer a question that has evaded historians: How did the master die? His famous deafness, rudeness, and foul temper were so neatly symbolized by his other renowned trademark, his great head of wild unkempt gray hair. That very same hair, it turns out, is central to the popular theory surrounding Beethoven's death: that he died of lead poisoning, found by testing surviving locks of his hair. Popular the tale is; but does it stand up to the scrutiny of science?
It was March 27, 1827, the day after the great composer's death, when fifteen-year-old music student Ferdinand Hiller went with his mentor to see the body. It was a surreal experience, for young Hiller had met Beethoven two weeks earlier at the side of his teacher, a friend of the great man's. Then, Hiller had found him in great pain, but still speaking and lively, his famous head of wild curly hair intact. Now, the corpse lay still, no longer talking, no longer in pain, oddly distorted from the autopsy, and with some of its hair having already been clipped away as souvenirs by others. Hiller took the scissors he brought for the purpose, grasped a handful of the famous locks, and cut. It was 582 strands.
Many of those locks taken by all those curious visitors are still found today in various public and private collections, but Hiller's was the one that passed all the way down through history and came to us to be the centerpiece of today's discussion. In 1911 it was restored in Cologne, Germany and sealed into a beautiful black oval-shaped wooden frame with the lock of hair wound inside a glass bubble in its center. Its journey took turns as dramatic as being a gift to a Danish doctor for aiding hundreds of Jews escaping World War II. It finally ended up at a Sotheby's auction house in London in 1994. For the sum of £3,600, four members of the American Beethoven Society acquired it and brought it to the United States. The new owners donated the hair to The Ira F. Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies at San Jose State University, with one of the four, Dr. Alfredo Guevara, retaining a portion of his share for himself, which he now keeps.
Soon after, the locket of hair enjoyed its greatest 15 minutes of fame, when author Russell Martin published a 2000 book titled Beethoven's Hair: An Extraordinary Historical Odyssey and a Scientific Mystery Solved. A TV documentary followed five years later, titled more simply Beethoven's Hair, telling the same intriguing historical tale. But, perhaps more significantly, the book and movie also revealed that during its time at San Jose State, the hair had been undergoing careful chemical analysis in hopes of answering the question of how Beethoven had died.
In 1827, the cause of Beethoven's death was listed as dropsy on his autopsy report. Dropsy is an antiquated term for an edema, or swelling, which can be caused by many different things. In short, they had no useful diagnosis at the time which would have much medical value today. However, Beethoven's deafness had one silver lining for historians. Most of his conversations were written, and many of those survive today in what are known as his "conversation books". An enormous amount of paperwork tells us the details of his later years, both in his own voice, and in that of his friends and biographers. As a result, we know a great deal about his symptoms. He was not at all a well man; and many diagnosticians, both armchair and professional, have cast their hats into the ring with nominations for what probably ailed the master.
And this was where Martin's book Beethoven's Hair shook things up. Hair retains certain chemical signatures from the blood, and it's one way we can do things like drug testing, albeit with a number of important caveats. Guevara had engaged the services of a doctor in Los Angeles to test Beethoven's hair for morphine, and of Dr. Bill Walsh in Illinois to test for mercury, as mercury poisoning from treating syphilis was one hypothesis of the cause of death. Both came back negative. In fact, all the tests came back negative, except one: lead. Walsh had the McCrone Research Institute and also scientists from the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory perform X-ray fluorescence analysis on the hair, and it turned out that Beethoven's hair contained an average of 42 times as much lead as did control samples.
Hearing loss, irritability, abdominal pain, headache, joint pain, mood disorders — all the symptoms that absolutely dominated every day of the latter half of Beethoven's life, according to the documents — are all symptoms of lead poisoning. The pieces all fit. Martin's book trumpeted the findings, the TV movie repeated them, and the belief that Beethoven died of lead poisoning became a fixture in pop culture.
But outside of public circles, many in the science community found this unlikely, if not outright wrong. For one thing, the doctors who autopsied Beethoven, according to Martin's thorough research, found:
Also noted was that Beethoven did not exhibit most of the other symptoms of lead poisoning, nor was there any special reason to suspect he had any unusual exposure to lead. He did drink a lot, and wine was often fortified with lead; but his drinking was not out of line with the standards of the day, and history doesn't record any notable incidence of lead poisoning from the time and place.
Curious about this, a forensic pathologist in Austria, Dr. Christian Reiter, acquired some of the hair from Guevara in 2007, and used a laser to vaporize the hair along its length, analyzing the vapor with a spectrometer to create a temporal profile for the lead in Beethoven's body over the final months of his life. What Reiter found was a number of prominent spikes, which, turning to the literature, he correlated with several medical procedures Beethoven went through. Again, the press rejoiced in this additional fine-tuning of the lead poisoning theory.
And once again, outside the spotlight of publicity, the scientific community was skeptical. The utility of hair sampling for trace metals had been coming under increasing criticism for being both unreliable and inconsistent. There is a lot of variability from person to person, and even from hair to hair; and mainly, when a contaminant is detected, it can't reliably be determined whether the exposure was internal or external. In one sting published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, skeptical doctor Stephen Barrett sent hair samples from two healthy teenagers anonymously to thirteen different commercial laboratories for analysis. Results, he said, "varied considerably between identical samples sent to the same laboratory and from laboratory to laboratory."
Hair, particularly hair that's 180 years old, is notoriously susceptible to external contamination by lead. Keratin proteins, the major component of hair, have numerous chemical binding sites for lead. It is this same chemical affinity for lead that makes humans so susceptible to lead poisoning. Once lead is chemically bound to the hair, it is virtually impossible for a researcher to determine whether the lead was systemic or extraneous. It is worth pointing out that no record survives of how the Hiller locket was originally sealed before its 1911 restoration, but lead solder would most likely have been used.
Reiter's method in particular has come under fire. The peaks he detected along the length of the hair were far too sharp to be correlated to internal lead levels. If Beethoven had suddenly ingested a huge amount of lead — something for which there is no evidence — it would have come out in the hair gradually, and not in sharp peaks. The general reaction from the scientific community to Reiter's analysis, based on at least two papers, is that the peaks of lead he found were due to external contamination.
Complicating the whole question is that correlating evidence has also been presented from pieces of a skull, believed to be Beethoven's. Like the Guevara lock of hair, the Kaufmann skull fragments are supported by a detailed provenance. We trace them back to Beethoven based on their documented history. Here is what happened.
When Beethoven died in 1827, Dr. Johann Wagner performed an autopsy, which included a craniotomy, a sawing off the top of Beethoven's skull. The temporal bones around the ears were removed, in hopes of being able to determine the cause of his deafness, but unfortunately they were lost to history.
In 1863, the body was exhumed. A detailed (and widely available) photograph was taken of the skull, showing the saw cut around the crown. At this time, the skull cap was divided into approximately nine pieces, in light of the popularity of phrenology at that time in history. Two of these large fragments came down through history to their current owner, Paul Kaufmann. In 1985, these fragments were certified as belonging to Beethoven with the "greatest probability" by two Austrian doctors, Hans Bankl and Hans Jesserer, though their methodology is not clear.
In 2005, DNA testing was done on the Kaufmann fragments in Germany by Dr. Bernd Brinkmann. Unfortunately, Brinkmann was not able to recover any nuclear DNA, only a limited amount of mitochondrial DNA. Might it have been possible to match this with the hair, and prove that the skull could be corroborating evidence of the lead poisoning?
Fortunately, DNA testing had been done on the hair, back in 1999. We need to get DNA from root follicle, not from the shaft; but Beethoven's hair lock had been cut, not yanked, so it shouldn't have had any follicles. But upon closer examination, apparently young Hiller had pulled good and hard, because a few follicles were found. But as with the skull, no nuclear DNA was recovered; it was too old and deteriorated. The mitochondrial DNA was a match, but only in the sense that it was impossible to rule out that the samples had come from different people. The bones and hair might have come from the same person, but no greater certainty could be discovered.
Riding the wave of the PR from the movie in 2005, Walsh took the skull fragments back to Argonne and had them tested for lead as well, and the same high concentration was found. Walsh issued a press release stating that "massive amounts of lead found in his hair... confirm the cause of his years of chronic debilitating illness."
But again, behind the scenes, the theory continued to unravel. In 2012, the director of the Beethoven Center, Dr. William Meredith, took the Kaufmann fragments to Dr. Tim White at UC Berkeley, a paleontologist and one of the world's leading experts in anthropology and osteology. Dr. White in turn shared the fragments with a large number of his colleagues. The result was unanimous: the larger of the Kaufmann fragments could not possibly be from Beethoven. It was a right frontal bone; and if had been from the Beethoven skull, Dr. Wagner's craniotomy cut would have gone right through its middle. The Kaufmann skull fragments, and any lead data garnered from them, had nothing to do with Beethoven.
The final stages of fatal lead toxicity are quite horrible, as it destroys the central nervous system. Paralysis, blindness, and insanity lead to an undignified and excruciating death. Beethoven's death, though it exhibited none of these symptoms of fatal lead poisoning, was still equally grotesque, as the fluids from his systemic edema saturated his mattress when the doctors frequently punctured him to release them. He was constantly in abdominal pain, he was jaundiced, and he emitted the foulest odor. His thoroughly documented symptoms matched what we'd expect from the state of his liver and other organs found in his autopsy: severe chronic liver disease, probably with viral hepatitis — and no need to introduce lead toxicity into his diagnosis. But we don't know for sure, and probably never will. It is a secret unlikely to be revealed by Beethoven's hair. The Guevara lock took a fantastical ride through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and provided much entertainment and a forensic roller coaster. But any answers it may hold have so far not been revealed — if it holds any at all.
Cite this article:
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-0.0306510403752... | 4 | Today we're heading not into history, where Ludwig van Beethoven composed some of history's greatest music, but into the science lab, where researchers are trying to answer a question that has evaded historians: How did the master die? His famous deafness, rudeness, and foul temper were so neatly symbolized by his other renowned trademark, his great head of wild unkempt gray hair. That very same hair, it turns out, is central to the popular theory surrounding Beethoven's death: that he died of lead poisoning, found by testing surviving locks of his hair. Popular the tale is; but does it stand up to the scrutiny of science?
It was March 27, 1827, the day after the great composer's death, when fifteen-year-old music student Ferdinand Hiller went with his mentor to see the body. It was a surreal experience, for young Hiller had met Beethoven two weeks earlier at the side of his teacher, a friend of the great man's. Then, Hiller had found him in great pain, but still speaking and lively, his famous head of wild curly hair intact. Now, the corpse lay still, no longer talking, no longer in pain, oddly distorted from the autopsy, and with some of its hair having already been clipped away as souvenirs by others. Hiller took the scissors he brought for the purpose, grasped a handful of the famous locks, and cut. It was 582 strands.
Many of those locks taken by all those curious visitors are still found today in various public and private collections, but Hiller's was the one that passed all the way down through history and came to us to be the centerpiece of today's discussion. In 1911 it was restored in Cologne, Germany and sealed into a beautiful black oval-shaped wooden frame with the lock of hair wound inside a glass bubble in its center. Its journey took turns as dramatic as being a gift to a Danish doctor for aiding hundreds of Jews escaping World War II. It finally ended up at a Sotheby's auction house in London in 1994. For the sum of £3,600, four members of the American Beethoven Society acquired it and brought it to the United States. The new owners donated the hair to The Ira F. Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies at San Jose State University, with one of the four, Dr. Alfredo Guevara, retaining a portion of his share for himself, which he now keeps.
Soon after, the locket of hair enjoyed its greatest 15 minutes of fame, when author Russell Martin published a 2000 book titled Beethoven's Hair: An Extraordinary Historical Odyssey and a Scientific Mystery Solved. A TV documentary followed five years later, titled more simply Beethoven's Hair, telling the same intriguing historical tale. But, perhaps more significantly, the book and movie also revealed that during its time at San Jose State, the hair had been undergoing careful chemical analysis in hopes of answering the question of how Beethoven had died.
In 1827, the cause of Beethoven's death was listed as dropsy on his autopsy report. Dropsy is an antiquated term for an edema, or swelling, which can be caused by many different things. In short, they had no useful diagnosis at the time which would have much medical value today. However, Beethoven's deafness had one silver lining for historians. Most of his conversations were written, and many of those survive today in what are known as his "conversation books". An enormous amount of paperwork tells us the details of his later years, both in his own voice, and in that of his friends and biographers. As a result, we know a great deal about his symptoms. He was not at all a well man; and many diagnosticians, both armchair and professional, have cast their hats into the ring with nominations for what probably ailed the master.
And this was where Martin's book Beethoven's Hair shook things up. Hair retains certain chemical signatures from the blood, and it's one way we can do things like drug testing, albeit with a number of important caveats. Guevara had engaged the services of a doctor in Los Angeles to test Beethoven's hair for morphine, and of Dr. Bill Walsh in Illinois to test for mercury, as mercury poisoning from treating syphilis was one hypothesis of the cause of death. Both came back negative. In fact, all the tests came back negative, except one: lead. Walsh had the McCrone Research Institute and also scientists from the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory perform X-ray fluorescence analysis on the hair, and it turned out that Beethoven's hair contained an average of 42 times as much lead as did control samples.
Hearing loss, irritability, abdominal pain, headache, joint pain, mood disorders — all the symptoms that absolutely dominated every day of the latter half of Beethoven's life, according to the documents — are all symptoms of lead poisoning. The pieces all fit. Martin's book trumpeted the findings, the TV movie repeated them, and the belief that Beethoven died of lead poisoning became a fixture in pop culture.
But outside of public circles, many in the science community found this unlikely, if not outright wrong. For one thing, the doctors who autopsied Beethoven, according to Martin's thorough research, found:
Also noted was that Beethoven did not exhibit most of the other symptoms of lead poisoning, nor was there any special reason to suspect he had any unusual exposure to lead. He did drink a lot, and wine was often fortified with lead; but his drinking was not out of line with the standards of the day, and history doesn't record any notable incidence of lead poisoning from the time and place.
Curious about this, a forensic pathologist in Austria, Dr. Christian Reiter, acquired some of the hair from Guevara in 2007, and used a laser to vaporize the hair along its length, analyzing the vapor with a spectrometer to create a temporal profile for the lead in Beethoven's body over the final months of his life. What Reiter found was a number of prominent spikes, which, turning to the literature, he correlated with several medical procedures Beethoven went through. Again, the press rejoiced in this additional fine-tuning of the lead poisoning theory.
And once again, outside the spotlight of publicity, the scientific community was skeptical. The utility of hair sampling for trace metals had been coming under increasing criticism for being both unreliable and inconsistent. There is a lot of variability from person to person, and even from hair to hair; and mainly, when a contaminant is detected, it can't reliably be determined whether the exposure was internal or external. In one sting published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, skeptical doctor Stephen Barrett sent hair samples from two healthy teenagers anonymously to thirteen different commercial laboratories for analysis. Results, he said, "varied considerably between identical samples sent to the same laboratory and from laboratory to laboratory."
Hair, particularly hair that's 180 years old, is notoriously susceptible to external contamination by lead. Keratin proteins, the major component of hair, have numerous chemical binding sites for lead. It is this same chemical affinity for lead that makes humans so susceptible to lead poisoning. Once lead is chemically bound to the hair, it is virtually impossible for a researcher to determine whether the lead was systemic or extraneous. It is worth pointing out that no record survives of how the Hiller locket was originally sealed before its 1911 restoration, but lead solder would most likely have been used.
Reiter's method in particular has come under fire. The peaks he detected along the length of the hair were far too sharp to be correlated to internal lead levels. If Beethoven had suddenly ingested a huge amount of lead — something for which there is no evidence — it would have come out in the hair gradually, and not in sharp peaks. The general reaction from the scientific community to Reiter's analysis, based on at least two papers, is that the peaks of lead he found were due to external contamination.
Complicating the whole question is that correlating evidence has also been presented from pieces of a skull, believed to be Beethoven's. Like the Guevara lock of hair, the Kaufmann skull fragments are supported by a detailed provenance. We trace them back to Beethoven based on their documented history. Here is what happened.
When Beethoven died in 1827, Dr. Johann Wagner performed an autopsy, which included a craniotomy, a sawing off the top of Beethoven's skull. The temporal bones around the ears were removed, in hopes of being able to determine the cause of his deafness, but unfortunately they were lost to history.
In 1863, the body was exhumed. A detailed (and widely available) photograph was taken of the skull, showing the saw cut around the crown. At this time, the skull cap was divided into approximately nine pieces, in light of the popularity of phrenology at that time in history. Two of these large fragments came down through history to their current owner, Paul Kaufmann. In 1985, these fragments were certified as belonging to Beethoven with the "greatest probability" by two Austrian doctors, Hans Bankl and Hans Jesserer, though their methodology is not clear.
In 2005, DNA testing was done on the Kaufmann fragments in Germany by Dr. Bernd Brinkmann. Unfortunately, Brinkmann was not able to recover any nuclear DNA, only a limited amount of mitochondrial DNA. Might it have been possible to match this with the hair, and prove that the skull could be corroborating evidence of the lead poisoning?
Fortunately, DNA testing had been done on the hair, back in 1999. We need to get DNA from root follicle, not from the shaft; but Beethoven's hair lock had been cut, not yanked, so it shouldn't have had any follicles. But upon closer examination, apparently young Hiller had pulled good and hard, because a few follicles were found. But as with the skull, no nuclear DNA was recovered; it was too old and deteriorated. The mitochondrial DNA was a match, but only in the sense that it was impossible to rule out that the samples had come from different people. The bones and hair might have come from the same person, but no greater certainty could be discovered.
Riding the wave of the PR from the movie in 2005, Walsh took the skull fragments back to Argonne and had them tested for lead as well, and the same high concentration was found. Walsh issued a press release stating that "massive amounts of lead found in his hair... confirm the cause of his years of chronic debilitating illness."
But again, behind the scenes, the theory continued to unravel. In 2012, the director of the Beethoven Center, Dr. William Meredith, took the Kaufmann fragments to Dr. Tim White at UC Berkeley, a paleontologist and one of the world's leading experts in anthropology and osteology. Dr. White in turn shared the fragments with a large number of his colleagues. The result was unanimous: the larger of the Kaufmann fragments could not possibly be from Beethoven. It was a right frontal bone; and if had been from the Beethoven skull, Dr. Wagner's craniotomy cut would have gone right through its middle. The Kaufmann skull fragments, and any lead data garnered from them, had nothing to do with Beethoven.
The final stages of fatal lead toxicity are quite horrible, as it destroys the central nervous system. Paralysis, blindness, and insanity lead to an undignified and excruciating death. Beethoven's death, though it exhibited none of these symptoms of fatal lead poisoning, was still equally grotesque, as the fluids from his systemic edema saturated his mattress when the doctors frequently punctured him to release them. He was constantly in abdominal pain, he was jaundiced, and he emitted the foulest odor. His thoroughly documented symptoms matched what we'd expect from the state of his liver and other organs found in his autopsy: severe chronic liver disease, probably with viral hepatitis — and no need to introduce lead toxicity into his diagnosis. But we don't know for sure, and probably never will. It is a secret unlikely to be revealed by Beethoven's hair. The Guevara lock took a fantastical ride through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and provided much entertainment and a forensic roller coaster. But any answers it may hold have so far not been revealed — if it holds any at all.
Cite this article:
Copyright ©2020 Skeptoid Media, Inc. All Rights Reserved. | 2,634 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before artists and naturalists knew much about ecology, they drew their pictures from specimens, not knowing much about them. So birds that inhabited different areas of the world, like a guinea fowl from Africa and parrots from South America were often pictured together. And the backgrounds of the pictures were landscapes of buildings, walls, castles, fences, or some other human artifacts. If the birds were put in some sort of natural setting, it wasn’t necessarily an appropriate one. But as artist/naturalists began to spend more time in the field, taking notes and sketching, paintings became to be more realistic.
During the Age of Enlightenment (c. 1715-1789) and through the 19th century in both Europe and America natural history was focused on the identification of organisms. This meant that standards of practice had to become more organized and consistent between continents. Early American naturalists used European methodology but Americans did more fieldwork and collected more specimens.
Natural history meant observing organisms and taking notes, but not necessarily in any organized or systematic manner. Notes and sketches were descriptive but they weren’t necessarily tied together. As natural history became more thoughtful, detailed, organized, and focused, so did the art that accompanied it. As field observation became more reflective of reality, so did art. Most naturalists were not trained as artists but took up art as a way to expand their study of nature. When artists took an interest in nature, their skills gave bird art real authenticity.
Thomas Bewick, an English wood engraver, is best known for his A History of British Birds, which is admired today mainly for its wood engravings. The book was the forerunner of all modern field guides. Alexander Wilson was a Scottish American poet, ornithologist, naturalist, and illustrator. Often called the “Father of American Ornithology”, Wilson is regarded as the greatest American ornithologist prior to Audubon.
Both Bewick and Wilson wrote the text for many of their illustrations as their fieldwork gave them considerable experience in and knowledge of ornithology Lady Gwillim, a British painter who moved to India, painted a series of about 200 watercolors of Indian birds. Produced about 20 years before John James Audubon, her work has been acclaimed for its accuracy and natural postures as they were drawn from observations of the birds in life.
Bewick put his birds in a detailed landscape while Gwillim’s backgrounds were simpler. Wilson’s paintings generally lacked much of a background but he often showed some life history tidbits like a warbler feeding a young cowbird, whose eggs were left in the warbler’s nest by the cowbird mother, a nest parasite.
As more was learned about birds and their habitat, artists realized how important it was to put birds in the context of their environment. Simply putting them on a branch or a rock was not sufficient to explain where and how they lived. Naturalists were now studying the relationships of organisms to one another and their physical habitat. Ecology, from the Greek meaning the study of home, slowly came into being.
As true today as it was then, studies of birds are at the forefront of ecological discovery. | <urn:uuid:38da33f6-6b5d-4065-a181-7ce21fe76bad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ornithology.com/birds-ornithology-and-the-great-bird-artists-continued/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00156.warc.gz | en | 0.986993 | 665 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.386869579553... | 15 | Before artists and naturalists knew much about ecology, they drew their pictures from specimens, not knowing much about them. So birds that inhabited different areas of the world, like a guinea fowl from Africa and parrots from South America were often pictured together. And the backgrounds of the pictures were landscapes of buildings, walls, castles, fences, or some other human artifacts. If the birds were put in some sort of natural setting, it wasn’t necessarily an appropriate one. But as artist/naturalists began to spend more time in the field, taking notes and sketching, paintings became to be more realistic.
During the Age of Enlightenment (c. 1715-1789) and through the 19th century in both Europe and America natural history was focused on the identification of organisms. This meant that standards of practice had to become more organized and consistent between continents. Early American naturalists used European methodology but Americans did more fieldwork and collected more specimens.
Natural history meant observing organisms and taking notes, but not necessarily in any organized or systematic manner. Notes and sketches were descriptive but they weren’t necessarily tied together. As natural history became more thoughtful, detailed, organized, and focused, so did the art that accompanied it. As field observation became more reflective of reality, so did art. Most naturalists were not trained as artists but took up art as a way to expand their study of nature. When artists took an interest in nature, their skills gave bird art real authenticity.
Thomas Bewick, an English wood engraver, is best known for his A History of British Birds, which is admired today mainly for its wood engravings. The book was the forerunner of all modern field guides. Alexander Wilson was a Scottish American poet, ornithologist, naturalist, and illustrator. Often called the “Father of American Ornithology”, Wilson is regarded as the greatest American ornithologist prior to Audubon.
Both Bewick and Wilson wrote the text for many of their illustrations as their fieldwork gave them considerable experience in and knowledge of ornithology Lady Gwillim, a British painter who moved to India, painted a series of about 200 watercolors of Indian birds. Produced about 20 years before John James Audubon, her work has been acclaimed for its accuracy and natural postures as they were drawn from observations of the birds in life.
Bewick put his birds in a detailed landscape while Gwillim’s backgrounds were simpler. Wilson’s paintings generally lacked much of a background but he often showed some life history tidbits like a warbler feeding a young cowbird, whose eggs were left in the warbler’s nest by the cowbird mother, a nest parasite.
As more was learned about birds and their habitat, artists realized how important it was to put birds in the context of their environment. Simply putting them on a branch or a rock was not sufficient to explain where and how they lived. Naturalists were now studying the relationships of organisms to one another and their physical habitat. Ecology, from the Greek meaning the study of home, slowly came into being.
As true today as it was then, studies of birds are at the forefront of ecological discovery. | 654 | ENGLISH | 1 |
15 million Jews are living in this world today, 2.2 billion Christians, and 1.8 billion Islams. Arguably, the most persecuted religion in the history of the world is Judaism. For centuries on end, the Jewish have not only been persecuted for their religion, but scapegoated for their ways of life. The Jewish were often blamed for things they did not do. For millions of years, the Jewish were constantly suffering, due to the actions of Christians and Islams; this ultimately led to the creation of Israel, and subsequently many of the conflicts in the Middle East the we see and hear about today. One of the many events of Jewish persecution that occured is The Crusades. In 1095 CE, Pope Urban II called for a holy war, which would become the first crusade. He ordered the Christians to regain the Holy Land, where Jesus grew up and preached, for themselves. Pope Urban II told the Christians that if they walk with him to Israel, they will be forgiven for all their sins, the ones they have done and the ones that have not been done, and they would also be guaranteed entrance into Heaven. On their way to Israel, the Crusaders killed all the Jewish people who were on their path. They killed the Jews because they blamed them for killing Jesus Christ. For example when first Crusade group arrived in Cologne, Germany in 1096 they left the German Jews living there alone for one month (Jewish Virtual Library). When almost all the other Crusaders arrived, they started to kill the Jewish people. The first group of Jews that the Crusaders went after were the ones who stayed in their houses. They also locked people in temples and lit the temples on fire. However, the majority of Jews that died, was not by murder, but rather by suicide because they thought it would be better to leave their lives in the hands of God, rather than the Christians. Although many of the Jews did not make it through this Crusade, most of them did not lose their faith (Kings of Israel Note Packet).In 1391 there was a massacre after King John I of Spain died, called The Massacre of 1391. This affected the Jewish community living in Spain at the time. Many of the Jews were beaten, killed, and forced to be baptized. This was really a turning point for Jews. It showed how much faith they really had in God, even though over 4,000 Jews were killed that day. Many synagogues were destroyed and overall many were murdered. After this already terrible act occurred, fourteen new laws were passed to keep the Jews in poverty. For example, they were not allowed to sell goods, wear nice clothes, or communicate in any way to the Christians. The laws not only kept the Jews in poverty but also humiliated them. After this massacre, many Jews converted to Christianity for fear of being persecuted again (Jewish Virtual Library).These past examples of persecution led to the Jewish religion suffering the most horrific act in the past millennium which was the Holocaust. The Crusades could have possibly contributed to the Holocaust because many of the Jews who were murdered by Christians were in Germany. This could have caused the Holocaust because it might have given some of the Germans ideas like how the Jews should be killed. Like the fourteen laws from the Massacre of 1391, the Nazis created certain laws about things that Jews can and cannot do. The laws from the massacre and the laws from the Holocaust are also very similar to each other. Not only did the Crusades contribute to the Holocaust, but it also contributed to all the fighting going on in Israel, like the Massacre of 1391. Pope Urban II’s goal was to go to Jerusalem and retrieve Christ’s tomb. This could have triggered all the wars of land in the middle east today because the Jewish, Christians, and Islams all believe that Israel is their so called Holy Land. Israel and Palestine both want the land that is currently Israel’s. Jews and Christians believe that Israel is the Holy Land and want to keep it that way. The Palestines believe that since they were there first, they should take control the land. For thousands of years people have been trying to take the land away from Israel. (NY Times)The Jewish have not only died for their faith but have also showed their strength, amidst all of their persecution. They show the world every day that no matter how much torture they go through, they can still be a thriving, and strong Jewish community. Even today they are still struggling with persecution, but they continue to persevere. They may be strong, but their faith is stronger. | <urn:uuid:846400f6-cf83-4b95-9862-2c0edc90bcbb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://shakespearecomputer.com/15-jews-living-there-alone-for-one-month/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.987458 | 932 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.17574310302... | 2 | 15 million Jews are living in this world today, 2.2 billion Christians, and 1.8 billion Islams. Arguably, the most persecuted religion in the history of the world is Judaism. For centuries on end, the Jewish have not only been persecuted for their religion, but scapegoated for their ways of life. The Jewish were often blamed for things they did not do. For millions of years, the Jewish were constantly suffering, due to the actions of Christians and Islams; this ultimately led to the creation of Israel, and subsequently many of the conflicts in the Middle East the we see and hear about today. One of the many events of Jewish persecution that occured is The Crusades. In 1095 CE, Pope Urban II called for a holy war, which would become the first crusade. He ordered the Christians to regain the Holy Land, where Jesus grew up and preached, for themselves. Pope Urban II told the Christians that if they walk with him to Israel, they will be forgiven for all their sins, the ones they have done and the ones that have not been done, and they would also be guaranteed entrance into Heaven. On their way to Israel, the Crusaders killed all the Jewish people who were on their path. They killed the Jews because they blamed them for killing Jesus Christ. For example when first Crusade group arrived in Cologne, Germany in 1096 they left the German Jews living there alone for one month (Jewish Virtual Library). When almost all the other Crusaders arrived, they started to kill the Jewish people. The first group of Jews that the Crusaders went after were the ones who stayed in their houses. They also locked people in temples and lit the temples on fire. However, the majority of Jews that died, was not by murder, but rather by suicide because they thought it would be better to leave their lives in the hands of God, rather than the Christians. Although many of the Jews did not make it through this Crusade, most of them did not lose their faith (Kings of Israel Note Packet).In 1391 there was a massacre after King John I of Spain died, called The Massacre of 1391. This affected the Jewish community living in Spain at the time. Many of the Jews were beaten, killed, and forced to be baptized. This was really a turning point for Jews. It showed how much faith they really had in God, even though over 4,000 Jews were killed that day. Many synagogues were destroyed and overall many were murdered. After this already terrible act occurred, fourteen new laws were passed to keep the Jews in poverty. For example, they were not allowed to sell goods, wear nice clothes, or communicate in any way to the Christians. The laws not only kept the Jews in poverty but also humiliated them. After this massacre, many Jews converted to Christianity for fear of being persecuted again (Jewish Virtual Library).These past examples of persecution led to the Jewish religion suffering the most horrific act in the past millennium which was the Holocaust. The Crusades could have possibly contributed to the Holocaust because many of the Jews who were murdered by Christians were in Germany. This could have caused the Holocaust because it might have given some of the Germans ideas like how the Jews should be killed. Like the fourteen laws from the Massacre of 1391, the Nazis created certain laws about things that Jews can and cannot do. The laws from the massacre and the laws from the Holocaust are also very similar to each other. Not only did the Crusades contribute to the Holocaust, but it also contributed to all the fighting going on in Israel, like the Massacre of 1391. Pope Urban II’s goal was to go to Jerusalem and retrieve Christ’s tomb. This could have triggered all the wars of land in the middle east today because the Jewish, Christians, and Islams all believe that Israel is their so called Holy Land. Israel and Palestine both want the land that is currently Israel’s. Jews and Christians believe that Israel is the Holy Land and want to keep it that way. The Palestines believe that since they were there first, they should take control the land. For thousands of years people have been trying to take the land away from Israel. (NY Times)The Jewish have not only died for their faith but have also showed their strength, amidst all of their persecution. They show the world every day that no matter how much torture they go through, they can still be a thriving, and strong Jewish community. Even today they are still struggling with persecution, but they continue to persevere. They may be strong, but their faith is stronger. | 958 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edward III. of Windsor—The Story of the Siege of Calais
F IVE days after the battle of Crecy, Edward began to besiege the town of Calais. He did not fight, for the fortifications were so strong that he knew it would be useless. He made his men build a ring of wooden houses round Calais, in which they could live until the people of the town were starved into giving in.
When the Governor of Calais saw what Edward was doing, he gathered all the weak, poor, and old people, who were not able to fight, and sent them out of the town. He did this so that there would be fewer people to feed, and therefore the food they had in the town would last longer.
King Edward was surprised to see all these people leave the town, and he asked them what it meant. "We have no food nor money, and cannot fight," they replied, "so the Governor has sent us away."
Then Edward, instead of making them return into the town, gave them a good dinner and some money, and allowed them to go safely through his camp, to the country beyond.
For nearly a year Calais held out bravely. Day after day the people hoped that the King of France would come with his army to help them. But day after day passed and no one came. "We have eaten everything," wrote the Governor to Philip, "even the cats, and dogs, and horses, and there is nothing left for us but to die of hunger unless you come soon. You will get no more letters from me, but if you do not come, you will hear that the town is lost and all we who are in it also."
At last one morning, the watchman on the walls saw the gleam of spears, and heard the drums and trumpet-call of the French army.
When the good news was told, the joy in Calais was great. Pale and thin from want of food, hardly able to walk or stand, the people yet crowded to the walls. Oh, what joy! At last they would be free! The king had not forgotten them.
But the day passed. There was no movement in the French
camp. No battle-cry was heard, no sounds of war.
But the next day and the next passed by, while the King of England strengthened his camp, and the King of France talked of peace.
Then one morning the sun shone upon the army of Philip of France, with its gay banners and glittering spears, as it turned and marched away, without having struck one blow for the town and its brave defenders.
Calais was left to misery and tears. All hope was lost. "Our king has forsaken us," said the people sadly.
When the Governor saw that there was indeed no hope, he mounted upon the walls, waving a white flag. King Edward saw the signal and sent two of his knights to talk with the Governor.
"Are you willing to give up the town?" they asked.
"Yes," replied the Governor, "we have kept the town well and truly for our king, but now we can hold out no longer. We have nothing more to eat, and we are all perishing of hunger. I will yield the town and castle, with all its riches and treasures, if King Edward will grant us our lives."
"Nay," replied the knights, "our noble King will not accept these terms. You and your people have been too stubborn in resisting him, and have cost him too much. You must give yourselves up, freely and entirely. Whom he pleases he will set free, whom he pleases he will put to death."
"These terms are too hard," replied the Governor, "we have only done our duty, we have fought for our King and master, as you have for yours. We know the King of England is noble and generous. It cannot be that he will deal so hardly with us. Go back, I entreat you, and beg him to have pity."
So the two knights rode back and told King Edward what the Governor had said.
But Edward was stern. "I will listen to no conditions," he said. "What! am I to wait twelve months, and then have the saucy rascals make conditions? No, let them yield themselves entirely into my hands."
But Edward's knights were so full of admiration for the noble men of Calais, and they begged their King so earnestly to be merciful, that at last he gave way.
"My lords," he said, "I cannot hold out against you all. Go back to the Governor; tell him to send to me six of the chief men of Calais. They must come dressed in their shirts, with bare heads and feet, with ropes round their necks, and with the keys of the castle and town in their hands. These six shall be mine to do with what I will. The rest shall go free."
One of the knights who had before spoken to the Governor, now returned and told him what the King had said.
"I beg of you," said the Governor, "to wait until I have spoken to the townspeople. It is they who must give the answer."
"I will wait," said the knight.
The Governor left the walls, and going to the market-place told the bellman to ring the great bell. At the sound of it all the people of Calais, both men and women, hurried to the town hall. They were full of wonder and hope. They knew something great must have happened. "What is it?" they asked, "what is it?"
When the people were all gathered together the Governor stood up among them and spoke. He told them of all that he had said and done, and what a hard answer the King of England had returned.
When he had finished speaking, the men groaned and the women wept. They were all worn with suffering and hunger. For weeks and weeks they had not had enough to eat, and they could no longer bear the pain of it. But, where would six men be found brave enough to give their lives for the others? Even the Governor who, all through the terrible year, had encouraged and cheered the people, now lost heart. Hiding his face in his hands he, too, burst into tears.
For a few minutes there was dreadful silence, broken only by low sobs. Then a brave man called Eustace de St. Pierre stood up. He was one of the richest and most important men of the town.
"Friends," he said, "it would be a great wrong to allow so many people to die if in any way it could be prevented. I have such faith and trust in God that I pray He will not forget me if I die to save my fellow townsmen. I offer myself as the first of the six."
When Eustace had finished speaking, the people crowded round him. They fell at his feet, they kissed his hands, they thanked and blessed him. Then, amidst the sobs and cries of the people, another and another man rose, till six of the richest merchants of Calais stood together, ready to die for their friends.
With ropes round their necks, with bare feet and heads, and carrying the keys of the town in their hands, these six brave men walked through the streets, followed by the townspeople, who wept and sobbed and blessed them as they went.
The Governor, who was hardly able to walk, rode before them, mounted upon a poor, little thin pony. When they came to the gates of the town, he commanded them to be opened, and the gates, which for a whole year had opened neither to friend nor foe, now swung wide. The Governor passed out and, with bent heads, the six men followed, feeling that they were saying farewell for ever to their beloved town. Then the heavy gates were closed again behind them.
The Governor led the way to the outer wall where the English knight still waited. There he stopped.
"As Governor of Calais," he said, "I deliver up to you these six citizens. I swear to you that they are no mean men, but the richest and greatest of our town. I beg of you, gentle sir, out of the goodness of your heart, to pray the King that he will not put them to death."
"I cannot answer for what the King will do," replied the knight, "but this I swear to you, I will do all that is in my power to save them."
Then the barriers were opened, the six brave men passed out, and the Governor slowly and sadly returned to the town.
The knight at once brought the six men of Calais to the King's tent. There they fell upon their knees, presenting the keys of the city to him. "We are yours to do with what you will," they said, "but, noble King, pity our misery and spare us."
The King looked at them darkly. He hated the people of Calais, not only because they had held out against him for so long, but because they often fought with his ships at sea and did them much damage. So, instead of listening to the prayers of the brave men, he ordered their heads to be cut off.
All the lords and knights round him begged him to have mercy, but he would not hear. The knight who had brought the men from Calais, begged hardest. "All the world will say that you have acted cruelly, if you put these men to death," he said. "They come of their own free will, and give themselves into your hands in order to save their fellows. Such a noble deed should be rewarded, not punished."
But the King only waved his hand, as if to say that he did not care what all the world said, and ordered the headsman to be sent for.
Then Queen Philippa fell upon her knees beside him, weeping. "Ah, my dear lord," she said, "I have never before asked a favour from you, but now I beg you, by the love you have to me, let these men go."
The King looked at her in silence, and tried to raise her from her knees, but still she knelt, and still she begged for the lives of these brave men.
"Ah, lady," said Edward at last, "I would you were anywhere but here, for I can refuse you nothing. Take the men. They are yours. Do with them as you please."
Then there was rejoicing indeed. The Queen led the men away to her own rooms. She ordered clothes to be given to them, and made a great feast for them. They had not had such a dinner for many months. When they were clothed and fed Queen Philippa sent them away, each with a large sum of money.
So ended the siege of Calais. | <urn:uuid:a5834f58-add0-4e82-84d6-d5e96b1dbe98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=calais | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00127.warc.gz | en | 0.991335 | 2,256 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.2164833843... | 8 | Edward III. of Windsor—The Story of the Siege of Calais
F IVE days after the battle of Crecy, Edward began to besiege the town of Calais. He did not fight, for the fortifications were so strong that he knew it would be useless. He made his men build a ring of wooden houses round Calais, in which they could live until the people of the town were starved into giving in.
When the Governor of Calais saw what Edward was doing, he gathered all the weak, poor, and old people, who were not able to fight, and sent them out of the town. He did this so that there would be fewer people to feed, and therefore the food they had in the town would last longer.
King Edward was surprised to see all these people leave the town, and he asked them what it meant. "We have no food nor money, and cannot fight," they replied, "so the Governor has sent us away."
Then Edward, instead of making them return into the town, gave them a good dinner and some money, and allowed them to go safely through his camp, to the country beyond.
For nearly a year Calais held out bravely. Day after day the people hoped that the King of France would come with his army to help them. But day after day passed and no one came. "We have eaten everything," wrote the Governor to Philip, "even the cats, and dogs, and horses, and there is nothing left for us but to die of hunger unless you come soon. You will get no more letters from me, but if you do not come, you will hear that the town is lost and all we who are in it also."
At last one morning, the watchman on the walls saw the gleam of spears, and heard the drums and trumpet-call of the French army.
When the good news was told, the joy in Calais was great. Pale and thin from want of food, hardly able to walk or stand, the people yet crowded to the walls. Oh, what joy! At last they would be free! The king had not forgotten them.
But the day passed. There was no movement in the French
camp. No battle-cry was heard, no sounds of war.
But the next day and the next passed by, while the King of England strengthened his camp, and the King of France talked of peace.
Then one morning the sun shone upon the army of Philip of France, with its gay banners and glittering spears, as it turned and marched away, without having struck one blow for the town and its brave defenders.
Calais was left to misery and tears. All hope was lost. "Our king has forsaken us," said the people sadly.
When the Governor saw that there was indeed no hope, he mounted upon the walls, waving a white flag. King Edward saw the signal and sent two of his knights to talk with the Governor.
"Are you willing to give up the town?" they asked.
"Yes," replied the Governor, "we have kept the town well and truly for our king, but now we can hold out no longer. We have nothing more to eat, and we are all perishing of hunger. I will yield the town and castle, with all its riches and treasures, if King Edward will grant us our lives."
"Nay," replied the knights, "our noble King will not accept these terms. You and your people have been too stubborn in resisting him, and have cost him too much. You must give yourselves up, freely and entirely. Whom he pleases he will set free, whom he pleases he will put to death."
"These terms are too hard," replied the Governor, "we have only done our duty, we have fought for our King and master, as you have for yours. We know the King of England is noble and generous. It cannot be that he will deal so hardly with us. Go back, I entreat you, and beg him to have pity."
So the two knights rode back and told King Edward what the Governor had said.
But Edward was stern. "I will listen to no conditions," he said. "What! am I to wait twelve months, and then have the saucy rascals make conditions? No, let them yield themselves entirely into my hands."
But Edward's knights were so full of admiration for the noble men of Calais, and they begged their King so earnestly to be merciful, that at last he gave way.
"My lords," he said, "I cannot hold out against you all. Go back to the Governor; tell him to send to me six of the chief men of Calais. They must come dressed in their shirts, with bare heads and feet, with ropes round their necks, and with the keys of the castle and town in their hands. These six shall be mine to do with what I will. The rest shall go free."
One of the knights who had before spoken to the Governor, now returned and told him what the King had said.
"I beg of you," said the Governor, "to wait until I have spoken to the townspeople. It is they who must give the answer."
"I will wait," said the knight.
The Governor left the walls, and going to the market-place told the bellman to ring the great bell. At the sound of it all the people of Calais, both men and women, hurried to the town hall. They were full of wonder and hope. They knew something great must have happened. "What is it?" they asked, "what is it?"
When the people were all gathered together the Governor stood up among them and spoke. He told them of all that he had said and done, and what a hard answer the King of England had returned.
When he had finished speaking, the men groaned and the women wept. They were all worn with suffering and hunger. For weeks and weeks they had not had enough to eat, and they could no longer bear the pain of it. But, where would six men be found brave enough to give their lives for the others? Even the Governor who, all through the terrible year, had encouraged and cheered the people, now lost heart. Hiding his face in his hands he, too, burst into tears.
For a few minutes there was dreadful silence, broken only by low sobs. Then a brave man called Eustace de St. Pierre stood up. He was one of the richest and most important men of the town.
"Friends," he said, "it would be a great wrong to allow so many people to die if in any way it could be prevented. I have such faith and trust in God that I pray He will not forget me if I die to save my fellow townsmen. I offer myself as the first of the six."
When Eustace had finished speaking, the people crowded round him. They fell at his feet, they kissed his hands, they thanked and blessed him. Then, amidst the sobs and cries of the people, another and another man rose, till six of the richest merchants of Calais stood together, ready to die for their friends.
With ropes round their necks, with bare feet and heads, and carrying the keys of the town in their hands, these six brave men walked through the streets, followed by the townspeople, who wept and sobbed and blessed them as they went.
The Governor, who was hardly able to walk, rode before them, mounted upon a poor, little thin pony. When they came to the gates of the town, he commanded them to be opened, and the gates, which for a whole year had opened neither to friend nor foe, now swung wide. The Governor passed out and, with bent heads, the six men followed, feeling that they were saying farewell for ever to their beloved town. Then the heavy gates were closed again behind them.
The Governor led the way to the outer wall where the English knight still waited. There he stopped.
"As Governor of Calais," he said, "I deliver up to you these six citizens. I swear to you that they are no mean men, but the richest and greatest of our town. I beg of you, gentle sir, out of the goodness of your heart, to pray the King that he will not put them to death."
"I cannot answer for what the King will do," replied the knight, "but this I swear to you, I will do all that is in my power to save them."
Then the barriers were opened, the six brave men passed out, and the Governor slowly and sadly returned to the town.
The knight at once brought the six men of Calais to the King's tent. There they fell upon their knees, presenting the keys of the city to him. "We are yours to do with what you will," they said, "but, noble King, pity our misery and spare us."
The King looked at them darkly. He hated the people of Calais, not only because they had held out against him for so long, but because they often fought with his ships at sea and did them much damage. So, instead of listening to the prayers of the brave men, he ordered their heads to be cut off.
All the lords and knights round him begged him to have mercy, but he would not hear. The knight who had brought the men from Calais, begged hardest. "All the world will say that you have acted cruelly, if you put these men to death," he said. "They come of their own free will, and give themselves into your hands in order to save their fellows. Such a noble deed should be rewarded, not punished."
But the King only waved his hand, as if to say that he did not care what all the world said, and ordered the headsman to be sent for.
Then Queen Philippa fell upon her knees beside him, weeping. "Ah, my dear lord," she said, "I have never before asked a favour from you, but now I beg you, by the love you have to me, let these men go."
The King looked at her in silence, and tried to raise her from her knees, but still she knelt, and still she begged for the lives of these brave men.
"Ah, lady," said Edward at last, "I would you were anywhere but here, for I can refuse you nothing. Take the men. They are yours. Do with them as you please."
Then there was rejoicing indeed. The Queen led the men away to her own rooms. She ordered clothes to be given to them, and made a great feast for them. They had not had such a dinner for many months. When they were clothed and fed Queen Philippa sent them away, each with a large sum of money.
So ended the siege of Calais. | 2,224 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is Faith Lapidus.
And this is Richard Rael with the VOA Special English program EXPLORATIONS. Today we begin the first of two programs about the discovery of gold. Huge amounts of gold. Enough gold to make a person extremely rich. Our story begins in an area called the Klondike in the Yukon Territory of western Canada. The discovery took place on a warm August day in eighteen ninety-six.
George Carmack and his two Indian friends, Skookum Jim Mason and Dawson Charlie, were working near the edge of a small river in western Canada’s Yukon Territory. The area was just across the border from Alaska, which was owned by the United States. The men were using large steel pans to search for gold. They placed dirt and rocks in a pan and then filled it about half way with water. Slowly, they moved the water around in the pan until most of the dirt and water washed away. This left only very small rocks.
This method was a very good way to find small amounts of gold. The three men had often worked like this in an effort to find gold. But they had never been very successful.
The three men moved along the small river as they worked. History does not say which of the three found gold first. But it does say that all three began to find large amounts.
|This is a picture of Chilkoot Pass where gold seekers needed to climb 100 years ago for the Klondike gold fields.|
In eighteen ninety-six, gold was selling for about sixteen dollars for twenty-eight grams. The three men knew they were rich after just a few days. They also knew they must go to the government office and claim the land. They had to keep their discovery a secret until they had a legal claim to the land where they had found the gold.
George Carmack, Skookum Jim Mason and Dawson Charlie were the first men to discover a great amount of gold in the Klondike. Before that August day, others had found gold, but never in huge amounts.
The three men had found one of the largest amounts of gold ever discovered lying on the surface of the Earth. The news of this discovery could not be kept secret very long. Other people quickly traveled to the area of the great Klondike River where the three had made the discovery. Some also found huge amounts of gold, enough to make them extremely rich.
On July sixteenth, eighteen ninety-seven, the ship Excelsior came into the American port of San Francisco, California. It carried the first men who had found gold in the Klondike. The next day, the ship Portland landed in Seattle, Washington. It too carried men who had found gold in the Yukon.
Clarence Berry was one of these men. He was a fruit farmer from California. He came off the ship Excelsior in San Francisco with one hundred thirty thousand dollars worth of gold. Niles Anderson came off the ship Portland with one hundred twelve thousand dollars in gold. They were only two men among more than one hundred who left the ships with huge amounts of money.
Photographs taken when the ships landed show thousands of people meeting the two ships. Newspapers printed long stories about the discovery of gold and the rich men who had just returned from the Yukon. The news quickly traveled around the world that gold had been discovered.
To understand the excitement it caused, you must understand the value of that much money at the time.In eighteen ninety-seven, a man with a good job working in New York City was paid about ten dollars each week. To earn the one hundred thirty thousand dollars that Clarence Berry took off the ship, that man would have had to work for two hundred fifty years!
People all over the world became excited about the possibility of finding gold. Newspaper stories said it was easy to find the gold. It was just lying on the ground. All you had to do was go to Alaska, and then to the Klondike area of the Yukon Territory of Canada and collect your gold.
The possibility of finding gold caused thousands of people to make plans to travel to Alaska and then to the Klondike area of the Yukon. American and Canadian experts say between twenty and thirty thousand people may have traveled to the gold fields.
These people were called “stampeders.” The word “stampede” means a mass movement of frightened animals. In eighteen ninety-seven, the word came to mean the huge groups of people running or stampeding to Alaska and the Klondike.
The people wanted a chance to become rich. The United States was suffering a great economic depression. It had begun in the southern United States as early as eighteen ninety.
By eighteen ninety-seven, thousands of people were out of work. Men who had no jobs decided to use all the money they had left to go to Alaska. Many believed that it would be worth taking a chance to become extremely rich.
Newspapers and magazines began writing stories about traveling to Alaska. Books told what a person would need to be successful at finding gold. Other books explained sure methods of finding gold.
Many of these books told people what they wanted to hear -- that finding gold in the Yukon was easy. Most of the people who wrote the books had no idea at all where the Canadian Yukon Territory was. Many did not know anything about the American territory of Alaska. The people who wrote the books had no idea what was involved. They were only interested in selling books.
Many of the people who would travel to the gold fields had no idea what they would face. They did not know about the extremely cold weather that could kill. Most did not know they would face extremely hard work and terrible living conditions.
This was not true of the Canadian government. The Canadian government knew how hard it was to live in the western part of the country. The Canadian government quickly approved a law that said each person must bring enough supplies to last for one year. This was about nine hundred kilograms of supplies.
Each person would have to bring food, tools, clothing, and everything else they needed for one year. The reason for this was very simple. There were no stores in the Yukon. There was no place to buy food. The nearest port was more than one thousand kilometers away from where the gold discovery had been made.
There were no railroads. At first, there were no roads that would permit a horse and wagon. The stampeders would have to walk all the way, and transport the supplies by themselves. The price of these supplies quickly increased.
In eighteen ninety-seven, a travel company in the middle western American city of Chicago, Illinois listed the prices of what it cost to travel to Alaska. A ticket to ride the train from Chicago to Seattle, Washington was fifty-one dollars and fifty cents. The company said a ticket on a ship from Seattle to Skagway, Alaska was thirty-five dollars.
Companies across the United States offered to sell all the supplies a gold seeker would need to take to the Klondike. Newspapers and magazines printed long lists of the supplies a stampeder would need. The price for these goods was often extremely high. The trains and the ships would carry these supplies for an additional price.
A young man who had the money to buy the supplies and the necessary tickets to travel to Alaska usually landed at the little port of Skagway. The first shipload of several hundred gold seekers landed at Skagway on July twenty-sixth, eighteen ninety-seven. Many ships quickly followed.
The little town of Skagway soon had thousands of people looking for a place to live, food to eat and directions to where they could find gold. The stampeders were in a hurry. They wanted to quickly travel to the area where they could find gold.
Many wanted to buy the rest of the supplies they would need before they began the trip into Canada. These supplies became extremely valuable. Prices increased even more. Violence and a lack of a police department soon caused problems. People fought over supplies.
The gold seekers quickly learned that life in Alaska would be extremely difficult. And they soon learned they still had more than one thousand kilometers to travel. They learned they would have to carry their supplies over high mountains. Then they would need to build a boat to travel on the Yukon River. They learned the last part of their trip would be the hardest of all. That trip and what the thousands of gold seekers found will be our story next week. | <urn:uuid:ef25ae14-2b27-41f5-b45e-651059cdab15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.voanews.cn/voase/28698.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.986661 | 1,756 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.009716740809... | 3 | This is Faith Lapidus.
And this is Richard Rael with the VOA Special English program EXPLORATIONS. Today we begin the first of two programs about the discovery of gold. Huge amounts of gold. Enough gold to make a person extremely rich. Our story begins in an area called the Klondike in the Yukon Territory of western Canada. The discovery took place on a warm August day in eighteen ninety-six.
George Carmack and his two Indian friends, Skookum Jim Mason and Dawson Charlie, were working near the edge of a small river in western Canada’s Yukon Territory. The area was just across the border from Alaska, which was owned by the United States. The men were using large steel pans to search for gold. They placed dirt and rocks in a pan and then filled it about half way with water. Slowly, they moved the water around in the pan until most of the dirt and water washed away. This left only very small rocks.
This method was a very good way to find small amounts of gold. The three men had often worked like this in an effort to find gold. But they had never been very successful.
The three men moved along the small river as they worked. History does not say which of the three found gold first. But it does say that all three began to find large amounts.
|This is a picture of Chilkoot Pass where gold seekers needed to climb 100 years ago for the Klondike gold fields.|
In eighteen ninety-six, gold was selling for about sixteen dollars for twenty-eight grams. The three men knew they were rich after just a few days. They also knew they must go to the government office and claim the land. They had to keep their discovery a secret until they had a legal claim to the land where they had found the gold.
George Carmack, Skookum Jim Mason and Dawson Charlie were the first men to discover a great amount of gold in the Klondike. Before that August day, others had found gold, but never in huge amounts.
The three men had found one of the largest amounts of gold ever discovered lying on the surface of the Earth. The news of this discovery could not be kept secret very long. Other people quickly traveled to the area of the great Klondike River where the three had made the discovery. Some also found huge amounts of gold, enough to make them extremely rich.
On July sixteenth, eighteen ninety-seven, the ship Excelsior came into the American port of San Francisco, California. It carried the first men who had found gold in the Klondike. The next day, the ship Portland landed in Seattle, Washington. It too carried men who had found gold in the Yukon.
Clarence Berry was one of these men. He was a fruit farmer from California. He came off the ship Excelsior in San Francisco with one hundred thirty thousand dollars worth of gold. Niles Anderson came off the ship Portland with one hundred twelve thousand dollars in gold. They were only two men among more than one hundred who left the ships with huge amounts of money.
Photographs taken when the ships landed show thousands of people meeting the two ships. Newspapers printed long stories about the discovery of gold and the rich men who had just returned from the Yukon. The news quickly traveled around the world that gold had been discovered.
To understand the excitement it caused, you must understand the value of that much money at the time.In eighteen ninety-seven, a man with a good job working in New York City was paid about ten dollars each week. To earn the one hundred thirty thousand dollars that Clarence Berry took off the ship, that man would have had to work for two hundred fifty years!
People all over the world became excited about the possibility of finding gold. Newspaper stories said it was easy to find the gold. It was just lying on the ground. All you had to do was go to Alaska, and then to the Klondike area of the Yukon Territory of Canada and collect your gold.
The possibility of finding gold caused thousands of people to make plans to travel to Alaska and then to the Klondike area of the Yukon. American and Canadian experts say between twenty and thirty thousand people may have traveled to the gold fields.
These people were called “stampeders.” The word “stampede” means a mass movement of frightened animals. In eighteen ninety-seven, the word came to mean the huge groups of people running or stampeding to Alaska and the Klondike.
The people wanted a chance to become rich. The United States was suffering a great economic depression. It had begun in the southern United States as early as eighteen ninety.
By eighteen ninety-seven, thousands of people were out of work. Men who had no jobs decided to use all the money they had left to go to Alaska. Many believed that it would be worth taking a chance to become extremely rich.
Newspapers and magazines began writing stories about traveling to Alaska. Books told what a person would need to be successful at finding gold. Other books explained sure methods of finding gold.
Many of these books told people what they wanted to hear -- that finding gold in the Yukon was easy. Most of the people who wrote the books had no idea at all where the Canadian Yukon Territory was. Many did not know anything about the American territory of Alaska. The people who wrote the books had no idea what was involved. They were only interested in selling books.
Many of the people who would travel to the gold fields had no idea what they would face. They did not know about the extremely cold weather that could kill. Most did not know they would face extremely hard work and terrible living conditions.
This was not true of the Canadian government. The Canadian government knew how hard it was to live in the western part of the country. The Canadian government quickly approved a law that said each person must bring enough supplies to last for one year. This was about nine hundred kilograms of supplies.
Each person would have to bring food, tools, clothing, and everything else they needed for one year. The reason for this was very simple. There were no stores in the Yukon. There was no place to buy food. The nearest port was more than one thousand kilometers away from where the gold discovery had been made.
There were no railroads. At first, there were no roads that would permit a horse and wagon. The stampeders would have to walk all the way, and transport the supplies by themselves. The price of these supplies quickly increased.
In eighteen ninety-seven, a travel company in the middle western American city of Chicago, Illinois listed the prices of what it cost to travel to Alaska. A ticket to ride the train from Chicago to Seattle, Washington was fifty-one dollars and fifty cents. The company said a ticket on a ship from Seattle to Skagway, Alaska was thirty-five dollars.
Companies across the United States offered to sell all the supplies a gold seeker would need to take to the Klondike. Newspapers and magazines printed long lists of the supplies a stampeder would need. The price for these goods was often extremely high. The trains and the ships would carry these supplies for an additional price.
A young man who had the money to buy the supplies and the necessary tickets to travel to Alaska usually landed at the little port of Skagway. The first shipload of several hundred gold seekers landed at Skagway on July twenty-sixth, eighteen ninety-seven. Many ships quickly followed.
The little town of Skagway soon had thousands of people looking for a place to live, food to eat and directions to where they could find gold. The stampeders were in a hurry. They wanted to quickly travel to the area where they could find gold.
Many wanted to buy the rest of the supplies they would need before they began the trip into Canada. These supplies became extremely valuable. Prices increased even more. Violence and a lack of a police department soon caused problems. People fought over supplies.
The gold seekers quickly learned that life in Alaska would be extremely difficult. And they soon learned they still had more than one thousand kilometers to travel. They learned they would have to carry their supplies over high mountains. Then they would need to build a boat to travel on the Yukon River. They learned the last part of their trip would be the hardest of all. That trip and what the thousands of gold seekers found will be our story next week. | 1,708 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 12th August 1602 Emperor Akbar’s vizier, Abu'l Fazl was murdered on the instigation of Akbar’s son, prince Salim (who was later known by his imperial name, Jahangir).
Abu'l Fazl, also known as Shaikh Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak was a high ranking political advisor and minister in Akbar’s court. Apart from translating the Bible into Persian, Fazl was also the author of the Akbarnama (the official history of Akbar’s life and his rule). Fazl’s brother, Faizi was a poet laureate in Akbar’s court.
Fazl was the descendent of Shaikh Musa of Sindh, who was originally from Yemen. Abu'l Fazl was born in Agra to Shaikh Mubarak, who began his son’s education with Arabic. By the time he was five, Fazl could read and write. His father also began teaching him the Islamic sciences, but Fazl found it difficult to keep pace with conventional learning and underwent a period of depression. Fazl was rescued from this situation by a friend who also helped him resume his studies.
Abu'l Fazl’s brilliance was noticeable from a young age when Fazl found a dictionary of Ishafani which had been eaten by ants. Fazl removed the parts which had been destroyed and joined blank paper to what was left and found the beginning and end of each fragment and composed a draft of it. Eventually, the entire Ishafani was discovered and when compared to Fazl’s version, it only differed in two or three places.
In 1575, Abu'l Fazl joined the court of Akbar and was highly inspired by Akbar’s secular outlook regarding religion. Fazl also led Akbar’s army in its battles in the Deccan. Akbar and Abu'l Fazl shared a strong relationship and in his writings Fazl provides a very informative description of administration, economics, social and political structure of the Mughal Empire, as well as the accomplishments of Akbar.
Akbar commissioned the Akbarnama, which would serve as a biographic account of his life and achievements which was written by Abu'l Fazl. The Akbarnama talked about Akbar, his philosophy, rule and empire and his flexible diplomacy and economic policy which enabled him to sustain his empire till the next empire. Written in two parts, the first part of the Akbarnama dealt with the reign of Akbar, his lineage and descent and the first seventeen years of his rule. The second part of the Akbarnama chronicles the life of Akbar till he was forty six years old. It was while writing the second part of the Akbarnama that Abu'l Fazl was murdered while he was on his way back from the Deccan by Vir Singh Bundela, on the command of Prince Salim, Akbar’s son. Prince Salim wanted Abu'l Fazl killed because he opposed his ascension to the Mughal throne. Fazl’s severed head was sent to the prince.
Apart from the Akbarnama, Abu'l Fazl is also remembered for his other works such as the Ruqa'at, which is a collection of private correspondence to Murad, Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani and Salim. Fazl is also known for the Insha-i-Abu'l Fazl which is a collection of official communication written by him.
Also on This Day:
1765: Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II conferred Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa on the East India Company.
1919: Nuclear scientist Ambala Sarabhai was born. | <urn:uuid:6895948c-18f7-4dc6-81b5-1741d45201b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mapsofindia.com/on-this-day/12th-august-1602-abul-fazl-akbars-vizier-was-assassinated-at-the-instigation-of-akbars-son-prince-salim | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00210.warc.gz | en | 0.98958 | 821 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.151380419731140... | 2 | On 12th August 1602 Emperor Akbar’s vizier, Abu'l Fazl was murdered on the instigation of Akbar’s son, prince Salim (who was later known by his imperial name, Jahangir).
Abu'l Fazl, also known as Shaikh Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak was a high ranking political advisor and minister in Akbar’s court. Apart from translating the Bible into Persian, Fazl was also the author of the Akbarnama (the official history of Akbar’s life and his rule). Fazl’s brother, Faizi was a poet laureate in Akbar’s court.
Fazl was the descendent of Shaikh Musa of Sindh, who was originally from Yemen. Abu'l Fazl was born in Agra to Shaikh Mubarak, who began his son’s education with Arabic. By the time he was five, Fazl could read and write. His father also began teaching him the Islamic sciences, but Fazl found it difficult to keep pace with conventional learning and underwent a period of depression. Fazl was rescued from this situation by a friend who also helped him resume his studies.
Abu'l Fazl’s brilliance was noticeable from a young age when Fazl found a dictionary of Ishafani which had been eaten by ants. Fazl removed the parts which had been destroyed and joined blank paper to what was left and found the beginning and end of each fragment and composed a draft of it. Eventually, the entire Ishafani was discovered and when compared to Fazl’s version, it only differed in two or three places.
In 1575, Abu'l Fazl joined the court of Akbar and was highly inspired by Akbar’s secular outlook regarding religion. Fazl also led Akbar’s army in its battles in the Deccan. Akbar and Abu'l Fazl shared a strong relationship and in his writings Fazl provides a very informative description of administration, economics, social and political structure of the Mughal Empire, as well as the accomplishments of Akbar.
Akbar commissioned the Akbarnama, which would serve as a biographic account of his life and achievements which was written by Abu'l Fazl. The Akbarnama talked about Akbar, his philosophy, rule and empire and his flexible diplomacy and economic policy which enabled him to sustain his empire till the next empire. Written in two parts, the first part of the Akbarnama dealt with the reign of Akbar, his lineage and descent and the first seventeen years of his rule. The second part of the Akbarnama chronicles the life of Akbar till he was forty six years old. It was while writing the second part of the Akbarnama that Abu'l Fazl was murdered while he was on his way back from the Deccan by Vir Singh Bundela, on the command of Prince Salim, Akbar’s son. Prince Salim wanted Abu'l Fazl killed because he opposed his ascension to the Mughal throne. Fazl’s severed head was sent to the prince.
Apart from the Akbarnama, Abu'l Fazl is also remembered for his other works such as the Ruqa'at, which is a collection of private correspondence to Murad, Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani and Salim. Fazl is also known for the Insha-i-Abu'l Fazl which is a collection of official communication written by him.
Also on This Day:
1765: Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II conferred Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa on the East India Company.
1919: Nuclear scientist Ambala Sarabhai was born. | 789 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Learning Goal Students will… –Analyze the growing power of Medieval Popes and their use of excommunication
A. The Pope The Pope is the traditional leader of the Catholic (“Universal”) Church, which was the only group of Christians in Europe in the Middle Ages. The Pope lives in Rome, in a place called the Vatican City (sort of like the Forbidden City in China)
Since most people could not read—and did not own a Bible—the Pope was regarded as the ultimate authority on Religious matters. From time to time, the Pope would write a letter, called a Papal Bull, which explained a religious teaching or new Church policy.
B. The Papacy The Papacy—the position (“office”) of the Pope— also had Political power. If the Pope felt someone was working against the Church (either in a Religious or Political way), he could punish the person. The worst punishment was called Excommunication.
If the Pope excommunicated someone, that person was kicked out of the Church. This means: Their marriage was made invalid Their children were made illegitimate They could not be buried in the Church cemetery They would not go to heaven when they died.
One part of Europe that refused to respect the authority of the Pope was the Byzantine Empire—especially in Constantinople. Here, the Byzantine Emperor was the head of the Orthodox Church.
In 1054AD, Pope Leo IX decided to excommunicate the Bishop of Constantinople, causing a permanent split in the Church. Christians who respected the authority of the Pope were called Roman Catholics.
Even Kings could be excommunicated, so everyone had to respect the Pope’s power, especially after Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope. Many Popes were humble men trying to live like Jesus, but others were power- hungry, and this brought them into conflict with the Kings of Europe.
C. Kings of Europe In 1000AD, there were many small kingdoms in Europe, of which England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire (Germany) were the strongest. Muslims still ruled Spain.
The main conflict occurred over who had the power to appoint Church leaders, called Bishops. Some Kings believed that, in their own Kingdoms, they should be able to choose their Bishops—the Pope disagreed.
D. Pope Gregory VII In 1073, a new Pope named Gregory VII came into conflict with Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV about a Bishop. Henry tried to have the Bishops revolt against the Pope and replace him, but instead, Pope Gregory excommunicated the Holy Roman Emperor.
Desperate to remain Emperor, Henry traveled to Rome to beg forgiveness. The Pope made the Holy Roman Emperor stand barefoot in the snow for three days before forgiving him. This showed that the Pope was more powerful than earthly Emperors. | <urn:uuid:e665c383-ad92-4e59-a161-2e523ef34853> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://slideplayer.com/slide/6334798/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00016.warc.gz | en | 0.984553 | 575 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.0746963322... | 2 | Learning Goal Students will… –Analyze the growing power of Medieval Popes and their use of excommunication
A. The Pope The Pope is the traditional leader of the Catholic (“Universal”) Church, which was the only group of Christians in Europe in the Middle Ages. The Pope lives in Rome, in a place called the Vatican City (sort of like the Forbidden City in China)
Since most people could not read—and did not own a Bible—the Pope was regarded as the ultimate authority on Religious matters. From time to time, the Pope would write a letter, called a Papal Bull, which explained a religious teaching or new Church policy.
B. The Papacy The Papacy—the position (“office”) of the Pope— also had Political power. If the Pope felt someone was working against the Church (either in a Religious or Political way), he could punish the person. The worst punishment was called Excommunication.
If the Pope excommunicated someone, that person was kicked out of the Church. This means: Their marriage was made invalid Their children were made illegitimate They could not be buried in the Church cemetery They would not go to heaven when they died.
One part of Europe that refused to respect the authority of the Pope was the Byzantine Empire—especially in Constantinople. Here, the Byzantine Emperor was the head of the Orthodox Church.
In 1054AD, Pope Leo IX decided to excommunicate the Bishop of Constantinople, causing a permanent split in the Church. Christians who respected the authority of the Pope were called Roman Catholics.
Even Kings could be excommunicated, so everyone had to respect the Pope’s power, especially after Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope. Many Popes were humble men trying to live like Jesus, but others were power- hungry, and this brought them into conflict with the Kings of Europe.
C. Kings of Europe In 1000AD, there were many small kingdoms in Europe, of which England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire (Germany) were the strongest. Muslims still ruled Spain.
The main conflict occurred over who had the power to appoint Church leaders, called Bishops. Some Kings believed that, in their own Kingdoms, they should be able to choose their Bishops—the Pope disagreed.
D. Pope Gregory VII In 1073, a new Pope named Gregory VII came into conflict with Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV about a Bishop. Henry tried to have the Bishops revolt against the Pope and replace him, but instead, Pope Gregory excommunicated the Holy Roman Emperor.
Desperate to remain Emperor, Henry traveled to Rome to beg forgiveness. The Pope made the Holy Roman Emperor stand barefoot in the snow for three days before forgiving him. This showed that the Pope was more powerful than earthly Emperors. | 568 | ENGLISH | 1 |
C diff, C. difficile, refers to clostridium difficile. This is a bacterium that most commonly affects individuals that are older and may be in the hospital or in a long term care facility. who are in the hospital or in a long term care facility. C diff often occurs after the use of antibiotic medication. However, recent studies have shown that there is an increasing rate of C diff infections among individuals who are not considered as high risk.
This includes people who are younger and healthier and do not have a history of exposure to health care facilities or the use of antibiotics. Every year in the United States there are about a half-million people who become sick from C diff. In recent years, this type of infection has become more severe and more difficult to treat. Here are 12 of the most common C diff symptoms to consider so that you know what to look for when you are feeling ill.
One of the most prevalent and common signs that shows up when a person has C diff is diarrhea. According to medical professionals, diarrhea consists of stools that are loose and watery. This occurs quite frequently. A person who is suffering from C diff may experience these types of stools up to ten times each day.
Any person that has been exposed to the bacteria spores and is suffering from loose and watery stools more than three times in a day should visit their doctor for testing. If diarrhea lasts for more than a day, it is important to go to your doctor as soon as possible. The testing of the stool will determine whether or not the bacteria is present and if there is an infection in the bowels or digestive tract. These both need to be treated right away so that the symptoms do not become worse. | <urn:uuid:f0d5bd88-ac34-465c-8300-d6994e642e8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://veryhealthy.life/12-most-common-c-diff-symptoms/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.98225 | 355 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.02961390279233... | 17 | C diff, C. difficile, refers to clostridium difficile. This is a bacterium that most commonly affects individuals that are older and may be in the hospital or in a long term care facility. who are in the hospital or in a long term care facility. C diff often occurs after the use of antibiotic medication. However, recent studies have shown that there is an increasing rate of C diff infections among individuals who are not considered as high risk.
This includes people who are younger and healthier and do not have a history of exposure to health care facilities or the use of antibiotics. Every year in the United States there are about a half-million people who become sick from C diff. In recent years, this type of infection has become more severe and more difficult to treat. Here are 12 of the most common C diff symptoms to consider so that you know what to look for when you are feeling ill.
One of the most prevalent and common signs that shows up when a person has C diff is diarrhea. According to medical professionals, diarrhea consists of stools that are loose and watery. This occurs quite frequently. A person who is suffering from C diff may experience these types of stools up to ten times each day.
Any person that has been exposed to the bacteria spores and is suffering from loose and watery stools more than three times in a day should visit their doctor for testing. If diarrhea lasts for more than a day, it is important to go to your doctor as soon as possible. The testing of the stool will determine whether or not the bacteria is present and if there is an infection in the bowels or digestive tract. These both need to be treated right away so that the symptoms do not become worse. | 347 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Robert Moses was born on December 18, 1888 in New Haven, Connecticut. His family moved to New York City in 1897. He graduated from Yale University in 1909, and then Oxford in 1913. He also earned his PhD in political science from Columbia University. Early on in his career, Moses was known for his strong command of law and engineering. He was also well known for his skills in politics.
Robert Mose's career as an urban planner included the construction of hundreds of miles of road network, designed to adapt New York State's road system to the so-called “automobile age.” These include the giant highways that leave the city into Long Island and upstate New York, served by a series of interconnecting bridges. He also built major state parks, public beaches and playgrounds found in New York, as well as the Shea Stadium and hydropower plants at both Niagara Falls and the St. Lawrence River. Other magnificent structures associated with Moses include landmarks such as the United Nations Headquarters, the Lincoln Center arts complex and the Central Park Zoo. The plans set forth by Moses over a 44-year career span incurred budgets which dwarfed any previous spending in the construction history of the US.
Moses was responsible for the creation of the Cross Bronx Expressway, a controversial artery that cuts through the center of the Bronx borough. The construction of the Expressway displaced thousands of people. The Sherdian Expressway, another divisive construction, was also born from Moses, as was the Belt Parkway in Brooklyn and Queens. The Queens Zoo, Staten Island Zoo, and Prospect Park Zoo were also all planned by Moses. Structures influenced by Moses include the New York Coliseum, Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (pictured below), and the Throgs Neck Bridge.
The work and philosophies of Robert Moses have been criticized by many, with some going so far as to say they were both racist and discriminatory. For example, the bridges he built over the Long Island parkways were deliberately low with insufficient headroom for buses, only allowing cars to make the trip. This design would render it impossible for those from low-income sectors who may be reliant on buses to make their way over to the beaches of Long Island. It is also believed that Moses placed his legendary parks, pools, and playgrounds as far as possible from minority neighborhoods as possible. The only pool he did install within walking distance of such a neighborhood was allegedly kept at icy temperatures. The methods Robert Moses used to execute his transformations were also often considered to be backwards. In total, he was responsible for the displacement of around 500,000 people who were in his line of vision. While some look at his forceful acts as cruel and uncaring, others argue that some of the removed dwellings were slums, and that those displaced were replaced with better homes. Another significant criticism of the “anti-public transportation” designs in the roads he built was his stubborn refusal to construct wide roads for train tracks to run down the middle. Restrictions placed on roads by low bridges have to a large extent contributed to the traffic problems experienced in New York today. He is accused of failing (or just refusing), to comprehend a future in New York where mass transit, bicycles or walking might play a central role.
Death and Legacy
Robert Moses was able to drive his aggressive agenda using the immense power he wielded in New York. He had wittingly managed to weave his way around the corridors of power, assuming massive control over elected political authorities, including the offices of the Mayor and the Governor. However, the "master planner" remains respected as a visionary who was always working on a plan. He is described as an “unparalleled road-builder” who was also responsible for many magnificent buildings. Somewhat ironically, Moses never learned to drive a car. He wielded both political and financial control even though he was not an elected figure and has left a legacy that can strongly be felt today, regardless of whether or not it's from a place of critique or praise.
Who Was Robert Moses?
Robert Moses as an urban planner who had a profound impact on New York City in the 20th century. Moses was responsible for the creation of the Cross Bronx Expressway, a controversial artery that cuts through the center of the Bronx borough.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:d1fae509-6e5c-4ff0-bf65-003a5d56b257> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-was-robert-moses.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00076.warc.gz | en | 0.983008 | 940 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.32604354619979... | 2 | Robert Moses was born on December 18, 1888 in New Haven, Connecticut. His family moved to New York City in 1897. He graduated from Yale University in 1909, and then Oxford in 1913. He also earned his PhD in political science from Columbia University. Early on in his career, Moses was known for his strong command of law and engineering. He was also well known for his skills in politics.
Robert Mose's career as an urban planner included the construction of hundreds of miles of road network, designed to adapt New York State's road system to the so-called “automobile age.” These include the giant highways that leave the city into Long Island and upstate New York, served by a series of interconnecting bridges. He also built major state parks, public beaches and playgrounds found in New York, as well as the Shea Stadium and hydropower plants at both Niagara Falls and the St. Lawrence River. Other magnificent structures associated with Moses include landmarks such as the United Nations Headquarters, the Lincoln Center arts complex and the Central Park Zoo. The plans set forth by Moses over a 44-year career span incurred budgets which dwarfed any previous spending in the construction history of the US.
Moses was responsible for the creation of the Cross Bronx Expressway, a controversial artery that cuts through the center of the Bronx borough. The construction of the Expressway displaced thousands of people. The Sherdian Expressway, another divisive construction, was also born from Moses, as was the Belt Parkway in Brooklyn and Queens. The Queens Zoo, Staten Island Zoo, and Prospect Park Zoo were also all planned by Moses. Structures influenced by Moses include the New York Coliseum, Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (pictured below), and the Throgs Neck Bridge.
The work and philosophies of Robert Moses have been criticized by many, with some going so far as to say they were both racist and discriminatory. For example, the bridges he built over the Long Island parkways were deliberately low with insufficient headroom for buses, only allowing cars to make the trip. This design would render it impossible for those from low-income sectors who may be reliant on buses to make their way over to the beaches of Long Island. It is also believed that Moses placed his legendary parks, pools, and playgrounds as far as possible from minority neighborhoods as possible. The only pool he did install within walking distance of such a neighborhood was allegedly kept at icy temperatures. The methods Robert Moses used to execute his transformations were also often considered to be backwards. In total, he was responsible for the displacement of around 500,000 people who were in his line of vision. While some look at his forceful acts as cruel and uncaring, others argue that some of the removed dwellings were slums, and that those displaced were replaced with better homes. Another significant criticism of the “anti-public transportation” designs in the roads he built was his stubborn refusal to construct wide roads for train tracks to run down the middle. Restrictions placed on roads by low bridges have to a large extent contributed to the traffic problems experienced in New York today. He is accused of failing (or just refusing), to comprehend a future in New York where mass transit, bicycles or walking might play a central role.
Death and Legacy
Robert Moses was able to drive his aggressive agenda using the immense power he wielded in New York. He had wittingly managed to weave his way around the corridors of power, assuming massive control over elected political authorities, including the offices of the Mayor and the Governor. However, the "master planner" remains respected as a visionary who was always working on a plan. He is described as an “unparalleled road-builder” who was also responsible for many magnificent buildings. Somewhat ironically, Moses never learned to drive a car. He wielded both political and financial control even though he was not an elected figure and has left a legacy that can strongly be felt today, regardless of whether or not it's from a place of critique or praise.
Who Was Robert Moses?
Robert Moses as an urban planner who had a profound impact on New York City in the 20th century. Moses was responsible for the creation of the Cross Bronx Expressway, a controversial artery that cuts through the center of the Bronx borough.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 946 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Images courtesy of the Coulee Pioneer Museum.
Cement Handling at Grand Coulee Dam
While many people know that a lot of cement was used in the construction of Grand Coulee Dam, what is not known is how it was handled.
Unlike bulk loading today, which uses hopper-bottom vehicles to allow the cement to pour from the bottom, such technology was not common in the 1930s. Therefore, all of the cement was loaded into boxcars. Those boxcars had a solid flat floor, and the only way to load and unload was the door in the middle of each side of the car.
Fortunately, with a project the size of Grand Coulee Dam, a technology had already been perfected in unloading bulk cement from boxcars, and had been proven in use during construction of Hoover Dam: the Fuller-Kinyon screw pump.
This screw pump was first envisioned by Alonzo Kinyon of the Fuller-Lehigh company and built in 1918 as a safe way to handle pulverized fuels. Kinyon discovered that dry pulverized materials assume a flowing, liquid-like consistency when properly mixed with air. In this fluidized condition, pulverized materials can move through a pipeline as a relatively dense column and at low velocity. He was looking for a better way to move pulverized coal, which was used as a fuel in boiler furnaces. Companies had used large fans to blow the dust through ducts, which created an explosion risk. Open conveyor belts were no better, since the dust they gave off could also spark an explosion. Area cement producers who were familiar with his product were quick to adopt his technology as a very practical means for easily moving the powdered cement. He was awarded a patent in 1925 for the pump.
Cement for Grand Coulee Dam was obtained from five cement mills located within the State of Washington. It was transported in bulk via boxcars which held about 266 barrels of cement, with one barrel equaling 300 lbs of cement. Boxcars were pulled up an incline to the unloading area. Unloading from there was accomplished by four Fuller-Kinyon pumps, each of which resembled a large vacuum. A horizontal, rotating disk, running close to the floor of the car, caused the cement to flow into the open end of a small chamber containing a motor-driven screw, which forced the cement into a five-inch pipe. Near the junction of the screw casing and the delivery pipe, compressed air was admitted. The cement was then forced through hose and piping into the silos. While earlier pumps were controlled by levers, later pumps at the dam were operated by a wand with mercury-filled switches in it. The operator could control the operation of all five of the motors on the pump, moving it in any direction or changing the rate of feed by a mere tilt of the hand.
Two men were used to unload each car. One handled the controls of the pump and the other helped to clean up the car as the machine moved along.
Each pump could operate at 600 barrels, or 180,000 lbs per hour, and the record for unloading was set on November 1, 1939 when one pump emptied 130 boxcars of cement in one day, or a little over 10 million pounds.
Storage of the cement was in eight 5,000-barrel steel silos along the tracks, which equaled about 12 million pounds of cement. In addition to the silos were two 5,000-barrel silos for storing the blended product from the mills.
From the silos, screw conveyors brought the material into the two 5,000-barrel blending silos in the proper ratio. Underneath those silos were two compression chambers, each with a capacity of 50 barrels or 15,000 lbs of cement. Compressed air was used to blow the cement from the chambers via an 11-inch pipeline to the mixing plants. The pipe line running to the west side mixing plant was 2,000 feet in length, while the line to the east side was 6,000 feet long. There the cement was mixed into concrete and placed as needed throughout the dam site.
Movement of the empty boxcars was accomplished by gravity. The brakes were released and the empty cars were rolled down the inclined track, past an automatic track switch, and up to the end of a steep grade. From there, they again rolled back and onto the main track, where they were moved away by a locomotive, to be returned to the cement mills for refilling. | <urn:uuid:60e68f73-43e4-433a-b079-bae7be07b8ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bigbendrailroadhistory.com/2019/12/cement-handling-at-grand-coulee-dam.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.984324 | 927 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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Cement Handling at Grand Coulee Dam
While many people know that a lot of cement was used in the construction of Grand Coulee Dam, what is not known is how it was handled.
Unlike bulk loading today, which uses hopper-bottom vehicles to allow the cement to pour from the bottom, such technology was not common in the 1930s. Therefore, all of the cement was loaded into boxcars. Those boxcars had a solid flat floor, and the only way to load and unload was the door in the middle of each side of the car.
Fortunately, with a project the size of Grand Coulee Dam, a technology had already been perfected in unloading bulk cement from boxcars, and had been proven in use during construction of Hoover Dam: the Fuller-Kinyon screw pump.
This screw pump was first envisioned by Alonzo Kinyon of the Fuller-Lehigh company and built in 1918 as a safe way to handle pulverized fuels. Kinyon discovered that dry pulverized materials assume a flowing, liquid-like consistency when properly mixed with air. In this fluidized condition, pulverized materials can move through a pipeline as a relatively dense column and at low velocity. He was looking for a better way to move pulverized coal, which was used as a fuel in boiler furnaces. Companies had used large fans to blow the dust through ducts, which created an explosion risk. Open conveyor belts were no better, since the dust they gave off could also spark an explosion. Area cement producers who were familiar with his product were quick to adopt his technology as a very practical means for easily moving the powdered cement. He was awarded a patent in 1925 for the pump.
Cement for Grand Coulee Dam was obtained from five cement mills located within the State of Washington. It was transported in bulk via boxcars which held about 266 barrels of cement, with one barrel equaling 300 lbs of cement. Boxcars were pulled up an incline to the unloading area. Unloading from there was accomplished by four Fuller-Kinyon pumps, each of which resembled a large vacuum. A horizontal, rotating disk, running close to the floor of the car, caused the cement to flow into the open end of a small chamber containing a motor-driven screw, which forced the cement into a five-inch pipe. Near the junction of the screw casing and the delivery pipe, compressed air was admitted. The cement was then forced through hose and piping into the silos. While earlier pumps were controlled by levers, later pumps at the dam were operated by a wand with mercury-filled switches in it. The operator could control the operation of all five of the motors on the pump, moving it in any direction or changing the rate of feed by a mere tilt of the hand.
Two men were used to unload each car. One handled the controls of the pump and the other helped to clean up the car as the machine moved along.
Each pump could operate at 600 barrels, or 180,000 lbs per hour, and the record for unloading was set on November 1, 1939 when one pump emptied 130 boxcars of cement in one day, or a little over 10 million pounds.
Storage of the cement was in eight 5,000-barrel steel silos along the tracks, which equaled about 12 million pounds of cement. In addition to the silos were two 5,000-barrel silos for storing the blended product from the mills.
From the silos, screw conveyors brought the material into the two 5,000-barrel blending silos in the proper ratio. Underneath those silos were two compression chambers, each with a capacity of 50 barrels or 15,000 lbs of cement. Compressed air was used to blow the cement from the chambers via an 11-inch pipeline to the mixing plants. The pipe line running to the west side mixing plant was 2,000 feet in length, while the line to the east side was 6,000 feet long. There the cement was mixed into concrete and placed as needed throughout the dam site.
Movement of the empty boxcars was accomplished by gravity. The brakes were released and the empty cars were rolled down the inclined track, past an automatic track switch, and up to the end of a steep grade. From there, they again rolled back and onto the main track, where they were moved away by a locomotive, to be returned to the cement mills for refilling. | 960 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Soldiers as Readers
This chapter explores soldiers as readers and considers what their reading preferences might tell us about their imaginative and intellectual experiences. Reading choices made by soldiers at war were thus complicated and, while they were shaped by influences such as publishers, charity organizations or military authorities. Evidence on literacy for Australian soldiers in World War I needs to be extrapolated from several sources. The military did not compile data on literacy rates. In Australia, a similar public patriotic culture was evident. The importance of education at a more formal level will be examined in more detail in; however, here it can be noted that many soldiers wanted to study either to assist them in their post-war lives or to provide them with useful, or even essential, information in wartime conditions. Sentimental and adventure fiction offered this escape most clearly, but non-fiction, too, gave soldiers a means through which they could turn their minds away from war. | <urn:uuid:744aa180-03c6-4729-900c-cf8044c65a6e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315569772/chapters/10.4324/9781315569772-3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.982419 | 184 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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This chapter explores soldiers as readers and considers what their reading preferences might tell us about their imaginative and intellectual experiences. Reading choices made by soldiers at war were thus complicated and, while they were shaped by influences such as publishers, charity organizations or military authorities. Evidence on literacy for Australian soldiers in World War I needs to be extrapolated from several sources. The military did not compile data on literacy rates. In Australia, a similar public patriotic culture was evident. The importance of education at a more formal level will be examined in more detail in; however, here it can be noted that many soldiers wanted to study either to assist them in their post-war lives or to provide them with useful, or even essential, information in wartime conditions. Sentimental and adventure fiction offered this escape most clearly, but non-fiction, too, gave soldiers a means through which they could turn their minds away from war. | 183 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Five for one
Charles XII came to the throne at the age of 15. By that time he already knew three foreign languages, brilliantly knew mathematics and engineering, and was considered one of the best riders in Europe.
Formally, the regency was established under him, for such was the deathbed will of his father Charles XI. But the young king could not accept this. He gained recognition of himself as an adult and by personal royal decree abolished the regency, becoming a full-fledged and full-fledged ruler of Sweden. The young monarch received a truly mighty state as an inheritance from his father. In the 17th century, Sweden, for the first time after a long break, returned to the international arena. The return was triumphant and overwhelming. Sweden entered the Thirty Years War, concluding an alliance with France. It was these two powers that ultimately benefited the most from the Peace of Westphalia, which put an end to this long conflict.
After that, Sweden continued to impose its order in Eastern Europe. In 1655, King Charles X Gustav invaded the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Those events went down in history under the name "Swedish Flood". By the end of the 17th century, namely, the very same year, 1697, when Charles XII came to the throne, his power controlled the Baltic Sea. Here the Swedish rules and the Swedish order acted, which, of course, did not like the neighboring powers, who decided to use the inexperience of the new king to end the Swedish hegemony. Thus arose the triple alliance of Denmark, Poland and Russia, also supported by Saxony and Hanover. 18-year-old Karl was left alone against five rivals. England and Holland gave him only moral support, agreeing not to get involved in the conflict. However, the Swedish king perfectly managed without their help. In the early stages of the Northern War, he managed to show his best qualities - determination and boldness. It was with this that he, in the end, deserved a comparison with Alexander the Great.
Denmark wanted to take possession of the Swedish territories on the continent and in Prussia. It was there that the main forces of the Danish army were sent. And then Karl decided on a desperate and extremely risky move. Gathering a small squadron and a 15,000-strong army, he crossed the tiny strait separating Sweden from Denmark, and landed right under the walls of Copenhagen. It was a stunning blow. The Danish capital was well fortified, but its garrison was less than 4,000 thousand. Copenhagen was not preparing for a long siege, and the Danish fleet was blocked by a small Swedish squadron. King Frederick IV was so frightened by the prospect of losing the capital that he asked for peace. True, he had to accept all the conditions of his Swedish cousin.
Battle of Narva
As a result, Denmark abandoned its territorial claims, paid the indemnity and pledged not to wage hostilities for the next 9 years. Karl XII, thus, led the enemy out of the war in just a few weeks. He did not sit in Denmark, and almost immediately sailed to the Baltic States, where Russian troops besieged Narva and the Baltic States. And here all the same simple and daring methods were used - suddenness and decisiveness. Karl rejected the idea of maneuvers, long constructions and the search for a vantage point. Youthful maximalism demanded to attack, so Karl always acted. Under his command there were 9 thousand people and 37 guns, while Narva was besieged by the main forces of Peter’s army - 40 thousand soldiers, plus almost 140 guns. The Swedes made a march to the fortress, despite the strongest snowstorm and gusting wind, which allowed them to approach the enemy from the rear and go unnoticed. After that, Karl decisively attacked the Russian positions, taking advantage of the fact that the forces of de Croix, who led the siege of Narva, were stretched for several kilometers along the front line. The Swedes broke through the enemy's ranks in several places at once, forcing De Croix to capitulate, the stunned army, which had lost its commander, began to randomly retreat, trying to cross Narova on a single bridge.
But this bridge could not stand it and foully collapsed. Karl XII achieved a decisive and dizzying victory. Having lost about 600 people, he destroyed one-fifth of the army of de Croix, capturing all its artillery with the royal treasury to boot. And here before the young monarch there was a choice of what to do next. To continue the Russian campaign and go to Moscow to force Russia to capitulate, or to attack Poland with Saxony. Karl chose the second option, thereby making his first fatal mistake.
The first fatal mistake
However, in Poland, things were going like clockwork. It all began with a victory at Kleshov, thanks to which Karl earned a flattering comparison for himself with Alexander the Great. The 12,000-strong Swedish corps was halted by the Polish-Saxon army, which forced him to retreat to a dense and massive forest. At nightfall, Charles raised his troops and ordered them to go through the forest. Under the pouring rain, the army passed through the thickets, coming out to the enemy positions in the morning, right near their right flank, where the Saxon forces were stationed. The Swedes launched a rapid offensive, knocked over the astonished enemy and ended the battle in a few hours. Karl lost 300 people, Poland and Saxony - ten times more.
It was in 1702 that Karl planned to end the war with Poland and Saxony in the next 7–8 months, but it didn’t work. The world that marked his victory was signed only in 1706. Karl forced the Polish king Augustus II (he was the elector of Saxony) to abdicate the throne. The Polish throne was raised by the protégé of Sweden Stanislav Leschinsky. Karl was at the peak of fame, and his power at the top of his power. In Europe, he spoke about the Swedish king as being about the new Alexander the Great. They admired his victories, some of them wrote poems and pamphlets. Louis XIV sent Karl a white horse as a sign of admiration and friendship. True, the Swedish king never received this gift. The war continued and, unexpectedly, took a very bad turn for Sweden.
Triumph really quickly ceased to be a triumph. The Swedish aristocracy, dissatisfied with the absence of the king, took control of internal affairs into its own hands, partially canceling the reforms carried out by Charles's father. The king received an urgent report urging him to return to Stockholm. Karl promised to return as soon as he won the war. At that moment it seemed to him that this was a matter of the strength of one and a half years. In fact, he was not destined to see Stockholm again. Leaving the capital in 1700, Karl did not know that he would not return to this city anymore. While the new Alexander conquered Poland, Peter I returned to the Baltic States. The largest Swedish fortresses were captured, and a new city was laid at the mouth of the Neva. At the council, Field Marshal Ronsheld suggested that Charles XII return by sea to Sweden, and then, through Finland, attack Russia from the north and repel the Baltic States. This plan was smart, but not brash enough for 24-year-old Carl. He already had a reputation as a man who ended the war with the defeat of the enemy and nothing else. There could not be a couple of victories and a profitable world. There should have been an absolute triumph with the complete surrender of the enemy. So, the king who was at the zenith of glory made the second fatal mistake.
The second fatal mistake
At the very same council where Ronsheld advised to return to Sweden, Karl decided to go to Moscow. The Swedish king wanted to attack the Russian capital as he did with the capitals of Denmark and Poland. The trouble is that the campaign was coming long, and Karl was in too much of a hurry. Tedious fees and training, he instructed General Adam Levengauptu, and he hastily departed for Little Russia. There were reasons for this. Karl already knew that Ivan Mazepa was going to take his side and made a bet on the sudden betrayal of the Ukrainian hetman. Löwenhaupt, however, waited for the arrival of reinforcements from Sweden and moved with his body to join up with the king. But Peter well knew about the Swedish maneuvers and skillfully took advantage of the fact that the enemy army was separated.
He overtook Levengaupt’s corps and utterly defeated him at the Battle of Lesnaya. Later, Peter will call victory at the Forest Mother of Poltava Victoria. Why? Yes, simply because the first happened nine months before the second. Karl, meanwhile, unsuccessfully besieged Poltava. Having received news of the defeat of Levengaupt, he retreated to regroup. Somewhat later, Russian troops cut off the Swedes from supplies. The situation has become critical. Ronsheld again advised the king to abandon ambitious plans. It was still not too late to return to Poland, to sail from there to Sweden and go from the north. The king called Field Marshal a coward, stating that he would go to the end. "We will crush the Russians," he said, "and then we will conclude an alliance with the Sultan." But in the battle of Poltava, luck changed Karl XII. His plan was never communicated to the commanders. For unclear reasons, they received different instructions. Some were supposed to storm the redoubts, others - to bypass them. Confusion broke the very first blow that always brought victory to the king. The offensive was crumpled, and the troops were caught off guard by a counterattack. Even the betrayal of Mazepa did not help. However, the worst for the Swedes, part of the battle was a retreat, which escalated into a disorderly flight. His final chord was the capitulation of Perevolochny, where significant forces of Charles XII's army were blocked and surrounded. The Swedish king lost everything. Army, strategic initiative and support for their soldiers and commanders. In some ways, he even lost his own country, for the way back to Sweden was now cut off to him. Karl fled to the Ottoman Empire and camped in Bender. Sultan Ahmed III warmly welcomed Charles and allowed him to stay in Bendery for as long as he wished, promising, moreover, protection from Peter.
In the next few years, the Swedish king sat in his camp, trying to come up with a plan for B. He tried to call for reinforcements from Sweden, demanding that the squadron bring troops to him by sea, rounding Europe. He frantically sought allies, urging Ahmed to declare war on Russia. By this he only set up the sultan against himself. The Ottoman ruler ordered his guest to get out of Bender. Carl refused. Then the Janissaries were sent to the city with a rather broad mandate to take action. “Expel, in case of resistance to arrest, if something goes wrong - kill”. Karl resisted for three weeks. In one of the clashes, he lost the tip of his nose. When the situation became critical, the Swedish king broke through the encirclement and hurriedly left the camp. In that fight, he showed so much stubbornness and courage that the Janissaries called him "Iron Head".
Shot skull of Charles XII
The loss of the tip of the nose, by the way, did not change Carl’s habits. He fled to Sweden through insurgent Poland, risking capture. He behaved cautiously, fought off the chase twice, and got injured three times. Nevertheless, he crossed Europe in just 15 days, suddenly appearing in Sweden at the moment when everyone thought he was languishing in Ottoman captivity. Karl was unable to restore order in his country. He tried to make peace with Russia, but having been refused, announced that he would continue the war and invade Norway, which was under the power of Denmark. First of all, he besieged the fortress of Fredriksen. This was his last battle. The king led the construction of the fortifications when a stray bullet pierced his head. Carl was killed outright. There are still legends and disputes around his death. It is believed that the Swedish king fell victim to a conspiracy of disaffected nobles. Anyway, Karl became the last European monarch, who died on the battlefield and, it seems, the last person who was compared with Alexander the Great. His life is one complete paradox. Over 18 years of endless campaigns and battles, he won many great victories, but they were all crossed out by a single defeat. This defeat wiped out not only the past successes of Charles, it put an end to further ambitions of Sweden. As a result of the Northern War, it lost its leading position in Europe and control over the Baltic Sea. Karl was the brilliant commander whose rule had disastrous consequences for his country. But here is the next paradox: it remains one of the most respected and revered rulers of Sweden in all its long history. | <urn:uuid:e58f0fd1-2219-43ca-a270-bbc15f7ce96d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.broadwayblogspot.com/340-iron-head.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.983212 | 2,715 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1891206800937652... | 1 | Five for one
Charles XII came to the throne at the age of 15. By that time he already knew three foreign languages, brilliantly knew mathematics and engineering, and was considered one of the best riders in Europe.
Formally, the regency was established under him, for such was the deathbed will of his father Charles XI. But the young king could not accept this. He gained recognition of himself as an adult and by personal royal decree abolished the regency, becoming a full-fledged and full-fledged ruler of Sweden. The young monarch received a truly mighty state as an inheritance from his father. In the 17th century, Sweden, for the first time after a long break, returned to the international arena. The return was triumphant and overwhelming. Sweden entered the Thirty Years War, concluding an alliance with France. It was these two powers that ultimately benefited the most from the Peace of Westphalia, which put an end to this long conflict.
After that, Sweden continued to impose its order in Eastern Europe. In 1655, King Charles X Gustav invaded the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Those events went down in history under the name "Swedish Flood". By the end of the 17th century, namely, the very same year, 1697, when Charles XII came to the throne, his power controlled the Baltic Sea. Here the Swedish rules and the Swedish order acted, which, of course, did not like the neighboring powers, who decided to use the inexperience of the new king to end the Swedish hegemony. Thus arose the triple alliance of Denmark, Poland and Russia, also supported by Saxony and Hanover. 18-year-old Karl was left alone against five rivals. England and Holland gave him only moral support, agreeing not to get involved in the conflict. However, the Swedish king perfectly managed without their help. In the early stages of the Northern War, he managed to show his best qualities - determination and boldness. It was with this that he, in the end, deserved a comparison with Alexander the Great.
Denmark wanted to take possession of the Swedish territories on the continent and in Prussia. It was there that the main forces of the Danish army were sent. And then Karl decided on a desperate and extremely risky move. Gathering a small squadron and a 15,000-strong army, he crossed the tiny strait separating Sweden from Denmark, and landed right under the walls of Copenhagen. It was a stunning blow. The Danish capital was well fortified, but its garrison was less than 4,000 thousand. Copenhagen was not preparing for a long siege, and the Danish fleet was blocked by a small Swedish squadron. King Frederick IV was so frightened by the prospect of losing the capital that he asked for peace. True, he had to accept all the conditions of his Swedish cousin.
Battle of Narva
As a result, Denmark abandoned its territorial claims, paid the indemnity and pledged not to wage hostilities for the next 9 years. Karl XII, thus, led the enemy out of the war in just a few weeks. He did not sit in Denmark, and almost immediately sailed to the Baltic States, where Russian troops besieged Narva and the Baltic States. And here all the same simple and daring methods were used - suddenness and decisiveness. Karl rejected the idea of maneuvers, long constructions and the search for a vantage point. Youthful maximalism demanded to attack, so Karl always acted. Under his command there were 9 thousand people and 37 guns, while Narva was besieged by the main forces of Peter’s army - 40 thousand soldiers, plus almost 140 guns. The Swedes made a march to the fortress, despite the strongest snowstorm and gusting wind, which allowed them to approach the enemy from the rear and go unnoticed. After that, Karl decisively attacked the Russian positions, taking advantage of the fact that the forces of de Croix, who led the siege of Narva, were stretched for several kilometers along the front line. The Swedes broke through the enemy's ranks in several places at once, forcing De Croix to capitulate, the stunned army, which had lost its commander, began to randomly retreat, trying to cross Narova on a single bridge.
But this bridge could not stand it and foully collapsed. Karl XII achieved a decisive and dizzying victory. Having lost about 600 people, he destroyed one-fifth of the army of de Croix, capturing all its artillery with the royal treasury to boot. And here before the young monarch there was a choice of what to do next. To continue the Russian campaign and go to Moscow to force Russia to capitulate, or to attack Poland with Saxony. Karl chose the second option, thereby making his first fatal mistake.
The first fatal mistake
However, in Poland, things were going like clockwork. It all began with a victory at Kleshov, thanks to which Karl earned a flattering comparison for himself with Alexander the Great. The 12,000-strong Swedish corps was halted by the Polish-Saxon army, which forced him to retreat to a dense and massive forest. At nightfall, Charles raised his troops and ordered them to go through the forest. Under the pouring rain, the army passed through the thickets, coming out to the enemy positions in the morning, right near their right flank, where the Saxon forces were stationed. The Swedes launched a rapid offensive, knocked over the astonished enemy and ended the battle in a few hours. Karl lost 300 people, Poland and Saxony - ten times more.
It was in 1702 that Karl planned to end the war with Poland and Saxony in the next 7–8 months, but it didn’t work. The world that marked his victory was signed only in 1706. Karl forced the Polish king Augustus II (he was the elector of Saxony) to abdicate the throne. The Polish throne was raised by the protégé of Sweden Stanislav Leschinsky. Karl was at the peak of fame, and his power at the top of his power. In Europe, he spoke about the Swedish king as being about the new Alexander the Great. They admired his victories, some of them wrote poems and pamphlets. Louis XIV sent Karl a white horse as a sign of admiration and friendship. True, the Swedish king never received this gift. The war continued and, unexpectedly, took a very bad turn for Sweden.
Triumph really quickly ceased to be a triumph. The Swedish aristocracy, dissatisfied with the absence of the king, took control of internal affairs into its own hands, partially canceling the reforms carried out by Charles's father. The king received an urgent report urging him to return to Stockholm. Karl promised to return as soon as he won the war. At that moment it seemed to him that this was a matter of the strength of one and a half years. In fact, he was not destined to see Stockholm again. Leaving the capital in 1700, Karl did not know that he would not return to this city anymore. While the new Alexander conquered Poland, Peter I returned to the Baltic States. The largest Swedish fortresses were captured, and a new city was laid at the mouth of the Neva. At the council, Field Marshal Ronsheld suggested that Charles XII return by sea to Sweden, and then, through Finland, attack Russia from the north and repel the Baltic States. This plan was smart, but not brash enough for 24-year-old Carl. He already had a reputation as a man who ended the war with the defeat of the enemy and nothing else. There could not be a couple of victories and a profitable world. There should have been an absolute triumph with the complete surrender of the enemy. So, the king who was at the zenith of glory made the second fatal mistake.
The second fatal mistake
At the very same council where Ronsheld advised to return to Sweden, Karl decided to go to Moscow. The Swedish king wanted to attack the Russian capital as he did with the capitals of Denmark and Poland. The trouble is that the campaign was coming long, and Karl was in too much of a hurry. Tedious fees and training, he instructed General Adam Levengauptu, and he hastily departed for Little Russia. There were reasons for this. Karl already knew that Ivan Mazepa was going to take his side and made a bet on the sudden betrayal of the Ukrainian hetman. Löwenhaupt, however, waited for the arrival of reinforcements from Sweden and moved with his body to join up with the king. But Peter well knew about the Swedish maneuvers and skillfully took advantage of the fact that the enemy army was separated.
He overtook Levengaupt’s corps and utterly defeated him at the Battle of Lesnaya. Later, Peter will call victory at the Forest Mother of Poltava Victoria. Why? Yes, simply because the first happened nine months before the second. Karl, meanwhile, unsuccessfully besieged Poltava. Having received news of the defeat of Levengaupt, he retreated to regroup. Somewhat later, Russian troops cut off the Swedes from supplies. The situation has become critical. Ronsheld again advised the king to abandon ambitious plans. It was still not too late to return to Poland, to sail from there to Sweden and go from the north. The king called Field Marshal a coward, stating that he would go to the end. "We will crush the Russians," he said, "and then we will conclude an alliance with the Sultan." But in the battle of Poltava, luck changed Karl XII. His plan was never communicated to the commanders. For unclear reasons, they received different instructions. Some were supposed to storm the redoubts, others - to bypass them. Confusion broke the very first blow that always brought victory to the king. The offensive was crumpled, and the troops were caught off guard by a counterattack. Even the betrayal of Mazepa did not help. However, the worst for the Swedes, part of the battle was a retreat, which escalated into a disorderly flight. His final chord was the capitulation of Perevolochny, where significant forces of Charles XII's army were blocked and surrounded. The Swedish king lost everything. Army, strategic initiative and support for their soldiers and commanders. In some ways, he even lost his own country, for the way back to Sweden was now cut off to him. Karl fled to the Ottoman Empire and camped in Bender. Sultan Ahmed III warmly welcomed Charles and allowed him to stay in Bendery for as long as he wished, promising, moreover, protection from Peter.
In the next few years, the Swedish king sat in his camp, trying to come up with a plan for B. He tried to call for reinforcements from Sweden, demanding that the squadron bring troops to him by sea, rounding Europe. He frantically sought allies, urging Ahmed to declare war on Russia. By this he only set up the sultan against himself. The Ottoman ruler ordered his guest to get out of Bender. Carl refused. Then the Janissaries were sent to the city with a rather broad mandate to take action. “Expel, in case of resistance to arrest, if something goes wrong - kill”. Karl resisted for three weeks. In one of the clashes, he lost the tip of his nose. When the situation became critical, the Swedish king broke through the encirclement and hurriedly left the camp. In that fight, he showed so much stubbornness and courage that the Janissaries called him "Iron Head".
Shot skull of Charles XII
The loss of the tip of the nose, by the way, did not change Carl’s habits. He fled to Sweden through insurgent Poland, risking capture. He behaved cautiously, fought off the chase twice, and got injured three times. Nevertheless, he crossed Europe in just 15 days, suddenly appearing in Sweden at the moment when everyone thought he was languishing in Ottoman captivity. Karl was unable to restore order in his country. He tried to make peace with Russia, but having been refused, announced that he would continue the war and invade Norway, which was under the power of Denmark. First of all, he besieged the fortress of Fredriksen. This was his last battle. The king led the construction of the fortifications when a stray bullet pierced his head. Carl was killed outright. There are still legends and disputes around his death. It is believed that the Swedish king fell victim to a conspiracy of disaffected nobles. Anyway, Karl became the last European monarch, who died on the battlefield and, it seems, the last person who was compared with Alexander the Great. His life is one complete paradox. Over 18 years of endless campaigns and battles, he won many great victories, but they were all crossed out by a single defeat. This defeat wiped out not only the past successes of Charles, it put an end to further ambitions of Sweden. As a result of the Northern War, it lost its leading position in Europe and control over the Baltic Sea. Karl was the brilliant commander whose rule had disastrous consequences for his country. But here is the next paradox: it remains one of the most respected and revered rulers of Sweden in all its long history. | 2,744 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Had Martin Luther King, Jr. not been killed as he stood on the Lorraine Motel’s second-floor balcony on that spring evening in 1968, it’s almost certain that the Baptist preacher would have remained a powerful voice against injustice. While King would have spoken out against racism in the ensuing years, it’s important to remember that the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner had begun to pivot his activism to economic inequality and antiwar causes by the time of his death, says Stanford historian Clayborne Carson, who also serves as director of the university’s Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute. It was economic inequality and fair housing that led him to march through a rainstorm of bottles and bricks in Chicago in 1966 and drew him to Memphis in support of striking sanitation workers.
“I don’t think of him primarily as a civil rights leader during the last years of his life,” Carson tells HISTORY. “Once the Voting Rights Act passed in 1965, his goals extended beyond civil rights at that point. In his Nobel Prize lecture he pointed out the triple evils in the world. Racial oppression was one, but poverty and war were the other two, and those were what he had turned his attention to.”
“The entrenched racism King confronted during his trip to Chicago in 1966 and the escalation of the Vietnam War broadened his understanding of civil rights to include the entire national landscape and the nation’s role abroad,” says Lillie Edwards, professor emerita of history and African-American studies at Drew University. “By 1968, this broader landscape signaled that he was fully engaged in keeping pace with new arenas of social justice and willing to embrace new paradigms and new strategies.”
High on King’s list of plans was the Poor People’s Campaign, which he had announced in November 1967 along with other civil rights leaders. He planned for an initial group of 2,000 impoverished Americans of all races to descend upon Washington, D.C., in May 1968 to lobby for an “economic bill of rights” that included jobs, unemployment insurance, a fair minimum wage and more low-income housing.
Before they could march into the nation’s capital, however, King’s followers found themselves marching behind a a mule-drawn wagon bearing his casket through the streets of Atlanta. The Poor People’s Campaign went on as scheduled, but it floundered without King’s leadership. The “economic bill of rights” never came to fruition.
Edwards says King’s presence would have boosted the profile of subsequent anti-poverty campaigns. “Supporting garbage workers in Memphis signals to us that King would have been a hands-on participant in movements to empower the poor and working class. His presence would have provided additional gravitas, leverage and media attention to local movements that the media and general population might have ignored,” she says.
Had King lived, he likely would have continued to speak out against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Exactly one year before his death, King delivered one of the most controversial speeches of his life inside Manhattan’s Riverside Church in which he called the U.S. government “the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today” and said it was morally indefensible to send African-American troops to “guarantee liberties in Southeast Asia which they had not found in southwest Georgia and East Harlem.”
While some argue that racial relations would have been different had King lived, Carson says that expectations that King could have dramatically altered the ensuing direction of the civil rights movement, “economic bill of rights” and Vietnam War discount the power of the turning tide of the country. “The United States is like an ocean liner. One person is not going to change its momentum and direction. Even a great individual would not be able to turn it around and make it go in a different direction. The basic attitudes of people don’t change rapidly, and the nation was heading in a much more conservative direction after the 1964 election. We entered an era in which it was difficult enough to defend the gains that had been made before.”
In the year before King’s death, peace advocates tried to draft him to join a third-party antiwar ticket to run with pediatrician Benjamin Spock in the 1968 presidential election. King ultimately decided against a try for political office, and Carson doesn’t believe that he would ever have done so in the future, unlike civil rights leaders such as Andrew Young and Jesse Jackson who were at King’s side when he died. “He made a decision that he was not going to be a candidate for office,” Carson says. “He would continue to be a voice in the political arena but as a private citizen.”
Ironically, there may never have been a federal holiday honoring King had he not been killed so suddenly in 1968. King was not a universally revered figure at the time of his assassination. In the five years leading up to his death, King appeared on the top 10 of Gallup’s most-admired list only twice—in 1964 and 1965. In 1967 Alabama’s segregationist governor, George Wallace, ranked eighth on the list, while King could not crack the top 10. Gallup reported that nearly twice as many Americans in 1966 had a negative view of King as a positive one—and that was even prior to his controversial Riverside Church speech. By 1999, however, a Gallup poll found that King ranked behind only Mother Teresa as the century’s most-admired person.
Edward says public memory of King would have been quite different had he lived. “King is a martyr whose nobility of consciousness—non-violence—is embedded in the American and international consciousness,” she says. “However, King’s martyrdom has also diluted, if not erased, the power of his militant and revolutionary messages about human dignity and taking immediate rather than piecemeal action. Some people find it easy to embrace what I call ‘the birthday King’ who is devoid of urgency and militancy. The public has framed a ‘moderate’ King as a foil to a ‘militant’ Malcolm X for this reason.”
Death brought King a reverence that never existed during his life, and in 1983 the federal government designated his birthday as an annual holiday. “If he had lived, there clearly wouldn’t be a Martin Luther King holiday,” Carson says. “I think it was easier to see the idea of the holiday when he was no longer around.” | <urn:uuid:be642116-c423-4a1b-8712-01939e268a51> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.history.com/news/alternate-take-what-if-martin-luther-king-hadnt-been-killed | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.983123 | 1,386 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.07237620651721... | 9 | Had Martin Luther King, Jr. not been killed as he stood on the Lorraine Motel’s second-floor balcony on that spring evening in 1968, it’s almost certain that the Baptist preacher would have remained a powerful voice against injustice. While King would have spoken out against racism in the ensuing years, it’s important to remember that the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner had begun to pivot his activism to economic inequality and antiwar causes by the time of his death, says Stanford historian Clayborne Carson, who also serves as director of the university’s Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute. It was economic inequality and fair housing that led him to march through a rainstorm of bottles and bricks in Chicago in 1966 and drew him to Memphis in support of striking sanitation workers.
“I don’t think of him primarily as a civil rights leader during the last years of his life,” Carson tells HISTORY. “Once the Voting Rights Act passed in 1965, his goals extended beyond civil rights at that point. In his Nobel Prize lecture he pointed out the triple evils in the world. Racial oppression was one, but poverty and war were the other two, and those were what he had turned his attention to.”
“The entrenched racism King confronted during his trip to Chicago in 1966 and the escalation of the Vietnam War broadened his understanding of civil rights to include the entire national landscape and the nation’s role abroad,” says Lillie Edwards, professor emerita of history and African-American studies at Drew University. “By 1968, this broader landscape signaled that he was fully engaged in keeping pace with new arenas of social justice and willing to embrace new paradigms and new strategies.”
High on King’s list of plans was the Poor People’s Campaign, which he had announced in November 1967 along with other civil rights leaders. He planned for an initial group of 2,000 impoverished Americans of all races to descend upon Washington, D.C., in May 1968 to lobby for an “economic bill of rights” that included jobs, unemployment insurance, a fair minimum wage and more low-income housing.
Before they could march into the nation’s capital, however, King’s followers found themselves marching behind a a mule-drawn wagon bearing his casket through the streets of Atlanta. The Poor People’s Campaign went on as scheduled, but it floundered without King’s leadership. The “economic bill of rights” never came to fruition.
Edwards says King’s presence would have boosted the profile of subsequent anti-poverty campaigns. “Supporting garbage workers in Memphis signals to us that King would have been a hands-on participant in movements to empower the poor and working class. His presence would have provided additional gravitas, leverage and media attention to local movements that the media and general population might have ignored,” she says.
Had King lived, he likely would have continued to speak out against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Exactly one year before his death, King delivered one of the most controversial speeches of his life inside Manhattan’s Riverside Church in which he called the U.S. government “the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today” and said it was morally indefensible to send African-American troops to “guarantee liberties in Southeast Asia which they had not found in southwest Georgia and East Harlem.”
While some argue that racial relations would have been different had King lived, Carson says that expectations that King could have dramatically altered the ensuing direction of the civil rights movement, “economic bill of rights” and Vietnam War discount the power of the turning tide of the country. “The United States is like an ocean liner. One person is not going to change its momentum and direction. Even a great individual would not be able to turn it around and make it go in a different direction. The basic attitudes of people don’t change rapidly, and the nation was heading in a much more conservative direction after the 1964 election. We entered an era in which it was difficult enough to defend the gains that had been made before.”
In the year before King’s death, peace advocates tried to draft him to join a third-party antiwar ticket to run with pediatrician Benjamin Spock in the 1968 presidential election. King ultimately decided against a try for political office, and Carson doesn’t believe that he would ever have done so in the future, unlike civil rights leaders such as Andrew Young and Jesse Jackson who were at King’s side when he died. “He made a decision that he was not going to be a candidate for office,” Carson says. “He would continue to be a voice in the political arena but as a private citizen.”
Ironically, there may never have been a federal holiday honoring King had he not been killed so suddenly in 1968. King was not a universally revered figure at the time of his assassination. In the five years leading up to his death, King appeared on the top 10 of Gallup’s most-admired list only twice—in 1964 and 1965. In 1967 Alabama’s segregationist governor, George Wallace, ranked eighth on the list, while King could not crack the top 10. Gallup reported that nearly twice as many Americans in 1966 had a negative view of King as a positive one—and that was even prior to his controversial Riverside Church speech. By 1999, however, a Gallup poll found that King ranked behind only Mother Teresa as the century’s most-admired person.
Edward says public memory of King would have been quite different had he lived. “King is a martyr whose nobility of consciousness—non-violence—is embedded in the American and international consciousness,” she says. “However, King’s martyrdom has also diluted, if not erased, the power of his militant and revolutionary messages about human dignity and taking immediate rather than piecemeal action. Some people find it easy to embrace what I call ‘the birthday King’ who is devoid of urgency and militancy. The public has framed a ‘moderate’ King as a foil to a ‘militant’ Malcolm X for this reason.”
Death brought King a reverence that never existed during his life, and in 1983 the federal government designated his birthday as an annual holiday. “If he had lived, there clearly wouldn’t be a Martin Luther King holiday,” Carson says. “I think it was easier to see the idea of the holiday when he was no longer around.” | 1,340 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Getting the kids to use inquiry and having to teach certain skills can prove to be challenging at times. As the very nature of PE itself requires us to teach the kids many different technical skills related to sport, getting the kids to wonder, create, explore, and question about these skills, in my opinion, is the first step in the inquiry process.
We are currently in the third week of our net games unit in grade 4 at Nanjing International School. As we are really beginning to fine tune our skills related to net games, having the kids begin to explore different types of shots was my focus of this week. There are numerous ways in which to achieve this goal such as me modeling the skills for the kids or showing You Tube video clips of good players executing various styles of shots.
Although this way of teaching is effective, I believe that having the kids actually inquire into all the different ways to hit shots in net games would take on more significance in this learning journey. So, bearing this in mind, I challenged them to put their amazing imaginations to work in a fun net games related activity that I called ‘The Changing Walls, Ceiling, Net, and Floor Space Game’.
Resources Needed (the more variation of equipment the better)
Ping Pong Paddles
Ping Pong Balls
Large Plastic Paddles
4 cones per pair
Aim of the Game
Working with a partner, the students had to imagine that they were playing a net game inside of an imaginary room. They had to decide how high the walls and ceiling were, how high the net was, and how much floor space there was. The 4 cones given to them would act as corners of the room and would indicate to them the amount of floor space that they had. For example, they could have very high walls and a high ceiling, but very little floor space or they could have very narrow but long floor space and medium height walls and ceiling (with a low net). Whatever combination they came up with, they had to experiment with different types of equipment and playing the shots required considering the size of the room, height of the walls and ceiling, and height of the net.
They played the game for a few minutes and then would switch all aspects of the room. Once they changed all aspects, they had to discuss and practice which shots were needed. They were allowed to change equipment whenever they wanted.
I can say for certain that the students were fully engaged in this task with imaginations running wild. However, most importantly, as the assessment shows, the students were generally able to identify all sorts of different style shots that they had to play. These were some of their answers; high-long, low, soft, hard, far, close, arching. I made it very clear that it didn’t matter if they could or could not play the shot because what was most important was them showing an understanding of the shots required.
The Assessment Task
I gave them their assessment sheets and they had to draw the rooms that they had created in their imaginations with their partner. They had to describe which shots were easy and which shots were most difficult. As well, some chose to use colored lines to indicate different ball flights.
In next week’s lesson, we will now begin to break down each of the shots they identified and show how these shots are used in actual play. We will do a number of mini-drills aimed at helping them to practice these different types of shots. I believe this to be a strong example of how inquiry can be used to effectively teach skills in PE. Please see example of student assessment below.
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0.353571... | 11 | Getting the kids to use inquiry and having to teach certain skills can prove to be challenging at times. As the very nature of PE itself requires us to teach the kids many different technical skills related to sport, getting the kids to wonder, create, explore, and question about these skills, in my opinion, is the first step in the inquiry process.
We are currently in the third week of our net games unit in grade 4 at Nanjing International School. As we are really beginning to fine tune our skills related to net games, having the kids begin to explore different types of shots was my focus of this week. There are numerous ways in which to achieve this goal such as me modeling the skills for the kids or showing You Tube video clips of good players executing various styles of shots.
Although this way of teaching is effective, I believe that having the kids actually inquire into all the different ways to hit shots in net games would take on more significance in this learning journey. So, bearing this in mind, I challenged them to put their amazing imaginations to work in a fun net games related activity that I called ‘The Changing Walls, Ceiling, Net, and Floor Space Game’.
Resources Needed (the more variation of equipment the better)
Ping Pong Paddles
Ping Pong Balls
Large Plastic Paddles
4 cones per pair
Aim of the Game
Working with a partner, the students had to imagine that they were playing a net game inside of an imaginary room. They had to decide how high the walls and ceiling were, how high the net was, and how much floor space there was. The 4 cones given to them would act as corners of the room and would indicate to them the amount of floor space that they had. For example, they could have very high walls and a high ceiling, but very little floor space or they could have very narrow but long floor space and medium height walls and ceiling (with a low net). Whatever combination they came up with, they had to experiment with different types of equipment and playing the shots required considering the size of the room, height of the walls and ceiling, and height of the net.
They played the game for a few minutes and then would switch all aspects of the room. Once they changed all aspects, they had to discuss and practice which shots were needed. They were allowed to change equipment whenever they wanted.
I can say for certain that the students were fully engaged in this task with imaginations running wild. However, most importantly, as the assessment shows, the students were generally able to identify all sorts of different style shots that they had to play. These were some of their answers; high-long, low, soft, hard, far, close, arching. I made it very clear that it didn’t matter if they could or could not play the shot because what was most important was them showing an understanding of the shots required.
The Assessment Task
I gave them their assessment sheets and they had to draw the rooms that they had created in their imaginations with their partner. They had to describe which shots were easy and which shots were most difficult. As well, some chose to use colored lines to indicate different ball flights.
In next week’s lesson, we will now begin to break down each of the shots they identified and show how these shots are used in actual play. We will do a number of mini-drills aimed at helping them to practice these different types of shots. I believe this to be a strong example of how inquiry can be used to effectively teach skills in PE. Please see example of student assessment below.
KAUST Faculty, Pedagogical Coach. Presenter & Workshop Leader.IB Educator. #RunYourLife podcast host. | 752 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was Martin of Tours?
Question: "Who was Martin of Tours?"
Answer: Martin of Tours (335–397) was the Bishop of Tours in Gaul (modern France) and became the patron saint of France. He was the first non-martyr to be canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church. Much of what we know of Martin comes from the writings of Sulpicius Severus, who is said to have known him personally.
Martin was born to pagan parents in Sabarria, Pannonia (modern Hungary). At age 15 he joined the military. However, after three years, Martin converted to Christianity as the result of a vision of Christ. The story of his vision is one of the things that Martin of Tours is best known for. It is said that, as a young soldier, Martin cut his cloak in half so that he could help clothe a beggar in winter. That night in a dream Martin heard Christ say that Martin had clothed Him. When Martin awoke, the cloak was whole again. This prompted him to be baptized as an act of conversion.
Ultimately, Martin left military service as he felt that he could not fight in good conscience as a Christian. Instead, he became a monk and a hermit and helped to establish the first monastery in Gaul.
In AD 371 or 372 Martin reluctantly became the bishop of Tours. (It is reported that he was lured to the city by being told that he needed to minister to someone who was sick. The perpetrators knew he would not refuse to go.) Even serving as bishop, Martin continued to live the monastic lifestyle and encouraged others to adopt it as well, and monasticism began to spread throughout the country. He also encouraged evangelization of rural areas and established rural parishes throughout Gaul. He actively participated in the destruction of pagan shrines and temples. As the interruptions and distractions of his position became too great, he and a group of disciples moved to a more remote location, where he continued to live as a monk.
Martin of Tours is also known for his intervention on behalf of Priscillian, a Spanish bishop accused of heresy and immorality. Although Priscillian was not condemned by the church, the Emperor Maximus charged him with sorcery and condemned him to death. Martin pled for mercy on Priscillian’s behalf because he did not believe that the state should enforce punishments for ecclesiastical offenses. Although Maximus promised to spare Priscillian, he broke his promise and executed the heretic; this act was denounced by Martin of Tours.
Upon Martin of Tour’s death, a huge crowd attended his funeral, and his successor built a chapel at Tours in his honor. Martin is the first non-martyr to be venerated as a saint. The veneration of St. Martin has taken on a life of its own and has become a significant cultural force in France over the centuries.
Much is unknown about the life of Martin of Tours. From what we do know, we can praise Martin’s commitment to charity while at the same time rejecting his promotion of Catholic doctrine and the unbiblical practice of monasticism.
Recommended Resource: The Presence of God: Its Place in the Storyline of Scripture and the Story of Our Lives by Lister & Schreiner
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Should a Christian be a monk?
What is New Monasticism?
Who was Benedict of Nursia? What is the Rule of Saint Benedict?
What is quietism?
Who are the Franciscans?
Questions about Church History
Who was Martin of Tours? | <urn:uuid:c4627aa3-456a-4c6e-a801-5bb8e5dc3600> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gotquestions.org/Martin-of-Tours.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.985419 | 749 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1734136044979... | 1 | Who was Martin of Tours?
Question: "Who was Martin of Tours?"
Answer: Martin of Tours (335–397) was the Bishop of Tours in Gaul (modern France) and became the patron saint of France. He was the first non-martyr to be canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church. Much of what we know of Martin comes from the writings of Sulpicius Severus, who is said to have known him personally.
Martin was born to pagan parents in Sabarria, Pannonia (modern Hungary). At age 15 he joined the military. However, after three years, Martin converted to Christianity as the result of a vision of Christ. The story of his vision is one of the things that Martin of Tours is best known for. It is said that, as a young soldier, Martin cut his cloak in half so that he could help clothe a beggar in winter. That night in a dream Martin heard Christ say that Martin had clothed Him. When Martin awoke, the cloak was whole again. This prompted him to be baptized as an act of conversion.
Ultimately, Martin left military service as he felt that he could not fight in good conscience as a Christian. Instead, he became a monk and a hermit and helped to establish the first monastery in Gaul.
In AD 371 or 372 Martin reluctantly became the bishop of Tours. (It is reported that he was lured to the city by being told that he needed to minister to someone who was sick. The perpetrators knew he would not refuse to go.) Even serving as bishop, Martin continued to live the monastic lifestyle and encouraged others to adopt it as well, and monasticism began to spread throughout the country. He also encouraged evangelization of rural areas and established rural parishes throughout Gaul. He actively participated in the destruction of pagan shrines and temples. As the interruptions and distractions of his position became too great, he and a group of disciples moved to a more remote location, where he continued to live as a monk.
Martin of Tours is also known for his intervention on behalf of Priscillian, a Spanish bishop accused of heresy and immorality. Although Priscillian was not condemned by the church, the Emperor Maximus charged him with sorcery and condemned him to death. Martin pled for mercy on Priscillian’s behalf because he did not believe that the state should enforce punishments for ecclesiastical offenses. Although Maximus promised to spare Priscillian, he broke his promise and executed the heretic; this act was denounced by Martin of Tours.
Upon Martin of Tour’s death, a huge crowd attended his funeral, and his successor built a chapel at Tours in his honor. Martin is the first non-martyr to be venerated as a saint. The veneration of St. Martin has taken on a life of its own and has become a significant cultural force in France over the centuries.
Much is unknown about the life of Martin of Tours. From what we do know, we can praise Martin’s commitment to charity while at the same time rejecting his promotion of Catholic doctrine and the unbiblical practice of monasticism.
Recommended Resource: The Presence of God: Its Place in the Storyline of Scripture and the Story of Our Lives by Lister & Schreiner
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Should a Christian be a monk?
What is New Monasticism?
Who was Benedict of Nursia? What is the Rule of Saint Benedict?
What is quietism?
Who are the Franciscans?
Questions about Church History
Who was Martin of Tours? | 749 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of China in Chinese Literary Works
China is one of the most ancient countries of the world, and its history is reflected in the Asian literature. Both works Journey to the West and The Battle of Coxinga depict historical events, which took place in China at various times of its history. Thus, the author of Journey to the West describes the famous travel of Ch’en Kuang-jui for sacred scriptures of Buddhism to India. This is a real epic work, which became a literary masterpiece, as a beautiful legend about life and deeds of the real historical personality of Ch’en Kuang-jui. The second work, The Battle of Coxinga, was written by the famous Japan play writer, Chikamatsu Monzaemon. It is about the real historical event of the liberation of China from the Tartar invasion at the 1640s. The main character of the play, Coxinga, was a real historical personality, and the author described his life and struggle in the realistic form. Both works depict Buddhist China and life there at the seventh and seventeenth centuries. The goal of the paper is the comparison of both texts and historical events for making conclusions about life in China of the Ming Dynasty. The main idea is that the China society was a sole patriarchal family, in which each member knew his or her own place and role, what and how act for the common wealth and prosperity. Such a tragic event as committing suicide was a part of both moral and religious norms, and it was not considered as a crime against a personality. Moreover, personal relations between citizens of China depended on the China’s rulers.
Journey to the West was written by Wu Cheng’en in the sixteenth century, when the Ming Dynasty ruled there. The author depicts events, which took place in China in the seventh century when a monk of Jingtu Temple, Ch’en Kuang-jui left Chang’an to bring sacred Buddhist scriptures from India. The main character had multiple adventures on his way, and various spiritual forces helped him to achieve the goal. Anthony Yu, a contemporary translator of the work, reveals the major virtue of Buddhism. Ch’en Kuang-jui rejected the help of Monkey King, who had killed six robbers with a heavy steel rod. He asked, “How can you be a monk when you take life without cause? We who have left the family should ‘Keep ants out of harm’s way when we sweep the floor, and put shades on lamps for the love of moths” (Yu, 1977, p. 308). Hence, according to Buddhism, nobody can kill even a moth because it is considered to be a sin. At the same time, committing suicide was considered as a normal deed in Buddhist countries. Even killing own children for the sake of the Emperor’s ones was not considered as a crime. It was a major contradiction in the Buddhist religion, which emphasized the real tragic situation in the life of the Chinese. At those times, a human life was not cherished in the country, but the Chinese, as well as other Buddhists, had made cults of domestic and wild animals according their religion.
A play, The Battles of Coxinga was created by a famous Japanese play writer, Chikamatsu Monzaemon, and its first night took place on November 26, 1715 in the Japanese City of Osaka. The events, depicted in the play, happened in China in the 1640-s, when hostile Tartar tribes wanted to seize China by eliminating the ruling Dynasty of Ming. The ground for it was a promise, given the Tartars by General of the Right, Ri Toten for grain, which saved the Chinese from famine. Counselor Go Sankei with his wife, who recently born the son, did their best to save the dynasty, but both women perished. Go Sankei saved Emperor’s son, but he had to kill his own. From the point of view contemporary laws, Go Sankei committed a crime. According to Buddhism, Go Sankei should not kill his child, but his title and devotion to Emperor forced him make this decision. Thus, the author turned him into a hero, who had followed the famous national Japanese Samurai Code of a personal duty before the ruler. Therefore, it was not a crime from the point of view of Monzaemon.
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The next moment in both works is a place of women in the Chinese society. As it was shown in the works, they were the most rightless people in China. For instance, any will of a husband should be fulfilled without delaying. Any objections were prohibited, and the Chinese authorities punished women for it. Moreover, a family of such a woman suffered from disgrace and accusations. In Journey to the West, a daughter of the chief minister, Wen-chiao and Ch’en Kuang-jui became husbands. Chi’en Kuang-jui got an official post and went with his wife and mother-in-law to other town to work. While their travelling, the mother-in-law felt ill, and they had to leave her to stay in the inn. Two boatmen killed Kuang-jui and thrown him into the river. One of them forced Wen-chiao to become his wife and arrived in the town and took the office instead of Ch’en Kuang-jui. Wen-chiao gave birth to a son of Ch’en Kuang-jui, but the boatman made her get rid of the child. Therefore, she had to put her son on a piece of wood to save his life. In result, monks from a Buddhist temple found her son, who lived there for eighteen years. The mother-in-law lived in the inn for eighteen years as well because nobody took her from there. The most interesting thing, her husband did not send servants to find her. Therefore, she had to live in poverty and starvation. The submission to the fate, helpless before difficulties, and obedience to the husband were the major virtues of women under Buddhism.
In the book of The Battles of Coxinga, these virtues are depicted in the scene, when Coxinga was departing for China with his father and mother. He left his wife and Sendan in Japan. As Komutsu states, “I feel now like the women for whom they named the Watching Wife Mountain of China and the Scarf-waving Mountain of Japan. I shall not move” (p. 222). Komutsu said that she would never leave the place waiting for her husband. Therefore, Komutsu and Sendan lived there until Coxinga took them to China.
The next tragic moments depicted in both books, are the suicides, committed by women. Thus, in Journey to the West, Wen-chiao killed herself for the disgrace, which she had taken while living with the boatman. The author explains that Wen-chiao could not do it before because she was pregnant, and she could not kill her child. Nonetheless, she saw a dream, in which she would meet her relatives. After meeting with her husband, son, mother, and father, Wen-chiao committed the suicide. It was her duty before the family and parents.
In The Battles of Coxinga, Coxinga’s mother and step-sister killed themselves. Thus, firstly the mother saved her step-daughter, intervening into Kinki’s discussion with Kinshojo. He wanted to kill his wife to avoid gossips. As a matter of fact, Kinki agreed to help Coxinga with liberating China from the Tartars. He had a multiple army for this purpose, but people’s opinion would be crucial. They could think his wife to command him. Thus, the only thing to avoid gossips was to kill Kinshojo. Therefore, it was a major reason for the young woman to kill herself. Of course, her Japanese step-mother could not bear this grief, and committed the suicide also.
In both works, relatives endured their grief on parting with their beloved and dear daughters and mothers. They cherished religious and national traditions, considering it was better to endure the grief and live as respectful persons, than to be disgraced for the rest of their life. Chikamatsu proved with his humanism that such fragile people as Kinshojo and Coxinga’s mother changed the course of history, and China was liberated by the forces of good. Their deaths united in the grief both families of Coxinga and Kinki, making them allies in the struggle against Tartar invaders. At the same time, a deep belief to get happier life via reincarnation gave them hopes and power.
The role of women in the Chinese society was very important despite their rightlessness. According to the national hierarchy, women had ranks, which gave them right to have servants. As a rule, the real master of these servants was a husband, and his will was the order for the whole family. At the same time, his wife could give orders to them. Furthermore, girls from the richest families could choose their husbands, as it is described in Journey to the West. Of course, in this case, the chosen man could not reject from his future wife. As a matter of fact, he became a master, and his future wife was obliged to fulfill all his orders.
In The Battles of Coxinga, the author described how Chinese women fought against enemies. As a matter of fact, they could take part in fights as ordinary warriors. It proves the statement that Chinese women were servants for their husbands. In this case, their fighting was an ordinary errand of their masters. Of course, in the case of death of the husband, the woman could not exist as an equal right member of the society. She had to choose one way: to commit suicide or become a slave in a rich family. As a rule, these women served for men killed their husbands.
Committing suicide was not considered a crime in the Chinese society because it was the shortest way to rich a new perfect life. Furthermore, the suicide will liberate women from possible enslavement by enemies of their family. In both books the Buddhist ideology described in the scenes of suicides, when relatives were in grief, but at the same time, they had a strong hope for meeting with their women in the future life. Therefore, the Chinese did not consider death as the end. They believed in their future life, which could become after their death.
After analyzing both books, one can make the conclusion that the Chinese women did not have any right to doubt or object any will of their masters irrespective to their rank in the society. They could have slaves or servants, give them orders, punish them, but at the same time, only their husbands were real masters. Moreover, women had to commit suicide for the sake of their husbands. The Chinese men could not listen to their wives’ opinions because gossips would turn them in laughing stocks, which was the greatest disgrace. In this case, only death of their wives could save men from all bad lucks. Both books are real masterpieces of the world’s historical literature. | <urn:uuid:08c04d0c-0947-4443-8a0a-47848c457cde> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://123helpme.org/essays/history-of-china-in-chinese-literary-works/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00502.warc.gz | en | 0.986029 | 2,474 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.4086293578147... | 1 | History of China in Chinese Literary Works
China is one of the most ancient countries of the world, and its history is reflected in the Asian literature. Both works Journey to the West and The Battle of Coxinga depict historical events, which took place in China at various times of its history. Thus, the author of Journey to the West describes the famous travel of Ch’en Kuang-jui for sacred scriptures of Buddhism to India. This is a real epic work, which became a literary masterpiece, as a beautiful legend about life and deeds of the real historical personality of Ch’en Kuang-jui. The second work, The Battle of Coxinga, was written by the famous Japan play writer, Chikamatsu Monzaemon. It is about the real historical event of the liberation of China from the Tartar invasion at the 1640s. The main character of the play, Coxinga, was a real historical personality, and the author described his life and struggle in the realistic form. Both works depict Buddhist China and life there at the seventh and seventeenth centuries. The goal of the paper is the comparison of both texts and historical events for making conclusions about life in China of the Ming Dynasty. The main idea is that the China society was a sole patriarchal family, in which each member knew his or her own place and role, what and how act for the common wealth and prosperity. Such a tragic event as committing suicide was a part of both moral and religious norms, and it was not considered as a crime against a personality. Moreover, personal relations between citizens of China depended on the China’s rulers.
Journey to the West was written by Wu Cheng’en in the sixteenth century, when the Ming Dynasty ruled there. The author depicts events, which took place in China in the seventh century when a monk of Jingtu Temple, Ch’en Kuang-jui left Chang’an to bring sacred Buddhist scriptures from India. The main character had multiple adventures on his way, and various spiritual forces helped him to achieve the goal. Anthony Yu, a contemporary translator of the work, reveals the major virtue of Buddhism. Ch’en Kuang-jui rejected the help of Monkey King, who had killed six robbers with a heavy steel rod. He asked, “How can you be a monk when you take life without cause? We who have left the family should ‘Keep ants out of harm’s way when we sweep the floor, and put shades on lamps for the love of moths” (Yu, 1977, p. 308). Hence, according to Buddhism, nobody can kill even a moth because it is considered to be a sin. At the same time, committing suicide was considered as a normal deed in Buddhist countries. Even killing own children for the sake of the Emperor’s ones was not considered as a crime. It was a major contradiction in the Buddhist religion, which emphasized the real tragic situation in the life of the Chinese. At those times, a human life was not cherished in the country, but the Chinese, as well as other Buddhists, had made cults of domestic and wild animals according their religion.
A play, The Battles of Coxinga was created by a famous Japanese play writer, Chikamatsu Monzaemon, and its first night took place on November 26, 1715 in the Japanese City of Osaka. The events, depicted in the play, happened in China in the 1640-s, when hostile Tartar tribes wanted to seize China by eliminating the ruling Dynasty of Ming. The ground for it was a promise, given the Tartars by General of the Right, Ri Toten for grain, which saved the Chinese from famine. Counselor Go Sankei with his wife, who recently born the son, did their best to save the dynasty, but both women perished. Go Sankei saved Emperor’s son, but he had to kill his own. From the point of view contemporary laws, Go Sankei committed a crime. According to Buddhism, Go Sankei should not kill his child, but his title and devotion to Emperor forced him make this decision. Thus, the author turned him into a hero, who had followed the famous national Japanese Samurai Code of a personal duty before the ruler. Therefore, it was not a crime from the point of view of Monzaemon.
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The next moment in both works is a place of women in the Chinese society. As it was shown in the works, they were the most rightless people in China. For instance, any will of a husband should be fulfilled without delaying. Any objections were prohibited, and the Chinese authorities punished women for it. Moreover, a family of such a woman suffered from disgrace and accusations. In Journey to the West, a daughter of the chief minister, Wen-chiao and Ch’en Kuang-jui became husbands. Chi’en Kuang-jui got an official post and went with his wife and mother-in-law to other town to work. While their travelling, the mother-in-law felt ill, and they had to leave her to stay in the inn. Two boatmen killed Kuang-jui and thrown him into the river. One of them forced Wen-chiao to become his wife and arrived in the town and took the office instead of Ch’en Kuang-jui. Wen-chiao gave birth to a son of Ch’en Kuang-jui, but the boatman made her get rid of the child. Therefore, she had to put her son on a piece of wood to save his life. In result, monks from a Buddhist temple found her son, who lived there for eighteen years. The mother-in-law lived in the inn for eighteen years as well because nobody took her from there. The most interesting thing, her husband did not send servants to find her. Therefore, she had to live in poverty and starvation. The submission to the fate, helpless before difficulties, and obedience to the husband were the major virtues of women under Buddhism.
In the book of The Battles of Coxinga, these virtues are depicted in the scene, when Coxinga was departing for China with his father and mother. He left his wife and Sendan in Japan. As Komutsu states, “I feel now like the women for whom they named the Watching Wife Mountain of China and the Scarf-waving Mountain of Japan. I shall not move” (p. 222). Komutsu said that she would never leave the place waiting for her husband. Therefore, Komutsu and Sendan lived there until Coxinga took them to China.
The next tragic moments depicted in both books, are the suicides, committed by women. Thus, in Journey to the West, Wen-chiao killed herself for the disgrace, which she had taken while living with the boatman. The author explains that Wen-chiao could not do it before because she was pregnant, and she could not kill her child. Nonetheless, she saw a dream, in which she would meet her relatives. After meeting with her husband, son, mother, and father, Wen-chiao committed the suicide. It was her duty before the family and parents.
In The Battles of Coxinga, Coxinga’s mother and step-sister killed themselves. Thus, firstly the mother saved her step-daughter, intervening into Kinki’s discussion with Kinshojo. He wanted to kill his wife to avoid gossips. As a matter of fact, Kinki agreed to help Coxinga with liberating China from the Tartars. He had a multiple army for this purpose, but people’s opinion would be crucial. They could think his wife to command him. Thus, the only thing to avoid gossips was to kill Kinshojo. Therefore, it was a major reason for the young woman to kill herself. Of course, her Japanese step-mother could not bear this grief, and committed the suicide also.
In both works, relatives endured their grief on parting with their beloved and dear daughters and mothers. They cherished religious and national traditions, considering it was better to endure the grief and live as respectful persons, than to be disgraced for the rest of their life. Chikamatsu proved with his humanism that such fragile people as Kinshojo and Coxinga’s mother changed the course of history, and China was liberated by the forces of good. Their deaths united in the grief both families of Coxinga and Kinki, making them allies in the struggle against Tartar invaders. At the same time, a deep belief to get happier life via reincarnation gave them hopes and power.
The role of women in the Chinese society was very important despite their rightlessness. According to the national hierarchy, women had ranks, which gave them right to have servants. As a rule, the real master of these servants was a husband, and his will was the order for the whole family. At the same time, his wife could give orders to them. Furthermore, girls from the richest families could choose their husbands, as it is described in Journey to the West. Of course, in this case, the chosen man could not reject from his future wife. As a matter of fact, he became a master, and his future wife was obliged to fulfill all his orders.
In The Battles of Coxinga, the author described how Chinese women fought against enemies. As a matter of fact, they could take part in fights as ordinary warriors. It proves the statement that Chinese women were servants for their husbands. In this case, their fighting was an ordinary errand of their masters. Of course, in the case of death of the husband, the woman could not exist as an equal right member of the society. She had to choose one way: to commit suicide or become a slave in a rich family. As a rule, these women served for men killed their husbands.
Committing suicide was not considered a crime in the Chinese society because it was the shortest way to rich a new perfect life. Furthermore, the suicide will liberate women from possible enslavement by enemies of their family. In both books the Buddhist ideology described in the scenes of suicides, when relatives were in grief, but at the same time, they had a strong hope for meeting with their women in the future life. Therefore, the Chinese did not consider death as the end. They believed in their future life, which could become after their death.
After analyzing both books, one can make the conclusion that the Chinese women did not have any right to doubt or object any will of their masters irrespective to their rank in the society. They could have slaves or servants, give them orders, punish them, but at the same time, only their husbands were real masters. Moreover, women had to commit suicide for the sake of their husbands. The Chinese men could not listen to their wives’ opinions because gossips would turn them in laughing stocks, which was the greatest disgrace. In this case, only death of their wives could save men from all bad lucks. Both books are real masterpieces of the world’s historical literature. | 2,427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This might account for traditions which placed the eponymous founder, Makedon, near Pieria and Olympus.
Literary form[ edit ] The Symposium is considered a dialogue — a form used by Plato in more than thirty works — but in fact it is predominantly a series of essay-like speeches from differing points of view.
With dialogue, Socrates is renowned for his dialectic, which is his ability to ask questions that encourage others to think deeply about what they care about, and articulate their ideas. In the Symposium the dialectic exists among the speeches: The characters and the settings are to some degree based on history, but they are not reports of events that actually occurred or words that were actually spoken.
There is no reason to think they were not composed entirely by Plato. The reader, understanding that Plato was not governed by the historical record, can read the Symposium, and ask why the author, Plato, arranged the story the way he did, and what he meant by including the various aspects of setting, composition, characters, and theme, etc.
It was thought that what Socrates said was what Plato agreed with or approved of. Then in the late 20th Century another interpretation began to challenge that idea. This new idea considers that the Symposium is intended to criticize Socrates, and his philosophy, and to reject certain aspects of his behavior.
It also considers that Socratic philosophy may have lost touch with the actual individual as it devoted itself to abstract principles.
Arieti suggests that it should be studied more as a drama, with a focus on character and actions, and less as an exploration of philosophical ideas. This suggests that the characters speak, as in a play, not as the author, but as themselves. This theory, Arieti has found, reveals how much each of the speakers of the Symposium resembles the god, Eros, that they each are describing.
It shows how an oral text may have no simple origin, and how it can be passed along by repeated tellings, and by different narrators, and how it can be sometimes verified, and sometimes corrupted. Apollodorus was not himself at the banquet, but he heard the story from Aristodemus, a man who was there.
Also, Apollodorus was able to confirm parts of the story with Socrates himself, who was one of the speakers at the banquet.
Dionysus is engaged to be the judge, and decides the outcome, not based on the merits of the two tragedians, but based on their political stance regarding the political figure, Alcibiades.
Since Aeschylus prefers Alcibiades, Dionysus declares Aeschylus the winner. That contest provides the basic structure on which the Symposium is modeled as a kind of sequel: In the Symposium Agathon has just celebrated a victory the day before, and is now hosting another kind of debate, this time it is between a tragedian, a comic poet, and Socrates.
So the character, Alcibiades, who was the deciding factor in the debate in The Frogs, becomes the judge in the Symposium, and he now rules in favor of Socrates, who had been attacked by Aristophanes in The Frogs.
The Symposium is a response to The Frogs, and shows Socrates winning not only over Aristophanes, who was the author of The Frogs, but also over the tragic poet who was portrayed in that comedy as the victor.
Hamilton remarks that Plato takes care to portray Alcibiades and Socrates and their relationship in a way that makes it clear that Socrates had not been a bad influence on Alcibiades. Plato does this to free his teacher from the guilt of corrupting the minds of prominent youths, which had in fact earned Socrates the death sentence in BC.
This section previews the story of the banquet, letting the reader know what to expect, and it provides information regarding the context and the date.
The banquet was hosted by the poet Agathon to celebrate his first victory in a dramatic competition: Apollodorus was not present at the event, which occurred when he was a boy, but he heard the story from Aristodemuswho was present.The Sophists (Ancient Greek) The sophists were itinerant professional teachers and intellectuals who frequented Athens and other Greek cities in the second half of the fifth century B.C.E.
until he was corrected on the point by Diotima's demonstration that Love A third mistake made by both Agathon and the young Socrates was to is in fact neutral between beauty and ugliness (e): assume that Love, the power which causes individuals to love, is a god.
Heidi Conejo 2/18/16 Comparing Speeches of the Symposium In "The Symposium" by Plato, speeches were made at a party by different speakers on their believed to be the definition of love. I will talk specifically, of two speeches made by Agathon and Socrates who had a similar idea to start with, but different ways of thinking.
The Symposium is a dialogue written by Plato (no later than B.C.) that discusses the events of a ‘symposium’ or a formal drinking party held in honor of Agathon in B.C., a tragedian who had just successfully produced his first victorious tragedy.
It was one of the rules which, above all others, made Doctor Franklin the most amiable of men in society, "never to contradict anybody." If he was urged to announce an opinion, he did it rather by asking questions, as if for information, or by suggesting doubts.
Agathon speaks next, giving an elaborate and flowery speech about Love, which he describes as young, sensitive, beautiful, and wise. All our virtues are gifts that we receive from this god. Socrates questions Agathon, doubting his speech and suggesting that Agathon has described the object of . | <urn:uuid:b4b1a4d9-c8a4-46c8-b93d-1c08c4568200> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://puwazye.vetconnexx.com/a-comparison-of-speeches-about-love-made-by-agathon-and-socrates-in-the-symposium-by-plato-35698qd.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.981851 | 1,215 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.17935451865196228... | 1 | This might account for traditions which placed the eponymous founder, Makedon, near Pieria and Olympus.
Literary form[ edit ] The Symposium is considered a dialogue — a form used by Plato in more than thirty works — but in fact it is predominantly a series of essay-like speeches from differing points of view.
With dialogue, Socrates is renowned for his dialectic, which is his ability to ask questions that encourage others to think deeply about what they care about, and articulate their ideas. In the Symposium the dialectic exists among the speeches: The characters and the settings are to some degree based on history, but they are not reports of events that actually occurred or words that were actually spoken.
There is no reason to think they were not composed entirely by Plato. The reader, understanding that Plato was not governed by the historical record, can read the Symposium, and ask why the author, Plato, arranged the story the way he did, and what he meant by including the various aspects of setting, composition, characters, and theme, etc.
It was thought that what Socrates said was what Plato agreed with or approved of. Then in the late 20th Century another interpretation began to challenge that idea. This new idea considers that the Symposium is intended to criticize Socrates, and his philosophy, and to reject certain aspects of his behavior.
It also considers that Socratic philosophy may have lost touch with the actual individual as it devoted itself to abstract principles.
Arieti suggests that it should be studied more as a drama, with a focus on character and actions, and less as an exploration of philosophical ideas. This suggests that the characters speak, as in a play, not as the author, but as themselves. This theory, Arieti has found, reveals how much each of the speakers of the Symposium resembles the god, Eros, that they each are describing.
It shows how an oral text may have no simple origin, and how it can be passed along by repeated tellings, and by different narrators, and how it can be sometimes verified, and sometimes corrupted. Apollodorus was not himself at the banquet, but he heard the story from Aristodemus, a man who was there.
Also, Apollodorus was able to confirm parts of the story with Socrates himself, who was one of the speakers at the banquet.
Dionysus is engaged to be the judge, and decides the outcome, not based on the merits of the two tragedians, but based on their political stance regarding the political figure, Alcibiades.
Since Aeschylus prefers Alcibiades, Dionysus declares Aeschylus the winner. That contest provides the basic structure on which the Symposium is modeled as a kind of sequel: In the Symposium Agathon has just celebrated a victory the day before, and is now hosting another kind of debate, this time it is between a tragedian, a comic poet, and Socrates.
So the character, Alcibiades, who was the deciding factor in the debate in The Frogs, becomes the judge in the Symposium, and he now rules in favor of Socrates, who had been attacked by Aristophanes in The Frogs.
The Symposium is a response to The Frogs, and shows Socrates winning not only over Aristophanes, who was the author of The Frogs, but also over the tragic poet who was portrayed in that comedy as the victor.
Hamilton remarks that Plato takes care to portray Alcibiades and Socrates and their relationship in a way that makes it clear that Socrates had not been a bad influence on Alcibiades. Plato does this to free his teacher from the guilt of corrupting the minds of prominent youths, which had in fact earned Socrates the death sentence in BC.
This section previews the story of the banquet, letting the reader know what to expect, and it provides information regarding the context and the date.
The banquet was hosted by the poet Agathon to celebrate his first victory in a dramatic competition: Apollodorus was not present at the event, which occurred when he was a boy, but he heard the story from Aristodemuswho was present.The Sophists (Ancient Greek) The sophists were itinerant professional teachers and intellectuals who frequented Athens and other Greek cities in the second half of the fifth century B.C.E.
until he was corrected on the point by Diotima's demonstration that Love A third mistake made by both Agathon and the young Socrates was to is in fact neutral between beauty and ugliness (e): assume that Love, the power which causes individuals to love, is a god.
Heidi Conejo 2/18/16 Comparing Speeches of the Symposium In "The Symposium" by Plato, speeches were made at a party by different speakers on their believed to be the definition of love. I will talk specifically, of two speeches made by Agathon and Socrates who had a similar idea to start with, but different ways of thinking.
The Symposium is a dialogue written by Plato (no later than B.C.) that discusses the events of a ‘symposium’ or a formal drinking party held in honor of Agathon in B.C., a tragedian who had just successfully produced his first victorious tragedy.
It was one of the rules which, above all others, made Doctor Franklin the most amiable of men in society, "never to contradict anybody." If he was urged to announce an opinion, he did it rather by asking questions, as if for information, or by suggesting doubts.
Agathon speaks next, giving an elaborate and flowery speech about Love, which he describes as young, sensitive, beautiful, and wise. All our virtues are gifts that we receive from this god. Socrates questions Agathon, doubting his speech and suggesting that Agathon has described the object of . | 1,194 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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