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(Last Updated on : 09/02/2010)
The Nawabs of Bengal, under the Mughal rule, were the provincial governors of the province of Bengal. After the death of Aurangzeb Mughal power weakened in India and marked the emergence of the Nawabs of Bengal. From 1717 until 1880, three successive Islamic dynasties namely the Nasiri, Afshar and Najafi ruled Bengal. The first dynasty that is the Nasiri ruled from 1717 to 1740 and its founder was Murshid Quli Jafar Khan. The second dynasty, the Afshar, ruled from 1740 to 1757 and was succeeded by the Najafi Dynasty that ruled from 1757 to 1880.
Murshid Quli Khan who was the founder of the Nasiri dynasty was the first Nawab of Bengal. After the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb
, he became the first independent ruler of Bengal. His early life is rooted in controversy and nothing particular can be said about his family and parenthood. Murshid Quli Khan entered the services of Aurangzeb and progressed gradually before becoming the Nawab of Bengal in 1717. He died in 1727 and was succeeded by his son-in-law though the late Nawab desired his grandson to be his heir.
The second dynasty was the Afshar dynasty which ruled from 1727 to 1757 was established by Alivardi Khan. The last rulers of this dynasty Siraj ud Daula was killed in the Battle of Plassey
in the year 1757. Siraj Ud Daula was the last independent Nawab of Bengal. In the battle of Plassey he suffered loss in the hands of the British forces. Since then the Nawabs became dummy rulers under the supremacy of the British. The Nawab who ascended the throne of Siraj-ud-daula was Mir Jafar. When the then Mughal emperor Shah Alam II granted the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar
to the British East India Company in 1765, the Nawabs were deprived of any real power or authority.
The last and the final dynasty to rule Bengal is the Najafi dynasty which came into power in the year 1757 and ruled until 1880. During this time the Nawabs hardly exercised any power of their own. In the year 1793 the governorship was taken away from the Nawabs and they were reduced to just being mere pensioners of the British East India Company. Mansur Ali Khan, the last Nawab of the Najafi dynasty was forced to give up his title. He was succeeded by his son Nawab Sayyid Hassan Ali who was conferred the lesser title of Nawab of Murshidabad by the British. His successors continued to rule with the same title until 1969.
The reign of the Bengal Nawabs came to an abrupt halt due to weak successors and the invasion of the British. Although the office of the nawabs existed but they were mere puppets in the hands of the British. | <urn:uuid:5d5a441d-fe12-4410-b883-7179939ef460> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/43/nawabs_bengal.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.982719 | 622 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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The Nawabs of Bengal, under the Mughal rule, were the provincial governors of the province of Bengal. After the death of Aurangzeb Mughal power weakened in India and marked the emergence of the Nawabs of Bengal. From 1717 until 1880, three successive Islamic dynasties namely the Nasiri, Afshar and Najafi ruled Bengal. The first dynasty that is the Nasiri ruled from 1717 to 1740 and its founder was Murshid Quli Jafar Khan. The second dynasty, the Afshar, ruled from 1740 to 1757 and was succeeded by the Najafi Dynasty that ruled from 1757 to 1880.
Murshid Quli Khan who was the founder of the Nasiri dynasty was the first Nawab of Bengal. After the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb
, he became the first independent ruler of Bengal. His early life is rooted in controversy and nothing particular can be said about his family and parenthood. Murshid Quli Khan entered the services of Aurangzeb and progressed gradually before becoming the Nawab of Bengal in 1717. He died in 1727 and was succeeded by his son-in-law though the late Nawab desired his grandson to be his heir.
The second dynasty was the Afshar dynasty which ruled from 1727 to 1757 was established by Alivardi Khan. The last rulers of this dynasty Siraj ud Daula was killed in the Battle of Plassey
in the year 1757. Siraj Ud Daula was the last independent Nawab of Bengal. In the battle of Plassey he suffered loss in the hands of the British forces. Since then the Nawabs became dummy rulers under the supremacy of the British. The Nawab who ascended the throne of Siraj-ud-daula was Mir Jafar. When the then Mughal emperor Shah Alam II granted the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar
to the British East India Company in 1765, the Nawabs were deprived of any real power or authority.
The last and the final dynasty to rule Bengal is the Najafi dynasty which came into power in the year 1757 and ruled until 1880. During this time the Nawabs hardly exercised any power of their own. In the year 1793 the governorship was taken away from the Nawabs and they were reduced to just being mere pensioners of the British East India Company. Mansur Ali Khan, the last Nawab of the Najafi dynasty was forced to give up his title. He was succeeded by his son Nawab Sayyid Hassan Ali who was conferred the lesser title of Nawab of Murshidabad by the British. His successors continued to rule with the same title until 1969.
The reign of the Bengal Nawabs came to an abrupt halt due to weak successors and the invasion of the British. Although the office of the nawabs existed but they were mere puppets in the hands of the British. | 680 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hokusai, belonging to the Hedo period, was a Japanese artist. His date of birth is a cause of much ambiguity and no date has been confirmed. Yet many claim it to be October 30, 1760.
Hokusai spent many of his early years in the Katsushika district of Edo. His family was artisan and he was often nicknamed as Tokitarō. Many claimed that is father was active in the business of making mirrors.
It was at the age of six that Hokusai first met with the canvas. He is speculated to have caught the artistic germs from his father who at many times applied artistry in the design of his mirrors.
During his lifetime, Hokusai had changed his name many times(thirty to be exact). The practice of using multiple names is not an anomaly in the Japanese traditions. Yet, the quantity of names Hokusai had exceeded that in the norm.In fact, Hokusai switched so many different names in his life that the work he produced under those names could actually be considered as complete periods.
It was at the age of twelve that his father prompted him to get involved in a bookshop. The practice was common in the middle-class families of Japan. At fourteen he became a formal wood craver. He kept this job till he was 18 which is when he was hired by a studio. Over here he worked with famous artists and crafted many intricate woodwork.
The first time Hokusai changed his name to Shunrō. His first prints were ran under this specific name.
Hoksai was married twice. Tragically ,both his wives died pretty soon after their respective marriages to him. Not much is known about them. He had five children in total-three daughters and two sons.
It was when his second wife died that he fell into deep depression. Consequently, he ventured into a variety of art domains. He was then introduced to the European, French and Dutch styles. However he was soon expelled from the Katsukawa school on grounds of being schooled by a rival. The embarrassment that the incident brought to him is said to have taught him a lot.
In the years to come, Hokusai also altered the themes of his paintings. He drifted away from conventions and began to establish a style of his own. He drew landscapes and scenarios from daily life.
Hokusai also produced work in the genre of erotica. The category is called shunga. The audience for the art form is men and women from a variety of stratagems. Shungas are considered lucky charms against death and were known in the Japanese tradition to provide sexual guidance to the unmarried people of the community.
In 1939, Hokusai’s studio caught fire. Not only did his studio get burnt but also the work in it. Meanwhile, his career was no longer of the stature it had been earlier. Young blood was pouring in from all quarters and occupying the artistic scenarios at the expense of his popularity. Still, Hokusai did not lose heart and continued to paint. At the age of 87 he produced a painting that he titled Ducks in a Stream.
He was so driven that even on his deathbed he is reported to have said, “If only Heaven will give me just another ten years… Just another five more years, then I could become a real painter.”
Hokusai passed away on May 10, 1849. He was buried at the Seikyō-ji in Tokyo. | <urn:uuid:8b9a5566-f05e-415d-bd90-84e5f3cc279e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.famouspainters.net/hokusai/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.995257 | 725 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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... | 10 | Hokusai, belonging to the Hedo period, was a Japanese artist. His date of birth is a cause of much ambiguity and no date has been confirmed. Yet many claim it to be October 30, 1760.
Hokusai spent many of his early years in the Katsushika district of Edo. His family was artisan and he was often nicknamed as Tokitarō. Many claimed that is father was active in the business of making mirrors.
It was at the age of six that Hokusai first met with the canvas. He is speculated to have caught the artistic germs from his father who at many times applied artistry in the design of his mirrors.
During his lifetime, Hokusai had changed his name many times(thirty to be exact). The practice of using multiple names is not an anomaly in the Japanese traditions. Yet, the quantity of names Hokusai had exceeded that in the norm.In fact, Hokusai switched so many different names in his life that the work he produced under those names could actually be considered as complete periods.
It was at the age of twelve that his father prompted him to get involved in a bookshop. The practice was common in the middle-class families of Japan. At fourteen he became a formal wood craver. He kept this job till he was 18 which is when he was hired by a studio. Over here he worked with famous artists and crafted many intricate woodwork.
The first time Hokusai changed his name to Shunrō. His first prints were ran under this specific name.
Hoksai was married twice. Tragically ,both his wives died pretty soon after their respective marriages to him. Not much is known about them. He had five children in total-three daughters and two sons.
It was when his second wife died that he fell into deep depression. Consequently, he ventured into a variety of art domains. He was then introduced to the European, French and Dutch styles. However he was soon expelled from the Katsukawa school on grounds of being schooled by a rival. The embarrassment that the incident brought to him is said to have taught him a lot.
In the years to come, Hokusai also altered the themes of his paintings. He drifted away from conventions and began to establish a style of his own. He drew landscapes and scenarios from daily life.
Hokusai also produced work in the genre of erotica. The category is called shunga. The audience for the art form is men and women from a variety of stratagems. Shungas are considered lucky charms against death and were known in the Japanese tradition to provide sexual guidance to the unmarried people of the community.
In 1939, Hokusai’s studio caught fire. Not only did his studio get burnt but also the work in it. Meanwhile, his career was no longer of the stature it had been earlier. Young blood was pouring in from all quarters and occupying the artistic scenarios at the expense of his popularity. Still, Hokusai did not lose heart and continued to paint. At the age of 87 he produced a painting that he titled Ducks in a Stream.
He was so driven that even on his deathbed he is reported to have said, “If only Heaven will give me just another ten years… Just another five more years, then I could become a real painter.”
Hokusai passed away on May 10, 1849. He was buried at the Seikyō-ji in Tokyo. | 719 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Medieval Period
1. The collapse of the Roman Empire lead to abandon cities, a breakdown in trade, and a decline in literacy. With all of the uncertainty and gloom, religion would step out of the shadows and shine its light on crowds of people. Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Emperor, as he assumed himself to be; did quite a bit of work to bring the Catholic Church back up to their feet after the fall of the Roman empire. During his reign he emphasized the importance of worship, music and education in the church. These reforms would shape Western Catholicism into what we see today in a modern Catholic Church.
2. The Franks controlled a strong and mighty kingdom in Europe, its leader being Clovis; the first Christian king. Soon enough, Charlemagne would inherit this Frankish kingdom, after the death of his father, Pepin. Pepin was the protector of Rome and the Church and was recognized as king by the pope. When Charlemagne took over, he showcased his unwavering pursuit to strengthen his rule and spread Christianity. He established a central government over Western Europe and unified the Roman Empire. These acts paved the way for the development of modern Europe. Charlemagne bundled spreading Christianity with also tying in the importance of education, this can be seen as a positive. Everyone knows that with every positive comes at least one negative. The problem arose with the use of the feudal system, under Charlemagne’s rule. This created a major problem between church and state.
3. As previously discussed, Charlemagne had pretty big shoes to fill and great tasks to accomplish after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the death of his father. During his rule he was a huge believer in spreading education, including arithmetic and grammar. He also prescribed to good works and knowledge; supporting his theory that you can’t carry out what is good, unless you know what is good. Charlemagne continued his spread of goodness throughout the Carolingian renaissance; resulting in an increase in writing, literature, architecture, and scriptural studies. All good things must come to an end; Charlemagne’s kingdom collapsed in 843. Of his three sons, not one of them could step up and stand where their father stood; they just fell into civil war. The treaty of Verdun and the treaty of Merson were confirmed by the pope and split the land into three kingdoms; Italy, Germany, and France.
4. Feudalism served as the economic system of much of the Middle Ages. There was certainly a hierarchy involved at this time; king, vassal, knight, serf. For example, a vassal lived on a feudal manor; the lord of the manor gave the vassal land to farm. Then, in return the vassal would receive protection from bandits. However, the vassals were taxed and had to surrender a portion of their crops to the lord. It is said that feudalism taught a sense of loyalty and obedience between the vassals and their lord. Each of the following social classes played an intricate role in the stabilization of society in this time period. The clergy had the purpose of saving everyone’s soul, also known as those who pray. Next were the nobles, their purpose was to protect and to provide justice, those who fight. Lastly, were the commoners, those who work; their purpose being to feed and clothe the clergy and the nobles.
5. In the twelfth century there were multiple factors that led to the revival of trade and the growth of towns. The first would be the increase pilgrimage within Europe. The rise of republican ruled cities would count as another factor. Geographically speaking, trade was made possible due to the use of rivers as a transport for the goods. Cities began to pop up, up and down the rivers to take advantage of the natural highway. And possibly the most important factor of them all; guild memberships. There were two types of guilds, a merchant guild and a craft guild. Guilds were thought of as an association… | <urn:uuid:4b4e1a3a-9db1-4619-b695-e01413509a4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Humanities-Middle-Ages-And-Twelfth-Century-529676.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00356.warc.gz | en | 0.983758 | 835 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.042230226099491... | 1 | The Medieval Period
1. The collapse of the Roman Empire lead to abandon cities, a breakdown in trade, and a decline in literacy. With all of the uncertainty and gloom, religion would step out of the shadows and shine its light on crowds of people. Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Emperor, as he assumed himself to be; did quite a bit of work to bring the Catholic Church back up to their feet after the fall of the Roman empire. During his reign he emphasized the importance of worship, music and education in the church. These reforms would shape Western Catholicism into what we see today in a modern Catholic Church.
2. The Franks controlled a strong and mighty kingdom in Europe, its leader being Clovis; the first Christian king. Soon enough, Charlemagne would inherit this Frankish kingdom, after the death of his father, Pepin. Pepin was the protector of Rome and the Church and was recognized as king by the pope. When Charlemagne took over, he showcased his unwavering pursuit to strengthen his rule and spread Christianity. He established a central government over Western Europe and unified the Roman Empire. These acts paved the way for the development of modern Europe. Charlemagne bundled spreading Christianity with also tying in the importance of education, this can be seen as a positive. Everyone knows that with every positive comes at least one negative. The problem arose with the use of the feudal system, under Charlemagne’s rule. This created a major problem between church and state.
3. As previously discussed, Charlemagne had pretty big shoes to fill and great tasks to accomplish after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the death of his father. During his rule he was a huge believer in spreading education, including arithmetic and grammar. He also prescribed to good works and knowledge; supporting his theory that you can’t carry out what is good, unless you know what is good. Charlemagne continued his spread of goodness throughout the Carolingian renaissance; resulting in an increase in writing, literature, architecture, and scriptural studies. All good things must come to an end; Charlemagne’s kingdom collapsed in 843. Of his three sons, not one of them could step up and stand where their father stood; they just fell into civil war. The treaty of Verdun and the treaty of Merson were confirmed by the pope and split the land into three kingdoms; Italy, Germany, and France.
4. Feudalism served as the economic system of much of the Middle Ages. There was certainly a hierarchy involved at this time; king, vassal, knight, serf. For example, a vassal lived on a feudal manor; the lord of the manor gave the vassal land to farm. Then, in return the vassal would receive protection from bandits. However, the vassals were taxed and had to surrender a portion of their crops to the lord. It is said that feudalism taught a sense of loyalty and obedience between the vassals and their lord. Each of the following social classes played an intricate role in the stabilization of society in this time period. The clergy had the purpose of saving everyone’s soul, also known as those who pray. Next were the nobles, their purpose was to protect and to provide justice, those who fight. Lastly, were the commoners, those who work; their purpose being to feed and clothe the clergy and the nobles.
5. In the twelfth century there were multiple factors that led to the revival of trade and the growth of towns. The first would be the increase pilgrimage within Europe. The rise of republican ruled cities would count as another factor. Geographically speaking, trade was made possible due to the use of rivers as a transport for the goods. Cities began to pop up, up and down the rivers to take advantage of the natural highway. And possibly the most important factor of them all; guild memberships. There were two types of guilds, a merchant guild and a craft guild. Guilds were thought of as an association… | 831 | ENGLISH | 1 |
With a very simple text accompanied by rich, vibrant illustrations a young narrator describes what it means to be a child with Rights – from the right to food, water and shelter, to the right to go to school, to the right to be free from violence, to the right to breathe clean air, and much more.
The book emphasizes that these rights belong to every child on the planet, whether they are “black or white, small or big, rich or poor, born here or somewhere else.” It also makes evident that knowing and talking about these rights are the first steps toward making sure that they are respected.
This book is suitable for children between 4 and 7 years of age.
A brief afterword explains that the rights outlined in the book come from the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1989. The treaty sets out the basic human rights that belong to children all over the world, recognizing that children need special protection since they are more vulnerable than adults. It has been ratified by 193 countries, with the exception of Somalia and the United States. Once a country has ratified the document, they are legally bound to comply with it and to report on their efforts to do so. As a result, some progress has been made, not only in awareness of children’s rights, but also in their implementation. But there are still many countries, wealthy and poor, where children’s basic needs are not being met.
Alain Serres was a kindergarten teacher who was inspired by his young students to write children’s books. He has since published more than one hundred titles for children of all ages, many of which have been translated into other languages. In 1996 Serres founded the highly regarded French publishing house Rue du Monde, whose mission is to provide children with books that allow them to question and imagine the world.
Aurelia Fronty studied textile design at l’E´cole Duperre´ in Paris and worked in fashion before she began to illustrate children’s books. Her colorful, naive-style art is inspired by her Catalan roots as well as her travels in Africa, Asia and South America. She has illustrated more than forty titles, which have been published around the world. She has also exhibited her art in France and in the United Kingdom. | <urn:uuid:484b019f-5b93-4c93-8f42-006904e6367b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kidsbestbooks.com/en/buch/i-have-the-right-to-be-a-child/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00474.warc.gz | en | 0.982683 | 479 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.58116698265... | 2 | With a very simple text accompanied by rich, vibrant illustrations a young narrator describes what it means to be a child with Rights – from the right to food, water and shelter, to the right to go to school, to the right to be free from violence, to the right to breathe clean air, and much more.
The book emphasizes that these rights belong to every child on the planet, whether they are “black or white, small or big, rich or poor, born here or somewhere else.” It also makes evident that knowing and talking about these rights are the first steps toward making sure that they are respected.
This book is suitable for children between 4 and 7 years of age.
A brief afterword explains that the rights outlined in the book come from the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1989. The treaty sets out the basic human rights that belong to children all over the world, recognizing that children need special protection since they are more vulnerable than adults. It has been ratified by 193 countries, with the exception of Somalia and the United States. Once a country has ratified the document, they are legally bound to comply with it and to report on their efforts to do so. As a result, some progress has been made, not only in awareness of children’s rights, but also in their implementation. But there are still many countries, wealthy and poor, where children’s basic needs are not being met.
Alain Serres was a kindergarten teacher who was inspired by his young students to write children’s books. He has since published more than one hundred titles for children of all ages, many of which have been translated into other languages. In 1996 Serres founded the highly regarded French publishing house Rue du Monde, whose mission is to provide children with books that allow them to question and imagine the world.
Aurelia Fronty studied textile design at l’E´cole Duperre´ in Paris and worked in fashion before she began to illustrate children’s books. Her colorful, naive-style art is inspired by her Catalan roots as well as her travels in Africa, Asia and South America. She has illustrated more than forty titles, which have been published around the world. She has also exhibited her art in France and in the United Kingdom. | 473 | ENGLISH | 1 |
April 13, 2010
Chapter 6 Summary
The Revolution brought along much change in the now United States. Post war changes occurred in the republic, this included politics. One important event was that of the Constitutional Convention in which men formulated and revised state constitutions and also developed the method by which frames of government were written and approved. The status of women was being defined and the idea of abolition rose in the North. The central government’s power of the nation was too low. Unity and power lacked in the Confederation. National debt, trade, and protection against the Spanish and Brits were several of the problems facing the Confederation. Economic troubles also gloomed over the new developing country. A major issue dealt with paper currency and how quickly inflation had occurred. Shays Rebellion was an issues in which state governments would not come to the aid of debtors in New England, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina. During the reformation of the constitution, the question was whether to amend the Articles of Confederation or to write a completely new one. The Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan were two that were proposed. Conflict ensued between the states until the Great Compromise came to and established a bicameral congress which included the House of Representatives and the Senate. Men who fought against this new constitution were known as anti-federalists. But in the end the Federalists prevailed and the ratification of the Constitution continued.
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:93c8942c-27a9-4fb5-b46f-083a112b412a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Chapter-6-Summary-American-Passages-63660682.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00273.warc.gz | en | 0.980959 | 301 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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Chapter 6 Summary
The Revolution brought along much change in the now United States. Post war changes occurred in the republic, this included politics. One important event was that of the Constitutional Convention in which men formulated and revised state constitutions and also developed the method by which frames of government were written and approved. The status of women was being defined and the idea of abolition rose in the North. The central government’s power of the nation was too low. Unity and power lacked in the Confederation. National debt, trade, and protection against the Spanish and Brits were several of the problems facing the Confederation. Economic troubles also gloomed over the new developing country. A major issue dealt with paper currency and how quickly inflation had occurred. Shays Rebellion was an issues in which state governments would not come to the aid of debtors in New England, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina. During the reformation of the constitution, the question was whether to amend the Articles of Confederation or to write a completely new one. The Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan were two that were proposed. Conflict ensued between the states until the Great Compromise came to and established a bicameral congress which included the House of Representatives and the Senate. Men who fought against this new constitution were known as anti-federalists. But in the end the Federalists prevailed and the ratification of the Constitution continued.
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 306 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At a Glance
John Steinbeck was born in 1903 in Salinas, California, the setting for his popular novel Of Mice and Men. Although he spent a few years at Stanford University, he found that academic life didn't suit him. He decided to become a writer, working first as a journalist and later finding great success as a novelist. Steinbeck penned twenty-seven novels, three collections of short stories, and numerous essays between 1929 and his death in 1968. He's best known for The Grapes of Wrath, a Depression-era novel that follows the migratory experiences of the Joad family, who travel from the ravaged Oklahoma Dust Bowl to the “Promised Land” of California. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1962 “for his realistic as well as imaginative writings, distinguished by a sympathetic humor and a keen social perception.” Privately, however, he feared that the prize usually spelled the end of a writer’s career. Committed to diversity in his writing, Steinbeck’s other works of note include the semiautobiographical novel East of Eden, the comical Tortilla Flat, the travelogue Travels With Charley, and the nonfiction work Log From the Sea of Cortez.
Article abstract: Steinbeck has given to the American consciousness a permanent portrait of America’s rural and immigrant underclasses, especially during the years of the Great Depression.
John Ernst Steinbeck was born in 1902 in Salinas, California, of German and Irish parentage. His father was of German origin and was variously a bookkeeper, accountant, and manager, and he eventually became the treasurer of Monterey County. The elder Steinbeck was an avid gardener (throughout his life, his son would always have to have a garden wherever he lived) and a somewhat introspective man. Steinbeck’s mother was of Irish descent, a woman of energy and determination, emotional and sensitive to art, and fond of stories of fantasy and enchantment. The later dichotomies observed in Steinbeck, between the romantic and the hardheaded naturalist, between the dreamer and the masculine tough guy, may be partly accounted for by inheritance from the Irish and German strains of his parents.
The young Steinbeck had a local reputation as a loner and a bit of a dreamer. He read much on his own, his favorite writings being those of Robert Louis Stevenson, Alexandre Dumas, père, Sir Walter Scott, the Bible, and especially Le Morte d’Arthur (1485), by Sir Thomas Malory. This last would remain an influence throughout his life, with many of his stories displaying Arthurian parallels and influences; the work which occupied much of his time in the last years of his life was a translation or redaction of the Arthurian stories, unfinished at his death.
Steinbeck grew to be a tall, gangly youth with broad shoulders, a barrel chest, and a large head. He early developed a fondness for words and a passion for language that was never to leave him. He was independent-minded, not to say stubborn, and as a freshman in high school determined to be a writer. He was graduated from high school in 1919, at best an average student and athlete. For the next six years, he attended Stanford University on and off but never took a degree. As in high school, he took what interested him and cared little for other courses, even if required; the courses he took were those he thought would help him in his writing.
During his many vacations from Stanford Steinbeck worked for the local sugar company in the field and in the office; he also worked on ranches, on a dredging crew, and in the beet harvest. He came to know well the Mexican-American workers alongside whom he labored. He rather enjoyed working with his hands and was certainly throughout his life never afraid of hard work; he also became a notable handyman and maker of gadgets. After leaving Stanford for good in 1925, he worked sporadically during the next three years at a lodge in the High Sierra near Lake Tahoe as a caretaker and handyman. The job gave him much...
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John Steinbeck was born in 1903 in Salinas, California, the setting for his popular novel Of Mice and Men. Although he spent a few years at Stanford University, he found that academic life didn't suit him. He decided to become a writer, working first as a journalist and later finding great success as a novelist. Steinbeck penned twenty-seven novels, three collections of short stories, and numerous essays between 1929 and his death in 1968. He's best known for The Grapes of Wrath, a Depression-era novel that follows the migratory experiences of the Joad family, who travel from the ravaged Oklahoma Dust Bowl to the “Promised Land” of California. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1962 “for his realistic as well as imaginative writings, distinguished by a sympathetic humor and a keen social perception.” Privately, however, he feared that the prize usually spelled the end of a writer’s career. Committed to diversity in his writing, Steinbeck’s other works of note include the semiautobiographical novel East of Eden, the comical Tortilla Flat, the travelogue Travels With Charley, and the nonfiction work Log From the Sea of Cortez.
Article abstract: Steinbeck has given to the American consciousness a permanent portrait of America’s rural and immigrant underclasses, especially during the years of the Great Depression.
John Ernst Steinbeck was born in 1902 in Salinas, California, of German and Irish parentage. His father was of German origin and was variously a bookkeeper, accountant, and manager, and he eventually became the treasurer of Monterey County. The elder Steinbeck was an avid gardener (throughout his life, his son would always have to have a garden wherever he lived) and a somewhat introspective man. Steinbeck’s mother was of Irish descent, a woman of energy and determination, emotional and sensitive to art, and fond of stories of fantasy and enchantment. The later dichotomies observed in Steinbeck, between the romantic and the hardheaded naturalist, between the dreamer and the masculine tough guy, may be partly accounted for by inheritance from the Irish and German strains of his parents.
The young Steinbeck had a local reputation as a loner and a bit of a dreamer. He read much on his own, his favorite writings being those of Robert Louis Stevenson, Alexandre Dumas, père, Sir Walter Scott, the Bible, and especially Le Morte d’Arthur (1485), by Sir Thomas Malory. This last would remain an influence throughout his life, with many of his stories displaying Arthurian parallels and influences; the work which occupied much of his time in the last years of his life was a translation or redaction of the Arthurian stories, unfinished at his death.
Steinbeck grew to be a tall, gangly youth with broad shoulders, a barrel chest, and a large head. He early developed a fondness for words and a passion for language that was never to leave him. He was independent-minded, not to say stubborn, and as a freshman in high school determined to be a writer. He was graduated from high school in 1919, at best an average student and athlete. For the next six years, he attended Stanford University on and off but never took a degree. As in high school, he took what interested him and cared little for other courses, even if required; the courses he took were those he thought would help him in his writing.
During his many vacations from Stanford Steinbeck worked for the local sugar company in the field and in the office; he also worked on ranches, on a dredging crew, and in the beet harvest. He came to know well the Mexican-American workers alongside whom he labored. He rather enjoyed working with his hands and was certainly throughout his life never afraid of hard work; he also became a notable handyman and maker of gadgets. After leaving Stanford for good in 1925, he worked sporadically during the next three years at a lodge in the High Sierra near Lake Tahoe as a caretaker and handyman. The job gave him much...
(The entire section is 7,815 words.) | 879 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Tripartite Pact, also called the Three-Power Pact, Axis Pact, Three-way Pact or Tripartite Treaty was a pact signed in Berlin, Germany on September 27, 1940, which set up the Axis Powers of World War II. At first September 27 of 1940, it was signed by three countries: Germany, Italy, and Japan.
And Hungary (November 20 of 1940), Romania (November 23 of 1940), Slovakia (November 24 of 1940), Bulgaria (March 1 of 1941), Yugoslavia (March 25 of 1941) and Croatia (April 10 of 1941) joined the pact by 1940/1941. This included some countries that were under Japanese control.
The countries signing the pact agreed that they would help one another for ten years in political, economic and military scope. They also said that if any country who signed the pact was attacked by another country which hadn't joined the war by then, excluding the Soviet Union, the country would face war from all countries who signed the pact.
Since 1943, the Tripartite Pact began to fall. Many countries were out of the war or changed to the Allies side. Although the pact remained in effect until Japan's surrender in August 1945, German defeat three months earlier made the pact little meaning. | <urn:uuid:9737adc0-7c58-4051-9745-6a36f0c46e69> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite_Pact | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.980796 | 255 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.1393255740404129,... | 1 | The Tripartite Pact, also called the Three-Power Pact, Axis Pact, Three-way Pact or Tripartite Treaty was a pact signed in Berlin, Germany on September 27, 1940, which set up the Axis Powers of World War II. At first September 27 of 1940, it was signed by three countries: Germany, Italy, and Japan.
And Hungary (November 20 of 1940), Romania (November 23 of 1940), Slovakia (November 24 of 1940), Bulgaria (March 1 of 1941), Yugoslavia (March 25 of 1941) and Croatia (April 10 of 1941) joined the pact by 1940/1941. This included some countries that were under Japanese control.
The countries signing the pact agreed that they would help one another for ten years in political, economic and military scope. They also said that if any country who signed the pact was attacked by another country which hadn't joined the war by then, excluding the Soviet Union, the country would face war from all countries who signed the pact.
Since 1943, the Tripartite Pact began to fall. Many countries were out of the war or changed to the Allies side. Although the pact remained in effect until Japan's surrender in August 1945, German defeat three months earlier made the pact little meaning. | 312 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Say ’Leonardo’ and Da Vinci slips off the tongue. In every part of the civilised world this artist is recognised for his extraordinary talent and insight.
Leonardo the child and youth
Born in 1452, Leonardo became famous in his own lifetime.
It is said he was the love child of a man who belonged to a noble Florentine house of Vinci, in the Val d'Arno. Young Leonardo was apparently a beautiful child and later his good looks, combined with his confidence and talents, added grace to his presence in the courts and social circles of the time. Men were said to be in awe of his beauty.
While very young he was already designing and constructing objects. His father took him to Florence to a famous artist Andrea del Verrocchio, who practised his art in various media. Here Leonardo was surrounded by intriguing artefacts and paintings. Verrocchio was skilled in all manner of crafts.
In this time he was drawn to the intelligence of nature and immersed himself in studying nature’s secrets. He was fascinated and explored design, colour and the order and patterns within nature, including the movements of the heavenly bodies across the sky.
He observed and took notes of his observations. He experimented and documented his experiments. Thirteen volumes of manuscripts are a testament to this.
The work ‘The adoration of Kings’ was created here while he was with Verrocchio, and though unfinished, it remains a masterpiece. (Uffizi Gallery, Florence).
Leonardo had an extraordinary talent, to show deeper than the image or the emotion portrayed in the image. It was as if he wished to show the soul behind the subject to the onlooker.
Leonardo the musician
In 1482 he went to Milan. He had recommended himself to Ludvico Sforza, then Duke of Milan, as knowing some military secrets which he could offer. However, when he came it was with a strange harp of his own making with which he charmed Sforza.
Leonardo the painter
During his time under the patronage of Sforza he produced many works, ‘The Last Supper’ (Monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan) and the famous La Gioconda or Mona Lisa (Louvre, Paris) with the mysterious smile were amongst these.
The early version of the ‘Virgin on the Rocks’ was created about this time (Louvre, Paris).
Leonardo the Inventor and Scientist
His ever curious mind travelled into areas where he explored the mechanisms of movement, geometry, light and water. He was a scientist, inventor and a constant observer of nature. Today, almost five hundred years later, we are still gazing with awe and wonder at his work, his ability to reach the soul through his understanding of life through nature’s orderly patterns.
The crossbow, underwater breathing apparatus, a design for a parachute, an ornithopter are just a few examples of his ideas that have had effect long after his departure.
The Wandering years
Leonardo spent the next few years wandering, and it is not always clear where he was to be found. He did some work for the adventurer Cesare Borgia. This role was in the realm of military engineering. He was then commissioned by the Florentine Republic to work with Michelangelo on the ‘Battle of Anghiari’, a work that was never fully completed by either of these men.
Leonardo was moving around, to Rome then Milan and again back to Florence for the commissioned second version of the ‘Virgin of the rocks’ (National Gallery, London).
The two versions have been brought together for the first time for the exhibition at London’s National Gallery on Leonardo da Vinci : Painter at the court of Milan.
He continued with his experiments and observations, drawings and designs.
Political changes were taking place in Rome at the time, and being suspected of being sympathetic to the French, he decided to accept the offer of Francis I to live in the Chateau d'Amboise, in France.
Francis I already had possession of La Gioconda and was an admirer of Leonardo’s work. It was here that Leonardo da Vinci died in 1519.
This man left us a gift, he went deep, and brought to the surface the world which he discovered beneath that surface. One man’s study of the natural world, both visible and invisible is still discussed and debated, the truths and ideas therein discovered and rediscovered.
His wonderful designs and inventions have been incorporated into mechanisms and machines which were used in his day and have influenced our present time. War machines, flying wings, a swing bridge, an aerial screw, the odometer and many hydraulic machines. Truly Leonardo is one of Italy’s great treasures. | <urn:uuid:e8fee829-29f9-4c93-8e0d-1107957e7669> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.italymagazine.com/featured-story/italys-treasures-leonardo-da-vinci | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.98187 | 1,007 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.4726210534572... | 8 | Say ’Leonardo’ and Da Vinci slips off the tongue. In every part of the civilised world this artist is recognised for his extraordinary talent and insight.
Leonardo the child and youth
Born in 1452, Leonardo became famous in his own lifetime.
It is said he was the love child of a man who belonged to a noble Florentine house of Vinci, in the Val d'Arno. Young Leonardo was apparently a beautiful child and later his good looks, combined with his confidence and talents, added grace to his presence in the courts and social circles of the time. Men were said to be in awe of his beauty.
While very young he was already designing and constructing objects. His father took him to Florence to a famous artist Andrea del Verrocchio, who practised his art in various media. Here Leonardo was surrounded by intriguing artefacts and paintings. Verrocchio was skilled in all manner of crafts.
In this time he was drawn to the intelligence of nature and immersed himself in studying nature’s secrets. He was fascinated and explored design, colour and the order and patterns within nature, including the movements of the heavenly bodies across the sky.
He observed and took notes of his observations. He experimented and documented his experiments. Thirteen volumes of manuscripts are a testament to this.
The work ‘The adoration of Kings’ was created here while he was with Verrocchio, and though unfinished, it remains a masterpiece. (Uffizi Gallery, Florence).
Leonardo had an extraordinary talent, to show deeper than the image or the emotion portrayed in the image. It was as if he wished to show the soul behind the subject to the onlooker.
Leonardo the musician
In 1482 he went to Milan. He had recommended himself to Ludvico Sforza, then Duke of Milan, as knowing some military secrets which he could offer. However, when he came it was with a strange harp of his own making with which he charmed Sforza.
Leonardo the painter
During his time under the patronage of Sforza he produced many works, ‘The Last Supper’ (Monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan) and the famous La Gioconda or Mona Lisa (Louvre, Paris) with the mysterious smile were amongst these.
The early version of the ‘Virgin on the Rocks’ was created about this time (Louvre, Paris).
Leonardo the Inventor and Scientist
His ever curious mind travelled into areas where he explored the mechanisms of movement, geometry, light and water. He was a scientist, inventor and a constant observer of nature. Today, almost five hundred years later, we are still gazing with awe and wonder at his work, his ability to reach the soul through his understanding of life through nature’s orderly patterns.
The crossbow, underwater breathing apparatus, a design for a parachute, an ornithopter are just a few examples of his ideas that have had effect long after his departure.
The Wandering years
Leonardo spent the next few years wandering, and it is not always clear where he was to be found. He did some work for the adventurer Cesare Borgia. This role was in the realm of military engineering. He was then commissioned by the Florentine Republic to work with Michelangelo on the ‘Battle of Anghiari’, a work that was never fully completed by either of these men.
Leonardo was moving around, to Rome then Milan and again back to Florence for the commissioned second version of the ‘Virgin of the rocks’ (National Gallery, London).
The two versions have been brought together for the first time for the exhibition at London’s National Gallery on Leonardo da Vinci : Painter at the court of Milan.
He continued with his experiments and observations, drawings and designs.
Political changes were taking place in Rome at the time, and being suspected of being sympathetic to the French, he decided to accept the offer of Francis I to live in the Chateau d'Amboise, in France.
Francis I already had possession of La Gioconda and was an admirer of Leonardo’s work. It was here that Leonardo da Vinci died in 1519.
This man left us a gift, he went deep, and brought to the surface the world which he discovered beneath that surface. One man’s study of the natural world, both visible and invisible is still discussed and debated, the truths and ideas therein discovered and rediscovered.
His wonderful designs and inventions have been incorporated into mechanisms and machines which were used in his day and have influenced our present time. War machines, flying wings, a swing bridge, an aerial screw, the odometer and many hydraulic machines. Truly Leonardo is one of Italy’s great treasures. | 963 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The following excerpts about the life of Buddha are taken from Geshe Kelsang Gyatso's book, Introduction to Buddhism: The Buddha who is the founder of the Buddhist religion is called Buddha Shakyamuni. "Shakya" is the name of the royal family into which he was born, and "Muni" means "Able One." Buddha Skakyamuni was born as a royal prince in 624 BC in a place called Lumbini, which was originally in northern India but is now part of Nepal. His mother's name was Queen Mayadevi and his father's name was King Shuddhodana. One night, Queen Mayadevi dreamed that a white elephant descended from heaven and entered her womb. The white elephant entering her womb indicated that on that very night she had conceived a child who was a pure and powerful being. The elephant's descending from heaven indicated that her child came from Tushita heaven, the Pure Land of Buddha Maitreya. Later, when she gave birth to the child, instead of experiencing pain the queen experienced a special, pure vision in which she stood holding the branch of a tree with her right hand while the gods Brahma and Indra took the child painlessly from her side. They then proceeded to honor the infant by offering him ritual ablutions. When the king saw the child he felt as if all his wishes had been fulfilled and he named the young prince "Siddhartha." He invited a Brahmin seer to make predictions about the prince's future. The seer examined the child with his clairvoyance and told the king, "There are signs that the boy could become either a chakravatin king, a ruler of the entire world, or a fully enlightened Buddha. However, since the time for chakravatin kings is now past it is certain that he will become a Buddha, and that his beneficial influence will pervade the thousand million worlds like the rays of the sun." | <urn:uuid:28f4bee8-5ce3-4b97-8f89-7c2227f41214> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://palungjit.org/threads/life-of-buddha-siddhartha-is-born.63361/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00404.warc.gz | en | 0.982682 | 402 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.26751387119293213,... | 1 | The following excerpts about the life of Buddha are taken from Geshe Kelsang Gyatso's book, Introduction to Buddhism: The Buddha who is the founder of the Buddhist religion is called Buddha Shakyamuni. "Shakya" is the name of the royal family into which he was born, and "Muni" means "Able One." Buddha Skakyamuni was born as a royal prince in 624 BC in a place called Lumbini, which was originally in northern India but is now part of Nepal. His mother's name was Queen Mayadevi and his father's name was King Shuddhodana. One night, Queen Mayadevi dreamed that a white elephant descended from heaven and entered her womb. The white elephant entering her womb indicated that on that very night she had conceived a child who was a pure and powerful being. The elephant's descending from heaven indicated that her child came from Tushita heaven, the Pure Land of Buddha Maitreya. Later, when she gave birth to the child, instead of experiencing pain the queen experienced a special, pure vision in which she stood holding the branch of a tree with her right hand while the gods Brahma and Indra took the child painlessly from her side. They then proceeded to honor the infant by offering him ritual ablutions. When the king saw the child he felt as if all his wishes had been fulfilled and he named the young prince "Siddhartha." He invited a Brahmin seer to make predictions about the prince's future. The seer examined the child with his clairvoyance and told the king, "There are signs that the boy could become either a chakravatin king, a ruler of the entire world, or a fully enlightened Buddha. However, since the time for chakravatin kings is now past it is certain that he will become a Buddha, and that his beneficial influence will pervade the thousand million worlds like the rays of the sun." | 408 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jane Goodall is a British primatologist who, despite having no formal education, is considered the world’s top expert on chimpanzees. Born in London in 1937, her love for animals started when, as a child, she was given a stuffed animal in the shape of a chimpanzee, which she named Jubilee. In her 20s, she visited a friend’s farm in Africa, where she met an archaeologist who hired Goodall as his secretary. He soon sent her back to London to learn about primates, which he believed could provide insight to early humans. Two years later, she returned to Africa, where she spent the next 60 years studying the social behaviors and family structures of chimpanzees. Since she was not a trained scientist, her methods were unorthodox and led to some criticism. For instance, she named the animals instead of numbering them and tried to understand them as individuals with personalities, which was considered foolish at the time. Now in her late 80s, Goodall has won numerous awards for her contributions to primatology and environmental conservation. She still has Jubilee.
Gregory Hutchinson For The Junior Times
1. When did Jane Goodall's love for animals begin?
2. How did Gooddall receive her first opportunity to learn about primates?
3. What was one method from Goodall that was considered unorthodox?
1. Do you think it is possible for more experts like Goodall to emerge without formal education?
2. Why do you think it was unorthodox to name animals instead of numbering them?
3. Why is primatology important to humans?
4. Do you know of any specific contributions made by Goodall? | <urn:uuid:4e2590b3-d970-4be8-9245-07936e983ae5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://phonetimes.co.kr/sample/index.htm?code=people&am=sa&BOOK_CODE=TP0003 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.983864 | 341 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.492503136396... | 1 | Jane Goodall is a British primatologist who, despite having no formal education, is considered the world’s top expert on chimpanzees. Born in London in 1937, her love for animals started when, as a child, she was given a stuffed animal in the shape of a chimpanzee, which she named Jubilee. In her 20s, she visited a friend’s farm in Africa, where she met an archaeologist who hired Goodall as his secretary. He soon sent her back to London to learn about primates, which he believed could provide insight to early humans. Two years later, she returned to Africa, where she spent the next 60 years studying the social behaviors and family structures of chimpanzees. Since she was not a trained scientist, her methods were unorthodox and led to some criticism. For instance, she named the animals instead of numbering them and tried to understand them as individuals with personalities, which was considered foolish at the time. Now in her late 80s, Goodall has won numerous awards for her contributions to primatology and environmental conservation. She still has Jubilee.
Gregory Hutchinson For The Junior Times
1. When did Jane Goodall's love for animals begin?
2. How did Gooddall receive her first opportunity to learn about primates?
3. What was one method from Goodall that was considered unorthodox?
1. Do you think it is possible for more experts like Goodall to emerge without formal education?
2. Why do you think it was unorthodox to name animals instead of numbering them?
3. Why is primatology important to humans?
4. Do you know of any specific contributions made by Goodall? | 350 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The emergence of the nihontō, or “Japanese sword” is a particularly noteworthy event in the history of Japanese martial arts. In the Japanese language, the word “tō-ken” (刀剣) is generally used collectively in reference to swords, but “tō” (刀) and “ken” (剣) are in fact different weapons with distinctive morphologies. Tō is a single-edged sword, whereas ken designates a double-edged sword. Thus, tōken is a general appellation referring to different kinds of swords.
The swords used in Japan have their roots in China. During the Spring and Autumn Period of ancient China, in the regions of Wu and Yue, the first swords used as weapons were double-edged. Later, single-edged swords came to replace the double-edged ones on the battlefield, which in turn became implements primarily used in rituals. With this, a differentiation between tō as a weapon and ken as a ritual object was made.
It is said that metallurgical knowledge was brought to the Japanese archipelago at the end of the 3rd century BC, which corresponds with the beginning of the Yayoi period. At that time, as was the case in China, ken were used as ritual objects, whereas the single-edged tō were carried as weapons. The tō inherited from China had straight blades, but the Japanese started to change the form of these weapons and devised their own distinctive style of sword.
The important points that shaped the history of Japanese weapons as follows: First, the Japanese sword was forged with a “sori” or “curvature”. What was the reason for developing a curved blade? When cutting, a straight blade absorbs the impact directly and is easily broken. A curved blade serves to dissipate the shock so is not so susceptible to fracturing, and thus is able to cut better. It is said that this change was influenced by types of sword known as kenukigata–tachi and warabite–tō which were used by the Emishi peoples (now known as the Ainu). They were indigenous people predominantly lived in the north of Japan.
Second, prominent ridges known as shinogi were made on each side of the blade. The simplest blade features a triangle cross-section and is called hira–zukuri; this type of sword is, however, quite weak against lateral shocks, and the probability of fracturing in battle was high, and was inadequate as weapon. In order to improve its functionality, the sides of the blade were fashioned to be parallel with the cutting edge, the cross-section being in the shape of a stretched pentagon: this style is called kiriha–zukuri. It is resistant to lateral shocks and not easily breakable. However, this sword is heavy to wield, and is thus not very suitable as a weapon.
The last improvement was to make the edge more acute than in the kiriha–zukuri, the back of the sword (mine) narrower, and define the shinogi along the sides of the blade. This lighter type of sword is called shinogi–zukuri. The cross-section is diamond shaped, is resistant to lateral shocks, light, and easy to wield.
The evolution from hira–zukuri to kiriha–zukuri happened in China, but the shinogi–zukuri innovation is peculiar to Japan. The characteristics of the swords made in Japan, especially with the sori and shinogi, made them different from the straight blades inherited from China, and this is why they are called nihontō, or “Japanese Swords”. The completion of the Japanese sword happened around the middle of the Heian period in the tenth century. Until then, the way of handling the straight sword presumably focused more on thrusting or pounding the opponent rather than cutting. It is possible that proper cutting techniques were developed after the sori and the shinogi were devised. Nevertheless, it was too early for the nihontō to play a primary role in battle. During these formative years the sword was very much a secondary weapon, as has been pointed out in recent studies on the history of weapons and warfare. | <urn:uuid:6d7324dc-68a5-4418-80ae-3aabfe89f268> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://budo-world.taiiku.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/2016/03/02/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%88%80%E3%81%AE%E5%87%BA%E7%8F%BE/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.980247 | 887 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.42453649640083... | 3 | The emergence of the nihontō, or “Japanese sword” is a particularly noteworthy event in the history of Japanese martial arts. In the Japanese language, the word “tō-ken” (刀剣) is generally used collectively in reference to swords, but “tō” (刀) and “ken” (剣) are in fact different weapons with distinctive morphologies. Tō is a single-edged sword, whereas ken designates a double-edged sword. Thus, tōken is a general appellation referring to different kinds of swords.
The swords used in Japan have their roots in China. During the Spring and Autumn Period of ancient China, in the regions of Wu and Yue, the first swords used as weapons were double-edged. Later, single-edged swords came to replace the double-edged ones on the battlefield, which in turn became implements primarily used in rituals. With this, a differentiation between tō as a weapon and ken as a ritual object was made.
It is said that metallurgical knowledge was brought to the Japanese archipelago at the end of the 3rd century BC, which corresponds with the beginning of the Yayoi period. At that time, as was the case in China, ken were used as ritual objects, whereas the single-edged tō were carried as weapons. The tō inherited from China had straight blades, but the Japanese started to change the form of these weapons and devised their own distinctive style of sword.
The important points that shaped the history of Japanese weapons as follows: First, the Japanese sword was forged with a “sori” or “curvature”. What was the reason for developing a curved blade? When cutting, a straight blade absorbs the impact directly and is easily broken. A curved blade serves to dissipate the shock so is not so susceptible to fracturing, and thus is able to cut better. It is said that this change was influenced by types of sword known as kenukigata–tachi and warabite–tō which were used by the Emishi peoples (now known as the Ainu). They were indigenous people predominantly lived in the north of Japan.
Second, prominent ridges known as shinogi were made on each side of the blade. The simplest blade features a triangle cross-section and is called hira–zukuri; this type of sword is, however, quite weak against lateral shocks, and the probability of fracturing in battle was high, and was inadequate as weapon. In order to improve its functionality, the sides of the blade were fashioned to be parallel with the cutting edge, the cross-section being in the shape of a stretched pentagon: this style is called kiriha–zukuri. It is resistant to lateral shocks and not easily breakable. However, this sword is heavy to wield, and is thus not very suitable as a weapon.
The last improvement was to make the edge more acute than in the kiriha–zukuri, the back of the sword (mine) narrower, and define the shinogi along the sides of the blade. This lighter type of sword is called shinogi–zukuri. The cross-section is diamond shaped, is resistant to lateral shocks, light, and easy to wield.
The evolution from hira–zukuri to kiriha–zukuri happened in China, but the shinogi–zukuri innovation is peculiar to Japan. The characteristics of the swords made in Japan, especially with the sori and shinogi, made them different from the straight blades inherited from China, and this is why they are called nihontō, or “Japanese Swords”. The completion of the Japanese sword happened around the middle of the Heian period in the tenth century. Until then, the way of handling the straight sword presumably focused more on thrusting or pounding the opponent rather than cutting. It is possible that proper cutting techniques were developed after the sori and the shinogi were devised. Nevertheless, it was too early for the nihontō to play a primary role in battle. During these formative years the sword was very much a secondary weapon, as has been pointed out in recent studies on the history of weapons and warfare. | 857 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The advances of technology had a major impact on the weapons deployed in World War I (1914 – 1918). It saw the earliest development and applications of new forms of weapons in aviation, navy and chemical warfare. World War I also saw the first widespread deployment machine guns, artillery and the introduction of the lumbering armored tank.
Rifles and pistols
Despite advances in machine gun, mortar and grenade technology, all remained relatively unwieldy and cumbersome in comparison to the rifle, which remained the most crucial, ever-present infantry weapon throughout World War I. Of the two, pistols were used less as an offensive weapon and were issued to officers rather than regular soldiers.
First used in the American Civil War, machine guns brought devastating effects. But their effectiveness reached frightening new levels with World War: they fire up to 600 bullets a minute, thus tentamount to causing a mass destruction.
The horrors of gas warfare had never been seen on a battlefield until 1915. The Germans had invented them but French and English were not far behind. There were 3 main types of gas warefare: (1) the tearing agent, causing temporary blindness and greatly inflaming the nose and throat of the victim; (2 the poisonous gases, including chlorine, phosgene and diphosgene; these are highly toxic and have deadly effects; and (3) the blistering agent, the most dreaded of all chemical weapons in World War I - mustard gas – as it acts on any exposed, moist skin. Once coming in contact with skin, it produces large burn-like blisters. And worse, it can nastily hang about in low areas for hours, even days, after being dispersed.
Artillery is the most lethal land-based armament. Together with machine guns and poisonous gas, artillery guns played a prominent part in the trench warfare of World War I. Artillery guns were the new and upgraded versions of cannons. But never in the history where there were so many of them used in one single war. Surely artillery guns were to have a huge impact: they accounted for over 60% of the fatalities on western front.
Resulted from gradual technological developments, tanks were first manufactured during World War I in an effort to break the bloody deadlock of trench warfare. The British were the first to field an armoured car that could move over barbed wire, withstand small arms and destroy opponent’s machine gun nests. Having some success and a significant psychological effect on German infantry, tanks were not critical in war victory at this moment of history.
Warplanes came to being in 1914 and were used for observation of enemy troop movements and of artillery fire, or to come into close confrontation with each other. At this point, they were unarmed. So they joined battle using whatever weapons were to hands. Clearly, air warfare was then not seen as important as any other type so it did not have its own category.
Naval ships were counted very important for some of the war as much of World War I was fought at sea. Conflicts were mainly characterised by the efforts of Allied Powers to blockade Central Powers by sea and by the latter’s attemps to break it and establish an effective blockade of the UK and France. British specialised in ships such as battleships, and the Germans specialised in Submarines. | <urn:uuid:77b6bc94-af8e-4ec3-861a-2f1ce8d06ea8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefinertimes.com/Weapons-of-War/weapons-used-in-world-war-i.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00321.warc.gz | en | 0.980029 | 677 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.293184489011... | 1 | The advances of technology had a major impact on the weapons deployed in World War I (1914 – 1918). It saw the earliest development and applications of new forms of weapons in aviation, navy and chemical warfare. World War I also saw the first widespread deployment machine guns, artillery and the introduction of the lumbering armored tank.
Rifles and pistols
Despite advances in machine gun, mortar and grenade technology, all remained relatively unwieldy and cumbersome in comparison to the rifle, which remained the most crucial, ever-present infantry weapon throughout World War I. Of the two, pistols were used less as an offensive weapon and were issued to officers rather than regular soldiers.
First used in the American Civil War, machine guns brought devastating effects. But their effectiveness reached frightening new levels with World War: they fire up to 600 bullets a minute, thus tentamount to causing a mass destruction.
The horrors of gas warfare had never been seen on a battlefield until 1915. The Germans had invented them but French and English were not far behind. There were 3 main types of gas warefare: (1) the tearing agent, causing temporary blindness and greatly inflaming the nose and throat of the victim; (2 the poisonous gases, including chlorine, phosgene and diphosgene; these are highly toxic and have deadly effects; and (3) the blistering agent, the most dreaded of all chemical weapons in World War I - mustard gas – as it acts on any exposed, moist skin. Once coming in contact with skin, it produces large burn-like blisters. And worse, it can nastily hang about in low areas for hours, even days, after being dispersed.
Artillery is the most lethal land-based armament. Together with machine guns and poisonous gas, artillery guns played a prominent part in the trench warfare of World War I. Artillery guns were the new and upgraded versions of cannons. But never in the history where there were so many of them used in one single war. Surely artillery guns were to have a huge impact: they accounted for over 60% of the fatalities on western front.
Resulted from gradual technological developments, tanks were first manufactured during World War I in an effort to break the bloody deadlock of trench warfare. The British were the first to field an armoured car that could move over barbed wire, withstand small arms and destroy opponent’s machine gun nests. Having some success and a significant psychological effect on German infantry, tanks were not critical in war victory at this moment of history.
Warplanes came to being in 1914 and were used for observation of enemy troop movements and of artillery fire, or to come into close confrontation with each other. At this point, they were unarmed. So they joined battle using whatever weapons were to hands. Clearly, air warfare was then not seen as important as any other type so it did not have its own category.
Naval ships were counted very important for some of the war as much of World War I was fought at sea. Conflicts were mainly characterised by the efforts of Allied Powers to blockade Central Powers by sea and by the latter’s attemps to break it and establish an effective blockade of the UK and France. British specialised in ships such as battleships, and the Germans specialised in Submarines. | 677 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Auschwitz was one of the largest concentration camps/death camp all across Europe; it could up to 150,00 inmates. The esitmated number of people who were murdered in Auschwitz was between 2.1 million and 4 million with the vast majority of them being Jews. By March 1941, Auschwitz had already established a reputation for torture and mass shottings. Although, many Jews either died from starvation, forced labor, disease, shooting squads, henious medical experiences, or from the gas chambers. Auschwitz being that it held the most number of people, sometimes the camp would experience resistences to fight back against the camp, some Jews were able to escape while others not so lucky were tortured or killed. After the Germans realized that they were not going to win the war, they started to use death marches to kill off as many Jews while on the run from allied forces to take them down. | <urn:uuid:a9f71182-ab9f-4709-8b05-bd1d76489a58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://holocaustproject01.weebly.com/auschwitz-birkenau.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00553.warc.gz | en | 0.987936 | 182 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | Auschwitz was one of the largest concentration camps/death camp all across Europe; it could up to 150,00 inmates. The esitmated number of people who were murdered in Auschwitz was between 2.1 million and 4 million with the vast majority of them being Jews. By March 1941, Auschwitz had already established a reputation for torture and mass shottings. Although, many Jews either died from starvation, forced labor, disease, shooting squads, henious medical experiences, or from the gas chambers. Auschwitz being that it held the most number of people, sometimes the camp would experience resistences to fight back against the camp, some Jews were able to escape while others not so lucky were tortured or killed. After the Germans realized that they were not going to win the war, they started to use death marches to kill off as many Jews while on the run from allied forces to take them down. | 192 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Stuart v. Laird
The 1803 Supreme Court case of Stuart v. Laird was a crucial case in the evolution of the judiciary branch of the United States government. The case of Stuart v. Laird began with a breach of contract case that was scheduled to be heard in a Virginia federal circuit court. The lawsuit was filed by John Laird against Hugh Stuart in 1801. However, before the case could be heard before a jury, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1801.
This legislation was enacted in response to concerns about the process of "riding circuit," which had required Supreme Court justices to be in attendance in circuit court decisions. Because this was considered dangerous, the Judiciary Act of 1801 reorganized the court system and created a new class of intermediate judges to hear appeals. The case filed by John Laird then went to court and was heard by one of the newly appointed judges, who ruled in favor of Laird in December of 1801. However, before the sale ordered could taked place, the Judiciary Act of 1801 was repealed and replaced by the Judiciary Act of 1802, which removed these newly created judge positions and reinstated the duty of Supreme Court judges to attend Circuit Court hearings to affirm the judgments issued there.
Subsequently, Hugh Stuart failed to make the sale ordered of him and the case returned to court. When Laird filed to suit to complete the sale, the case of Stuart v. Laird was instigated. Hugh Stuart argued that the Judiciary Act of 1802 was unconstitutional, since it had moved the hearing of his initial case from one court to another. Furthermore, Hugh Stuart claimed that appointing Supreme Court justices to positions on the circuit court was a violation of the Constitution, since they did not have commissions granting them this right.
In ruling on Stuart v. Laird, the Supreme Court was asked not just to rule on the merits of the case but also to help resolve a crisis about the role of the judiciary and the powers assigned to it. The Judiciary Act of 1802 had been passed by a group of legislators acting under the influence of Thomas Jefferson. Had the legislation been found unconstitutional, the reaction of the legislature might have included attempts to curtail the power of the judiciary branch of the government.
Therefore, in its ruling on Stuart v. Laird, the Supreme Court moved to protect its own powers. In a unanimous judgement from which one justice recused himself, the Supreme Court rejected the arguments presented by Hugh Stuart, stating that practical application of Supreme Court justices on the circuit court system invalidated his arguments. The verdict in Stuart v. Laird also affirmed the right of Congress to create and dissolve federal judicial bodies as necessary. Therefore, the court ruled against Hugh Stuart, who was ordered to complete the sale as previously ordered. | <urn:uuid:a7c83808-f2b4-43e9-b216-60be14b46f67> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://cases.laws.com/stuart-v-laird | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00113.warc.gz | en | 0.984296 | 563 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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The 1803 Supreme Court case of Stuart v. Laird was a crucial case in the evolution of the judiciary branch of the United States government. The case of Stuart v. Laird began with a breach of contract case that was scheduled to be heard in a Virginia federal circuit court. The lawsuit was filed by John Laird against Hugh Stuart in 1801. However, before the case could be heard before a jury, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1801.
This legislation was enacted in response to concerns about the process of "riding circuit," which had required Supreme Court justices to be in attendance in circuit court decisions. Because this was considered dangerous, the Judiciary Act of 1801 reorganized the court system and created a new class of intermediate judges to hear appeals. The case filed by John Laird then went to court and was heard by one of the newly appointed judges, who ruled in favor of Laird in December of 1801. However, before the sale ordered could taked place, the Judiciary Act of 1801 was repealed and replaced by the Judiciary Act of 1802, which removed these newly created judge positions and reinstated the duty of Supreme Court judges to attend Circuit Court hearings to affirm the judgments issued there.
Subsequently, Hugh Stuart failed to make the sale ordered of him and the case returned to court. When Laird filed to suit to complete the sale, the case of Stuart v. Laird was instigated. Hugh Stuart argued that the Judiciary Act of 1802 was unconstitutional, since it had moved the hearing of his initial case from one court to another. Furthermore, Hugh Stuart claimed that appointing Supreme Court justices to positions on the circuit court was a violation of the Constitution, since they did not have commissions granting them this right.
In ruling on Stuart v. Laird, the Supreme Court was asked not just to rule on the merits of the case but also to help resolve a crisis about the role of the judiciary and the powers assigned to it. The Judiciary Act of 1802 had been passed by a group of legislators acting under the influence of Thomas Jefferson. Had the legislation been found unconstitutional, the reaction of the legislature might have included attempts to curtail the power of the judiciary branch of the government.
Therefore, in its ruling on Stuart v. Laird, the Supreme Court moved to protect its own powers. In a unanimous judgement from which one justice recused himself, the Supreme Court rejected the arguments presented by Hugh Stuart, stating that practical application of Supreme Court justices on the circuit court system invalidated his arguments. The verdict in Stuart v. Laird also affirmed the right of Congress to create and dissolve federal judicial bodies as necessary. Therefore, the court ruled against Hugh Stuart, who was ordered to complete the sale as previously ordered. | 587 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The oldest poem in English is the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, known from a 10th Century manuscript. Beowulf, the hero, came from Geatland in modern Sweden. His historical existence is doubtful: he perhaps lived in the late 6th Century AD. He went to the aid of King Hrothgar of Sjaelland (now in Denmark) as the latter was having his hall, Heorot, raided by the monstrous Grendel, who was eating his men. Beowulf in combat wrenched the arm off Grendel, but the hall was then raided by Grendel's mother. Beowulf went looking for her and a combat ensued in which he chopped off her head. He then found Grendel and dealt with him likewise. But what was Grendel exactly?
The poem would seem to imply that Grendel was some kind of humanoid, for it tells us he was descended from Cain (in the Bible), but this would not have been part of the original story if it had a pre-Christian origin. How did anyone know his name, anyway? One takes it he was hardly on neighborly terms with the locals.
He does seem to have been one of a race or species, for he had an equally daunting mother and the poem refers to his kin. The word Grendel may then have been a species name, perhaps related to Middle English gryndel (angry). This species may have lived on in the minds of Anglo-Saxons in England, as there are placenames such as Grendele's Beck (near Worcester), Grendel's Pit (Devon).
Grendel's Mere (Staffordshire). In these cases, however, the word may be a common noun.
If Grendel was one of a species, one can infer from the poem that he was a creature of large and burly nature and the word thurs, which means a kind of giant, was used of him. Interestingly, a thurs often had watery connections and Grendel's mother was said to live in water. Yet, for an ordinary mortal to beat him in combat, he cannot have been a towering figure.
Many parts of Europe have legends of Wild Men, creatures that somewhat resemble the famous Bigfoot. Reports of such creatures even surface in modern times. Could the Beowulf story preserve a tale of a combat with such a creature? The legendary Wildman would certainly fill the bill. Dwelling in a remote place unsettled by humans, this creature was not alone - don't forget his kin were out there. He could have been a primitive humanoid. I don't think he could have been a Neanderthal, as they did not attain a height greater than Homo sapiens. Something more primitive, say Homo heidelbergensis, could have survived long enough to be coeval with modern man. Perhaps the legend preserves memory of a combat with such a creature.
I have heard no accounts of Wildmen in modern Sjaelland, but there are still remote parts of Europe where reports of them are not unknown. Whether these reports are accurate is a matter for the cryptozoologist to investigate. | <urn:uuid:d15a38ec-5219-4655-bc55-d2fa663e59d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://cfz-usa.blogspot.com/2016/03/what-was-grendel.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.990172 | 655 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.2140416651964... | 1 | The oldest poem in English is the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, known from a 10th Century manuscript. Beowulf, the hero, came from Geatland in modern Sweden. His historical existence is doubtful: he perhaps lived in the late 6th Century AD. He went to the aid of King Hrothgar of Sjaelland (now in Denmark) as the latter was having his hall, Heorot, raided by the monstrous Grendel, who was eating his men. Beowulf in combat wrenched the arm off Grendel, but the hall was then raided by Grendel's mother. Beowulf went looking for her and a combat ensued in which he chopped off her head. He then found Grendel and dealt with him likewise. But what was Grendel exactly?
The poem would seem to imply that Grendel was some kind of humanoid, for it tells us he was descended from Cain (in the Bible), but this would not have been part of the original story if it had a pre-Christian origin. How did anyone know his name, anyway? One takes it he was hardly on neighborly terms with the locals.
He does seem to have been one of a race or species, for he had an equally daunting mother and the poem refers to his kin. The word Grendel may then have been a species name, perhaps related to Middle English gryndel (angry). This species may have lived on in the minds of Anglo-Saxons in England, as there are placenames such as Grendele's Beck (near Worcester), Grendel's Pit (Devon).
Grendel's Mere (Staffordshire). In these cases, however, the word may be a common noun.
If Grendel was one of a species, one can infer from the poem that he was a creature of large and burly nature and the word thurs, which means a kind of giant, was used of him. Interestingly, a thurs often had watery connections and Grendel's mother was said to live in water. Yet, for an ordinary mortal to beat him in combat, he cannot have been a towering figure.
Many parts of Europe have legends of Wild Men, creatures that somewhat resemble the famous Bigfoot. Reports of such creatures even surface in modern times. Could the Beowulf story preserve a tale of a combat with such a creature? The legendary Wildman would certainly fill the bill. Dwelling in a remote place unsettled by humans, this creature was not alone - don't forget his kin were out there. He could have been a primitive humanoid. I don't think he could have been a Neanderthal, as they did not attain a height greater than Homo sapiens. Something more primitive, say Homo heidelbergensis, could have survived long enough to be coeval with modern man. Perhaps the legend preserves memory of a combat with such a creature.
I have heard no accounts of Wildmen in modern Sjaelland, but there are still remote parts of Europe where reports of them are not unknown. Whether these reports are accurate is a matter for the cryptozoologist to investigate. | 651 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The death of George Washington in 1799 marked the end of an era, as well as ushered in a number of significant changes in Fairfax County.
While the War of 1812 had little impact on the county in terms of actual fighting, a number of residents served in the militia and were called upon to help protect Washington, DC including moving wagon loads of gun powder from the navy magazine to the Dulaney farm near the Falls Church. However, what most people remember about the war was Dolley Madison fleeing the capital city with important papers and other treasures she saved from the White House. When the British were marching to the capital city, she crossed over into Virginia where she spent the night of Aug. 25, 2014 at Rokeby in Loudoun County, the home of a friend instead of going to Salona near Little Falls where the President expected to meet her. They reunited there the following day.
The loss to county residents was more economic than anything when the British seized massive amounts of their tobacco, flour and cotton waiting to be shipped from Alexandria warehouses.
From a demographic viewpoint, if your frame of reference about the county is based on the 20th and 21st centuries where population has only been on the increase, you might be surprised to learn that in the first few decades of the 1800s, that was not the case. From a high of 13,654 in 1810 (U.S. Census), the county’s population decreased by a third to 9,206 in 1830.
Intensive tobacco farming exhausted the soil so agricultural productivity fell and it became difficult to maintain the standard of living at plantations. Furthermore, with the abolishment of the primogeniture law (where the first-born inherited the estate), family land began to be divided among multiple offspring of large landholders on properties that then could not support their households, particularly given the depleted soil.
Many residents began to migrate westward, especially to Kentucky and Ohio, where land was plentiful. In addition, it had become more commonplace after the War of Independence to free slaves when the owner died. However, a law was passed in Virginia beginning May 1, 1806 that prohibited former slaves from remaining in the state more than 12 months after freedom, so many left the area.
Yellow fever outbreaks in the early 1800s and in 1821, particularly near in the Alexandria area on the Potomac River where mosquitoes were prolific, also resulted in people leaving the area as well as hundreds dying of the disease.
By 1830, land in Fairfax County was selling at a loss. People began to farm on smaller plots than the earlier tobacco farmers did. By then though, having learned the lesson about exhausting the soil, they paid more attention to diversifying their crops and improving the soil with fertilizers, gypsum and lime, which had a beneficial impact on their yields.
There was also a gradual move to producing grains, especially wheat and corn. While milling had previously been done most often on plantations, merchant milling where an independent miller took in grain from many farms became increasingly important to the county’s economy in the early 19th century. The major exports from the area to Europe during this period were grain and flour with Portugal, Spain, England and the West Indies as the key markets for these products.
In addition, dairy farms and raising sheep for wool became fairly successful with cotton and wool mills established. While milling continued to develop into a solid component of the local economy, a body of skilled craftsmen and merchants also began to grow to meet the needs of residents.
The trend of population loss began to reverse during the 1830s with immigrants coming from Europe primarily to work on roads and bridges. In the next article of this series, we will look at those developments and events leading up to the Civil War.
Source: Fairfax County Virginia, a History (1978) | <urn:uuid:f49f3da3-33e4-47f4-b595-fb0b4b5bc485> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fxva.com/275/history-essays/the-early-1800s/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00546.warc.gz | en | 0.980837 | 784 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.25954174995... | 3 | The death of George Washington in 1799 marked the end of an era, as well as ushered in a number of significant changes in Fairfax County.
While the War of 1812 had little impact on the county in terms of actual fighting, a number of residents served in the militia and were called upon to help protect Washington, DC including moving wagon loads of gun powder from the navy magazine to the Dulaney farm near the Falls Church. However, what most people remember about the war was Dolley Madison fleeing the capital city with important papers and other treasures she saved from the White House. When the British were marching to the capital city, she crossed over into Virginia where she spent the night of Aug. 25, 2014 at Rokeby in Loudoun County, the home of a friend instead of going to Salona near Little Falls where the President expected to meet her. They reunited there the following day.
The loss to county residents was more economic than anything when the British seized massive amounts of their tobacco, flour and cotton waiting to be shipped from Alexandria warehouses.
From a demographic viewpoint, if your frame of reference about the county is based on the 20th and 21st centuries where population has only been on the increase, you might be surprised to learn that in the first few decades of the 1800s, that was not the case. From a high of 13,654 in 1810 (U.S. Census), the county’s population decreased by a third to 9,206 in 1830.
Intensive tobacco farming exhausted the soil so agricultural productivity fell and it became difficult to maintain the standard of living at plantations. Furthermore, with the abolishment of the primogeniture law (where the first-born inherited the estate), family land began to be divided among multiple offspring of large landholders on properties that then could not support their households, particularly given the depleted soil.
Many residents began to migrate westward, especially to Kentucky and Ohio, where land was plentiful. In addition, it had become more commonplace after the War of Independence to free slaves when the owner died. However, a law was passed in Virginia beginning May 1, 1806 that prohibited former slaves from remaining in the state more than 12 months after freedom, so many left the area.
Yellow fever outbreaks in the early 1800s and in 1821, particularly near in the Alexandria area on the Potomac River where mosquitoes were prolific, also resulted in people leaving the area as well as hundreds dying of the disease.
By 1830, land in Fairfax County was selling at a loss. People began to farm on smaller plots than the earlier tobacco farmers did. By then though, having learned the lesson about exhausting the soil, they paid more attention to diversifying their crops and improving the soil with fertilizers, gypsum and lime, which had a beneficial impact on their yields.
There was also a gradual move to producing grains, especially wheat and corn. While milling had previously been done most often on plantations, merchant milling where an independent miller took in grain from many farms became increasingly important to the county’s economy in the early 19th century. The major exports from the area to Europe during this period were grain and flour with Portugal, Spain, England and the West Indies as the key markets for these products.
In addition, dairy farms and raising sheep for wool became fairly successful with cotton and wool mills established. While milling continued to develop into a solid component of the local economy, a body of skilled craftsmen and merchants also began to grow to meet the needs of residents.
The trend of population loss began to reverse during the 1830s with immigrants coming from Europe primarily to work on roads and bridges. In the next article of this series, we will look at those developments and events leading up to the Civil War.
Source: Fairfax County Virginia, a History (1978) | 826 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of Piping for Fallen Heroes in the US
Written by: Doug
Published: 1st October 2017
Last Updated on
Brought to the United States over one hundred and fifty years ago by the Scottish immigrants, the bagpipe has become a symbol of mourning for fallen heroes, especially firefighters and policemen. The hauntingly beautiful music of the pipe is especially suited to songs of mourning whether played by a single piper, ensemble, or by a bagpipe band.
Bagpipes are often thought of as a Scottish instrument but in fact all Celtic people have played bagpipes at funerals, wakes, weddings, and dances for centuries. They were a tradition that the immigrants from Scotland brought with them to the United States. The British also had a centuries old tradition of using bagpipes in conjunction with honoring fallen heroes. Military units often had their own pipers and comrades who fell in battle were honored with bagpipe music at their funerals.
When the great potato famine caused a massive influx of immigrants to the East Coast of the United States, they had a difficult time finding jobs. What became available to them were dirty or dangerous jobs that nobody else wanted. These were often in the fire and police departments of large cities. Many died in the performance of their duty and the traditional bagpipes were played at their funerals. The pipes were a comforting and familiar tribute to them and their heritage. The mournful and haunting sound of the pipes allowed for a release of emotions often held back. People have related that the sound of the bagpipe music started a release of memories and emotions that began the healing process.
Before long, the families and friends of firefighters and policemen of other ancestry and backgrounds were requesting that a piper play for their fallen heroes as well. The Pipes brought dignity and a special solemn air to the ceremony as well as a unity to the department.
The Chiefs of fire and police departments were often instrumental in forming bagpipe bands. Large cities developed pipe bands representing the fire and police departments. Today many of the bands number more than 60 players. They wear either Scottish plaid kilts or Irish single color kilts and a tunic.
Bagpipers have also become a tradition at military and state funerals. They lend a feeling of reverence and honor to the occasion.
Since the bagpipes have a limited range of sounds, music must be specifically written for them. There are many songs that can be played including traditional songs and newer offerings. The song most often played at funerals is “Amazing Grace” which is traditionally played at the end of the service by a single piper who may walk slowly away as he plays. | <urn:uuid:a4e1699d-97e0-4a60-9556-1a84d80e0b38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.highlandtitles.com/blog/history-piping-fallen-heroes-us/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.987886 | 546 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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-0.10357810556... | 2 | The History of Piping for Fallen Heroes in the US
Written by: Doug
Published: 1st October 2017
Last Updated on
Brought to the United States over one hundred and fifty years ago by the Scottish immigrants, the bagpipe has become a symbol of mourning for fallen heroes, especially firefighters and policemen. The hauntingly beautiful music of the pipe is especially suited to songs of mourning whether played by a single piper, ensemble, or by a bagpipe band.
Bagpipes are often thought of as a Scottish instrument but in fact all Celtic people have played bagpipes at funerals, wakes, weddings, and dances for centuries. They were a tradition that the immigrants from Scotland brought with them to the United States. The British also had a centuries old tradition of using bagpipes in conjunction with honoring fallen heroes. Military units often had their own pipers and comrades who fell in battle were honored with bagpipe music at their funerals.
When the great potato famine caused a massive influx of immigrants to the East Coast of the United States, they had a difficult time finding jobs. What became available to them were dirty or dangerous jobs that nobody else wanted. These were often in the fire and police departments of large cities. Many died in the performance of their duty and the traditional bagpipes were played at their funerals. The pipes were a comforting and familiar tribute to them and their heritage. The mournful and haunting sound of the pipes allowed for a release of emotions often held back. People have related that the sound of the bagpipe music started a release of memories and emotions that began the healing process.
Before long, the families and friends of firefighters and policemen of other ancestry and backgrounds were requesting that a piper play for their fallen heroes as well. The Pipes brought dignity and a special solemn air to the ceremony as well as a unity to the department.
The Chiefs of fire and police departments were often instrumental in forming bagpipe bands. Large cities developed pipe bands representing the fire and police departments. Today many of the bands number more than 60 players. They wear either Scottish plaid kilts or Irish single color kilts and a tunic.
Bagpipers have also become a tradition at military and state funerals. They lend a feeling of reverence and honor to the occasion.
Since the bagpipes have a limited range of sounds, music must be specifically written for them. There are many songs that can be played including traditional songs and newer offerings. The song most often played at funerals is “Amazing Grace” which is traditionally played at the end of the service by a single piper who may walk slowly away as he plays. | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When was the U.S. constitution ratified?
The United States Constitution was written in 1787; however, it did not take full effect until it was ratified in 1789, when it replaced the Articles of Confederation. The requirement of ratification by nine states, set by Article Seven of the Constitution, was met when New Hampshire voted to ratify, on June 21, 1788. On July 26, 1788, New York ratified, with a recommendation that a bill of rights be appended. The vote was close—yeas 30 (52.6%), nays 27—due largely to Hamilton’s forensic abilities and his reaching a few key compromises with moderate anti-Federalists led by Melancton Smith. Opposition to ratification was led by Governor George Clinton. | <urn:uuid:e492aae1-fa7f-48db-aba8-d122227b07e1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.experts123.com/q/when-was-the-u.s-constitution-ratified.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.983271 | 158 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.1512744575738... | 1 | When was the U.S. constitution ratified?
The United States Constitution was written in 1787; however, it did not take full effect until it was ratified in 1789, when it replaced the Articles of Confederation. The requirement of ratification by nine states, set by Article Seven of the Constitution, was met when New Hampshire voted to ratify, on June 21, 1788. On July 26, 1788, New York ratified, with a recommendation that a bill of rights be appended. The vote was close—yeas 30 (52.6%), nays 27—due largely to Hamilton’s forensic abilities and his reaching a few key compromises with moderate anti-Federalists led by Melancton Smith. Opposition to ratification was led by Governor George Clinton. | 177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gen Lee met forces of north gen Meade and were defeated changing the tide of war for the South ,, jeb Stuart a South general was absent at time and resulted in the combine d losses of both sides to be the largest one battle ever in rival war . poor info on South battle plan. Was a. Culprit.
Confederates came in from the North. battle took place on july 1,2.3. Union held the high ground around cemetery hill and little round top. first day battle union held until john Reynolds joined forces. Reynolds was killed that day. Second day battle took place at the peach orchard and little round top.. union line formed a fishhook to little round top. chamberlain was sent to hold little round top at all cost. third day of battle was the famous charge of pickett's charge and the wheat field. General Lee was defeated, however, fought almost another year | <urn:uuid:ebfd877a-3655-4b01-bfbc-82a2e920df1d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/309557/write-down-everything-you-know-about-gettysburg | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00200.warc.gz | en | 0.984003 | 187 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.488249361515... | 2 | Gen Lee met forces of north gen Meade and were defeated changing the tide of war for the South ,, jeb Stuart a South general was absent at time and resulted in the combine d losses of both sides to be the largest one battle ever in rival war . poor info on South battle plan. Was a. Culprit.
Confederates came in from the North. battle took place on july 1,2.3. Union held the high ground around cemetery hill and little round top. first day battle union held until john Reynolds joined forces. Reynolds was killed that day. Second day battle took place at the peach orchard and little round top.. union line formed a fishhook to little round top. chamberlain was sent to hold little round top at all cost. third day of battle was the famous charge of pickett's charge and the wheat field. General Lee was defeated, however, fought almost another year | 185 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Photography arrived in Japan early. The equipment to produce daguerreotypes — images etched on copper plates coated with silver — was introduced via the Dutch trading port of Dejima in the late 1840s, a decade after its invention in France.
In these pre-modern times, however, technology spread comparatively slowly and it was only after Japanese ports were opened to foreign trade and settlement, particularly those of Yokohama and Nagasaki in 1859, that photography took off.
One of the most important actors in this process was Felice Beato. A Venetian by birth and British by citizenship, Beato landed in Japan in 1863. Though he was only 31, he was already a seasoned photographer: He had documented the carnage of the Crimean War in 1856, recorded the aftermath of the Indian Mutiny of 1857 and, three years later, captured images of British and French forces as they fought their way to Beijing at the end of the Second Opium War (1856-1860). But it was in Japan, where he spent more than 20 years, that Beato would become one of the preeminent photographers of his time.
His timing was fortuitous. For one thing, he had the opportunity to learn photography — at that time a highly technical skill accessible to only a few — with the help of a relative who also provided access to expensive equipment. Equally important, this happened at a time when Western influence was expanding rapidly across the world, and demand for images of the exotic new lands colonial empires encountered, and conquered, was booming.
On top of that, Beato had talent galore. As Rossella Menegazzo, associate professor of history of East Asian art at the University of Milan, writes in “Lost Japan,” the “quantity and variety of his pictures, the quality of the focus, the contrast of shadow and light … were unparalleled and still bear witness to his professional skills.” Leafing through her lavishly produced volume, a stunning collection of images by Beato, his disciple Kusakabe Kimbei and some of their contemporaries, most of which are being published for the first time, one is hard-pressed to disagree.
In Japan, Beato had to adapt to a new environment. Until then, he had often worked outdoors, on battlefields or around well-known historic sites. But in the twilight years of the shogunate, before the Meiji Restoration of 1868, foreigners faced significant travel restrictions — Kyoto, for instance, was off-limits. Thus, Beato focused on work in the studio, where he staged “typical” scenes of Japanese life — “Sumo wrestlers” and “Two women holding a pipe” are representative examples.
He recruited Japanese colorists to enliven his photographs, which themselves began to exhibit the influence of Japanese art, most obviously in their composition. Despite a certain theatricality, which is typical of the period, the results are often remarkable. “No other country has such a beautiful and refined tradition of hand-colored photographs,” says Menegazzo.
An affable and gregarious man, Beato cultivated a broad network of contacts among the British and foreign officer corps, as well as in business and diplomatic circles. These individuals facilitated access to remote and restricted regions of the country, but also formed his main customer base.
By 1872, Beato was running a large studio with two assistants and eight Japanese staff — four photographers and four colorists. Still, his finances remained precarious, even as the Japonism craze was reaching fever pitch in the Western world. Beato was a poor investor who made risky bets in land speculation and lost repeatedly in the stock market. By the time he left Japan in 1884, he was broke.
His outgoing personality notwithstanding, much of Beato’s life remains unexplained. We know little about his childhood or his whereabouts later in life, particularly the period he spent in Myanmar in the 1890s. He died in Florence in 1909, to general indifference, and for more than a century, even the location of his tomb was unknown — it was found by chance by a municipal employee in 2012.
“Lost Japan” is a fitting tribute to his art. | <urn:uuid:1c1d26ba-7b0e-44d1-ab96-6a2645139d9b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2018/07/28/books/old-photos-illuminate-japan-now-lost/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.984942 | 882 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.882663011... | 3 | Photography arrived in Japan early. The equipment to produce daguerreotypes — images etched on copper plates coated with silver — was introduced via the Dutch trading port of Dejima in the late 1840s, a decade after its invention in France.
In these pre-modern times, however, technology spread comparatively slowly and it was only after Japanese ports were opened to foreign trade and settlement, particularly those of Yokohama and Nagasaki in 1859, that photography took off.
One of the most important actors in this process was Felice Beato. A Venetian by birth and British by citizenship, Beato landed in Japan in 1863. Though he was only 31, he was already a seasoned photographer: He had documented the carnage of the Crimean War in 1856, recorded the aftermath of the Indian Mutiny of 1857 and, three years later, captured images of British and French forces as they fought their way to Beijing at the end of the Second Opium War (1856-1860). But it was in Japan, where he spent more than 20 years, that Beato would become one of the preeminent photographers of his time.
His timing was fortuitous. For one thing, he had the opportunity to learn photography — at that time a highly technical skill accessible to only a few — with the help of a relative who also provided access to expensive equipment. Equally important, this happened at a time when Western influence was expanding rapidly across the world, and demand for images of the exotic new lands colonial empires encountered, and conquered, was booming.
On top of that, Beato had talent galore. As Rossella Menegazzo, associate professor of history of East Asian art at the University of Milan, writes in “Lost Japan,” the “quantity and variety of his pictures, the quality of the focus, the contrast of shadow and light … were unparalleled and still bear witness to his professional skills.” Leafing through her lavishly produced volume, a stunning collection of images by Beato, his disciple Kusakabe Kimbei and some of their contemporaries, most of which are being published for the first time, one is hard-pressed to disagree.
In Japan, Beato had to adapt to a new environment. Until then, he had often worked outdoors, on battlefields or around well-known historic sites. But in the twilight years of the shogunate, before the Meiji Restoration of 1868, foreigners faced significant travel restrictions — Kyoto, for instance, was off-limits. Thus, Beato focused on work in the studio, where he staged “typical” scenes of Japanese life — “Sumo wrestlers” and “Two women holding a pipe” are representative examples.
He recruited Japanese colorists to enliven his photographs, which themselves began to exhibit the influence of Japanese art, most obviously in their composition. Despite a certain theatricality, which is typical of the period, the results are often remarkable. “No other country has such a beautiful and refined tradition of hand-colored photographs,” says Menegazzo.
An affable and gregarious man, Beato cultivated a broad network of contacts among the British and foreign officer corps, as well as in business and diplomatic circles. These individuals facilitated access to remote and restricted regions of the country, but also formed his main customer base.
By 1872, Beato was running a large studio with two assistants and eight Japanese staff — four photographers and four colorists. Still, his finances remained precarious, even as the Japonism craze was reaching fever pitch in the Western world. Beato was a poor investor who made risky bets in land speculation and lost repeatedly in the stock market. By the time he left Japan in 1884, he was broke.
His outgoing personality notwithstanding, much of Beato’s life remains unexplained. We know little about his childhood or his whereabouts later in life, particularly the period he spent in Myanmar in the 1890s. He died in Florence in 1909, to general indifference, and for more than a century, even the location of his tomb was unknown — it was found by chance by a municipal employee in 2012.
“Lost Japan” is a fitting tribute to his art. | 899 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Germany between 1125 - 1254
The Hohenstaufen, also called the Staufer or Staufen, were a dynasty of German kings (1138–1254) during the Middle Ages. Besides Germany, they also ruled the Kingdom of Sicily (1194–1268). Three members of the dynasty—Frederick I, Henry VI and Frederick II—were crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
The family derives its name from the castle which the first Swabian duke of the lineage built there in the latter half of the 11th century. The name "Hohenstaufen", meaning "high Staufen", originates in the 14th century. Staufen castle was only finally called Hohenstaufen by historians in the 19th century, to distinguish it from other castles of the same name. The name of the dynasty followed, but in recent decades the trend in German historiography has been to prefer the name Staufer.
The noble family first appeared in the late 10th century in the Swabian Riesgau region around the former Carolingian court of Nördlingen. A local count Frederick (d. about 1075) is mentioned as progenitor in a pedigree drawn up by Abbot Wibald of Stavelot at the behest of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1153. Upon Frederick's death, he was succeeded by his son, Duke Frederick II, in 1105. Frederick II remained a close ally of the Salians, he and his younger brother Conrad were named the king's representatives in Germany when the king was in Italy. Around 1120, Frederick II married Judith of Bavaria from the rival House of Welf.
When the last male member of the Salian dynasty, Emperor Henry V, died without heirs in 1125, a controversy arose about the succession. Duke Frederick II and Conrad, the two current male Staufers, by their mother Agnes were grandsons of late Emperor Henry IV and nephews of Henry V. Frederick attempted to succeed to the throne of the Holy Roman Emperor (formally known as the King of the Romans) through a customary election, but lost to the Saxon duke Lothair of Supplinburg. A civil war between Frederick's dynasty and Lothair's ended with Frederick's submission in 1134. After Lothair's death in 1137, Frederick's brother Conrad was elected King as Conrad III.
Conrad's brother Duke Frederick II died in 1147, and was succeeded in Swabia by his son, Duke Frederick III. When King Conrad III died without adult heir in 1152, Frederick also succeeded him, taking both German royal and Imperial titles.
Frederick I, known as Frederick Barbarossa because of his red beard, struggled throughout his reign to restore the power and prestige of the German monarchy against the dukes, whose power had grown both before and after the Investiture Controversy under his Salian predecessors. As royal access to the resources of the church in Germany was much reduced, Frederick was forced to go to Italy to find the finances needed to restore the king's power in Germany. He was soon crowned emperor in Italy, but decades of warfare on the peninsula yielded scant results. The Papacy and the prosperous city-states of the Lombard League in northern Italy were traditional enemies, but the fear of Imperial domination caused them to join ranks to fight Frederick. Under the skilled leadership of Pope Alexander III, the alliance suffered many defeats but ultimately was able to deny the emperor a complete victory in Italy. Frederick returned to Germany. He had vanquished one notable opponent, his Welf cousin, Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony and Bavaria in 1180, but his hopes of restoring the power and prestige of the monarchy seemed unlikely to be met by the end of his life.
During Frederick's long stays in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a successful colonization of Slavic lands. Offers of reduced taxes and manorial duties enticed many Germans to settle in the east in the course of the Ostsiedlung. In 1163 Frederick waged a successful campaign against the Kingdom of Poland in order to re-install the Silesian dukes of the Piast dynasty. With the German colonization, the Empire increased in size and came to include the Duchy of Pomerania as well as Bohemia and the March of Moravia. A quickening economic life in Germany increased the number of towns and Imperial cities, and gave them greater importance. It was also during this period that castles and courts replaced monasteries as centers of culture. Growing out of this courtly culture, Middle High German literature reached its peak in lyrical love poetry, the Minnesang, and in narrative epic poems such as Tristan, Parzival, and the Nibelungenlied.
Frederick died in 1190 while on the Third Crusade and was succeeded by his son, Henry VI. Elected king even before his father's death, Henry went to Rome to be crowned emperor. He married Queen Constance of Sicily, and a death in his wife's family in 1194 gave him possession of the Kingdom of Sicily, a source of vast wealth. Henry failed to make royal and Imperial succession hereditary, but in 1196 he succeeded in gaining a pledge that his infant son Frederick would receive the German crown. Faced with difficulties in Italy and confident that he would realize his wishes in Germany at a later date, Henry returned to the south, where it appeared he might unify the peninsula under the Hohenstaufen name. After a series of military victories, however, he fell ill and died of natural causes in Sicily in 1197. His underage son Frederick could only succeed him in Sicily and Malta, while in the Empire the struggle between the House of Staufen and the House of Welf erupted once again.
Because the election of a three-year-old boy to be German king appeared likely to make orderly rule difficult, the boy's uncle, Duke Philip of Swabia, brother of late Henry VI, was designated to serve in his place. Other factions however favoured a Welf candidate. In 1198, two rival kings were chosen: the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia and the son of the deprived Duke Henry the Lion, the Welf Otto IV. A long civil war began; Philip was about to win when he was murdered by the Bavarian count palatine Otto VIII of Wittelsbach in 1208. Pope Innocent III initially had supported the Welfs, but when Otto, now sole elected monarch, moved to appropriate Sicily, Innocent changed sides and accepted young Frederick II and his ally, King Philip II of France, who defeated Otto at the 1214 Battle of Bouvines. Frederick had returned to Germany in 1212 from Sicily, where he had grown up, and was elected king in 1215. When Otto died in 1218, Fredrick became the undisputed ruler, and in 1220 was crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
Emperor Frederick II spent little time in Germany as his main concerns lay in Southern Italy. He founded the University of Naples in 1224 to train future state officials and reigned over Germany primarily through the allocation of royal prerogatives, leaving the sovereign authority and imperial estates to the ecclesiastical and secular princes. He made significant concessions to the German nobles, such as those put forth in an imperial statute of 1232, which made princes virtually independent rulers within their territories. These measures favoured the further fragmentation of the Empire.
By the 1226 Golden Bull of Rimini, Frederick had assigned the military order of the Teutonic Knights to complete the conquest and conversion of the Prussian lands. A reconciliation with the Welfs took place in 1235, whereby Otto the Child, grandson of the late Saxon duke Henry the Lion, was named Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg. The power struggle with the popes continued and resulted in Fredrick's excommunication in 1227. In 1239, Pope Gregory IX excommunicated Fredrick again, and in 1245 he was condemned as a heretic by a church council. Although Frederick was one of the most energetic, imaginative, and capable rulers of the time, he was not concerned with drawing the disparate forces in Germany together. His legacy was thus that local rulers had more authority after his reign than before it. The clergy also had become more powerful.
By the time of Frederick's death in 1250, little centralized power remained in Germany. The Great Interregnum, a period in which there were several elected rival kings, none of whom was able to achieve any position of authority, followed the death of Frederick's son King Conrad IV of Germany in 1254. The German princes vied for individual advantage and managed to strip many powers away from the diminished monarchy. Rather than establish sovereign states however, many nobles tended to look after their families. Their many male heirs created more and smaller estates, and from a largely free class of officials previously formed, many of these assumed or acquired hereditary rights to administrative and legal offices. These trends compounded political fragmentation within Germany. The period was ended in 1273 with the election of Rudolph of Habsburg, a godson of Frederick.
Conrad IV was succeeded as duke of Swabia by his only son, two-year-old Conradin. By this time, the office of duke of Swabia had been fully subsumed into the office of the king, and without royal authority had become meaningless. In 1261, attempts to elect young Conradin king were unsuccessful. He also had to defend Sicily against an invasion by Charles of Anjou, a brother of the French king. Charles had defeated Conradin's uncle Manfred, King of Sicily in the Battle of Benevento on 26 February 1266. The king himself, refusing to flee, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was killed. Conradin's campaign to retake control ended with his defeat in 1268 at the Battle of Tagliacozzo after which he was handed over to Charles, who had him publicly executed at Naples. With Conradin, the direct line of the Dukes of Swabia finally ceased to exist, though most of the later emperors were descended from the Staufer dynasty indirectly.
During the political decentralization of the late Staufer period, the population had grown from an estimated 8 million in 1200 to about 14 million in 1300, and the number of towns increased tenfold. The most heavily urbanized areas of Germany were located in the south and the west. Towns often developed a degree of independence, but many were subordinate to local rulers if not immediate to the emperor. Colonization of the east also continued in the thirteenth century, most notably through the efforts of the Teutonic Knights. German merchants also began trading extensively on the Baltic.
Augustusburg Palace represents one of the first examples of Rococo creations in Germany. For the Cologne elector and archbishop Clemens August of the House of Wittelsbach it was the favourite residence. In 1725 the Westphalian architect Johann Conrad Schlaun was commissioned by Clemens August to begin the construction of the palace on the ruins of a medieval moated castle.
In 1728, the Bavarian court architect François de Cuvilliés took over and made the palace into one of the most glorious residences of its time. Until its completion in 1768, numerous outstanding artists of European renown contributed to its beauty. A prime example of the calibre of artists employed here is Balthasar Neumann, who created the design for the magnificent staircase, an enchanting creation full of dynamism and elegance. The magical interplay of architecture, sculpture, painting and garden design made the Brühl Palaces a masterpiece of German Rococo.
UNESCO honoured history and present of the Rococo Palaces by inscribing Augustusburg Palace – together with Falkenlust Palace and their extensive gardens – on the World Heritage List in 1984. From 1949 onwards, Augustusburg Palace was used for representative purposes by the German Federal President and the Federal Government for many decades.
In 1728, Dominique Girard designed the palace gardens according to French models. Owing to constant renovation and care, it is today one of the most authentic examples of 18th century garden design in Europe. Next to the Baroque gardens, Peter Joseph Lenné redesigned the forested areas based on English landscaping models. Today it is a wonderful place to have a walk. | <urn:uuid:410fd740-5281-43ad-9aad-60d9871a5287> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.spottinghistory.com/historicalperiod/hohenstaufen-dynasty-germany/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.981644 | 2,563 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.22824... | 1 | History of Germany between 1125 - 1254
The Hohenstaufen, also called the Staufer or Staufen, were a dynasty of German kings (1138–1254) during the Middle Ages. Besides Germany, they also ruled the Kingdom of Sicily (1194–1268). Three members of the dynasty—Frederick I, Henry VI and Frederick II—were crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
The family derives its name from the castle which the first Swabian duke of the lineage built there in the latter half of the 11th century. The name "Hohenstaufen", meaning "high Staufen", originates in the 14th century. Staufen castle was only finally called Hohenstaufen by historians in the 19th century, to distinguish it from other castles of the same name. The name of the dynasty followed, but in recent decades the trend in German historiography has been to prefer the name Staufer.
The noble family first appeared in the late 10th century in the Swabian Riesgau region around the former Carolingian court of Nördlingen. A local count Frederick (d. about 1075) is mentioned as progenitor in a pedigree drawn up by Abbot Wibald of Stavelot at the behest of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1153. Upon Frederick's death, he was succeeded by his son, Duke Frederick II, in 1105. Frederick II remained a close ally of the Salians, he and his younger brother Conrad were named the king's representatives in Germany when the king was in Italy. Around 1120, Frederick II married Judith of Bavaria from the rival House of Welf.
When the last male member of the Salian dynasty, Emperor Henry V, died without heirs in 1125, a controversy arose about the succession. Duke Frederick II and Conrad, the two current male Staufers, by their mother Agnes were grandsons of late Emperor Henry IV and nephews of Henry V. Frederick attempted to succeed to the throne of the Holy Roman Emperor (formally known as the King of the Romans) through a customary election, but lost to the Saxon duke Lothair of Supplinburg. A civil war between Frederick's dynasty and Lothair's ended with Frederick's submission in 1134. After Lothair's death in 1137, Frederick's brother Conrad was elected King as Conrad III.
Conrad's brother Duke Frederick II died in 1147, and was succeeded in Swabia by his son, Duke Frederick III. When King Conrad III died without adult heir in 1152, Frederick also succeeded him, taking both German royal and Imperial titles.
Frederick I, known as Frederick Barbarossa because of his red beard, struggled throughout his reign to restore the power and prestige of the German monarchy against the dukes, whose power had grown both before and after the Investiture Controversy under his Salian predecessors. As royal access to the resources of the church in Germany was much reduced, Frederick was forced to go to Italy to find the finances needed to restore the king's power in Germany. He was soon crowned emperor in Italy, but decades of warfare on the peninsula yielded scant results. The Papacy and the prosperous city-states of the Lombard League in northern Italy were traditional enemies, but the fear of Imperial domination caused them to join ranks to fight Frederick. Under the skilled leadership of Pope Alexander III, the alliance suffered many defeats but ultimately was able to deny the emperor a complete victory in Italy. Frederick returned to Germany. He had vanquished one notable opponent, his Welf cousin, Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony and Bavaria in 1180, but his hopes of restoring the power and prestige of the monarchy seemed unlikely to be met by the end of his life.
During Frederick's long stays in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a successful colonization of Slavic lands. Offers of reduced taxes and manorial duties enticed many Germans to settle in the east in the course of the Ostsiedlung. In 1163 Frederick waged a successful campaign against the Kingdom of Poland in order to re-install the Silesian dukes of the Piast dynasty. With the German colonization, the Empire increased in size and came to include the Duchy of Pomerania as well as Bohemia and the March of Moravia. A quickening economic life in Germany increased the number of towns and Imperial cities, and gave them greater importance. It was also during this period that castles and courts replaced monasteries as centers of culture. Growing out of this courtly culture, Middle High German literature reached its peak in lyrical love poetry, the Minnesang, and in narrative epic poems such as Tristan, Parzival, and the Nibelungenlied.
Frederick died in 1190 while on the Third Crusade and was succeeded by his son, Henry VI. Elected king even before his father's death, Henry went to Rome to be crowned emperor. He married Queen Constance of Sicily, and a death in his wife's family in 1194 gave him possession of the Kingdom of Sicily, a source of vast wealth. Henry failed to make royal and Imperial succession hereditary, but in 1196 he succeeded in gaining a pledge that his infant son Frederick would receive the German crown. Faced with difficulties in Italy and confident that he would realize his wishes in Germany at a later date, Henry returned to the south, where it appeared he might unify the peninsula under the Hohenstaufen name. After a series of military victories, however, he fell ill and died of natural causes in Sicily in 1197. His underage son Frederick could only succeed him in Sicily and Malta, while in the Empire the struggle between the House of Staufen and the House of Welf erupted once again.
Because the election of a three-year-old boy to be German king appeared likely to make orderly rule difficult, the boy's uncle, Duke Philip of Swabia, brother of late Henry VI, was designated to serve in his place. Other factions however favoured a Welf candidate. In 1198, two rival kings were chosen: the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia and the son of the deprived Duke Henry the Lion, the Welf Otto IV. A long civil war began; Philip was about to win when he was murdered by the Bavarian count palatine Otto VIII of Wittelsbach in 1208. Pope Innocent III initially had supported the Welfs, but when Otto, now sole elected monarch, moved to appropriate Sicily, Innocent changed sides and accepted young Frederick II and his ally, King Philip II of France, who defeated Otto at the 1214 Battle of Bouvines. Frederick had returned to Germany in 1212 from Sicily, where he had grown up, and was elected king in 1215. When Otto died in 1218, Fredrick became the undisputed ruler, and in 1220 was crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
Emperor Frederick II spent little time in Germany as his main concerns lay in Southern Italy. He founded the University of Naples in 1224 to train future state officials and reigned over Germany primarily through the allocation of royal prerogatives, leaving the sovereign authority and imperial estates to the ecclesiastical and secular princes. He made significant concessions to the German nobles, such as those put forth in an imperial statute of 1232, which made princes virtually independent rulers within their territories. These measures favoured the further fragmentation of the Empire.
By the 1226 Golden Bull of Rimini, Frederick had assigned the military order of the Teutonic Knights to complete the conquest and conversion of the Prussian lands. A reconciliation with the Welfs took place in 1235, whereby Otto the Child, grandson of the late Saxon duke Henry the Lion, was named Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg. The power struggle with the popes continued and resulted in Fredrick's excommunication in 1227. In 1239, Pope Gregory IX excommunicated Fredrick again, and in 1245 he was condemned as a heretic by a church council. Although Frederick was one of the most energetic, imaginative, and capable rulers of the time, he was not concerned with drawing the disparate forces in Germany together. His legacy was thus that local rulers had more authority after his reign than before it. The clergy also had become more powerful.
By the time of Frederick's death in 1250, little centralized power remained in Germany. The Great Interregnum, a period in which there were several elected rival kings, none of whom was able to achieve any position of authority, followed the death of Frederick's son King Conrad IV of Germany in 1254. The German princes vied for individual advantage and managed to strip many powers away from the diminished monarchy. Rather than establish sovereign states however, many nobles tended to look after their families. Their many male heirs created more and smaller estates, and from a largely free class of officials previously formed, many of these assumed or acquired hereditary rights to administrative and legal offices. These trends compounded political fragmentation within Germany. The period was ended in 1273 with the election of Rudolph of Habsburg, a godson of Frederick.
Conrad IV was succeeded as duke of Swabia by his only son, two-year-old Conradin. By this time, the office of duke of Swabia had been fully subsumed into the office of the king, and without royal authority had become meaningless. In 1261, attempts to elect young Conradin king were unsuccessful. He also had to defend Sicily against an invasion by Charles of Anjou, a brother of the French king. Charles had defeated Conradin's uncle Manfred, King of Sicily in the Battle of Benevento on 26 February 1266. The king himself, refusing to flee, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was killed. Conradin's campaign to retake control ended with his defeat in 1268 at the Battle of Tagliacozzo after which he was handed over to Charles, who had him publicly executed at Naples. With Conradin, the direct line of the Dukes of Swabia finally ceased to exist, though most of the later emperors were descended from the Staufer dynasty indirectly.
During the political decentralization of the late Staufer period, the population had grown from an estimated 8 million in 1200 to about 14 million in 1300, and the number of towns increased tenfold. The most heavily urbanized areas of Germany were located in the south and the west. Towns often developed a degree of independence, but many were subordinate to local rulers if not immediate to the emperor. Colonization of the east also continued in the thirteenth century, most notably through the efforts of the Teutonic Knights. German merchants also began trading extensively on the Baltic.
Augustusburg Palace represents one of the first examples of Rococo creations in Germany. For the Cologne elector and archbishop Clemens August of the House of Wittelsbach it was the favourite residence. In 1725 the Westphalian architect Johann Conrad Schlaun was commissioned by Clemens August to begin the construction of the palace on the ruins of a medieval moated castle.
In 1728, the Bavarian court architect François de Cuvilliés took over and made the palace into one of the most glorious residences of its time. Until its completion in 1768, numerous outstanding artists of European renown contributed to its beauty. A prime example of the calibre of artists employed here is Balthasar Neumann, who created the design for the magnificent staircase, an enchanting creation full of dynamism and elegance. The magical interplay of architecture, sculpture, painting and garden design made the Brühl Palaces a masterpiece of German Rococo.
UNESCO honoured history and present of the Rococo Palaces by inscribing Augustusburg Palace – together with Falkenlust Palace and their extensive gardens – on the World Heritage List in 1984. From 1949 onwards, Augustusburg Palace was used for representative purposes by the German Federal President and the Federal Government for many decades.
In 1728, Dominique Girard designed the palace gardens according to French models. Owing to constant renovation and care, it is today one of the most authentic examples of 18th century garden design in Europe. Next to the Baroque gardens, Peter Joseph Lenné redesigned the forested areas based on English landscaping models. Today it is a wonderful place to have a walk. | 2,710 | ENGLISH | 1 |
But while on Robben Island, he was kept in solitary confinement. Basically, his living quarters were separate from the main prison and thus, he was isolated from other political prisoners.
It is documented that he was kept away from other political prisoners because of his influence and fear by the apartheid regime.
More about this
“Sobukwe was isolated because the apartheid government feared him and his intellectual capabilities, eloquence, ideas and his influence on others. He was a threat to the sustainability of the apartheid state. Sobukwe had a power of influencing people both intellectually and politically,” writes historian Luvuyo Mthimkhulu Dondolo.
Today, the South African freedom fighter and activist is not only remembered as the most feared man in South Africa under apartheid but as the only political prisoner in the world to have a law passed through parliament in his name.
This law, dubbed the ‘Sobukwe Clause’, empowered the then Minister of Justice to prolong the detention of any political prisoner indefinitely.
Such was the life of Sobukwe who spent a significant part of his life in either solitary confinement or internal exile, under house arrest for being a militant opponent of white supremacy in South Africa.
Born in the South African town of Graaff-Reinet on December 5, 1924, Sobukwe first gained an interest in politics while schooling at Fort Hare University College, the only institution that was open to Black people.
There, he was elected president of the Students’ Representative Council before joining the Youth League of the African National Congress (ANC), an organization protesting the South African government’s policy of apartheid.
But in the 1950s, tensions began brewing in the party when Sobukwe and others raised concerns with the multi-racial path the party had taken.
For someone who believed that the future of South Africa should be in the hands of Black South Africans, Sobukwe was against the idea of multi-racialism as solutions to the country’s socio-economic problems.
Thus, he and others broke away from the ANC in 1958 and founded the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) where he was elected its first president.
In his inaugural convention speech in April 1959, Sobukwe said “that Africanists should not at all subscribe to the doctrine of South African exceptionalism.
“He emphasized that South Africa was an integral part of the whole that is Afrika, warning that South Africa could not solve her problems in isolation from and with disregard of the rest of the continent.”
A year later, on March 21, 1960, Sobukwe’s PAC led peaceful black protestors in the township of Sharpeville to protest the Pass Laws, a passport system enacted under Apartheid to further segregate the population.
Police opened fire on them, killing 69 people and injuring 180 in what became known as the Sharpeville massacre. The anger and riots that accompanied this compelled the apartheid government to ban both the ANC and the PAC.
Sobukwe was also arrested and sentenced to three years in prison for inciting people to demand the repeal of the pass laws. During the trial, he refused the aid of an attorney and didn’t appeal his sentence because he believed that the “court had no jurisdiction over him as it could not be considered either a court of law or a court of justice.”
While in prison from 1961 to 1964, he studied law by correspondence and earned a degree. Right after he was released, he was arrested again under the ‘Sobukwe Clause’, which was contained in the General Law Amendment Act of 1963.
Meant for anyone who was deemed to be a danger to the state, Sobukwe was moved to Robben Island and he remained there for the next six years. Interestingly, that clause was never used to detain anyone else.
While on Robben Island, Sobukwe, being isolated from other political prisoners, had access to books and other materials that enabled him to study and obtain a degree in Economics from the University of London.
In 1969, Sobukwe was released and allowed to settle in the town of Kimberly. He was, however, banned from participating in any group activity or speaking in public.
These restrictions kept him under house arrest and he was not allowed to leave Kimberly and South Africa. Even when he fell ill, it was hard for him to receive treatment due to the restrictions.
Nevertheless, he practiced law until his death from cancer in 1978.
Decades after his death, Sobukwe remains one of the greatest but often forgotten heroes of the struggle for freedom in South Africa.
As Dr. Motsoko Pheko stated in an article on panafricanperspective.com, “The greatness of Mangaliso Robert Sobukwe lies more in the fact of his personal sacrifice for the cause of his people and the denial of his own personal comfort. He was well educated individual. He would have enjoyed the best of this world if he had wished. He could have principles to the wind if he wished and lived a very comfortable life, but he wanted nothing but genuine liberation for the millions of Africa who even today have not experienced any economic change in their lives.
“Sobukwe was a fearless warrior against the evil colonialism and apartheid. He is in his grave. But he remains the dynamo of inspiration for the economic liberation and social emancipation of the still land dispossessed people of AZANIA South Africa.” | <urn:uuid:98a3d914-720b-4626-b030-4390376bd923> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://face2faceafrica.com/article/from-a-freedom-fighter-to-the-most-feared-man-under-apartheid-meet-robert-mangaliso-sobukwe | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00183.warc.gz | en | 0.98176 | 1,134 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.579030632972717... | 2 | But while on Robben Island, he was kept in solitary confinement. Basically, his living quarters were separate from the main prison and thus, he was isolated from other political prisoners.
It is documented that he was kept away from other political prisoners because of his influence and fear by the apartheid regime.
More about this
“Sobukwe was isolated because the apartheid government feared him and his intellectual capabilities, eloquence, ideas and his influence on others. He was a threat to the sustainability of the apartheid state. Sobukwe had a power of influencing people both intellectually and politically,” writes historian Luvuyo Mthimkhulu Dondolo.
Today, the South African freedom fighter and activist is not only remembered as the most feared man in South Africa under apartheid but as the only political prisoner in the world to have a law passed through parliament in his name.
This law, dubbed the ‘Sobukwe Clause’, empowered the then Minister of Justice to prolong the detention of any political prisoner indefinitely.
Such was the life of Sobukwe who spent a significant part of his life in either solitary confinement or internal exile, under house arrest for being a militant opponent of white supremacy in South Africa.
Born in the South African town of Graaff-Reinet on December 5, 1924, Sobukwe first gained an interest in politics while schooling at Fort Hare University College, the only institution that was open to Black people.
There, he was elected president of the Students’ Representative Council before joining the Youth League of the African National Congress (ANC), an organization protesting the South African government’s policy of apartheid.
But in the 1950s, tensions began brewing in the party when Sobukwe and others raised concerns with the multi-racial path the party had taken.
For someone who believed that the future of South Africa should be in the hands of Black South Africans, Sobukwe was against the idea of multi-racialism as solutions to the country’s socio-economic problems.
Thus, he and others broke away from the ANC in 1958 and founded the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) where he was elected its first president.
In his inaugural convention speech in April 1959, Sobukwe said “that Africanists should not at all subscribe to the doctrine of South African exceptionalism.
“He emphasized that South Africa was an integral part of the whole that is Afrika, warning that South Africa could not solve her problems in isolation from and with disregard of the rest of the continent.”
A year later, on March 21, 1960, Sobukwe’s PAC led peaceful black protestors in the township of Sharpeville to protest the Pass Laws, a passport system enacted under Apartheid to further segregate the population.
Police opened fire on them, killing 69 people and injuring 180 in what became known as the Sharpeville massacre. The anger and riots that accompanied this compelled the apartheid government to ban both the ANC and the PAC.
Sobukwe was also arrested and sentenced to three years in prison for inciting people to demand the repeal of the pass laws. During the trial, he refused the aid of an attorney and didn’t appeal his sentence because he believed that the “court had no jurisdiction over him as it could not be considered either a court of law or a court of justice.”
While in prison from 1961 to 1964, he studied law by correspondence and earned a degree. Right after he was released, he was arrested again under the ‘Sobukwe Clause’, which was contained in the General Law Amendment Act of 1963.
Meant for anyone who was deemed to be a danger to the state, Sobukwe was moved to Robben Island and he remained there for the next six years. Interestingly, that clause was never used to detain anyone else.
While on Robben Island, Sobukwe, being isolated from other political prisoners, had access to books and other materials that enabled him to study and obtain a degree in Economics from the University of London.
In 1969, Sobukwe was released and allowed to settle in the town of Kimberly. He was, however, banned from participating in any group activity or speaking in public.
These restrictions kept him under house arrest and he was not allowed to leave Kimberly and South Africa. Even when he fell ill, it was hard for him to receive treatment due to the restrictions.
Nevertheless, he practiced law until his death from cancer in 1978.
Decades after his death, Sobukwe remains one of the greatest but often forgotten heroes of the struggle for freedom in South Africa.
As Dr. Motsoko Pheko stated in an article on panafricanperspective.com, “The greatness of Mangaliso Robert Sobukwe lies more in the fact of his personal sacrifice for the cause of his people and the denial of his own personal comfort. He was well educated individual. He would have enjoyed the best of this world if he had wished. He could have principles to the wind if he wished and lived a very comfortable life, but he wanted nothing but genuine liberation for the millions of Africa who even today have not experienced any economic change in their lives.
“Sobukwe was a fearless warrior against the evil colonialism and apartheid. He is in his grave. But he remains the dynamo of inspiration for the economic liberation and social emancipation of the still land dispossessed people of AZANIA South Africa.” | 1,129 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cavalrymen were not the only warriors who went into battle as passengers, though they were far more plentiful than their "webfoot" counterparts. Throughout the Civil War the navies of both the North and the South suffered from a shortage of manpower. On both sides the demands of the armies were so persistent that there were never enough sailors, especially experienced men, to complete the crews of all the ships in service. This proved particularly true in the South, where the pool of available seamen was very small under the best of circumstances. Stephen Mallory, the Secretary of the Navy, got the Confederate Congress to pass a law in 1863 whereby any man serving in the army who volunteered for the navy was to be transferred. Mallory claimed that hundreds of men volunteered, but that their military commanders would not release them. In the North, trained seamen were diverted into the army by enlistment bonuses, by local competition to fill regiments, by a desire to try something different, and by the draft. Sometimes it became necessary in both the North and the South to divert soldiers into naval duty. Usually the soldiers were not too pleased by the assignment. Some became disciplinary problems or deserted, but a number adjusted to the demands of the war and gave a good account of themselves.
One part of the Confederate Navy, at least, had no difficulty in attracting men: the ships Alabama, Florida, Shenandoah, and other famous commerce raiders. The commanders of such ships completed their manpower needs by drawing on the crews of the vessels they captured. The Confederates paid high wages and in gold. Those factors and the prospect of being a prisoner made a crucial difference. But the result was that a high percentage of the crews of these famous ships were foreigners.
In the South a young man wishing to join the navy had to have the consent of his parent or guardian if he was under twenty-one years of age. His counterpart in the North needed parental consent if he was under eighteen. No one under the age of thirteen was to be enlisted in the North, or under fourteen in the South. Height requirements for the Union Navy were at least five feet eight inches; those for the Confederacy were four feet eight inches. At the other end of the spectrum, no inexperienced man was to be enlisted in the Union Navy if he was over thirty-three years of age unless he had a trade. If he had a trade, thirty-eight was the age limit. In the South an inexperienced man with a trade could join if he was between twenty-five and thirty-five. Inexperienced men without trades were shipped as landsmen or coal heavers. Free blacks could enlist in the Confederate Navy if they had the special permission of the Navy Department or the local squadron commander. Slaves were enlisted with the consent of their owners, and some of them served as officers' servants as well as coal heavers and pilots. Before the war the United States Navy had tried to restrict the number of black men in the ranks to one-twentieth of the crew. During the Civil War, however, the chronic shortages of men led Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles to suggest to the commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron that he open recruiting stations ashore for the enlistment of blacks or contrabands. As a result of this and other activities, the Union Navy had a high percentage of blacks in the lower ranks. The normal pay scales in both navies ranged from $12 a month for landsmen and other inexperienced hands to $14 a month for ordinary seamen and $18 a month for seamen. Boys were rated as third, second, or first class in ascending order according to their knowledge and physical ability. Third-class boys were paid $7 a month, second class $8, and first class $9.
In both the North and the South it was customary to send the newly recruited men to a receiving ship. These were usually old frigates or other sail-powered ships that were stationed at navy yards in the North and functioned as floating dormitories. In the South old merchant ships were used at Richmond and at other major Southern ports. A recruit arriving on board a receiving ship reported to the officer of the deck. His name and other details went into the ship's books, and be was sent forward. Usually be received only the clothing needed for immediate service. In the North no civilian clothing was allowed, though shortages of uniforms later in the war sometimes made it necessary to modify this rule in the South. When the recruit arrived at the forward part of the receiving ship, he was given a number for his hammock and another for his clothes bag and was assigned to a mess.
While on board a receiving ship the recruit learned the rudiments of navy life. He learned how to address and to respect his officers, petty officers, and shipmates. Much time was spent in various kinds of drills, such as learning to handle sails, rigging, boats, and cutlasses, as well as the procedures for repelling boarders. The manpower demands of the Union and the Confederate navies meant that the amount of time a recruit was on a receiving ship ranged from a few days to a few weeks. Anything not learned on the receiving ship had to be learned in the hard school of active service. Periodically the commander of the receiving ship would receive orders to send a certain number of men to a vessel preparing for active service, or as replacements for a ship that had lost men through death, illness, or desertion.
Once a man reported to a ship in the regular service, he was assigned to various stations at the guns, on deck, in the tops, in a boat, at a mess, and in a hammock. Each had a number to be remembered. So, on a man-of-war, a given recruit or veteran might define his niche in the following way: He belonged to the starboard watch, was stationed in the top of the mizzenmast; he belonged to the third division of the battery, attached to gun number eight, where he was the first loader. In the event of a need to board an enemy vessel, he was the second boarder in his division. When it was necessary to loose or to furl sails, his post was at the starboard yardarm of the mizzen topgallant yard. In reefing sails his position was on the port yardarm of the mizzen topsail yard. When tacking or wearing the ship, his place was at the lee main brace. If the anchor was being raised, his duty was at the capstan. In a boat he pulled the bow oar of the captain's gig. Until all these assignments became second nature to him, the recruit might forget his numbers and have to refresh his memory by consulting the station bill, where everyone's position was recorded.
On gunboats and monitors all the duties associated with masts, rigging, and yards were eliminated, of course. These ships were also much smaller than a steam frigate or some of the merchant vessels converted to warships. But on these smaller ships there were still quarters, guns, and decks to be kept clean, and there were still watches to be kept. On all coal-burning vessels it was a constant problem to keep the ship and the guns clean. The actual work of coaling a ship left black dust everywhere. About the time that the dust was under control, it was time to recoal.
Any man with experience in the merchant service found life on a warship quite different, at least at times. In the merchant service, for example, when raising the anchor, the men at the capstan might sing a sea chantey. In the Navy this and other tasks were performed in silence lest some order from an officer not be heard. Loud talking by the men while on watch was frowned upon for the same reason. In warships of both the Union and the Confederacy, the shipboard routines were performed to the sound of shouted orders, boatswain's pipes, or a drum, depending on the situation covered.
Joining the crew of a warship was apt to be quite a memorable experience for the recruit. Here he found himself among a wide variety of men. There were some older, weatherbeaten types who had been at sea for many years. In contrast to these were the young men of seventeen, eighteen, or younger, away from home for the first time. There were foreigners, including some not many months removed from their old environments in Europe. There were black men, including many who had recently left the slave status. Also caught up in such groups was an occasional North American Indian, or a Pacific islander. In a very real sense a man-of-war was the world in miniature, especially on Union ships. Crews of Confederate gunboats and other vessels that defended Southern harbors, inlets, and rivers were apt to be more homogeneous, especially early in the war.
For the Northern recruit particularly, adaptation to the cross section of humanity that comprised the crew was often difficult. Their early weeks and months in the Navy might be marked by personality clashes, accusations and counter-accusations, and fights. Marines and officers had the duty of stopping any affrays. The man who struck the first blow might find himself confined to the brig, in irons and on a diet of bread and water for twenty-four hours, as a warning not to persist in such conduct. A man who was wronged by another soon learned to settle his score indirectly rather than by fighting. His tormentor might find the rope of his hammock cut while he was asleep, or have a belaying pin dropped on his toes, or become the victim of other "accidents."
In the Union and the Confederate navies it was the specific duty of the commanding officer to see to it that ordinary seamen, landsmen, and boys were instructed in steering, in heaving the lead to determine the depth of the water, in knotting and splicing ropes, in rowing, in the use of the palm and needle to do sewing, and in bending and reefing sails. Mastery of these duties was necessary if the recruit hoped to qualify for promotion to seaman or to become a petty officer. Coal heavers with any intelligence at all could master the requirements necessary to become a fireman. In addition, the men were continually drilled in exercising the guns, in handling small arms and boats, and in using the boat howitzer. Anything not learned on the receiving ship was thoroughly learned on a ship in regular service. In the Confederacy, whenever the needs of war made it necessary to transfer from one ship to another, the men had to have additional training because no two ships had engines or guns that were exactly the same.
In both navies the daily routine was somewhat the same, depending on the size of the ship, the preferences of the captain, the season of the year, the needs of the moment. Sailors might begin their day as early as 4 A.M. if the ship had to be thoroughly cleaned or was scheduled to be coaled in the morning. Otherwise, a typical day might have gone as follows:
At 5 A.M. the marine bugler sounded reveille. The master-at-arms, or one of his corporals, and the boatswain's mate from the current watch ran around the berth deck shouting at the sleeping men and slapping hammocks. The men were ordered to get up and to lash up their hammocks and bedding into a tight, round bundle. These were then carried tip to the spar, or upper, deck. Here the hammocks were stored uniformly behind heavy rope nets, called nettings, along the bulwarks. Storing the hammocks here gave some small additional protection from gunshots and from wood splinters dislodged by cannon fire. The nettings also provided a barrier against boarders. In theory, a well-trained crew was supposed to rise, lash their hammocks, and deliver them to the spar deck in seven minutes. In practice, it may have taken that long to get some men out of their hammocks.
About 5:07 A.M. the crew got out sand, brooms, holystones, and buckets and washed down the decks. Usually the berth deck was scrubbed with saltwater, and the spar deck was holystoned by teams of men working under the direction of a boatswain's mate. In addition to the decks, the brass fittings and other bright work were polished.
Metal tracks on which the gun carriages turned were burnished. The guns themselves were cleaned. On ships that carried sails, the rigging, halyards (ropes for hoisting yards or sails), and blocks were checked and maintained as necessary. Once the ship was cleaned, the sailors might fill the buckets with saltwater to wash themselves and to shave, if they so desired.
In a man-of-war, boys assembled at the port gangway at 7:30 A.M. for inspection by the master-at-arms. The boys were expected to have clean faces and hands, hair combed, and clothes clean and tidy. Their pants were supposed to be rolled up. After the inspection, each boy was expected to climb to the top of the masthead and come down. Each boy did his best to get up and down first. Sometimes the last boy down had to climb up and down again. The theory behind this routine was that it made the boys agile and gave them a good appetite for breakfast.
At 8 A.M. the boatswain piped breakfast. Cleaning equipment was put away and buckets were returned to their racks. Each man reported to his respective mess, which consisted of from eight to fourteen men. Members of a gun crew, coal heavers and firemen, and topmen would have their own messes, often determined by the watch to which they belonged. Marines and petty officers messed separately, and the boys were distributed among the messes. Each member of the mess took his turn as the orderly or cook, though sometimes one person would be hired by his messmates to do the job on a permanent basis. It was the job of the orderly to unlock the mess chest and take out the tableware and cooking utensils, as well as the food allotted to the mess each week by the ship's cook or by the paymaster. The individual kept track of his own knife, fork, spoon, and mug. For breakfast each man was served one pint of coffee without milk, as well as a piece of salt junk, or hard, salted beef. After breakfast the dishes were cleaned and returned to the mess chest.
Then, at 9:30 A.M. came the call to quarters. Guns were inspected to see that they were properly secured and ready for any emergency throughout the day. Once this was done, the men relaxed at their stations by writing letters, reading newspapers or books, or dozing.
Noon was the fixed time for lunch, so at that hour the men reported to their messes. Now they had a piece of beef or pork, vegetables, and coffee. Cheese might enhance the meal from time to time. On blockade duty there were opportunities to acquire fresh provisions from the shore areas, and these broke the monotony of the average meal served at sea.
The crews of the Confederate cruisers usually ate well as a result of their captures of merchant vessels, but for the rest of the Confederate Navy, items like cheese, butter, and raisins, while technically a part of the ration, were never available. Tea and coffee could be obtained from blockade runners, but at a great cost. Even so, the Confederate Navy usually ate better than the Army. One and one-quarter pounds of salted beef, pork, or bacon was issued to each man every day. As late as 1864 the men of the James River Squadron got meat three times a week.
After lunch the men might return to the stations they had left, or portions of the afternoon might be filled by various kinds of drills. Blockade duty proved so monotonous most of the time that commanders had to exercise their ingenuity to keep the men occupied. Training sequences were not the same on any two successive days; thus there was no predicting what would come next on the agenda. As Charles K. Mervine, a boy attached to a blockading squadron ship, wrote in 1863: "The life of a sailor is not one of a real and regular work, his hours of rest may not be uniform but they are more or less regulated. The details of a programe [sic] of any day on shipboard cannot be as fixed as in other forms of labor, yet its original outlines are the same day after day."
At 4 P.m. a light evening meal was served by the various messes. In this and the other meals, the timing was related to the watch sequence of four hours on and four hours off. Mealtimes were when the watch was relieved. From a nutritional point of view, there were objections to this format because in a twenty-four-hour sequence all the meals were crowded into less than eight hours. Since the noon meal was the main meal, men who stood watch at midnight or in the early hours of the morning might be quite hungry.
On blockade duty individual captains could alter the watch routine by splitting the period from 4 P.M. to 8 P.M. into two 2-hour watch segments called dogwatches. This meant that there would be seven watches instead of six in a twenty-four hour period. If this was done, no watch would have to take the midnight to 4 A.M. shift for two nights in. succession. An alternative was to divide the crew into three watches so that each man would be on' duty for four hours and off for eight. Still other captains went so far as to use quarter watches, or one-fourth of the working hands, or half of each watch. In this system the watch would be divided into first and second parts, which would constitute the quarter watch. There were, however, those who believed that the use of quarter watches was unwise in dangerous waters.
The watch procedure was also used in coaling the ship. Such work might begin with the port watch and function in a prearranged order. Coaling might begin about 7 A.M. for the Union ships on blockade and be finished by noon, if the crew really worked at it. If they did not, and the work continued into the heat of the afternoon, the process could take as much as twelve hours. Because everything depended upon the time of arrival of the coal ship, there was no consistent time for the operation to begin. If the process began in the late afternoon, it might continue all night.
At 5:30 P.M. the sound of the drum called men to their quarters. Once again guns and stations were inspected to see that everything was ready for the night. This was especially important, for the hours of darkness were the times when the blockade runners were most active. Once the inspection was finished, the boatswain's pipe announced that the hammocks could be removed from the nettings and prepared for sleeping. Then came the period of relaxation for all who were not on watch. The men might write or read letters, or read newspapers and books. At this time and in other free periods during the day they repaired their clothing. Dominoes was a popular pastime. Cards were strictly forbidden. Gambling was also outlawed but went on covertly. It, could range from simple games of calling odds and evens, matching money, or bets associated with daily activities, such as how long it would take them to overhaul another ship, to more formal games with dice.
At idle times in the afternoon or evening the men might also listen to music if they were fortunate enough to have a banjo or fiddle player on board. A larger ship might have some semblance of a band. On many vessels minstrel shows or theatricals were staged in the early evening, written and produced by the men themselves. Black crew members performed in minstrel shows along with their white comrades. On ironclads and monitors, of course, space was much more limited, and therefore so was the range of entertainment. In this as in every war, mail from home and from loved ones was looked forward to with great anticipation.
The daily scrubbing the ship received tended to keep the lower decks somewhat damp. This, combined with the daily humidity on the Southern stations, especially in the summer, made for a generally stuffy atmosphere. On monitors and gunboats the heat of the engines warmed the metal plating and the decks. There was also the smell of burning coal and sometimes of sulfur. The men tried to enjoy the fresh air as long as possible before retiring, for during the night the atmosphere on the berth deck sometimes became so oppressive that they had to congregate around the hatches for a breath of air.
Those who wished to smoke went to the forward part of the ship. Cigars and pipes were lit by a taper from a whale oil lamp and carefully extinguished. Hand-rolled cigarettes had been introduced into the United States from Turkey in the late 1850's but did not become popular until many years after the war. Friction matches were strictly forbidden on ships because of the danger of fire, and no uncovered light was allowed in any storeroom or in the hold. Lamps were carefully chosen to avoid any that used explosive oils for fuel.
On some ships it was a common practice to allow time after dinner for general horseplay, tomfoolery, and skylarking as a means of relieving tension. Other captains thought that tension was relieved by scheduled boxing matches in the afternoon. On more sedate ships the hours after dinner were the time for a quiet smoke, for telling or listening to a yarn, or for writing and reading.
Problems relating to the abuse of alcohol were common on all ships and in all ranks. The enlisted man's daily ration of grog, or one gill of whiskey mixed with water, was abolished by act of Congress in September 1862. In the Confederate Navy the enlisted men were entitled to one gill of spirits or a half pint of wine per day. This continued throughout the war, though a man could receive money in lieu of the spirit ration if he chose. Originally this compensation was set at four cents a day, but it rose to twenty cents a day by the final years of the war. The Congress gave the Union sailor an additional five cents a day in lieu of the spirit ration. In both the Union and Conf derate navies there were constant efforts to smuggle liquor on board ships, and some of these plans proved successful. Private vessels that sold food to the Union ships on blockade sometimes sold liquor in tins described as oysters or canned meats. Despite such ingenuity, the supply never matched the demand. When a man was discovered drinking or drunk, the usual practice was to place him in irons in the brig. On some ships drunks had saltwater pumped on them until they sobered up.
For the Union ships on blockade duty, tattoo normally sounded at 8 P.m. This was the signal for the men to go to their sleeping quarters and retire. Lights and fires were put out and there was to be no noise. Elsewhere the usual rule was that when the sun set at or after 6 P.M., the tattoo was beaten at 9. When the sun set before 6, tattoo was at 8. For the men of the Union blockading squadrons, going to bed was often accompanied by the latent fear that the ship might be the victim of a torpedo attack before morning. This was especially true after the Confederate submarine Hunley succeeded in sinking the U.S. steam frigate Housatonic. Sleep might also be interrupted by reports of a blockade runner entering or leaving a harbor. At such times the ship sprang to life as it pursued or overtook a potential prize.
As the control of the Union Navy over the rivers and coastal waters of the Confederacy increased, the opportunities for appropriate Southern countermeasures decreased. Hopes placed in the submarine Hunley or the ironclad Albemarle as a means of weakening the blockade were soon dashed. Overseas the famous Confederate cruiser Alabama went down in a fight with the Union cruiser Kearsarge in June 1864. Time was running out for the Confederate Navy.
For the men of the Union Navy the biggest problem was boredom. Despite daily activities of scrubbing, painting, drilling, target practice, entertainments, and the duties directly related to war, time passed slowly. Changing stations, taking on coal and supplies, entering and leaving harbors all added a bit of novelty to a day. But the men eagerly looked forward to short periods of liberty when their ship was at some Union-controlled port in the South, or was being repaired or overhauled in the North. Any time ashore was an occasion for the pursuit of liquor, women, or both. Men returned from such ventures drunk and often with venereal disease. Fevers and diseases common to the region also took some toll of both Union and Confederate sailors. In battle men could be killed in a horrible fashion by being scalded with steam from shattered engines. Even peaceful steaming on a river could become a hazardous affair when a Confederate sniper opened fire. Shore leave could also be dangerous if a man ventured too far inland or away from Union-held territory. Yet virtually any distraction was a welcome change from the boredom of blockade duty.
Sometimes a man slipped into deep despair over his daily duty. One naval surgeon called this condition land sickness. Those afflicted with it had a terrible urge to smell the earth and to breathe air far removed from the ocean. Sometimes a change of scene and some days ashore solved the problem, but for others the brief change did no- good. For such men discouragement and despondency led to real illnesses, and they had to be sent home. It was boredom, and all the other aspects of life in the blockading squadrons, that led a former paymaster's clerk to write that "there was no duty performed during the whole war, in either the land or sea service, that was attended with so much toil, exposure and peril as this duty compelled." All the ship-to-ship fighting put together totaled little more than one week of battle out of four years of war. For the Yankee and Rebel seamen it was indeed a war of watch and wait as they sat imprisoned on their ships. | <urn:uuid:098e303a-f430-4140-98f0-a703acb4f570> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs62x/nvcwmb/webbbs_config.pl?md=read;id=65076 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00299.warc.gz | en | 0.987433 | 5,446 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.4324665665... | 4 | Cavalrymen were not the only warriors who went into battle as passengers, though they were far more plentiful than their "webfoot" counterparts. Throughout the Civil War the navies of both the North and the South suffered from a shortage of manpower. On both sides the demands of the armies were so persistent that there were never enough sailors, especially experienced men, to complete the crews of all the ships in service. This proved particularly true in the South, where the pool of available seamen was very small under the best of circumstances. Stephen Mallory, the Secretary of the Navy, got the Confederate Congress to pass a law in 1863 whereby any man serving in the army who volunteered for the navy was to be transferred. Mallory claimed that hundreds of men volunteered, but that their military commanders would not release them. In the North, trained seamen were diverted into the army by enlistment bonuses, by local competition to fill regiments, by a desire to try something different, and by the draft. Sometimes it became necessary in both the North and the South to divert soldiers into naval duty. Usually the soldiers were not too pleased by the assignment. Some became disciplinary problems or deserted, but a number adjusted to the demands of the war and gave a good account of themselves.
One part of the Confederate Navy, at least, had no difficulty in attracting men: the ships Alabama, Florida, Shenandoah, and other famous commerce raiders. The commanders of such ships completed their manpower needs by drawing on the crews of the vessels they captured. The Confederates paid high wages and in gold. Those factors and the prospect of being a prisoner made a crucial difference. But the result was that a high percentage of the crews of these famous ships were foreigners.
In the South a young man wishing to join the navy had to have the consent of his parent or guardian if he was under twenty-one years of age. His counterpart in the North needed parental consent if he was under eighteen. No one under the age of thirteen was to be enlisted in the North, or under fourteen in the South. Height requirements for the Union Navy were at least five feet eight inches; those for the Confederacy were four feet eight inches. At the other end of the spectrum, no inexperienced man was to be enlisted in the Union Navy if he was over thirty-three years of age unless he had a trade. If he had a trade, thirty-eight was the age limit. In the South an inexperienced man with a trade could join if he was between twenty-five and thirty-five. Inexperienced men without trades were shipped as landsmen or coal heavers. Free blacks could enlist in the Confederate Navy if they had the special permission of the Navy Department or the local squadron commander. Slaves were enlisted with the consent of their owners, and some of them served as officers' servants as well as coal heavers and pilots. Before the war the United States Navy had tried to restrict the number of black men in the ranks to one-twentieth of the crew. During the Civil War, however, the chronic shortages of men led Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles to suggest to the commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron that he open recruiting stations ashore for the enlistment of blacks or contrabands. As a result of this and other activities, the Union Navy had a high percentage of blacks in the lower ranks. The normal pay scales in both navies ranged from $12 a month for landsmen and other inexperienced hands to $14 a month for ordinary seamen and $18 a month for seamen. Boys were rated as third, second, or first class in ascending order according to their knowledge and physical ability. Third-class boys were paid $7 a month, second class $8, and first class $9.
In both the North and the South it was customary to send the newly recruited men to a receiving ship. These were usually old frigates or other sail-powered ships that were stationed at navy yards in the North and functioned as floating dormitories. In the South old merchant ships were used at Richmond and at other major Southern ports. A recruit arriving on board a receiving ship reported to the officer of the deck. His name and other details went into the ship's books, and be was sent forward. Usually be received only the clothing needed for immediate service. In the North no civilian clothing was allowed, though shortages of uniforms later in the war sometimes made it necessary to modify this rule in the South. When the recruit arrived at the forward part of the receiving ship, he was given a number for his hammock and another for his clothes bag and was assigned to a mess.
While on board a receiving ship the recruit learned the rudiments of navy life. He learned how to address and to respect his officers, petty officers, and shipmates. Much time was spent in various kinds of drills, such as learning to handle sails, rigging, boats, and cutlasses, as well as the procedures for repelling boarders. The manpower demands of the Union and the Confederate navies meant that the amount of time a recruit was on a receiving ship ranged from a few days to a few weeks. Anything not learned on the receiving ship had to be learned in the hard school of active service. Periodically the commander of the receiving ship would receive orders to send a certain number of men to a vessel preparing for active service, or as replacements for a ship that had lost men through death, illness, or desertion.
Once a man reported to a ship in the regular service, he was assigned to various stations at the guns, on deck, in the tops, in a boat, at a mess, and in a hammock. Each had a number to be remembered. So, on a man-of-war, a given recruit or veteran might define his niche in the following way: He belonged to the starboard watch, was stationed in the top of the mizzenmast; he belonged to the third division of the battery, attached to gun number eight, where he was the first loader. In the event of a need to board an enemy vessel, he was the second boarder in his division. When it was necessary to loose or to furl sails, his post was at the starboard yardarm of the mizzen topgallant yard. In reefing sails his position was on the port yardarm of the mizzen topsail yard. When tacking or wearing the ship, his place was at the lee main brace. If the anchor was being raised, his duty was at the capstan. In a boat he pulled the bow oar of the captain's gig. Until all these assignments became second nature to him, the recruit might forget his numbers and have to refresh his memory by consulting the station bill, where everyone's position was recorded.
On gunboats and monitors all the duties associated with masts, rigging, and yards were eliminated, of course. These ships were also much smaller than a steam frigate or some of the merchant vessels converted to warships. But on these smaller ships there were still quarters, guns, and decks to be kept clean, and there were still watches to be kept. On all coal-burning vessels it was a constant problem to keep the ship and the guns clean. The actual work of coaling a ship left black dust everywhere. About the time that the dust was under control, it was time to recoal.
Any man with experience in the merchant service found life on a warship quite different, at least at times. In the merchant service, for example, when raising the anchor, the men at the capstan might sing a sea chantey. In the Navy this and other tasks were performed in silence lest some order from an officer not be heard. Loud talking by the men while on watch was frowned upon for the same reason. In warships of both the Union and the Confederacy, the shipboard routines were performed to the sound of shouted orders, boatswain's pipes, or a drum, depending on the situation covered.
Joining the crew of a warship was apt to be quite a memorable experience for the recruit. Here he found himself among a wide variety of men. There were some older, weatherbeaten types who had been at sea for many years. In contrast to these were the young men of seventeen, eighteen, or younger, away from home for the first time. There were foreigners, including some not many months removed from their old environments in Europe. There were black men, including many who had recently left the slave status. Also caught up in such groups was an occasional North American Indian, or a Pacific islander. In a very real sense a man-of-war was the world in miniature, especially on Union ships. Crews of Confederate gunboats and other vessels that defended Southern harbors, inlets, and rivers were apt to be more homogeneous, especially early in the war.
For the Northern recruit particularly, adaptation to the cross section of humanity that comprised the crew was often difficult. Their early weeks and months in the Navy might be marked by personality clashes, accusations and counter-accusations, and fights. Marines and officers had the duty of stopping any affrays. The man who struck the first blow might find himself confined to the brig, in irons and on a diet of bread and water for twenty-four hours, as a warning not to persist in such conduct. A man who was wronged by another soon learned to settle his score indirectly rather than by fighting. His tormentor might find the rope of his hammock cut while he was asleep, or have a belaying pin dropped on his toes, or become the victim of other "accidents."
In the Union and the Confederate navies it was the specific duty of the commanding officer to see to it that ordinary seamen, landsmen, and boys were instructed in steering, in heaving the lead to determine the depth of the water, in knotting and splicing ropes, in rowing, in the use of the palm and needle to do sewing, and in bending and reefing sails. Mastery of these duties was necessary if the recruit hoped to qualify for promotion to seaman or to become a petty officer. Coal heavers with any intelligence at all could master the requirements necessary to become a fireman. In addition, the men were continually drilled in exercising the guns, in handling small arms and boats, and in using the boat howitzer. Anything not learned on the receiving ship was thoroughly learned on a ship in regular service. In the Confederacy, whenever the needs of war made it necessary to transfer from one ship to another, the men had to have additional training because no two ships had engines or guns that were exactly the same.
In both navies the daily routine was somewhat the same, depending on the size of the ship, the preferences of the captain, the season of the year, the needs of the moment. Sailors might begin their day as early as 4 A.M. if the ship had to be thoroughly cleaned or was scheduled to be coaled in the morning. Otherwise, a typical day might have gone as follows:
At 5 A.M. the marine bugler sounded reveille. The master-at-arms, or one of his corporals, and the boatswain's mate from the current watch ran around the berth deck shouting at the sleeping men and slapping hammocks. The men were ordered to get up and to lash up their hammocks and bedding into a tight, round bundle. These were then carried tip to the spar, or upper, deck. Here the hammocks were stored uniformly behind heavy rope nets, called nettings, along the bulwarks. Storing the hammocks here gave some small additional protection from gunshots and from wood splinters dislodged by cannon fire. The nettings also provided a barrier against boarders. In theory, a well-trained crew was supposed to rise, lash their hammocks, and deliver them to the spar deck in seven minutes. In practice, it may have taken that long to get some men out of their hammocks.
About 5:07 A.M. the crew got out sand, brooms, holystones, and buckets and washed down the decks. Usually the berth deck was scrubbed with saltwater, and the spar deck was holystoned by teams of men working under the direction of a boatswain's mate. In addition to the decks, the brass fittings and other bright work were polished.
Metal tracks on which the gun carriages turned were burnished. The guns themselves were cleaned. On ships that carried sails, the rigging, halyards (ropes for hoisting yards or sails), and blocks were checked and maintained as necessary. Once the ship was cleaned, the sailors might fill the buckets with saltwater to wash themselves and to shave, if they so desired.
In a man-of-war, boys assembled at the port gangway at 7:30 A.M. for inspection by the master-at-arms. The boys were expected to have clean faces and hands, hair combed, and clothes clean and tidy. Their pants were supposed to be rolled up. After the inspection, each boy was expected to climb to the top of the masthead and come down. Each boy did his best to get up and down first. Sometimes the last boy down had to climb up and down again. The theory behind this routine was that it made the boys agile and gave them a good appetite for breakfast.
At 8 A.M. the boatswain piped breakfast. Cleaning equipment was put away and buckets were returned to their racks. Each man reported to his respective mess, which consisted of from eight to fourteen men. Members of a gun crew, coal heavers and firemen, and topmen would have their own messes, often determined by the watch to which they belonged. Marines and petty officers messed separately, and the boys were distributed among the messes. Each member of the mess took his turn as the orderly or cook, though sometimes one person would be hired by his messmates to do the job on a permanent basis. It was the job of the orderly to unlock the mess chest and take out the tableware and cooking utensils, as well as the food allotted to the mess each week by the ship's cook or by the paymaster. The individual kept track of his own knife, fork, spoon, and mug. For breakfast each man was served one pint of coffee without milk, as well as a piece of salt junk, or hard, salted beef. After breakfast the dishes were cleaned and returned to the mess chest.
Then, at 9:30 A.M. came the call to quarters. Guns were inspected to see that they were properly secured and ready for any emergency throughout the day. Once this was done, the men relaxed at their stations by writing letters, reading newspapers or books, or dozing.
Noon was the fixed time for lunch, so at that hour the men reported to their messes. Now they had a piece of beef or pork, vegetables, and coffee. Cheese might enhance the meal from time to time. On blockade duty there were opportunities to acquire fresh provisions from the shore areas, and these broke the monotony of the average meal served at sea.
The crews of the Confederate cruisers usually ate well as a result of their captures of merchant vessels, but for the rest of the Confederate Navy, items like cheese, butter, and raisins, while technically a part of the ration, were never available. Tea and coffee could be obtained from blockade runners, but at a great cost. Even so, the Confederate Navy usually ate better than the Army. One and one-quarter pounds of salted beef, pork, or bacon was issued to each man every day. As late as 1864 the men of the James River Squadron got meat three times a week.
After lunch the men might return to the stations they had left, or portions of the afternoon might be filled by various kinds of drills. Blockade duty proved so monotonous most of the time that commanders had to exercise their ingenuity to keep the men occupied. Training sequences were not the same on any two successive days; thus there was no predicting what would come next on the agenda. As Charles K. Mervine, a boy attached to a blockading squadron ship, wrote in 1863: "The life of a sailor is not one of a real and regular work, his hours of rest may not be uniform but they are more or less regulated. The details of a programe [sic] of any day on shipboard cannot be as fixed as in other forms of labor, yet its original outlines are the same day after day."
At 4 P.m. a light evening meal was served by the various messes. In this and the other meals, the timing was related to the watch sequence of four hours on and four hours off. Mealtimes were when the watch was relieved. From a nutritional point of view, there were objections to this format because in a twenty-four-hour sequence all the meals were crowded into less than eight hours. Since the noon meal was the main meal, men who stood watch at midnight or in the early hours of the morning might be quite hungry.
On blockade duty individual captains could alter the watch routine by splitting the period from 4 P.M. to 8 P.M. into two 2-hour watch segments called dogwatches. This meant that there would be seven watches instead of six in a twenty-four hour period. If this was done, no watch would have to take the midnight to 4 A.M. shift for two nights in. succession. An alternative was to divide the crew into three watches so that each man would be on' duty for four hours and off for eight. Still other captains went so far as to use quarter watches, or one-fourth of the working hands, or half of each watch. In this system the watch would be divided into first and second parts, which would constitute the quarter watch. There were, however, those who believed that the use of quarter watches was unwise in dangerous waters.
The watch procedure was also used in coaling the ship. Such work might begin with the port watch and function in a prearranged order. Coaling might begin about 7 A.M. for the Union ships on blockade and be finished by noon, if the crew really worked at it. If they did not, and the work continued into the heat of the afternoon, the process could take as much as twelve hours. Because everything depended upon the time of arrival of the coal ship, there was no consistent time for the operation to begin. If the process began in the late afternoon, it might continue all night.
At 5:30 P.M. the sound of the drum called men to their quarters. Once again guns and stations were inspected to see that everything was ready for the night. This was especially important, for the hours of darkness were the times when the blockade runners were most active. Once the inspection was finished, the boatswain's pipe announced that the hammocks could be removed from the nettings and prepared for sleeping. Then came the period of relaxation for all who were not on watch. The men might write or read letters, or read newspapers and books. At this time and in other free periods during the day they repaired their clothing. Dominoes was a popular pastime. Cards were strictly forbidden. Gambling was also outlawed but went on covertly. It, could range from simple games of calling odds and evens, matching money, or bets associated with daily activities, such as how long it would take them to overhaul another ship, to more formal games with dice.
At idle times in the afternoon or evening the men might also listen to music if they were fortunate enough to have a banjo or fiddle player on board. A larger ship might have some semblance of a band. On many vessels minstrel shows or theatricals were staged in the early evening, written and produced by the men themselves. Black crew members performed in minstrel shows along with their white comrades. On ironclads and monitors, of course, space was much more limited, and therefore so was the range of entertainment. In this as in every war, mail from home and from loved ones was looked forward to with great anticipation.
The daily scrubbing the ship received tended to keep the lower decks somewhat damp. This, combined with the daily humidity on the Southern stations, especially in the summer, made for a generally stuffy atmosphere. On monitors and gunboats the heat of the engines warmed the metal plating and the decks. There was also the smell of burning coal and sometimes of sulfur. The men tried to enjoy the fresh air as long as possible before retiring, for during the night the atmosphere on the berth deck sometimes became so oppressive that they had to congregate around the hatches for a breath of air.
Those who wished to smoke went to the forward part of the ship. Cigars and pipes were lit by a taper from a whale oil lamp and carefully extinguished. Hand-rolled cigarettes had been introduced into the United States from Turkey in the late 1850's but did not become popular until many years after the war. Friction matches were strictly forbidden on ships because of the danger of fire, and no uncovered light was allowed in any storeroom or in the hold. Lamps were carefully chosen to avoid any that used explosive oils for fuel.
On some ships it was a common practice to allow time after dinner for general horseplay, tomfoolery, and skylarking as a means of relieving tension. Other captains thought that tension was relieved by scheduled boxing matches in the afternoon. On more sedate ships the hours after dinner were the time for a quiet smoke, for telling or listening to a yarn, or for writing and reading.
Problems relating to the abuse of alcohol were common on all ships and in all ranks. The enlisted man's daily ration of grog, or one gill of whiskey mixed with water, was abolished by act of Congress in September 1862. In the Confederate Navy the enlisted men were entitled to one gill of spirits or a half pint of wine per day. This continued throughout the war, though a man could receive money in lieu of the spirit ration if he chose. Originally this compensation was set at four cents a day, but it rose to twenty cents a day by the final years of the war. The Congress gave the Union sailor an additional five cents a day in lieu of the spirit ration. In both the Union and Conf derate navies there were constant efforts to smuggle liquor on board ships, and some of these plans proved successful. Private vessels that sold food to the Union ships on blockade sometimes sold liquor in tins described as oysters or canned meats. Despite such ingenuity, the supply never matched the demand. When a man was discovered drinking or drunk, the usual practice was to place him in irons in the brig. On some ships drunks had saltwater pumped on them until they sobered up.
For the Union ships on blockade duty, tattoo normally sounded at 8 P.m. This was the signal for the men to go to their sleeping quarters and retire. Lights and fires were put out and there was to be no noise. Elsewhere the usual rule was that when the sun set at or after 6 P.M., the tattoo was beaten at 9. When the sun set before 6, tattoo was at 8. For the men of the Union blockading squadrons, going to bed was often accompanied by the latent fear that the ship might be the victim of a torpedo attack before morning. This was especially true after the Confederate submarine Hunley succeeded in sinking the U.S. steam frigate Housatonic. Sleep might also be interrupted by reports of a blockade runner entering or leaving a harbor. At such times the ship sprang to life as it pursued or overtook a potential prize.
As the control of the Union Navy over the rivers and coastal waters of the Confederacy increased, the opportunities for appropriate Southern countermeasures decreased. Hopes placed in the submarine Hunley or the ironclad Albemarle as a means of weakening the blockade were soon dashed. Overseas the famous Confederate cruiser Alabama went down in a fight with the Union cruiser Kearsarge in June 1864. Time was running out for the Confederate Navy.
For the men of the Union Navy the biggest problem was boredom. Despite daily activities of scrubbing, painting, drilling, target practice, entertainments, and the duties directly related to war, time passed slowly. Changing stations, taking on coal and supplies, entering and leaving harbors all added a bit of novelty to a day. But the men eagerly looked forward to short periods of liberty when their ship was at some Union-controlled port in the South, or was being repaired or overhauled in the North. Any time ashore was an occasion for the pursuit of liquor, women, or both. Men returned from such ventures drunk and often with venereal disease. Fevers and diseases common to the region also took some toll of both Union and Confederate sailors. In battle men could be killed in a horrible fashion by being scalded with steam from shattered engines. Even peaceful steaming on a river could become a hazardous affair when a Confederate sniper opened fire. Shore leave could also be dangerous if a man ventured too far inland or away from Union-held territory. Yet virtually any distraction was a welcome change from the boredom of blockade duty.
Sometimes a man slipped into deep despair over his daily duty. One naval surgeon called this condition land sickness. Those afflicted with it had a terrible urge to smell the earth and to breathe air far removed from the ocean. Sometimes a change of scene and some days ashore solved the problem, but for others the brief change did no- good. For such men discouragement and despondency led to real illnesses, and they had to be sent home. It was boredom, and all the other aspects of life in the blockading squadrons, that led a former paymaster's clerk to write that "there was no duty performed during the whole war, in either the land or sea service, that was attended with so much toil, exposure and peril as this duty compelled." All the ship-to-ship fighting put together totaled little more than one week of battle out of four years of war. For the Yankee and Rebel seamen it was indeed a war of watch and wait as they sat imprisoned on their ships. | 5,430 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Thames Navigation Commission managed the River Thames in southern England from 1751 to 1866. In particular, they were responsible for installing or renovating many of the locks on the river in the 18th and early 19th centuries
The Oxford-Burcot Commission was reasonably successful. Thus, the permanent Thames Navigation Commissioners were appointed through a further Act under King George II in 1751. This Commission had similar powers covering the whole of the river down to Staines. Earlier commissions had been created by acts as early as 1695, although these had limited terms.
Later, the Thames Conservancy was founded in 1857. Not long after, in 1866, it was considered best to have the navigation of the whole river under a single management, so the Thames Navigation Commission was subsumed by the Thames Conservancy. | <urn:uuid:28ff1c60-49d7-47b8-8751-b0e3780f46a8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://everything.explained.today/Thames_Navigation_Commission/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00090.warc.gz | en | 0.982993 | 164 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.418321102... | 1 | The Thames Navigation Commission managed the River Thames in southern England from 1751 to 1866. In particular, they were responsible for installing or renovating many of the locks on the river in the 18th and early 19th centuries
The Oxford-Burcot Commission was reasonably successful. Thus, the permanent Thames Navigation Commissioners were appointed through a further Act under King George II in 1751. This Commission had similar powers covering the whole of the river down to Staines. Earlier commissions had been created by acts as early as 1695, although these had limited terms.
Later, the Thames Conservancy was founded in 1857. Not long after, in 1866, it was considered best to have the navigation of the whole river under a single management, so the Thames Navigation Commission was subsumed by the Thames Conservancy. | 186 | ENGLISH | 1 |
lapse of geological time, whilst the island was being upheaved, and before it had become fully stocked with inhabitants. On almost bare land, with few or no destructive insects or birds living there, nearly every seed which chanced to arrive, if fitted for the climate, would germinate and survive.
Dispersal during the Glacial Period.
The identity of many plants and animals, on mountain-summits, separated from each other by hundreds of miles of lowlands, where Alpine species could not possibly exist, is one of the most striking cases known of the same species living at distant points, without the apparent possibility of their having migrated from one point to the other. It is indeed a remarkable fact to see so many plants of the same species living on the snowy regions of the Alps or Pyrenees, and in the extreme northern parts of Europe; but it is far more remarkable, that the plants on the White Mountains, in the United States of America, are all the same with those of Labrador, and nearly all the same, as we hear from Asa Gray, with those on the loftiest mountains of Europe. Even as long ago as 1747, such facts led Gmelin to conclude that the same species must have been independently created at many distinct points; and we might have remained in this same belief, had not Agassiz and others called vivid attention to the Glacial period, which, as we shall immediately see, affords a simple explanation of these facts. We have evidence of almost every conceivable kind, organic and inorganic, that, within a very recent geological period, central Europe and North America suffered under an Arctic climate. The ruins of a house burnt by fire do not tell their tale more plainly than do the mountains of Scotland and Wales, with their scored flanks, polished surfaces, and perched boulders, of the icy streams with which their valleys were lately filled. So greatly has the climate of Europe changed, that in Northern Italy, gigantic moraines, left by old glaciers, are now clothed by the vine and maize. Throughout a large part of the United States, erratic boulders and scored rocks plainly reveal a former cold period.
The former influence of the glacial climate on the distribution of the inhabitants of Europe, as explained by Edward Forbes, is substantially as follows. But we shall follow the changes more readily, by supposing a new glacial period slowly to come on, and then pass away, as formerly occurred. As the cold came on, and as each more southern zone became fitted for the inhabitants of the north, these would take the places of the former inhabitants of the temperate regions. The latter, at the same time, would travel | <urn:uuid:c63b7e21-f0f8-4756-93ae-82e6b42473d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Origin_of_Species_1872.djvu/352 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.980708 | 550 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | lapse of geological time, whilst the island was being upheaved, and before it had become fully stocked with inhabitants. On almost bare land, with few or no destructive insects or birds living there, nearly every seed which chanced to arrive, if fitted for the climate, would germinate and survive.
Dispersal during the Glacial Period.
The identity of many plants and animals, on mountain-summits, separated from each other by hundreds of miles of lowlands, where Alpine species could not possibly exist, is one of the most striking cases known of the same species living at distant points, without the apparent possibility of their having migrated from one point to the other. It is indeed a remarkable fact to see so many plants of the same species living on the snowy regions of the Alps or Pyrenees, and in the extreme northern parts of Europe; but it is far more remarkable, that the plants on the White Mountains, in the United States of America, are all the same with those of Labrador, and nearly all the same, as we hear from Asa Gray, with those on the loftiest mountains of Europe. Even as long ago as 1747, such facts led Gmelin to conclude that the same species must have been independently created at many distinct points; and we might have remained in this same belief, had not Agassiz and others called vivid attention to the Glacial period, which, as we shall immediately see, affords a simple explanation of these facts. We have evidence of almost every conceivable kind, organic and inorganic, that, within a very recent geological period, central Europe and North America suffered under an Arctic climate. The ruins of a house burnt by fire do not tell their tale more plainly than do the mountains of Scotland and Wales, with their scored flanks, polished surfaces, and perched boulders, of the icy streams with which their valleys were lately filled. So greatly has the climate of Europe changed, that in Northern Italy, gigantic moraines, left by old glaciers, are now clothed by the vine and maize. Throughout a large part of the United States, erratic boulders and scored rocks plainly reveal a former cold period.
The former influence of the glacial climate on the distribution of the inhabitants of Europe, as explained by Edward Forbes, is substantially as follows. But we shall follow the changes more readily, by supposing a new glacial period slowly to come on, and then pass away, as formerly occurred. As the cold came on, and as each more southern zone became fitted for the inhabitants of the north, these would take the places of the former inhabitants of the temperate regions. The latter, at the same time, would travel | 550 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Albert B. Fall served as Secretary of the Interior of the United States of America during President Warren G. Harding's administration.
In 1920, Harding, an Ohioan, won election as president of the United States of America. As president, for the most part, Harding proved to be a poor manager of the federal government. He delegated authority to his cabinet officials. These men became known as the "Ohio Gang,"because they supposedly were a gang of thieves from Ohio. In reality, most of the men linked to the Ohio Gang were not from Harding's home state.
Fall was one of the members of the Ohio Gang, although he was not from Ohio. He was born on November 26, 1861, in Frankfort, Kentucky. As a child, Fall worked in a cotton mill to help support his family. He also found employment in several other positions, including as a drugstore clerk and as a teacher once he entered his late teens. Fall eventually moved to Mexico, where he hoped that a drier climate would help him cope with a chronic respiratory problem. In Mexico, he worked in mines, and once he accumulated some money, Fall then moved to Clarkesville, Texas, where he studied law. Fall married, and to support his family, he eventually returned to the mines. By 1887, Fall and his wife, Emma G. Morgan, had two infant children. While Fall was working in the mines, members of this young family contracted tuberculosis. Fall then ended his career as a miner and moved his family to Las Cruces, New Mexico.
In Las Cruces, Fall opened a bookstore and also worked as a broker in real estate, mining, and livestock. By 1889, he had completed his legal training and had passed the bar exam in the New Mexico Territory. In Las Cruces, Fall also embarked upon a political career. As a member of the Democratic Party, in 1888, he lost election to the New Mexico Territory's House of Representatives. Fall lost by fewer than fifty votes. In 1889, he won election as the Irrigation Commissioner for Dona Ana County, New Mexico, and the following year, Fall won election to the New Mexico Territory's House of Representatives, defeating the man whom he had lost to two years earlier.
In March 1893, Fall became an Associate Judge on the Third District Court of the New Mexico Territory. He remained in this position for less than two years, as he was accused of intentionally miscounting election returns to favor a Democratic Party candidate. Fall then resumed his own law practice, although he did fight in the Spanish-American War in 1898 and 1899. Upon the end of his military duty, Fall opened a new law practice in El Paso, Texas.
Following the Spanish-American War, Fall returned to politics. Despite having a law practice in Texas, Fall won election to the New Mexico House of Representatives in 1903. By 1904, Fall, a member of the Democratic Party, switched his party allegiance to the Republican Party. In 1912, Fall became one of New Mexico's first two United States Senators. He served in the United States Senate until March 4, 1921. That same month, Fall accepted President Harding's appointment as Secretary of the Interior.
Perhaps, the worst scandal of Harding's administration was the Teapot Dome Scandal, named for the Teapot Dome oilfield in Wyoming. Secretary of the Interior Fall rented government lands to oil companies in return for personal loans and gifts. The land in question existed in California and Wyoming. The federal government currently was holding oil under this land as a reserve for the United States Navy, but Fall decided to lease the land illegally to Mammoth Oil Company and to the Pan American Petroleum Company in return for the personal loans. In the end, Fall received approximately 404,000 dollars in loans or gifts from these two oil companies. Eventually the United States Senate launched an investigation of Fall's actions. He was found guilty of accepting money in return for the oil leases. Fall was convicted, fined 100,000 dollars and sentenced to one year in prison. The oilfields were returned to the United States Navy. The first cabinet official in United States history to be convicted of a felony, Fall resigned as Secretary of the Interior in 1923. His actions, along with those of several other of Harding's cabinet officials, caused a great deal of distrust of government officials among the American people and also solidified Harding's reputation as a poor president.
Upon being released from prison, Fall returned to the private sector. He died on December 1, 1944, in El Paso, Texas.
- Trani, Eugene P, and David L. Wilson. The Presidency of Warren G. Harding. Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1977.
- Murray, Robert K. The Harding Era: Warren G. Harding and His Administration. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1969.
- Murray, Robert K. The Politics of Normalcy: Governmental Theory and Practice in the Harding-Coolidge Era. New York, NY: Norton, 1973.
- Mee, Charles L., Jr. The Ohio Gang: The World of Warren G. Harding. New York, NY: M. Evans, 1981. | <urn:uuid:507a09bf-d141-4bdf-91e3-ef78b01598f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ohiohistorycentral.org/index.php?title=Albert_B._Fall&oldid=31543&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.982198 | 1,053 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.08323767781257... | 1 | Albert B. Fall served as Secretary of the Interior of the United States of America during President Warren G. Harding's administration.
In 1920, Harding, an Ohioan, won election as president of the United States of America. As president, for the most part, Harding proved to be a poor manager of the federal government. He delegated authority to his cabinet officials. These men became known as the "Ohio Gang,"because they supposedly were a gang of thieves from Ohio. In reality, most of the men linked to the Ohio Gang were not from Harding's home state.
Fall was one of the members of the Ohio Gang, although he was not from Ohio. He was born on November 26, 1861, in Frankfort, Kentucky. As a child, Fall worked in a cotton mill to help support his family. He also found employment in several other positions, including as a drugstore clerk and as a teacher once he entered his late teens. Fall eventually moved to Mexico, where he hoped that a drier climate would help him cope with a chronic respiratory problem. In Mexico, he worked in mines, and once he accumulated some money, Fall then moved to Clarkesville, Texas, where he studied law. Fall married, and to support his family, he eventually returned to the mines. By 1887, Fall and his wife, Emma G. Morgan, had two infant children. While Fall was working in the mines, members of this young family contracted tuberculosis. Fall then ended his career as a miner and moved his family to Las Cruces, New Mexico.
In Las Cruces, Fall opened a bookstore and also worked as a broker in real estate, mining, and livestock. By 1889, he had completed his legal training and had passed the bar exam in the New Mexico Territory. In Las Cruces, Fall also embarked upon a political career. As a member of the Democratic Party, in 1888, he lost election to the New Mexico Territory's House of Representatives. Fall lost by fewer than fifty votes. In 1889, he won election as the Irrigation Commissioner for Dona Ana County, New Mexico, and the following year, Fall won election to the New Mexico Territory's House of Representatives, defeating the man whom he had lost to two years earlier.
In March 1893, Fall became an Associate Judge on the Third District Court of the New Mexico Territory. He remained in this position for less than two years, as he was accused of intentionally miscounting election returns to favor a Democratic Party candidate. Fall then resumed his own law practice, although he did fight in the Spanish-American War in 1898 and 1899. Upon the end of his military duty, Fall opened a new law practice in El Paso, Texas.
Following the Spanish-American War, Fall returned to politics. Despite having a law practice in Texas, Fall won election to the New Mexico House of Representatives in 1903. By 1904, Fall, a member of the Democratic Party, switched his party allegiance to the Republican Party. In 1912, Fall became one of New Mexico's first two United States Senators. He served in the United States Senate until March 4, 1921. That same month, Fall accepted President Harding's appointment as Secretary of the Interior.
Perhaps, the worst scandal of Harding's administration was the Teapot Dome Scandal, named for the Teapot Dome oilfield in Wyoming. Secretary of the Interior Fall rented government lands to oil companies in return for personal loans and gifts. The land in question existed in California and Wyoming. The federal government currently was holding oil under this land as a reserve for the United States Navy, but Fall decided to lease the land illegally to Mammoth Oil Company and to the Pan American Petroleum Company in return for the personal loans. In the end, Fall received approximately 404,000 dollars in loans or gifts from these two oil companies. Eventually the United States Senate launched an investigation of Fall's actions. He was found guilty of accepting money in return for the oil leases. Fall was convicted, fined 100,000 dollars and sentenced to one year in prison. The oilfields were returned to the United States Navy. The first cabinet official in United States history to be convicted of a felony, Fall resigned as Secretary of the Interior in 1923. His actions, along with those of several other of Harding's cabinet officials, caused a great deal of distrust of government officials among the American people and also solidified Harding's reputation as a poor president.
Upon being released from prison, Fall returned to the private sector. He died on December 1, 1944, in El Paso, Texas.
- Trani, Eugene P, and David L. Wilson. The Presidency of Warren G. Harding. Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1977.
- Murray, Robert K. The Harding Era: Warren G. Harding and His Administration. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1969.
- Murray, Robert K. The Politics of Normalcy: Governmental Theory and Practice in the Harding-Coolidge Era. New York, NY: Norton, 1973.
- Mee, Charles L., Jr. The Ohio Gang: The World of Warren G. Harding. New York, NY: M. Evans, 1981. | 1,126 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pinckney Benton Stewart (P. B.S.) Pinchback became the first African-American to serve as governor of any American state.
He was born May 10, 1837 in Macon, Georgia, U.S as a freeborn black and was a Union officer in the American Civil War and a leader in Louisiana politics during Reconstruction in 1865 through 1877, according to his biography.
Reconstruction in the United States, according to reports, lasted more than a decade from the start of emancipation at the midpoint of the Civil War until the withdrawal of federal troops from the conquered former Confederate States of America in 1877.
More about this
He was born to William Pinchback, a white Virginia plantation owner and a black slave mother, Eliza Stewart, who happened to be his former slave. Pinchback was raised on a large plantation in Holmes County, Mississippi until at age 9, his father sent him and his older brother, Napoleon, to Ohio to obtain formal education at Cincinnati’s Gilmore School.
Sadly, his education was halted as he had to return to Mississippi following the news of his father’s death. However, his mum took him and his siblings and fled to Ohio fearing that they might be enslaved by their White relatives.
Subsequently, his older brother, Napoleon reportedly became ill and the responsibility to cater for his mum and other siblings fell on 12-year-old Pinchback.
He got a job as a cabin boy on a canal boat and worked his way up to steward on the steamboats plying the Mississippi, Missouri, and Red rivers. He worked and sent money to Cincinnati to help support his mother and his siblings.
However, after the war between the states in 1861, Pinchback ran the Confederate blockade on the Mississippi River to reach River Federal-Held New Orleans where he raised a company of black volunteers called the Corps d’Afrique to fight for the North.
In 1863, Pinchback resigned from service after racial discrimination over promotion a number of times and settled in Orleans with his family. Pinchback organized the Fourth Ward Republican Club and served as a delegate to the convention that established a new constitution for Louisiana in 1868.
That same year he was also elected to the state senate and was named its president pro tempore; and as a result he became lieutenant governor when the incumbent died in 1871.
From December 9, 1872, to January 13, 1873, he served as acting governor of Louisiana, making him the first person of African descent to serve as governor of any state.
Meanwhile, impeachment proceedings were in progress against Henry Clay Warmoth. In the process, Pinchback went into business and acquired control of a Republican paper, the New Orleans Louisianian.
Pinchback served as the 24th Governor of Louisiana from December 9, 1872, to January 13, 1873 and has been adjudged one of the most prominent African-American officeholders during the Reconstruction Era.
Worthy of note is the fact that Pinchback was elected to Congress in 1872, but his Democratic opponent contested the election and won the seat. The following year, he was elected to the U.S. Senate but again he was refused the seat due to charges of fraud and election irregularities.
Some think he was rejected on the basis of his skin colour. However, He was appointed as surveyor of customs in 1882 in New Orleans and that was his last political office.
As W.E.B. Du Bois stated in his 1935 study, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880, Pinchback was the only black governor of any state during Reconstruction and remained the only one until Douglas Wilder’s election in Virginia in 1989. | <urn:uuid:1d47d348-df96-452a-b78d-e96159258c6b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://face2faceafrica.com/article/meet-the-first-african-american-to-serve-as-governor-of-any-u-s-state | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.991937 | 775 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.3090046644210... | 4 | Pinckney Benton Stewart (P. B.S.) Pinchback became the first African-American to serve as governor of any American state.
He was born May 10, 1837 in Macon, Georgia, U.S as a freeborn black and was a Union officer in the American Civil War and a leader in Louisiana politics during Reconstruction in 1865 through 1877, according to his biography.
Reconstruction in the United States, according to reports, lasted more than a decade from the start of emancipation at the midpoint of the Civil War until the withdrawal of federal troops from the conquered former Confederate States of America in 1877.
More about this
He was born to William Pinchback, a white Virginia plantation owner and a black slave mother, Eliza Stewart, who happened to be his former slave. Pinchback was raised on a large plantation in Holmes County, Mississippi until at age 9, his father sent him and his older brother, Napoleon, to Ohio to obtain formal education at Cincinnati’s Gilmore School.
Sadly, his education was halted as he had to return to Mississippi following the news of his father’s death. However, his mum took him and his siblings and fled to Ohio fearing that they might be enslaved by their White relatives.
Subsequently, his older brother, Napoleon reportedly became ill and the responsibility to cater for his mum and other siblings fell on 12-year-old Pinchback.
He got a job as a cabin boy on a canal boat and worked his way up to steward on the steamboats plying the Mississippi, Missouri, and Red rivers. He worked and sent money to Cincinnati to help support his mother and his siblings.
However, after the war between the states in 1861, Pinchback ran the Confederate blockade on the Mississippi River to reach River Federal-Held New Orleans where he raised a company of black volunteers called the Corps d’Afrique to fight for the North.
In 1863, Pinchback resigned from service after racial discrimination over promotion a number of times and settled in Orleans with his family. Pinchback organized the Fourth Ward Republican Club and served as a delegate to the convention that established a new constitution for Louisiana in 1868.
That same year he was also elected to the state senate and was named its president pro tempore; and as a result he became lieutenant governor when the incumbent died in 1871.
From December 9, 1872, to January 13, 1873, he served as acting governor of Louisiana, making him the first person of African descent to serve as governor of any state.
Meanwhile, impeachment proceedings were in progress against Henry Clay Warmoth. In the process, Pinchback went into business and acquired control of a Republican paper, the New Orleans Louisianian.
Pinchback served as the 24th Governor of Louisiana from December 9, 1872, to January 13, 1873 and has been adjudged one of the most prominent African-American officeholders during the Reconstruction Era.
Worthy of note is the fact that Pinchback was elected to Congress in 1872, but his Democratic opponent contested the election and won the seat. The following year, he was elected to the U.S. Senate but again he was refused the seat due to charges of fraud and election irregularities.
Some think he was rejected on the basis of his skin colour. However, He was appointed as surveyor of customs in 1882 in New Orleans and that was his last political office.
As W.E.B. Du Bois stated in his 1935 study, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880, Pinchback was the only black governor of any state during Reconstruction and remained the only one until Douglas Wilder’s election in Virginia in 1989. | 814 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 22/09/2014)
India witnessed a very well organized local administration under Mauryan Empire
. The government was hierarchy in nature. Staffs were recruited in order to ensure smooth running of the empire in all levels.
District and Town Administration
The revenue and general administration in the districts were administered by sthanikas and gopas. They had their own staffs. The gopa were in charge of five to ten villages in which he supervised maintenance of boundaries, registered gifts, sales and. Mortgages. He also kept an accurate census of the people as well as their material resources.
A sthanika had similar duties in the district and the gopas functioned under him. They were responsible to the samaharta. Urban administration was organised on similar lines under a nagarika or city magistrate with sthanikas and gopas assisting him.
Villages were semi-autonomous. They enjoying a good deal of freedom in ordering their affairs; they regulated land and water rights, cultivation and payment of revenue through the gramani. Gramani was an official of the central government. The elders of the village have a large share in guiding the people as well as in assisting the officials of the government in disposing of petty disputes arising in the village. Cultivable land was parcelled out in estates that belonged to individuals. The bureaucratic check and control was provided by officials openly charged with such duties of inspection, audit and report as well as by the regular employment of spies.
Administration of Provinces
Empire was divided into a number of provinces each administered by a governor. Mostly the governor was the princes of the royal blood. The provincial courts were smaller replicas of the imperial court at Pataliputra
, from which the emperor directly administered the home provinces. Probably there was a distinction between rural and urban administration.
This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:4527d0c6-9fcc-45b1-b3ed-c5c9137e1d58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/56/local_administration_under_mauryan_empire.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.981441 | 416 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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India witnessed a very well organized local administration under Mauryan Empire
. The government was hierarchy in nature. Staffs were recruited in order to ensure smooth running of the empire in all levels.
District and Town Administration
The revenue and general administration in the districts were administered by sthanikas and gopas. They had their own staffs. The gopa were in charge of five to ten villages in which he supervised maintenance of boundaries, registered gifts, sales and. Mortgages. He also kept an accurate census of the people as well as their material resources.
A sthanika had similar duties in the district and the gopas functioned under him. They were responsible to the samaharta. Urban administration was organised on similar lines under a nagarika or city magistrate with sthanikas and gopas assisting him.
Villages were semi-autonomous. They enjoying a good deal of freedom in ordering their affairs; they regulated land and water rights, cultivation and payment of revenue through the gramani. Gramani was an official of the central government. The elders of the village have a large share in guiding the people as well as in assisting the officials of the government in disposing of petty disputes arising in the village. Cultivable land was parcelled out in estates that belonged to individuals. The bureaucratic check and control was provided by officials openly charged with such duties of inspection, audit and report as well as by the regular employment of spies.
Administration of Provinces
Empire was divided into a number of provinces each administered by a governor. Mostly the governor was the princes of the royal blood. The provincial courts were smaller replicas of the imperial court at Pataliputra
, from which the emperor directly administered the home provinces. Probably there was a distinction between rural and urban administration.
This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to firstname.lastname@example.org | 406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
5. Early Life
Alexander the Great was the King of the Greek state of Macedon. He would go on to found a huge empire that stretched from Africa to Asia, making it into the largest empire of the Ancient era, and spreading Macedonian culture across much of the known world. Alexander was born in Pella, in what is today the Pella Regional Unit of Central Macedonia, Greece, in 356 BC. He was the son of the reigning Macedonian king, Philip II. In his boyhood, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle, and his school companions included Ptolemy, Hephaestion, and Cassander among them. These boys would later, as men, become his campaign companions. Alexander became especially close to Hephaestion, who would also serve as his personal protector, akin to a modern bodyguard. His training under Aristotle lasted just for 3 years, but it left him with a lasting love for reading and learning.
4. Rise to Power
At the age of 16, Alexander received his first taste of royalty when Philip left to fight the Byzantions. He left Alexander in charge of Macedon as his heir apparent. During this time, the Thracians rebelled against Macedonian authority, and Alexander ruthlessly suppressed their revolt. He got his first chance at trying out the skills and techniques learned in school, and quickly gained a reputation as a battlefield prodigy. His first campaign also bore what would become his trademark ferocity of repression, a feature that would remain constant through his subsequent imperial campaigns. After capturing a particular city, if there was no pressing diplomatic imperative, he generally preferred to kill all the men of military age, and sell off the women and the rest of those too old, young, or unfit for military service into slavery.
In 338 BC, Alexander and Philip embarked on a prolonged campaign against other Greek city-states, particularly those mighty ones centered around Athens and Thebes. Through a series of deft military maneuvers, the father-son duo defeated the attempts of the combined Greek opposition, and dictated the terms of an alliance. In this agreement, the other Greek powers remained in a subsidiary role for local governance, pledging allegiance to an overarching power of Macedon. This unified Greek kingdom would provide the springboard for Alexander's subsequent invasions into the African and Asian continents.
Two years after the Greek successes, Philip II was assassinated and Alexander ascended to the Macedonian throne at the age of 20. He spent the next two years suppressing his rivals, first the other Greek city-states in the Hellenic Alliance, and then the Balkan kingships across the northern border of Macedonia proper.
His power in Greece assured, Alexander embarked on his famed Asian conquest. In 334 BC, he crossed the Hellespont into Asia. He defeated the Persians at the battle of Granicus, and proceeded along the Mediterranean coast of what is today the Republic of Turkey. He then turned south after Pamphylia into the Levant region and into Syria. In Syria, he faced his most formidable adversary up to that time in Darius III. Nonetheless, Darius was resoundingly defeated in the battle of Issus in 333 BC. With the fall of the strategic city of Tyre to follow in 332 BC, his Syrian conquest was complete, and the Achaemenid rule in the region subsequently crumbled. He marched through Jerusalem, over Gaza, and then on into Egypt. There, for a change, he was invited as a liberator, due to the reign that had been unleashed by the now defeated Achaemenid rulers, after their second conquest of Egypt. In Egypt, he founded the city of Alexandria, which bore his name and would later became one of the most lucrative trade centers and important cultural hubs of the ancient Mediterranean world.
In 331 BC, Alexander left Egypt and moved eastward into what are present day Iraq and Iran. He first defeated the Assyrians, meeting Darius for the final time in the epic Battle of Gaugamela. Darius was once again resoundingly defeated, and Alexander's way into Babylon was cleared. He marched through Babylon and took on the central forces of the remnants of the Achaemenid Empire in what is today Iran. Taking control of Persia, his armies then marched on into India, but his forces were exhausted by their long campaigns and a punitively stretched supply line, so they found themselves unwilling and unable to proceed any further. His disciplined army showed threatening symptoms warning of impending mutiny for the first time, and Alexander was forced to turn back from the western banks of the Beas River.
1. Death and Legacy
Upon this journey back west, he fell ill and died in Babylon, likely resulting from food poisoning or binge drinking, though scholars are uncertain as to the actual cause of his death. Alexander's dominions stretched over a larger area than any other empire of his time. It did not, however, outlast his own short life for very long. Nonetheless, a number of the resulting "splinter states" that emerged from the Macedonian Empire themselves developed into significant world powers in their own right. The effect of the conquest on commercial and cultural encounters between the hitherto disparate regions had an even more enduring effect, as new lines of travel and communication had been opened. The silk routes were invigorated, and Alexander's own personal, detailed records became invaluable testaments for use by subsequent explorers and merchants. These records ultimately led to a surge in Mediterranean interests regarding Asia. Greek artistic traditions travelled east down the Silk road, and soon became vogue in Indian and Arabian society. Alexander founded 20 cities, many of which bore his own name, over the course of his expeditions, some of which went on to become regional commercial magnates in their own right. Today, many Ancient scholars seldom have anything derisive to say against Alexander, while some others view his as overly brutal and power hungry. None, however, can question his influence. Even the survivors of the powers he defeated could not but hold his military leadership in high regard. The other Greek city states celebrated his image, as did the Romans, who would emerge as the next great superpower to dominate the known world. From Egypt to India, his legend has long signified tremendous bravery and considerable military tactical superiority.
Who Was Alexander the Great?
Alexander the Great was the King of the Greek state of Macedon. He would go on to found a huge empire that stretched from Africa to Asia, making it into the largest empire of the Ancient era, and spreading Macedonian culture across much of the known world. Alexander was born in Pella, in what is today the Pella Regional Unit of Central Macedonia, Greece, in 356 BC.
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0.166901692748... | 1 | 5. Early Life
Alexander the Great was the King of the Greek state of Macedon. He would go on to found a huge empire that stretched from Africa to Asia, making it into the largest empire of the Ancient era, and spreading Macedonian culture across much of the known world. Alexander was born in Pella, in what is today the Pella Regional Unit of Central Macedonia, Greece, in 356 BC. He was the son of the reigning Macedonian king, Philip II. In his boyhood, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle, and his school companions included Ptolemy, Hephaestion, and Cassander among them. These boys would later, as men, become his campaign companions. Alexander became especially close to Hephaestion, who would also serve as his personal protector, akin to a modern bodyguard. His training under Aristotle lasted just for 3 years, but it left him with a lasting love for reading and learning.
4. Rise to Power
At the age of 16, Alexander received his first taste of royalty when Philip left to fight the Byzantions. He left Alexander in charge of Macedon as his heir apparent. During this time, the Thracians rebelled against Macedonian authority, and Alexander ruthlessly suppressed their revolt. He got his first chance at trying out the skills and techniques learned in school, and quickly gained a reputation as a battlefield prodigy. His first campaign also bore what would become his trademark ferocity of repression, a feature that would remain constant through his subsequent imperial campaigns. After capturing a particular city, if there was no pressing diplomatic imperative, he generally preferred to kill all the men of military age, and sell off the women and the rest of those too old, young, or unfit for military service into slavery.
In 338 BC, Alexander and Philip embarked on a prolonged campaign against other Greek city-states, particularly those mighty ones centered around Athens and Thebes. Through a series of deft military maneuvers, the father-son duo defeated the attempts of the combined Greek opposition, and dictated the terms of an alliance. In this agreement, the other Greek powers remained in a subsidiary role for local governance, pledging allegiance to an overarching power of Macedon. This unified Greek kingdom would provide the springboard for Alexander's subsequent invasions into the African and Asian continents.
Two years after the Greek successes, Philip II was assassinated and Alexander ascended to the Macedonian throne at the age of 20. He spent the next two years suppressing his rivals, first the other Greek city-states in the Hellenic Alliance, and then the Balkan kingships across the northern border of Macedonia proper.
His power in Greece assured, Alexander embarked on his famed Asian conquest. In 334 BC, he crossed the Hellespont into Asia. He defeated the Persians at the battle of Granicus, and proceeded along the Mediterranean coast of what is today the Republic of Turkey. He then turned south after Pamphylia into the Levant region and into Syria. In Syria, he faced his most formidable adversary up to that time in Darius III. Nonetheless, Darius was resoundingly defeated in the battle of Issus in 333 BC. With the fall of the strategic city of Tyre to follow in 332 BC, his Syrian conquest was complete, and the Achaemenid rule in the region subsequently crumbled. He marched through Jerusalem, over Gaza, and then on into Egypt. There, for a change, he was invited as a liberator, due to the reign that had been unleashed by the now defeated Achaemenid rulers, after their second conquest of Egypt. In Egypt, he founded the city of Alexandria, which bore his name and would later became one of the most lucrative trade centers and important cultural hubs of the ancient Mediterranean world.
In 331 BC, Alexander left Egypt and moved eastward into what are present day Iraq and Iran. He first defeated the Assyrians, meeting Darius for the final time in the epic Battle of Gaugamela. Darius was once again resoundingly defeated, and Alexander's way into Babylon was cleared. He marched through Babylon and took on the central forces of the remnants of the Achaemenid Empire in what is today Iran. Taking control of Persia, his armies then marched on into India, but his forces were exhausted by their long campaigns and a punitively stretched supply line, so they found themselves unwilling and unable to proceed any further. His disciplined army showed threatening symptoms warning of impending mutiny for the first time, and Alexander was forced to turn back from the western banks of the Beas River.
1. Death and Legacy
Upon this journey back west, he fell ill and died in Babylon, likely resulting from food poisoning or binge drinking, though scholars are uncertain as to the actual cause of his death. Alexander's dominions stretched over a larger area than any other empire of his time. It did not, however, outlast his own short life for very long. Nonetheless, a number of the resulting "splinter states" that emerged from the Macedonian Empire themselves developed into significant world powers in their own right. The effect of the conquest on commercial and cultural encounters between the hitherto disparate regions had an even more enduring effect, as new lines of travel and communication had been opened. The silk routes were invigorated, and Alexander's own personal, detailed records became invaluable testaments for use by subsequent explorers and merchants. These records ultimately led to a surge in Mediterranean interests regarding Asia. Greek artistic traditions travelled east down the Silk road, and soon became vogue in Indian and Arabian society. Alexander founded 20 cities, many of which bore his own name, over the course of his expeditions, some of which went on to become regional commercial magnates in their own right. Today, many Ancient scholars seldom have anything derisive to say against Alexander, while some others view his as overly brutal and power hungry. None, however, can question his influence. Even the survivors of the powers he defeated could not but hold his military leadership in high regard. The other Greek city states celebrated his image, as did the Romans, who would emerge as the next great superpower to dominate the known world. From Egypt to India, his legend has long signified tremendous bravery and considerable military tactical superiority.
Who Was Alexander the Great?
Alexander the Great was the King of the Greek state of Macedon. He would go on to found a huge empire that stretched from Africa to Asia, making it into the largest empire of the Ancient era, and spreading Macedonian culture across much of the known world. Alexander was born in Pella, in what is today the Pella Regional Unit of Central Macedonia, Greece, in 356 BC.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,420 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Southern Slavocracy’s obsession with people escaping slavery helped create anti-slavery feeling in the rest of the United States. The Slavocracy viewed these escapes as threats to the viability of the South’s Peculiar Institution. But until the Civil War, very few of the black people held in slavery did escape. Few of those who did were literate, and even fewer agitated for abolition. Frederick Douglass, having struggled and succeeded in learning to read and write, was one fugitive who was both literate and who did speak out against slavery after he escaped. He was not representative. His was, however, a mighty voice.
The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845) became a classic, not just of African-American literature, but of American literature in general, and its author considered one of the greatest speakers for those whom America held in slavery. Yet Douglass’s right to speak for them did not go unquestioned at the time. Douglass wrote the book, recounting the circumstances of his life and putting himself at risk of re-enslavement, to counter claims that such an intelligent, well-spoken man had never been a slave at all. The book itself raised new challenges to Douglass’s authority to speak. To some it suggested that Douglass had never been a slave; others argued that a white abolitionist must have written the book for him.
They had not. But even the white abolitionists who sponsored Frederick Douglass in many ways sought to stifle him. As they saw it, his job was to expose the cruelties and sufferings of slavery by giving their audience direct testimony of what he had witnessed and endured. Analyzing his own experience and the experience of the enslaved masses, and proposing remedies, however, was best left to the educated, abolitionists believed — to white people. “Give us the facts,” Douglass’s white adviser told him. “We will take care of the philosophy.”
Not unlike these nineteenth century American fugitives, very few people who live in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea succeed in crossing the border. Indeed, given the penalties inflicted on their families, very few try. Most of those who do are farmers. The Republic of Korea’s Ministry of Unification says it has processed a little over 31,000 escapees who have succeeded in reaching the Republic of Korea in the south, usually by crossing the border with China and making their way by some complicated route—perhaps through China’s mountainous, less well patrolled, southern border, into Laos or Vietnam and ultimately back to the Korean peninsula.
These few escapees are our main source for understanding how the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea works. But only if we listen to them.
We don’t even have a generally accepted term for these people. Dr. Suzy Kim objects to the term “defector” as misleading, as most people who leave the DPRK seem to be “economic migrants.” Hyeonseo Lee, who herself escaped, agrees in her memoir The Girl With Seven Names that “most people escape because they’re hungry or in trouble — not because they are craving liberty.” This, she says, is because North Koreans cannot know their rights are abused, as they have no concept of rights. The DPRK itself calls them terrorists and criminals.
I will refer to these people as “escapees.”
If you have read the books of North Koreans published in the U.S., you know “escape” is a popular theme. At least three different books are subtitled with some form of the phrase “Escape from North Korea.” Escapes thrill. One remembers that in theatrical productions of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s great anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a book far more popular than The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, the tour-de-force scene was Eliza, her baby in her arms, fleeing slave catchers and, jumping from ice floe to ice floe, crossing the Ohio River to freedom.
We are most content to listen to escapees when they speak of their adventures. We prove less likely to accept their judgment when they, as did Frederick Douglass, attempt to analyze the place from which they escaped. Indeed, the more revelatory a defector’s knowledge is, the more he shakes up the received wisdom on the DPRK; the more he challenges the received wisdom, the more likely it is his new information is dismissed as bogus.
Like Frederick Douglass, Jang Jin-sung writes under a pen name. Dear Leader: My Escape from North Korea (2015) differs from other accounts in that he is a relatively high-ranking escapee, and offers insight into the workings of the regime. While I find those portions of his book the most compelling, reviewers sometimes complain that he dedicated too much space to the government and not enough to his thrilling escape. One Amazon reviewer said, “While the book was a bit ‘wordy’ at times with political background material, the gripping story itself made it worth the read.”
Yet in the “political background material,” and in subsequent lectures, there is important information: Jang Jin-sung has challenged standard interpretations of how the DPRK works. Among other things, he argues that Kim Jong-Il effectively undermined his father Kim Il-Sung, during his lifetime. He doubts that Kim Jong-un has inherited all of his father’s power.
There are other important comparisons to the slave narrative as well in Jang’s account, most importantly how it was written. Douglass’s book grew out of his experience as a public speaker; he was probably the best orator to emerge from those people who escaped slavery. His elocution actually raised questions about his authenticity, to the point that his white patron advised that Douglass must try to sound more black. However, Douglass rejected this advice, deciding to write a book in his own voice with verifiable details of his life under slavery. Jang, whose book began not as lectures, as did Frederick Douglass’s, but as a blog, perhaps the 21st century equivalent of the lecture circuit, could not make his book as verifiable as Douglass could his, because he still has family back in the DPRK, who could be punished for his “crime” of having freed himself.
Is there a reliable mechanism for judging the accuracy of any escapee’s account? I have heard South Koreans complaining that North Koreans write their books merely for the money. Generally, experts on North Korea — so-called “Pyongyang watchers” –are the final word on the legitimacy of a narrative. In other words, non-North Koreans are the ones who rule on which North Koreans can speak for North Koreans, just as white audiences just the accuracy of an escaped slave’s account.
When Frederick Douglass published his narrative, he took a grave chance: he revealed who he was and where he was. Under federal law, his legal owner had every “right” to reclaim him. Douglass went to Ireland and Britain to avoid recapture and remained until abolitionists bought him and freed him. When Jang Jin-sung published his narrative, he was sentenced to death in absentia in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea: there is no way to free him from that sentence until the regime itself falls.
It is possible that the vast majority of people in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea are loyal and content and the relatively few escapees do not speak for their country. Of course, possibly most enslaved African Americans also accepted both the reality and the ideology of slavery, and abolitionists should have ignored Frederick Douglass. This was argued at the time and well after slavery’s demise. But we don’t believe it now.
The Civil War revealed how hollow the central lie of the Slaveocracy was: that the people it held in bondage were content. Anytime a Union army arrived nearby, “contented” enslaved people flocked to it, freeing themselves. Perhaps someday, in some great crisis, we will finally learn how many North Koreans remain because they love the regime, how many stay because of threat and force, and how many wish to live their lives in freedom.
In the 20th century Reid Mitchell was an historian of the American Civil War. Now he is Professor of English and Scholar of Fourth Jiangsu Top 100 Talents at Yancheng Teachers University in Jiangsu Province, China. | <urn:uuid:75e4ea56-1ee7-4056-af0d-f6a3120bbb2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://publicseminar.org/2018/03/who-is-allowed-to-speak-for-north-koreans/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.980668 | 1,799 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.17008164... | 7 | The Southern Slavocracy’s obsession with people escaping slavery helped create anti-slavery feeling in the rest of the United States. The Slavocracy viewed these escapes as threats to the viability of the South’s Peculiar Institution. But until the Civil War, very few of the black people held in slavery did escape. Few of those who did were literate, and even fewer agitated for abolition. Frederick Douglass, having struggled and succeeded in learning to read and write, was one fugitive who was both literate and who did speak out against slavery after he escaped. He was not representative. His was, however, a mighty voice.
The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845) became a classic, not just of African-American literature, but of American literature in general, and its author considered one of the greatest speakers for those whom America held in slavery. Yet Douglass’s right to speak for them did not go unquestioned at the time. Douglass wrote the book, recounting the circumstances of his life and putting himself at risk of re-enslavement, to counter claims that such an intelligent, well-spoken man had never been a slave at all. The book itself raised new challenges to Douglass’s authority to speak. To some it suggested that Douglass had never been a slave; others argued that a white abolitionist must have written the book for him.
They had not. But even the white abolitionists who sponsored Frederick Douglass in many ways sought to stifle him. As they saw it, his job was to expose the cruelties and sufferings of slavery by giving their audience direct testimony of what he had witnessed and endured. Analyzing his own experience and the experience of the enslaved masses, and proposing remedies, however, was best left to the educated, abolitionists believed — to white people. “Give us the facts,” Douglass’s white adviser told him. “We will take care of the philosophy.”
Not unlike these nineteenth century American fugitives, very few people who live in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea succeed in crossing the border. Indeed, given the penalties inflicted on their families, very few try. Most of those who do are farmers. The Republic of Korea’s Ministry of Unification says it has processed a little over 31,000 escapees who have succeeded in reaching the Republic of Korea in the south, usually by crossing the border with China and making their way by some complicated route—perhaps through China’s mountainous, less well patrolled, southern border, into Laos or Vietnam and ultimately back to the Korean peninsula.
These few escapees are our main source for understanding how the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea works. But only if we listen to them.
We don’t even have a generally accepted term for these people. Dr. Suzy Kim objects to the term “defector” as misleading, as most people who leave the DPRK seem to be “economic migrants.” Hyeonseo Lee, who herself escaped, agrees in her memoir The Girl With Seven Names that “most people escape because they’re hungry or in trouble — not because they are craving liberty.” This, she says, is because North Koreans cannot know their rights are abused, as they have no concept of rights. The DPRK itself calls them terrorists and criminals.
I will refer to these people as “escapees.”
If you have read the books of North Koreans published in the U.S., you know “escape” is a popular theme. At least three different books are subtitled with some form of the phrase “Escape from North Korea.” Escapes thrill. One remembers that in theatrical productions of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s great anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a book far more popular than The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, the tour-de-force scene was Eliza, her baby in her arms, fleeing slave catchers and, jumping from ice floe to ice floe, crossing the Ohio River to freedom.
We are most content to listen to escapees when they speak of their adventures. We prove less likely to accept their judgment when they, as did Frederick Douglass, attempt to analyze the place from which they escaped. Indeed, the more revelatory a defector’s knowledge is, the more he shakes up the received wisdom on the DPRK; the more he challenges the received wisdom, the more likely it is his new information is dismissed as bogus.
Like Frederick Douglass, Jang Jin-sung writes under a pen name. Dear Leader: My Escape from North Korea (2015) differs from other accounts in that he is a relatively high-ranking escapee, and offers insight into the workings of the regime. While I find those portions of his book the most compelling, reviewers sometimes complain that he dedicated too much space to the government and not enough to his thrilling escape. One Amazon reviewer said, “While the book was a bit ‘wordy’ at times with political background material, the gripping story itself made it worth the read.”
Yet in the “political background material,” and in subsequent lectures, there is important information: Jang Jin-sung has challenged standard interpretations of how the DPRK works. Among other things, he argues that Kim Jong-Il effectively undermined his father Kim Il-Sung, during his lifetime. He doubts that Kim Jong-un has inherited all of his father’s power.
There are other important comparisons to the slave narrative as well in Jang’s account, most importantly how it was written. Douglass’s book grew out of his experience as a public speaker; he was probably the best orator to emerge from those people who escaped slavery. His elocution actually raised questions about his authenticity, to the point that his white patron advised that Douglass must try to sound more black. However, Douglass rejected this advice, deciding to write a book in his own voice with verifiable details of his life under slavery. Jang, whose book began not as lectures, as did Frederick Douglass’s, but as a blog, perhaps the 21st century equivalent of the lecture circuit, could not make his book as verifiable as Douglass could his, because he still has family back in the DPRK, who could be punished for his “crime” of having freed himself.
Is there a reliable mechanism for judging the accuracy of any escapee’s account? I have heard South Koreans complaining that North Koreans write their books merely for the money. Generally, experts on North Korea — so-called “Pyongyang watchers” –are the final word on the legitimacy of a narrative. In other words, non-North Koreans are the ones who rule on which North Koreans can speak for North Koreans, just as white audiences just the accuracy of an escaped slave’s account.
When Frederick Douglass published his narrative, he took a grave chance: he revealed who he was and where he was. Under federal law, his legal owner had every “right” to reclaim him. Douglass went to Ireland and Britain to avoid recapture and remained until abolitionists bought him and freed him. When Jang Jin-sung published his narrative, he was sentenced to death in absentia in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea: there is no way to free him from that sentence until the regime itself falls.
It is possible that the vast majority of people in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea are loyal and content and the relatively few escapees do not speak for their country. Of course, possibly most enslaved African Americans also accepted both the reality and the ideology of slavery, and abolitionists should have ignored Frederick Douglass. This was argued at the time and well after slavery’s demise. But we don’t believe it now.
The Civil War revealed how hollow the central lie of the Slaveocracy was: that the people it held in bondage were content. Anytime a Union army arrived nearby, “contented” enslaved people flocked to it, freeing themselves. Perhaps someday, in some great crisis, we will finally learn how many North Koreans remain because they love the regime, how many stay because of threat and force, and how many wish to live their lives in freedom.
In the 20th century Reid Mitchell was an historian of the American Civil War. Now he is Professor of English and Scholar of Fourth Jiangsu Top 100 Talents at Yancheng Teachers University in Jiangsu Province, China. | 1,705 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The account of Samuel going to Jesse’s house and wanting to meet with his sons is a familiar one. We know that Samuel bypassed Jesse’s older sons and wanted to know if he had another. He did, of course, David was out in the hills watching over his father’s sheep.
But we don’t hear so much about Samuel meeting Saul who was out looking for his father’s donkeys.
Have you read about Saul and the lost donkeys?
You find the event detailed in 1 Samuel 9.
Here are some Saul and donkey facts to teach your kids.
- Saul came from the Tribe of Benjamin – not a big tribe compared to the others. They had had their problems going to war with their enemies.
- Saul’s father was Kish. He was a rich man with many sheep and donkeys, and a lot of land.
- Saul’s father’s donkeys ran away. Donkeys were valuable property in that time and place. One reason was because horses were scarce and therefore, donkeys were much needed.
- Saul was tall – the only place in the Bible where it says an Israelite was tall – he was a head taller than those around him. Usually, we read about the enemies of the Israelites being tall – not an Israelite himself.
- Saul was also the most handsome man in Israel. He looked like a king.
- (Jumping ahead) If Saul were so tall, Why didn’t he fight Goliath? Why did he allow a young boy to fight the giant?
- The people asked for a king and God gave them what they wanted.
- Kish sent Saul and a servant to look for the donkeys. For two days they searched.
- Saul decided they should go home when they couldn’t find the donkeys. Otherwise his dad would send a search party out for them.
- The servant hesitated and said that before they went home they should go to the next city and ask the man of God about the donkeys. That man was Samuel and the servant had heard that whatever this man said would happen.
- Saul thought they should have a gift for the man.
- The servant had a small piece of money and Saul decided that was enough.
- Young girls going to get water at the well (outside the city) told them where to find Samuel.
- An old man met them at the gate of the city. When they asked where Samuel was he said they were talking to him.
- Samuel invited them to a feast and then said not to worry about the donkeys because they had safely returned home.
- Saul was placed at the best table with the best food at the feast.
- Then Samuel took Saul to a quiet place and told him many things. He then anointed him with oil.
- Samuel was not surprised to see Saul. God had told Samuel that Saul would be the next king.
- Before this, Israel was ruled by judges – this was the first time the tribes had one central leader.
- Saul’s reign started well but soon fell apart as he disobeyed God.
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0.1724524199... | 10 | The account of Samuel going to Jesse’s house and wanting to meet with his sons is a familiar one. We know that Samuel bypassed Jesse’s older sons and wanted to know if he had another. He did, of course, David was out in the hills watching over his father’s sheep.
But we don’t hear so much about Samuel meeting Saul who was out looking for his father’s donkeys.
Have you read about Saul and the lost donkeys?
You find the event detailed in 1 Samuel 9.
Here are some Saul and donkey facts to teach your kids.
- Saul came from the Tribe of Benjamin – not a big tribe compared to the others. They had had their problems going to war with their enemies.
- Saul’s father was Kish. He was a rich man with many sheep and donkeys, and a lot of land.
- Saul’s father’s donkeys ran away. Donkeys were valuable property in that time and place. One reason was because horses were scarce and therefore, donkeys were much needed.
- Saul was tall – the only place in the Bible where it says an Israelite was tall – he was a head taller than those around him. Usually, we read about the enemies of the Israelites being tall – not an Israelite himself.
- Saul was also the most handsome man in Israel. He looked like a king.
- (Jumping ahead) If Saul were so tall, Why didn’t he fight Goliath? Why did he allow a young boy to fight the giant?
- The people asked for a king and God gave them what they wanted.
- Kish sent Saul and a servant to look for the donkeys. For two days they searched.
- Saul decided they should go home when they couldn’t find the donkeys. Otherwise his dad would send a search party out for them.
- The servant hesitated and said that before they went home they should go to the next city and ask the man of God about the donkeys. That man was Samuel and the servant had heard that whatever this man said would happen.
- Saul thought they should have a gift for the man.
- The servant had a small piece of money and Saul decided that was enough.
- Young girls going to get water at the well (outside the city) told them where to find Samuel.
- An old man met them at the gate of the city. When they asked where Samuel was he said they were talking to him.
- Samuel invited them to a feast and then said not to worry about the donkeys because they had safely returned home.
- Saul was placed at the best table with the best food at the feast.
- Then Samuel took Saul to a quiet place and told him many things. He then anointed him with oil.
- Samuel was not surprised to see Saul. God had told Samuel that Saul would be the next king.
- Before this, Israel was ruled by judges – this was the first time the tribes had one central leader.
- Saul’s reign started well but soon fell apart as he disobeyed God.
Imagine — starting out looking for your dad’s donkeys and coming home anointed king!!!! | 638 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the American Civil War, Ohio provided the federal government with 260 regiments of men, including infantry, artillery, and cavalry units. Ohioans also served in several other regiments from other states, most notably from Kentucky, West Virginia, and Massachusetts, as well as in federal units.
In the American Civil War, Ohio provided the federal government with 260 regiments of men, including infantry, artillery, and cavalry units. Ohioans also served in several other regiments from other states, most notably from Kentucky, West Virginia, and Massachusetts, as well as in federal units. Almost 330,000 Ohio men, including 5,092 African Americans, served in the Union military during the conflict.
Infantry regiments formed in Ohio became known as regiments of Ohio Volunteer Infantry. They served for varying lengths of time, averaging one hundred days to three years. On August 22, 1862, the 98th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry mustered into service at Camp Mingo, near Steubenville, Ohio. The men in the regiment were to serve three years. Most men came from Jefferson and surrounding counties.
Upon organizing the regiment, officials ordered the 98th to Covington, Kentucky on August 23, 1862. The regiment remained at Covington until August 27, when it advanced to Lexington, Kentucky. Upon reaching Lexington, authorities ordered the 98th to assist Union troops currently facing Confederate General Kirby Smith's army. The 98th advanced as far as the Kentucky River, where it encountered Confederate cavalry and withdrew to Lexington and then to Louisville, Kentucky, with the regiment arriving here on September 5. The 98th remained at Louisville until October 1, when it advanced with General Alexander McCook's force to Perryville. The regiment fought in the Battle of Perryville (October 8, 1862), having approximately 230 soldiers killed or wounded. Colonel George Webster was killed, while Major John S. Pearce was captured.
Following the Battle of Perryville, the 98th moved to Crab Orchard, where it performed garrison duty as well as at Lebanon, Kentucky. After a few weeks, the regiment advanced to Columbia, Kentucky and then engaged in a pursuit of Confederate General John Hunt Morgan's cavalry force. The 98th had several skirmishes with these Confederates, eventually driving them across the Cumberland River. Following this mission, the regiment returned to Louisville, where it remained until early 1863, when it sailed to Nashville, Tennessee with approximately 20,000 additional Union troops, The 98th reached Nashville on February 9, 1863. Accompanied by other Northern units, the regiment advanced to Franklin, Tennessee, driving Confederate forces from this location on February 12, 1863. The 98th remained at Franklin, positioned on the extreme right of the Union lines, until June 1863, when it participated in the Tullahoma Campaign. Attached to the Reserve Corps, the regiment saw no serious action in this campaign, advancing to the Tennessee communities of Triune and Shelbyville. Following the Tullahoma Campaign in early July 1863, the 98th marched to War Trace, Tennessee. The 98th remained here until August 25, 1863, when the 98th advanced to Rossville, Georgia, arriving on September 16. The regiment participated in a reconnaissance to Ringgold, Georgia on September 17, returning to Rossville the next day. The 98th advanced to Chickamauga, Georgia on September 19--the first day of the Battle of Chickamauga--but officials held the regiment in reserve. On September 20, the 98th helped comprise the Union's extreme right. On this day, the regiment entered the battle with eleven officers and 196 men. In the engagement, the 98th had fifty men, including five officers, killed or wounded and two more men captured. Following the Battle of Chickamauga, the 98th retreated to Chattanooga, Tennessee with the rest of the defeated Union soldiers.
At Chattanooga, the 98th joined the 14th Corps. On November 25, 1863, the regimented reported for duty under General William T. Sherman, whose men were assaulting Missionary Ridge. The 98th pursued fleeing Southerners as far as Graysville, Georgia, where the regiment engaged in a skirmish with Confederate forces, having five or six men killed or wounded. Following this engagement on November 25, officials ordered the 98th with its division to Knoxville, Tennessee to assist Northern soldiers there against a Confederate siege. The division marched as far as Marysville, Tennessee, when it was ordered to return to Chattanooga due to the Northerners at Knoxville having broken the siege.
Arriving at Chattanooga on December 24, authorities ordered the 98th into winter quarters at Rossville. The regiment remained here until the start of Sherman's campaign in 1864 to capture Atlanta, Georgia. The 98th saw action in most major battles in this campaign, including the Battles of Buzzard's Roost, Resaca, Rome, Dallas, Kennesaw Mountain, Peachtree Creek, and Jonesborough. At Kennesaw Mountain, the regiment had thirty-four men killed or wounded and an additional forty-one men killed or wounded at Jonesborough. The 98th's commanding officer issued the following report after the Atlanta Campaign:
HDQRS. NINETY-EIGHTH REGT. OHIO VOL. INFANTRY, In Camp, near Atlanta, Ga., September 9, 1864.
SIR: I have the honor to submit the following official report of the marches, skirmishes, battles, casualties, &c., of the Ninety-eighth Regt. Ohio Volunteer Infantry during the campaign in Georgia, commencing May 2, 1864, and ending September 8, 1864:
The regiment, with the division, left Rossville, Ga., on the morning of the 2d of May and marched to Ringgold, Ga., and there remained until the 4th, when it was ordered on picket duty one mile south of the town, and also to make a reconnaissance down Taylor's Ridge to Nickajack Gap. Five companies, under command of Capt. John A. Norris, Company C, were at once detached and proceeded on the reconnaissance, while the other five went on duty as pickets. In the afternoon the reconnoitering party returned without any loss or having met the enemy. On the morning of the 5th the regiment rejoined the brigade, and, remaining in camp until the 7th, marched with the brigade on that day to Tunnel Hill, which place we reached about noon. At 4 p. m. the 8th the regiment constituted a part of the assaulting party on the enemy's lines east of the railroad and in front of Rocky Face, meeting with no loss. Was then sent to relieve the One hundred and eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry on the knoll on the west side of the railroad, and directly in front of the gap. Here we remained skirmishing with the enemy, and at intervals under heavy artillery fire, until the morning of the 12th, losing but 1 man in the mean time, Benjamin E. Ferguson, Company C, wounded on the evening of the 9th. On the morning of the 12th we, with the balance of the brigade, took up the line of march for Resaca, and, passing through Snake Creek Gap, came up to the enemy strongly intrenched at that place on the 13th. On the morning of the 14th heavy skirmishing and soon volleys of musketry were heard along some portions of the line, and early in the afternoon the regiment was ordered to take position along the creek running in front of and distant about 800 yards from the enemy's main fort on the left of our line. As the regiment was advancing to that position it was heavily shelled from the fort. The only loss, however, sustained was that of Jesse M. Woods, Company B, who was instantly killed, and Paisley, of Company H, and Walton, of Company K, wounded. At night the regiment, having been relieved, moved one mile to the rear and bivouacked, and on the following morning (15th) marched to the right a short distance, and relieved a portion of the Twentieth Army Corps from the trenches. That night the enemy evacuated, and on the morning of the 16th the regiment, with the balance of the division, was ordered to go to Rome, and soon thereafter was on the way, and, after marching about twenty miles, bivouacked for the night eight miles from that place. On the following morning resumed the march and soon came up with the enemy's scouts and pickets. The Thirty-fourth Illinois Infantry, being in the advance, did the skirmishing, and easily drove the rebels back to within a short distance of the town. After a brisk little fight between the Third Brigade, under command of Col. Dan. McCook, and the enemy's main line of battle, the latter retreated, leaving their dead on the field, and the regiment, with the balance of the brigade, bivouacked for the night one mile north of the town. Next morning we intrenched and then went into camp near by, and there remained until the 23d, when we crossed the river, and, passing through Rome, encamped one mile south of it. Companies D and I were on the 19th detailed to guard wagon train to Resaca. May 24, marched sixteen miles toward Van Wert, and bivouacked for the night at Big Spring. May 25, marched fifteen miles toward Dallas, and, bivouacking for the night, resumed march at an early hour on following morning; reached Dallas at 3 p. m., where we were rejoined by Companies D and I. On the 27th the regiment was on the skirmish line, and, advancing the line one and a half miles, came up to the enemy strongly intrenched on a high hill. Our only loss in the advance was that of Thomas C. Case, Company C, who, it is supposed by many, accidentally shot himself dead. The regiment remained skirmishing constantly and heavily with the enemy until midnight of the 28th, when it was relieved; lost in killed on the 28th, James N. Finney, Company C. The regiment was in camp on the 29th, 30th, and 31st. On the last-mentioned day we were heavily shelled by the enemy, and Nathan R. Householder, Company D, was killed by a fragment of a shell, which struck him on the head.
From the 1st of June to the 27th the regiment did no other duty than occasional marches to the left to relieve other portions of the army along line of intrenchments, skirmish and picket duty on its regular turn, and building works whenever our brigade commander thought it proper and necessary to do so for our safety, &c. In the advance of our brigade toward Kenesaw Mountain on the 18th, Sergeant Hanna, Company D, was wounded. That night the enemy evacuated their line of works in our immediate front and fell back two miles to the mountain. We pursued them on the following morning, and finding them on the mountains we intrenched at their base. On the 20th, 21st, 22d, 23d, and 24th the enemy shelled us at intervals from the mountains, killing and wounding many in the other regiments of the brigade. Our loss during the entire time was not one. This was, in a very great measure, owing to the constant and untiring vigilance of the company officers, who kept their men on the guard at all times, and when the shelling commenced ordered them to their works and kept them there until the danger was passed. On many occasions while we lay here the rear of artillery and explosion of shell were most terrific. The danger to the regiment was increased from the fact that our line of intrenchments was in the rear only a few yards and to the right of our own batteries, where guns these of the enemy sought on all occasions to dismount.
On the 26th marched to the right about five miles, and on the morning of the 27th the regiment constituted the third line in the brigade column that was to charge the enemy's works. At 9 o'clock the charge was made on the double-quick. It was the full distance of three-fourths of a mile from the place where the column was formed to the enemy's works. The column advanced amid a perfect shower of canister and bullets to within a few yards of the enemy's lines, but so strong was their position that their front lines were compelled to give way and came back hurriedly through the two rear lines, carrying with them Companies G and B, of the regiment. These two companies, however, were soon in position and intrenching, along with the balance of the regiment which held the ground it occupied at the time it was ordered to halt and lie down. I will state hero that portions of the troops in the front line of the Third Brigade also gave way and passed back through the line occupied by the regiment. Allow me to say that, in my opinion, the officers and especially the men could not possibly have conducted themselves more gallantly than they did on that occasion. Nothing but base partiality could prompt me to speak or write in praise of one without doing so of all. As soon as the regiment lay down, they commenced with their bayonets to dig, and their hands, spoons, and tin mess-pans to construct earth-works for their protection and defense. Never did men labor with more patience and undaunted bravery than did the musket bearers of the Ninety-eighth Regiment on that occasion. There, under one of the heaviest fires, both of canister and ball, during this campaign, did they erect a work in one hour which afforded them much protection. Now they could raise their heads from the ground with some safety, where before it was almost sure death to take your face out of the dust. In this charge Lieut. Col. James M. Shane was mortally wounded and died in an hour afterward. His loss was a severe one to the regiment. There was not one of us that did not love and confide in him. His true manly qualities won for him the respect and admiration of all who knew him here in the military circle of friendship. His country had no truer patriot, and when he found that he could serve it no longer against its enemies, he asked to be buried with his face to them. Many equally brave and patriotic men fell on this day and merit from me as much the humble tribute I have just paid to the life and memory of Lieut.-Col. Shane, but it would swell this report to undue proportions were I to name and speak of all singly. Lieut. Lindsey, of Company A, was struck on the hand by a piece of shell while leading his Company, and was compelled to go to the rear; and many others were wounded, and their names will be given in the annexed casualty list. The regiment at night used the pick, spade, rails, and logs, and before morning of the following day, had strong works erected within seventy-five yards of the enemy. We remained in the trenches until the night of the 30th, when we were relieved by the Thirty-fourth Illinois Regt.
On the night of the 29th, at 1 a.m., the enemy assaulted our line of works, but were soon and handsomely driven off with a loss to us of 1 man killed, Thomas B. Lisbey, Company D. The regiment, after being relieved, returned to Camp, and there remained until the evening of the 2d of July, when, by order, it relieved the Seventy-eighth Illinois in the trenches. That night the rebels evacuated their works in our immediate front, and early on the morning of the 3d we went in rapid pursuit of them, capturing some prisoners, and passing through the town of Marietta, bivouacked a few miles south of it. On the morning of the 4th the regiment went out in support of Capt. Gardner's battery, which was ordered into position about 800 yards from the enemy's main works. There we remained during that day, and on the morning of the 4th, finding the enemy gone from our front, we with the balance of the brigade pushed forward toward the Chattahoochee River. At 2 p. m. the regiment was deployed as skirmishers, and advanced to within one and a half miles of that river, when, coming suddenly upon the enemy, a brisk skirmish took place, in which Capt. Williams, Company I, was wounded by a musket-ball in the left leg. He was sent to the rear, and afterward died in hospital at Nashville. In his death the service has lost one of its best soldiers and the country one of its best citizens. Brave and prompt in the execution of all his duties, as an officer his loss to his company and regiment is almost irreparable. At night the regiment was relieved by the Thirty-fourth Illinois, and, moving to the rear a short distance, bivouacked for the night. Next morning (6th) went into camp two miles north of the river, and there remained, doing no other duty than that of picket until the 17th, when we, with the division, crossed the river, and after marching a short distance, bivouacked for the night. On the following day (18th) marched but a short distance and bivouacked near Peach Tree Creek, where we remained until the afternoon of the following day, when we were ordered to go to the support of the Third Brigade, which had become very warmly engaged with the enemy beyond the creek, and was nearly surrounded. Coming to the creek we crossed it under a heavy fire of musketry, and, in obedience to orders from Col. Mitchell, commanding our brigade, the regiment was formed in division column and marched across an open field to the rear of the Seventy-eighth Illinois, which had taken position already on the bluff. In crossing the field, Sergeant Hindman, Company D, was killed. Soon we received orders to intrench and to work; we went on the left of the Seventy-eighth Illinois, and under a heavy fire from the enemy; Company C was detailed as skirmishers. On the morning of the 20th Capt. John A. Norris, Company C, while going out to visit the left of the skirmish line, was wounded through the right knee joint so severely as to render immediate amputation necessary to save life. The captain is one among the bravest and most competent officers in the service. Early in the morning heavy skirmishing commenced and continued until the middle of the afternoon, when the skirmishers (Company H being a part of them) advanced, and, with the aid of the battery on the right, drove the enemy away and took possession of their works. Here we remained until the noon of the 22d, when the brigade moved to the extreme right and took position on a high hill, and intrenched. At this place we remained until 9 a. m. of the 28th, when the regiment, with the others of the brigade, made a reconnaissance to Turner's Ferry, on the Chattahoochee River, returning at night-fall; encamped a short distance from where we started in the morning. On the following morning moved out and relieved a part of the First Division, then in the works on the front line, and in the afternoon moved out to the Green's Ferry road and intrenched, and there remained until the following day, when we were relieved by a portion of the Fifteenth Army Corps, and moved one mile farther to the right and went into camp, where we remained until the 4th of August, when we moved in light marching order to the right of the Twenty-third Army Corps, to protect its flanks, in the advance movement of that day. Here bivouacked for the night, and on the following morning, the 5th, advanced with the brigade toward the Sandtown road, and when near it were ordered to intrench, which we did under one of the heaviest artillery fires of the Campaign. Lieut. George C. Porter, commanding Company D, was struck by a fragment of a shell, severely wounding him. At this place the regiment remained until the 12th. A portion of the regiment, under command of Lieut. Craft, Company B, being on the skirmish line on the 7th, advanced and captured three lines of the enemy's works and many prisoners. The conduct of the officer in command and men in this charge was gallant and meritorious of much praise. Henry T. Albaugh, Company I, was killed, John Holmes, Company C, wounded, and W. I. Giles, Company C, wounded in the head severely, and since died in hospital, and P. Griffith, Company C, missing. On the 12th the regiment with balance of the brigade moved to the right about one mile and relieved a portion of Cox's division, where we remained until the 27th, when the entire division moved about two miles farther to the right. At 4 a. m. 28th moved toward the Atlanta and Montgomery Railroad, which we reached and crossed at 2 p. m., and bivouacked for the night to the right of it. Here we remained until the 30th, when we marched at an early hour about six miles and went into camp.
On the 31st, at 11 a. m., we marched toward the Macon railroad and reached the Jonesborough and Atlanta pike at 4 p. m. The regiment that night went into picket, and early next morning rejoined the brigade and marched with it toward Jonesborough. When we arrived within about one mile of the town the enemy opened on us with shell, and Adjutant Reaves of the regiment was struck by the fragment of one on the knee, slightly bruising the skin. A, F, and D Companies were deployed as skirmishers, and, under command of Capt. D. E. Roatch, Company G, advanced, and by a rapid and daring movement, captured nearly the entire rebel skirmish line. The enemy, calling to the captain from their main lines, said they would surrender. The captain, supposing them to be in good faith, advanced his skirmishers close to the enemy's works; when he discovered that their object was to entrap and capture him with his entire line, ordered a retreat, all making their escape with the exception of William Patterson, Company F, who was taken prisoner. In the mean time the remaining companies were brought forward by myself to within 150 yards of the enemy's line and there intrenched. Companies I, C, and H. were then ordered out as skirmishers, with Lieut. Carson in command. They had not advanced far when the remaining four companies advanced, and, with the skirmish line, moved on the run, charging the enemy's works and assisting in capturing many prisoners, as well as driving the enemy from their works. Nothing could have been more gallant than this charge. Officers and men seemed to be actuated by a power more than human. Owing to sickness I was not then, as I had not been for nearly four weeks, in command of the regiment, yet remaining with it all the time, and unable to advance and keep up with the line in the charge. My thanks are due to the captain for the brave and efficient manner in which he led and commanded the regiment in this charge. No officer could have done better in this charge. We are all called upon to mourn the death of Adjutant Reaves. He was killed by a canister-shot. When he fell he refused to be carried off the field, saying that "It is no use: I will soon die. Boys, go on." He was one of the bravest and most faithful officers in the command. His manly qualities endeared him to all that knew him.
While it is not a matter of very great importance to the regiment, and perhaps should not be made mention of here, yet, as much feeling, as well as divers opinions, exist in and among the different regiments of this division concerning it, I will state that I think I am prepared with satisfactory evidence to prove that the flag of the Second Arkansas Regt. (rebel), as well as Gen. Govan, were captured by Sergeants Dickerson and Carver, of this regiment. I would not, however, have the Cmdg. generals think that it is either with myself or regiment deemed a matter worthy of any great consideration, unless otherwise regarded by them. Nor do we claim the entire credit for anything that was there done, for we well know that without the assistance of the other regiments of the brigade and division we could not have been successful in anything like that attained in the grand result. We are content to believe that we did our duty to the best of our ability; that our conduct as civilized soldiers on that occasion meets with the approval of our commanding general, and to rejoice with all in the grand success of our arms at Jonesborough on the 1st instant. On the morning of the 2d of September we marched to Jonesborough, and, remaining there with the brigade, marched with it and went into camp near Atlanta on the 8th.
A full list of the casualties* in the regiment will accompany this report and be a part of it. Throughout the report I have given the names of the officers and many of the men who fell during the campaign, and paid to their memories an humble tribute of respect. This same tribute of respect is as much due from me to all as to any one, whether he be an officer or private soldier. The graves of the private soldiers will be honored as much as these of the officers, and their memories live as beautiful and bright in the annals of true American patriotism.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOHN S. PEARCE,
Lieut.-Col., Cmdg. Regt.
Capt. JAMES S. WILSON,
Asst. Adjt. Gen., 2d Brig., 2d Div., 14th Army Corps.
Following the capture of Atlanta, officials dispatched the 98th in pursuit of General Nathan Bedford Forrest's Confederate cavalry. Leaving September 29, the regiment traveled by train to Chattanooga, then to Huntsville, Alabama, and to Athens, Georgia. The 98th then marched to Florence, Alabama, driving the Confederates across the Tennessee River. The regiment returned to Chattanooga, where it next escorted a supply train to Gaylesville, Georgia. The 98th then marched to Rome, Georgia and proceeded to Cartersville, Georgia, where it joined Sherman's March to the Sea. The regiment foraged extensively, reaching Savannah, Georgia on December 21, 1864. After the March to the Sea, the following reports were filed regarding the 98th's activities:
HDQRS. NINETY-EIGHTH OHIO VOLUNTEER INFANTRY, Near Savannah, Ga., December 29, 1864.
SIR: I have the honor to make the following report of the operations of the Ninety-eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry from the fall of Atlanta (September 1, 1864) until the fall of Savannah, Ga. (December 21, 1864):
The Ninety-eighth Regt., with the remainder of the Second Division, went into camp, after the battle of Jonesborough, near Atlanta, where we remained until September 29, when we received orders to embark on the cars for Chattanooga. After arriving in Chattanooga the division was ordered into Alabama in pursuit of the rebel Gen. Forrest. We went from Chattanooga, Tenn., to Huntsville, Ala., by rail, at which place we arrived October 1. We were ordered from Huntsville to Athens, Ala., where we arrived October 3. Here we received orders to march to Florence, a distance of forty-five miles, where we arrived October 7 and went into camp, remaining until October 10, when we were ordered back to Athens, where we arrived October 12. On this march we met with no opposition from the enemy. It was, nevertheless, a severe and fatiguing march upon the soldier, as it rained almost constantly and they were compelled to ford numerous streams, among the number Elk River. On the evening of the 13th we started by rail for
Chattanooga, where we arrived on the 14th. During the entire trip through Alabama we received all rations and forage through the commissary of subsistence department. On the morning of the 18th of October the regiment, with the remainder of the division, moved from Chattanooga on the La Fayette road in pursuit of Hood's retreating army, arriving at Gaylesville on the evening of the 22d. At this place we joined the remaining two division of our corps. During, the time we
remained at Gaylesville we subsisted almost entirely off the country, receiving about one-third rations from the commissary of subsistence department. We marched from Gaylesville to Cartersville without anything transpiring worthy of note, arriving at the latter place November 8. On the morning of the 13th of November the entire corps took up the line of march for Atlanta, the Ninety-eighth being left in town as rear guard. The regiment commenced moving about 1 p. m., crossing the Utah River, burning the bridge, and joined our brigade at Allatoona Pass, where we destroyed about a quarter of a mile of railroad. We arrived at Atlanta on the evening of the 15th.*
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
J. R. McLAUGHLIN,
Capt. J. S. WILSON,
HDQRS. NINETY-EIGHTH OHIO VOLUNTEER INFANTRY, Near Savannah, Ga., December 29, 1864.
On the morning of the 16th [November] the Ninety-eighth, with the remainder of the division which formed a part of the Left Wing, Army of Georgia, left Atlanta, moving on the Augusta road. We struck the railroad near Covington, destroying about a quarter of a mile, which is all the
railroad destroyed by the Ninety-eighth during the entire trip. The regiment only drew about three days' rations after leaving Atlanta until we arrived outside the defenses of Savannah. With this exception the regiment subsisted entirely off the country.
The captures made by the regiment are as follows: Horses, 20; mules, 30; cattle, 75. Number of darkies following the regiment, 12. During the entire trip from Atlanta to Savannah there were no casualties occurring in the regiment except one man who was accidentally wounded while foraging.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
J. R. McLAUGHLIN,
Capt. J. S. WILSON,
Actg. Asst. Adjt. Gen., 2d Brig., 2d Div., 14th Army Corps.
The 98th remained at Savannah until January 20, 1865, when it marched to Sister's Ferry, Georgia. The regiment then participated in the Carolinas Campaign and saw combat at the Battle of Bentonville (March 19, 1865) in North Carolina. The regiment concluded the war performing garrison duty at Raleigh, North Carolina. Following the Battle of Bentonville, a 98th staff officer issued the following report:
HDQRS. NINETY-EIGHTH REGT. OHIO VOL. INFANTRY, Goldsborough, N. C., March 27, 1864.
SIR: In compliance with your circular, bearing date March 26, 1865, I have the honor to submit the following report of the part the Ninety-eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry took in the late campaign, which commenced at Savannah, Ga., January 20, 1865, and terminated so successfully at this March 24, 1865.
On the 20th of January we marched from Savannah to Cherokee Hill, a distance of nine miles. Owing to bad weather we remained here until the morning of January 24, when we again resumed our march toward Sister's Ferry, Ga., arriving there on the 28th of January. Thus far nothing of interest occurred. I would here state that the health of the regiment was much improved, not more than five reported sick each day. While at Savannah we have had as many as fifteen excused from duty.
We remained in camp at Sister's Ferry, Ga., until the evening of February 5, when the regiment, with the remainder of the brigade, crossed the Savannah River into South Carolina and encamped near the ferry. From the 28th of January to February 5 we furnished our proportion of men for fatigue and picket duty. While encamped at the ferry the regiment procured some forage, such as beans, fresh meat, small quantities of flour and corn meal. The regiment procured sufficient forage in the country for all the animals in the regiment. From February 5 to the morning of February 8 the regiment remained in the same camp as first occupied on the might of 5th. While here the regiment was partially supplied with clothing, although the requisition that had previously been made [was] not more than two-thirds filled, consequently the men are in poor plight at present for duty or military appearance. Some of them are suffering for shoes, socks, and pants. On the morning of February 8 Lieut.-Col. Pearce assumed command of the regiment, having from the command of the brigade by the return of Gen. John G. Mitchell. From February 8 until the present time the regiment has done its proportion of duty with the remainder of the brigade. During the campaign we generally had sufficient [sic* ] delayed at Catawba River in consequence of bad weather and heavy roads. While there we did not suffer much. Although the regiment was entirely out of rations for twenty-four hours, yet I heard not a murmur or complaint from a single man; every man seemed willing to endure any hardship that the campaign might be a grad success and not a miserable and not a miserable failure.
From March 7 to the termination of the campaign our foraging party has been quite successful, having at all times furnished an abundance of meat and tolerable good quantities of meal by taking possession of mills and procuring corn along the route, which was ground and issued to the men. The foraging party at first consisted of one-fifth of the command, but after crossing Broad River the greater portion of the detail returned to the command. From this time there were but twenty foragers (these were mounted), two of which were captured. Two men are missing; they left camp on the 7th instant without authority. I have not the least doubt that they straggled from the command and were picked up by the enemy's cavalry. None were killed or wounded until the 19th instant. The part taken by the regiment on that memorable Sabbath is known to the general commanding, he being an eye witness of the entire engagement. It is my opinion that had the Thirty-fourth Illinois Veteran Volunteer Infantry and the Ninety-eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry become panic-stricken or been compelled to leave their works the Brigade, and I doubt not the division, would have been driven back, and our advance and hospital trains would have fallen into the hands of the enemy.
The non-commissioned officers and privates of the regiment deserve great praise for their gallant conduct. It would be doing injustice to others were I to mention any individual acts of bravery on the part of any officer where all did their whole duty and every one a hero, with exception of two, viz, --- --- doing everything in their power to encourage their men during the darkest hour of the conflict. If the general commanding deems any of the offices worthy of special notice I hope he will do them justice. I have no hesitancy in saying that the men of the regiment are in better health than when we left Savannah. All we want is a few days' rest and new clothes, and I have no doubt that the regiment for its numbers will be as efficient as it has been at any previous time.
I am, sir, your very obedient servant,
D. E. ROATCH,
Maj., Cmdg. Ninety-eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry.
Capt. JAMES S. WILSON,
Asst. Adjt. Gen., 2d Brig., 2d Div., Army Corps.
On May 24, 1865, the 98th participated in the Grand Review at Washington, DC. The regiment mustered out of service on June 3, 1865, at Washington.
During its term of service, the 98th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry had 127 men, including two officers, die from disease or accidents, and an additional 120 men, including ten officers, receive mortal wounds.
Cite this Entry
"98th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry," Ohio Civil War Central, 2020, Ohio Civil War Central. 25 Jan 2020 <http://www.ohiocivilwarcentral.com/entry.php?rec=575>
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0.217397883534... | 1 | In the American Civil War, Ohio provided the federal government with 260 regiments of men, including infantry, artillery, and cavalry units. Ohioans also served in several other regiments from other states, most notably from Kentucky, West Virginia, and Massachusetts, as well as in federal units.
In the American Civil War, Ohio provided the federal government with 260 regiments of men, including infantry, artillery, and cavalry units. Ohioans also served in several other regiments from other states, most notably from Kentucky, West Virginia, and Massachusetts, as well as in federal units. Almost 330,000 Ohio men, including 5,092 African Americans, served in the Union military during the conflict.
Infantry regiments formed in Ohio became known as regiments of Ohio Volunteer Infantry. They served for varying lengths of time, averaging one hundred days to three years. On August 22, 1862, the 98th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry mustered into service at Camp Mingo, near Steubenville, Ohio. The men in the regiment were to serve three years. Most men came from Jefferson and surrounding counties.
Upon organizing the regiment, officials ordered the 98th to Covington, Kentucky on August 23, 1862. The regiment remained at Covington until August 27, when it advanced to Lexington, Kentucky. Upon reaching Lexington, authorities ordered the 98th to assist Union troops currently facing Confederate General Kirby Smith's army. The 98th advanced as far as the Kentucky River, where it encountered Confederate cavalry and withdrew to Lexington and then to Louisville, Kentucky, with the regiment arriving here on September 5. The 98th remained at Louisville until October 1, when it advanced with General Alexander McCook's force to Perryville. The regiment fought in the Battle of Perryville (October 8, 1862), having approximately 230 soldiers killed or wounded. Colonel George Webster was killed, while Major John S. Pearce was captured.
Following the Battle of Perryville, the 98th moved to Crab Orchard, where it performed garrison duty as well as at Lebanon, Kentucky. After a few weeks, the regiment advanced to Columbia, Kentucky and then engaged in a pursuit of Confederate General John Hunt Morgan's cavalry force. The 98th had several skirmishes with these Confederates, eventually driving them across the Cumberland River. Following this mission, the regiment returned to Louisville, where it remained until early 1863, when it sailed to Nashville, Tennessee with approximately 20,000 additional Union troops, The 98th reached Nashville on February 9, 1863. Accompanied by other Northern units, the regiment advanced to Franklin, Tennessee, driving Confederate forces from this location on February 12, 1863. The 98th remained at Franklin, positioned on the extreme right of the Union lines, until June 1863, when it participated in the Tullahoma Campaign. Attached to the Reserve Corps, the regiment saw no serious action in this campaign, advancing to the Tennessee communities of Triune and Shelbyville. Following the Tullahoma Campaign in early July 1863, the 98th marched to War Trace, Tennessee. The 98th remained here until August 25, 1863, when the 98th advanced to Rossville, Georgia, arriving on September 16. The regiment participated in a reconnaissance to Ringgold, Georgia on September 17, returning to Rossville the next day. The 98th advanced to Chickamauga, Georgia on September 19--the first day of the Battle of Chickamauga--but officials held the regiment in reserve. On September 20, the 98th helped comprise the Union's extreme right. On this day, the regiment entered the battle with eleven officers and 196 men. In the engagement, the 98th had fifty men, including five officers, killed or wounded and two more men captured. Following the Battle of Chickamauga, the 98th retreated to Chattanooga, Tennessee with the rest of the defeated Union soldiers.
At Chattanooga, the 98th joined the 14th Corps. On November 25, 1863, the regimented reported for duty under General William T. Sherman, whose men were assaulting Missionary Ridge. The 98th pursued fleeing Southerners as far as Graysville, Georgia, where the regiment engaged in a skirmish with Confederate forces, having five or six men killed or wounded. Following this engagement on November 25, officials ordered the 98th with its division to Knoxville, Tennessee to assist Northern soldiers there against a Confederate siege. The division marched as far as Marysville, Tennessee, when it was ordered to return to Chattanooga due to the Northerners at Knoxville having broken the siege.
Arriving at Chattanooga on December 24, authorities ordered the 98th into winter quarters at Rossville. The regiment remained here until the start of Sherman's campaign in 1864 to capture Atlanta, Georgia. The 98th saw action in most major battles in this campaign, including the Battles of Buzzard's Roost, Resaca, Rome, Dallas, Kennesaw Mountain, Peachtree Creek, and Jonesborough. At Kennesaw Mountain, the regiment had thirty-four men killed or wounded and an additional forty-one men killed or wounded at Jonesborough. The 98th's commanding officer issued the following report after the Atlanta Campaign:
HDQRS. NINETY-EIGHTH REGT. OHIO VOL. INFANTRY, In Camp, near Atlanta, Ga., September 9, 1864.
SIR: I have the honor to submit the following official report of the marches, skirmishes, battles, casualties, &c., of the Ninety-eighth Regt. Ohio Volunteer Infantry during the campaign in Georgia, commencing May 2, 1864, and ending September 8, 1864:
The regiment, with the division, left Rossville, Ga., on the morning of the 2d of May and marched to Ringgold, Ga., and there remained until the 4th, when it was ordered on picket duty one mile south of the town, and also to make a reconnaissance down Taylor's Ridge to Nickajack Gap. Five companies, under command of Capt. John A. Norris, Company C, were at once detached and proceeded on the reconnaissance, while the other five went on duty as pickets. In the afternoon the reconnoitering party returned without any loss or having met the enemy. On the morning of the 5th the regiment rejoined the brigade, and, remaining in camp until the 7th, marched with the brigade on that day to Tunnel Hill, which place we reached about noon. At 4 p. m. the 8th the regiment constituted a part of the assaulting party on the enemy's lines east of the railroad and in front of Rocky Face, meeting with no loss. Was then sent to relieve the One hundred and eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry on the knoll on the west side of the railroad, and directly in front of the gap. Here we remained skirmishing with the enemy, and at intervals under heavy artillery fire, until the morning of the 12th, losing but 1 man in the mean time, Benjamin E. Ferguson, Company C, wounded on the evening of the 9th. On the morning of the 12th we, with the balance of the brigade, took up the line of march for Resaca, and, passing through Snake Creek Gap, came up to the enemy strongly intrenched at that place on the 13th. On the morning of the 14th heavy skirmishing and soon volleys of musketry were heard along some portions of the line, and early in the afternoon the regiment was ordered to take position along the creek running in front of and distant about 800 yards from the enemy's main fort on the left of our line. As the regiment was advancing to that position it was heavily shelled from the fort. The only loss, however, sustained was that of Jesse M. Woods, Company B, who was instantly killed, and Paisley, of Company H, and Walton, of Company K, wounded. At night the regiment, having been relieved, moved one mile to the rear and bivouacked, and on the following morning (15th) marched to the right a short distance, and relieved a portion of the Twentieth Army Corps from the trenches. That night the enemy evacuated, and on the morning of the 16th the regiment, with the balance of the division, was ordered to go to Rome, and soon thereafter was on the way, and, after marching about twenty miles, bivouacked for the night eight miles from that place. On the following morning resumed the march and soon came up with the enemy's scouts and pickets. The Thirty-fourth Illinois Infantry, being in the advance, did the skirmishing, and easily drove the rebels back to within a short distance of the town. After a brisk little fight between the Third Brigade, under command of Col. Dan. McCook, and the enemy's main line of battle, the latter retreated, leaving their dead on the field, and the regiment, with the balance of the brigade, bivouacked for the night one mile north of the town. Next morning we intrenched and then went into camp near by, and there remained until the 23d, when we crossed the river, and, passing through Rome, encamped one mile south of it. Companies D and I were on the 19th detailed to guard wagon train to Resaca. May 24, marched sixteen miles toward Van Wert, and bivouacked for the night at Big Spring. May 25, marched fifteen miles toward Dallas, and, bivouacking for the night, resumed march at an early hour on following morning; reached Dallas at 3 p. m., where we were rejoined by Companies D and I. On the 27th the regiment was on the skirmish line, and, advancing the line one and a half miles, came up to the enemy strongly intrenched on a high hill. Our only loss in the advance was that of Thomas C. Case, Company C, who, it is supposed by many, accidentally shot himself dead. The regiment remained skirmishing constantly and heavily with the enemy until midnight of the 28th, when it was relieved; lost in killed on the 28th, James N. Finney, Company C. The regiment was in camp on the 29th, 30th, and 31st. On the last-mentioned day we were heavily shelled by the enemy, and Nathan R. Householder, Company D, was killed by a fragment of a shell, which struck him on the head.
From the 1st of June to the 27th the regiment did no other duty than occasional marches to the left to relieve other portions of the army along line of intrenchments, skirmish and picket duty on its regular turn, and building works whenever our brigade commander thought it proper and necessary to do so for our safety, &c. In the advance of our brigade toward Kenesaw Mountain on the 18th, Sergeant Hanna, Company D, was wounded. That night the enemy evacuated their line of works in our immediate front and fell back two miles to the mountain. We pursued them on the following morning, and finding them on the mountains we intrenched at their base. On the 20th, 21st, 22d, 23d, and 24th the enemy shelled us at intervals from the mountains, killing and wounding many in the other regiments of the brigade. Our loss during the entire time was not one. This was, in a very great measure, owing to the constant and untiring vigilance of the company officers, who kept their men on the guard at all times, and when the shelling commenced ordered them to their works and kept them there until the danger was passed. On many occasions while we lay here the rear of artillery and explosion of shell were most terrific. The danger to the regiment was increased from the fact that our line of intrenchments was in the rear only a few yards and to the right of our own batteries, where guns these of the enemy sought on all occasions to dismount.
On the 26th marched to the right about five miles, and on the morning of the 27th the regiment constituted the third line in the brigade column that was to charge the enemy's works. At 9 o'clock the charge was made on the double-quick. It was the full distance of three-fourths of a mile from the place where the column was formed to the enemy's works. The column advanced amid a perfect shower of canister and bullets to within a few yards of the enemy's lines, but so strong was their position that their front lines were compelled to give way and came back hurriedly through the two rear lines, carrying with them Companies G and B, of the regiment. These two companies, however, were soon in position and intrenching, along with the balance of the regiment which held the ground it occupied at the time it was ordered to halt and lie down. I will state hero that portions of the troops in the front line of the Third Brigade also gave way and passed back through the line occupied by the regiment. Allow me to say that, in my opinion, the officers and especially the men could not possibly have conducted themselves more gallantly than they did on that occasion. Nothing but base partiality could prompt me to speak or write in praise of one without doing so of all. As soon as the regiment lay down, they commenced with their bayonets to dig, and their hands, spoons, and tin mess-pans to construct earth-works for their protection and defense. Never did men labor with more patience and undaunted bravery than did the musket bearers of the Ninety-eighth Regiment on that occasion. There, under one of the heaviest fires, both of canister and ball, during this campaign, did they erect a work in one hour which afforded them much protection. Now they could raise their heads from the ground with some safety, where before it was almost sure death to take your face out of the dust. In this charge Lieut. Col. James M. Shane was mortally wounded and died in an hour afterward. His loss was a severe one to the regiment. There was not one of us that did not love and confide in him. His true manly qualities won for him the respect and admiration of all who knew him here in the military circle of friendship. His country had no truer patriot, and when he found that he could serve it no longer against its enemies, he asked to be buried with his face to them. Many equally brave and patriotic men fell on this day and merit from me as much the humble tribute I have just paid to the life and memory of Lieut.-Col. Shane, but it would swell this report to undue proportions were I to name and speak of all singly. Lieut. Lindsey, of Company A, was struck on the hand by a piece of shell while leading his Company, and was compelled to go to the rear; and many others were wounded, and their names will be given in the annexed casualty list. The regiment at night used the pick, spade, rails, and logs, and before morning of the following day, had strong works erected within seventy-five yards of the enemy. We remained in the trenches until the night of the 30th, when we were relieved by the Thirty-fourth Illinois Regt.
On the night of the 29th, at 1 a.m., the enemy assaulted our line of works, but were soon and handsomely driven off with a loss to us of 1 man killed, Thomas B. Lisbey, Company D. The regiment, after being relieved, returned to Camp, and there remained until the evening of the 2d of July, when, by order, it relieved the Seventy-eighth Illinois in the trenches. That night the rebels evacuated their works in our immediate front, and early on the morning of the 3d we went in rapid pursuit of them, capturing some prisoners, and passing through the town of Marietta, bivouacked a few miles south of it. On the morning of the 4th the regiment went out in support of Capt. Gardner's battery, which was ordered into position about 800 yards from the enemy's main works. There we remained during that day, and on the morning of the 4th, finding the enemy gone from our front, we with the balance of the brigade pushed forward toward the Chattahoochee River. At 2 p. m. the regiment was deployed as skirmishers, and advanced to within one and a half miles of that river, when, coming suddenly upon the enemy, a brisk skirmish took place, in which Capt. Williams, Company I, was wounded by a musket-ball in the left leg. He was sent to the rear, and afterward died in hospital at Nashville. In his death the service has lost one of its best soldiers and the country one of its best citizens. Brave and prompt in the execution of all his duties, as an officer his loss to his company and regiment is almost irreparable. At night the regiment was relieved by the Thirty-fourth Illinois, and, moving to the rear a short distance, bivouacked for the night. Next morning (6th) went into camp two miles north of the river, and there remained, doing no other duty than that of picket until the 17th, when we, with the division, crossed the river, and after marching a short distance, bivouacked for the night. On the following day (18th) marched but a short distance and bivouacked near Peach Tree Creek, where we remained until the afternoon of the following day, when we were ordered to go to the support of the Third Brigade, which had become very warmly engaged with the enemy beyond the creek, and was nearly surrounded. Coming to the creek we crossed it under a heavy fire of musketry, and, in obedience to orders from Col. Mitchell, commanding our brigade, the regiment was formed in division column and marched across an open field to the rear of the Seventy-eighth Illinois, which had taken position already on the bluff. In crossing the field, Sergeant Hindman, Company D, was killed. Soon we received orders to intrench and to work; we went on the left of the Seventy-eighth Illinois, and under a heavy fire from the enemy; Company C was detailed as skirmishers. On the morning of the 20th Capt. John A. Norris, Company C, while going out to visit the left of the skirmish line, was wounded through the right knee joint so severely as to render immediate amputation necessary to save life. The captain is one among the bravest and most competent officers in the service. Early in the morning heavy skirmishing commenced and continued until the middle of the afternoon, when the skirmishers (Company H being a part of them) advanced, and, with the aid of the battery on the right, drove the enemy away and took possession of their works. Here we remained until the noon of the 22d, when the brigade moved to the extreme right and took position on a high hill, and intrenched. At this place we remained until 9 a. m. of the 28th, when the regiment, with the others of the brigade, made a reconnaissance to Turner's Ferry, on the Chattahoochee River, returning at night-fall; encamped a short distance from where we started in the morning. On the following morning moved out and relieved a part of the First Division, then in the works on the front line, and in the afternoon moved out to the Green's Ferry road and intrenched, and there remained until the following day, when we were relieved by a portion of the Fifteenth Army Corps, and moved one mile farther to the right and went into camp, where we remained until the 4th of August, when we moved in light marching order to the right of the Twenty-third Army Corps, to protect its flanks, in the advance movement of that day. Here bivouacked for the night, and on the following morning, the 5th, advanced with the brigade toward the Sandtown road, and when near it were ordered to intrench, which we did under one of the heaviest artillery fires of the Campaign. Lieut. George C. Porter, commanding Company D, was struck by a fragment of a shell, severely wounding him. At this place the regiment remained until the 12th. A portion of the regiment, under command of Lieut. Craft, Company B, being on the skirmish line on the 7th, advanced and captured three lines of the enemy's works and many prisoners. The conduct of the officer in command and men in this charge was gallant and meritorious of much praise. Henry T. Albaugh, Company I, was killed, John Holmes, Company C, wounded, and W. I. Giles, Company C, wounded in the head severely, and since died in hospital, and P. Griffith, Company C, missing. On the 12th the regiment with balance of the brigade moved to the right about one mile and relieved a portion of Cox's division, where we remained until the 27th, when the entire division moved about two miles farther to the right. At 4 a. m. 28th moved toward the Atlanta and Montgomery Railroad, which we reached and crossed at 2 p. m., and bivouacked for the night to the right of it. Here we remained until the 30th, when we marched at an early hour about six miles and went into camp.
On the 31st, at 11 a. m., we marched toward the Macon railroad and reached the Jonesborough and Atlanta pike at 4 p. m. The regiment that night went into picket, and early next morning rejoined the brigade and marched with it toward Jonesborough. When we arrived within about one mile of the town the enemy opened on us with shell, and Adjutant Reaves of the regiment was struck by the fragment of one on the knee, slightly bruising the skin. A, F, and D Companies were deployed as skirmishers, and, under command of Capt. D. E. Roatch, Company G, advanced, and by a rapid and daring movement, captured nearly the entire rebel skirmish line. The enemy, calling to the captain from their main lines, said they would surrender. The captain, supposing them to be in good faith, advanced his skirmishers close to the enemy's works; when he discovered that their object was to entrap and capture him with his entire line, ordered a retreat, all making their escape with the exception of William Patterson, Company F, who was taken prisoner. In the mean time the remaining companies were brought forward by myself to within 150 yards of the enemy's line and there intrenched. Companies I, C, and H. were then ordered out as skirmishers, with Lieut. Carson in command. They had not advanced far when the remaining four companies advanced, and, with the skirmish line, moved on the run, charging the enemy's works and assisting in capturing many prisoners, as well as driving the enemy from their works. Nothing could have been more gallant than this charge. Officers and men seemed to be actuated by a power more than human. Owing to sickness I was not then, as I had not been for nearly four weeks, in command of the regiment, yet remaining with it all the time, and unable to advance and keep up with the line in the charge. My thanks are due to the captain for the brave and efficient manner in which he led and commanded the regiment in this charge. No officer could have done better in this charge. We are all called upon to mourn the death of Adjutant Reaves. He was killed by a canister-shot. When he fell he refused to be carried off the field, saying that "It is no use: I will soon die. Boys, go on." He was one of the bravest and most faithful officers in the command. His manly qualities endeared him to all that knew him.
While it is not a matter of very great importance to the regiment, and perhaps should not be made mention of here, yet, as much feeling, as well as divers opinions, exist in and among the different regiments of this division concerning it, I will state that I think I am prepared with satisfactory evidence to prove that the flag of the Second Arkansas Regt. (rebel), as well as Gen. Govan, were captured by Sergeants Dickerson and Carver, of this regiment. I would not, however, have the Cmdg. generals think that it is either with myself or regiment deemed a matter worthy of any great consideration, unless otherwise regarded by them. Nor do we claim the entire credit for anything that was there done, for we well know that without the assistance of the other regiments of the brigade and division we could not have been successful in anything like that attained in the grand result. We are content to believe that we did our duty to the best of our ability; that our conduct as civilized soldiers on that occasion meets with the approval of our commanding general, and to rejoice with all in the grand success of our arms at Jonesborough on the 1st instant. On the morning of the 2d of September we marched to Jonesborough, and, remaining there with the brigade, marched with it and went into camp near Atlanta on the 8th.
A full list of the casualties* in the regiment will accompany this report and be a part of it. Throughout the report I have given the names of the officers and many of the men who fell during the campaign, and paid to their memories an humble tribute of respect. This same tribute of respect is as much due from me to all as to any one, whether he be an officer or private soldier. The graves of the private soldiers will be honored as much as these of the officers, and their memories live as beautiful and bright in the annals of true American patriotism.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOHN S. PEARCE,
Lieut.-Col., Cmdg. Regt.
Capt. JAMES S. WILSON,
Asst. Adjt. Gen., 2d Brig., 2d Div., 14th Army Corps.
Following the capture of Atlanta, officials dispatched the 98th in pursuit of General Nathan Bedford Forrest's Confederate cavalry. Leaving September 29, the regiment traveled by train to Chattanooga, then to Huntsville, Alabama, and to Athens, Georgia. The 98th then marched to Florence, Alabama, driving the Confederates across the Tennessee River. The regiment returned to Chattanooga, where it next escorted a supply train to Gaylesville, Georgia. The 98th then marched to Rome, Georgia and proceeded to Cartersville, Georgia, where it joined Sherman's March to the Sea. The regiment foraged extensively, reaching Savannah, Georgia on December 21, 1864. After the March to the Sea, the following reports were filed regarding the 98th's activities:
HDQRS. NINETY-EIGHTH OHIO VOLUNTEER INFANTRY, Near Savannah, Ga., December 29, 1864.
SIR: I have the honor to make the following report of the operations of the Ninety-eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry from the fall of Atlanta (September 1, 1864) until the fall of Savannah, Ga. (December 21, 1864):
The Ninety-eighth Regt., with the remainder of the Second Division, went into camp, after the battle of Jonesborough, near Atlanta, where we remained until September 29, when we received orders to embark on the cars for Chattanooga. After arriving in Chattanooga the division was ordered into Alabama in pursuit of the rebel Gen. Forrest. We went from Chattanooga, Tenn., to Huntsville, Ala., by rail, at which place we arrived October 1. We were ordered from Huntsville to Athens, Ala., where we arrived October 3. Here we received orders to march to Florence, a distance of forty-five miles, where we arrived October 7 and went into camp, remaining until October 10, when we were ordered back to Athens, where we arrived October 12. On this march we met with no opposition from the enemy. It was, nevertheless, a severe and fatiguing march upon the soldier, as it rained almost constantly and they were compelled to ford numerous streams, among the number Elk River. On the evening of the 13th we started by rail for
Chattanooga, where we arrived on the 14th. During the entire trip through Alabama we received all rations and forage through the commissary of subsistence department. On the morning of the 18th of October the regiment, with the remainder of the division, moved from Chattanooga on the La Fayette road in pursuit of Hood's retreating army, arriving at Gaylesville on the evening of the 22d. At this place we joined the remaining two division of our corps. During, the time we
remained at Gaylesville we subsisted almost entirely off the country, receiving about one-third rations from the commissary of subsistence department. We marched from Gaylesville to Cartersville without anything transpiring worthy of note, arriving at the latter place November 8. On the morning of the 13th of November the entire corps took up the line of march for Atlanta, the Ninety-eighth being left in town as rear guard. The regiment commenced moving about 1 p. m., crossing the Utah River, burning the bridge, and joined our brigade at Allatoona Pass, where we destroyed about a quarter of a mile of railroad. We arrived at Atlanta on the evening of the 15th.*
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
J. R. McLAUGHLIN,
Capt. J. S. WILSON,
HDQRS. NINETY-EIGHTH OHIO VOLUNTEER INFANTRY, Near Savannah, Ga., December 29, 1864.
On the morning of the 16th [November] the Ninety-eighth, with the remainder of the division which formed a part of the Left Wing, Army of Georgia, left Atlanta, moving on the Augusta road. We struck the railroad near Covington, destroying about a quarter of a mile, which is all the
railroad destroyed by the Ninety-eighth during the entire trip. The regiment only drew about three days' rations after leaving Atlanta until we arrived outside the defenses of Savannah. With this exception the regiment subsisted entirely off the country.
The captures made by the regiment are as follows: Horses, 20; mules, 30; cattle, 75. Number of darkies following the regiment, 12. During the entire trip from Atlanta to Savannah there were no casualties occurring in the regiment except one man who was accidentally wounded while foraging.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
J. R. McLAUGHLIN,
Capt. J. S. WILSON,
Actg. Asst. Adjt. Gen., 2d Brig., 2d Div., 14th Army Corps.
The 98th remained at Savannah until January 20, 1865, when it marched to Sister's Ferry, Georgia. The regiment then participated in the Carolinas Campaign and saw combat at the Battle of Bentonville (March 19, 1865) in North Carolina. The regiment concluded the war performing garrison duty at Raleigh, North Carolina. Following the Battle of Bentonville, a 98th staff officer issued the following report:
HDQRS. NINETY-EIGHTH REGT. OHIO VOL. INFANTRY, Goldsborough, N. C., March 27, 1864.
SIR: In compliance with your circular, bearing date March 26, 1865, I have the honor to submit the following report of the part the Ninety-eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry took in the late campaign, which commenced at Savannah, Ga., January 20, 1865, and terminated so successfully at this March 24, 1865.
On the 20th of January we marched from Savannah to Cherokee Hill, a distance of nine miles. Owing to bad weather we remained here until the morning of January 24, when we again resumed our march toward Sister's Ferry, Ga., arriving there on the 28th of January. Thus far nothing of interest occurred. I would here state that the health of the regiment was much improved, not more than five reported sick each day. While at Savannah we have had as many as fifteen excused from duty.
We remained in camp at Sister's Ferry, Ga., until the evening of February 5, when the regiment, with the remainder of the brigade, crossed the Savannah River into South Carolina and encamped near the ferry. From the 28th of January to February 5 we furnished our proportion of men for fatigue and picket duty. While encamped at the ferry the regiment procured some forage, such as beans, fresh meat, small quantities of flour and corn meal. The regiment procured sufficient forage in the country for all the animals in the regiment. From February 5 to the morning of February 8 the regiment remained in the same camp as first occupied on the might of 5th. While here the regiment was partially supplied with clothing, although the requisition that had previously been made [was] not more than two-thirds filled, consequently the men are in poor plight at present for duty or military appearance. Some of them are suffering for shoes, socks, and pants. On the morning of February 8 Lieut.-Col. Pearce assumed command of the regiment, having from the command of the brigade by the return of Gen. John G. Mitchell. From February 8 until the present time the regiment has done its proportion of duty with the remainder of the brigade. During the campaign we generally had sufficient [sic* ] delayed at Catawba River in consequence of bad weather and heavy roads. While there we did not suffer much. Although the regiment was entirely out of rations for twenty-four hours, yet I heard not a murmur or complaint from a single man; every man seemed willing to endure any hardship that the campaign might be a grad success and not a miserable and not a miserable failure.
From March 7 to the termination of the campaign our foraging party has been quite successful, having at all times furnished an abundance of meat and tolerable good quantities of meal by taking possession of mills and procuring corn along the route, which was ground and issued to the men. The foraging party at first consisted of one-fifth of the command, but after crossing Broad River the greater portion of the detail returned to the command. From this time there were but twenty foragers (these were mounted), two of which were captured. Two men are missing; they left camp on the 7th instant without authority. I have not the least doubt that they straggled from the command and were picked up by the enemy's cavalry. None were killed or wounded until the 19th instant. The part taken by the regiment on that memorable Sabbath is known to the general commanding, he being an eye witness of the entire engagement. It is my opinion that had the Thirty-fourth Illinois Veteran Volunteer Infantry and the Ninety-eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry become panic-stricken or been compelled to leave their works the Brigade, and I doubt not the division, would have been driven back, and our advance and hospital trains would have fallen into the hands of the enemy.
The non-commissioned officers and privates of the regiment deserve great praise for their gallant conduct. It would be doing injustice to others were I to mention any individual acts of bravery on the part of any officer where all did their whole duty and every one a hero, with exception of two, viz, --- --- doing everything in their power to encourage their men during the darkest hour of the conflict. If the general commanding deems any of the offices worthy of special notice I hope he will do them justice. I have no hesitancy in saying that the men of the regiment are in better health than when we left Savannah. All we want is a few days' rest and new clothes, and I have no doubt that the regiment for its numbers will be as efficient as it has been at any previous time.
I am, sir, your very obedient servant,
D. E. ROATCH,
Maj., Cmdg. Ninety-eighth Ohio Volunteer Infantry.
Capt. JAMES S. WILSON,
Asst. Adjt. Gen., 2d Brig., 2d Div., Army Corps.
On May 24, 1865, the 98th participated in the Grand Review at Washington, DC. The regiment mustered out of service on June 3, 1865, at Washington.
During its term of service, the 98th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry had 127 men, including two officers, die from disease or accidents, and an additional 120 men, including ten officers, receive mortal wounds.
Cite this Entry
"98th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry," Ohio Civil War Central, 2020, Ohio Civil War Central. 25 Jan 2020 <http://www.ohiocivilwarcentral.com/entry.php?rec=575>
"98th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry." (2020) In Ohio Civil War Central, Retrieved January 25, 2020, from Ohio Civil War Central: http://www.ohiocivilwarcentral.com/entry.php?rec=575 | 8,063 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About 30 seconds before Tuesday's Magnitude 7.4 earthquake was felt in Mexico City, residents in the capital were warned by a siren.
Mexico City created an early warning system after the devastating 8.1 quake in 1985, which killed about 10,000 people.
"They realized they could set up a system to warn Mexico City when something happened on the coast," said CalTech Geophysicist Tom Heaton. "It was privately funded."
Local news from across Southern California
CalTech is one of three universities that received $2 million each late last year to work on an early warning system for the west coast.
"We've got several students and professors working on ways to improve it," Heaton said. "We're gearing up to hire new programming people."
Here's how it would work: A network of sensors, some of which are already in place, detect the first signs of movement, called primary waves or P waves. Those are weak, but can alert that the more powerful secondary waves, or S waves, are on their way.
Japan already has such a system in place which alerts schools, office buildings, hospitals, and train operators. Japan's system is credited with saving lives during its 9.1 quake a year ago, but that system cost $500 million.
The most recent funding for the west coast system was only $6 million and its only intended to build a prototype.
"We're continuing to work on it at accelerated pace," Heaton said. "But certainly we haven't got the go ahead from the federal government to actually build a working system." | <urn:uuid:c081c5b2-de4a-4659-b477-2c106c3a62cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/local/early-quake-detection-helps-in-mexico/2078930/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00216.warc.gz | en | 0.983733 | 327 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.0492234043776989,
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-0.008037855848670006,
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-0.11364605277776718,
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0.18863050639629364,
0.3855412602424... | 3 | About 30 seconds before Tuesday's Magnitude 7.4 earthquake was felt in Mexico City, residents in the capital were warned by a siren.
Mexico City created an early warning system after the devastating 8.1 quake in 1985, which killed about 10,000 people.
"They realized they could set up a system to warn Mexico City when something happened on the coast," said CalTech Geophysicist Tom Heaton. "It was privately funded."
Local news from across Southern California
CalTech is one of three universities that received $2 million each late last year to work on an early warning system for the west coast.
"We've got several students and professors working on ways to improve it," Heaton said. "We're gearing up to hire new programming people."
Here's how it would work: A network of sensors, some of which are already in place, detect the first signs of movement, called primary waves or P waves. Those are weak, but can alert that the more powerful secondary waves, or S waves, are on their way.
Japan already has such a system in place which alerts schools, office buildings, hospitals, and train operators. Japan's system is credited with saving lives during its 9.1 quake a year ago, but that system cost $500 million.
The most recent funding for the west coast system was only $6 million and its only intended to build a prototype.
"We're continuing to work on it at accelerated pace," Heaton said. "But certainly we haven't got the go ahead from the federal government to actually build a working system." | 332 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The People, Leisure, and Culture of Blacks During the Harlem Renaissance It seems unfair that the pages of our history books or even the lecturers in majority of classrooms speak very little of the accomplishments of blacks. They speak very little of a period within black history in which many of the greatest musicians, writers, painters, and influential paragon’ emerged. This significant period in time was known as the Harlem Renaissance. Blacks attained the opportunity to work at upper-class jobs, own their own homes, and establish status among themselves.
To no ones surprise, they still were not accepted into the so called upper-class of white society, but they neither worried nor became distressed over the fact. They created societies of their own which opened doors for blacks to attain opportunities that were absolutely unheard of, just before the Renaissance. It was from this same society where the beautiful melodies of jazz emerged. Colleagues and peers of their own race, which created a powerful bond between them, accepted Blacks. The attitudes which prompted the movement were those that came about because of the beginning of: (1) the nationalist tendencies of the time, (2) the movement of black Americans from slavery to freedom and from rural to city living, (3) Afro- Americans renewed pride in their African heritage, and (4) the influences of the period bounded by the close of the Civil War and the economic collapse of the 1930 s.
... contrast with the role of women in society today, the role of women during the Renaissance period was very limited. For most women ... husbands’ business and household. Why were women of the Renaissance period treated this way? Prominent theologians of the time pointed to ... Over the course of her marriage, a woman of the Renaissance period would bear between five to ten children. After childbirth, there ...
From education, to the stage of Broadway, to music, and to a revived race, blacks possessed more intelligence, talent, and ingenuity then they will ever be given credit for and it all began with the Harlem Renaissance. The Harlem Renaissance, also known as the New Negro Movement, was the greatest of literary periods in which creativity and vehemence were clearly expressed. Literature was no longer a whit write looking at the black experience from his / her perspective, making judgments and trying to find understanding about the black culture, but of emerging Black American writers that obviously could understand and relate to the context of black life and culture. With these writings came a new feeling of confidence and racial pride which gave these writers the freedom and power to express what it really meant to be black, living within a dominant white society. These writings that vary from novels, autobiographies to poetry behold the unforgettable memories of pain and turmoil and the continuance of the Black American struggle for freedom. The writers of the Renaissance period had to accept a nationalistic perspective so to be able to be totally aware and conscious of the social limitations forced upon the Black American.
They also had to understand the frame- work of America to totally understand that they were to be possessions and nothing more. One of the most influential writers of the Renaissance period was James Weldon Johnson. He not only expressed the impact of the characteristic style of the black preacher, but also became a mentor to a majority of black writers who subsequently formed the core of the Harlem group. Just a few of the most eminent writers that emerged from this period was the great Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Wallace Thurman, Counter Cullen, Claude McKay, and W. E. B.
DuBois. Along with the outpouring of literary genius, also came a plethora of black art. Black artists contributed to Harlems excitement by creating art, which expressed their identity and introduced black themes in to American Modernism. Form the period of 1919-1929, Langston Hughes described the artistic explosion of the times as he wrote the Harlem was in Vogue.
Like the brilliant musicians, poets, novelists, and dramatists that created such influence during the Renaissance of Harlem came the outstanding visual stories of black painters and sculptors. Unfortunately, whites controlled the black exhibition of black art, which they entered into competitions exclusively for black artists. During the 1930 s the programs were abruptly halted which meant that private support for the artists virtually disappeared. Yet, during the period in which black art emerged, it was the first of the arts to define visual vocabulary for Black Americans. The artists born within the period of the Harlem Renaissance were spread across the country and knew nothing of one another.
... move to play uptown.The Harlem Renaissance ended in the mid-1930s during the Great Depression period for several reasons. One ... black writers and artist depended on white publishing houses and white-owned magazines. In fact, a major accomplishment of the Renaissance ... end of one of the greatest period for the African-Americans culture.The Harlem Renaissance revolutionized the dynamics of African- ...
As time progressed, they began to develop a type of kinship driven by their feelings of political activism, unwavering ethnic pride and a peerless sense of cultural understanding, which ventures out along all geographic regions. It inspired artists to create in a way they never fathomed before. During the 1920 s, black artists had an abundance of professional and creative options in which they chose to represent. One of the great artists of the Renaissance period was know as Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller.
She was an eloquent Victorian, deeply spiritual, a successful sculptor, and was seen as one of the most influential and expressive artists of her time. Aaron Douglas was another artist that associated himself with leading black writers and by illustrating their works, established himself as the official artist of the Renaissance. James Van Der Zee was an astounding photographer that captured the world of that 1920 s Harlem in his portraits. Meta Fuller was an artist before her time but it was only until the 1930 s, that along with Palmer Hayden and William H. Johnson, that she and the rest of them would reach full artistic maturity. It was through the frequent Harmon Foundation exhibitions that their work was first introduce to a national audience.
These artists were the visual storytellers of the Harlem Renaissance. They represented all the facets of Black African and American heritage, the traditions of the black folklore and the true essence of black life. Each of these artists broke the mold of previous art and brought to the world the true portraits of the black experience. The start of the 1920 s may be seen as the end of the ragtime era and the opening of what came to be called the Jazz Age. The transition was inevitable as the passage from one generation to another. The ragtime years are known to have witnesses some of the more radical political developments in American life- socialists and antiwar agitations and the beginning of Black- nationalist ferment.
... In addition, the world of jazz has some wonderful artists who can both play and write jazz music so extraordinary that it will make ... and a vehement affect. It was originally associated with black cultural nationalism. Sometimes two drummers and/or two bass players ... time have devoted themselves to a life-long study of jazz music, and few classical musicians have been able to master jazz. Jazz music ...
The jazz age was known to be far more irreverent that the ragtime years. Besides making use of some of the affirmations that defined the ragtime era, and pondering on some of the emotional aftermath of the war, the jazz age was filled with new ideas of spontaneity and expression. It astounded the world with its uncanny variations of melody, decoration the word of poets and the feelings behind sculptures and paintings, seizing the new style of Harlem, and giving forth the expressions that have been repressed for too long. The objective of the New Negro was to create a type of pedestal in which both prominent blacks and whites could see eye to eye. Although black music was nationally acclaimed all around the world, the New Negro felt that it was a threat to their overall plan as a changed people all because it deviated from the accepted norms of the European musical standards.
To these people blues and jazz were expressions of an uncivilized people. Yet, the facts still stand that through these types of sounds the true essence of the Renaissance period was better shown and understood rather than through any other expressive resource. A newly formed National Association of Negro Musicians, organized in 1919, felt that the New Negros leadership, through music, should be to stimulate progress, discover and nurture talent, to pattern tastes, to encourage fellowship, and to advocate racial expression. Jazz was different, downtown, New York, was a showplace for black musicians, but after hours both blacks and whites went straight to Harlem to hear Black music. The sounds of the dance music of the cabarets, the Black Theater shows the blues and ragtime of the recital and concert halls all created ambiance for the Renaissance. There were no rules to jazz and it destroyed any limitation set upon it.
Jazz is a mixture of Negro origin, plus the influence of the American environment. It is just as deep as religious spirituals yet, tells a more comedic side of the Black history. The elements of jazz have always existed. Just to name a few in which jazz influenced was the Irish- jig, the hula hula of the South Seas; the strains of gypsy music, and of course the ragtime of the Negro. Yet, jazz is all together something more that all of these.
... synonymous, (Holly, 132). Garveyism as an ideological movement began in black Harlem in the spring of 1918, and then flourished throughout the ... goals was the creation of an industrial training institute for black people in Jamaica. Before the turn of the century, the practical ... work begins with founding a newspaper in Jamaica entitled The Negro World, following the slogan One God, One Aim, One ...
It is a release of all of the suppressed emotions at once, an explosion of expressions, and fireworks of musical combinations. Two pioneers of Renaissance jazz were Fletcher Henderson and Duke Ellington. Henderson’s jazz band was such an influential paragon that it became a standard which later bands would be measured. Duke Ellington was also one of the great elite jazz artists of his time. His bands were influenced by the magical sounds of musicians such as Will Vod ery and Will Marion Cook. From them he was able to acquire pointers on technique and orchestration.
Two of his most popular 1930 pieces were Mood Indigo and It Dont Mean a Thing if it Aint Got That Swing. Jazz expressed freedom, feelings, sensuality, and soul, all that the music of today originates from. Temporarily, putting aside all the wonderful things that came about during the Harlem Renaissance, we must then wonder how was Harlem conceived There was a move known as the Great Migration, which, in essence, was the migration from people in the South to New York City. Examining this period in time, there were just a few Black neighborhoods and their population seemed to be dangerously overflowing. Harlem, at the time, was predominantly white but it had no clue of the drastic change that was bout to take place. In Harlem, real estate prices were rising beyond the actual prices that left the market no alternative but to explode.
As the prices plummeted, blacks had the opportunity to buy property, which was unthinkable, just a short time ago. They became the dominant residents of Harlem. The biggest church parishioners, such as that of St. Phillips, moved to Harlem. Along with him came black newspapers, social clubs, and political organizations. In essence, in one rapid moment black Harlem was born.
Harlem residents varied from Black southerners to Afro-Caribbean people who came, specifically, to escape poverty. When foreigners think of America, they vision endless opportunity and streets paved with gold. Well, to even the poorest Harlemite, Harlem symbolized a promise land. Those that migrated to Harlem sang praises of the new-foundland. When given the chance to visit their previous homes migrants arrived wearing the most stylish of garments, singing praises of a place where everyone from the police to their neighbor, in Harlem, shared both the same culture and color. A Black person never had to worry about racism and scrutiny.
... 's a good time tonight," they expect commodified sex with Black women as "animals" to be better than sex with white women as "objects." ... through the rape of enslaved African women by their white slave masters. Thus, the health of these women was negated for the welfare ... while defending two women from Spanish Harlem who had been arrested as prostitutes: "The first witness, a white man from New ...
Harlem was like a hose and the door was shut to any unwanted or undeserved noise. Not everyone in Harlem was rich. As a matter of fact, most of its residents were hard working people employed as domestics, barbers, number- runners, laborers, and other less important occupations. One innovative idea, which was a way to make needed ends, was to throw what was known as rent-parties. Rent parties were parties given by an occupant of that specific home. Whoever threw the party would charge from ten cents to fifty cents, a person.
On the weekends, rent parties thrown in the same neighborhood or even on the same block ran competitions to see who could acquire the most customers. A hosts reputation all depended on the amount of good liquor or good music, if not both. Harlem had several nicknames, some of the many names were The City of Refuge, The Negro Mecca, and The Black Manhattan, and these names were not just given by the high-class of Harlem. Even those that struggled to survive saw Harlem as a place of opportunity. A Harlemite did not care if he/ she was poor, just as long as they could be poor in Harlem is all that mattered. Writers and intellectuals all around the world were attracted to the optimism, the vibrant nightlife and politics.
Painters, writers, and musicians were inspired by Harlems cabarets, churches, political clubs, and street corners. What was best about this period was that whites were involved in this era. It was the time when White people accepted Blacks expressing their culture and prosperity without limitations or rules. The only problem with the integration of the nightlife was that the acts were so racy and vulgar that Blacks portrayed themselves as comedic and sexual beings, which fed right into the White perspectives. This Harlem was the attraction of Black writers, artists, intellectuals, and other ambitious Black men and women.
... American Revolution significantly affected aspects of slaves and the status of women. It provided slaves with an opportunity to escape their ... 8221; Nonetheless, the ideals of the revolution inspired women and slaves for equality, freedom and independence that would contribute in ... for freedom. In the American Revolution, both African slaves and women played climacteric roles of support in the war that ...
Harlemite’s felt a belonging to a place that they felt belonged to them. It was within this environment that Blacks began to witness the wonders of its culture and race. It was a moment of pride and love among all Harlemite alike. In essence, Harlem symbolized freedom, a type of freedom that has been repressed for so long and a type of freedom that could never be taken away.
During the 1920 s novelists, poets, musicians and other artists came to Harlem and began to create their art from the expression of Black people. It was, at that time, when inspiration was in formation, this was Black Harlem. The Renaissance period could very well be defined as the causes of the beginning of the melting pot theory. IT was a time when Blacks and Whites both entered into free-enterprise; where the subject of class struggle was an open one in which both races partook in and everyone began to take a greater look at what inferior and superior races and civilizations really meant. This phenomenal explosion of emotional expression, known as the Negro-Renaissance, could never be compared to or matched with any other period in Negro or American history. It brought hope and inspiration to a people that yearned to be noticed on America.
James Weldon Johnson, along with W. E. B. DuBois emerged in the period right before the 1920 s. They acknowledged that a great part of White America was wondering what they were going to do with the Negro, which of course is now out of slavery. Those were the same White people that never took the time to step into Harlem and see what the Negro was doing for him / herself , to acknowledge any of their accomplishments.
That part of white America failed to realize, just yet, that the Negro had accepted America for what it was and in turn put no limitations on their abilities to do great things. To many that came to Harlem, just like the world-renowned Claude McKay, Harlem was the first positive reaction that most Blacks saw to American Life. It was compared to a paradise filled with beautiful, strong joyous, Black people that were enjoying life. He worked several jobs in Harlem but he continuously ceased to observe the greatness of his people, in turn taking out the time to write poetry expressing all that he was witnessing every spare chance he got. Langston Hughes, one of the most extraordinary writers of all time, wrote as a young Negro artist, for himself and the other Negro artists, that this was their time to express the uniqueness of their individuality of their dark- skinned selves without feeling anything but pride and accomplishment. The feelings of fear and shame no longer existed.
It did not matter, whether White or Black, who was pleased or displeased, he, as a young artist, was going to express himself anyway he chose along with many other young artists. The goal of the New Negro was to become equal to the White society. During the Renaissance, Blacks attempted to secure economic, social, and cultural equality, but it was through the arts that they were going to reach that goal. Charles S.
Johnson believed that by using the arts that black people, as a whole, would create a crack in the wall of racism. Unfortunately, racism is what America was founded on, so not even the ingenuity of blacks at that particular time would make much of a difference. What Blacks did accomplish was proving to the world that in which ever field they decide to venture out into, whether it be music, literature, painting, sculpturing, or performing Blacks will always be paragons of creativity, forever astounding the world with Black ingenuity. To research a time in American history where Black culture, leisure, and people had reached its peak would be to open the door to acknowledge the accomplishments made by Blacks during the Harlem Renaissance. It was so much more than an out poor of artistic genius. If we examine the people of that time we would find there was nothing that they felt they could not do.
This self- confidence in which they possessed at that moment is unmatched to any other accomplished moment of Black history. We could only wish that the African American society of today could possess the type of passion and undying spirit once possessed by those that lived in Harlem during that period. Images of the Black Woman from Slavery to the Depression Images as Webster states, are the representations of the forms and features of someone or something. The Black woman in the American society has been portrayed many different ways. These portrayals have stuck with the Black woman from slavery times all the way to the Depression. As Zora Neale Hurston said the African- american woman is the mule of society, the Negro woman has not only been oppressed by White men an women, but she has also had to deal with persecution by Black men.
It is bad enough when White America bullies the Black woman, but it is doubly offensive when Black men do the something. The Black woman has always had to be strong and stand up to these injustices of the world. That is why they wore the masks that grinned and lied. The African-American women has played the same role throughout time. It is a wonder that the Black woman did not become extinct due to the mistreatment of her oppressive society.
Catherine Clinton states that the Black woman in slavery had to deal with many issues, not only was she Black, she was also female. This made her have two strikes against her. The slave woman was often required to do the same type of agricultural work as the slave man. Even though she was doing back breaking work on the field she still had other tasks to do during the day. She had to do many duties, such as domestic and child rearing chores that neither White or Black men were supposed to do.
The Negro woman was also supposed to be the servant, cook, maid, and wet nurse for the White woman (Finkelman, Paul 12).
It is common knowledge about the relationship between the Slave Woman and her master. The slave master is the reason why there is a Black race. When slaves were first brought to America by Dutch traders, they were Africans.
After the Africans came to America and became slaves the White masters raped the African women creating the Black race. This race of people was made to feel inferior. There were so many master raping their slave women that it became nothing unusual, since the Black race was inferior to the White race it was okay for the the master to rape his slave woman. It became very common for members of the southern planter class who recorded their critiques of slavery not to attack the immorality of the owners. But they bemoaned the immorality of the slave. The slave woman was not only having sexual intercourse against her will, she was at fault that the master was raping her.
The real tionship between the Black woman and the White man stirred up anger and resentment from White women (Finkelman, Paul 18-20).
The White southern woman scorned the Black womans physical attributes. The White woman s complaining about the unattractiveness of the Black woman was a defense mechanism against the attraction many White men acted upon with southern society. Joan Gundersen writes about how Black and White women shared the gender created community but they still were not equals. The White womans experience was totally different than that of the Black womans.
The Black woman never had the opportunity to live a normal life. Both races of women had the same gender restraints, but Black women had some different ones. The Negro woman had resrtiction on having children and whether she was able to keep her child. Slave masters sold many of the slave children to other slave masters and when the masters were raping their slaves they produces many illegitimate children. So instead of taking responsibility for them they either killed the child, denied that it was heire child, or sold them off. The white woman seldom ly worked away from home, but the slave woman had been taken away from her family to work (Finkelman, Paul 129-143).
When the slave woman had to go work on another plantation she left her family behind. Even though slaves were moved from one plantation to the other some of them made strong bonds. The Black woman not only had to deal with the problems of White society they had to deal with the Black man. Slavery among men and women were quite different due to sexual oppression. Many Black men did not know how to treat the Black woman. The only examples they had on how to treat their women was by watching the masters and how they treated their women.
The master did not necessarily treat his woman better than how he treated his slave woman. Many times he was kinder to the slave woman than he was to his own woman (Finkelman, Paul 20).
After slavery the colored woman was still the lowest on the totem pole. No other woman in any other race has suffered the the mental abuse, degradation, and exploitation like the Black woman.
In an effort to raise awareness to the suffering of the Black woman, Zora Neale Hurston wrote a widely acclaimed novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God, let it be known of the struggles that the Black woman had to go through because of the demands that society makes on her. Hurston wrote because she wanted the world to see how the Black woman was mistreated after slavery time. The African American woman has had her dream deffered many times throught out her life. Just like Hurston main character, Janie in Their Eyes Were Watching God, her dream in a way had been deffered for bre if moments. It was first deferred by her first husband Logan Killick’s and then by her second husband Jody. But unlike so many black women, Janie saw these people as problems and just waited to the right moment to leave these misguided situations (Hemenway 98-100).
It is common knowledges that the image of the Colored woman is that she is supposed to do exactly what her White superiors and what her husband tells her to do. Even though that was what the Black woman was supposed to do she wore the masks that talked about in her poem so that they did not really know what she was thinking and feeling inside. Just because the Black woman was treated badly and were supposed to think negatively of themselves many did not. They only let others see what they wanted to see. As the years have progressed from slavery to post slavery to pre depression times, society was under the notion that the African- American woman can be classified in these other categories. They feel that she will either be a faithful obedient domestic servant, the matriarch, the welfare mother, or the jezebel (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 183).
The faithful and obedient domestic servant was created to jsutify the economic exploitation of the Black woman during slavery. One of the more dangerous consequences may be the tendency for her to agree to do anything that her superior asks of her. She will say yes amd do anything without thinking of the consequences that go along with it the task at hand (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 184).
The matriarchs are considered to be overly aggressive, emasculating, strong, independent, and unfeminine women.
The matriarch image, allows the dominant group to blame African-American women for the success or failure, (usually the latter) of their children. The society blames these type of Black women for being to strong and not demure and caring. THEy are in a way scared of these women because these women stand their ground on cera tin issues (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 184).
The Black woman has also been depicted as a welfare mother. The welfare mother image is essentially a updated version of the breeder image that was created during slavery. Welfare mothers are viewed as being lazy and content to sit around and collect checks.
Whites feel that these women are dangerous because they are fertile and that they produce too many economically non-productive children (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 185).
The last stereotype is the jezebel. THe Black woman who is known as a jezebel is basically being called a whore or a sexually aggressive woman. The Euro-American elite male tries to control the jezebels sexuality. They use this image of the jezebel to contrast the white womans virgin appeal. It made it seem that the Black woman waa anted the White man to sexually assualt her.
This depiction was to undermine the African-American womans self-esteem (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 185).
Not only does White men and women put down The Black woman, Black men also put down the Black Woman. In Richard Wrights Native Son, his main character is Bigger Thomas, and his mother, Mrs. Thomas represents the deterioration of the foundation of the Black community. Wright made Mrs. Thomas and the other Colored women in his book weak.
There is not one single Black woman that is positive in his book (Kinnamon 35).
Mrs. Thomas was never strong; she worked a menial degrading job that was accepted by white people. She was always never a militant, Harris states. As many Black women came to cultivate and shape the Black culture, Mrs Thomas never did that (Harris 63).
What is inconceivable is why would Wright want to depict such a negative image of the Balck woman. Richard Wright grew up with very strong spiritual women in his life, but his book Native Son does not show any of the strong Black woman like his grandmotehr. He reflections of nagging, bitter, self-concisous, haggard women (F elgar, Robert 20).
The picture of the African American woman during the depression had not changed very much in the eyes of many. She was still the mule of the world. Noone wanted to give her the recognition that she deserved, she worked twice as hard as her Black male, White male and female counterparts.
During the Depression the Negro woman primarily did domestic work, because they were in doemstic work and that was the largest group of workers at that time, they played a dominant rile in the emergence and formation of the community and were central to its survival. The Depression drastically altered the employment situation for Black doemstics, Unlike natives and foreign born white domestics, the Black woman in response to the situation, had to resort to standing on street corners to find work (Gray, Brenda 4-5).
The greatest influx of Blacks to New York City came during and immediealely after WWI. The foremost reason for the move North was economical survival, The Severe Depression of the South 1914-1915 had made wages plummet. The Black woman could not get factory work because as Roseschnidermen president of Womens Trade Union league explained, the colored girls came from agricultural environment and whites came from sweat shops and because of this the factory work requires too much grind for the color girl who was not willing to endure hard work. This depiction of what a Colored girl will and will no do is defientely unfair.
When it all comes down to it anyone will do just about anything to keep a roof over their heads and food on their table. This is an unfair image because it basically states that the Black woman is incapable of doing something very trivial. The Black woman rarely got clerical work or sales work, but if hse did get the job she had to double as a maid so as not to offend the white customers (Gray, Brenda 21).
With all the problems of an oppressive society the Black woman still made sure she kept her appearance up. She still found time and money to go to the hairdressers.
The Depression was bad for everyone especially for Black men and women. Many time the Negro woman had to go and get a job because the White man will not give the Black man a job. The Black woman became the economic stabilizers in the community and the survival would not be possible without their well established input (Gray, Brenda 138).
People always talk about the negative side of some Black women and make that the norm for all of the Black women. If it was not for the Black woman this society would not have progressed they way it has. The slave woman started it off by creating the Balck race.
The slave woman also took the burden of everyone else and carried it on her back. If it was not for the African american woman being the lowest portion on the totem pole their would not have been a steeping stool for all the other races to climb on to get to the next level. This woman has been mistreated and overlooked to the point that a lot of others like her feel that this is how they are supposed to be treated. During the them from slavery through to the depression the images of the Black woman has not changed much, but the progress that the Black woman has made since then has made a steady trail toward the Black woman taking a stand and trying to erase these nega vite depictions of her. | <urn:uuid:52a4676f-3609-44c6-84c4-c597cd918016> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://educheer.com/term-paper/black-woman-harlem-white-women/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.98319 | 6,550 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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-0.011342487297952175... | 1 | The People, Leisure, and Culture of Blacks During the Harlem Renaissance It seems unfair that the pages of our history books or even the lecturers in majority of classrooms speak very little of the accomplishments of blacks. They speak very little of a period within black history in which many of the greatest musicians, writers, painters, and influential paragon’ emerged. This significant period in time was known as the Harlem Renaissance. Blacks attained the opportunity to work at upper-class jobs, own their own homes, and establish status among themselves.
To no ones surprise, they still were not accepted into the so called upper-class of white society, but they neither worried nor became distressed over the fact. They created societies of their own which opened doors for blacks to attain opportunities that were absolutely unheard of, just before the Renaissance. It was from this same society where the beautiful melodies of jazz emerged. Colleagues and peers of their own race, which created a powerful bond between them, accepted Blacks. The attitudes which prompted the movement were those that came about because of the beginning of: (1) the nationalist tendencies of the time, (2) the movement of black Americans from slavery to freedom and from rural to city living, (3) Afro- Americans renewed pride in their African heritage, and (4) the influences of the period bounded by the close of the Civil War and the economic collapse of the 1930 s.
... contrast with the role of women in society today, the role of women during the Renaissance period was very limited. For most women ... husbands’ business and household. Why were women of the Renaissance period treated this way? Prominent theologians of the time pointed to ... Over the course of her marriage, a woman of the Renaissance period would bear between five to ten children. After childbirth, there ...
From education, to the stage of Broadway, to music, and to a revived race, blacks possessed more intelligence, talent, and ingenuity then they will ever be given credit for and it all began with the Harlem Renaissance. The Harlem Renaissance, also known as the New Negro Movement, was the greatest of literary periods in which creativity and vehemence were clearly expressed. Literature was no longer a whit write looking at the black experience from his / her perspective, making judgments and trying to find understanding about the black culture, but of emerging Black American writers that obviously could understand and relate to the context of black life and culture. With these writings came a new feeling of confidence and racial pride which gave these writers the freedom and power to express what it really meant to be black, living within a dominant white society. These writings that vary from novels, autobiographies to poetry behold the unforgettable memories of pain and turmoil and the continuance of the Black American struggle for freedom. The writers of the Renaissance period had to accept a nationalistic perspective so to be able to be totally aware and conscious of the social limitations forced upon the Black American.
They also had to understand the frame- work of America to totally understand that they were to be possessions and nothing more. One of the most influential writers of the Renaissance period was James Weldon Johnson. He not only expressed the impact of the characteristic style of the black preacher, but also became a mentor to a majority of black writers who subsequently formed the core of the Harlem group. Just a few of the most eminent writers that emerged from this period was the great Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Wallace Thurman, Counter Cullen, Claude McKay, and W. E. B.
DuBois. Along with the outpouring of literary genius, also came a plethora of black art. Black artists contributed to Harlems excitement by creating art, which expressed their identity and introduced black themes in to American Modernism. Form the period of 1919-1929, Langston Hughes described the artistic explosion of the times as he wrote the Harlem was in Vogue.
Like the brilliant musicians, poets, novelists, and dramatists that created such influence during the Renaissance of Harlem came the outstanding visual stories of black painters and sculptors. Unfortunately, whites controlled the black exhibition of black art, which they entered into competitions exclusively for black artists. During the 1930 s the programs were abruptly halted which meant that private support for the artists virtually disappeared. Yet, during the period in which black art emerged, it was the first of the arts to define visual vocabulary for Black Americans. The artists born within the period of the Harlem Renaissance were spread across the country and knew nothing of one another.
... move to play uptown.The Harlem Renaissance ended in the mid-1930s during the Great Depression period for several reasons. One ... black writers and artist depended on white publishing houses and white-owned magazines. In fact, a major accomplishment of the Renaissance ... end of one of the greatest period for the African-Americans culture.The Harlem Renaissance revolutionized the dynamics of African- ...
As time progressed, they began to develop a type of kinship driven by their feelings of political activism, unwavering ethnic pride and a peerless sense of cultural understanding, which ventures out along all geographic regions. It inspired artists to create in a way they never fathomed before. During the 1920 s, black artists had an abundance of professional and creative options in which they chose to represent. One of the great artists of the Renaissance period was know as Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller.
She was an eloquent Victorian, deeply spiritual, a successful sculptor, and was seen as one of the most influential and expressive artists of her time. Aaron Douglas was another artist that associated himself with leading black writers and by illustrating their works, established himself as the official artist of the Renaissance. James Van Der Zee was an astounding photographer that captured the world of that 1920 s Harlem in his portraits. Meta Fuller was an artist before her time but it was only until the 1930 s, that along with Palmer Hayden and William H. Johnson, that she and the rest of them would reach full artistic maturity. It was through the frequent Harmon Foundation exhibitions that their work was first introduce to a national audience.
These artists were the visual storytellers of the Harlem Renaissance. They represented all the facets of Black African and American heritage, the traditions of the black folklore and the true essence of black life. Each of these artists broke the mold of previous art and brought to the world the true portraits of the black experience. The start of the 1920 s may be seen as the end of the ragtime era and the opening of what came to be called the Jazz Age. The transition was inevitable as the passage from one generation to another. The ragtime years are known to have witnesses some of the more radical political developments in American life- socialists and antiwar agitations and the beginning of Black- nationalist ferment.
... In addition, the world of jazz has some wonderful artists who can both play and write jazz music so extraordinary that it will make ... and a vehement affect. It was originally associated with black cultural nationalism. Sometimes two drummers and/or two bass players ... time have devoted themselves to a life-long study of jazz music, and few classical musicians have been able to master jazz. Jazz music ...
The jazz age was known to be far more irreverent that the ragtime years. Besides making use of some of the affirmations that defined the ragtime era, and pondering on some of the emotional aftermath of the war, the jazz age was filled with new ideas of spontaneity and expression. It astounded the world with its uncanny variations of melody, decoration the word of poets and the feelings behind sculptures and paintings, seizing the new style of Harlem, and giving forth the expressions that have been repressed for too long. The objective of the New Negro was to create a type of pedestal in which both prominent blacks and whites could see eye to eye. Although black music was nationally acclaimed all around the world, the New Negro felt that it was a threat to their overall plan as a changed people all because it deviated from the accepted norms of the European musical standards.
To these people blues and jazz were expressions of an uncivilized people. Yet, the facts still stand that through these types of sounds the true essence of the Renaissance period was better shown and understood rather than through any other expressive resource. A newly formed National Association of Negro Musicians, organized in 1919, felt that the New Negros leadership, through music, should be to stimulate progress, discover and nurture talent, to pattern tastes, to encourage fellowship, and to advocate racial expression. Jazz was different, downtown, New York, was a showplace for black musicians, but after hours both blacks and whites went straight to Harlem to hear Black music. The sounds of the dance music of the cabarets, the Black Theater shows the blues and ragtime of the recital and concert halls all created ambiance for the Renaissance. There were no rules to jazz and it destroyed any limitation set upon it.
Jazz is a mixture of Negro origin, plus the influence of the American environment. It is just as deep as religious spirituals yet, tells a more comedic side of the Black history. The elements of jazz have always existed. Just to name a few in which jazz influenced was the Irish- jig, the hula hula of the South Seas; the strains of gypsy music, and of course the ragtime of the Negro. Yet, jazz is all together something more that all of these.
... synonymous, (Holly, 132). Garveyism as an ideological movement began in black Harlem in the spring of 1918, and then flourished throughout the ... goals was the creation of an industrial training institute for black people in Jamaica. Before the turn of the century, the practical ... work begins with founding a newspaper in Jamaica entitled The Negro World, following the slogan One God, One Aim, One ...
It is a release of all of the suppressed emotions at once, an explosion of expressions, and fireworks of musical combinations. Two pioneers of Renaissance jazz were Fletcher Henderson and Duke Ellington. Henderson’s jazz band was such an influential paragon that it became a standard which later bands would be measured. Duke Ellington was also one of the great elite jazz artists of his time. His bands were influenced by the magical sounds of musicians such as Will Vod ery and Will Marion Cook. From them he was able to acquire pointers on technique and orchestration.
Two of his most popular 1930 pieces were Mood Indigo and It Dont Mean a Thing if it Aint Got That Swing. Jazz expressed freedom, feelings, sensuality, and soul, all that the music of today originates from. Temporarily, putting aside all the wonderful things that came about during the Harlem Renaissance, we must then wonder how was Harlem conceived There was a move known as the Great Migration, which, in essence, was the migration from people in the South to New York City. Examining this period in time, there were just a few Black neighborhoods and their population seemed to be dangerously overflowing. Harlem, at the time, was predominantly white but it had no clue of the drastic change that was bout to take place. In Harlem, real estate prices were rising beyond the actual prices that left the market no alternative but to explode.
As the prices plummeted, blacks had the opportunity to buy property, which was unthinkable, just a short time ago. They became the dominant residents of Harlem. The biggest church parishioners, such as that of St. Phillips, moved to Harlem. Along with him came black newspapers, social clubs, and political organizations. In essence, in one rapid moment black Harlem was born.
Harlem residents varied from Black southerners to Afro-Caribbean people who came, specifically, to escape poverty. When foreigners think of America, they vision endless opportunity and streets paved with gold. Well, to even the poorest Harlemite, Harlem symbolized a promise land. Those that migrated to Harlem sang praises of the new-foundland. When given the chance to visit their previous homes migrants arrived wearing the most stylish of garments, singing praises of a place where everyone from the police to their neighbor, in Harlem, shared both the same culture and color. A Black person never had to worry about racism and scrutiny.
... 's a good time tonight," they expect commodified sex with Black women as "animals" to be better than sex with white women as "objects." ... through the rape of enslaved African women by their white slave masters. Thus, the health of these women was negated for the welfare ... while defending two women from Spanish Harlem who had been arrested as prostitutes: "The first witness, a white man from New ...
Harlem was like a hose and the door was shut to any unwanted or undeserved noise. Not everyone in Harlem was rich. As a matter of fact, most of its residents were hard working people employed as domestics, barbers, number- runners, laborers, and other less important occupations. One innovative idea, which was a way to make needed ends, was to throw what was known as rent-parties. Rent parties were parties given by an occupant of that specific home. Whoever threw the party would charge from ten cents to fifty cents, a person.
On the weekends, rent parties thrown in the same neighborhood or even on the same block ran competitions to see who could acquire the most customers. A hosts reputation all depended on the amount of good liquor or good music, if not both. Harlem had several nicknames, some of the many names were The City of Refuge, The Negro Mecca, and The Black Manhattan, and these names were not just given by the high-class of Harlem. Even those that struggled to survive saw Harlem as a place of opportunity. A Harlemite did not care if he/ she was poor, just as long as they could be poor in Harlem is all that mattered. Writers and intellectuals all around the world were attracted to the optimism, the vibrant nightlife and politics.
Painters, writers, and musicians were inspired by Harlems cabarets, churches, political clubs, and street corners. What was best about this period was that whites were involved in this era. It was the time when White people accepted Blacks expressing their culture and prosperity without limitations or rules. The only problem with the integration of the nightlife was that the acts were so racy and vulgar that Blacks portrayed themselves as comedic and sexual beings, which fed right into the White perspectives. This Harlem was the attraction of Black writers, artists, intellectuals, and other ambitious Black men and women.
... American Revolution significantly affected aspects of slaves and the status of women. It provided slaves with an opportunity to escape their ... 8221; Nonetheless, the ideals of the revolution inspired women and slaves for equality, freedom and independence that would contribute in ... for freedom. In the American Revolution, both African slaves and women played climacteric roles of support in the war that ...
Harlemite’s felt a belonging to a place that they felt belonged to them. It was within this environment that Blacks began to witness the wonders of its culture and race. It was a moment of pride and love among all Harlemite alike. In essence, Harlem symbolized freedom, a type of freedom that has been repressed for so long and a type of freedom that could never be taken away.
During the 1920 s novelists, poets, musicians and other artists came to Harlem and began to create their art from the expression of Black people. It was, at that time, when inspiration was in formation, this was Black Harlem. The Renaissance period could very well be defined as the causes of the beginning of the melting pot theory. IT was a time when Blacks and Whites both entered into free-enterprise; where the subject of class struggle was an open one in which both races partook in and everyone began to take a greater look at what inferior and superior races and civilizations really meant. This phenomenal explosion of emotional expression, known as the Negro-Renaissance, could never be compared to or matched with any other period in Negro or American history. It brought hope and inspiration to a people that yearned to be noticed on America.
James Weldon Johnson, along with W. E. B. DuBois emerged in the period right before the 1920 s. They acknowledged that a great part of White America was wondering what they were going to do with the Negro, which of course is now out of slavery. Those were the same White people that never took the time to step into Harlem and see what the Negro was doing for him / herself , to acknowledge any of their accomplishments.
That part of white America failed to realize, just yet, that the Negro had accepted America for what it was and in turn put no limitations on their abilities to do great things. To many that came to Harlem, just like the world-renowned Claude McKay, Harlem was the first positive reaction that most Blacks saw to American Life. It was compared to a paradise filled with beautiful, strong joyous, Black people that were enjoying life. He worked several jobs in Harlem but he continuously ceased to observe the greatness of his people, in turn taking out the time to write poetry expressing all that he was witnessing every spare chance he got. Langston Hughes, one of the most extraordinary writers of all time, wrote as a young Negro artist, for himself and the other Negro artists, that this was their time to express the uniqueness of their individuality of their dark- skinned selves without feeling anything but pride and accomplishment. The feelings of fear and shame no longer existed.
It did not matter, whether White or Black, who was pleased or displeased, he, as a young artist, was going to express himself anyway he chose along with many other young artists. The goal of the New Negro was to become equal to the White society. During the Renaissance, Blacks attempted to secure economic, social, and cultural equality, but it was through the arts that they were going to reach that goal. Charles S.
Johnson believed that by using the arts that black people, as a whole, would create a crack in the wall of racism. Unfortunately, racism is what America was founded on, so not even the ingenuity of blacks at that particular time would make much of a difference. What Blacks did accomplish was proving to the world that in which ever field they decide to venture out into, whether it be music, literature, painting, sculpturing, or performing Blacks will always be paragons of creativity, forever astounding the world with Black ingenuity. To research a time in American history where Black culture, leisure, and people had reached its peak would be to open the door to acknowledge the accomplishments made by Blacks during the Harlem Renaissance. It was so much more than an out poor of artistic genius. If we examine the people of that time we would find there was nothing that they felt they could not do.
This self- confidence in which they possessed at that moment is unmatched to any other accomplished moment of Black history. We could only wish that the African American society of today could possess the type of passion and undying spirit once possessed by those that lived in Harlem during that period. Images of the Black Woman from Slavery to the Depression Images as Webster states, are the representations of the forms and features of someone or something. The Black woman in the American society has been portrayed many different ways. These portrayals have stuck with the Black woman from slavery times all the way to the Depression. As Zora Neale Hurston said the African- american woman is the mule of society, the Negro woman has not only been oppressed by White men an women, but she has also had to deal with persecution by Black men.
It is bad enough when White America bullies the Black woman, but it is doubly offensive when Black men do the something. The Black woman has always had to be strong and stand up to these injustices of the world. That is why they wore the masks that grinned and lied. The African-American women has played the same role throughout time. It is a wonder that the Black woman did not become extinct due to the mistreatment of her oppressive society.
Catherine Clinton states that the Black woman in slavery had to deal with many issues, not only was she Black, she was also female. This made her have two strikes against her. The slave woman was often required to do the same type of agricultural work as the slave man. Even though she was doing back breaking work on the field she still had other tasks to do during the day. She had to do many duties, such as domestic and child rearing chores that neither White or Black men were supposed to do.
The Negro woman was also supposed to be the servant, cook, maid, and wet nurse for the White woman (Finkelman, Paul 12).
It is common knowledge about the relationship between the Slave Woman and her master. The slave master is the reason why there is a Black race. When slaves were first brought to America by Dutch traders, they were Africans.
After the Africans came to America and became slaves the White masters raped the African women creating the Black race. This race of people was made to feel inferior. There were so many master raping their slave women that it became nothing unusual, since the Black race was inferior to the White race it was okay for the the master to rape his slave woman. It became very common for members of the southern planter class who recorded their critiques of slavery not to attack the immorality of the owners. But they bemoaned the immorality of the slave. The slave woman was not only having sexual intercourse against her will, she was at fault that the master was raping her.
The real tionship between the Black woman and the White man stirred up anger and resentment from White women (Finkelman, Paul 18-20).
The White southern woman scorned the Black womans physical attributes. The White woman s complaining about the unattractiveness of the Black woman was a defense mechanism against the attraction many White men acted upon with southern society. Joan Gundersen writes about how Black and White women shared the gender created community but they still were not equals. The White womans experience was totally different than that of the Black womans.
The Black woman never had the opportunity to live a normal life. Both races of women had the same gender restraints, but Black women had some different ones. The Negro woman had resrtiction on having children and whether she was able to keep her child. Slave masters sold many of the slave children to other slave masters and when the masters were raping their slaves they produces many illegitimate children. So instead of taking responsibility for them they either killed the child, denied that it was heire child, or sold them off. The white woman seldom ly worked away from home, but the slave woman had been taken away from her family to work (Finkelman, Paul 129-143).
When the slave woman had to go work on another plantation she left her family behind. Even though slaves were moved from one plantation to the other some of them made strong bonds. The Black woman not only had to deal with the problems of White society they had to deal with the Black man. Slavery among men and women were quite different due to sexual oppression. Many Black men did not know how to treat the Black woman. The only examples they had on how to treat their women was by watching the masters and how they treated their women.
The master did not necessarily treat his woman better than how he treated his slave woman. Many times he was kinder to the slave woman than he was to his own woman (Finkelman, Paul 20).
After slavery the colored woman was still the lowest on the totem pole. No other woman in any other race has suffered the the mental abuse, degradation, and exploitation like the Black woman.
In an effort to raise awareness to the suffering of the Black woman, Zora Neale Hurston wrote a widely acclaimed novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God, let it be known of the struggles that the Black woman had to go through because of the demands that society makes on her. Hurston wrote because she wanted the world to see how the Black woman was mistreated after slavery time. The African American woman has had her dream deffered many times throught out her life. Just like Hurston main character, Janie in Their Eyes Were Watching God, her dream in a way had been deffered for bre if moments. It was first deferred by her first husband Logan Killick’s and then by her second husband Jody. But unlike so many black women, Janie saw these people as problems and just waited to the right moment to leave these misguided situations (Hemenway 98-100).
It is common knowledges that the image of the Colored woman is that she is supposed to do exactly what her White superiors and what her husband tells her to do. Even though that was what the Black woman was supposed to do she wore the masks that talked about in her poem so that they did not really know what she was thinking and feeling inside. Just because the Black woman was treated badly and were supposed to think negatively of themselves many did not. They only let others see what they wanted to see. As the years have progressed from slavery to post slavery to pre depression times, society was under the notion that the African- American woman can be classified in these other categories. They feel that she will either be a faithful obedient domestic servant, the matriarch, the welfare mother, or the jezebel (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 183).
The faithful and obedient domestic servant was created to jsutify the economic exploitation of the Black woman during slavery. One of the more dangerous consequences may be the tendency for her to agree to do anything that her superior asks of her. She will say yes amd do anything without thinking of the consequences that go along with it the task at hand (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 184).
The matriarchs are considered to be overly aggressive, emasculating, strong, independent, and unfeminine women.
The matriarch image, allows the dominant group to blame African-American women for the success or failure, (usually the latter) of their children. The society blames these type of Black women for being to strong and not demure and caring. THEy are in a way scared of these women because these women stand their ground on cera tin issues (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 184).
The Black woman has also been depicted as a welfare mother. The welfare mother image is essentially a updated version of the breeder image that was created during slavery. Welfare mothers are viewed as being lazy and content to sit around and collect checks.
Whites feel that these women are dangerous because they are fertile and that they produce too many economically non-productive children (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 185).
The last stereotype is the jezebel. THe Black woman who is known as a jezebel is basically being called a whore or a sexually aggressive woman. The Euro-American elite male tries to control the jezebels sexuality. They use this image of the jezebel to contrast the white womans virgin appeal. It made it seem that the Black woman waa anted the White man to sexually assualt her.
This depiction was to undermine the African-American womans self-esteem (James, Stanlie and Busia, Abena 185).
Not only does White men and women put down The Black woman, Black men also put down the Black Woman. In Richard Wrights Native Son, his main character is Bigger Thomas, and his mother, Mrs. Thomas represents the deterioration of the foundation of the Black community. Wright made Mrs. Thomas and the other Colored women in his book weak.
There is not one single Black woman that is positive in his book (Kinnamon 35).
Mrs. Thomas was never strong; she worked a menial degrading job that was accepted by white people. She was always never a militant, Harris states. As many Black women came to cultivate and shape the Black culture, Mrs Thomas never did that (Harris 63).
What is inconceivable is why would Wright want to depict such a negative image of the Balck woman. Richard Wright grew up with very strong spiritual women in his life, but his book Native Son does not show any of the strong Black woman like his grandmotehr. He reflections of nagging, bitter, self-concisous, haggard women (F elgar, Robert 20).
The picture of the African American woman during the depression had not changed very much in the eyes of many. She was still the mule of the world. Noone wanted to give her the recognition that she deserved, she worked twice as hard as her Black male, White male and female counterparts.
During the Depression the Negro woman primarily did domestic work, because they were in doemstic work and that was the largest group of workers at that time, they played a dominant rile in the emergence and formation of the community and were central to its survival. The Depression drastically altered the employment situation for Black doemstics, Unlike natives and foreign born white domestics, the Black woman in response to the situation, had to resort to standing on street corners to find work (Gray, Brenda 4-5).
The greatest influx of Blacks to New York City came during and immediealely after WWI. The foremost reason for the move North was economical survival, The Severe Depression of the South 1914-1915 had made wages plummet. The Black woman could not get factory work because as Roseschnidermen president of Womens Trade Union league explained, the colored girls came from agricultural environment and whites came from sweat shops and because of this the factory work requires too much grind for the color girl who was not willing to endure hard work. This depiction of what a Colored girl will and will no do is defientely unfair.
When it all comes down to it anyone will do just about anything to keep a roof over their heads and food on their table. This is an unfair image because it basically states that the Black woman is incapable of doing something very trivial. The Black woman rarely got clerical work or sales work, but if hse did get the job she had to double as a maid so as not to offend the white customers (Gray, Brenda 21).
With all the problems of an oppressive society the Black woman still made sure she kept her appearance up. She still found time and money to go to the hairdressers.
The Depression was bad for everyone especially for Black men and women. Many time the Negro woman had to go and get a job because the White man will not give the Black man a job. The Black woman became the economic stabilizers in the community and the survival would not be possible without their well established input (Gray, Brenda 138).
People always talk about the negative side of some Black women and make that the norm for all of the Black women. If it was not for the Black woman this society would not have progressed they way it has. The slave woman started it off by creating the Balck race.
The slave woman also took the burden of everyone else and carried it on her back. If it was not for the African american woman being the lowest portion on the totem pole their would not have been a steeping stool for all the other races to climb on to get to the next level. This woman has been mistreated and overlooked to the point that a lot of others like her feel that this is how they are supposed to be treated. During the them from slavery through to the depression the images of the Black woman has not changed much, but the progress that the Black woman has made since then has made a steady trail toward the Black woman taking a stand and trying to erase these nega vite depictions of her. | 6,564 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hunter LiddellMr. SmithJulius CaesarJanuary 5, 2018It’s hard to truly understand the actions of Gaius Julius Caesar since we have not lived during his time. But with documents from the past we are able to work out an idea of why he did what he did, and that was to be a critical part in the downfall of the Roman Empire in 476 C.E. Which was, at the time, the strongest power in the world and the only empire bringing order to Western Europe. Personally, I believe he is a hero to the world itself, but does this make him a hero or a traitor? Julius Caesar was born on July 12, 100 B.C. in a city south of Rome called Alba Longa. The family he was born into, the gens Julia, had claimed to be descendants from the legendary Trojan Prince, Aeneas, and so from Venus, the goddess of love. His father, Gaius Julius Caesar, was the Governor of the province of Asia. This reason, and because his sister married Gaius Marius and his mother was from an influential family, made the Julii Caesaris a very prominent family in Western Europe. But this did not make them politically influential because Gaius Julius Caesar had only produced three consuls. Though he did reach the rank of Praetor, which is the second highest rank in the republic of Rome’s magistrates. Which still did not give them political influential in Rome. By the time he was 16, his father died from unknown causes in 85 B.C while putting on his shoes in the morning. This could easily be a work of conspiracy because another Caesar, his grandfather, had died of similar causes. During this time, Julius’ age was at the same time as a civil war that was being fought between his Uncle, Gaius Marius, and his opposition, Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Though Caesar wasn’t always into armies and war all his life. At first, he was interested in the quiet life as priest. In which he was elected to be the High Priest of Jupiter during this civil war. When his father did pass away, he was able to take power at the age of 16. This was an issue though as the legal age to be in power is 18. This means that he was in power after his father’s death for 2 year before being of age. He was beginning to understand, as he got into the politics, that he may never gain power of Rome. This made him angry and made him believe that the only way to gain such power, was to become a dictator with an army behind him. This was hard to do though as people from around Rome and overseas hated Rome’s counsel, which included the lineage of Caesar’s family. But even something like this never stopped him for fighting for what he believed in. During this same time, in 84B.C, Caesar married the daughter of Lucius Cornelius, of whom was an Italian Noble. At 16, he was also finished growing. He was a 5 foot 8 inch tall man, slender and slim, and he never failed to dress carefully. One year later in 83 B.C, Lucius returned from the East where he had successfully conquered more land for him and his people. Though, upon arriving home, he ordered Julius Caesar to divorce his daughter because he did not approve of it anymore. But Caesar did not want to and so he denied the order from the Italian Noble. Because of this, Lucius wanted to take his land and kill him. Caesar almost lost his property and his own life for denying the order from Lucius. By the time Caesar’s age reached 31 years, he had taken part in many wars in which he then became heavily involved with politics. This happened mainly after he was captured by pirates and vowed to hang them once he was free. He kept this vow and ended up fulfilling it after he returned to Rome and was elected to become a quaestor, which is a government financial administrator. This is the first consequential, or important, office of this kind to be established in Rome. Later in this period, his wife and Aunt pass away, but he ends up marrying a woman who is related to his close ally, Pompey, only 1 year later in 67 B.C. When Caesar became 56 years old in 44 B.C, he was betrayed by his top Generals including: Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius. These two ended up assassinating Caesar by stabbing him 23 times, with only one being the fatal blow. Five days after this assassination, Brutus had exclaimed that there will be no more tyranny in Rome at that point, and saying that Julius Caesar was no more. What he said is still known today as the phrase, “Friends! Romans! Countryman!’ which was used to bring everybody together in this time. But this didn’t go as well as planned for Brutus and Cassius. They thought they would be loved and followed afterwards, but that is not what happened. The lower and middle class members of Rome’s society were angry at the fact that these two men killed their leader, of whom was still a dictator. So they did not follow or praise the assassins. Two years later though, in 42 B.C, everybody truly understood what Julius had given to Rome. They treated him like a god and even the senate had also believed so. This was the first time in Rome’s history that a Roman figure was treated like a god and also given a unique title: “The Divine Julius.” This angered the lower and middle class even more due to the fact that they lost a leader that actually brought Rome back from its weakest time. So Caesar’s great grand-nephew, Octavian, used this popularity to acquire an army under his control. With this army, he chased after his great uncle’s assassins and was victorious over them. With this popularity now going towards Octavian, he returned to Rome and was able to take power. In 27 B.C, Octavian changed his name to Augustus as the first Roman Emperor. When Caesar was alive, he was able to turn the lands of Europe into an Empire under the power and protection of Rome. The biggest reason why the common people loved him so much is because he was able to bring order and protection to his people. He didn’t favor just the high class either. He provided some equality to everybody in Rome’s homeland. He also opened the doors of the Christian Faith to the people. He believed in that faith very strongly and was concluded to be a Bishop and the father of the church. Though people still looked at him like a dictator, and that’s because he was. He still had the mentality of being one-hundred percent in charge and that’s part of the reason of why he was assassinated.Though the reason for Brutus and Cassius’ assassination of Caesar is slightly clear. Caesar did many many bad things over his lifetime. In the Gallic Wars, he killed 500,000- 1,000,000 Gauls. A lot of these were to have a higher body count for his own praise. But the people of Rome did not know this was how he gained that many. They believed him to have slain many ‘traitors’ of Rome and not allies, traders, and even civilians. This also goes along with his own legionnaire body count as the many civil wars that he took part in, he had lost many of his men. A lot of his countrymen looked at that is disgust because these wars were mainly his own quarrels. The land that he took were from his dead allies and enemies. Looking at everything he did that are supposedly ‘obvious bads,’ actually made perfect sense. Even the killing, or massacre, of hundreds of thousand of people. This is because he was trying to gain popularity to bring his family back into the limelight and give himself power. And obviously the civil wars were fought with reason. He was trying to gain Rome more land and more power over many other territories around it. This made Rome very terrifying and made people turn from them when thinking about abolishing them. He gave everybody under the new Roman land protection and freedoms, the same as ‘true blood’ Roman countryman, as long as they pledged their allegiance to Rome. Also, his ‘own’ quarrels weren’t necessarily his own. If he thought he could better the Republic of Rome then he took the opportunity without a second thought. Long after Caesar’s death, he was looked up to for many of the great things he did for the world. The common people saw him as a great leader for giving humanity peace and order to the lands. They praised him in this for being a genius soldier and lawmaker. As the greatest poets in the world came and went, they all had something in common. And that was believing him to have been the noblest man to ever have lived. Which is a huge honor since there have only been a few great poets in the world. He had probably the biggest feat in human history during his reign. That was the laying of the foundations of law and government, which still stands after 2000 years. No other leader has ever made that great of a feat.Works CitedCarcopino, Jerome. Daily Life In Ancient Rome. Edited by Henry T. Rowell, Translated by E. O. Lorimer, Yale University Press, 1940. Braziller, George. Rome The Center of Power. Edited by Andre Malraux, Andre Parrot, and Albert Beuret, Translated by Peter Green, Editions Gallimard, 1970. Buchan, John. Julius Caesar. 2nd ed., Edinburgh UP, 1932. Stout, S. E. “Training Soldiers for the Roman Legion.” The Classical Journal, vol. 16, no. 7, 1 Apr. 1921, pp. 423–431.***************Heather, Perter. “The Huns and the End of the Roman Empire in Western Europe.” The English Historical Review, CX, no. 435, 1995, pp. 4–41., doi:10.1093/ehr/cx.435.4.Levick, B. “The Roman Economy: Trade in Asia Minor and the Niche Market.” Greece and Rome, vol. 51, no. 2, Jan. 2004, pp. 180–198., doi:10.1093/gr/51.2.180.************Watkins, Thayer. “The Life of Julius Caesar.” A Timeline of the Life of Julius Caesar, www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/caesarjulius.htm. | <urn:uuid:f6f8839c-9352-4fc7-ad03-9833d046b84c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://caveconspringfield.com/hunter-bringing-order-to-western-europe-personally-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.990917 | 2,239 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.2821481823921... | 2 | Hunter LiddellMr. SmithJulius CaesarJanuary 5, 2018It’s hard to truly understand the actions of Gaius Julius Caesar since we have not lived during his time. But with documents from the past we are able to work out an idea of why he did what he did, and that was to be a critical part in the downfall of the Roman Empire in 476 C.E. Which was, at the time, the strongest power in the world and the only empire bringing order to Western Europe. Personally, I believe he is a hero to the world itself, but does this make him a hero or a traitor? Julius Caesar was born on July 12, 100 B.C. in a city south of Rome called Alba Longa. The family he was born into, the gens Julia, had claimed to be descendants from the legendary Trojan Prince, Aeneas, and so from Venus, the goddess of love. His father, Gaius Julius Caesar, was the Governor of the province of Asia. This reason, and because his sister married Gaius Marius and his mother was from an influential family, made the Julii Caesaris a very prominent family in Western Europe. But this did not make them politically influential because Gaius Julius Caesar had only produced three consuls. Though he did reach the rank of Praetor, which is the second highest rank in the republic of Rome’s magistrates. Which still did not give them political influential in Rome. By the time he was 16, his father died from unknown causes in 85 B.C while putting on his shoes in the morning. This could easily be a work of conspiracy because another Caesar, his grandfather, had died of similar causes. During this time, Julius’ age was at the same time as a civil war that was being fought between his Uncle, Gaius Marius, and his opposition, Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Though Caesar wasn’t always into armies and war all his life. At first, he was interested in the quiet life as priest. In which he was elected to be the High Priest of Jupiter during this civil war. When his father did pass away, he was able to take power at the age of 16. This was an issue though as the legal age to be in power is 18. This means that he was in power after his father’s death for 2 year before being of age. He was beginning to understand, as he got into the politics, that he may never gain power of Rome. This made him angry and made him believe that the only way to gain such power, was to become a dictator with an army behind him. This was hard to do though as people from around Rome and overseas hated Rome’s counsel, which included the lineage of Caesar’s family. But even something like this never stopped him for fighting for what he believed in. During this same time, in 84B.C, Caesar married the daughter of Lucius Cornelius, of whom was an Italian Noble. At 16, he was also finished growing. He was a 5 foot 8 inch tall man, slender and slim, and he never failed to dress carefully. One year later in 83 B.C, Lucius returned from the East where he had successfully conquered more land for him and his people. Though, upon arriving home, he ordered Julius Caesar to divorce his daughter because he did not approve of it anymore. But Caesar did not want to and so he denied the order from the Italian Noble. Because of this, Lucius wanted to take his land and kill him. Caesar almost lost his property and his own life for denying the order from Lucius. By the time Caesar’s age reached 31 years, he had taken part in many wars in which he then became heavily involved with politics. This happened mainly after he was captured by pirates and vowed to hang them once he was free. He kept this vow and ended up fulfilling it after he returned to Rome and was elected to become a quaestor, which is a government financial administrator. This is the first consequential, or important, office of this kind to be established in Rome. Later in this period, his wife and Aunt pass away, but he ends up marrying a woman who is related to his close ally, Pompey, only 1 year later in 67 B.C. When Caesar became 56 years old in 44 B.C, he was betrayed by his top Generals including: Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius. These two ended up assassinating Caesar by stabbing him 23 times, with only one being the fatal blow. Five days after this assassination, Brutus had exclaimed that there will be no more tyranny in Rome at that point, and saying that Julius Caesar was no more. What he said is still known today as the phrase, “Friends! Romans! Countryman!’ which was used to bring everybody together in this time. But this didn’t go as well as planned for Brutus and Cassius. They thought they would be loved and followed afterwards, but that is not what happened. The lower and middle class members of Rome’s society were angry at the fact that these two men killed their leader, of whom was still a dictator. So they did not follow or praise the assassins. Two years later though, in 42 B.C, everybody truly understood what Julius had given to Rome. They treated him like a god and even the senate had also believed so. This was the first time in Rome’s history that a Roman figure was treated like a god and also given a unique title: “The Divine Julius.” This angered the lower and middle class even more due to the fact that they lost a leader that actually brought Rome back from its weakest time. So Caesar’s great grand-nephew, Octavian, used this popularity to acquire an army under his control. With this army, he chased after his great uncle’s assassins and was victorious over them. With this popularity now going towards Octavian, he returned to Rome and was able to take power. In 27 B.C, Octavian changed his name to Augustus as the first Roman Emperor. When Caesar was alive, he was able to turn the lands of Europe into an Empire under the power and protection of Rome. The biggest reason why the common people loved him so much is because he was able to bring order and protection to his people. He didn’t favor just the high class either. He provided some equality to everybody in Rome’s homeland. He also opened the doors of the Christian Faith to the people. He believed in that faith very strongly and was concluded to be a Bishop and the father of the church. Though people still looked at him like a dictator, and that’s because he was. He still had the mentality of being one-hundred percent in charge and that’s part of the reason of why he was assassinated.Though the reason for Brutus and Cassius’ assassination of Caesar is slightly clear. Caesar did many many bad things over his lifetime. In the Gallic Wars, he killed 500,000- 1,000,000 Gauls. A lot of these were to have a higher body count for his own praise. But the people of Rome did not know this was how he gained that many. They believed him to have slain many ‘traitors’ of Rome and not allies, traders, and even civilians. This also goes along with his own legionnaire body count as the many civil wars that he took part in, he had lost many of his men. A lot of his countrymen looked at that is disgust because these wars were mainly his own quarrels. The land that he took were from his dead allies and enemies. Looking at everything he did that are supposedly ‘obvious bads,’ actually made perfect sense. Even the killing, or massacre, of hundreds of thousand of people. This is because he was trying to gain popularity to bring his family back into the limelight and give himself power. And obviously the civil wars were fought with reason. He was trying to gain Rome more land and more power over many other territories around it. This made Rome very terrifying and made people turn from them when thinking about abolishing them. He gave everybody under the new Roman land protection and freedoms, the same as ‘true blood’ Roman countryman, as long as they pledged their allegiance to Rome. Also, his ‘own’ quarrels weren’t necessarily his own. If he thought he could better the Republic of Rome then he took the opportunity without a second thought. Long after Caesar’s death, he was looked up to for many of the great things he did for the world. The common people saw him as a great leader for giving humanity peace and order to the lands. They praised him in this for being a genius soldier and lawmaker. As the greatest poets in the world came and went, they all had something in common. And that was believing him to have been the noblest man to ever have lived. Which is a huge honor since there have only been a few great poets in the world. He had probably the biggest feat in human history during his reign. That was the laying of the foundations of law and government, which still stands after 2000 years. No other leader has ever made that great of a feat.Works CitedCarcopino, Jerome. Daily Life In Ancient Rome. Edited by Henry T. Rowell, Translated by E. O. Lorimer, Yale University Press, 1940. Braziller, George. Rome The Center of Power. Edited by Andre Malraux, Andre Parrot, and Albert Beuret, Translated by Peter Green, Editions Gallimard, 1970. Buchan, John. Julius Caesar. 2nd ed., Edinburgh UP, 1932. Stout, S. E. “Training Soldiers for the Roman Legion.” The Classical Journal, vol. 16, no. 7, 1 Apr. 1921, pp. 423–431.***************Heather, Perter. “The Huns and the End of the Roman Empire in Western Europe.” The English Historical Review, CX, no. 435, 1995, pp. 4–41., doi:10.1093/ehr/cx.435.4.Levick, B. “The Roman Economy: Trade in Asia Minor and the Niche Market.” Greece and Rome, vol. 51, no. 2, Jan. 2004, pp. 180–198., doi:10.1093/gr/51.2.180.************Watkins, Thayer. “The Life of Julius Caesar.” A Timeline of the Life of Julius Caesar, www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/caesarjulius.htm. | 2,275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1890, President Benjamin Harrison (1833-1901) appointed Smalls as the customs collector for the Port of Beaufort. He was in charge of collecting fees from international merchants who shipped goods into the United States. Smalls also married schoolteacher Annie Elizabeth Wigg that year (his first wife had died seven years earlier). They had a son together, William.
In 1895, South Carolina held another convention to rewrite the state constitution. This time, however, the idea was to roll back many of the reforms that had taken place during Reconstruction. Only 6 of the 160 delegates to the convention were black. Racist white people had used violence to intimidate black people so that they would not vote or try to hold office. As a result, whites had gradually returned to power throughout the South, and they passed many laws discriminating against blacks. Smalls knew that the proposed changes to South Carolina's constitution would hurt black people. In a speech at the convention, he said: "My race needs no special defenses. For the past history of them in this country proves them to be the equal of any people anywhere. All they need is an equal chance in the battle of life."
Smalls was not successful in his efforts to prevent discrimination from returning to South Carolina. However, he remained in his job as customs collector for twenty years before retiring in 1913. He died on February 22, 1915, at the age of seventy-five. Since he was still a considered a hero in the black community, his funeral was the largest ever to take place in the town of Beaufort.
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:429f0b45-250c-470b-99cb-12ffde96cb39> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.minecreek.info/southern-states/retires-in-beaufort.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.988836 | 326 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.4656649231910705... | 1 | In 1890, President Benjamin Harrison (1833-1901) appointed Smalls as the customs collector for the Port of Beaufort. He was in charge of collecting fees from international merchants who shipped goods into the United States. Smalls also married schoolteacher Annie Elizabeth Wigg that year (his first wife had died seven years earlier). They had a son together, William.
In 1895, South Carolina held another convention to rewrite the state constitution. This time, however, the idea was to roll back many of the reforms that had taken place during Reconstruction. Only 6 of the 160 delegates to the convention were black. Racist white people had used violence to intimidate black people so that they would not vote or try to hold office. As a result, whites had gradually returned to power throughout the South, and they passed many laws discriminating against blacks. Smalls knew that the proposed changes to South Carolina's constitution would hurt black people. In a speech at the convention, he said: "My race needs no special defenses. For the past history of them in this country proves them to be the equal of any people anywhere. All they need is an equal chance in the battle of life."
Smalls was not successful in his efforts to prevent discrimination from returning to South Carolina. However, he remained in his job as customs collector for twenty years before retiring in 1913. He died on February 22, 1915, at the age of seventy-five. Since he was still a considered a hero in the black community, his funeral was the largest ever to take place in the town of Beaufort.
Was this article helpful? | 350 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Life during World War II
British people who weren’t fighting in World War II still had a very different life to the one they had before the war. For one thing, there wasn’t as much food around so every little bit had to be saved and used – even if it didn’t taste very nice! And clothes that were too small or had tears in them just had to be fixed and made bigger because there weren’t many new things around to buy. Everyone had to help each other get the things they needed to keep warm and healthy.
Many people – especially children – who lived in cities were evacuated to the country to keep safe from air attacks such as the Blitz.
Bombs dropped by German planes could flatten brick houses in seconds. Can you imagine going to school one morning, and coming back to find your house was gone? Or when packing your rucksack, popping in a gas mask to protect yourself in case of a gas attack?
Farms in the country became busy communities of people who moved in to help use every bit of the land to grow food. They might have moved there because they didn’t have a home anymore, or because they just wanted to help out as much as they could.
Top 10 facts
- During World War II, Britain was called ‘the Home Front’ – the war affected people not just fighting in armies on the front lines, but back in their own towns and neighbourhoods.
- All the different plans and ways to help get Britain through World War II was called ‘the war effort’. Helping the war effort meant anything from planting vegetables to making fighter planes.
- Because Britain was at war, it wasn’t easy to get food and other supplies anymore. In 1940, a system called rationing was set up which made sure that everyone had a fair amount of food, clothes and things like soap and petrol based on what was actually available. Rationing didn’t end until 1954.
- Land Girls were women from all over Britain who worked on farms, helping to grow and produce food for the rest of the country.
- Not all men went to fight overseas – some couldn’t go and instead joined the Home Guard, which was made up of volunteers ready to defend Britain from a surprise enemy invasion. The Home Guard was created in 1940.
- From September 1940 to May 1941, Britain was bombed heavily by enemy planes. That time is called ‘The Blitz’.
- During the Blitz, it was very dangerous to live in cities because that’s where most of the bombs were dropped. So, many children were sent off to live in the country where it was safer. These children were known as ‘evacuees’.
- People could protect themselves from enemy attacks by having a gas mask that would allow them to breathe clean air no matter how dirty or poisonous the air around them was after a bombing.
- Loud sirens would let people know that a bomb might go off soon, and that they should run to the nearest air-raid shelter. Bomb shelters were small, strong structures, sometimes put underground, that protected people inside from being hurt during explosions.
- When Prime Minister Winston Churchill announced that the war was over on VE Day, people all over Britain celebrated by holding street parties.
- 1 September 1939Germany invaded Poland
- 3 September 1939The UK and France declared War on Germany
- 10 May 1940Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of Britain, taking over from Neville Chamberlain
- 14 May 1940The Home Guard was created (The Local Defence Volunteers)
- 26 May-4 June 1940The evacuation of British and French troops from Dunkirk, France June 1940 – German troops occupied the Channel Islands
- 10 June 1940Italy declared war on Britain and France, and allies with Germany
- 10 July-31 October 1940The Battle of Britain
- 7 September 1940The Blitz begins in London
- 8 September 1941-27 January 1944The Siege of Leningrad
- 7 December 1941The Japanese attacked an American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
- 8 December 194The United States declared war on Japan, and joined with the Allies
- 6 June 1944D-Day, when troops from Britain and the US landed in France to fight against the Germans
- 16 December 1944-25 January 1945The Battle of the Bulge
- 8 May 1945VE Day (Victory in Europe Day), when Germany surrendered
- 15 August 1945VJ Day (Victory in Japan Day), when Japan surrendered
- 2 September 1945Japan formally surrendered, and officially ended World War II
Did you know?
- The Land Girls were part of the Women’s Land Army, which started in World War I but is best known for their work during World War II. One job that the Land Girls had was to kill rats, who were responsible for eating 2 million tonnes of food every year!
- The Home Guard was first called the Local Defence Volunteers.
- ‘Blitz’ is the German word for ‘lightning’.
- When an attack is made by planes (so, instead of troops in tanks or ships), it is called an air-raid. During the Blitz, Britain was attacked by air-raids.
- Air-raid shelters were usually about as big as a garden shed. In fact, some are used as garden sheds today!
- Sweets and treats were hard to get during the war. Children would eat carrots on sticks instead of ice lollies! The only sweets that weren’t rationed during the war were cough sweets.
- Rationing continued until 1954 – nine years after World War II ended!
Pictures of life during World War II
Have a look through the images in the gallery and see if you can spot the following:
- The uniform that Land Girls wore
- A poster asking men to join the Home Guard
- A group of Home Guard members
- An underground air-raid shelter
- A ration book
When most of the men in Britain went off to fight in the war, women stepped in to do some of the jobs left vacant. One of these groups was the Land Girls, who worked on farms to grow food, look after livestock and keep the buildings and grounds in good shape.
Not all the men could go overseas, though. Some were just too old or too young, and others had jobs that were thought to be too important for them to leave – these were called ‘reserved occupations’, and included farmers, coal miners and ship builders. Men who stayed in Britain could join the Home Guard, whose main job was to defend the land if there were a sudden attack by the enemy, holding them off until soldiers could get there. There never was an attack like this, but what members of the Home Guard did do was watch over important resources like factories that might have been key targets of an attack, and places like dark fields where enemy troops might parachute into thinking that nobody would see them land. The Home Guard also captured enemy pilots whose planes had crash-landed. The Home Guard was formed in 1940 and disbanded in 1945, and over 1 million men were part of it for most of this time.
Lots of things that people used to be able to pick up in shops around the corner weren’t available during the war. For instance, a factory that used to produce clothes would have been reassigned to produce items for the troops instead. Also, foods like bananas that would have come in on ships from other countries were unavailable because it was dangerous for ships to bring food to Britain. Convoys of ships were used to bring essential food items from other countries but many of these ships were destroyed by the Germans before they could get to Britain.
A system called rationing was set up in 1940 that restricted how much food, clothes and other supplies people could have in a week or month. Each person – both children and adults – had a ration book with coupons in it that they’d hand over to their local shopkeeper, who would give them items their coupons allowed them to have. This system meant everyone got something to eat, and something to wear, even if it wasn’t very much.
The first foods that were rationed were bacon, sugar, tea, butter and meat. This list grew and grew as the war went on, and people got used to making each little bit stretch as far as possible. For example, today you could go out and buy as a dozen eggs and as much milk as you like. But back in war time, people were allowed just one egg per week and three pints of milk per month! People could grow and eat as many vegetables as they wanted, so gardens of all sizes popped up wherever there was space for one – even in parks. Rationing carried on after the war was over because supplies were still low, but gradually items came off the rationing list so things were never as restricted as they was during the war. Rationing ended for good in 1954.
The Blitz lasted from September 1940 to May 1941. During this time, Britain was bombed very heavily in a number of air-raids. Major cities (like London), factories and seaside towns were all targeted because bombing them would cause the most damage – such as destroying rows of houses, production of weapons, or ports where ships carrying supplies would come to.
Loud air-raid sirens would warn people that enemy planes were on the way, and they would need to run to the nearest shelter – no matter if it were the middle of the day or night. Some people had Anderson shelters buried in their back garden, or Morrison shelters in their home. These were strong structures that were built to protect people inside from bomb explosions. In London, Tube (underground) stations were used as air-raid shelters too. Many people also owned gas masks that they could wear to breathe clean air after an explosion.
Because living in cities was so dangerous, mums and dads decided to send their children to the country. These children were called evacuees. This was a really hard decision because nobody wanted to say goodbye to their families, but it was the best way to make sure children stayed safe – nobody knew when the war would finally be over. Many children travelled by train to farms, to homes in the country or to large, stately homes that had lots of room. Some British children even went overseas to countries like Canada. They would write letters about their new adventures to their parents.
Just for fun...
- Try to ‘make do and mend’! What would you add to or take away from the clothes for this paper doll?
- Help evacuees escape the Blitz in this online game (click on 'Activity')
- Complete some Home Front activities
- Understand more about rationing with games and flashcards
- Imagine you’re an evacuee. What would you write about your experience in a letter to friends and family?
- Make a list of what you’d take into an air-raid shelter
- Find out about life in the Cabinet War Rooms
- You've forgotten to put up your blackout curtains... how fast can you turn out the lights? (click on 'Activity')
- Cook some war-time recipes! Do you fancy Cheesy pudding pie or Carrot Fudgey cubes?
- Become a spy and gather information about life in Scotland during WWII
- Do you have the makings of a WWII secret agent? (click on 'Activity')
- Build a bomb shelter online (click on 'Activity')
- Complete an interactive Bomb damage report
- Go shopping in wartime Britain (click on 'Activity')
- Bring women and children back from Hong Kong safely in the Empire Home Front game (click on 'Activity')
- Listen to and watch WWII audio-visual clips from a huge archive including key speeches, eye-witness reports and some of the most evocative sounds of the War on the BBC Schools Radio site
- Make your own paper models of a pillbox and Anderson Shelter
- Cook WWII-style with step-by-step guides and recipes; try Woolton pie, rabbit stew and steamed chocolate pudding
See for yourself
- Visit the Imperial War Museum in London to see what life was like for a family living in Britain during World War II
- At the Churchill War Rooms in London you can see Churchill’s statesmanlike wooden armchair – still visible in its wellworn armrests are the marks clawed by Churchill’s fingernails
- Learn more about the Land Girls at Gresswell Farm and Workhouse
- Visit Chislehurst Caves in Kent, one of the largest deep air-raid shelters in the country which protected over 15,000 people at the height of the Blitz
- Look at WWII posters and propaganda
- Find out about Operation Dynamo, the May 1940 evaculation of Dunkirk in WWII, at Dover Castle
- See photographs of life during the Blitz
- Find out about WWII spies and their operations by taking a walk in London and using the free app Spooks, Spies and Videotape – London's Secret War
Best children's books about life during WWII
Find out more
- Find out about the Women’s Land Army
- Kids' fiction about WWII: read stories to find out more about the period
- Sir Nicholas Winton saved the lives of 669 children by arranging their evacuation from Nazi-occupied Prague in 1939. His daughter Barbara Winton tells his story in a BBC School Radio programme for children aged 7 to 11
- See pictures of life in London during the Blitz
- Look at objects from WWII
- Watch films depicting life on the Home Front
- Find out more about WWII weapons like doodlebugs and V2s
- WW2 food rations per week
- What was life like for children who were evacuated?
- See a map of how London was bombed during the Blitz
- Find out more about food and health during WWII
- Read a story of extraordinary bravery in east London during WWII
- Find out about the products (chocolate, tights and more!) that America soldiers, G.I.s, brought with them when they came to Britain in a Horrible Histories song | <urn:uuid:6539215a-b753-41d2-b758-c097fe690de6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theschoolrun.com/homework-help/life-during-world-war-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00343.warc.gz | en | 0.98495 | 2,955 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.357123792171... | 1 | Life during World War II
British people who weren’t fighting in World War II still had a very different life to the one they had before the war. For one thing, there wasn’t as much food around so every little bit had to be saved and used – even if it didn’t taste very nice! And clothes that were too small or had tears in them just had to be fixed and made bigger because there weren’t many new things around to buy. Everyone had to help each other get the things they needed to keep warm and healthy.
Many people – especially children – who lived in cities were evacuated to the country to keep safe from air attacks such as the Blitz.
Bombs dropped by German planes could flatten brick houses in seconds. Can you imagine going to school one morning, and coming back to find your house was gone? Or when packing your rucksack, popping in a gas mask to protect yourself in case of a gas attack?
Farms in the country became busy communities of people who moved in to help use every bit of the land to grow food. They might have moved there because they didn’t have a home anymore, or because they just wanted to help out as much as they could.
Top 10 facts
- During World War II, Britain was called ‘the Home Front’ – the war affected people not just fighting in armies on the front lines, but back in their own towns and neighbourhoods.
- All the different plans and ways to help get Britain through World War II was called ‘the war effort’. Helping the war effort meant anything from planting vegetables to making fighter planes.
- Because Britain was at war, it wasn’t easy to get food and other supplies anymore. In 1940, a system called rationing was set up which made sure that everyone had a fair amount of food, clothes and things like soap and petrol based on what was actually available. Rationing didn’t end until 1954.
- Land Girls were women from all over Britain who worked on farms, helping to grow and produce food for the rest of the country.
- Not all men went to fight overseas – some couldn’t go and instead joined the Home Guard, which was made up of volunteers ready to defend Britain from a surprise enemy invasion. The Home Guard was created in 1940.
- From September 1940 to May 1941, Britain was bombed heavily by enemy planes. That time is called ‘The Blitz’.
- During the Blitz, it was very dangerous to live in cities because that’s where most of the bombs were dropped. So, many children were sent off to live in the country where it was safer. These children were known as ‘evacuees’.
- People could protect themselves from enemy attacks by having a gas mask that would allow them to breathe clean air no matter how dirty or poisonous the air around them was after a bombing.
- Loud sirens would let people know that a bomb might go off soon, and that they should run to the nearest air-raid shelter. Bomb shelters were small, strong structures, sometimes put underground, that protected people inside from being hurt during explosions.
- When Prime Minister Winston Churchill announced that the war was over on VE Day, people all over Britain celebrated by holding street parties.
- 1 September 1939Germany invaded Poland
- 3 September 1939The UK and France declared War on Germany
- 10 May 1940Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of Britain, taking over from Neville Chamberlain
- 14 May 1940The Home Guard was created (The Local Defence Volunteers)
- 26 May-4 June 1940The evacuation of British and French troops from Dunkirk, France June 1940 – German troops occupied the Channel Islands
- 10 June 1940Italy declared war on Britain and France, and allies with Germany
- 10 July-31 October 1940The Battle of Britain
- 7 September 1940The Blitz begins in London
- 8 September 1941-27 January 1944The Siege of Leningrad
- 7 December 1941The Japanese attacked an American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
- 8 December 194The United States declared war on Japan, and joined with the Allies
- 6 June 1944D-Day, when troops from Britain and the US landed in France to fight against the Germans
- 16 December 1944-25 January 1945The Battle of the Bulge
- 8 May 1945VE Day (Victory in Europe Day), when Germany surrendered
- 15 August 1945VJ Day (Victory in Japan Day), when Japan surrendered
- 2 September 1945Japan formally surrendered, and officially ended World War II
Did you know?
- The Land Girls were part of the Women’s Land Army, which started in World War I but is best known for their work during World War II. One job that the Land Girls had was to kill rats, who were responsible for eating 2 million tonnes of food every year!
- The Home Guard was first called the Local Defence Volunteers.
- ‘Blitz’ is the German word for ‘lightning’.
- When an attack is made by planes (so, instead of troops in tanks or ships), it is called an air-raid. During the Blitz, Britain was attacked by air-raids.
- Air-raid shelters were usually about as big as a garden shed. In fact, some are used as garden sheds today!
- Sweets and treats were hard to get during the war. Children would eat carrots on sticks instead of ice lollies! The only sweets that weren’t rationed during the war were cough sweets.
- Rationing continued until 1954 – nine years after World War II ended!
Pictures of life during World War II
Have a look through the images in the gallery and see if you can spot the following:
- The uniform that Land Girls wore
- A poster asking men to join the Home Guard
- A group of Home Guard members
- An underground air-raid shelter
- A ration book
When most of the men in Britain went off to fight in the war, women stepped in to do some of the jobs left vacant. One of these groups was the Land Girls, who worked on farms to grow food, look after livestock and keep the buildings and grounds in good shape.
Not all the men could go overseas, though. Some were just too old or too young, and others had jobs that were thought to be too important for them to leave – these were called ‘reserved occupations’, and included farmers, coal miners and ship builders. Men who stayed in Britain could join the Home Guard, whose main job was to defend the land if there were a sudden attack by the enemy, holding them off until soldiers could get there. There never was an attack like this, but what members of the Home Guard did do was watch over important resources like factories that might have been key targets of an attack, and places like dark fields where enemy troops might parachute into thinking that nobody would see them land. The Home Guard also captured enemy pilots whose planes had crash-landed. The Home Guard was formed in 1940 and disbanded in 1945, and over 1 million men were part of it for most of this time.
Lots of things that people used to be able to pick up in shops around the corner weren’t available during the war. For instance, a factory that used to produce clothes would have been reassigned to produce items for the troops instead. Also, foods like bananas that would have come in on ships from other countries were unavailable because it was dangerous for ships to bring food to Britain. Convoys of ships were used to bring essential food items from other countries but many of these ships were destroyed by the Germans before they could get to Britain.
A system called rationing was set up in 1940 that restricted how much food, clothes and other supplies people could have in a week or month. Each person – both children and adults – had a ration book with coupons in it that they’d hand over to their local shopkeeper, who would give them items their coupons allowed them to have. This system meant everyone got something to eat, and something to wear, even if it wasn’t very much.
The first foods that were rationed were bacon, sugar, tea, butter and meat. This list grew and grew as the war went on, and people got used to making each little bit stretch as far as possible. For example, today you could go out and buy as a dozen eggs and as much milk as you like. But back in war time, people were allowed just one egg per week and three pints of milk per month! People could grow and eat as many vegetables as they wanted, so gardens of all sizes popped up wherever there was space for one – even in parks. Rationing carried on after the war was over because supplies were still low, but gradually items came off the rationing list so things were never as restricted as they was during the war. Rationing ended for good in 1954.
The Blitz lasted from September 1940 to May 1941. During this time, Britain was bombed very heavily in a number of air-raids. Major cities (like London), factories and seaside towns were all targeted because bombing them would cause the most damage – such as destroying rows of houses, production of weapons, or ports where ships carrying supplies would come to.
Loud air-raid sirens would warn people that enemy planes were on the way, and they would need to run to the nearest shelter – no matter if it were the middle of the day or night. Some people had Anderson shelters buried in their back garden, or Morrison shelters in their home. These were strong structures that were built to protect people inside from bomb explosions. In London, Tube (underground) stations were used as air-raid shelters too. Many people also owned gas masks that they could wear to breathe clean air after an explosion.
Because living in cities was so dangerous, mums and dads decided to send their children to the country. These children were called evacuees. This was a really hard decision because nobody wanted to say goodbye to their families, but it was the best way to make sure children stayed safe – nobody knew when the war would finally be over. Many children travelled by train to farms, to homes in the country or to large, stately homes that had lots of room. Some British children even went overseas to countries like Canada. They would write letters about their new adventures to their parents.
Just for fun...
- Try to ‘make do and mend’! What would you add to or take away from the clothes for this paper doll?
- Help evacuees escape the Blitz in this online game (click on 'Activity')
- Complete some Home Front activities
- Understand more about rationing with games and flashcards
- Imagine you’re an evacuee. What would you write about your experience in a letter to friends and family?
- Make a list of what you’d take into an air-raid shelter
- Find out about life in the Cabinet War Rooms
- You've forgotten to put up your blackout curtains... how fast can you turn out the lights? (click on 'Activity')
- Cook some war-time recipes! Do you fancy Cheesy pudding pie or Carrot Fudgey cubes?
- Become a spy and gather information about life in Scotland during WWII
- Do you have the makings of a WWII secret agent? (click on 'Activity')
- Build a bomb shelter online (click on 'Activity')
- Complete an interactive Bomb damage report
- Go shopping in wartime Britain (click on 'Activity')
- Bring women and children back from Hong Kong safely in the Empire Home Front game (click on 'Activity')
- Listen to and watch WWII audio-visual clips from a huge archive including key speeches, eye-witness reports and some of the most evocative sounds of the War on the BBC Schools Radio site
- Make your own paper models of a pillbox and Anderson Shelter
- Cook WWII-style with step-by-step guides and recipes; try Woolton pie, rabbit stew and steamed chocolate pudding
See for yourself
- Visit the Imperial War Museum in London to see what life was like for a family living in Britain during World War II
- At the Churchill War Rooms in London you can see Churchill’s statesmanlike wooden armchair – still visible in its wellworn armrests are the marks clawed by Churchill’s fingernails
- Learn more about the Land Girls at Gresswell Farm and Workhouse
- Visit Chislehurst Caves in Kent, one of the largest deep air-raid shelters in the country which protected over 15,000 people at the height of the Blitz
- Look at WWII posters and propaganda
- Find out about Operation Dynamo, the May 1940 evaculation of Dunkirk in WWII, at Dover Castle
- See photographs of life during the Blitz
- Find out about WWII spies and their operations by taking a walk in London and using the free app Spooks, Spies and Videotape – London's Secret War
Best children's books about life during WWII
Find out more
- Find out about the Women’s Land Army
- Kids' fiction about WWII: read stories to find out more about the period
- Sir Nicholas Winton saved the lives of 669 children by arranging their evacuation from Nazi-occupied Prague in 1939. His daughter Barbara Winton tells his story in a BBC School Radio programme for children aged 7 to 11
- See pictures of life in London during the Blitz
- Look at objects from WWII
- Watch films depicting life on the Home Front
- Find out more about WWII weapons like doodlebugs and V2s
- WW2 food rations per week
- What was life like for children who were evacuated?
- See a map of how London was bombed during the Blitz
- Find out more about food and health during WWII
- Read a story of extraordinary bravery in east London during WWII
- Find out about the products (chocolate, tights and more!) that America soldiers, G.I.s, brought with them when they came to Britain in a Horrible Histories song | 3,015 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A few weeks ago in Technology we did something called a breakout. A breakout is where there is a box, and there are three different kind of locks on it. The first lock that my team tried to figure out was the letter lock. On this lock we had to try to figure out a five letter word. Your probably thinking that there are a million different words that are five letters. So, Mr.Calvert hid clues around the room for us to find. The clues were like little things to read and there were clues inside of it. Also, there was a little separate box that had a lock on it, and inside that box was an important clue. My team opened the little box first and inside the box was a black light. There were invisible things written all over the room. So, we used the light to try to find clues. We found a sentence that really helped us out. After we opened two of the locks we still had to do one more. When we figured the last lock out the other team had already finished. This activity was really fun and I learned more about how to use clues, and actually turn them into something. | <urn:uuid:1cdfccc7-c28c-4003-9ed4-3da5f334d89a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.scarsdaleschools.org/afroomberg25/2018/09/26/breakout-in-technology/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00122.warc.gz | en | 0.99313 | 233 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.314423412... | 3 | A few weeks ago in Technology we did something called a breakout. A breakout is where there is a box, and there are three different kind of locks on it. The first lock that my team tried to figure out was the letter lock. On this lock we had to try to figure out a five letter word. Your probably thinking that there are a million different words that are five letters. So, Mr.Calvert hid clues around the room for us to find. The clues were like little things to read and there were clues inside of it. Also, there was a little separate box that had a lock on it, and inside that box was an important clue. My team opened the little box first and inside the box was a black light. There were invisible things written all over the room. So, we used the light to try to find clues. We found a sentence that really helped us out. After we opened two of the locks we still had to do one more. When we figured the last lock out the other team had already finished. This activity was really fun and I learned more about how to use clues, and actually turn them into something. | 233 | ENGLISH | 1 |
All Sources -
Updated Media sources (1) About encyclopedia.com content Print Topic
Malachy, St (c.1094–1148). Malachy was a great reforming bishop in Ireland, when hereditary succession linked church with clan, sacraments were neglected, and old customs frequently prevailed over canon law. His own nomination as archbishop of Armagh, 1129, was strongly opposed by his predecessor's kin and took several years to resolve. Journeying to Rome, 1139, Malachy stayed with Bernard of Clairvaux. They became firm friends, and with monks trained under Bernard, Malachy established a Cistercian monastery at Mellifont (Co. Louth). Appointed papal legate to Ireland, his wish to remain at Clairvaux was denied, but it became his final resting place when he died there en route to Rome. | <urn:uuid:55ec6021-b3ef-4f10-9499-fe7746ee0c0e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/philosophy-and-religion/saints/saint-malachy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00537.warc.gz | en | 0.98098 | 179 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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Updated Media sources (1) About encyclopedia.com content Print Topic
Malachy, St (c.1094–1148). Malachy was a great reforming bishop in Ireland, when hereditary succession linked church with clan, sacraments were neglected, and old customs frequently prevailed over canon law. His own nomination as archbishop of Armagh, 1129, was strongly opposed by his predecessor's kin and took several years to resolve. Journeying to Rome, 1139, Malachy stayed with Bernard of Clairvaux. They became firm friends, and with monks trained under Bernard, Malachy established a Cistercian monastery at Mellifont (Co. Louth). Appointed papal legate to Ireland, his wish to remain at Clairvaux was denied, but it became his final resting place when he died there en route to Rome. | 190 | ENGLISH | 1 |
January 1st-31st: We are open and on a regular Off-season schedule! Happy New Year!Learn More >
Joseph Coolidge was born in Watertown, Massachusetts June 18th, 1730 and was 46 when he participated in the Boston Tea Party. He also enlisted in the Revolutionary Army; reportedly, “Joseph Coolidge was working in the field one day when he heard a fight had broken out with some Redcoats in Lexington. He dropped his plough, shouldered his musket and never came back.” Coolidge fought at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on the first day of the American Revolution. He was killed in battle during the British retreat from Concord; he was one of fifty Americans either killed or mortally wounded that day. He died April 19th, 1775 and was buried at his home in Watertown, Massachusetts. | <urn:uuid:ae16aabd-8e10-4182-8049-20fd456c1c0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bostonteapartyship.com/joseph-coolidge | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00378.warc.gz | en | 0.992187 | 177 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.228086411952972... | 1 | January 1st-31st: We are open and on a regular Off-season schedule! Happy New Year!Learn More >
Joseph Coolidge was born in Watertown, Massachusetts June 18th, 1730 and was 46 when he participated in the Boston Tea Party. He also enlisted in the Revolutionary Army; reportedly, “Joseph Coolidge was working in the field one day when he heard a fight had broken out with some Redcoats in Lexington. He dropped his plough, shouldered his musket and never came back.” Coolidge fought at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on the first day of the American Revolution. He was killed in battle during the British retreat from Concord; he was one of fifty Americans either killed or mortally wounded that day. He died April 19th, 1775 and was buried at his home in Watertown, Massachusetts. | 188 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Kathy Groob, Publisher ElectWomen.com
Lighting fireworks this 4th of July, Americans will be paying tribute to the revolutionists and the founding fathers who declared our independence from the British monarchy. When Thomas Jefferson penned, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,” did he mean women too? Could those men have imagined that women would one day indeed have rights of independence?
When Thomas Jefferson and those who helped him draft the Declaration of Independence described a new order among the thirteen colonies of the new United States, they did not include women. Under the laws of the new United States, women were denied property rights, lacked the ability to vote and could not make or enter into a legal contract. In colonial America, women were pushed to the sidelines as dependents of men. Married women were under control of their husbands.
Before and during the Revolutionary War, women played a critical role by boycotting British goods and organizing fundraising activities to support the mission of the patriots. During the war, many women served as nurses for wounded soldiers. There were women and girls who took part in militias, serving as spies and even taking over cannons as the enemy approached. The work done by women was considered unofficial and actual records of women in service do not exist.
The necessity of war allowed for women to participate fully in the development of the new independence. Following independence, however, social and economic inequality returned and women were once again relegated to household tasks. The Revolutionary War had little impact on African-American women. They continued as slaves in every state except Massachusetts.
The seeds of independence had indeed been sown for women following the Revolutionary War. Movements began to swell, women began to gain education and even attend universities. It was to be another 150 years before women gained the right to vote, but the movement had begun.
“While most women of the Revolutionary Era might not be classed as “feminists” in the modern sense, they were among the first to seriously examine the role of women in American society.” http://www.historycentral.com | <urn:uuid:f9983259-811f-40d1-8354-f00bc5d07c54> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://electwomen.com/2012/07/did-the-statement-all-men-are-created-equal-include-women/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.983549 | 436 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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Lighting fireworks this 4th of July, Americans will be paying tribute to the revolutionists and the founding fathers who declared our independence from the British monarchy. When Thomas Jefferson penned, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,” did he mean women too? Could those men have imagined that women would one day indeed have rights of independence?
When Thomas Jefferson and those who helped him draft the Declaration of Independence described a new order among the thirteen colonies of the new United States, they did not include women. Under the laws of the new United States, women were denied property rights, lacked the ability to vote and could not make or enter into a legal contract. In colonial America, women were pushed to the sidelines as dependents of men. Married women were under control of their husbands.
Before and during the Revolutionary War, women played a critical role by boycotting British goods and organizing fundraising activities to support the mission of the patriots. During the war, many women served as nurses for wounded soldiers. There were women and girls who took part in militias, serving as spies and even taking over cannons as the enemy approached. The work done by women was considered unofficial and actual records of women in service do not exist.
The necessity of war allowed for women to participate fully in the development of the new independence. Following independence, however, social and economic inequality returned and women were once again relegated to household tasks. The Revolutionary War had little impact on African-American women. They continued as slaves in every state except Massachusetts.
The seeds of independence had indeed been sown for women following the Revolutionary War. Movements began to swell, women began to gain education and even attend universities. It was to be another 150 years before women gained the right to vote, but the movement had begun.
“While most women of the Revolutionary Era might not be classed as “feminists” in the modern sense, they were among the first to seriously examine the role of women in American society.” http://www.historycentral.com | 425 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last Known Activity|
Herbert Houck, the World War II naval ace who directed the final attack on the battleship Yamato, the pride of the Japanese Navy, in the fighting for Okinawa, died on February 24, 2002, in Cape Coral, Florida. He was 86.
Five days after American troops began landing on Okinawa, and on the day that kamikaze planes began crashing into American ships supporting the invasion, the Yamato was about to be hurled into the climactic battle of the Pacific conflict on what amounted to a suicide mission of its own.
On the afternoon of April 6, 1945, the Yamato headed toward Okinawa from its port at Kure, Japan, some 600 miles away. The Yamato, commissioned nine days after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, and its sister ship, the Musashi, weighing about 72,000 tons each at full load, were by far the largest battleships ever built.
But aircraft carriers, not battleships, proved decisive in the Pacific. The Musashi had been sunk the previous October. The Yamato, while seeing action in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf in 1944, had been used sparingly. Nonetheless, it was fitted with armor deemed virtually impenetrable, and it bristled with nine guns that could hurl 3,200-pound armor- piercing shells, the largest battleships guns ever to go to sea. It was to cross the East China Sea, arrive off Okinawa and fire upon American ships and troops battling for the island.
But the Japanese did not provide air cover for the Yamato, and it was believed to have carried only enough fuel for a one-way trip.
An American submarine and a scout plane spotted the battleship, and waves of fighters began attacking it 200 miles north of Okinawa in the early afternoon of April 7. The battleship took numerous hits from aerial-launched torpedoes and bombs, and it listed to portside. But it was still floating when Lieutenant Commander Houck, in command of more than 40 planes on the carrier Yorktown, went aloft in his Hellcat fighter.
His engines were balky, and he almost turned back, but soon he was over the Yamato with his torpedo planes.
He ordered that they adjust the depth settings for their torpedoes to ensure that they struck the huge Yamato low enough to avoid her armor, and six planes swooped down. Several torpedoes struck the Yamato. It turned over, and a huge explosion hurled its sailors into the sea or killed them outright as Lieutenant Commander Houck took photographs with a wing camera.
"It made a mighty big bang," he remembered. "Smoke went up. The fireball was about 1,000 feet high."
The Yamato sank with the loss of nearly 2,500 crew members, fewer than 300 having been rescued; a light cruiser and four of the eight destroyers accompanying it were also sunk. This was essentially the end of the Japanese Navy.
Herbert Norman Houck, a native of Minnesota, joined the Navy in 1936 after attending the University of Minnesota for three years. He flew in the lead wave of the first mass strike by carrier-based aircraft on Tokyo, on Feb. 16, 1945, and by war's end was a three-time winner of the Navy Cross, the service's highest award for valor after the Medal of Honor. He shot down six Japanese planes.
He was promoted to captain in 1956, served as commander of the aircraft carrier Shangri-La in 1960 and '61, and retired in 1968.
He is survived by his wife, Jeannette; a son, Robert, of Sunrise, Fla.; two daughters, Mary Tatman and Susan Houck, both of Denver; a sister, Darrel Alkire, of Naples, Florida, and five grandchildren.
Birth: April 2, 1915, Corona, Carlton County, Minnesota
Death: February 24, 2002, Cape Coral, Lee County, Florida
U.S. Navy Pilot, he directed the final attack which sank the Japanese battleship Yamato. When launched in December 1941, the Yamato was the largest battleship in the world, a record that still stands today.
Born the oldest son, with three brothers and a sister, his father, Signe R. Houck, was a farmer. He grew up in a small farming community of Corona, Minnesota, attending the local high school. After attending the University of Minnesota for three years, he dropped out and joined the U.S. Navy in 1936, becoming a fighter pilot and being commissioned an Ensign.
During World War II, he served on several aircraft carriers, and in 1944-45, he was serving on the USS Yorktown. As a Lieutenant Commander and fighter pilot flying FM-6 Hellcat fighters, he led the first mass strike by carrier based aircraft on Tokyo on February 16, 1945 (not counting the famous 1942 Doolittle raid), and by the end of the war had earned three Navy Cross Medals (the Navy Cross is the second highest award for valor, second to the Medal of Honor), shooting down six Japanese planes. In April 1945, the Yamato, a 72,000 ton battleship, fitted with 410 mm side armor deemed impenetrable, with nine 18 inch (46 cm) guns that could send a 3,200 lb shell over 20 miles, was given just enough fuel for a one-way trip. On April 6, 1945, the Yamato, the light cruiser Yahagi and 8 escorting destroyers, were sent on a suicide mission to destroy the American invasion fleet at Okinawa. The Yamato was discovered the next day, as soon as it left the Inland Sea, and was very quickly engaged by American forces. 386 aircraft from four US aircraft carriers were launched against her. When Houck led his 43 planes from the carrier USS Yorktown to the reported site of the Yamato, he found the ship listing about 20 degrees after an American submarine had pumped five torpedoes into her and other American aircraft had bombed the ship. Houck ordered his planes to attack, putting another five torpedoes into the ship and a minute later the ship’s aft magazines blew up and the ship rolled over and sank, killing 2475 of its crew. Only 269 Japanese sailors survived the sinking, to be picked up by their escorting destroyers. The cruiser was also sunk.
After the war, Houck remained in the Navy, and was promoted to Captain in 1956. He served as commander of the Aircraft Carrier USS Shangri-La in 1960-1961, and retired to Florida in 1968. He was married to Jeannette Houck, and had three children: Robert, Mary, and Susan.
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Herbert Houck, the World War II naval ace who directed the final attack on the battleship Yamato, the pride of the Japanese Navy, in the fighting for Okinawa, died on February 24, 2002, in Cape Coral, Florida. He was 86.
Five days after American troops began landing on Okinawa, and on the day that kamikaze planes began crashing into American ships supporting the invasion, the Yamato was about to be hurled into the climactic battle of the Pacific conflict on what amounted to a suicide mission of its own.
On the afternoon of April 6, 1945, the Yamato headed toward Okinawa from its port at Kure, Japan, some 600 miles away. The Yamato, commissioned nine days after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, and its sister ship, the Musashi, weighing about 72,000 tons each at full load, were by far the largest battleships ever built.
But aircraft carriers, not battleships, proved decisive in the Pacific. The Musashi had been sunk the previous October. The Yamato, while seeing action in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf in 1944, had been used sparingly. Nonetheless, it was fitted with armor deemed virtually impenetrable, and it bristled with nine guns that could hurl 3,200-pound armor- piercing shells, the largest battleships guns ever to go to sea. It was to cross the East China Sea, arrive off Okinawa and fire upon American ships and troops battling for the island.
But the Japanese did not provide air cover for the Yamato, and it was believed to have carried only enough fuel for a one-way trip.
An American submarine and a scout plane spotted the battleship, and waves of fighters began attacking it 200 miles north of Okinawa in the early afternoon of April 7. The battleship took numerous hits from aerial-launched torpedoes and bombs, and it listed to portside. But it was still floating when Lieutenant Commander Houck, in command of more than 40 planes on the carrier Yorktown, went aloft in his Hellcat fighter.
His engines were balky, and he almost turned back, but soon he was over the Yamato with his torpedo planes.
He ordered that they adjust the depth settings for their torpedoes to ensure that they struck the huge Yamato low enough to avoid her armor, and six planes swooped down. Several torpedoes struck the Yamato. It turned over, and a huge explosion hurled its sailors into the sea or killed them outright as Lieutenant Commander Houck took photographs with a wing camera.
"It made a mighty big bang," he remembered. "Smoke went up. The fireball was about 1,000 feet high."
The Yamato sank with the loss of nearly 2,500 crew members, fewer than 300 having been rescued; a light cruiser and four of the eight destroyers accompanying it were also sunk. This was essentially the end of the Japanese Navy.
Herbert Norman Houck, a native of Minnesota, joined the Navy in 1936 after attending the University of Minnesota for three years. He flew in the lead wave of the first mass strike by carrier-based aircraft on Tokyo, on Feb. 16, 1945, and by war's end was a three-time winner of the Navy Cross, the service's highest award for valor after the Medal of Honor. He shot down six Japanese planes.
He was promoted to captain in 1956, served as commander of the aircraft carrier Shangri-La in 1960 and '61, and retired in 1968.
He is survived by his wife, Jeannette; a son, Robert, of Sunrise, Fla.; two daughters, Mary Tatman and Susan Houck, both of Denver; a sister, Darrel Alkire, of Naples, Florida, and five grandchildren.
Birth: April 2, 1915, Corona, Carlton County, Minnesota
Death: February 24, 2002, Cape Coral, Lee County, Florida
U.S. Navy Pilot, he directed the final attack which sank the Japanese battleship Yamato. When launched in December 1941, the Yamato was the largest battleship in the world, a record that still stands today.
Born the oldest son, with three brothers and a sister, his father, Signe R. Houck, was a farmer. He grew up in a small farming community of Corona, Minnesota, attending the local high school. After attending the University of Minnesota for three years, he dropped out and joined the U.S. Navy in 1936, becoming a fighter pilot and being commissioned an Ensign.
During World War II, he served on several aircraft carriers, and in 1944-45, he was serving on the USS Yorktown. As a Lieutenant Commander and fighter pilot flying FM-6 Hellcat fighters, he led the first mass strike by carrier based aircraft on Tokyo on February 16, 1945 (not counting the famous 1942 Doolittle raid), and by the end of the war had earned three Navy Cross Medals (the Navy Cross is the second highest award for valor, second to the Medal of Honor), shooting down six Japanese planes. In April 1945, the Yamato, a 72,000 ton battleship, fitted with 410 mm side armor deemed impenetrable, with nine 18 inch (46 cm) guns that could send a 3,200 lb shell over 20 miles, was given just enough fuel for a one-way trip. On April 6, 1945, the Yamato, the light cruiser Yahagi and 8 escorting destroyers, were sent on a suicide mission to destroy the American invasion fleet at Okinawa. The Yamato was discovered the next day, as soon as it left the Inland Sea, and was very quickly engaged by American forces. 386 aircraft from four US aircraft carriers were launched against her. When Houck led his 43 planes from the carrier USS Yorktown to the reported site of the Yamato, he found the ship listing about 20 degrees after an American submarine had pumped five torpedoes into her and other American aircraft had bombed the ship. Houck ordered his planes to attack, putting another five torpedoes into the ship and a minute later the ship’s aft magazines blew up and the ship rolled over and sank, killing 2475 of its crew. Only 269 Japanese sailors survived the sinking, to be picked up by their escorting destroyers. The cruiser was also sunk.
After the war, Houck remained in the Navy, and was promoted to Captain in 1956. He served as commander of the Aircraft Carrier USS Shangri-La in 1960-1961, and retired to Florida in 1968. He was married to Jeannette Houck, and had three children: Robert, Mary, and Susan.
Captain Herbert Norman Houck | 1,526 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Extended Character Analysis
Piggy is established as an outsider and source of ridicule amongst the boys on the island, with his weight, asthma, and spectacles offering up prime targets for jokes. His thin hair, physique, and asthma are used to associate him with the island’s pigs. However, despite the way he is treated by the other boys, Piggy continues to speak up at assemblies and insist on the importance of rules. Additionally, Piggy and Simon are the only two boys who seem to genuinely care for the younger boys, with Piggy attempting to count them and learn their names.
Piggy initially aspires to hold a leadership position, but after Ralph gives away his embarrassing nickname, he is ridiculed and becomes withdrawn. He begrudgingly votes for Ralph to be chief because he is afraid of Jack. Piggy is later appointed by Ralph to oversee the younger boys while Jack, Ralph, and Simon explore the island.
Piggy’s intelligence is initially dismissed by most of the boys, but he eventually becomes Ralph’s close friend and advisor. Due to his asthma and physique, he is not able to play with the other boys, so he spends most of his time thinking. Most of the boys’ democratic aspirations, including the initial gathering, are traceable to Piggy, who symbolizes the scientific and intellectual side of society. However, because he lacks the looks and charisma needed to be respected as a leader, he stands behind Ralph and advises him.
Piggy is intimidated by Jack from the beginning, likely because the savagery that Jack represents is a direct threat to the civility that Piggy represents. Unlike Ralph, who has difficulty believing that Jack truly hates him, Piggy knows the full extent of Jack’s hatred for both him and Ralph from the beginning. However, despite his ability to perceive Jack’s true nature, Piggy is blind to the fact that rules only work within a civilized setting. For Piggy, laws and rules are meant to be followed regardless of circumstance.
Even after his role in the murder of Simon, he attempts to rationalize the act by pinning the blame on Simon for crawling out of the forest unexpectedly. Up until the moment of his death, Piggy is the advocate for civility and reason, never quite able to understand the darkness within the other boys and himself as Simon and Ralph are.
Essential Passage by Character: Piggy
Piggy wore the remainders of a pair of shorts, his fat body was golden brown, and the glasses still flashed when he looked at anything. He was the only boy on the island whose hair never seemed to grow. The rest were shock-headed, but Piggy's hair lay in wisps over his head as though baldness were his natural state and this imperfect covering would soon go, like the velvet on a young stag's antlers.
"I've been thinking," he said, "about a clock. We could make a sundial. We could put a stick in the sand, and then—"
The effort to express the mathematical processes involved was too great. He made a few passes instead.
"And an airplane, and a TV set," said Ralph sourly, "and a steam engine."
Piggy shook his head.
"You have to have a lot of metal for that," he said, "and we haven't got no metal. But we got a stick."
Ralph turned and smiled involuntarily. Piggy was a bore; his fat, his ass-mar, and his matter-of-fact ideas were dull, but there was always a little pleasure to be got out of pulling his leg, even if one did it by accident.
Lord of the Flies, Chapter 4, pp. 53-54 (Penguin: New York)
The boys have been on the island for some time now, long enough for their hair to become long and their clothes to become tattered. They have adjusted somewhat to their new life of survival, yet there are many things left undone. Boredom is setting in, preventing them from continuing to build stable shelters and to provide adequately for the basic needs of a healthy society. Rudimentary huts provide some protection from the elements. Fruit and occasional seafood are the staples of their diet. The camp is divided into two main groups: food and fire. Jack and the...
(The entire section is 1,649 words.) | <urn:uuid:10394b04-5186-4920-b1cb-143a9c8a2621> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/topics/lord-of-the-flies/characters/Piggy?en_action=hh_answer_body_click&en_label=%2Fhomework-help%2Fwhich-boys-go-exploring-island-464489%23answer-800228&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00456.warc.gz | en | 0.985582 | 918 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.5454044342041... | 7 | Extended Character Analysis
Piggy is established as an outsider and source of ridicule amongst the boys on the island, with his weight, asthma, and spectacles offering up prime targets for jokes. His thin hair, physique, and asthma are used to associate him with the island’s pigs. However, despite the way he is treated by the other boys, Piggy continues to speak up at assemblies and insist on the importance of rules. Additionally, Piggy and Simon are the only two boys who seem to genuinely care for the younger boys, with Piggy attempting to count them and learn their names.
Piggy initially aspires to hold a leadership position, but after Ralph gives away his embarrassing nickname, he is ridiculed and becomes withdrawn. He begrudgingly votes for Ralph to be chief because he is afraid of Jack. Piggy is later appointed by Ralph to oversee the younger boys while Jack, Ralph, and Simon explore the island.
Piggy’s intelligence is initially dismissed by most of the boys, but he eventually becomes Ralph’s close friend and advisor. Due to his asthma and physique, he is not able to play with the other boys, so he spends most of his time thinking. Most of the boys’ democratic aspirations, including the initial gathering, are traceable to Piggy, who symbolizes the scientific and intellectual side of society. However, because he lacks the looks and charisma needed to be respected as a leader, he stands behind Ralph and advises him.
Piggy is intimidated by Jack from the beginning, likely because the savagery that Jack represents is a direct threat to the civility that Piggy represents. Unlike Ralph, who has difficulty believing that Jack truly hates him, Piggy knows the full extent of Jack’s hatred for both him and Ralph from the beginning. However, despite his ability to perceive Jack’s true nature, Piggy is blind to the fact that rules only work within a civilized setting. For Piggy, laws and rules are meant to be followed regardless of circumstance.
Even after his role in the murder of Simon, he attempts to rationalize the act by pinning the blame on Simon for crawling out of the forest unexpectedly. Up until the moment of his death, Piggy is the advocate for civility and reason, never quite able to understand the darkness within the other boys and himself as Simon and Ralph are.
Essential Passage by Character: Piggy
Piggy wore the remainders of a pair of shorts, his fat body was golden brown, and the glasses still flashed when he looked at anything. He was the only boy on the island whose hair never seemed to grow. The rest were shock-headed, but Piggy's hair lay in wisps over his head as though baldness were his natural state and this imperfect covering would soon go, like the velvet on a young stag's antlers.
"I've been thinking," he said, "about a clock. We could make a sundial. We could put a stick in the sand, and then—"
The effort to express the mathematical processes involved was too great. He made a few passes instead.
"And an airplane, and a TV set," said Ralph sourly, "and a steam engine."
Piggy shook his head.
"You have to have a lot of metal for that," he said, "and we haven't got no metal. But we got a stick."
Ralph turned and smiled involuntarily. Piggy was a bore; his fat, his ass-mar, and his matter-of-fact ideas were dull, but there was always a little pleasure to be got out of pulling his leg, even if one did it by accident.
Lord of the Flies, Chapter 4, pp. 53-54 (Penguin: New York)
The boys have been on the island for some time now, long enough for their hair to become long and their clothes to become tattered. They have adjusted somewhat to their new life of survival, yet there are many things left undone. Boredom is setting in, preventing them from continuing to build stable shelters and to provide adequately for the basic needs of a healthy society. Rudimentary huts provide some protection from the elements. Fruit and occasional seafood are the staples of their diet. The camp is divided into two main groups: food and fire. Jack and the...
(The entire section is 1,649 words.) | 891 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War I meant that there were many occupations usually filled by men that were now left empty due to so many at war. New careers were available to women in the 1920s. What had been the few types of jobs for women in the 1920s and before opened up wildly, with lots of women eager to expand their roles in society as well as their pocketbooks. There are a few of the job options that opened up to women that weren’t thought of as pink-collar work.
Department Store Sales Clerks
Department stores were still very new in the Jazz Age and they needed lots of employees to sell all of their wares. Women were wonderfully suited to this job as it was deemed safe, with good operating hours. The expansion of the beauty market began in earnest during this decade as well, so women were needed to sell to other women. Small boutiques that created and sold dresses, hats, gloves and other clothing and accessories also brought women into the workforce.
Working on the Land
America had a far more agrarian basis in the 1920s. What had been the province of men became women’s jobs. With men away at war farms still had to produce. Farming meant cultivating the land, harvesting and finding ways to transport livestock to farms and to the end consumer. Most farms didn’t have electricity so all of the farm work had to be done by hand. Women still had to run the household by cleaning, ironing and cooking every day in addition to farm chores.
Secretarial and Office Work
When wondering what new careers were available to women in the 1920s, people often overlook secretarial work. Although it became a cliche for women to be secretaries after this time period, before the 1920s it was principally a job filled by men. As men were traditionally more educated to read and write fluently and were expected to be alone with other men a large part of the day it wasn’t thought to be women’s work.
Telephone Switchboard Operators
Also known as switchboard operators, this had been thought of as women’s work since 1878. Men had been employed as operators until a Boston entrepreneur realized that women’s voices were more soothing on the phone. Emma Nutt was the first woman to fill this role, which broke way for women in the 1920s workforce to fill this busy role in droves. As the switchboard became more sophisticated and more people had telephones, more women were hired.
1920's Jobs in Medicine
World War 1 sadly meant more injuries. This meant new jobs for women in the 1920s in the field of medicine. While female doctors were rare, female nurses were incredibly commonplace. The Red Cross quickly hired and trained thousands of young women to be nurses, often at the battlefronts.
Thankfully, there are more opportunities today than there were for women’s jobs in the 1920s. Yet the impact our foremothers had in the workforce is still felt. Without women paving the way, many career fields wouldn’t have expanded as they did and made it clear that women can work just as hard and as well as any man. | <urn:uuid:74f81fb4-68ca-4f88-9029-1e9eb20646a8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bizfluent.com/info-7747610-jobs-women-1920s.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.994525 | 648 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.1683545261621475... | 4 | World War I meant that there were many occupations usually filled by men that were now left empty due to so many at war. New careers were available to women in the 1920s. What had been the few types of jobs for women in the 1920s and before opened up wildly, with lots of women eager to expand their roles in society as well as their pocketbooks. There are a few of the job options that opened up to women that weren’t thought of as pink-collar work.
Department Store Sales Clerks
Department stores were still very new in the Jazz Age and they needed lots of employees to sell all of their wares. Women were wonderfully suited to this job as it was deemed safe, with good operating hours. The expansion of the beauty market began in earnest during this decade as well, so women were needed to sell to other women. Small boutiques that created and sold dresses, hats, gloves and other clothing and accessories also brought women into the workforce.
Working on the Land
America had a far more agrarian basis in the 1920s. What had been the province of men became women’s jobs. With men away at war farms still had to produce. Farming meant cultivating the land, harvesting and finding ways to transport livestock to farms and to the end consumer. Most farms didn’t have electricity so all of the farm work had to be done by hand. Women still had to run the household by cleaning, ironing and cooking every day in addition to farm chores.
Secretarial and Office Work
When wondering what new careers were available to women in the 1920s, people often overlook secretarial work. Although it became a cliche for women to be secretaries after this time period, before the 1920s it was principally a job filled by men. As men were traditionally more educated to read and write fluently and were expected to be alone with other men a large part of the day it wasn’t thought to be women’s work.
Telephone Switchboard Operators
Also known as switchboard operators, this had been thought of as women’s work since 1878. Men had been employed as operators until a Boston entrepreneur realized that women’s voices were more soothing on the phone. Emma Nutt was the first woman to fill this role, which broke way for women in the 1920s workforce to fill this busy role in droves. As the switchboard became more sophisticated and more people had telephones, more women were hired.
1920's Jobs in Medicine
World War 1 sadly meant more injuries. This meant new jobs for women in the 1920s in the field of medicine. While female doctors were rare, female nurses were incredibly commonplace. The Red Cross quickly hired and trained thousands of young women to be nurses, often at the battlefronts.
Thankfully, there are more opportunities today than there were for women’s jobs in the 1920s. Yet the impact our foremothers had in the workforce is still felt. Without women paving the way, many career fields wouldn’t have expanded as they did and made it clear that women can work just as hard and as well as any man. | 661 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery is a topic that gets under peoples skin. Some get really emotional about it to the point of tears, while others reach their peak of anger. The period of slavery as we were taught in school was not a pretty one. It was one of pain, oppression, restriction, violence, abuse, injustice, and even death.
Millions of individuals died during the slavery period. Slavery, however, existed long before the period we were taught in schools, all the way back to the days spoken about in the Bible.
The Hebrews, the set of people God led across the Red Sea, were once slaves in Egypt. When God led them into the desert, He gave them a set of rules to help keep them organized. Some of these rules pertain to how slaves are to be treated. Even though when God brought them out of Egypt they became free individuals, they themselves were now able to acquire and own slaves. As with all topics that pertain to slavery, some of these rules and or laws were hard to swallow.
Nevertheless, these laws can be found in the Bible.
“If you buy a slave (Hebrew), if he came alone, he will leave alone. If he was married, his wife will leave with him. If his master gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the wife and her children belong to his master; he will leave alone. But if the slave says: “I love my wife, my master and my children, I will not go free”, his master shall bring him to God; he will take him to the door or the doorpost, then his master will pierce his ear with an awl, and he shall serve him for life” (Exodus 21:3-6).
“When a man strikes his slave or his servant with a rod and he man dies at his hands, he shall be punished. But if the slave survives for a day or two, he will not be penalized since the slave is his property” (Exodus 21:20-21).
This is not meant to anger anyone. I am just making a connection in our historical and biblical past.
This tome was the tie in to the BBC TV series of the same name. Hart-Davis evaluates the scientific and technological advances made by the Tudors and Stuarts.
HIV/AIDS is a sexually transmitted disease. HIV is the viral infection, while AIDS is the full blown disease..
The Indian marriage system has always made me angry. The extent of gender inequality makes me very sad..
Teach slaves to be subject to their masters, and to give satisfaction in every respect, instead of arguing.-Titus 2:9reply 0
There are cultures where being a slave is a joyous thing. However, majority of slavery depicts slavery as sad, demeaning and debasing. The slaves in such situations had to find ways of being joyful and to pass on that joy to their generations. When joy breaks down, eventually everything breaks down.0
A while back so many people became angered when celebrity star Kanye West said that slavery was A choice. Everyone became historians, anthropologists, sociologists, theologists and spiritualists discrediting Kanye's comment and condemning Him for saying it. Slavery was A choice for the planters, overseers and all those in charge. They chose to enslave other nationalities, ethnicities and races. The sad part of today's society is that the decendants of those who were slaves have now become the slave masters. They imprison, overwork, abuse, oppress and rape those who are under their care. So the institution of slavery still exist today.reply 0
Instead of abuse and hurting each other we should develop the habit of blessing each other. To be blessed is to be oneself a blessing (Dietrich Bonhoeffer). To bless someone is to speak well of him or her, and to be unblessed is to be bleeding in a very deep place. Blessing deconstricts the heart, and blessing begets blessing. Don't be afraid to try it.0
The story of slavery in the Old Testament should be viewed historically. We can read a lot of tough and cruel laws but when Christ came, all the laws were already summed into a new commandment which says, "Love your neighbor as you love yourselves."reply 0
True. Slavery goes waaaaayyyyy back and was in many societies. After Christ came, in the New Testament a slave was looked at as more than a piece of property. And, for those that have time, read the short but beautiful epistle to Philemon about Philemon's runaway slave. Depending upon the passage, for the New Testament passages I either apply them to the employee / employer relationship or how each person is a slave to sin until they surrender to Christ.reply 0
Bible is very peaceful book and it can't say anything wrong about slave I suggest every one must read biblereply 0
Hi rajahuja. About the Holy Bible, well, there are some mighty mighty rough passages in there too. Take, for example, Revelation 6 to 19. God's wrath is once again poured out, partly because sinners do not repent. God is loving, but most of all He is Holy. Sin will not be tolerated by Him. However, He is merciful and sins can be forgiven in Christ. Christ took our penalty so He can meet the righteous demands of the Father's righteousness for us. In all, though, the Holy Bible is a peaceful book for those who have made their peace with God through Christ.0
I was trying to show that slavery was in existence since the beginning of time. Over the years it has gotten more oppressive and demeaning. However, clearly we have not learnt how destructive such a system is. Just like the Israelites, we continue to make the same faults and failures over and over, but in our case it gets worse and worse. We shouldn't be surprised with how we treat one another. Those of us who know better should do better and be shinning examples for others to follow.0 | <urn:uuid:71f586b2-2eee-4d53-bd2f-214efced8bde> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newsandsociety.expertscolumn.com/what-the-bible-says-about-slaves | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.982261 | 1,264 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.14671173691749... | 1 | Slavery is a topic that gets under peoples skin. Some get really emotional about it to the point of tears, while others reach their peak of anger. The period of slavery as we were taught in school was not a pretty one. It was one of pain, oppression, restriction, violence, abuse, injustice, and even death.
Millions of individuals died during the slavery period. Slavery, however, existed long before the period we were taught in schools, all the way back to the days spoken about in the Bible.
The Hebrews, the set of people God led across the Red Sea, were once slaves in Egypt. When God led them into the desert, He gave them a set of rules to help keep them organized. Some of these rules pertain to how slaves are to be treated. Even though when God brought them out of Egypt they became free individuals, they themselves were now able to acquire and own slaves. As with all topics that pertain to slavery, some of these rules and or laws were hard to swallow.
Nevertheless, these laws can be found in the Bible.
“If you buy a slave (Hebrew), if he came alone, he will leave alone. If he was married, his wife will leave with him. If his master gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the wife and her children belong to his master; he will leave alone. But if the slave says: “I love my wife, my master and my children, I will not go free”, his master shall bring him to God; he will take him to the door or the doorpost, then his master will pierce his ear with an awl, and he shall serve him for life” (Exodus 21:3-6).
“When a man strikes his slave or his servant with a rod and he man dies at his hands, he shall be punished. But if the slave survives for a day or two, he will not be penalized since the slave is his property” (Exodus 21:20-21).
This is not meant to anger anyone. I am just making a connection in our historical and biblical past.
This tome was the tie in to the BBC TV series of the same name. Hart-Davis evaluates the scientific and technological advances made by the Tudors and Stuarts.
HIV/AIDS is a sexually transmitted disease. HIV is the viral infection, while AIDS is the full blown disease..
The Indian marriage system has always made me angry. The extent of gender inequality makes me very sad..
Teach slaves to be subject to their masters, and to give satisfaction in every respect, instead of arguing.-Titus 2:9reply 0
There are cultures where being a slave is a joyous thing. However, majority of slavery depicts slavery as sad, demeaning and debasing. The slaves in such situations had to find ways of being joyful and to pass on that joy to their generations. When joy breaks down, eventually everything breaks down.0
A while back so many people became angered when celebrity star Kanye West said that slavery was A choice. Everyone became historians, anthropologists, sociologists, theologists and spiritualists discrediting Kanye's comment and condemning Him for saying it. Slavery was A choice for the planters, overseers and all those in charge. They chose to enslave other nationalities, ethnicities and races. The sad part of today's society is that the decendants of those who were slaves have now become the slave masters. They imprison, overwork, abuse, oppress and rape those who are under their care. So the institution of slavery still exist today.reply 0
Instead of abuse and hurting each other we should develop the habit of blessing each other. To be blessed is to be oneself a blessing (Dietrich Bonhoeffer). To bless someone is to speak well of him or her, and to be unblessed is to be bleeding in a very deep place. Blessing deconstricts the heart, and blessing begets blessing. Don't be afraid to try it.0
The story of slavery in the Old Testament should be viewed historically. We can read a lot of tough and cruel laws but when Christ came, all the laws were already summed into a new commandment which says, "Love your neighbor as you love yourselves."reply 0
True. Slavery goes waaaaayyyyy back and was in many societies. After Christ came, in the New Testament a slave was looked at as more than a piece of property. And, for those that have time, read the short but beautiful epistle to Philemon about Philemon's runaway slave. Depending upon the passage, for the New Testament passages I either apply them to the employee / employer relationship or how each person is a slave to sin until they surrender to Christ.reply 0
Bible is very peaceful book and it can't say anything wrong about slave I suggest every one must read biblereply 0
Hi rajahuja. About the Holy Bible, well, there are some mighty mighty rough passages in there too. Take, for example, Revelation 6 to 19. God's wrath is once again poured out, partly because sinners do not repent. God is loving, but most of all He is Holy. Sin will not be tolerated by Him. However, He is merciful and sins can be forgiven in Christ. Christ took our penalty so He can meet the righteous demands of the Father's righteousness for us. In all, though, the Holy Bible is a peaceful book for those who have made their peace with God through Christ.0
I was trying to show that slavery was in existence since the beginning of time. Over the years it has gotten more oppressive and demeaning. However, clearly we have not learnt how destructive such a system is. Just like the Israelites, we continue to make the same faults and failures over and over, but in our case it gets worse and worse. We shouldn't be surprised with how we treat one another. Those of us who know better should do better and be shinning examples for others to follow.0 | 1,254 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is Stonehenge?
Stonehenge is a giant circle of standing stones built around 5000 years ago. It took over 1000 years to build!
The circle of stones are located in England, in Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire. Nobody really knows who built it or what it was used for.
Some scientists think Stonehenge was used as a calendar because the stones line up perfectly with the movements of the sun. Others think it was used as a place for healing or for religious ceremonies.
One thing they do know for sure is that it has been used as a cemetery. Many people have been buried around the monument.
What does Stonehenge look like?
Some of the stones at Stonehenge are thought to be missing and some have fallen down. The entire circle is surrounded by a circular ditch.
Two main types of stones were used:
Sarsen stones were very big and heavy. These were mainly used for the outer circle.
Blue stones which were very unique and used for the inner circles. The closest place to Stonehenge to find blue stones was about 240 miles away, meaning they were carried from very, very far away.
How was Stonehenge built?
Stonehenge was built and rebuilt over many generations. Archaeologists say the final changes were made around 1,500 years ago in the Bronze Age.
Some of the stones are as heavy as 2 cars and some as heavy as 4 African elephants! How did ancient people transport such heavy stones without modern machinery?
It’s still a mystery!
They may have transported the heavy stones by river or dragged them on big wooden sledges. To cut the stones they might have used stone hammers and chisels.
To place the stones in the ground, they could have dug huge ditches in the ground and then used ropes and wooden poles to lift them up.
How do you think they did it?
A very old legend says that giants placed the monument on a mountain in Ireland and Merlin the Wizard magically moved them to England, but who knows?
Today nearly 1 million people visit Stonehenge every year. If you ever visit it, see if you can find any clues to help solve the mystery! | <urn:uuid:79b4ccfd-6f40-4d06-bcad-6f644484994a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/stonehenge | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00431.warc.gz | en | 0.984146 | 457 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.45601192116737... | 4 | What is Stonehenge?
Stonehenge is a giant circle of standing stones built around 5000 years ago. It took over 1000 years to build!
The circle of stones are located in England, in Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire. Nobody really knows who built it or what it was used for.
Some scientists think Stonehenge was used as a calendar because the stones line up perfectly with the movements of the sun. Others think it was used as a place for healing or for religious ceremonies.
One thing they do know for sure is that it has been used as a cemetery. Many people have been buried around the monument.
What does Stonehenge look like?
Some of the stones at Stonehenge are thought to be missing and some have fallen down. The entire circle is surrounded by a circular ditch.
Two main types of stones were used:
Sarsen stones were very big and heavy. These were mainly used for the outer circle.
Blue stones which were very unique and used for the inner circles. The closest place to Stonehenge to find blue stones was about 240 miles away, meaning they were carried from very, very far away.
How was Stonehenge built?
Stonehenge was built and rebuilt over many generations. Archaeologists say the final changes were made around 1,500 years ago in the Bronze Age.
Some of the stones are as heavy as 2 cars and some as heavy as 4 African elephants! How did ancient people transport such heavy stones without modern machinery?
It’s still a mystery!
They may have transported the heavy stones by river or dragged them on big wooden sledges. To cut the stones they might have used stone hammers and chisels.
To place the stones in the ground, they could have dug huge ditches in the ground and then used ropes and wooden poles to lift them up.
How do you think they did it?
A very old legend says that giants placed the monument on a mountain in Ireland and Merlin the Wizard magically moved them to England, but who knows?
Today nearly 1 million people visit Stonehenge every year. If you ever visit it, see if you can find any clues to help solve the mystery! | 453 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Though gender inequality remains an issue for women in medicine, great strides have been made over the past century. Women now make up almost half of medical students in the United States and a third of physicians - an accomplishment that can be largely attributed to Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell.
In 1849, British-born Dr. Blackwell graduated from Geneva Medical College in New York, becoming the first woman in the U.S. to receive a medical degree.
"The significance [of this] cannot be overestimated, as this was a time when a woman being a physician was not the social norm," Dr. Shelley Ross, secretary general of the the Medical Women's International Association (MWIA), told Medical News Today.
Until her death in 1910, Dr. Blackwell was a strong advocate for women in medicine, spending much of her time campaigning for women's rights and establishing institutions dedicated to training female medical students in both the U.S. and the United Kingdom.
Although Dr. Blackwell was widely slandered for these actions at the time, she emerged as a role model who led the way for women in medicine.
"Because Blackwell altered her role as a woman in pursuing a career as a physician, some viewed her as abnormal and unnecessarily rebellious, while others admired her strength and courage and saw what her accomplishments could lead to in the future," says researcher Alyssa Turose.
"Blackwell inspired those of the latter viewpoint, and many of them began to take risks themselves in order to cross the social barriers."
In the fourth of a series of articles celebrating female role models in medicine, we look at the struggles that Dr. Blackwell faced to become America's first female doctor.
How has her life and career helped to set the stage for today's female medical students? What challenges remain for women in the medical profession?
Embarking on 'a moral crusade'
"Elizabeth, it is of no use trying. Thee cannot gain admission to these schools. Thee must go to Paris and don masculine attire to gain the necessary knowledge," physician Joseph Warrington told Blackwell, after she enquired about attending medical college in the U.S.
Never before had a woman been accepted to a medical college in America, but Dr. Blackwell was not deterred by the widespread discouragement.
"[...] neither the advice to go to Paris nor the suggestion of disguise tempted me for a moment," Blackwell wrote in a letter to Baroness Anne Isabella Milbanke Byron in 1851. "It was to my mind a moral crusade on which I had entered, a course of justice and common sense, and it must be pursued in the light of day, and with public sanction, in order to accomplish its end."
In 1847, after numerous rejections from medical colleges in the U.S., Dr. Blackwell applied to Geneva Medical College. The college's faculty allowed the all-male student body to vote on Blackwell's admission, assuming they would never let a woman into their ranks.
In jest, the student body unanimously voted "yes." She was finally accepted as a medical student, making her the first female medical student in the U.S.
The talk of the town
Dr. Blackwell's gender was initially a sore point at Geneva. Professors told her that she had to sit apart from the other students, and she was often excluded from the laboratory.
She was also asked by a professor to avoid attending reproductive anatomy classes out of fear of "embarrassing" male students. Dr. Blackwell refused this request, stating that she wanted to be treated no differently to other students.
This attitude earned her much respect and support from her fellow students and, academically, Dr. Blackwell thrived during her 2 years at Geneva.
However, being the only female medical student at the institution made her the talk of the town; she was frowned upon by other women for opposing gender roles.
"I had not the slightest idea of the commotion created by my appearance as a medical student in the little town," Blackwell wrote in her journal.
"Very slowly I perceived that a doctor's wife at the table avoided any communication with me, and that as I walked backwards and forwards to college the ladies stopped to stare at me, as at a curious animal.
I afterwards found that I had so shocked Geneva propriety that the theory was fully established either that I was a bad woman, whose designs would gradually become evident, or that, being insane, an outbreak of insanity would soon be apparent [...]"
Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell
Dr. Blackwell was undaunted by the negative attitudes toward her and maintained focus on her goal: becoming a doctor. In fact, she was driven by the gender discrimination she received.
"The idea of winning a doctor's degree gradually assumed the aspect of a great moral struggle," she wrote in her journal, "and the moral fight possessed an immense attraction for me."
A 'truly remarkable' achievement
In 1849, at the age of 28, Dr. Blackwell graduated top of her class, becoming the first woman in America to achieve a medical degree.
At her graduation ceremony, the dean of Geneva Medical College, Dr. Charles Lee, publicly congratulated Dr. Blackwell on her achievement and said that he held "admiration at the heroism displayed, and sympathy for the sufferings voluntarily assumed."
"In 1849 women still did not have the right to vote in America. For a woman to hold a degree and pursue a career that was seemingly intended for men only was truly remarkable," Dr. Kelly Thibert, National President of the American Medical Student Association, told MNT.
"It was acts like this one that were imperative to the women's movement, aiming to achieve equality in all aspects of life, including in the field of science and healthcare," she added.
The news of her medical degree became widespread, and it achieved a mostly positive response. However, this favorable reaction did not guarantee Dr. Blackwell a medical career; the medical community in the U.S. remained reluctant to accept women into its ranks, and Dr. Blackwell was unable to find a hospital that would allow her to gain medical experience.
Furthermore, despite Dr. Blackwell's success at medical college, negative attitudes toward female medical students remained.
On a printed edition of the speech he made at Dr. Blackwell's graduation, Dr. Lee added a footnote stating that the "inconveniences attending the admission of females to all the lectures in a medical school, are so great, that he will feel compelled on all future occasions to oppose such a practice [...]."
Soon after, the State Medical Association of New York declared that "no more women" were to be accepted to medical schools.
In the years to come, Dr. Blackwell would tackle gender inequality for female medical students head on, providing them with opportunity to train and practice.
Providing women with a 'safe environment to study'
Inspired by the challenges she faced as a minority in the field of medicine, Dr. Blackwell established the New York Infirmary for Women and Children in 1858.
Now known as the New York University Downtown Hospital, the aim of this institution was not only to provide medical care for the poor, but to provide medical training for female students and positions for female physicians.
"Having an environment where women could study without the stigma of being female or the harassment from male physicians would have provided a safe environment for study," Dr. Ross told MNT.
Today, women account for around 47 percent of medical students in the U.S. - an achievement that may not have been possible without Dr. Blackwell's determination to defeat gender inequality in medicine.
"[...] the onset of various medical schools for women only showed the world that women were not going to be deterred from becoming doctors just because men thought they should not do so. If they could not be accepted into medical schools in existence, they would start their own.
It takes one person with an idea, a second person to make it a movement and then it becomes O.K. to join, and this would be the way of acceptance for women in medicine."
Dr. Shelley Ross
Even after she stopped practicing medicine in the late 1870s due to health problems, Dr. Blackwell continued to campaign for women's rights, as well as reform in preventive medicine, hygiene, and family planning.
Ongoing challenges for women in medicine
According to Dr. Ross, when it comes to women being accepted into medical schools, the "battle has been won." However, a number of challenges remain for female medical students.
Talking to MNT, Dr. Thibert said that women in medicine are often "pigeonholed" to certain roles, such as nursing.
"Don't get me wrong, I have learned a lot from nurses and there is absolutely nothing wrong with the nursing profession or being mistaken for a nurse at all," she told us. "However, when society perceives that the only medical role a female could pursue is nursing, then there's an issue, as we are limiting women to nursing just because our views of women's careers in medicine is a narrow one."
Additionally, Dr. Thibert noted that women who wish to pursue medical specialties that are male-dominated often have problems finding mentors in these areas.
Dr. Ross told MNT that having more women in leadership roles within the medical profession could help to overcome such challenges; at present, women make up just 15 percent of department chairs and 16 percent of deans.
"There need to be enough women physicians in senior leadership roles that the tipping point is reached so that it is now the norm rather than the exception," said Dr. Ross. "Often women in more senior roles do not bring younger women along the way with them. Often it is because the young women can not be persuaded to follow, so we need to mentor them and give them the fire in their belly to want to lead."
"Organizations such as MWIA provide that networking for female physicians that give[s] them the skills to succeed in a safe environment - similar to the all-female teaching hospital established by Elizabeth Blackwell," Dr. Ross added.
The fight for gender equality in medicine is far from over, but it is clear that without the work of Dr. Blackwell, the outlook for female medical students and physicians may not be so bright.
As researcher Tairmae Kangarloo says:
"She was certainly ahead of her time and paved the way for other women. Even now, 160 years later, we are still admiring her work and the ways in which she helped to revolutionize the role of women." | <urn:uuid:e9434c4c-8e96-48ca-a59a-c088e50eaa1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/316439.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00406.warc.gz | en | 0.982842 | 2,179 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.20066431... | 1 | Though gender inequality remains an issue for women in medicine, great strides have been made over the past century. Women now make up almost half of medical students in the United States and a third of physicians - an accomplishment that can be largely attributed to Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell.
In 1849, British-born Dr. Blackwell graduated from Geneva Medical College in New York, becoming the first woman in the U.S. to receive a medical degree.
"The significance [of this] cannot be overestimated, as this was a time when a woman being a physician was not the social norm," Dr. Shelley Ross, secretary general of the the Medical Women's International Association (MWIA), told Medical News Today.
Until her death in 1910, Dr. Blackwell was a strong advocate for women in medicine, spending much of her time campaigning for women's rights and establishing institutions dedicated to training female medical students in both the U.S. and the United Kingdom.
Although Dr. Blackwell was widely slandered for these actions at the time, she emerged as a role model who led the way for women in medicine.
"Because Blackwell altered her role as a woman in pursuing a career as a physician, some viewed her as abnormal and unnecessarily rebellious, while others admired her strength and courage and saw what her accomplishments could lead to in the future," says researcher Alyssa Turose.
"Blackwell inspired those of the latter viewpoint, and many of them began to take risks themselves in order to cross the social barriers."
In the fourth of a series of articles celebrating female role models in medicine, we look at the struggles that Dr. Blackwell faced to become America's first female doctor.
How has her life and career helped to set the stage for today's female medical students? What challenges remain for women in the medical profession?
Embarking on 'a moral crusade'
"Elizabeth, it is of no use trying. Thee cannot gain admission to these schools. Thee must go to Paris and don masculine attire to gain the necessary knowledge," physician Joseph Warrington told Blackwell, after she enquired about attending medical college in the U.S.
Never before had a woman been accepted to a medical college in America, but Dr. Blackwell was not deterred by the widespread discouragement.
"[...] neither the advice to go to Paris nor the suggestion of disguise tempted me for a moment," Blackwell wrote in a letter to Baroness Anne Isabella Milbanke Byron in 1851. "It was to my mind a moral crusade on which I had entered, a course of justice and common sense, and it must be pursued in the light of day, and with public sanction, in order to accomplish its end."
In 1847, after numerous rejections from medical colleges in the U.S., Dr. Blackwell applied to Geneva Medical College. The college's faculty allowed the all-male student body to vote on Blackwell's admission, assuming they would never let a woman into their ranks.
In jest, the student body unanimously voted "yes." She was finally accepted as a medical student, making her the first female medical student in the U.S.
The talk of the town
Dr. Blackwell's gender was initially a sore point at Geneva. Professors told her that she had to sit apart from the other students, and she was often excluded from the laboratory.
She was also asked by a professor to avoid attending reproductive anatomy classes out of fear of "embarrassing" male students. Dr. Blackwell refused this request, stating that she wanted to be treated no differently to other students.
This attitude earned her much respect and support from her fellow students and, academically, Dr. Blackwell thrived during her 2 years at Geneva.
However, being the only female medical student at the institution made her the talk of the town; she was frowned upon by other women for opposing gender roles.
"I had not the slightest idea of the commotion created by my appearance as a medical student in the little town," Blackwell wrote in her journal.
"Very slowly I perceived that a doctor's wife at the table avoided any communication with me, and that as I walked backwards and forwards to college the ladies stopped to stare at me, as at a curious animal.
I afterwards found that I had so shocked Geneva propriety that the theory was fully established either that I was a bad woman, whose designs would gradually become evident, or that, being insane, an outbreak of insanity would soon be apparent [...]"
Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell
Dr. Blackwell was undaunted by the negative attitudes toward her and maintained focus on her goal: becoming a doctor. In fact, she was driven by the gender discrimination she received.
"The idea of winning a doctor's degree gradually assumed the aspect of a great moral struggle," she wrote in her journal, "and the moral fight possessed an immense attraction for me."
A 'truly remarkable' achievement
In 1849, at the age of 28, Dr. Blackwell graduated top of her class, becoming the first woman in America to achieve a medical degree.
At her graduation ceremony, the dean of Geneva Medical College, Dr. Charles Lee, publicly congratulated Dr. Blackwell on her achievement and said that he held "admiration at the heroism displayed, and sympathy for the sufferings voluntarily assumed."
"In 1849 women still did not have the right to vote in America. For a woman to hold a degree and pursue a career that was seemingly intended for men only was truly remarkable," Dr. Kelly Thibert, National President of the American Medical Student Association, told MNT.
"It was acts like this one that were imperative to the women's movement, aiming to achieve equality in all aspects of life, including in the field of science and healthcare," she added.
The news of her medical degree became widespread, and it achieved a mostly positive response. However, this favorable reaction did not guarantee Dr. Blackwell a medical career; the medical community in the U.S. remained reluctant to accept women into its ranks, and Dr. Blackwell was unable to find a hospital that would allow her to gain medical experience.
Furthermore, despite Dr. Blackwell's success at medical college, negative attitudes toward female medical students remained.
On a printed edition of the speech he made at Dr. Blackwell's graduation, Dr. Lee added a footnote stating that the "inconveniences attending the admission of females to all the lectures in a medical school, are so great, that he will feel compelled on all future occasions to oppose such a practice [...]."
Soon after, the State Medical Association of New York declared that "no more women" were to be accepted to medical schools.
In the years to come, Dr. Blackwell would tackle gender inequality for female medical students head on, providing them with opportunity to train and practice.
Providing women with a 'safe environment to study'
Inspired by the challenges she faced as a minority in the field of medicine, Dr. Blackwell established the New York Infirmary for Women and Children in 1858.
Now known as the New York University Downtown Hospital, the aim of this institution was not only to provide medical care for the poor, but to provide medical training for female students and positions for female physicians.
"Having an environment where women could study without the stigma of being female or the harassment from male physicians would have provided a safe environment for study," Dr. Ross told MNT.
Today, women account for around 47 percent of medical students in the U.S. - an achievement that may not have been possible without Dr. Blackwell's determination to defeat gender inequality in medicine.
"[...] the onset of various medical schools for women only showed the world that women were not going to be deterred from becoming doctors just because men thought they should not do so. If they could not be accepted into medical schools in existence, they would start their own.
It takes one person with an idea, a second person to make it a movement and then it becomes O.K. to join, and this would be the way of acceptance for women in medicine."
Dr. Shelley Ross
Even after she stopped practicing medicine in the late 1870s due to health problems, Dr. Blackwell continued to campaign for women's rights, as well as reform in preventive medicine, hygiene, and family planning.
Ongoing challenges for women in medicine
According to Dr. Ross, when it comes to women being accepted into medical schools, the "battle has been won." However, a number of challenges remain for female medical students.
Talking to MNT, Dr. Thibert said that women in medicine are often "pigeonholed" to certain roles, such as nursing.
"Don't get me wrong, I have learned a lot from nurses and there is absolutely nothing wrong with the nursing profession or being mistaken for a nurse at all," she told us. "However, when society perceives that the only medical role a female could pursue is nursing, then there's an issue, as we are limiting women to nursing just because our views of women's careers in medicine is a narrow one."
Additionally, Dr. Thibert noted that women who wish to pursue medical specialties that are male-dominated often have problems finding mentors in these areas.
Dr. Ross told MNT that having more women in leadership roles within the medical profession could help to overcome such challenges; at present, women make up just 15 percent of department chairs and 16 percent of deans.
"There need to be enough women physicians in senior leadership roles that the tipping point is reached so that it is now the norm rather than the exception," said Dr. Ross. "Often women in more senior roles do not bring younger women along the way with them. Often it is because the young women can not be persuaded to follow, so we need to mentor them and give them the fire in their belly to want to lead."
"Organizations such as MWIA provide that networking for female physicians that give[s] them the skills to succeed in a safe environment - similar to the all-female teaching hospital established by Elizabeth Blackwell," Dr. Ross added.
The fight for gender equality in medicine is far from over, but it is clear that without the work of Dr. Blackwell, the outlook for female medical students and physicians may not be so bright.
As researcher Tairmae Kangarloo says:
"She was certainly ahead of her time and paved the way for other women. Even now, 160 years later, we are still admiring her work and the ways in which she helped to revolutionize the role of women." | 2,180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
| 1708 →|
The 1705 election saw contests in 110 constituencies in England and Wales, roughly 41% of the total. The election was fiercely fought, with mob violence and cries of "Church in Danger" occurring in several boroughs. During the previous session of Parliament the Tories had become increasingly unpopular, and their position was therefore somewhat weakened by the election, particularly by the Tackers controversy. Due to the uncertain loyalty of a group of 'moderate' Tories led by Robert Harley, the parties were roughly balanced in the House of Commons following the election, encouraging the Whigs to demand a greater share in the government led by Marlborough
English general election, 1705 Wikipedia
See British general election, 1796 for details. The constituencies used in England and Wales were the same throughout the period. In 1707 alone the 45 Scottish members were not elected from the constituencies, but were returned by co-option of a part of the membership of the last Parliament of Scotland elected before the Union.
Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown. | <urn:uuid:c127cae1-7ca6-4ad8-8afa-26e5c33e4ece> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/English-general-election%2C-1705 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00263.warc.gz | en | 0.983151 | 218 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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-0.0900258943... | 1 | | 1708 →|
The 1705 election saw contests in 110 constituencies in England and Wales, roughly 41% of the total. The election was fiercely fought, with mob violence and cries of "Church in Danger" occurring in several boroughs. During the previous session of Parliament the Tories had become increasingly unpopular, and their position was therefore somewhat weakened by the election, particularly by the Tackers controversy. Due to the uncertain loyalty of a group of 'moderate' Tories led by Robert Harley, the parties were roughly balanced in the House of Commons following the election, encouraging the Whigs to demand a greater share in the government led by Marlborough
English general election, 1705 Wikipedia
See British general election, 1796 for details. The constituencies used in England and Wales were the same throughout the period. In 1707 alone the 45 Scottish members were not elected from the constituencies, but were returned by co-option of a part of the membership of the last Parliament of Scotland elected before the Union.
Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown. | 240 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henri Matisse was born on December 31, 1869 in Le Cateau-Cambresis in northern France.
As a young man, Matisse traveled to Paris to study law and in 1889 he returned home to work in a law office as a clerk. It was around this time that he had an attack of appendicitis which required surgery. To make the long recovery more enjoyable, his mother gave him a paint box. It was then, at the age of 21, that Matisse discovered painting and decided to become an artist.
In 1891 Matisse travelled to Paris to study art at the Academie Julian and in 1897 was introduced to Impressionism and to the work of Vincent van Gogh. Matisse was fascinated by this new and interesting way of painting and his style changed completely.
In 1905, Matisse along with a group of artists which became known as "Fauves" (The Wild Beasts) exhibited together at the Salon d'Automne. The paintings shown were expressive, often without regard for the natural colors of the subject. Matisse's works in particular contained aggressive brush strokes and bold primary colors. The show brought sudden fame to Matisse with his "Woman with the Hat" being purchased by American writer and modern art collector Gertrude Stein.
In the 1940's Matisse began creating cut paper collages, often rather large pictures, called gouaches decoupes. He called this new technique "painting with scissors". His cut paper collages demonstrated his eye for colour and geometry in a simple, yet powerful way.
In 1954, at the age of 84, Matisse died a recognized leader in modern art. Two years before his death a museum was opened to honour his work. It is now the third-largest Matisse art collection in France.
In this collection you'll find lithographs from Verve, the Last Works of Henri Matisse, Derriere le Miroir, 1983 Reproductions from Jazz, as well as a range of other prints. | <urn:uuid:ef3205b2-4e2b-4742-a180-0c43f4dd5167> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kiamaartgallery.com.au/henri-matisse | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.981038 | 415 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.380528718233... | 5 | Henri Matisse was born on December 31, 1869 in Le Cateau-Cambresis in northern France.
As a young man, Matisse traveled to Paris to study law and in 1889 he returned home to work in a law office as a clerk. It was around this time that he had an attack of appendicitis which required surgery. To make the long recovery more enjoyable, his mother gave him a paint box. It was then, at the age of 21, that Matisse discovered painting and decided to become an artist.
In 1891 Matisse travelled to Paris to study art at the Academie Julian and in 1897 was introduced to Impressionism and to the work of Vincent van Gogh. Matisse was fascinated by this new and interesting way of painting and his style changed completely.
In 1905, Matisse along with a group of artists which became known as "Fauves" (The Wild Beasts) exhibited together at the Salon d'Automne. The paintings shown were expressive, often without regard for the natural colors of the subject. Matisse's works in particular contained aggressive brush strokes and bold primary colors. The show brought sudden fame to Matisse with his "Woman with the Hat" being purchased by American writer and modern art collector Gertrude Stein.
In the 1940's Matisse began creating cut paper collages, often rather large pictures, called gouaches decoupes. He called this new technique "painting with scissors". His cut paper collages demonstrated his eye for colour and geometry in a simple, yet powerful way.
In 1954, at the age of 84, Matisse died a recognized leader in modern art. Two years before his death a museum was opened to honour his work. It is now the third-largest Matisse art collection in France.
In this collection you'll find lithographs from Verve, the Last Works of Henri Matisse, Derriere le Miroir, 1983 Reproductions from Jazz, as well as a range of other prints. | 453 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rembrandt was a teacher as well as an artist – and he knew how to school apprentices in his workshop so that they could paint just like he did.
In this portrait we can see many of the skills and techniques that Rembrandt used with such great effect. Look at the intense and detailed focus on the face, the skilful layering of paint, the subtle mixing of different skin tones and the use of texture and colour to suggest stubble and pores. The pink, patterned scarf is painted with the same sort of long brushstrokes Rembrandt favoured when depicting fabric of this type.
For many years, it was thought to be a signed self portrait by Rembrandt. We now know that it’s a self portrait by one of his most successful pupils, Govert Flinck. In 1926 cleaning revealed that Rembrandt’s signature had been forged to cover Flinck’s own, probably in the nineteenth century to add value to the painting.
Rembrandt was an exacting teacher as well as a great artist – at least, he knew how to school the apprentices who came into his workshop so that they could paint just like he did. Sometimes they produced paintings so close in style and subject matter to his own that they have created confusion and the opportunity for fraud.
In this portrait we can see many skills and techniques which Rembrandt used with such great effect. Look at the intense and detailed focus on the face, the skilful layering of paint, the subtle mixing of different skin tones and the use of texture and colour to suggest stubble and pores. Then there are the highlights on the gold band around the sitter’s hat and the chain around his neck. The pink patterned scarf is also painted with the same sort of long brushstrokes Rembrandt favoured when depicting fabric of this type.
In summary, it’s a highly accomplished painting, in a distinctly Rembrandt-like style. We now know that it is a self portrait by one of his most successful pupils, Govert Flinck, but for many years it was thought to be a signed self portrait by Rembrandt himself. It was only in 1926 that cleaning revealed that his signature had been forged to cover Flinck’s own. This was probably done in the nineteenth century in order to add value to the painting. The forgery was removed so that you can now see the original, together with the date 1639, on the lower right hand side of the background.
Even once the correct signature was rediscovered the painting was still thought to be a portrait of Rembrandt. It was only in the 1960s that comparison of the face with known likenesses of Flinck led to a consensus that it must be a self portrait made when the artist was 24. Although he had left Rembrandt’s studio two or three years previously, and was later to develop his own style and become a successful Amsterdam artist in his own right, this painting is still strongly influenced by his former master and not only in the painting style.
Flinck here seems to be responding to a new type of self portrait which Rembrandt was developing around this time. There is an excellent example in our collection – Self Portrait at the Age of 34 – which shows Rembrandt leaning his elbow and forearm on a stone sill. It was a pose used by great painters of the Italian Renaissance and he dressed himself to reflect that. He radiates confidence and seems to be proclaiming himself heir to that great tradition.
In this painting, Flinck focuses more tightly on the head and shoulders, cropping out the arms, but the position and turn of the head, and the antiquated clothing he wears, is highly reminiscent of Rembrandt’s new approach. Rembrandt’s self portrait is dated 1640, but the etching on which it is based was made in 1639. So it seems that Flinck was responding immediately to his former master’s development of a new type of self portrait.
Download a low-resolution copy of this image for personal use.
License and download a high-resolution image for reproductions up to A3 size from the National Gallery Picture Library.
This image is licensed for non-commercial use under a Creative Commons agreement.
Examples of non-commercial use are:
The image file is 800 pixels on the longest side.
As a charity, we depend upon the generosity of individuals to ensure the collection continues to engage and inspire. Help keep us free by making a donation today.
You must agree to the Creative Commons terms and conditions to download this image. | <urn:uuid:505a74d1-401f-487c-be37-fe1f17803508> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/govert-flinck-self-portrait-aged-24 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.981237 | 963 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3840467631... | 7 | Rembrandt was a teacher as well as an artist – and he knew how to school apprentices in his workshop so that they could paint just like he did.
In this portrait we can see many of the skills and techniques that Rembrandt used with such great effect. Look at the intense and detailed focus on the face, the skilful layering of paint, the subtle mixing of different skin tones and the use of texture and colour to suggest stubble and pores. The pink, patterned scarf is painted with the same sort of long brushstrokes Rembrandt favoured when depicting fabric of this type.
For many years, it was thought to be a signed self portrait by Rembrandt. We now know that it’s a self portrait by one of his most successful pupils, Govert Flinck. In 1926 cleaning revealed that Rembrandt’s signature had been forged to cover Flinck’s own, probably in the nineteenth century to add value to the painting.
Rembrandt was an exacting teacher as well as a great artist – at least, he knew how to school the apprentices who came into his workshop so that they could paint just like he did. Sometimes they produced paintings so close in style and subject matter to his own that they have created confusion and the opportunity for fraud.
In this portrait we can see many skills and techniques which Rembrandt used with such great effect. Look at the intense and detailed focus on the face, the skilful layering of paint, the subtle mixing of different skin tones and the use of texture and colour to suggest stubble and pores. Then there are the highlights on the gold band around the sitter’s hat and the chain around his neck. The pink patterned scarf is also painted with the same sort of long brushstrokes Rembrandt favoured when depicting fabric of this type.
In summary, it’s a highly accomplished painting, in a distinctly Rembrandt-like style. We now know that it is a self portrait by one of his most successful pupils, Govert Flinck, but for many years it was thought to be a signed self portrait by Rembrandt himself. It was only in 1926 that cleaning revealed that his signature had been forged to cover Flinck’s own. This was probably done in the nineteenth century in order to add value to the painting. The forgery was removed so that you can now see the original, together with the date 1639, on the lower right hand side of the background.
Even once the correct signature was rediscovered the painting was still thought to be a portrait of Rembrandt. It was only in the 1960s that comparison of the face with known likenesses of Flinck led to a consensus that it must be a self portrait made when the artist was 24. Although he had left Rembrandt’s studio two or three years previously, and was later to develop his own style and become a successful Amsterdam artist in his own right, this painting is still strongly influenced by his former master and not only in the painting style.
Flinck here seems to be responding to a new type of self portrait which Rembrandt was developing around this time. There is an excellent example in our collection – Self Portrait at the Age of 34 – which shows Rembrandt leaning his elbow and forearm on a stone sill. It was a pose used by great painters of the Italian Renaissance and he dressed himself to reflect that. He radiates confidence and seems to be proclaiming himself heir to that great tradition.
In this painting, Flinck focuses more tightly on the head and shoulders, cropping out the arms, but the position and turn of the head, and the antiquated clothing he wears, is highly reminiscent of Rembrandt’s new approach. Rembrandt’s self portrait is dated 1640, but the etching on which it is based was made in 1639. So it seems that Flinck was responding immediately to his former master’s development of a new type of self portrait.
Download a low-resolution copy of this image for personal use.
License and download a high-resolution image for reproductions up to A3 size from the National Gallery Picture Library.
This image is licensed for non-commercial use under a Creative Commons agreement.
Examples of non-commercial use are:
The image file is 800 pixels on the longest side.
As a charity, we depend upon the generosity of individuals to ensure the collection continues to engage and inspire. Help keep us free by making a donation today.
You must agree to the Creative Commons terms and conditions to download this image. | 949 | ENGLISH | 1 |
8 – Intact Wine Amphorae
Israeli archaeologists recently found two 2,000-year-old wine amphorae in a cave high in the mountainous region north of the country. The archeological dig also found several jars, bowls, and cooking pots made of clay. However, it is the wine amphorae that steal the show by virtue of their size. These wine jars measure over 27 inches tall and have a diameter of over 19 inches.
Most remarkable is the fact that the site is located in an extremely difficult to reach cave which begs the question, why did they choose to settle there? The fact that cooking utensils were found suggests that people resided in the cave, at least for a while. Some archeologists also suggest that perhaps the cave previously enjoyed access that today no longer exists.
If you think clay pots surviving for thousands of years is intriguing, then what how about an almost intact ancient ship found at the bottom of the sea.
Tags: Ancient Archaeology Discovery Nature Tourism | <urn:uuid:fbfba150-b84a-43ae-bdfe-c2d0ad0489a8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.efor-real.com/3237/15-worlds-oldest-holy-grail-discovery-rosetta-stone-found-well-preserved-brain/9/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.981616 | 204 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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Israeli archaeologists recently found two 2,000-year-old wine amphorae in a cave high in the mountainous region north of the country. The archeological dig also found several jars, bowls, and cooking pots made of clay. However, it is the wine amphorae that steal the show by virtue of their size. These wine jars measure over 27 inches tall and have a diameter of over 19 inches.
Most remarkable is the fact that the site is located in an extremely difficult to reach cave which begs the question, why did they choose to settle there? The fact that cooking utensils were found suggests that people resided in the cave, at least for a while. Some archeologists also suggest that perhaps the cave previously enjoyed access that today no longer exists.
If you think clay pots surviving for thousands of years is intriguing, then what how about an almost intact ancient ship found at the bottom of the sea.
Tags: Ancient Archaeology Discovery Nature Tourism | 210 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In his classic novel, Lord of the Flies, William Golding utilizes many elements of symbolism to help accomplish his motif, which is "man is basically evil." Symbolism can be anything, a person, place or thing, used to portray something beyond itself. It is used to represent or foreshadow the conclusion of the story. As one reads this novel, he or she will begin to recognize the way basic civilization is slowly stripped away from the boys. Let us know look closer at the ways Golding uses this form of symbolism. From the very beginning of the story the boys inwardly strip themselves of the remnants of the basic civilized world. This is shown when the boys shed their clothes; their school sweaters, then the rest of their clothes are torn off. Their hair becomes increasingly disheveled, long, and entangled with small twigs. Since the boys are left without any adult supervision they have to turn to their collective unconscious. The collective unconscious was discovered by the renown psychologist Carl Jung. Let us now look further into each individual character in the novel, and discover how they each contribute to portray the ending of the story. Ralph is one of the older boys on the island and remains the leader throughout most of the novel. He is described as a pure, English lad. Such details as his fair hair and the fact that he is wearing his school sweater symbolizes many things. First of all the fact that he has fair hair represents that he will be the positive force throughout the novel, as opposed to Jack who is described as having red hair. The fact that he keeps his school sweater symbolizes his desire to keep the island somewhat civilized. He does everything he can to keep the boys under some kind of society. He makes laws including the freedom of speech. Ralph becomes very popular in the beginning, however as the novel proceeds and the society deteriorates, the popular leader is abandoned for a strong-armed dictator; Jack Merridew. The impression that we have of Jack is that he is a tall thin boy with a shock of red hair at the summit of a black cloak. Jacks appearance seems to suggest evil. Unlike Ralph who stands for common sense and a desire for normal civilized life, all Jack cares about is hunting. Because of this opposition between Jack and Ralph, Jack is Ralph's main antagonist. Symbolically Jack breaks away from good when he baptizes himself with the blood of the slaughtered pig. Jack eventually breaks away from Ralph and the others and forms his own group which will basically strive for blood. This leads to multiple murders. With the exception of Ralph, Piggy, and a few others, Jack lures the other boys to join him. According to the laws of Freudian Psychology Jacks Id has taken over. Another character portrayed in Lord of the Flies is Piggy. Piggy is the object of much mockery and is obviously a fat boy. Piggy foresees both the need for a closely watched signal fire and for secure shelters on the beach. Piggys spectacles are used to start the fire. Piggy could represent knowledge or intelligence, a figure which is often depicted as a fire-bringer. A familiar expression that can represent this is the fire of inspiration. Even though Piggy represented all good he was often jeered at. Simon is a Christ figure. He is quiet, almost unnoticed, yet he speaks wiser than the others. His wander deep into the heart of the woods in chapter three, is representative of Jesus' journey's to isolate himself to pray to his Father. As we can clearly see, William Golding has used much symbolism to help portray the ending of the novel, Lord of the Flies. | <urn:uuid:c88594cf-6461-4f43-9242-1ef777439117> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ww.novelguide.com/reportessay/literature/novels/lord-flies-5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00496.warc.gz | en | 0.980059 | 742 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.27981922030448914... | 1 | In his classic novel, Lord of the Flies, William Golding utilizes many elements of symbolism to help accomplish his motif, which is "man is basically evil." Symbolism can be anything, a person, place or thing, used to portray something beyond itself. It is used to represent or foreshadow the conclusion of the story. As one reads this novel, he or she will begin to recognize the way basic civilization is slowly stripped away from the boys. Let us know look closer at the ways Golding uses this form of symbolism. From the very beginning of the story the boys inwardly strip themselves of the remnants of the basic civilized world. This is shown when the boys shed their clothes; their school sweaters, then the rest of their clothes are torn off. Their hair becomes increasingly disheveled, long, and entangled with small twigs. Since the boys are left without any adult supervision they have to turn to their collective unconscious. The collective unconscious was discovered by the renown psychologist Carl Jung. Let us now look further into each individual character in the novel, and discover how they each contribute to portray the ending of the story. Ralph is one of the older boys on the island and remains the leader throughout most of the novel. He is described as a pure, English lad. Such details as his fair hair and the fact that he is wearing his school sweater symbolizes many things. First of all the fact that he has fair hair represents that he will be the positive force throughout the novel, as opposed to Jack who is described as having red hair. The fact that he keeps his school sweater symbolizes his desire to keep the island somewhat civilized. He does everything he can to keep the boys under some kind of society. He makes laws including the freedom of speech. Ralph becomes very popular in the beginning, however as the novel proceeds and the society deteriorates, the popular leader is abandoned for a strong-armed dictator; Jack Merridew. The impression that we have of Jack is that he is a tall thin boy with a shock of red hair at the summit of a black cloak. Jacks appearance seems to suggest evil. Unlike Ralph who stands for common sense and a desire for normal civilized life, all Jack cares about is hunting. Because of this opposition between Jack and Ralph, Jack is Ralph's main antagonist. Symbolically Jack breaks away from good when he baptizes himself with the blood of the slaughtered pig. Jack eventually breaks away from Ralph and the others and forms his own group which will basically strive for blood. This leads to multiple murders. With the exception of Ralph, Piggy, and a few others, Jack lures the other boys to join him. According to the laws of Freudian Psychology Jacks Id has taken over. Another character portrayed in Lord of the Flies is Piggy. Piggy is the object of much mockery and is obviously a fat boy. Piggy foresees both the need for a closely watched signal fire and for secure shelters on the beach. Piggys spectacles are used to start the fire. Piggy could represent knowledge or intelligence, a figure which is often depicted as a fire-bringer. A familiar expression that can represent this is the fire of inspiration. Even though Piggy represented all good he was often jeered at. Simon is a Christ figure. He is quiet, almost unnoticed, yet he speaks wiser than the others. His wander deep into the heart of the woods in chapter three, is representative of Jesus' journey's to isolate himself to pray to his Father. As we can clearly see, William Golding has used much symbolism to help portray the ending of the novel, Lord of the Flies. | 744 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This week we continued our exploration of frozen water. Last time we noticed that if you poured water on the ice it seemed to melt quickly. This time, we had some salt, sugar and flour in bowls to see if they could speed up melting. We noticed the salt helped melt the ice, but the sugar and flour didn’t. We also had two different sized lumps of ice and observed them throughout the morning to see which one would melt first.
This week in Reception and Nursery we have been learning all about the Chinese New Year. Amongst other things, we learnt that red is considered a lucky colour and that dragon dancing is part of the celebrations. We made our own dragon and then took it into the hall to do our own dragon dance. We took it in turns to be part of the dragon or to beat a rhythm.
Reception children discovered frost and ice outside today. They practiced writing in the frost with either their fingers or a stick. Children developed the skill of estimating, that we have been learning in maths by dropping the ice and estimating how many pieces it had broken into. They checked their answers by counting the smaller pieces of ice!
In their maths learning yesterday, Year 4 were been looking at the properties of shapes and lines. They looked at parallel and perpendicular lines and had to identify them within the Union Jack flag.
Using this knowledge of lines, they then had to create their own flag which contained a certain amount of parallel and perpendicular lines. We then began to look at similarities and differences between shapes. The discussions the children were having together were amazing! There was lots of mathematical vocabulary used such as lines of symmetry, number of vertices and right angles.
Well done year 4!
Year 1 had an exciting afternoon. We were joined by Mrs Bone who led a session following on from our maths learning. Year 1 learned some history around famous bridges. We got a chance to be challenge chasers and build our own lego bridges. We were set the challenge of having a toy plastic car travel over the bridge we had made. We all succeeded! Thank you to all the grown ups who came in to join us!
Continuing with our theme this week of The Gingerbread Man, Nursery made their own gingerbread men today. We followed a recipe but found it tricky to measure the ingredients correctly. We took turns to measure and mix and then roll and cut the gingerbread shapes. Once cooked and cooled we wrapped them up to take home. The children told us that they’d be eating them as soon as they could to make sure these ones don’t run away!
Children were developing their writing skills today. In the mud kitchen, pancakes were being made with a delicious topping of maple syrup. A list of ingredients was added to the menu board. Inside, children were labelling their pictures and models and making books.
This week, year 4 have been looking at different types of data in maths. We have looked at discrete data and how that can be represented, and then did the same for continuous data. We then collected our own data, decided which type of data it is and represented it in a graph/chart.
Some children were asked to roll a dice 50 times and record what number was rolled each time, others were asked to jump for 2 and a half minutes, and record how many jumps they had done at 30 second intervals. I was so impressed with how Year 4 did this, and although they might have been slightly out of breath, they were able to collect their own data and represent this in a line graph or a bar chart.
Can you tell which activity produces discrete data and which produces continuous?
This week, Year 4 have been learning all about their new science topic – electricity. They have been discussing renewable and non-renewable energy sources and which ones are better for us.
After learning about these sources, Year 4 then began planning and recording their own tv show which informed children about different ways we can get electricity.
They worked so hard on this and are very excited to learn more about electricity! | <urn:uuid:fa84ae41-2ae1-4bbf-9109-b5d7f8ac0513> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.maplecross.herts.sch.uk/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00189.warc.gz | en | 0.987774 | 834 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.0769611746... | 1 | This week we continued our exploration of frozen water. Last time we noticed that if you poured water on the ice it seemed to melt quickly. This time, we had some salt, sugar and flour in bowls to see if they could speed up melting. We noticed the salt helped melt the ice, but the sugar and flour didn’t. We also had two different sized lumps of ice and observed them throughout the morning to see which one would melt first.
This week in Reception and Nursery we have been learning all about the Chinese New Year. Amongst other things, we learnt that red is considered a lucky colour and that dragon dancing is part of the celebrations. We made our own dragon and then took it into the hall to do our own dragon dance. We took it in turns to be part of the dragon or to beat a rhythm.
Reception children discovered frost and ice outside today. They practiced writing in the frost with either their fingers or a stick. Children developed the skill of estimating, that we have been learning in maths by dropping the ice and estimating how many pieces it had broken into. They checked their answers by counting the smaller pieces of ice!
In their maths learning yesterday, Year 4 were been looking at the properties of shapes and lines. They looked at parallel and perpendicular lines and had to identify them within the Union Jack flag.
Using this knowledge of lines, they then had to create their own flag which contained a certain amount of parallel and perpendicular lines. We then began to look at similarities and differences between shapes. The discussions the children were having together were amazing! There was lots of mathematical vocabulary used such as lines of symmetry, number of vertices and right angles.
Well done year 4!
Year 1 had an exciting afternoon. We were joined by Mrs Bone who led a session following on from our maths learning. Year 1 learned some history around famous bridges. We got a chance to be challenge chasers and build our own lego bridges. We were set the challenge of having a toy plastic car travel over the bridge we had made. We all succeeded! Thank you to all the grown ups who came in to join us!
Continuing with our theme this week of The Gingerbread Man, Nursery made their own gingerbread men today. We followed a recipe but found it tricky to measure the ingredients correctly. We took turns to measure and mix and then roll and cut the gingerbread shapes. Once cooked and cooled we wrapped them up to take home. The children told us that they’d be eating them as soon as they could to make sure these ones don’t run away!
Children were developing their writing skills today. In the mud kitchen, pancakes were being made with a delicious topping of maple syrup. A list of ingredients was added to the menu board. Inside, children were labelling their pictures and models and making books.
This week, year 4 have been looking at different types of data in maths. We have looked at discrete data and how that can be represented, and then did the same for continuous data. We then collected our own data, decided which type of data it is and represented it in a graph/chart.
Some children were asked to roll a dice 50 times and record what number was rolled each time, others were asked to jump for 2 and a half minutes, and record how many jumps they had done at 30 second intervals. I was so impressed with how Year 4 did this, and although they might have been slightly out of breath, they were able to collect their own data and represent this in a line graph or a bar chart.
Can you tell which activity produces discrete data and which produces continuous?
This week, Year 4 have been learning all about their new science topic – electricity. They have been discussing renewable and non-renewable energy sources and which ones are better for us.
After learning about these sources, Year 4 then began planning and recording their own tv show which informed children about different ways we can get electricity.
They worked so hard on this and are very excited to learn more about electricity! | 821 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Standard #3: Planning
The student teacher's lesson plans are carefully written and detailed, noting content and skills objectives, describing activities, and noting special learning and diversity needs where appropriate. Lessons exhibit clearly focused, sensible connections from one to the next, and are designed topromote construction of knowledge by students. The student teacher takes time to explain lesson objectives to student and, using a variety of strategies, checks that students are clear about what they are doing and why they are doing it.
Standard #3: Reflection
Organization and routine are critical to my work as an educator and most certainly, life in general. While we were discussing our lessons and generating ideas, I was sure to put our thoughts on paper to ensure an easier transition to the lesson plan format. On the lesson plan, I would create an agenda listing all that we planned to do, including how long that would take and the times at which we should be transitioning activities, adding details when necessary. We also created a list of accordion activities which we would use for both filling time when necessary as well as differentiating instruction in the case that a student was either not challenged enough, or was having a hard time comprehending instruction. Some of these accordions included additional questions to further investigate a topic as well as articles on the American Dream which students could read and respond to.
One way which I added to our planning routine was to create an array of skills which we could draw upon to either check comprehension or gain attention. Some of these were in the objectives while others were on a mental checklist. These included thumbs up/thumbs down, five fingers, and eyes up. It was a nice way to involve all students, even if they didn’t speak up, they were at least able to share their opinion in nonverbal ways.
A goal that I have is to better my understanding of working with special learners with diverse needs. We had a couple students in particular who either had specific learning disabilities or were well behind grade level. It was difficult to find activities that would be comprehensible for these students but still challenge our most advanced students. I would like to improve my understanding of students’ needs and understandings and to make sure that my class and approachable for all. | <urn:uuid:69e6091b-49e9-48f5-97e6-6bd7baa4ad6f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brown.digication.com/sally_patton/Planning | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00509.warc.gz | en | 0.984192 | 457 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2517194449... | 2 | Standard #3: Planning
The student teacher's lesson plans are carefully written and detailed, noting content and skills objectives, describing activities, and noting special learning and diversity needs where appropriate. Lessons exhibit clearly focused, sensible connections from one to the next, and are designed topromote construction of knowledge by students. The student teacher takes time to explain lesson objectives to student and, using a variety of strategies, checks that students are clear about what they are doing and why they are doing it.
Standard #3: Reflection
Organization and routine are critical to my work as an educator and most certainly, life in general. While we were discussing our lessons and generating ideas, I was sure to put our thoughts on paper to ensure an easier transition to the lesson plan format. On the lesson plan, I would create an agenda listing all that we planned to do, including how long that would take and the times at which we should be transitioning activities, adding details when necessary. We also created a list of accordion activities which we would use for both filling time when necessary as well as differentiating instruction in the case that a student was either not challenged enough, or was having a hard time comprehending instruction. Some of these accordions included additional questions to further investigate a topic as well as articles on the American Dream which students could read and respond to.
One way which I added to our planning routine was to create an array of skills which we could draw upon to either check comprehension or gain attention. Some of these were in the objectives while others were on a mental checklist. These included thumbs up/thumbs down, five fingers, and eyes up. It was a nice way to involve all students, even if they didn’t speak up, they were at least able to share their opinion in nonverbal ways.
A goal that I have is to better my understanding of working with special learners with diverse needs. We had a couple students in particular who either had specific learning disabilities or were well behind grade level. It was difficult to find activities that would be comprehensible for these students but still challenge our most advanced students. I would like to improve my understanding of students’ needs and understandings and to make sure that my class and approachable for all. | 448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ecclesia or Ekklesia (Greek: ) was the principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens. It was the popular assembly, open to all male citizens as soon as they qualified for citizenship. In 594 BC, Solon allowed all Athenian citizens to participate, regardless of class, even the thetes. The assembly was responsible for declaring war, military strategy and electing the strategoi and other officials. It was responsible for nominating and electing magistrates (árchontes), thus indirectly electing the members of the Areopagus. It had the final say on legislation and the right to call magistrates to account after their year of office. A typical meeting of the Assembly probably contained around 6000 people, out of a total citizen population of 30,000-60,000. It would have been difficult, however, for non-wealthy people outside the urban center of Athens to attend until payments for attendance were introduced in the 390s. It originally met once every month, but later met three or four times per month. The agenda for the ekklesia was established by the Boule, the popular council. Votes were taken by a show of hands, counting of stones and voting using broken pottery.
In ancient Greece an ekklesiasterion was a building specifically built for the purpose of holding the supreme meetings of the ecclesia. Like many other cities Athens did not have an ekklesiasterion. Instead, the regular meetings of the assembly were held on the Pnyx and two annual meetings took place in the Theater of Dionysus. Around 300 BC the meetings of the ekklesia were moved to the theater. The meetings of the assembly could attract large audiences: 6,000 citizens might have attended in Athens during the fifth century BC.
A police force of 300 Scythian slaves carried red ochre-stained ropes to induce the citizens who loitered in the agora of Athens to attend the meetings of the assembly. Anyone with red-stained clothes who was not in the meeting was liable to a penalty. | <urn:uuid:43e9502d-511d-4bc1-8d57-4b09eb6dab79> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.980823 | 425 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.079962462186... | 1 | The Ecclesia or Ekklesia (Greek: ) was the principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens. It was the popular assembly, open to all male citizens as soon as they qualified for citizenship. In 594 BC, Solon allowed all Athenian citizens to participate, regardless of class, even the thetes. The assembly was responsible for declaring war, military strategy and electing the strategoi and other officials. It was responsible for nominating and electing magistrates (árchontes), thus indirectly electing the members of the Areopagus. It had the final say on legislation and the right to call magistrates to account after their year of office. A typical meeting of the Assembly probably contained around 6000 people, out of a total citizen population of 30,000-60,000. It would have been difficult, however, for non-wealthy people outside the urban center of Athens to attend until payments for attendance were introduced in the 390s. It originally met once every month, but later met three or four times per month. The agenda for the ekklesia was established by the Boule, the popular council. Votes were taken by a show of hands, counting of stones and voting using broken pottery.
In ancient Greece an ekklesiasterion was a building specifically built for the purpose of holding the supreme meetings of the ecclesia. Like many other cities Athens did not have an ekklesiasterion. Instead, the regular meetings of the assembly were held on the Pnyx and two annual meetings took place in the Theater of Dionysus. Around 300 BC the meetings of the ekklesia were moved to the theater. The meetings of the assembly could attract large audiences: 6,000 citizens might have attended in Athens during the fifth century BC.
A police force of 300 Scythian slaves carried red ochre-stained ropes to induce the citizens who loitered in the agora of Athens to attend the meetings of the assembly. Anyone with red-stained clothes who was not in the meeting was liable to a penalty. | 441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dec. 1 is World AIDS Day (WAD), also known as World AIDS Awareness Day. WAD was created by the United Nations World Health Organization in 1988 in an effort to raise awareness about the global epidemic of HIV/AIDS. The event not only raises awareness about prevention and treatment of the disease, but also helps reduce the stigma and discrimination against those living with HIV/AIDS. The annual event also commemorates those who have died. WAD was actually the very first global health day.
While once considered a death sentence, advancements in treatments and significant gains have been made over the years allowing people to live longer and have a better quality of life. But the fact remains, HIV/AIDS continues to be a serious public health challenge around the globe. It is estimated that nearly 35 million people were living with HIV/AIDS in 2013. Over 3 million of those were children. 19 million of those folks do not know they have the virus.
Each year, all sorts of information and educational events are held on World AIDS Day. Candlelight vigils, concerts, marches, bake sales and other activities take place around the globe. People can also show their support by wearing a red ribbon, one of the world’s most recognized symbols. | <urn:uuid:a7ceb1fe-9e95-45d2-961f-209c0e6c3d49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.holidailys.com/single-post/2015/12/01/World-AIDS-Day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.982503 | 251 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.32424384355545... | 2 | Dec. 1 is World AIDS Day (WAD), also known as World AIDS Awareness Day. WAD was created by the United Nations World Health Organization in 1988 in an effort to raise awareness about the global epidemic of HIV/AIDS. The event not only raises awareness about prevention and treatment of the disease, but also helps reduce the stigma and discrimination against those living with HIV/AIDS. The annual event also commemorates those who have died. WAD was actually the very first global health day.
While once considered a death sentence, advancements in treatments and significant gains have been made over the years allowing people to live longer and have a better quality of life. But the fact remains, HIV/AIDS continues to be a serious public health challenge around the globe. It is estimated that nearly 35 million people were living with HIV/AIDS in 2013. Over 3 million of those were children. 19 million of those folks do not know they have the virus.
Each year, all sorts of information and educational events are held on World AIDS Day. Candlelight vigils, concerts, marches, bake sales and other activities take place around the globe. People can also show their support by wearing a red ribbon, one of the world’s most recognized symbols. | 257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The manufacturing and industry increased in the United States. As a social result, American immigrants were discouraged from coming to British North America. The country turned to isolationism for a century because people were disgusted with war. During the War ofUpper Canada was populated mainly by American immigrants of dubious loyalty.
Americans were more vocal and independent-minded while Nova Scotians tended to be more on the conservative side. Moreover, Loyalists resented the fact that while they had lost everything during the American Revolution the merchants of Halifax had enjoyed huge profits.
These differences were effectively overcome by creating a new colony for the new comers New Brunswick. When it came to the Loyalist situation in Quebec an altogether different solution was required: So, the two groups had to be kept separated geographically By keeping the colony of Quebec intact Britain left the door open for the eventual absorption of the French into an English-dominated Canada.
The words Quebec and Canada are in many respects synonyms for one another at this time The Constitution Act of reflected the constitutional changes then being implemented by England in its reorganization of British North America.
British North America refers to all those non-American colonies still under English control following the American Revolution. Quebec would be divided into two provinces called Upper and Lower Canada.
Although the British separated the two peoples geographically the door was left open for the potential assimilation of the French. Each province was granted a separate elected government assembly. The colonies were to have separate governments. For the time being this would keep French-English contact to a minimum.
In reality, the elected assemblies had absolutely no decision-making power. These assemblies were in fact powerless. Upper and Lower Canada would be controlled by a non-elected governor and two councils legislative and executive members of which were directly appointed by the governor.
Roman Catholics could vote and hold public office; but only people who owned land were allowed to vote. The right to vote really didn't matter anways as the elected assemblies of the two Canadian provinces did not actually have any decision-making power.
In terms of French culture, the freedoms granted to them through the Quebec Act were re-affirmed; it was believed that once the English were in the majority the two provinces—Upper and Lower Canada—would be united under a single assembly and the English would then be able to overturn the Quebec Act's more "controversial" provisions.
In Upper Canada, British civil and criminal law and a British landowning system went into effect. Lower Canada combined French civil law with British criminal law.
The tithe to the Catholic Church remained in affect. The French especially landowners and the Church were pleased when their ancient feudal privileges were reaffirmed. Why was Ontario called Upper Canada instead of Lower when it was obviously the southern-most of the two colonies?
Because Ontario was up the St. Lawrence River from Quebec City and by extension Quebec was down river or "lower".
Some Problems with the Constitution Act Although the Constitution Act created the desired political stability in Canada for the present it opened the door for future problems.
This is ironic, in that, the new colonial government system was ultimately designed to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideals from America to Canada. In reality, the flawed colonial government system encouraged the eventual outbreak of three Canadian rebellions in the s.
By granting both Upper and Lower Canada elected assemblies it appeared that Canada had a democratic system. Nothing could have been further from the truth.
Well, okay, okay, if I were to say a marauding army of light-sabre wielding leprechauns invaded Quebec to impose their luck on unwilling Canadians then that would be even further from the truth.
Ultimately, Britain did not trust either the French or the American-Loyalists. The French could not be trusted for obvious reasons they were French, afterall.Feb 03, · Before Canada was a country, the British controlled both Upper and Lower Canada, but Lower Canada maintained the French culture.
The name "Upper" and "Lower with respect to Canada before Confederation had to do with the location with respect to the St.
Lawrence ashio-midori.com: Resolved. The Rebellions of – (French: Les rébellions de ) were two armed uprisings that took place in Lower and Upper Canada in and Both rebellions were . The Rebellions In Upper and Lower Canada () Similarities Between The Two Rebellions: Both had a list of grievances which were sent to Britain.5/5(3).
Differences between Upper Canada and Lower Canada There are many differences and similarities between Upper and Lower Canada.
It is important to note from the beginning that the two have a different history. Upper Canada was founded from people primarily from Britain. It was a nation of merchants.
Through the Constitution Act () the colony of Quebec was sub-divided into two provinces—Upper Canada (Loyalist) and Lower Canada (French). By keeping the colony of Quebec intact Britain left the door open for the eventual absorption of the French into an English-dominated Canada.
Nov 17, · Best Answer: Upper Canada and Lower Canada as British colonies officially existed from to They were parts of British Holdings in Canada positioned closer to the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River, which is the primary drainage of the Great Lakes Basin and flows to ashio-midori.com: Resolved. | <urn:uuid:5beee187-3eb6-44db-9902-aea574943ae3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vunajyp.ashio-midori.com/the-differences-between-the-upper-canada-and-lower-canada-29393nm.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00287.warc.gz | en | 0.981436 | 1,095 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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-0.14705678820... | 2 | The manufacturing and industry increased in the United States. As a social result, American immigrants were discouraged from coming to British North America. The country turned to isolationism for a century because people were disgusted with war. During the War ofUpper Canada was populated mainly by American immigrants of dubious loyalty.
Americans were more vocal and independent-minded while Nova Scotians tended to be more on the conservative side. Moreover, Loyalists resented the fact that while they had lost everything during the American Revolution the merchants of Halifax had enjoyed huge profits.
These differences were effectively overcome by creating a new colony for the new comers New Brunswick. When it came to the Loyalist situation in Quebec an altogether different solution was required: So, the two groups had to be kept separated geographically By keeping the colony of Quebec intact Britain left the door open for the eventual absorption of the French into an English-dominated Canada.
The words Quebec and Canada are in many respects synonyms for one another at this time The Constitution Act of reflected the constitutional changes then being implemented by England in its reorganization of British North America.
British North America refers to all those non-American colonies still under English control following the American Revolution. Quebec would be divided into two provinces called Upper and Lower Canada.
Although the British separated the two peoples geographically the door was left open for the potential assimilation of the French. Each province was granted a separate elected government assembly. The colonies were to have separate governments. For the time being this would keep French-English contact to a minimum.
In reality, the elected assemblies had absolutely no decision-making power. These assemblies were in fact powerless. Upper and Lower Canada would be controlled by a non-elected governor and two councils legislative and executive members of which were directly appointed by the governor.
Roman Catholics could vote and hold public office; but only people who owned land were allowed to vote. The right to vote really didn't matter anways as the elected assemblies of the two Canadian provinces did not actually have any decision-making power.
In terms of French culture, the freedoms granted to them through the Quebec Act were re-affirmed; it was believed that once the English were in the majority the two provinces—Upper and Lower Canada—would be united under a single assembly and the English would then be able to overturn the Quebec Act's more "controversial" provisions.
In Upper Canada, British civil and criminal law and a British landowning system went into effect. Lower Canada combined French civil law with British criminal law.
The tithe to the Catholic Church remained in affect. The French especially landowners and the Church were pleased when their ancient feudal privileges were reaffirmed. Why was Ontario called Upper Canada instead of Lower when it was obviously the southern-most of the two colonies?
Because Ontario was up the St. Lawrence River from Quebec City and by extension Quebec was down river or "lower".
Some Problems with the Constitution Act Although the Constitution Act created the desired political stability in Canada for the present it opened the door for future problems.
This is ironic, in that, the new colonial government system was ultimately designed to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideals from America to Canada. In reality, the flawed colonial government system encouraged the eventual outbreak of three Canadian rebellions in the s.
By granting both Upper and Lower Canada elected assemblies it appeared that Canada had a democratic system. Nothing could have been further from the truth.
Well, okay, okay, if I were to say a marauding army of light-sabre wielding leprechauns invaded Quebec to impose their luck on unwilling Canadians then that would be even further from the truth.
Ultimately, Britain did not trust either the French or the American-Loyalists. The French could not be trusted for obvious reasons they were French, afterall.Feb 03, · Before Canada was a country, the British controlled both Upper and Lower Canada, but Lower Canada maintained the French culture.
The name "Upper" and "Lower with respect to Canada before Confederation had to do with the location with respect to the St.
Lawrence ashio-midori.com: Resolved. The Rebellions of – (French: Les rébellions de ) were two armed uprisings that took place in Lower and Upper Canada in and Both rebellions were . The Rebellions In Upper and Lower Canada () Similarities Between The Two Rebellions: Both had a list of grievances which were sent to Britain.5/5(3).
Differences between Upper Canada and Lower Canada There are many differences and similarities between Upper and Lower Canada.
It is important to note from the beginning that the two have a different history. Upper Canada was founded from people primarily from Britain. It was a nation of merchants.
Through the Constitution Act () the colony of Quebec was sub-divided into two provinces—Upper Canada (Loyalist) and Lower Canada (French). By keeping the colony of Quebec intact Britain left the door open for the eventual absorption of the French into an English-dominated Canada.
Nov 17, · Best Answer: Upper Canada and Lower Canada as British colonies officially existed from to They were parts of British Holdings in Canada positioned closer to the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River, which is the primary drainage of the Great Lakes Basin and flows to ashio-midori.com: Resolved. | 1,068 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gender equality during enlightenment
This analysis considers their work in a context in which they were uncharacteristic intellectuals but not women standing alone in a male universe. With Enlightenment thinking, women began to develop a new intellect.
List of female enlightenment thinkers
Though women were asked to partake in debating societies, there were stipulations as to which societies they could be a part of and when they were permitted to attend. Her legacy created a discussion in women rights that had not been discussed prior to the revolution in France. As informal practices of education, coffeehouses were often condemned and deemed improper by male scholars who were accustomed to completely male-dominated institutions. Olympe De Gouges These Women help paved the way for natural rights and equality for women in society during the Enlightenment eras. As the Old Regime began to fail, women became more prolific in their publications. What it lacks, however, is an examination of the impact of the Enlightenment upon 18th-century Scottish women, and why there appear to have been far more public English female intellectuals than Scottish ones. Wollstonecraft believed that educated women could strengthen society and could intellectually be equivalent to their husband in society. The societies were the only outlet for lower and middle class individuals to express unorthodox views of the time. By combining the ideas that were created in the public sector to those more traditional domestic private affairs, such as hosting salons in their houses. In his philosophy Hutcheson rejects natural law arguments which assert the right of the husband to command, and instead presents a concept of ideal marriage founded upon equality and reciprocity. In the end what we get is a more complicated picture of gender and the British Enlightenment, in which there is more grey than black and white. Other reviews. Mary Wollstonecraft At that time, women took a more radical approach for liberty and equal rights. Others, like Robert Darnton , fail to mention them at all.
In order to publish work during most of the Enlightenment, a married woman had to have written consent from her husband. The writer Mary Wollstonecraft is often credited as an early feminist of this era.
She also believed that women natural rights were lost and it was up to women to retrieved them. Wollstonecraft believed that educated women could strengthen society and could intellectually be equivalent to their husband in society.
Gender equality during enlightenment
For example, Rousseau believed that women were subordinate to men and women should obey men. By combining the ideas that were created in the public sector to those more traditional domestic private affairs, such as hosting salons in their houses. Often time women were perceived as the caretakers of the household and mothers of children in the family. With the new economic outlook of the Enlightenment, female writers were granted more opportunity in the print sphere. Out of the salons, women were able to obtain knowledge and gain literary support. So in addition to well known figures such as Wollstonecraft many lesser known female writers are included. What it lacks, however, is an examination of the impact of the Enlightenment upon 18th-century Scottish women, and why there appear to have been far more public English female intellectuals than Scottish ones. Notes See for example essays in Women, Gender and Enlightenment, ed. After a series of events that occur, she would establish a series of documents acknowledging women and their equal liberties. Many people used fashionable opinions to move up social ladders. Hume, of course, insisted that all the best intellectual conversations feature women as well as men. This is illustrated in chapter two, which focuses on Scottish Enlightenment conjectural history. Because of these gatherings, women were able to think critically, participate and contribute in society in many ways rather than being becoming caretakers of the households. The societies were the only outlet for lower and middle class individuals to express unorthodox views of the time.
Other reviews. Prior to the Enlightenment, women were not considered of equal status to men in Western society.
This text makes a very important contribution to the history of the Enlightenment by placing Enlightenment discourses of progress and femininity in their religious context, particularly Latitudinarian Anglicanism.
She is known for writing several novels, treatise and books that advocating women should received formal education.
based on 53 review | <urn:uuid:a4754c1e-0b98-40a4-bd64-724b9f0c5543> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fomalogaxapoxizot.whatshanesaid.com/gender-equality-during-enlightenment113866974js.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.983098 | 859 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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-0.00700685381... | 1 | Gender equality during enlightenment
This analysis considers their work in a context in which they were uncharacteristic intellectuals but not women standing alone in a male universe. With Enlightenment thinking, women began to develop a new intellect.
List of female enlightenment thinkers
Though women were asked to partake in debating societies, there were stipulations as to which societies they could be a part of and when they were permitted to attend. Her legacy created a discussion in women rights that had not been discussed prior to the revolution in France. As informal practices of education, coffeehouses were often condemned and deemed improper by male scholars who were accustomed to completely male-dominated institutions. Olympe De Gouges These Women help paved the way for natural rights and equality for women in society during the Enlightenment eras. As the Old Regime began to fail, women became more prolific in their publications. What it lacks, however, is an examination of the impact of the Enlightenment upon 18th-century Scottish women, and why there appear to have been far more public English female intellectuals than Scottish ones. Wollstonecraft believed that educated women could strengthen society and could intellectually be equivalent to their husband in society. The societies were the only outlet for lower and middle class individuals to express unorthodox views of the time. By combining the ideas that were created in the public sector to those more traditional domestic private affairs, such as hosting salons in their houses. In his philosophy Hutcheson rejects natural law arguments which assert the right of the husband to command, and instead presents a concept of ideal marriage founded upon equality and reciprocity. In the end what we get is a more complicated picture of gender and the British Enlightenment, in which there is more grey than black and white. Other reviews. Mary Wollstonecraft At that time, women took a more radical approach for liberty and equal rights. Others, like Robert Darnton , fail to mention them at all.
In order to publish work during most of the Enlightenment, a married woman had to have written consent from her husband. The writer Mary Wollstonecraft is often credited as an early feminist of this era.
She also believed that women natural rights were lost and it was up to women to retrieved them. Wollstonecraft believed that educated women could strengthen society and could intellectually be equivalent to their husband in society.
Gender equality during enlightenment
For example, Rousseau believed that women were subordinate to men and women should obey men. By combining the ideas that were created in the public sector to those more traditional domestic private affairs, such as hosting salons in their houses. Often time women were perceived as the caretakers of the household and mothers of children in the family. With the new economic outlook of the Enlightenment, female writers were granted more opportunity in the print sphere. Out of the salons, women were able to obtain knowledge and gain literary support. So in addition to well known figures such as Wollstonecraft many lesser known female writers are included. What it lacks, however, is an examination of the impact of the Enlightenment upon 18th-century Scottish women, and why there appear to have been far more public English female intellectuals than Scottish ones. Notes See for example essays in Women, Gender and Enlightenment, ed. After a series of events that occur, she would establish a series of documents acknowledging women and their equal liberties. Many people used fashionable opinions to move up social ladders. Hume, of course, insisted that all the best intellectual conversations feature women as well as men. This is illustrated in chapter two, which focuses on Scottish Enlightenment conjectural history. Because of these gatherings, women were able to think critically, participate and contribute in society in many ways rather than being becoming caretakers of the households. The societies were the only outlet for lower and middle class individuals to express unorthodox views of the time.
Other reviews. Prior to the Enlightenment, women were not considered of equal status to men in Western society.
This text makes a very important contribution to the history of the Enlightenment by placing Enlightenment discourses of progress and femininity in their religious context, particularly Latitudinarian Anglicanism.
She is known for writing several novels, treatise and books that advocating women should received formal education.
based on 53 review | 860 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
|Subject area||Arts Entertainment|
A Christmas Carol was written by Charles Dickens in 1843. Life for the decrease class during this period was extremely hard because of enormous amounts of disorders, young children worked and no schooling. A Christmas Carol was put in mid 19th century, even in that time individuals had a really lousy time; most of the people was jobless and the people who had been employed were compensated deficiently, others were casual or seasonal, which meant they were if work was available so the majority of the families lived in poverty which means that they didn't have access to fine food and clothes and children were also used for the household income so that the children had to work at work houses. In contrast the wealthy people had access to physicians, lots of food and didn't need to operate, had nice clothes to use and had a nice life. Charles Dickens wrote A Christmas Carol to Emphasize the plisht of this bad. A Christmas Carol is divided into five star. The first stave is really a prologue in which Dickens introduces the reader to scrooge as well as his or her characteristics. In the next stave Dickens writes about the phantom of yesteryear who takes scrooge into the past and shows him what occurred in his important components of the life. From the third stave Dickens writes concerning the phantom of the current where the ghost of current shows scrooge what was happening at the current. In the fourth stave scrooge is fulfilled by the ghost of the future and he's shown what is going to occur in the future to him and people around him. The final stave is the epilogue, where dickens finishes the novel by showing the reader the way Scrooge changes his traits and revolutionizes. Ebenezer Scrooge is described as miser and man of 'company' and that he was also portrayed as tight fisted hand and he was described as a squeezing,... | <urn:uuid:f9cf5f5c-50c7-4fff-9706-cf274fc45ba5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/arts_entertainment/1013475/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.991478 | 412 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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|Subject area||Arts Entertainment|
A Christmas Carol was written by Charles Dickens in 1843. Life for the decrease class during this period was extremely hard because of enormous amounts of disorders, young children worked and no schooling. A Christmas Carol was put in mid 19th century, even in that time individuals had a really lousy time; most of the people was jobless and the people who had been employed were compensated deficiently, others were casual or seasonal, which meant they were if work was available so the majority of the families lived in poverty which means that they didn't have access to fine food and clothes and children were also used for the household income so that the children had to work at work houses. In contrast the wealthy people had access to physicians, lots of food and didn't need to operate, had nice clothes to use and had a nice life. Charles Dickens wrote A Christmas Carol to Emphasize the plisht of this bad. A Christmas Carol is divided into five star. The first stave is really a prologue in which Dickens introduces the reader to scrooge as well as his or her characteristics. In the next stave Dickens writes about the phantom of yesteryear who takes scrooge into the past and shows him what occurred in his important components of the life. From the third stave Dickens writes concerning the phantom of the current where the ghost of current shows scrooge what was happening at the current. In the fourth stave scrooge is fulfilled by the ghost of the future and he's shown what is going to occur in the future to him and people around him. The final stave is the epilogue, where dickens finishes the novel by showing the reader the way Scrooge changes his traits and revolutionizes. Ebenezer Scrooge is described as miser and man of 'company' and that he was also portrayed as tight fisted hand and he was described as a squeezing,... | 417 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frédéric Chopin was the most famous composer of Polish origin in the history of Western concert music. He was a progressive who revolutionized the harmonic content, the texture, and the emotional quality of the small piano piece, turning light dance forms, nocturnes, and study genres into profound works that were both daring and deeply inward.
Born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin to a French father and a Polish mother, probably on March 1, 1810, he was a native of Zelazowa Wola village west of Warsaw. In these rustic surroundings, he was exposed to both the classics of keyboard music (including, significantly, those of Bach), by teachers who immediately recognized him as a prodigy, and to Polish folk music, which would be reflected in a pioneering musical nationalism. He quickly outstripped the talents of most of Warsaw's top piano and composition teachers, and when he graduated from the Main School of Music in 1829, professor Józef Elsner pronounced him a genius. That year, Chopin set out on a tour of Austria, Germany, and France. During this period, he wrote his two piano concertos, which contain much of the typical brilliant style of virtuoso piano music of the era, but show the development of a gift for distinctive melody, both ornate and emotionally deep. Chopin returned to Warsaw but departed again, first for Vienna, where he heard news that Poland's uprising against its Russian, Prussian, and Austrian rulers had failed. The Polish national spirit would pervade some of his larger works, including the so-called "Revolutionary" Etude (the Etude in C minor, Op. 10, No. 12). He was encouraged by composer Robert Schumann, who reviewed his Variations, Op. 2, with the words "Hats off, gentlemen, a genius!"
In 1832, Chopin headed for Paris, in many ways the center of European cultural life, and dazzled the city's musical elite, including Franz Liszt, in a concert at the Salle Pleyel. He immediately found himself in demand as a piano teacher, and soon he decided to settle in Paris, although he always hoped to return to Poland. He performed at aristocratic salons, cultivating then-new genres such as the étude (the word means "study," but in Chopin's hands it became much more), the nocturne, the waltz, and, in a Polish vein, the mazurka and the polonaise. After a planned marriage to a Polish girl, Maria Wodzinska, fell through, Chopin met writer Aurore Dudevant, who used the pen name George Sand. The pair began a torrid affair (Sand was married) and traveled together in 1838 to Mallorca, Spain, where they found the local citizenry disapproving of their unconventional relationship and were forced to lodge in a disused monastery. Chopin's creativity was fired, and he would write brilliantly innovative sets of piano music over the next few years. However, the weather turned cold in the winter of 1838-1839, and Chopin's health worsened as he and Sand lived in the unheated building; he was probably already suffering from tuberculosis. Back in France, Chopin and Sand took up residence in Paris and in summers at her estate in Nohant, where Chopin composed prolifically and the couple hosted painter Eugène Delacroix and other members of the cream of French artistic society. The romance cooled, though, and finally ended in 1847. One factor precipitating the breakup was Sand's negative portrayal of Chopin in her 1846 novel Lucrezia Floriani.
Chopin's health was also worsening badly; he found it difficult to perform and could no longer attract crowds as a virtuoso. During political unrest in Paris in 1848, Chopin fled to the British Isles. He performed in London (once for Queen Victoria and Prince Albert) and in Glasgow, where he was the subject of romantic interest from Scots noblewoman Jane Stirling. Chopin, however, remarked that he was "closer to the grave than the nuptial bed," and indeed in November of 1848 he gave what would be his last concert, for Polish refugees. He returned to Paris and continued to receive a steady stream of admirers despite what was clearly a terminal illness; singer Pauline Viardot, according to historians Kornel Michałowski and Jim Samson, remarked that "all the grand Parisian ladies considered it de rigueur to faint in his room." Chopin died in Paris on October 17, 1849. ~ James Manheim | <urn:uuid:34b3460c-5ac4-4da3-bf08-22ec5ed4cc87> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.qobuz.com/gb-en/composer/frederic-chopin/download-streaming-albums | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.981455 | 966 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.10295120626688004... | 2 | Frédéric Chopin was the most famous composer of Polish origin in the history of Western concert music. He was a progressive who revolutionized the harmonic content, the texture, and the emotional quality of the small piano piece, turning light dance forms, nocturnes, and study genres into profound works that were both daring and deeply inward.
Born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin to a French father and a Polish mother, probably on March 1, 1810, he was a native of Zelazowa Wola village west of Warsaw. In these rustic surroundings, he was exposed to both the classics of keyboard music (including, significantly, those of Bach), by teachers who immediately recognized him as a prodigy, and to Polish folk music, which would be reflected in a pioneering musical nationalism. He quickly outstripped the talents of most of Warsaw's top piano and composition teachers, and when he graduated from the Main School of Music in 1829, professor Józef Elsner pronounced him a genius. That year, Chopin set out on a tour of Austria, Germany, and France. During this period, he wrote his two piano concertos, which contain much of the typical brilliant style of virtuoso piano music of the era, but show the development of a gift for distinctive melody, both ornate and emotionally deep. Chopin returned to Warsaw but departed again, first for Vienna, where he heard news that Poland's uprising against its Russian, Prussian, and Austrian rulers had failed. The Polish national spirit would pervade some of his larger works, including the so-called "Revolutionary" Etude (the Etude in C minor, Op. 10, No. 12). He was encouraged by composer Robert Schumann, who reviewed his Variations, Op. 2, with the words "Hats off, gentlemen, a genius!"
In 1832, Chopin headed for Paris, in many ways the center of European cultural life, and dazzled the city's musical elite, including Franz Liszt, in a concert at the Salle Pleyel. He immediately found himself in demand as a piano teacher, and soon he decided to settle in Paris, although he always hoped to return to Poland. He performed at aristocratic salons, cultivating then-new genres such as the étude (the word means "study," but in Chopin's hands it became much more), the nocturne, the waltz, and, in a Polish vein, the mazurka and the polonaise. After a planned marriage to a Polish girl, Maria Wodzinska, fell through, Chopin met writer Aurore Dudevant, who used the pen name George Sand. The pair began a torrid affair (Sand was married) and traveled together in 1838 to Mallorca, Spain, where they found the local citizenry disapproving of their unconventional relationship and were forced to lodge in a disused monastery. Chopin's creativity was fired, and he would write brilliantly innovative sets of piano music over the next few years. However, the weather turned cold in the winter of 1838-1839, and Chopin's health worsened as he and Sand lived in the unheated building; he was probably already suffering from tuberculosis. Back in France, Chopin and Sand took up residence in Paris and in summers at her estate in Nohant, where Chopin composed prolifically and the couple hosted painter Eugène Delacroix and other members of the cream of French artistic society. The romance cooled, though, and finally ended in 1847. One factor precipitating the breakup was Sand's negative portrayal of Chopin in her 1846 novel Lucrezia Floriani.
Chopin's health was also worsening badly; he found it difficult to perform and could no longer attract crowds as a virtuoso. During political unrest in Paris in 1848, Chopin fled to the British Isles. He performed in London (once for Queen Victoria and Prince Albert) and in Glasgow, where he was the subject of romantic interest from Scots noblewoman Jane Stirling. Chopin, however, remarked that he was "closer to the grave than the nuptial bed," and indeed in November of 1848 he gave what would be his last concert, for Polish refugees. He returned to Paris and continued to receive a steady stream of admirers despite what was clearly a terminal illness; singer Pauline Viardot, according to historians Kornel Michałowski and Jim Samson, remarked that "all the grand Parisian ladies considered it de rigueur to faint in his room." Chopin died in Paris on October 17, 1849. ~ James Manheim | 995 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Religious Tradition in Shirley Jackson's The Lottery
While 'The Lottery' is a fictitious story it can be argued that it mirrors the attitude of American culture in how it addresses religious tradition in its major holidays and celebrations.
Two of the biggest holidays in the United States are Christmas and Easter. Both of which are derived from Christian beliefs. Even though 'The Lottery' is apparently a pagan ritual, violent and horrific, it is appropriate, only by the fact that the participants no longer remember, or seem to care, what the original intent of the ritual or the significance of its traditions.
When we are introduced to the lottery, we see the traditions that are currently observed. These include the townspeople gathering in the square, the children gathering rocks and making piles of them. A black box is the current receptacle for the lots to be drawn: 'The original paraphernalia for the lottery had been lost long ago, and the black box now resting on the stool had been put to use even before Old Man Warner, the oldest man in town, was born.' (Jackson 367).
The story belies the villagers respect for tradition. The lottery official was said to have spoken ?frequently to the villagers about making a new box, but no one liked to upset even as much tradition as was represented by the black box.? (Jackson 367) We know that the black box was not the original vessel for the lottery. Many changes and omissions from lotteries past also, speak of the villagers? apathy for tradition.
Some changes were out of necessity, ?slips of paper substituted for the chips of wood that were used for generations? (Jackson 367) due to the fact that the population size of the village had grown from the original lottery. This made the use of the wood chips unpractical.
Other changes took place, it would seem, just to make the lottery go faster.
?there had been a recital of some sort, performed by the official of the lottery, a perfunctory, tuneless chant that had been rattled off duly each year; some people believed that he was supposed to walk among the people, but years and years ago this part of the ritual had been allowed to lapse. There had been, also, a ritual salute, which the official of the lottery had had to use addressing each person who came up to draw from the box, but this also had changed with time, until now it was felt necessary only the official to speak to each person approaching.? (Jackson 367)
The lottery itself seems to be of great importance to the village, but it is never revealed, in a clear way, of what importance it is. Only when we are introduced to Old Man Warner, the only man in the village old enough to remember some of the traditions, do we get an idea of the purpose of the lottery. It seems to be a pagan harvest ritual, as expressed by his old saying: ??Lottery in June, corn be heavy soon?? (Jackson 369). By participating in the lottery the villages crops will... | <urn:uuid:fa40682b-bc19-4307-8b6c-f9b2a5f67f4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/religious-tradition-in-shirley-jackson-s-the-lottery | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.981956 | 624 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.084972329... | 1 | Religious Tradition in Shirley Jackson's The Lottery
While 'The Lottery' is a fictitious story it can be argued that it mirrors the attitude of American culture in how it addresses religious tradition in its major holidays and celebrations.
Two of the biggest holidays in the United States are Christmas and Easter. Both of which are derived from Christian beliefs. Even though 'The Lottery' is apparently a pagan ritual, violent and horrific, it is appropriate, only by the fact that the participants no longer remember, or seem to care, what the original intent of the ritual or the significance of its traditions.
When we are introduced to the lottery, we see the traditions that are currently observed. These include the townspeople gathering in the square, the children gathering rocks and making piles of them. A black box is the current receptacle for the lots to be drawn: 'The original paraphernalia for the lottery had been lost long ago, and the black box now resting on the stool had been put to use even before Old Man Warner, the oldest man in town, was born.' (Jackson 367).
The story belies the villagers respect for tradition. The lottery official was said to have spoken ?frequently to the villagers about making a new box, but no one liked to upset even as much tradition as was represented by the black box.? (Jackson 367) We know that the black box was not the original vessel for the lottery. Many changes and omissions from lotteries past also, speak of the villagers? apathy for tradition.
Some changes were out of necessity, ?slips of paper substituted for the chips of wood that were used for generations? (Jackson 367) due to the fact that the population size of the village had grown from the original lottery. This made the use of the wood chips unpractical.
Other changes took place, it would seem, just to make the lottery go faster.
?there had been a recital of some sort, performed by the official of the lottery, a perfunctory, tuneless chant that had been rattled off duly each year; some people believed that he was supposed to walk among the people, but years and years ago this part of the ritual had been allowed to lapse. There had been, also, a ritual salute, which the official of the lottery had had to use addressing each person who came up to draw from the box, but this also had changed with time, until now it was felt necessary only the official to speak to each person approaching.? (Jackson 367)
The lottery itself seems to be of great importance to the village, but it is never revealed, in a clear way, of what importance it is. Only when we are introduced to Old Man Warner, the only man in the village old enough to remember some of the traditions, do we get an idea of the purpose of the lottery. It seems to be a pagan harvest ritual, as expressed by his old saying: ??Lottery in June, corn be heavy soon?? (Jackson 369). By participating in the lottery the villages crops will... | 632 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frankenstein1 Essay Research Paper As Kate mentions
As Kate mentions, “Frankenstein” refers to Mary Shelly’s childhood. On the grounds of antiquated tradition, women could not have many opportunities to do what they wanted as men. Even though writing was one of male jobs also. To gain a solid footing and ask for the equality of the two genders, Mary Shelly wrote “Frankenstein” which was regarded as the female creation story to fight against male writing tendency at that moment. As a matter of fact, I think Shelly’s Frankenstein refers to all of of the women who yearned to get rid of the antiquated tradition and have the same freedom as men. Owing to the influence of the treatment of females as inferior to males, women were standardized as the symbol of weakness and obedience as well as loyalty. Under such inequality, they seemed to be like men’s puppets who needed to do or obey what they asked in order to live up the “standardization”. Since she could not yield to this treatment, Mary Shelly wrote “Frankenstein” to show her dissatisfaction. In her mind, women also should get the chance to get a volume of knowledge from school. They were capable of searching for anything they wanted, such as having the argument with their professors about some issues, doing the creation and so forth. At bottom, I think that Frankenstein’s reason for creating a monster was to give evidence of women’s ability as men–Darwin’s theory. It was a kind of challenge, wasn’t it? After reading this story, I find that the aim of Mary Shelly’s “Frankenstein” was to ward the traditional standardzation about women off. What she looked for was to re-shape men’s points of view about women. Shakespeare said, “Woman, thy woe of man.” I wonder what will happen if both Shelly and Shakespeare live at the same time. Guess????? | <urn:uuid:9752e94b-1edc-4bbd-b8a2-122d8864147a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://book-summary.net/books-and-movies-reviews/frankenstein1-essay-research-paper-as-kate-mentions/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.983409 | 421 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.0141807394... | 4 | Frankenstein1 Essay Research Paper As Kate mentions
As Kate mentions, “Frankenstein” refers to Mary Shelly’s childhood. On the grounds of antiquated tradition, women could not have many opportunities to do what they wanted as men. Even though writing was one of male jobs also. To gain a solid footing and ask for the equality of the two genders, Mary Shelly wrote “Frankenstein” which was regarded as the female creation story to fight against male writing tendency at that moment. As a matter of fact, I think Shelly’s Frankenstein refers to all of of the women who yearned to get rid of the antiquated tradition and have the same freedom as men. Owing to the influence of the treatment of females as inferior to males, women were standardized as the symbol of weakness and obedience as well as loyalty. Under such inequality, they seemed to be like men’s puppets who needed to do or obey what they asked in order to live up the “standardization”. Since she could not yield to this treatment, Mary Shelly wrote “Frankenstein” to show her dissatisfaction. In her mind, women also should get the chance to get a volume of knowledge from school. They were capable of searching for anything they wanted, such as having the argument with their professors about some issues, doing the creation and so forth. At bottom, I think that Frankenstein’s reason for creating a monster was to give evidence of women’s ability as men–Darwin’s theory. It was a kind of challenge, wasn’t it? After reading this story, I find that the aim of Mary Shelly’s “Frankenstein” was to ward the traditional standardzation about women off. What she looked for was to re-shape men’s points of view about women. Shakespeare said, “Woman, thy woe of man.” I wonder what will happen if both Shelly and Shakespeare live at the same time. Guess????? | 391 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Christianity came to Ireland so did a more sophisticated type of literacy. The monks mostly lived in monasteries which were built away from other places where the monks could live a quiet life in spiritual reflection. Because the monasteries were open to all, many people travelled far to these centers of learning.
Among other duties, the monks copied the “books” of the time in order to preserve them. Some were quite ornate as in the illuminated manuscripts. Others were pagan or European literature. All were created to preserve for the education of future generations. This proved essential for Europe during the Dark Ages and many books in Europe were destroyed. It is said that, through the monks, the Irish saved Western Civilization.
When humans first settled in Ireland circa 9000 BC, they survived by hunting, fishing, and gathering nuts and fruits. It would not be until around 4000 BC that farming began to take root in Ireland. It was hard work. First the land had to be cleared. Much of Ireland was covered in forest. The first crops were most likely barley, oats, and wheat.
Along with crops, the cleared land allowed for the rearing of livestock, mostly cattle, sheep, and pigs.
Although Ireland is famous for growing potatoes, they are originaly from the Incas of Peru. Potatoes were discovered by the Spanish and brought back to Europe. Sir Walter Raleigh introduced potatoes to Ireland in 1589.
Throughout Irish mythology, there are references to female warriors and their interactions with powerful male heroes. In reality, the female warrior was inevitably much different than those larger than life depictions.
There is evidence that suggests women did at time pick up arms to defend themselves, to fight protecting those they loved, or even to fight each other. Women rarely actually went to war. But there is more than one battlefield, and the female warrior reveals herself in more subtle ways: whether the backbone of support on which the outcome rests, the spirit of determination, or the impetus for change.
The Warrior has played an important role throughout Ireland’s history. The various kings of Ireland would war against each other and then against invaders as well. Early Irish warfare was mostly based on quick raids by light infantry. These warrior groups were called ceithearn (pron. kern). Ceithearns might consist of landless young men or landowners and farmers called to war by their lord during campaigning season.
Most warriors would have used little armor but were known to be very skilled with their weapons. Their ambush style attacks worked great until the English brought heavy cavalry and built their castles. The Irish tactics did little against stone.
Scribe / Monk
Dancing has been a part of Ireland from before the written word and has evolved with the influences that have affected all of Ireland. It is thought the druids danced honoring the oak tree and the sun. When the Celts arrived in Ireland they brought with them their dances.
In 1569 Englishman Sir Henry Sydney wrote to Queen Elizabeth I about the Irish, “They are very beautiful, magnificently dressed, and first-class dancers.” In the 18th Century the dance master became very popular. He was a travelling teacher who went from village to village and taught dance to the peasants. Many a Sunday, Irish would meet at the crossroads and have a “ceilis” or dance party.
As in all societies, mothers in Ireland played a pivotal role. Different than most of Europe, and certainly ahead of its time, pre-Christian women had an equality rivaling modern times. Women ruled, owned property, could remarry, have learned vocations, and bring legal proceedings against others on their own account.
Change began as Christianity and other influences like the Norman and English invasions altered society. Women’s roles became more domestic and lost equality with men as new laws went into effect. But she was still central to society, being the care givers, healers, creators of clothing, taking care of small livestock and the vegetable garden. Her influence continued to be far-reaching.
Copyright Celtic Life & Heritage Foundation. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:5a59e172-ed5e-41e2-b245-b82fd65d3c40> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.celticlifeandheritage.org/suits-roles.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00525.warc.gz | en | 0.985796 | 841 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.357137203... | 1 | When Christianity came to Ireland so did a more sophisticated type of literacy. The monks mostly lived in monasteries which were built away from other places where the monks could live a quiet life in spiritual reflection. Because the monasteries were open to all, many people travelled far to these centers of learning.
Among other duties, the monks copied the “books” of the time in order to preserve them. Some were quite ornate as in the illuminated manuscripts. Others were pagan or European literature. All were created to preserve for the education of future generations. This proved essential for Europe during the Dark Ages and many books in Europe were destroyed. It is said that, through the monks, the Irish saved Western Civilization.
When humans first settled in Ireland circa 9000 BC, they survived by hunting, fishing, and gathering nuts and fruits. It would not be until around 4000 BC that farming began to take root in Ireland. It was hard work. First the land had to be cleared. Much of Ireland was covered in forest. The first crops were most likely barley, oats, and wheat.
Along with crops, the cleared land allowed for the rearing of livestock, mostly cattle, sheep, and pigs.
Although Ireland is famous for growing potatoes, they are originaly from the Incas of Peru. Potatoes were discovered by the Spanish and brought back to Europe. Sir Walter Raleigh introduced potatoes to Ireland in 1589.
Throughout Irish mythology, there are references to female warriors and their interactions with powerful male heroes. In reality, the female warrior was inevitably much different than those larger than life depictions.
There is evidence that suggests women did at time pick up arms to defend themselves, to fight protecting those they loved, or even to fight each other. Women rarely actually went to war. But there is more than one battlefield, and the female warrior reveals herself in more subtle ways: whether the backbone of support on which the outcome rests, the spirit of determination, or the impetus for change.
The Warrior has played an important role throughout Ireland’s history. The various kings of Ireland would war against each other and then against invaders as well. Early Irish warfare was mostly based on quick raids by light infantry. These warrior groups were called ceithearn (pron. kern). Ceithearns might consist of landless young men or landowners and farmers called to war by their lord during campaigning season.
Most warriors would have used little armor but were known to be very skilled with their weapons. Their ambush style attacks worked great until the English brought heavy cavalry and built their castles. The Irish tactics did little against stone.
Scribe / Monk
Dancing has been a part of Ireland from before the written word and has evolved with the influences that have affected all of Ireland. It is thought the druids danced honoring the oak tree and the sun. When the Celts arrived in Ireland they brought with them their dances.
In 1569 Englishman Sir Henry Sydney wrote to Queen Elizabeth I about the Irish, “They are very beautiful, magnificently dressed, and first-class dancers.” In the 18th Century the dance master became very popular. He was a travelling teacher who went from village to village and taught dance to the peasants. Many a Sunday, Irish would meet at the crossroads and have a “ceilis” or dance party.
As in all societies, mothers in Ireland played a pivotal role. Different than most of Europe, and certainly ahead of its time, pre-Christian women had an equality rivaling modern times. Women ruled, owned property, could remarry, have learned vocations, and bring legal proceedings against others on their own account.
Change began as Christianity and other influences like the Norman and English invasions altered society. Women’s roles became more domestic and lost equality with men as new laws went into effect. But she was still central to society, being the care givers, healers, creators of clothing, taking care of small livestock and the vegetable garden. Her influence continued to be far-reaching.
Copyright Celtic Life & Heritage Foundation. All rights reserved. | 832 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King Henry II to blame: Rebellion instigated by YH who was annoyed with his father - expected a degree of authority and autonomy, but didn't receive this (did Henry II not think his son was capable?) Also threatened his inheritance through granting land promised to YH to his youngest son John. Not assigned lands to YH or his queen Restoration of royal authority restricted the barons' control, which infringed on their rule. Resented Henry's control : Hugh, Earl of Chester, was denied lands, Hugh Bigod’s lands were threatened by new royal castles, and the Earl of Leicester was made to pay scrutage. He further aggravated barons in Normandy by introducing a new form of doomsday book to eliminate existing corruption However, Henry II adopted a lenient approach towards the punishment of the rebels involved, as he did not want an endless cycle of war and disturbances. Furthermore, Henry did not have the manpower available for the potential threat of war. These imply that Henry did not intentionally provoke, or even anticipate, the Great rebellion His influence had become increasingly unpopular, especially after he allegedly arranged the murder of Thomas Beckett in 1170 reasons for Eleanor’s involvement in the rebellion were largely due to King Henry through his treatment of her; similarly to YH she was politically disenchanted - deeply resented her position as a non-entity in the reign and government of Henry II, having neither power nor influence. King Henry appeared to be exerting a pyramid of power in his Angevin Empire, placing England and Normandy before Eleanor’s beloved Acquitaine. She therefore joined the uprising to prevent Acquitaine being anonymously absorbed into Henry’s Empire
Eleanor was to blame stirred her sons to revolt (At only 15 and 14, Richard and Geoffrey would not have rallied to anyone else in defiance of their father) rising Pointou in rebellion against her husband. McLynn “Eleanor was the guiding spirit of the conspiracy”. Captured early on in the rebellion and imprisoned by Henry. Despite being lenient towards the rebels, Henry severely punished his wife. Henry, by his treatment of her, showed that he felt her to be largely responsible for the rebellion” (Barber).
Young Henry to blame Henry II took back the control of three key fortresses, the castles of Chinon, Loudum and Mirebeau, as his eldest son had angered him with his greed and imperative demands, and his liaisons with Louis VII; the loss of his inheritance was ultimately the Young King’s fault withdrew from his father’s court in March 1173 to join Louis VII. After creating this alliance, the Young King and Capetian mentor recruited other rebels, ultimately forming the uprising. However, at the time of the revolt Henry was only young, and was advised to rebel by many aristocrats; he is not solely to blame for the uprising Young Henry was not overly punished by his father, suggesting that King Henry II did not perceive his son as a threat or responsible for the uprising. Instead he was given two castles in Normandy and £15 000 annually, but still had to grant some of his lands to John in England, Normandy and Anjou
Louis VII to blame Louis VII of France resented the extent of King Henry II’s territory in France, and was interested in weakening the towering edifice of authority built by Henry which overshadowed his small territories Singlehandedly, Louis had neither the military competence nor the resources to do more than contain Henry. He therefore joined Young Henry in an uprising against his rival when the opportunity arose Louis was mostly responsible for the recruitment of rebels by promising land in England and Anjou to the major Counts of Flanders, Boulogne and Blois, if they participated in the rebellion. Poole, “The rebellion was inspired and managed by Louis of France who saw it as an easy way to embarrass and weaken his dangerous rival”. | <urn:uuid:e7e2becd-b44b-4694-95a8-b1b778d50e36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.goconqr.com/note/698412/who-was-to-blame-for-the-rebellion- | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.987184 | 803 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.316761195659... | 1 | King Henry II to blame: Rebellion instigated by YH who was annoyed with his father - expected a degree of authority and autonomy, but didn't receive this (did Henry II not think his son was capable?) Also threatened his inheritance through granting land promised to YH to his youngest son John. Not assigned lands to YH or his queen Restoration of royal authority restricted the barons' control, which infringed on their rule. Resented Henry's control : Hugh, Earl of Chester, was denied lands, Hugh Bigod’s lands were threatened by new royal castles, and the Earl of Leicester was made to pay scrutage. He further aggravated barons in Normandy by introducing a new form of doomsday book to eliminate existing corruption However, Henry II adopted a lenient approach towards the punishment of the rebels involved, as he did not want an endless cycle of war and disturbances. Furthermore, Henry did not have the manpower available for the potential threat of war. These imply that Henry did not intentionally provoke, or even anticipate, the Great rebellion His influence had become increasingly unpopular, especially after he allegedly arranged the murder of Thomas Beckett in 1170 reasons for Eleanor’s involvement in the rebellion were largely due to King Henry through his treatment of her; similarly to YH she was politically disenchanted - deeply resented her position as a non-entity in the reign and government of Henry II, having neither power nor influence. King Henry appeared to be exerting a pyramid of power in his Angevin Empire, placing England and Normandy before Eleanor’s beloved Acquitaine. She therefore joined the uprising to prevent Acquitaine being anonymously absorbed into Henry’s Empire
Eleanor was to blame stirred her sons to revolt (At only 15 and 14, Richard and Geoffrey would not have rallied to anyone else in defiance of their father) rising Pointou in rebellion against her husband. McLynn “Eleanor was the guiding spirit of the conspiracy”. Captured early on in the rebellion and imprisoned by Henry. Despite being lenient towards the rebels, Henry severely punished his wife. Henry, by his treatment of her, showed that he felt her to be largely responsible for the rebellion” (Barber).
Young Henry to blame Henry II took back the control of three key fortresses, the castles of Chinon, Loudum and Mirebeau, as his eldest son had angered him with his greed and imperative demands, and his liaisons with Louis VII; the loss of his inheritance was ultimately the Young King’s fault withdrew from his father’s court in March 1173 to join Louis VII. After creating this alliance, the Young King and Capetian mentor recruited other rebels, ultimately forming the uprising. However, at the time of the revolt Henry was only young, and was advised to rebel by many aristocrats; he is not solely to blame for the uprising Young Henry was not overly punished by his father, suggesting that King Henry II did not perceive his son as a threat or responsible for the uprising. Instead he was given two castles in Normandy and £15 000 annually, but still had to grant some of his lands to John in England, Normandy and Anjou
Louis VII to blame Louis VII of France resented the extent of King Henry II’s territory in France, and was interested in weakening the towering edifice of authority built by Henry which overshadowed his small territories Singlehandedly, Louis had neither the military competence nor the resources to do more than contain Henry. He therefore joined Young Henry in an uprising against his rival when the opportunity arose Louis was mostly responsible for the recruitment of rebels by promising land in England and Anjou to the major Counts of Flanders, Boulogne and Blois, if they participated in the rebellion. Poole, “The rebellion was inspired and managed by Louis of France who saw it as an easy way to embarrass and weaken his dangerous rival”. | 802 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Comfort women is a term that dates back to before World War II and describes women who were forced into sexual slavery during conflicts in the Asia Pacific region. Although most articles on the subject only cover the Japanese side of comfort women crimes there were many other nations that indulged in these acts including the United States and South Korea. Professor Jim Auer, former East Asian chief of the U.S. Dept. of Defense, recently expressed his findings and views. According to his article, a 1944 U.S. military investigation concluded that the 20 Korean women it interviewed were “nothing but prostitutes,” who were reasonably well fed and had “plenty of spending money.” And he also emphasized that though Japan did set up a private fund to compensate surviving Korean women in the 90’s, but domestic pressure in South Korea caused a number of these women to decline compensation.
The History of Comfort Women
Comfort women were women that either worked or were forced to work as prostitutes to serve soldiers in various wars throughout Asia from the 1930’s to 1970’s. They came from places such as China, the Philippines, Taiwan, Indonesia, Burma, Thailand, and Malaysia, but it is estimated that about half of them were from Korea. The exact total figure is unknown and there are conflicting estimations, some as low as 20,000 others say in the hundreds of thousands.
For decades the women who survived kept quiet about their plight because of shame. Comfort women were mentioned in a few documents found after the end of the war. There was no mention of the comfort women issue in the 1960s when Korea and Japan resumed diplomatic relations, either. A few books had been written on the subject in the 1970s but it wasn’t until the 1990s that the story of the comfort women gained any attention.
Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono began an investigation into the comfort women after documents surfaced from the library of the Self-Defense Ministry documenting the establishment of comfort stations by the Japanese Imperial Army. Survivors came forward to finally tell their stories and the investigation resulted in the release in 1993 of the Kono Statement. The official government statement acknowledged Japanese military’s role in the comfort stations, whether directly or indirectly. In 1995 Japan set up the Asian Women’s Fund partly funded by the government money to pay compensation to the surviving comfort women.
Korea and Comfort Women
Interpreters for U.S. Army Intelligence with released, Korean comfort women in Myitkyina Burma, August 1944
South Korea asked for and received $800 million compensation in the form of an aid and loan package from Japan. Korea has been very vocal in their calls for Japan to formally acknowledge their role in the brutality committed against those comfort women in the face of Japan pushing back against allegations, with Prime Minster Shinzo Abe saying that, while no evidence was found for a fact, that “I am deeply pained to think of the comfort women who experienced immeasurable pain and suffering, a feeling I share equally with my predecessors. But South Korea has its own responsibility to answer for in regards to the comfort women issue.
South Korea’s Own Comfort Women Atrocities
During the Korean War (1950-1953) the military established their own comfort stations in the southern part of the peninsula. There were special comfort Stations for the Korean soldiers and U.N. Comfort Stations for the other soldiers in the country at the time, including U.S. soldiers. Women were also trucked to the front lines without authorization to service the soldiers there. Many of the women were married and their husbands had been drafted into the military. As a result, they were coerced into becoming comfort women or lured with jobs in the hope of supporting their families. The Korean government says the comfort women were paid prostitutes and not in service out of coercion. Many of these ‘U.S comfort women’ (as they were later to be known as), however, dispute that this is not true and that they were kept in the stations and forced to sleep with many soldiers against their will.
The Korean military also used comfort women while serving in the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s. Stories abound of atrocities committed during the war against civilians, including murder and rape. Many of these atrocities have been buried though and the South Korean government has not addressed the victim calls for justice.
Many Vietnamese women who were raped or forced into comfort stations by the Korean military gave birth to children that were abandoned by their fathers and shunned by the Vietnamese. These children are called lai Daihan. “Daihan” is the Vietnamese word for Korean and “lai” is a slur for those with mixed blood. The government of Vietnam has asked South Korea repeatedly to acknowledge their wartime atrocities, including forcing Vietnamese women to work in comfort stations. The Korean government has repeatedly denied these allegations.
Some historians believe that the actions of the Korean government and military are a left-over cultural phenomenon from a previous time, others feel that the South Korean government needs to accept what happened in the past and cannot continue to criticize Japan about this until they do so.
Korean Comfort Women and the U.S. Military
After the Korean War there was a large American military presence in the country due to the continued threat of North Korean aggression. With a number of military bases, many clubs, camps, and bars sprang up around these bases catering to U.S. servicemen. These camps and other businesses offered prostitution, though it was illegal in the country. Koreans referred to these towns as “keejichon” a term for a gray and grubby “army base town” and the women who worked in them became known as “Yankee whores” or “UN ladies.”
By the 1960s the Korean government was registering comfort women as well as sponsoring English-language and etiquette classes in order to make the Americans feel more at home. The government was afraid the U.S. military would pull out, which then U.S. President Jimmy Carter had seriously contemplated, leaving the country vulnerable to North Korean attacks, but they also wanted to cash in on the income generated by the prostitution business. In 1960, two lawmakers in the South Korean National Assembly called on the country’s leadership to train a supply of prostitutes for the allied military, to prevent them from spending their money in Japan instead. During the 1960s prostitution accounted for twenty-five percent of South Korea’s Gross Domestic Product.
In recent years many of these women have grouped together and have begin to take legal action against the South Korean government in a $1.2 million lawsuit. The lawsuit alleges that, since 1957, poor and undereducated South Korean women were pressured into prostitution in those government-designated zones around American military bases. Authorities should be legally held responsible because they turned a blind eye and therefore promoted the trade, according to the filing.
For decades the Korean government turned a blind eye to the U.S comfort women and outright encouraged these camps and other businesses to operate around American bases. Since the 1990s many of the country’s prostitutes are smuggled in illegally from places like Russia and the Philippines, having their passports confiscated by pimps and other sex brokers and forced to provide sex to soldiers for little money. In many cases they are physically and sexually assaulted and are forced to live in miserable conditions.
There are some who believe, in the wake of protests against the presence of the American military that U.S. commanders helped protect the businesses running the prostitutes. Though this has never been proven, last year the United States Department of State formed a task force to investigate the predicament of women being lured to Korea with promise of work as singers or entertainers, but then being forced into prostitution to work as U.S. comfort women.
Many of the more notorious bars and clubs have recently been deemed off limits to any U.S. military personnel by General Jan-Marc Jouas.
Modern US Comfort Women in South Korea
In the early 1990s prostitution became a symbol for the people’s anti-American military feelings after a woman was found brutally murdered and mutilated near a U.S. military base. Though the case itself didn’t spark the initial outrage, even after the U.S. government paid off the woman’s family, the rape of a school girl by U.S. Marines in Okinawa did.
In the 2000s a number of cases came to light involving the abuse and forced prostitution of women, mainly against club owners who catered to U.S. military personnel. But the punishments were minimal and mostly involved having to pay restitution to the women. Television news programs have done exposes on prostitution and sex trafficking, though the government only made a show of cracking down on the industry.
In June of 2014 a group of 122 women filed suit against the South Korean government claiming they were comfort women, coerced into working as prostitutes and that the government encouraged the practice. The suit, filed with the Seoul Central District Court claims that the government trained the women in etiquette and the English language and worked with pimps and sex brokers to prepare the women for servicing American troops stationed in South Korea during the 1960s. It also claims that the women were periodically rounded up against their will by the government and tested for sexually transmitted diseases. If they were found to be infected, or if infection was even suspected, the women were forcibly quarantined for months at a time in medical facilities. However, no one is claiming that members of the government actually acted as pimps merely that they allowed the situation to operate. The lawsuit is the work of a number of human rights organizations who investigated the use of comfort women by Korea.
Cho Myung-ja, age 76, was one of the coerced comfort women and a plaintiff in the lawsuit who says about her life, “It was a hard life and we got sick. To make sure we didn’t pass on some disease to foreigners, we were tested twice a week, and if it looked abnormal, we would be locked up on the fourth floor, unlocking the door only at meal times, and some people broke their legs trying to escape.”
Kim Sook-ja, age 70 and another former prostitute says, “They say we were patriots at the time, but now they couldn’t care less. We didn’t fight with guns or bayonets but we worked for the country and earned dollars.”
Kim Kyeong-sun worked as a hostess and prostitute and ended up addicted to drugs and pregnant with a daughter who is half American. She says it wasn’t entirely the fault of the soldiers because many of them were young and naïve. She blames the government for encouraging the practice, protecting the pimps and club owners, and for preparing the girls for the hard life they would have.
The issue is not without controversy. There are critics who say the women were paid prostitutes and have no right taking the “comfort woman” label, that by doing so they are trying to gain sympathy by associating their circumstances to that of the 200,000 women who were abused during past conflicts in Asia.
“They could have assumed—I have no proof—that there might be public sympathy or understanding, since the ‘comfort women’ issue is well-known nationally and internationally. But I think it was a mistake to choose that term. It undercuts the comfort women or jeongsindae case and confuses the public,” said Katherine Moon, Korea studies chair at the Brookings Institute and author of Sex Among Allies: Military Prostitution in Korea-U.S. Relations. “My guess is that they chose to frame the U.S comfort women and military prostitution issue to ride the coattails of the Japanese jeongsindae movement.”
Behind this suing movement in Seoul by “comfort women for the U.S. and Korean military forces” during the Korean War and thereafter, there may lie a sense of exuberance euphoria among the Koreans which they acquired through a campaign about “comfort women for the Japanese military” during and before WWII with a support in some parts of the U.S. advocated by Korean-Americans. Actually, in some U.S. cities, with a backing by the local assembly, local Korean people’s campaign for “comfort women for Japanese” was culminated as a constructing statute.
The women are seeking compensation of $10,000.00 U.S. dollars but they say what’s more important is that they receive an apology from the Korean government and acknowledgment of what was done to them. The women are also seeking an official investigation into their allegations of coerced prostitution. So far the South Korean government has refused to comment on the U.S comfort women case.
What’s ironic is that for years the South Korean government has been one of the loudest and most persistent voices in seeking Japan’s acknowledgment and apology for their treatment of women, particularly Korean women, during the war. They have demanded compensation twice and have supported the surviving comfort women who have come forward seeking justice. And in the U.S. continent, Korean-American people stepped up their anti-Japan campaign such as constructing a women’s statue with support of the local government and assemblies.
Yet, they refuse to acknowledge their involvement in establishing comfort stations, using their own women to populate them. The hope for many is that the lawsuit will lead to an investigation into Korea’s own history of. | <urn:uuid:c67cd4d7-ad34-4b41-a8b5-84956102539d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theepochtimes.com/did-korea-organize-u-s-comfort-women-2_1303008.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.98282 | 2,799 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.409719437360763... | 2 | Comfort women is a term that dates back to before World War II and describes women who were forced into sexual slavery during conflicts in the Asia Pacific region. Although most articles on the subject only cover the Japanese side of comfort women crimes there were many other nations that indulged in these acts including the United States and South Korea. Professor Jim Auer, former East Asian chief of the U.S. Dept. of Defense, recently expressed his findings and views. According to his article, a 1944 U.S. military investigation concluded that the 20 Korean women it interviewed were “nothing but prostitutes,” who were reasonably well fed and had “plenty of spending money.” And he also emphasized that though Japan did set up a private fund to compensate surviving Korean women in the 90’s, but domestic pressure in South Korea caused a number of these women to decline compensation.
The History of Comfort Women
Comfort women were women that either worked or were forced to work as prostitutes to serve soldiers in various wars throughout Asia from the 1930’s to 1970’s. They came from places such as China, the Philippines, Taiwan, Indonesia, Burma, Thailand, and Malaysia, but it is estimated that about half of them were from Korea. The exact total figure is unknown and there are conflicting estimations, some as low as 20,000 others say in the hundreds of thousands.
For decades the women who survived kept quiet about their plight because of shame. Comfort women were mentioned in a few documents found after the end of the war. There was no mention of the comfort women issue in the 1960s when Korea and Japan resumed diplomatic relations, either. A few books had been written on the subject in the 1970s but it wasn’t until the 1990s that the story of the comfort women gained any attention.
Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono began an investigation into the comfort women after documents surfaced from the library of the Self-Defense Ministry documenting the establishment of comfort stations by the Japanese Imperial Army. Survivors came forward to finally tell their stories and the investigation resulted in the release in 1993 of the Kono Statement. The official government statement acknowledged Japanese military’s role in the comfort stations, whether directly or indirectly. In 1995 Japan set up the Asian Women’s Fund partly funded by the government money to pay compensation to the surviving comfort women.
Korea and Comfort Women
Interpreters for U.S. Army Intelligence with released, Korean comfort women in Myitkyina Burma, August 1944
South Korea asked for and received $800 million compensation in the form of an aid and loan package from Japan. Korea has been very vocal in their calls for Japan to formally acknowledge their role in the brutality committed against those comfort women in the face of Japan pushing back against allegations, with Prime Minster Shinzo Abe saying that, while no evidence was found for a fact, that “I am deeply pained to think of the comfort women who experienced immeasurable pain and suffering, a feeling I share equally with my predecessors. But South Korea has its own responsibility to answer for in regards to the comfort women issue.
South Korea’s Own Comfort Women Atrocities
During the Korean War (1950-1953) the military established their own comfort stations in the southern part of the peninsula. There were special comfort Stations for the Korean soldiers and U.N. Comfort Stations for the other soldiers in the country at the time, including U.S. soldiers. Women were also trucked to the front lines without authorization to service the soldiers there. Many of the women were married and their husbands had been drafted into the military. As a result, they were coerced into becoming comfort women or lured with jobs in the hope of supporting their families. The Korean government says the comfort women were paid prostitutes and not in service out of coercion. Many of these ‘U.S comfort women’ (as they were later to be known as), however, dispute that this is not true and that they were kept in the stations and forced to sleep with many soldiers against their will.
The Korean military also used comfort women while serving in the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s. Stories abound of atrocities committed during the war against civilians, including murder and rape. Many of these atrocities have been buried though and the South Korean government has not addressed the victim calls for justice.
Many Vietnamese women who were raped or forced into comfort stations by the Korean military gave birth to children that were abandoned by their fathers and shunned by the Vietnamese. These children are called lai Daihan. “Daihan” is the Vietnamese word for Korean and “lai” is a slur for those with mixed blood. The government of Vietnam has asked South Korea repeatedly to acknowledge their wartime atrocities, including forcing Vietnamese women to work in comfort stations. The Korean government has repeatedly denied these allegations.
Some historians believe that the actions of the Korean government and military are a left-over cultural phenomenon from a previous time, others feel that the South Korean government needs to accept what happened in the past and cannot continue to criticize Japan about this until they do so.
Korean Comfort Women and the U.S. Military
After the Korean War there was a large American military presence in the country due to the continued threat of North Korean aggression. With a number of military bases, many clubs, camps, and bars sprang up around these bases catering to U.S. servicemen. These camps and other businesses offered prostitution, though it was illegal in the country. Koreans referred to these towns as “keejichon” a term for a gray and grubby “army base town” and the women who worked in them became known as “Yankee whores” or “UN ladies.”
By the 1960s the Korean government was registering comfort women as well as sponsoring English-language and etiquette classes in order to make the Americans feel more at home. The government was afraid the U.S. military would pull out, which then U.S. President Jimmy Carter had seriously contemplated, leaving the country vulnerable to North Korean attacks, but they also wanted to cash in on the income generated by the prostitution business. In 1960, two lawmakers in the South Korean National Assembly called on the country’s leadership to train a supply of prostitutes for the allied military, to prevent them from spending their money in Japan instead. During the 1960s prostitution accounted for twenty-five percent of South Korea’s Gross Domestic Product.
In recent years many of these women have grouped together and have begin to take legal action against the South Korean government in a $1.2 million lawsuit. The lawsuit alleges that, since 1957, poor and undereducated South Korean women were pressured into prostitution in those government-designated zones around American military bases. Authorities should be legally held responsible because they turned a blind eye and therefore promoted the trade, according to the filing.
For decades the Korean government turned a blind eye to the U.S comfort women and outright encouraged these camps and other businesses to operate around American bases. Since the 1990s many of the country’s prostitutes are smuggled in illegally from places like Russia and the Philippines, having their passports confiscated by pimps and other sex brokers and forced to provide sex to soldiers for little money. In many cases they are physically and sexually assaulted and are forced to live in miserable conditions.
There are some who believe, in the wake of protests against the presence of the American military that U.S. commanders helped protect the businesses running the prostitutes. Though this has never been proven, last year the United States Department of State formed a task force to investigate the predicament of women being lured to Korea with promise of work as singers or entertainers, but then being forced into prostitution to work as U.S. comfort women.
Many of the more notorious bars and clubs have recently been deemed off limits to any U.S. military personnel by General Jan-Marc Jouas.
Modern US Comfort Women in South Korea
In the early 1990s prostitution became a symbol for the people’s anti-American military feelings after a woman was found brutally murdered and mutilated near a U.S. military base. Though the case itself didn’t spark the initial outrage, even after the U.S. government paid off the woman’s family, the rape of a school girl by U.S. Marines in Okinawa did.
In the 2000s a number of cases came to light involving the abuse and forced prostitution of women, mainly against club owners who catered to U.S. military personnel. But the punishments were minimal and mostly involved having to pay restitution to the women. Television news programs have done exposes on prostitution and sex trafficking, though the government only made a show of cracking down on the industry.
In June of 2014 a group of 122 women filed suit against the South Korean government claiming they were comfort women, coerced into working as prostitutes and that the government encouraged the practice. The suit, filed with the Seoul Central District Court claims that the government trained the women in etiquette and the English language and worked with pimps and sex brokers to prepare the women for servicing American troops stationed in South Korea during the 1960s. It also claims that the women were periodically rounded up against their will by the government and tested for sexually transmitted diseases. If they were found to be infected, or if infection was even suspected, the women were forcibly quarantined for months at a time in medical facilities. However, no one is claiming that members of the government actually acted as pimps merely that they allowed the situation to operate. The lawsuit is the work of a number of human rights organizations who investigated the use of comfort women by Korea.
Cho Myung-ja, age 76, was one of the coerced comfort women and a plaintiff in the lawsuit who says about her life, “It was a hard life and we got sick. To make sure we didn’t pass on some disease to foreigners, we were tested twice a week, and if it looked abnormal, we would be locked up on the fourth floor, unlocking the door only at meal times, and some people broke their legs trying to escape.”
Kim Sook-ja, age 70 and another former prostitute says, “They say we were patriots at the time, but now they couldn’t care less. We didn’t fight with guns or bayonets but we worked for the country and earned dollars.”
Kim Kyeong-sun worked as a hostess and prostitute and ended up addicted to drugs and pregnant with a daughter who is half American. She says it wasn’t entirely the fault of the soldiers because many of them were young and naïve. She blames the government for encouraging the practice, protecting the pimps and club owners, and for preparing the girls for the hard life they would have.
The issue is not without controversy. There are critics who say the women were paid prostitutes and have no right taking the “comfort woman” label, that by doing so they are trying to gain sympathy by associating their circumstances to that of the 200,000 women who were abused during past conflicts in Asia.
“They could have assumed—I have no proof—that there might be public sympathy or understanding, since the ‘comfort women’ issue is well-known nationally and internationally. But I think it was a mistake to choose that term. It undercuts the comfort women or jeongsindae case and confuses the public,” said Katherine Moon, Korea studies chair at the Brookings Institute and author of Sex Among Allies: Military Prostitution in Korea-U.S. Relations. “My guess is that they chose to frame the U.S comfort women and military prostitution issue to ride the coattails of the Japanese jeongsindae movement.”
Behind this suing movement in Seoul by “comfort women for the U.S. and Korean military forces” during the Korean War and thereafter, there may lie a sense of exuberance euphoria among the Koreans which they acquired through a campaign about “comfort women for the Japanese military” during and before WWII with a support in some parts of the U.S. advocated by Korean-Americans. Actually, in some U.S. cities, with a backing by the local assembly, local Korean people’s campaign for “comfort women for Japanese” was culminated as a constructing statute.
The women are seeking compensation of $10,000.00 U.S. dollars but they say what’s more important is that they receive an apology from the Korean government and acknowledgment of what was done to them. The women are also seeking an official investigation into their allegations of coerced prostitution. So far the South Korean government has refused to comment on the U.S comfort women case.
What’s ironic is that for years the South Korean government has been one of the loudest and most persistent voices in seeking Japan’s acknowledgment and apology for their treatment of women, particularly Korean women, during the war. They have demanded compensation twice and have supported the surviving comfort women who have come forward seeking justice. And in the U.S. continent, Korean-American people stepped up their anti-Japan campaign such as constructing a women’s statue with support of the local government and assemblies.
Yet, they refuse to acknowledge their involvement in establishing comfort stations, using their own women to populate them. The hope for many is that the lawsuit will lead to an investigation into Korea’s own history of. | 2,765 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Unspoken Truth (Hamlet Analysis)
The Unspoken Truth Hamlet, The Prince of Denmark, son of Queen Gertrude and the late King Hamlet, and the nephew of the present King, Claudius. He is a young man, often hesitant and indecisive with his actions. His character displays a miserable, hostile, contemptuous attitude as well as a powerful inner turmoil after learning of his uncle’s betrayal. It is expected that someone of his stature would act in a more distinct manner. However, through juxtaposition and figurative language, author William Shakespeare portrays a melodramatic change in Hamlet’s attitude between being a “sweet prince” and a man of ambition.
Hamlet cannot be classified as both a sweet prince and an eager, ambitious young man. He has a sweet, considerate personality; however, it is shielded by stronger emotions. Instead of ever seeing Hamlet’s kind side, the reader is immediately introduced to the broken side of Hamlet, full of pain and confusion later to be expressed as revenge. “She married. O, most wicked speed, to post. With such dexterity to incestuous sheets! It is not nor it cannot come to good: But break, my heart; for I must hold my tongue. ”(Act I Scene II) It is here that the sensitive side of Hamlet is revealed.
Here he is angered by his mother’s immediate marriage to Claudius. It is difficult for Hamlet to show that he is depressed and angered, his mother and uncle don’t believe it is because of their marriage that he is upset, they believe he is still dwelling on the death of his father. It is not until Hamlet’s soliloquy that the reader comprehends his feelings and sense of emotion. From experience I know that my parents always tell me to tell them when I’m conflicted, unfortunately for Hamlet, he feels his mother will not care to know what her son is feeling. Later in Act III Scene IV, Hamlet again comes across as the sensitive, concerned type.
When with his mother, Hamlet appeals to his mother, asking her to keep her distance from her husband, (King Claudius) he expresses his love for his mother as well as his honesty and opinion for the situation. This is one of the many sides of Hamlet, his character could be compared to a Rubix cube; nearly impossible to solve with so many emotions mixed in with each other. In Hamlet’s discussion with Polonius (Act II Scene II) Hamlet reveals his sense of humor to the audience. In Hamlet’s discussion with Polonius (Act II Scene II) Hamlet reveals his sense of humor to the audience.
It is here that Polonius discusses with Hamlet, however Hamlet is acting as if he is mad. As Hamlet rambles on, Polonius is quick to arrange a meeting between Hamlet and his daughter Ophelia. Hamlet is a very ambitious young person with the motive to do what he sets his mind to. This is an overall is a story of revenge for hamlets father. Not anywhere in the story does hamlet feel that the throne is rightfully his. His sole purpose is to avenge his father’s death and for the marriage between his mother. Hamlet does have a very ambitious demeanor that would to any lengths to accomplish what he wants.
But he does not use it in the way of getting the throne for Shakespeare does not make it very apparent that it is that important to him. What is important to him are his friends and family. When the ghost of his father appears to him and he is told that Claudius murdered his father, he does not stop to question if it is really true but makes the decision right away to avenge his father. Hamlet conjures a devious plan to murder his uncle. He acts as if he’s mad; it is here we see that he is willing to lose his royal reputation all to kill his Uncle. The other case where Hamlet sacrifices all is with his relationship with Ophelia.
Throughout the story the reader is aware of Hamlets emotion and deep feelings for Ophelia; he let all of that go to perform his acts of revenge, losing Ophelia, the woman he loves in the end. So we see that Hamlet has a strong ambition and determination to accomplish his objective. Although in the beginning Hamlet, was bothered by death and feared death, which prevents him from taking action right away, later in Act IV Scene IV when Hamlet is later inspired by Fortinbras courage and immediate action we see a shift in Hamlets feelings towards death.
He no longer fears is and tells us that he is finally ready to take action and kill Claudius. He tells us at this moment that he will go at any lengths just to seek revenge and to do as the ghost had told him. Throughout the play we see that Hamlet’s personality is of both a kind and sweet prince, full of compassion, love, and sensitivity. But we also see a prince that is ready to stop at nothing, going at any lengths and sacrificing even his own life to accomplish a certain task. They are two very different personality traits. They are like the yin and the yang of personality.
Two very different sides and faces contrasting each other in every way. But these are some of the characteristics that make up his personality and who he really is. Prompt Discuss Hamlet’s character. Is he the “sweet prince,” too sensitive and good for a world as “rank as Denmark has become? Is he an ambitious young man eager to attain the throne of Denmark and willing to go to any extremes to do so? Is he both? Again, this is an easy topic with which to be glib. Look closely and critically at this topic and go beyond the obvious. Support your contentions with close and carful references to the text. | <urn:uuid:280c265f-ec85-4b07-abbe-0bd2cbd4c2b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/the-unspoken-truth-hamlet-analysis-29914 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.98475 | 1,245 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.121671825647... | 1 | The Unspoken Truth (Hamlet Analysis)
The Unspoken Truth Hamlet, The Prince of Denmark, son of Queen Gertrude and the late King Hamlet, and the nephew of the present King, Claudius. He is a young man, often hesitant and indecisive with his actions. His character displays a miserable, hostile, contemptuous attitude as well as a powerful inner turmoil after learning of his uncle’s betrayal. It is expected that someone of his stature would act in a more distinct manner. However, through juxtaposition and figurative language, author William Shakespeare portrays a melodramatic change in Hamlet’s attitude between being a “sweet prince” and a man of ambition.
Hamlet cannot be classified as both a sweet prince and an eager, ambitious young man. He has a sweet, considerate personality; however, it is shielded by stronger emotions. Instead of ever seeing Hamlet’s kind side, the reader is immediately introduced to the broken side of Hamlet, full of pain and confusion later to be expressed as revenge. “She married. O, most wicked speed, to post. With such dexterity to incestuous sheets! It is not nor it cannot come to good: But break, my heart; for I must hold my tongue. ”(Act I Scene II) It is here that the sensitive side of Hamlet is revealed.
Here he is angered by his mother’s immediate marriage to Claudius. It is difficult for Hamlet to show that he is depressed and angered, his mother and uncle don’t believe it is because of their marriage that he is upset, they believe he is still dwelling on the death of his father. It is not until Hamlet’s soliloquy that the reader comprehends his feelings and sense of emotion. From experience I know that my parents always tell me to tell them when I’m conflicted, unfortunately for Hamlet, he feels his mother will not care to know what her son is feeling. Later in Act III Scene IV, Hamlet again comes across as the sensitive, concerned type.
When with his mother, Hamlet appeals to his mother, asking her to keep her distance from her husband, (King Claudius) he expresses his love for his mother as well as his honesty and opinion for the situation. This is one of the many sides of Hamlet, his character could be compared to a Rubix cube; nearly impossible to solve with so many emotions mixed in with each other. In Hamlet’s discussion with Polonius (Act II Scene II) Hamlet reveals his sense of humor to the audience. In Hamlet’s discussion with Polonius (Act II Scene II) Hamlet reveals his sense of humor to the audience.
It is here that Polonius discusses with Hamlet, however Hamlet is acting as if he is mad. As Hamlet rambles on, Polonius is quick to arrange a meeting between Hamlet and his daughter Ophelia. Hamlet is a very ambitious young person with the motive to do what he sets his mind to. This is an overall is a story of revenge for hamlets father. Not anywhere in the story does hamlet feel that the throne is rightfully his. His sole purpose is to avenge his father’s death and for the marriage between his mother. Hamlet does have a very ambitious demeanor that would to any lengths to accomplish what he wants.
But he does not use it in the way of getting the throne for Shakespeare does not make it very apparent that it is that important to him. What is important to him are his friends and family. When the ghost of his father appears to him and he is told that Claudius murdered his father, he does not stop to question if it is really true but makes the decision right away to avenge his father. Hamlet conjures a devious plan to murder his uncle. He acts as if he’s mad; it is here we see that he is willing to lose his royal reputation all to kill his Uncle. The other case where Hamlet sacrifices all is with his relationship with Ophelia.
Throughout the story the reader is aware of Hamlets emotion and deep feelings for Ophelia; he let all of that go to perform his acts of revenge, losing Ophelia, the woman he loves in the end. So we see that Hamlet has a strong ambition and determination to accomplish his objective. Although in the beginning Hamlet, was bothered by death and feared death, which prevents him from taking action right away, later in Act IV Scene IV when Hamlet is later inspired by Fortinbras courage and immediate action we see a shift in Hamlets feelings towards death.
He no longer fears is and tells us that he is finally ready to take action and kill Claudius. He tells us at this moment that he will go at any lengths just to seek revenge and to do as the ghost had told him. Throughout the play we see that Hamlet’s personality is of both a kind and sweet prince, full of compassion, love, and sensitivity. But we also see a prince that is ready to stop at nothing, going at any lengths and sacrificing even his own life to accomplish a certain task. They are two very different personality traits. They are like the yin and the yang of personality.
Two very different sides and faces contrasting each other in every way. But these are some of the characteristics that make up his personality and who he really is. Prompt Discuss Hamlet’s character. Is he the “sweet prince,” too sensitive and good for a world as “rank as Denmark has become? Is he an ambitious young man eager to attain the throne of Denmark and willing to go to any extremes to do so? Is he both? Again, this is an easy topic with which to be glib. Look closely and critically at this topic and go beyond the obvious. Support your contentions with close and carful references to the text. | 1,202 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gilbert White was a clergyman and thus for him Christmas was ultimately a festival of faith. The lead up to Christmas is of course advent, rather than this being associated with opening little doors on your calendar each day; advent was a period of fasting and reflection. White would have preached each Sunday of Advent on the subjects of Death, Judgement, Heaven and Hell, perhaps not very festive, but would have been part of the traditional preparations. Parishioners would have been expected to eat plain foods in preparation for the feasting over Christmas time.
Gilbert White would die just seven years shy of the first Christmas trees arriving in England, but the tradition of decorating your home with evergreens goes back much further. It is possible that White may have created garlands of holly, ivy and mistletoe from his garden to decorate the parlours of his home, much like we do today.
The weather at Christmas could vary as much on Christmas day as it does today, though a white Christmas was far more likely than it is today. On Christmas day in both 1781 Gilbert notes that boys are playing in the churchyard in their shirts it was so mild, whereas in 1787 the snow was a foot deep.
Gilbert White would have woken early on Christmas day and headed straight to church to prepare for his service. In 1751 a young Gilbert was about to give his first Christmas sermon in his home church. He had written one especially for the event, the sermon was a retelling of the nativity story which emphasised the humility of Mary, he asked parishioners to ‘ lay aside all pride, and self-conceit, and worldly wisdom, and pomp and state; and wean our souls, and keep the low, and condescending to people of mean estate.’ He would have been nervous to give a sermon to so many familiar faces that he had grown up with, but sources indicate that Gilbert had a loud easily heard voice and an engaging demeanour, so no doubt would have received plenty of praise and would have hopefully returned home pleased with himself.
White’s diaries show that the rest of the day was not taken over with Christmas traditions. In the past Christmas had been celebrated over twelve days, the emphasis on the 25th December would not take hold for another generation. A century before Christmas festivities had been banned, and many believed still that overindulgence over the Christmas period was inappropriate. So it is likely that for Gilbert the 25th looked much like any other day. He would have walked from parish to parish, taken note of the weather, wildlife and checked to see how his garden was doing.
Sometimes Gilbert would be visited by friends or family, for example in 1790 when his nephews Harry and Ben Woods came to stay for a couple of days. Sometimes Gilbert would spend Christmas in London with Benjamin and his large family. White had a lot of family in London, so a trip here would have been a great opportunity to see his family often and enjoy the delights of city, including preaching in some of its churches.
Once it started to get dark White would have returned home and spent the rest of the day, we can only assume by the fire with a book, and knowing Gilbert some raisin wine or port.
A Christmas dinner would have consisted of a turkey or goose or if you were feeling very fancy venison. This would be followed by a plum pudding or Christmas pudding.
Luckily for Gilbert, although there were traditions surrounding gift giving they weren’t as prominent as today. Gilbert towards the end of his life had close to sixty nephews and nieces so would have probably gone bankrupt each December, had he had to buy gifts for each of them.
White often gave to the poor around Christmas time, his account books suggest he gave about 13 shillings of his own modest salary to the poor at Christmas. He may have also treated his servants and their families. We can see Gilbert treating Thomas Hoare and his family to some extra money and perhaps some treats for the table.
So White’s Christmas would have been fairly recognisable to us today. A lot more simple perhaps, but a time to be looked forward to, and to be celebrated in much the same way. | <urn:uuid:1b04659d-92f5-46e4-868b-dc1473766790> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gilbertwhiteshouse.org.uk/gilbert-whites-christmas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.992272 | 877 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.19583147764205933... | 7 | Gilbert White was a clergyman and thus for him Christmas was ultimately a festival of faith. The lead up to Christmas is of course advent, rather than this being associated with opening little doors on your calendar each day; advent was a period of fasting and reflection. White would have preached each Sunday of Advent on the subjects of Death, Judgement, Heaven and Hell, perhaps not very festive, but would have been part of the traditional preparations. Parishioners would have been expected to eat plain foods in preparation for the feasting over Christmas time.
Gilbert White would die just seven years shy of the first Christmas trees arriving in England, but the tradition of decorating your home with evergreens goes back much further. It is possible that White may have created garlands of holly, ivy and mistletoe from his garden to decorate the parlours of his home, much like we do today.
The weather at Christmas could vary as much on Christmas day as it does today, though a white Christmas was far more likely than it is today. On Christmas day in both 1781 Gilbert notes that boys are playing in the churchyard in their shirts it was so mild, whereas in 1787 the snow was a foot deep.
Gilbert White would have woken early on Christmas day and headed straight to church to prepare for his service. In 1751 a young Gilbert was about to give his first Christmas sermon in his home church. He had written one especially for the event, the sermon was a retelling of the nativity story which emphasised the humility of Mary, he asked parishioners to ‘ lay aside all pride, and self-conceit, and worldly wisdom, and pomp and state; and wean our souls, and keep the low, and condescending to people of mean estate.’ He would have been nervous to give a sermon to so many familiar faces that he had grown up with, but sources indicate that Gilbert had a loud easily heard voice and an engaging demeanour, so no doubt would have received plenty of praise and would have hopefully returned home pleased with himself.
White’s diaries show that the rest of the day was not taken over with Christmas traditions. In the past Christmas had been celebrated over twelve days, the emphasis on the 25th December would not take hold for another generation. A century before Christmas festivities had been banned, and many believed still that overindulgence over the Christmas period was inappropriate. So it is likely that for Gilbert the 25th looked much like any other day. He would have walked from parish to parish, taken note of the weather, wildlife and checked to see how his garden was doing.
Sometimes Gilbert would be visited by friends or family, for example in 1790 when his nephews Harry and Ben Woods came to stay for a couple of days. Sometimes Gilbert would spend Christmas in London with Benjamin and his large family. White had a lot of family in London, so a trip here would have been a great opportunity to see his family often and enjoy the delights of city, including preaching in some of its churches.
Once it started to get dark White would have returned home and spent the rest of the day, we can only assume by the fire with a book, and knowing Gilbert some raisin wine or port.
A Christmas dinner would have consisted of a turkey or goose or if you were feeling very fancy venison. This would be followed by a plum pudding or Christmas pudding.
Luckily for Gilbert, although there were traditions surrounding gift giving they weren’t as prominent as today. Gilbert towards the end of his life had close to sixty nephews and nieces so would have probably gone bankrupt each December, had he had to buy gifts for each of them.
White often gave to the poor around Christmas time, his account books suggest he gave about 13 shillings of his own modest salary to the poor at Christmas. He may have also treated his servants and their families. We can see Gilbert treating Thomas Hoare and his family to some extra money and perhaps some treats for the table.
So White’s Christmas would have been fairly recognisable to us today. A lot more simple perhaps, but a time to be looked forward to, and to be celebrated in much the same way. | 869 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first recorded Olympic Games took place in Olympia in 776 B.C although it’s certain that they existed earlier. The Games at this time were local and the Greeks were competing in foot race only. During the Olympics, the athletes were competing in pentathlon, wrestling, horse races and pankration. The sports lasted 5 days and were divided in two categories, light and heavy.
The religious festival was held in honor of father of the Gods and for this reason Phideus made a golden statue of Zeus that was placed inside his temple. It was so colossal that the people considered it to be one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
At a time that the wars prevailed, Gods sent an oracle to people to engage athletics and gentle aversion. The Olympics would be held every four years and if it was a civil between the city – states, it would stop for the cease- fire period.
The winner was honored with the prize of an olive wreath that symbolized eternal glory and all the ideals for which the athletes would compete.
The observation of the Games was allowed to everyone except to the married women. The only married woman that was allowed to observe the games and had a special position just opposite the thrones of the judges, was the priestess of Dimitra. Although women couldn’t take part in the competitions, they could be honored with prizes if they were owners of winning horses.
Making an account of the points that impress me about the Ancient Olympic Games, I quote to you the following five points:
- The first winner in the foot race was Korivos, a cook from the area of Ilia.
- After three winnings in Olympic Games, a winner earned the right to build his own statue as well as one of his coach as a sign of gratitude.
- When the Olympian returned to his city, he didn’t enter through the main gate but through an opening of the wall that his fellow citizens had demolished in order to honor him. This was their way to show to everyone that the city is safe not because it was surrounded by walls but because it had brave athletes.
- Historians, philosophers and poets like Pindarus, Socrates, Platon, Herodotus and Aristotle visited the area of Olympia and chatted with the citizens about the benefits created by sports for body and mind.
- Until the time of their abolition by emperor Theothosios in 393 A. C, the athletes took part in 16 sports games and the ancient Greeks lighted the Olympic Flame 293 times. | <urn:uuid:7d88e92d-f7f3-47f0-ad6e-dda0dc1c2d68> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://arcastravel.com/index.php/2017/08/08/the-ancient-olympic-games/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=the-ancient-olympic-games | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00456.warc.gz | en | 0.987998 | 526 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.43273866176605225,... | 4 | The first recorded Olympic Games took place in Olympia in 776 B.C although it’s certain that they existed earlier. The Games at this time were local and the Greeks were competing in foot race only. During the Olympics, the athletes were competing in pentathlon, wrestling, horse races and pankration. The sports lasted 5 days and were divided in two categories, light and heavy.
The religious festival was held in honor of father of the Gods and for this reason Phideus made a golden statue of Zeus that was placed inside his temple. It was so colossal that the people considered it to be one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
At a time that the wars prevailed, Gods sent an oracle to people to engage athletics and gentle aversion. The Olympics would be held every four years and if it was a civil between the city – states, it would stop for the cease- fire period.
The winner was honored with the prize of an olive wreath that symbolized eternal glory and all the ideals for which the athletes would compete.
The observation of the Games was allowed to everyone except to the married women. The only married woman that was allowed to observe the games and had a special position just opposite the thrones of the judges, was the priestess of Dimitra. Although women couldn’t take part in the competitions, they could be honored with prizes if they were owners of winning horses.
Making an account of the points that impress me about the Ancient Olympic Games, I quote to you the following five points:
- The first winner in the foot race was Korivos, a cook from the area of Ilia.
- After three winnings in Olympic Games, a winner earned the right to build his own statue as well as one of his coach as a sign of gratitude.
- When the Olympian returned to his city, he didn’t enter through the main gate but through an opening of the wall that his fellow citizens had demolished in order to honor him. This was their way to show to everyone that the city is safe not because it was surrounded by walls but because it had brave athletes.
- Historians, philosophers and poets like Pindarus, Socrates, Platon, Herodotus and Aristotle visited the area of Olympia and chatted with the citizens about the benefits created by sports for body and mind.
- Until the time of their abolition by emperor Theothosios in 393 A. C, the athletes took part in 16 sports games and the ancient Greeks lighted the Olympic Flame 293 times. | 519 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Pullman Strike, (May 11, 1894–c. July 20, 1894), in U.S. history, widespread railroad strike and boycott that severely disrupted rail traffic in the Midwest of the United States in June–July 1894. The federal government’s response to the unrest marked the first time that an injunction was used to break a strike. Amid the crisis, on June 28 Pres. Grover Cleveland and Congress created a national holiday, Labor Day, as a conciliatory gesture toward the American labour movement.
What was the Pullman Strike?
Why did the Pullman workers go on strike?
What were the effects of the Pullman Strike?
What was the significance of the Pullman Strike?
What role did Eugene V. Debs play in the Pullman Strike?
The strike and boycott
In response to financial reverses related to the economic depression that began in 1893, the Pullman Palace Car Company, a manufacturer of railroad cars, cut the already low wages of its workers by about 25 percent but did not introduce corresponding reductions in rents and other charges at Pullman, its company town near Chicago, where most Pullman workers lived. As a result, many workers and their families faced starvation. When a delegation of workers tried to present their grievances about low wages, poor living conditions, and 16-hour workdays directly to the company’s president, George M. Pullman, he refused to meet with them and ordered them fired. The delegation then voted to strike, and Pullman workers walked off the job on May 11, 1894. As soon as the plant had emptied, company representatives posted signs at all the gates: “The works are closed until further notice.”
At the time of the strike, 35 percent of Pullman’s workforce was represented by the American Railway Union (ARU), which had led a successful strike against the Great Northern Railway Company in April 1894. Although the ARU was not technically involved in the Pullman workers’ decision to strike, union officials had been in Pullman and at the meeting at which the strike vote was taken, and Pullman workers undoubtedly believed that the ARU would back them. When the ARU gathered in Chicago in June for its first annual convention, the Pullman strike was an issue on the delegates’ minds.
A great deal of sympathy existed in Chicago and elsewhere for the Pullman workers, who were seen as common men and women tyrannized by an abusive employer and landlord. The question was how the ARU could support the workers, who, after all, did not exactly work on the railroads. One plan was to refuse to hitch Pullman cars to trains and to unhitch those that were already attached. Another idea was a boycott: ARU members would refuse to handle Pullman cars or any trains with Pullman cars until the railroads severed their ties with the Pullman Company.
On June 22 the ARU delegates passed a motion to initiate a boycott unless the Pullman Company agreed to submit the dispute to arbitration by June 26. During the next three days, several committees were sent to the company in the hope of winning concessions that would make the boycott unnecessary, but all were turned away.
Crucial to the success of any boycott would be the switchmen, who had joined the ARU in large numbers. The ARU’s president, Eugene V. Debs, predicted that, once the switchmen refused to add or remove Pullman cars from trains, the railroads would fire them and try to replace them with nonunion workers, and that in turn would lead other union members to walk out in solidarity, thus bringing more and more trains to a halt.
The scenario played out as Debs had predicted. On June 27, 5,000 workers left their jobs and 15 railroads were tied up. By the next day, 40,000 had walked off, and rail traffic was snarled on all lines west of Chicago. On the third day, the number of strikers had climbed to 100,000, and at least 20 lines were either tied up or completely stopped. By June 30, 125,000 workers on 29 railroads had quit work rather than handle Pullman cars. The ARU had few locals in the East or the Deep South, but the boycott seemed remarkably effective everywhere else.
Debs may have been pleased by the effectiveness of the boycott, but he was also alarmed by the anger expressed by the workers, which he feared could lead to violence. During the first week of the boycott he sent some 4,000 telegrams, hundreds every day, urging the ARU locals to stay calm and not to overreact.
On June 29 Debs spoke at a large and peaceful gathering in Blue Island, Illinois, to gather support from fellow railroad workers. After he left, however, groups within the crowd became enraged, set fire to nearby buildings, and derailed a locomotive. Unfortunately for the strikers, the locomotive was attached to a U.S. mail train. That greatly upset Pres. Grover Cleveland in that the strike had now prevented the federal government from exercising one of its most-important responsibilities. | <urn:uuid:3ce7a4de-7792-423a-a4f7-4208c36e515c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/event/Pullman-Strike | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00147.warc.gz | en | 0.983017 | 1,097 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.09073527157306671... | 3 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Pullman Strike, (May 11, 1894–c. July 20, 1894), in U.S. history, widespread railroad strike and boycott that severely disrupted rail traffic in the Midwest of the United States in June–July 1894. The federal government’s response to the unrest marked the first time that an injunction was used to break a strike. Amid the crisis, on June 28 Pres. Grover Cleveland and Congress created a national holiday, Labor Day, as a conciliatory gesture toward the American labour movement.
What was the Pullman Strike?
Why did the Pullman workers go on strike?
What were the effects of the Pullman Strike?
What was the significance of the Pullman Strike?
What role did Eugene V. Debs play in the Pullman Strike?
The strike and boycott
In response to financial reverses related to the economic depression that began in 1893, the Pullman Palace Car Company, a manufacturer of railroad cars, cut the already low wages of its workers by about 25 percent but did not introduce corresponding reductions in rents and other charges at Pullman, its company town near Chicago, where most Pullman workers lived. As a result, many workers and their families faced starvation. When a delegation of workers tried to present their grievances about low wages, poor living conditions, and 16-hour workdays directly to the company’s president, George M. Pullman, he refused to meet with them and ordered them fired. The delegation then voted to strike, and Pullman workers walked off the job on May 11, 1894. As soon as the plant had emptied, company representatives posted signs at all the gates: “The works are closed until further notice.”
At the time of the strike, 35 percent of Pullman’s workforce was represented by the American Railway Union (ARU), which had led a successful strike against the Great Northern Railway Company in April 1894. Although the ARU was not technically involved in the Pullman workers’ decision to strike, union officials had been in Pullman and at the meeting at which the strike vote was taken, and Pullman workers undoubtedly believed that the ARU would back them. When the ARU gathered in Chicago in June for its first annual convention, the Pullman strike was an issue on the delegates’ minds.
A great deal of sympathy existed in Chicago and elsewhere for the Pullman workers, who were seen as common men and women tyrannized by an abusive employer and landlord. The question was how the ARU could support the workers, who, after all, did not exactly work on the railroads. One plan was to refuse to hitch Pullman cars to trains and to unhitch those that were already attached. Another idea was a boycott: ARU members would refuse to handle Pullman cars or any trains with Pullman cars until the railroads severed their ties with the Pullman Company.
On June 22 the ARU delegates passed a motion to initiate a boycott unless the Pullman Company agreed to submit the dispute to arbitration by June 26. During the next three days, several committees were sent to the company in the hope of winning concessions that would make the boycott unnecessary, but all were turned away.
Crucial to the success of any boycott would be the switchmen, who had joined the ARU in large numbers. The ARU’s president, Eugene V. Debs, predicted that, once the switchmen refused to add or remove Pullman cars from trains, the railroads would fire them and try to replace them with nonunion workers, and that in turn would lead other union members to walk out in solidarity, thus bringing more and more trains to a halt.
The scenario played out as Debs had predicted. On June 27, 5,000 workers left their jobs and 15 railroads were tied up. By the next day, 40,000 had walked off, and rail traffic was snarled on all lines west of Chicago. On the third day, the number of strikers had climbed to 100,000, and at least 20 lines were either tied up or completely stopped. By June 30, 125,000 workers on 29 railroads had quit work rather than handle Pullman cars. The ARU had few locals in the East or the Deep South, but the boycott seemed remarkably effective everywhere else.
Debs may have been pleased by the effectiveness of the boycott, but he was also alarmed by the anger expressed by the workers, which he feared could lead to violence. During the first week of the boycott he sent some 4,000 telegrams, hundreds every day, urging the ARU locals to stay calm and not to overreact.
On June 29 Debs spoke at a large and peaceful gathering in Blue Island, Illinois, to gather support from fellow railroad workers. After he left, however, groups within the crowd became enraged, set fire to nearby buildings, and derailed a locomotive. Unfortunately for the strikers, the locomotive was attached to a U.S. mail train. That greatly upset Pres. Grover Cleveland in that the strike had now prevented the federal government from exercising one of its most-important responsibilities. | 1,137 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the late 19th century Nelson’s inland areas were regarded as ‘a back of beyond’.1 Agriculture was difficult to establish due to isolation, rugged landscapes and highly variable soils (with some very fertile pockets). The Riwaka and lower Motueka river floodplains were fertile, but the Moutere Basin hills and upper Motueka valley were not. Swamps had to be drained and bush cleared before farms could be established.
Land was originally divided into 50-acre (20-hectare) ‘suburban sections’, which were closer to the town, and 150-acre (60-hectare) ‘rural sections’. The smaller sections were intended to produce goods for the farmers and the local market, and the larger sections crops for export. The lack of open grazing land meant that the Nelson region never had the large landholdings common in much of New Zealand in the late 19th century.
Sheep were imported in the 1840s and wool slowly became an export product. Farming developed in the 1850s, with produce shipped to other New Zealand cities and to gold-rush Victoria, Australia. Towns grew near the more fertile farmland at Richmond, Hope and Motueka. By the 1870s farmers intensively cultivating their smallholdings supported small but vibrant rural communities. They sold grain, potatoes, fruit and vegetables, bacon, butter, cheese, poultry, eggs and other produce direct to town storekeepers. This was near the coast – inland it was a much harder life, breaking in bush country on poor soils. Out in the backblocks farmers helped each other out, creating small communities based on reciprocal work.
Sheep and beef
Pastoral production in the Nelson region was originally based on sheep and beef farming, with less land used for dairying. Wool and lamb prices were low and Nelson farmers struggled to get their stock to market. For decades drovers took sheep overland to the West Coast, Christchurch or Picton. A freezing works finally opened in Stoke in 1909.
In 2000 a new $9 million plant was built on a site beside the original works, putting an end to its ‘rotten egg’ stench. The plant was one of Nelson's largest employers, with 220 staff. It processed around 700,000 lambs a year, and contributed around $60 million to the region’s economy in 2009, its centennial year.
Out of the ashes
Farmers were loath to take up land covered in flax and scrub, believing that the heavier the bush, the better the soil. They cleared the trees themselves or employed bushwhackers. Much of the land had poor soils and ‘match farming’ was practised – the bush was burnt, and grass seed was sown in the ashes.
Small butter-making factories opened in rural areas from the 1880s and a dairy factory was built near Tākaka in 1894. In the 1940s the number of dairy farms dropped but their average size increased. The Nelson Town Milk Supply Company was set up in 1945, supplying the region with milk. Golden Bay, with its higher rainfall, has long been a dairy-farming stronghold, and since the 1990s many farms in valleys in the Buller River catchment have converted to dairying. In the 2010s milk powder was produced at Tākaka and Brightwater for export – the region’s drinking milk came from Canterbury. In 2008 the Tākaka plant employed nearly 50 staff, pumping $3 million in wages into the Golden Bay economy. Brightwater’s plant had 30 staff and paid more than $1.5 million in wages. | <urn:uuid:bace17d1-3472-4643-860e-aeaa956e3540> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/mi/nelson-region/page-9 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.980002 | 759 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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... | 21 | In the late 19th century Nelson’s inland areas were regarded as ‘a back of beyond’.1 Agriculture was difficult to establish due to isolation, rugged landscapes and highly variable soils (with some very fertile pockets). The Riwaka and lower Motueka river floodplains were fertile, but the Moutere Basin hills and upper Motueka valley were not. Swamps had to be drained and bush cleared before farms could be established.
Land was originally divided into 50-acre (20-hectare) ‘suburban sections’, which were closer to the town, and 150-acre (60-hectare) ‘rural sections’. The smaller sections were intended to produce goods for the farmers and the local market, and the larger sections crops for export. The lack of open grazing land meant that the Nelson region never had the large landholdings common in much of New Zealand in the late 19th century.
Sheep were imported in the 1840s and wool slowly became an export product. Farming developed in the 1850s, with produce shipped to other New Zealand cities and to gold-rush Victoria, Australia. Towns grew near the more fertile farmland at Richmond, Hope and Motueka. By the 1870s farmers intensively cultivating their smallholdings supported small but vibrant rural communities. They sold grain, potatoes, fruit and vegetables, bacon, butter, cheese, poultry, eggs and other produce direct to town storekeepers. This was near the coast – inland it was a much harder life, breaking in bush country on poor soils. Out in the backblocks farmers helped each other out, creating small communities based on reciprocal work.
Sheep and beef
Pastoral production in the Nelson region was originally based on sheep and beef farming, with less land used for dairying. Wool and lamb prices were low and Nelson farmers struggled to get their stock to market. For decades drovers took sheep overland to the West Coast, Christchurch or Picton. A freezing works finally opened in Stoke in 1909.
In 2000 a new $9 million plant was built on a site beside the original works, putting an end to its ‘rotten egg’ stench. The plant was one of Nelson's largest employers, with 220 staff. It processed around 700,000 lambs a year, and contributed around $60 million to the region’s economy in 2009, its centennial year.
Out of the ashes
Farmers were loath to take up land covered in flax and scrub, believing that the heavier the bush, the better the soil. They cleared the trees themselves or employed bushwhackers. Much of the land had poor soils and ‘match farming’ was practised – the bush was burnt, and grass seed was sown in the ashes.
Small butter-making factories opened in rural areas from the 1880s and a dairy factory was built near Tākaka in 1894. In the 1940s the number of dairy farms dropped but their average size increased. The Nelson Town Milk Supply Company was set up in 1945, supplying the region with milk. Golden Bay, with its higher rainfall, has long been a dairy-farming stronghold, and since the 1990s many farms in valleys in the Buller River catchment have converted to dairying. In the 2010s milk powder was produced at Tākaka and Brightwater for export – the region’s drinking milk came from Canterbury. In 2008 the Tākaka plant employed nearly 50 staff, pumping $3 million in wages into the Golden Bay economy. Brightwater’s plant had 30 staff and paid more than $1.5 million in wages. | 804 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Stuarts found ruling England was no easier than running Scotland even though they were supposed to have more power.
James IV of Scotland had waited for many years for the childless Elizabeth I to die. Elizabeth was the last of the Tudor dynasty, which had ruled England since 1485. Despite been of humble Welsh origins the Tudors were generally considered to be a successsful dynasty. Henry VIII had even inadvertently overturned the religious and social fabric of his kingdom to gain a male heir. In the process Parliament became more powerful.
Perhaps James misunderstood the power of Parliament and the importance of keeping to English constitutional conventions. The Westminster Parliament had considerably more power and influence than it's Scots counterpart. It controlled the purse strings of a much fuller purse. James had brought into the concept of the divine right of kings.
Yet the monarchs of France and Spain did not have to deal with a House of Commons that was reluctant to let James spend any money or mess with the Church of England.
James had found it difficult to get what he wanted yet had averted disaster by compromising. Charles was convinced that his right to rule took precedence over Parliament and tradition. He even ruled without Parliament for eleven years. Then came the civil wars and his execution.
If you are one among the many persons that travel to different places, you are no stranger to hotel rooms. Everything seems alright when you check into a hotel room.
Tsar Alexander II attempted reforms that were intended to modernise Russia as well as freeing all the peasants that formed the bulk of its population from Serfdom..
The French Revolution was all about the spreading of liberty and the full freedom of expression for citizens. It was the replacement of an absolute monarchy headed by an inept King, with a republic run by the people for the people, or so the theory went. | <urn:uuid:492e3f7d-dc08-4cd8-b59f-7d61000f3382> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/why-the-stuarts-find-ruling-england-difficult | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.988371 | 371 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.121578156948... | 1 | The Stuarts found ruling England was no easier than running Scotland even though they were supposed to have more power.
James IV of Scotland had waited for many years for the childless Elizabeth I to die. Elizabeth was the last of the Tudor dynasty, which had ruled England since 1485. Despite been of humble Welsh origins the Tudors were generally considered to be a successsful dynasty. Henry VIII had even inadvertently overturned the religious and social fabric of his kingdom to gain a male heir. In the process Parliament became more powerful.
Perhaps James misunderstood the power of Parliament and the importance of keeping to English constitutional conventions. The Westminster Parliament had considerably more power and influence than it's Scots counterpart. It controlled the purse strings of a much fuller purse. James had brought into the concept of the divine right of kings.
Yet the monarchs of France and Spain did not have to deal with a House of Commons that was reluctant to let James spend any money or mess with the Church of England.
James had found it difficult to get what he wanted yet had averted disaster by compromising. Charles was convinced that his right to rule took precedence over Parliament and tradition. He even ruled without Parliament for eleven years. Then came the civil wars and his execution.
If you are one among the many persons that travel to different places, you are no stranger to hotel rooms. Everything seems alright when you check into a hotel room.
Tsar Alexander II attempted reforms that were intended to modernise Russia as well as freeing all the peasants that formed the bulk of its population from Serfdom..
The French Revolution was all about the spreading of liberty and the full freedom of expression for citizens. It was the replacement of an absolute monarchy headed by an inept King, with a republic run by the people for the people, or so the theory went. | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Dervish State was a territory established in the early 20th century and lasted between 1988-1920. The state was established by a Muslim religious leader known as Mohammed Abdullah Hassan. The occupants of the state were referred to as Dervishes. Mohammed brought together soldiers across the horn of Africa, that is, the current country of Somali. He led the state in resisting Europeans who wanted to invade, conquer, and colonize Africans.
Mohammed Abdulla Hassan
Mohammed Abdulla Hassan was a prominent Islamic Sheikh who thoroughly studied and practiced the Quran. He was born In Ogadeen. Though he had a humble beginning as a nomadic herd’s boy, he rose to lead a strong army through his managerial and oratory skills. He was also a great mobilizer. He was often referred to as “The father of a nation,” though the British referred to him as mad Mullah.
The Dervish Economic Activity
The robust trading activity took place in the Dervish State. The main business was centered on the importation of firearms, horses, and material that were used to build houses and fortresses. This was evidenced by the numerous buildings and fortresses in that part of Africa. They also traded in livestock with the port cities such as Las Khorey.
Well Organized Defense Forces
The soldiers in the Dervish State had superior weapons that aided in the resistance against the external aggressors. The military was divided into seven units of 1,000 to 4,000 strong men, each under a commander. Most of the soldiers were drawn from the nomadic pastoralists. Before embarking in warfare they would engage in a dance called “Dhaato” that motivated and inspired the soldiers. Noticeably, there are four instances whereby the Dervishes fought back and expelled the British soldiers. In 1900 they were also able to recover livestock stolen by Ethiopians thereby gaining authority in Ogaden. The state had a centrally build city with permanent military fortresses that were purposely build to defend the territory against attackers. Such a military stronghold was built in Taleh. They also built high walls with the most notable one being “Silsilat.” Inside the city, Mohammed lived with his family and commanded the state from there.
The Impact of the Dervish State
The legacy can be seen long after the state ceased to exist, evidenced by the many fortresses, castles and other artifacts held in the archives and museum. These were well preserved under president Mohammed Said Barre. Poetry and literature, relating to both war and peace, also borrowed highly from the states’ culture and are taught in learning institutions with many books written on the Dervish State. Many films have also been developed to commemorate that state. The Dervish State was one of the greatest states that ever existed. It will be remembered for resistance to external attacks, well-organized army and its impact on current Somali culture. However, the state came to an end in 1920 after bombing from the British. Mohammed escaped with remnants of his family and later died in 1921.
What was the Deverish State?
The Dervish State was a territory established in the early 20th century that lasted between 1988-1920. The Dervish State occupied an area of modern day Somalia. It was established by a Muslim religious leader known as Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
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0.271553695201... | 2 | The Dervish State was a territory established in the early 20th century and lasted between 1988-1920. The state was established by a Muslim religious leader known as Mohammed Abdullah Hassan. The occupants of the state were referred to as Dervishes. Mohammed brought together soldiers across the horn of Africa, that is, the current country of Somali. He led the state in resisting Europeans who wanted to invade, conquer, and colonize Africans.
Mohammed Abdulla Hassan
Mohammed Abdulla Hassan was a prominent Islamic Sheikh who thoroughly studied and practiced the Quran. He was born In Ogadeen. Though he had a humble beginning as a nomadic herd’s boy, he rose to lead a strong army through his managerial and oratory skills. He was also a great mobilizer. He was often referred to as “The father of a nation,” though the British referred to him as mad Mullah.
The Dervish Economic Activity
The robust trading activity took place in the Dervish State. The main business was centered on the importation of firearms, horses, and material that were used to build houses and fortresses. This was evidenced by the numerous buildings and fortresses in that part of Africa. They also traded in livestock with the port cities such as Las Khorey.
Well Organized Defense Forces
The soldiers in the Dervish State had superior weapons that aided in the resistance against the external aggressors. The military was divided into seven units of 1,000 to 4,000 strong men, each under a commander. Most of the soldiers were drawn from the nomadic pastoralists. Before embarking in warfare they would engage in a dance called “Dhaato” that motivated and inspired the soldiers. Noticeably, there are four instances whereby the Dervishes fought back and expelled the British soldiers. In 1900 they were also able to recover livestock stolen by Ethiopians thereby gaining authority in Ogaden. The state had a centrally build city with permanent military fortresses that were purposely build to defend the territory against attackers. Such a military stronghold was built in Taleh. They also built high walls with the most notable one being “Silsilat.” Inside the city, Mohammed lived with his family and commanded the state from there.
The Impact of the Dervish State
The legacy can be seen long after the state ceased to exist, evidenced by the many fortresses, castles and other artifacts held in the archives and museum. These were well preserved under president Mohammed Said Barre. Poetry and literature, relating to both war and peace, also borrowed highly from the states’ culture and are taught in learning institutions with many books written on the Dervish State. Many films have also been developed to commemorate that state. The Dervish State was one of the greatest states that ever existed. It will be remembered for resistance to external attacks, well-organized army and its impact on current Somali culture. However, the state came to an end in 1920 after bombing from the British. Mohammed escaped with remnants of his family and later died in 1921.
What was the Deverish State?
The Dervish State was a territory established in the early 20th century that lasted between 1988-1920. The Dervish State occupied an area of modern day Somalia. It was established by a Muslim religious leader known as Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 777 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fritz Haber originally started the Chemical Warfare in 1914. This article discusses how it proceeded from there into the World War I, what chemicals were used, and how it affected the soldiers.
The history of Chemical Warfare traces down to Fritz Haber, who used it for Germany during the First World War. A world-famous chemist, Haber used his knowledge to extract nitrides from the atmosphere, which was used for fertilizers, and later on, he shifted towards making explosives. The war broke out in August 1914, and the Germans were confident of their victory. But their offensive was blocked down tremendously into a bottleneck of trench warfare in the West. Being patriotic to the Germans, Haber focused on what his contribution should be to bring them to victory, and began thinking about the possibilities of the Poison Gas and its effects in terms of accessing the deepest of the enemy trenches.
Introducing the Gas to The Germans
Poison gases were abundant, as they were mostly created as by-products in chemical factories. But their effects as a weapon of war were not yet tested. So, Haber began experimenting with various toxins and chemicals suitable for use in the war, and focused on the chlorine gas (diatomic chlorine), which was used in the dye industries.
The main thing about Haber’s work was that he took complete initiative in this project. He even approached the German Military in December 1914, to sell them his Poison Gas. The German Army had disrespect for scientists at that time, and moreover, implementing poison gas as a weapon meant stooping too low. However, Haber convinced them to see a demonstration, after which he was incorporated into the German Ranks and set to form a chemical corps.
The trench war was getting tougher day by day; and the Germans found it difficult to cross the trench-covered area, and finally decided to try Haber’s Poison Gas.
According to certain sources, the Germans conducted the first chlorine gas attack before 2 January, 1915. However, by 22 April, 1915, the Army set up 5,730 cylinders of chlorine gas, and opened their valves against the French and Algerian troops facing them at Ypres, in Belgium. 200 tons of gas were released, forming a dense green cloud that smelled of bleach and rolled into the Allied lines.
[Chlorine Facts: At 30 parts of chlorine to a million parts of air, chlorine gas is a nasty irritant that causes harsh coughing. At 1,000 parts per million, it is lethal, caustically stripping the lining from the lungs, and causing victims to drown in their own fluids.]
Effects of the Gas
The results were horrifying, and devastated the French and Algerian troops on the front line. The soldiers choked and died with their lungs burning, while the remaining who were a little far fled the scene. A sickly green mist covered the whole area. On 24th April, 1915, the same gas was used again at the Canadian Border with similar results.
The casualties of the Allies were estimated as, 5000 people dead and about 10,000 people disabled, and half of them permanently. The attacks were extremely affective with the French and German troops firing tear gases in artillery shells. But tear gas proved nothing more than a mere tactical nuisance. The Germans launched a number of gas attacks during May 1915, with the last one taking place on 24th May. Then, they ceased their large-scale attacks for some time due to the change in direction of the prevailing winds.
The changes in winds were welcome by the Germans, as it gave them the opportunity to try their new destructive technique on the Russians. On May 31, 1915, a large-scale poison gas attack was carried out on the Russians. As they were poorly equipped, numerous number of soldiers were killed at the eastern front. The Russians suffered with the most number of casualties compared with all the others put together, and realized that any attempt to retaliate would be squashed.
The Allies were very outraged at the use of this gas by the Germans, and the British Army assigned Major Charles Howard Foulkes of the Royal Engineers to implement a response. Foulkes was energetic and capable, and he quickly implemented schemes for defense and offense. In June 1915, 2,500,000 “Hypo Helmets” were issued to the Allied troops. They were primitive gas masks that could only block low doses of gas attacks but at least they were better than nothing.
Use of Phosgene
On 9 December, 1915, with the winds again in their favor, the Germans launched another gas attack on the Allied lines, this time against the British at Ypres, in Belgium. They used chlorine and a new gas, “phosgene”. Phosgene was another toxic chemical initiated by Haber and his company. It had a specific destructive interaction with the lung tissue, and its lethal concentration was only an eighteenth of that of chlorine. Its action was subtle and deadly. A soldier who inhaled a lethal dose of phosgene would feel some irritation at first, and then feel fine for a day or two.
In many cases, men would simply shrug off the gas attack as inconsequential, or hardly notice they had been victims of a gas attack. Then, the linings of their lungs would break down, and they would drown in their own lung fluids, coughing up a watery stream until they would choke and drowned. There is a story of a German prisoner who had been attacked with phosgene and mocked his captors for the ineffectiveness of their gases. He was dead within 24 hours.
Fortunately, the British were ready for phosgene and prepared a new and improved Phelmet, which decreased their own casualties tremendously. The British were quick to adopt the usage of this gas themselves. In June 1916, during the battle of the Somme, they poured out a huge cloud of phosgene and chlorine gas along a 17-mile front. The cloud penetrated up to 12 miles behind German lines, killing everything unprotected.
Soldiers hated poison gas more than they hated weapons. Soldiers were almost as scared of their own gas as they were of the enemy’s, since blunders were common, and shifting winds made gas releases potentially dangerous to everyone. Their own gas killed 57 of Foulkes’ men during the Battle of the Somme. Gas masks were extremely uncomfortable, and the terror caused by the gas was extreme, particularly after the introduction of phosgene.
In early 1916 both the British and the Germans grew wise on the use of Poison Gas and began to use artillery and barrages on a large-scale.
The Livens Projector
The next chemical weapon to come around was the “Livens Projector”, invented by Capt. F.H.Livens of the British Army. It was simply a metal pipe about a meter or so long, that was buried in the soil at a 45-degree angle. Large numbers of the projectors were set up in banks. Each projector was loaded with a drum containing about 14 kilograms (30 pounds) of gas, and the bank of projectors was fired by an electrical charge, sending the drums tumbling through air for a range of over a kilometer and a half (about a mile).
Each drum contained a bursting charge to blast it open when it landed near enemy trenches, dousing the enemy with gas without any warning. The Livens Projector was cheap, crude, and extremely effective, as it could be used in mass numbers to produce an overwhelming, terrifying barrage. It was first used at the Battle of Arras on 9 April, 1917.
However, the Germans had another trick of their own. On the evening of 12 July, 1917, the Germans fired shells into British trenches at Ypres, but when they burst the shells, it released a brown oily fluid, not a gas. The stuff had a horrible smell, something like rancid garlic or mustard, but it otherwise didn’t seem particularly offensive and caused only slight irritation to the eyes and throat.
Effects of the Projector
Given the panic over gas attacks, many British troops didn’t bother to put on gas masks after this attack, and went ahead to observe the fallen weapon. As the night wore on, they began to feel pain rising in their eyes and throats; and gradually, they suffered swelling and huge blisters wherever their skin had come into contact with the noxious fluid.
The results were horrendous, with all the affected soldiers losing large patches of skin. Many of the men were blinded. Some died from the massive damage to the throat and lungs. The actual number of fatalities was low, but many of the victims were so badly hurt that they would not be fit to fight for months if they ever recovered their health at all. The new weapon was called “lost” or “Yellow Cross”, and its formal name was dichloroethyl sulfide, with its mustard smell being just a coincidence.
Mustard Gas was known to be used extensively in this war between 1917 and 1918. It did not dissipate like the other gases. The oily fluid could persist for a long time, and continue to cause misery and pain to anyone who came in contact with it. For example, accidentally getting some of it on one’s boots may lead to getting it on his hands and face. It would freeze during the winter, and still be toxic when it is thawed again in the spring.
Gas could be highly effective if it were used against opponents that were not equipped to deal with it. As mentioned, the Germans used it with great effect against the Russians, inflicting what is now broadly estimated to be about 600,000 casualties, and in October 1917, they used phosgene to break the Italian defensive line in Northern Italy, at Caporetto. The unprepared Italians were sent into terrified flight, and decisively defeated.
Finally, The End
An armistice was declared in November 1918, and the shooting stopped. Gas was estimated to have killed about 100,000 men and injured a million. The number of men killed was small compared to the number killed by other means, but gas had played a particularly unpleasant role in the conflict. Gas shells and other delivery systems had been refined, as had defensive technologies and procedures. All the combatants had been preparing even nastier chemical weapons when the war ended.
Fritz Haber was devastated by his country’s defeat. However, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1919 for his prewar development of the Haber process.
To summarize, we can say that four classes of agents were created during the war.
1) Asphyxiants or “choking agents”, which attacked the lungs and could cause victims to drown in their own lung fluids. The classic agents were chlorine and phosgene, but other agents were used during the war (e.g. :- Diphosgene, Chloropicrin, also known as “vomiting gas”, “Aquinite” by the French, and “Klop” by the Germans).
2) Blistering agents, consisting of several different forms of mustard gas. The original German chemical agent was “sulfur mustard”, but after the war, “nitrogen mustard” agents were synthesized and manufactured as well. Nitrogen mustard was easier to manufacture and more persistent than sulfur mustard.
3) Blood agents, most specifically aqueous “hydrogen cyanide (HCN)”, also known as “prussic acid” or “hydrocyanic acid”, which blocked the absorption of oxygen in the blood. Cyanides had been used in combat by the Allies to an extent; but though deadly in enclosed spaces, they tended to dissipate quickly in open air, and they had little useful effect in low concentrations.
4) A wide range of “nonlethal”, or more correctly “less lethal”, gases, including tear gases and vomiting agents. Such substances are now known as “riot control agents (RCAs)”. Many different tear gases were used during World War I, such as chloracetone and bromacetone, and after the war new tear gases were developed, including chloracetophenone (CN) and ortho-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile, the second being an aerosol powder, better known as “CS” after its inventors, Corson and Stoughton. | <urn:uuid:c86c22f6-f5cf-4e46-9adf-a24828923e40> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyplex.com/chemical-warfare-beginning | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.985421 | 2,597 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.5605988502502441,... | 8 | Fritz Haber originally started the Chemical Warfare in 1914. This article discusses how it proceeded from there into the World War I, what chemicals were used, and how it affected the soldiers.
The history of Chemical Warfare traces down to Fritz Haber, who used it for Germany during the First World War. A world-famous chemist, Haber used his knowledge to extract nitrides from the atmosphere, which was used for fertilizers, and later on, he shifted towards making explosives. The war broke out in August 1914, and the Germans were confident of their victory. But their offensive was blocked down tremendously into a bottleneck of trench warfare in the West. Being patriotic to the Germans, Haber focused on what his contribution should be to bring them to victory, and began thinking about the possibilities of the Poison Gas and its effects in terms of accessing the deepest of the enemy trenches.
Introducing the Gas to The Germans
Poison gases were abundant, as they were mostly created as by-products in chemical factories. But their effects as a weapon of war were not yet tested. So, Haber began experimenting with various toxins and chemicals suitable for use in the war, and focused on the chlorine gas (diatomic chlorine), which was used in the dye industries.
The main thing about Haber’s work was that he took complete initiative in this project. He even approached the German Military in December 1914, to sell them his Poison Gas. The German Army had disrespect for scientists at that time, and moreover, implementing poison gas as a weapon meant stooping too low. However, Haber convinced them to see a demonstration, after which he was incorporated into the German Ranks and set to form a chemical corps.
The trench war was getting tougher day by day; and the Germans found it difficult to cross the trench-covered area, and finally decided to try Haber’s Poison Gas.
According to certain sources, the Germans conducted the first chlorine gas attack before 2 January, 1915. However, by 22 April, 1915, the Army set up 5,730 cylinders of chlorine gas, and opened their valves against the French and Algerian troops facing them at Ypres, in Belgium. 200 tons of gas were released, forming a dense green cloud that smelled of bleach and rolled into the Allied lines.
[Chlorine Facts: At 30 parts of chlorine to a million parts of air, chlorine gas is a nasty irritant that causes harsh coughing. At 1,000 parts per million, it is lethal, caustically stripping the lining from the lungs, and causing victims to drown in their own fluids.]
Effects of the Gas
The results were horrifying, and devastated the French and Algerian troops on the front line. The soldiers choked and died with their lungs burning, while the remaining who were a little far fled the scene. A sickly green mist covered the whole area. On 24th April, 1915, the same gas was used again at the Canadian Border with similar results.
The casualties of the Allies were estimated as, 5000 people dead and about 10,000 people disabled, and half of them permanently. The attacks were extremely affective with the French and German troops firing tear gases in artillery shells. But tear gas proved nothing more than a mere tactical nuisance. The Germans launched a number of gas attacks during May 1915, with the last one taking place on 24th May. Then, they ceased their large-scale attacks for some time due to the change in direction of the prevailing winds.
The changes in winds were welcome by the Germans, as it gave them the opportunity to try their new destructive technique on the Russians. On May 31, 1915, a large-scale poison gas attack was carried out on the Russians. As they were poorly equipped, numerous number of soldiers were killed at the eastern front. The Russians suffered with the most number of casualties compared with all the others put together, and realized that any attempt to retaliate would be squashed.
The Allies were very outraged at the use of this gas by the Germans, and the British Army assigned Major Charles Howard Foulkes of the Royal Engineers to implement a response. Foulkes was energetic and capable, and he quickly implemented schemes for defense and offense. In June 1915, 2,500,000 “Hypo Helmets” were issued to the Allied troops. They were primitive gas masks that could only block low doses of gas attacks but at least they were better than nothing.
Use of Phosgene
On 9 December, 1915, with the winds again in their favor, the Germans launched another gas attack on the Allied lines, this time against the British at Ypres, in Belgium. They used chlorine and a new gas, “phosgene”. Phosgene was another toxic chemical initiated by Haber and his company. It had a specific destructive interaction with the lung tissue, and its lethal concentration was only an eighteenth of that of chlorine. Its action was subtle and deadly. A soldier who inhaled a lethal dose of phosgene would feel some irritation at first, and then feel fine for a day or two.
In many cases, men would simply shrug off the gas attack as inconsequential, or hardly notice they had been victims of a gas attack. Then, the linings of their lungs would break down, and they would drown in their own lung fluids, coughing up a watery stream until they would choke and drowned. There is a story of a German prisoner who had been attacked with phosgene and mocked his captors for the ineffectiveness of their gases. He was dead within 24 hours.
Fortunately, the British were ready for phosgene and prepared a new and improved Phelmet, which decreased their own casualties tremendously. The British were quick to adopt the usage of this gas themselves. In June 1916, during the battle of the Somme, they poured out a huge cloud of phosgene and chlorine gas along a 17-mile front. The cloud penetrated up to 12 miles behind German lines, killing everything unprotected.
Soldiers hated poison gas more than they hated weapons. Soldiers were almost as scared of their own gas as they were of the enemy’s, since blunders were common, and shifting winds made gas releases potentially dangerous to everyone. Their own gas killed 57 of Foulkes’ men during the Battle of the Somme. Gas masks were extremely uncomfortable, and the terror caused by the gas was extreme, particularly after the introduction of phosgene.
In early 1916 both the British and the Germans grew wise on the use of Poison Gas and began to use artillery and barrages on a large-scale.
The Livens Projector
The next chemical weapon to come around was the “Livens Projector”, invented by Capt. F.H.Livens of the British Army. It was simply a metal pipe about a meter or so long, that was buried in the soil at a 45-degree angle. Large numbers of the projectors were set up in banks. Each projector was loaded with a drum containing about 14 kilograms (30 pounds) of gas, and the bank of projectors was fired by an electrical charge, sending the drums tumbling through air for a range of over a kilometer and a half (about a mile).
Each drum contained a bursting charge to blast it open when it landed near enemy trenches, dousing the enemy with gas without any warning. The Livens Projector was cheap, crude, and extremely effective, as it could be used in mass numbers to produce an overwhelming, terrifying barrage. It was first used at the Battle of Arras on 9 April, 1917.
However, the Germans had another trick of their own. On the evening of 12 July, 1917, the Germans fired shells into British trenches at Ypres, but when they burst the shells, it released a brown oily fluid, not a gas. The stuff had a horrible smell, something like rancid garlic or mustard, but it otherwise didn’t seem particularly offensive and caused only slight irritation to the eyes and throat.
Effects of the Projector
Given the panic over gas attacks, many British troops didn’t bother to put on gas masks after this attack, and went ahead to observe the fallen weapon. As the night wore on, they began to feel pain rising in their eyes and throats; and gradually, they suffered swelling and huge blisters wherever their skin had come into contact with the noxious fluid.
The results were horrendous, with all the affected soldiers losing large patches of skin. Many of the men were blinded. Some died from the massive damage to the throat and lungs. The actual number of fatalities was low, but many of the victims were so badly hurt that they would not be fit to fight for months if they ever recovered their health at all. The new weapon was called “lost” or “Yellow Cross”, and its formal name was dichloroethyl sulfide, with its mustard smell being just a coincidence.
Mustard Gas was known to be used extensively in this war between 1917 and 1918. It did not dissipate like the other gases. The oily fluid could persist for a long time, and continue to cause misery and pain to anyone who came in contact with it. For example, accidentally getting some of it on one’s boots may lead to getting it on his hands and face. It would freeze during the winter, and still be toxic when it is thawed again in the spring.
Gas could be highly effective if it were used against opponents that were not equipped to deal with it. As mentioned, the Germans used it with great effect against the Russians, inflicting what is now broadly estimated to be about 600,000 casualties, and in October 1917, they used phosgene to break the Italian defensive line in Northern Italy, at Caporetto. The unprepared Italians were sent into terrified flight, and decisively defeated.
Finally, The End
An armistice was declared in November 1918, and the shooting stopped. Gas was estimated to have killed about 100,000 men and injured a million. The number of men killed was small compared to the number killed by other means, but gas had played a particularly unpleasant role in the conflict. Gas shells and other delivery systems had been refined, as had defensive technologies and procedures. All the combatants had been preparing even nastier chemical weapons when the war ended.
Fritz Haber was devastated by his country’s defeat. However, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1919 for his prewar development of the Haber process.
To summarize, we can say that four classes of agents were created during the war.
1) Asphyxiants or “choking agents”, which attacked the lungs and could cause victims to drown in their own lung fluids. The classic agents were chlorine and phosgene, but other agents were used during the war (e.g. :- Diphosgene, Chloropicrin, also known as “vomiting gas”, “Aquinite” by the French, and “Klop” by the Germans).
2) Blistering agents, consisting of several different forms of mustard gas. The original German chemical agent was “sulfur mustard”, but after the war, “nitrogen mustard” agents were synthesized and manufactured as well. Nitrogen mustard was easier to manufacture and more persistent than sulfur mustard.
3) Blood agents, most specifically aqueous “hydrogen cyanide (HCN)”, also known as “prussic acid” or “hydrocyanic acid”, which blocked the absorption of oxygen in the blood. Cyanides had been used in combat by the Allies to an extent; but though deadly in enclosed spaces, they tended to dissipate quickly in open air, and they had little useful effect in low concentrations.
4) A wide range of “nonlethal”, or more correctly “less lethal”, gases, including tear gases and vomiting agents. Such substances are now known as “riot control agents (RCAs)”. Many different tear gases were used during World War I, such as chloracetone and bromacetone, and after the war new tear gases were developed, including chloracetophenone (CN) and ortho-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile, the second being an aerosol powder, better known as “CS” after its inventors, Corson and Stoughton. | 2,623 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Despite its poisonous nature, lead was used by doctors for around 2000 years to treat all kinds of illnesses. The practice started with Tiberius Claudius Menecrates, physician to the Roman Emperor Tiberius (ruled 14-37). His diachylon plasters contained a paste made from lead oxide and they were used to treat skin complaints such as sores, boils, and other infections. The Roman recipe recommended heating litharge until it went gold-coloured then grinding this with linseed or olive oil and marshmallow root. Diachylon plasters were still in use in the late 1800s and it attests to their effectiveness that they were still to be found in the British Pharmacopoeia, and those of other countries, in the mid-1950s. There was little danger from using diachylon plasters because lead is not readily absorbed through the skin. The plasters contained about 33% of lead oxide, and were recommended for treating chilblains, corns, bunions, and chronic leg ulcers. Diachylon paste is still used in a product known as Lestreflex in which it is spread in strips along flesh coloured crepe-like bandages.
Diachylon paste itself found a new and illegal use as a way of procuring an abortion in the days when this was against the law. There was an outbreak of lead poisoning among women in Birmingham in the 1890s and it was due to the paste of plasters which was being scraped off and consumed as a way of terminating an unwanted pregnancy, which it successfully did.
Another ancient remedy was Powder of Saturn, a form of lead carbonate that was precipitated by adding potassium carbonate to lead acetate solution. It was recommended for tuberculosis and asthma. Lead pellets were sometimes used in an attempt to re-open twisted bowels, and in 1926 a Columbia University medical professor, Cater Wood, tried injecting a suspension of finely ground lead into cancer patients, claiming that 20% of them benefited from the treatment to some extent. More effectively, lead acetate was used to staunch 'internal' bleeding (that is, bleeding from the vagina) in the case of women, and for piles. Lead salts have an astringent reaction and will promote the coagulation of blood by the formation of insoluble lead proteinate.
Lotions made from lead acetate were advocated by an eighteenth-century surgeon, Thomas Goulard, of Montpellier, France, who wrote a book called The Extract of Saturn that advocating the use of lead in medicine. He made his lotion by boiling golden litharge with wine vinegar. This was to be used externally for bruises, wounds, abscesses, erysipelas, ulcers, skin cancers, whitlows, piles, and the itch. Erysipelas is a streptococcal infection of the skin producing deep red patches; whitlows are inflammations around fingernails and toenails; the itch was the name for scabies, a contagious parasitic infection of the skin, often around the genital area. In the 1930s in the USA, lead acetate solution was used to treat poison ivy dermatitis.
All the above treatments were really external and unlikely to cause lead poisoning in those being treated. Not so the lead medicaments that were to be taken by mouth. Lead acetate mixed with sulphur was prescribed for tuberculosis, and pills of lead acetate and opium were given to cure diarrhoea, which they did. These latter pills contained about 100 mg of lead acetate, which was enough to cause constipation, while the opium deadened the pain of any colic. Lead acetate was sometimes used as a sedative to treat hysteria and convulsive cough.
Nothing with lead as one of its ingredients would be approved for medical
In 2000 a physician in Walla Wall, Washington state, was treating a 2-year-old child who had been admitted to hospital, and he realized his young patient was suffering from acute lead poisoning. In fact the lead level in the child's blood was 124 ^g/litre. The cause was a traditional Mexican folk medicine known as greta, and which was a bright orange powder. The parents had used it several times to treat the child whom they thought was suffering from stomach ache. When greta was analysed it proved to be almost pure lead oxide. Other cases of children affected by lead also turned up among the Hispanic communities of the western states and several of these traditional remedies, known by a variety of names such as Rueda, Maria Luisa, Coral, Azarcon, and Liga, were found to be mainly lead oxide. Their importation into the United States is now banned. These remedies were traditionally used for all kinds of stomach upsets and especially diarrhoea, which they would in fact control.
use today, but there is one condition for which lead acetate is available, and as an over-the-counter treatment. It is the active ingredient in some hair gels for men, because it will turn grey hair dark brown. Hair, including grey hair, contains a lot of the sulphur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine; lead will bind strongly to the sulphur atoms in these and the molecular structures that form are thereby permanently stained dark brown. Nothing else cures greying hair like lead.*
Was this article helpful?
All wart sufferers, this is the day to stop the shame. How I Got Rid Of My Warts Forever and How You Can Get Rid Of Warts Naturally In 3 Days. With No Blisters, No Scars, And No Pain Without medications or expensive procedures. All by applying a simple, very natural and unbelievable FREE substance that can be found in almost every household. | <urn:uuid:2051d479-829d-4072-9182-3f084967b1ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.flandershealth.us/lead-poisoning/medical-uses-of-lead.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00385.warc.gz | en | 0.981715 | 1,181 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.270465731620788... | 1 | Despite its poisonous nature, lead was used by doctors for around 2000 years to treat all kinds of illnesses. The practice started with Tiberius Claudius Menecrates, physician to the Roman Emperor Tiberius (ruled 14-37). His diachylon plasters contained a paste made from lead oxide and they were used to treat skin complaints such as sores, boils, and other infections. The Roman recipe recommended heating litharge until it went gold-coloured then grinding this with linseed or olive oil and marshmallow root. Diachylon plasters were still in use in the late 1800s and it attests to their effectiveness that they were still to be found in the British Pharmacopoeia, and those of other countries, in the mid-1950s. There was little danger from using diachylon plasters because lead is not readily absorbed through the skin. The plasters contained about 33% of lead oxide, and were recommended for treating chilblains, corns, bunions, and chronic leg ulcers. Diachylon paste is still used in a product known as Lestreflex in which it is spread in strips along flesh coloured crepe-like bandages.
Diachylon paste itself found a new and illegal use as a way of procuring an abortion in the days when this was against the law. There was an outbreak of lead poisoning among women in Birmingham in the 1890s and it was due to the paste of plasters which was being scraped off and consumed as a way of terminating an unwanted pregnancy, which it successfully did.
Another ancient remedy was Powder of Saturn, a form of lead carbonate that was precipitated by adding potassium carbonate to lead acetate solution. It was recommended for tuberculosis and asthma. Lead pellets were sometimes used in an attempt to re-open twisted bowels, and in 1926 a Columbia University medical professor, Cater Wood, tried injecting a suspension of finely ground lead into cancer patients, claiming that 20% of them benefited from the treatment to some extent. More effectively, lead acetate was used to staunch 'internal' bleeding (that is, bleeding from the vagina) in the case of women, and for piles. Lead salts have an astringent reaction and will promote the coagulation of blood by the formation of insoluble lead proteinate.
Lotions made from lead acetate were advocated by an eighteenth-century surgeon, Thomas Goulard, of Montpellier, France, who wrote a book called The Extract of Saturn that advocating the use of lead in medicine. He made his lotion by boiling golden litharge with wine vinegar. This was to be used externally for bruises, wounds, abscesses, erysipelas, ulcers, skin cancers, whitlows, piles, and the itch. Erysipelas is a streptococcal infection of the skin producing deep red patches; whitlows are inflammations around fingernails and toenails; the itch was the name for scabies, a contagious parasitic infection of the skin, often around the genital area. In the 1930s in the USA, lead acetate solution was used to treat poison ivy dermatitis.
All the above treatments were really external and unlikely to cause lead poisoning in those being treated. Not so the lead medicaments that were to be taken by mouth. Lead acetate mixed with sulphur was prescribed for tuberculosis, and pills of lead acetate and opium were given to cure diarrhoea, which they did. These latter pills contained about 100 mg of lead acetate, which was enough to cause constipation, while the opium deadened the pain of any colic. Lead acetate was sometimes used as a sedative to treat hysteria and convulsive cough.
Nothing with lead as one of its ingredients would be approved for medical
In 2000 a physician in Walla Wall, Washington state, was treating a 2-year-old child who had been admitted to hospital, and he realized his young patient was suffering from acute lead poisoning. In fact the lead level in the child's blood was 124 ^g/litre. The cause was a traditional Mexican folk medicine known as greta, and which was a bright orange powder. The parents had used it several times to treat the child whom they thought was suffering from stomach ache. When greta was analysed it proved to be almost pure lead oxide. Other cases of children affected by lead also turned up among the Hispanic communities of the western states and several of these traditional remedies, known by a variety of names such as Rueda, Maria Luisa, Coral, Azarcon, and Liga, were found to be mainly lead oxide. Their importation into the United States is now banned. These remedies were traditionally used for all kinds of stomach upsets and especially diarrhoea, which they would in fact control.
use today, but there is one condition for which lead acetate is available, and as an over-the-counter treatment. It is the active ingredient in some hair gels for men, because it will turn grey hair dark brown. Hair, including grey hair, contains a lot of the sulphur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine; lead will bind strongly to the sulphur atoms in these and the molecular structures that form are thereby permanently stained dark brown. Nothing else cures greying hair like lead.*
Was this article helpful?
All wart sufferers, this is the day to stop the shame. How I Got Rid Of My Warts Forever and How You Can Get Rid Of Warts Naturally In 3 Days. With No Blisters, No Scars, And No Pain Without medications or expensive procedures. All by applying a simple, very natural and unbelievable FREE substance that can be found in almost every household. | 1,201 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay Question: “How successful was Wilson in achieving his aims at Versailles?
Explain your answer”.
In the following Essay, I will explain and analyze how successful Wilson Woodrow was on achieving his aims and objectives according to the final terms previously discussed by the big three.
On the one hand, his aims weren’t totally excluded and this is why many of them were achieved. The League of Nations, Wilson’s most important point, was obtained and founded on January 10th of 1920. Moreover, the point number thirteen: “Poland to become an independent state with access to the seas” was accepted, giving them access to a sea port through Danzig. It was not only attained that France would regain Alsace-Lorraine but also he accomplished the disarmament of Germany, although he wanted all countries to disarm so that the “just and lasting peace” could be achieved. In addition, Woodrow, gained his aim of self-determination but not completely. In spite of the fact that Wilson wanted Self-Determination for all the countries, he gained the autonomy of the ethnic groups and the Germany’s colonies. This happened because Britain and France didn’t want to give their colonies, they thought that only losers must suffer the loss of them.
However, on the other hand, he didn’t obtain all his desires. Firstly, the war guilt made his idea of “just and lasting peace” and “not to be very harsh on Germany” be lost. This happened because Georges Clemenceau “was determined not to allow such devastation ever again”, this means, that he couldn’t let Germany invade France ever again and he thought that this was the perfect moment “to weaken them as much as possible”. In addition, his second point wasn’t accepted. As I mentioned before, the disarmament and self-determination was not totally completed because they were established only for Germany to suffer. Moreover, “the strengthen democracy in defeated countries”, was not achieved because the War Guilt and reparations made Germany’s economy fall. Finally, the third point of Wilson’s fourteen points, was either not obtained.
All in all, Woodrow’s aims weren’t accomplished completely, however, he managed to convince Ll. George and Clemenceau about almost half of them. | <urn:uuid:3f07f785-6c19-45b2-b943-ad1764b8afc5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://matiasripoll.cumbresblogs.com/category/essay-writings/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00527.warc.gz | en | 0.985343 | 509 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.6360570788383484,... | 5 | Essay Question: “How successful was Wilson in achieving his aims at Versailles?
Explain your answer”.
In the following Essay, I will explain and analyze how successful Wilson Woodrow was on achieving his aims and objectives according to the final terms previously discussed by the big three.
On the one hand, his aims weren’t totally excluded and this is why many of them were achieved. The League of Nations, Wilson’s most important point, was obtained and founded on January 10th of 1920. Moreover, the point number thirteen: “Poland to become an independent state with access to the seas” was accepted, giving them access to a sea port through Danzig. It was not only attained that France would regain Alsace-Lorraine but also he accomplished the disarmament of Germany, although he wanted all countries to disarm so that the “just and lasting peace” could be achieved. In addition, Woodrow, gained his aim of self-determination but not completely. In spite of the fact that Wilson wanted Self-Determination for all the countries, he gained the autonomy of the ethnic groups and the Germany’s colonies. This happened because Britain and France didn’t want to give their colonies, they thought that only losers must suffer the loss of them.
However, on the other hand, he didn’t obtain all his desires. Firstly, the war guilt made his idea of “just and lasting peace” and “not to be very harsh on Germany” be lost. This happened because Georges Clemenceau “was determined not to allow such devastation ever again”, this means, that he couldn’t let Germany invade France ever again and he thought that this was the perfect moment “to weaken them as much as possible”. In addition, his second point wasn’t accepted. As I mentioned before, the disarmament and self-determination was not totally completed because they were established only for Germany to suffer. Moreover, “the strengthen democracy in defeated countries”, was not achieved because the War Guilt and reparations made Germany’s economy fall. Finally, the third point of Wilson’s fourteen points, was either not obtained.
All in all, Woodrow’s aims weren’t accomplished completely, however, he managed to convince Ll. George and Clemenceau about almost half of them. | 460 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kate Chopin and Her Writing
Many authors of different generations draw their inspiration from different things. In writing, one draws their inspiration from various events in his life. This could be a past life experience, an ideology, a religious belief, a personal history or life experience, traits in the society, and many other reasons that people find important to write about. The most important thing in writing that distinguishes authors from the common people is their inspiration. One’s source of inspiration can easily influence the way the author writes. It is the compass of both the authors and the readers.
Authors do base their works on inspirations, either consciously or sub-consciously. As it is well known, literature is the image of the society, hence the author’s work seeks to be a reflection of who the people in this society are.That is to mean their personality, beliefs, ideology and upbringing. All these factors do contribute to one being a particular kind of an author.
A perfect example is Kate Chopin who grew up in a Louisiana family in the nineteenth century. In those times there lived many male chauvinists, and women oppression was rather common. In that society, it was a prerogative of the men to determine how far a woman could go in any sphere of life.
It is therefore correct to say that women empowerment was only a dream during those times that Kate Chopin was born and brought up in. This particular environment and upbringing that surrounded K. Chopin influenced her writing in many ways. This research paper will seek to illuminate the ways mentioned by explaining K. Chopin’s life history in relation to her writing. Her books have a massive ideological view of feminism and women empowerment in consequence to the fact that she grew up in male chauvinist environment. This trait is evident in some of her short stories like “The Storm” and “The Story of an Hour”.
KATE CHOPIN’S LIFE HISTORY IN RELATION TO HER WRITING
Katherine O’Flaherty, who later came to be known as Kate Chopin, was born on February 8th 1851 in the state St. Louis Missouri. Her parents, Eliza and Thomas O’Flaherty, were well-known and respected individuals in that time and in the neighborhood where Kate lived. Her mother Eliza was of a French Creole descent while her father Thomas was originally from Ireland. Unfortunately, when Kate was only 5 years old, her father was involved in a grisly train accident and lost his life. As a result, Kate was left with her mother and spent her preteen years in the woman-centered environment. This can attributed to the fact that she lived with her mother, grandmother and great grandmother who were all widows.
Her great grandmother, Victoria Chardone Charleville, was substantially involved in the upbringing of Kate. She natured her artistic and mental capacity growth, and indoctrinated in Kate the talent of storytelling (Davis 3). The great grandmother cultivated the mentioned talent through the stories she told Kate. They were about the early settled unabashed settlers in Louisiana.Chopin’s education life, which started at the Sacred Heart Louisiana Academy, was an interesting one. Her father admitted her to that school at the age of five, and she went there sporadically for a couple of years. The academic program in that institution was similar to what her great grandmother had taught her.
Due to the fact that school was Catholic, Kate was taught Catholic teachings and the French academic and intellectual vigor. As a result, Kate became very inquisitive in her observations (Seryester 15). Kate was taught to think independently and make her own decisions but also to be respectful and submissive to the opposite sex. However, the fact that Chopin was brought up in a house full of women and was taught by nuns in her school did not prepare her psychologically to acknowledge the limitation that came with the woman’s autonomy. Therefore, despite the fact that Kate was taught to think independently, she acknowledged the fact that she might end up being a housewife after all.Kate was accustomed to seeing women exercising authority, both at home and in school. Moreover, this indoctrination of training and upbringing contributed to the irony of her writing in which most women felt like prisoners and trapped in their marriage.
This was ironically said because as it will be discussed in this paper later, Kate lived her happy marriage. Despite Kate’s controversial and unusual upbringing, she got married at the age of 25 to man named Oscar Chopin in June 1970. Her husband worked as a financial broker. During her marriage, Kate fulfilled a great deal of the wife’s social responsibility. She, however, did not conform to the rules and norms of society pertaining women. For instance, she could go on long walks alone and even smoke in public in the society where women were not allowed to smoke at all. After her husband’s business failed, they moved to Cloutierville where she continued with her defiant behavioral traits.
For example, people talked about her mode of dressing which they said was seductive in nature, since she wore short skirts. They also criticized her for not doing her house chores and choosing to loiter up and down in the streets. In other words, the people wanted her to be a normal wife like others in society.Amusingly, her husband did not complain about Kate being as she was. Instead, he was even happy that his wife was different. Unfortunately, years later Oscar contracted swamp fever and died on 8th December 1882. K.
Chopin became not only the sole parent to her children, she also inherited her husbands’ business and debts. She was running the business successfully for one year. It is not surprising that K. Chopin was able to run her husband’s business and at the same time be a parent to her children. This is solely attributed to the fact that she grew up in a female-centered environment which was not dependent on men’s input. Moreover, a family had many widows, and Kate had grown up in that life since she was five years old (Skaggs 9).The losses K.
Chopin suffered had a serious consequence on her writer’s career. For example, the death of her father inspired her to write “The Story of an Hour” which was her imagination of what she thought about her father’s death. Moreover, K. Chopin had to endure the loss of her great grandmother and her half-brother George O’Floherty who died the next month after the great grandmother. As if this was not enough, she had to endure the death of her husband Oscar. It, in turn, made K. Chopin to be depressed, and influenced her writings on solace.
In the midst of her grief and solace, Kate had an affair with a man called Joseph Albert Sampite who was commonly known as Albert. He was married to a woman named Marie Lodoiska (“Loca”), and together they had two children. Around the neighbor and the town as whole, Albert was known to be a womanizer, and everyone knew that he was pursuing Kate. They more often referred to Kate as “the beautiful Widow”. An interesting point to note is that Kate and Albert shared a lot of similarities. For example, they both loved horses, drinking beer, gambling and riding out at night. Albert and Kate became close as times went by.
However, this affair was short-lived as sources close to the two stated that Albert was in love with the pretty widow while she was not. Others, however, said that she was in love with Albert as well but the reason as to why she left her business and returned to St. Louis is not known to date.The story “The Storm” by Chopin was a story that she wrote years after her affair with Albert. As seen in many of her novels, she named most characters after Albert, only making a few changes. This made some people think that she might have been actually in love with Albert. For example, when K.
Chopin wrote about men who have an insatiable sexual behavior, she named them Alcee, a short form of Albert Sampite. In “At the Canadian Ball” and “The Storm”, Alcee Laberrielle was a very handsome young man who was a seed planter and loved to talk about politics, women and did a little mischief when intoxicated. Just like Alcee, Albert was an alcoholic who drank so much and came home to abuse his wife. This trait as said by some people could have been the reason why K. Chopin ended the affair. However, the most prominent use of Albert’s name by K. Chopin was in “The Awakening” when she named Ednas’ jilted lovers Alcee and Robert.
The story “The Storm” by K. Chopin is seen to be a reflection of her beliefs and experiences above all of her other works. The story here is basically about two married couples, Calixta and Bolibot, and Alcee and Clarisse. In this story, Alcee and Calixta were both married. In a certain day there was a storm that had come over the town. While Calixta’s husband and son Bibi took shelter at a local store, Calixta and Alcee were busy consenting to each other’s sexual desires. The two were not strangers one to another.
They had known each other for some time and had even flirted before. They, however, had not met since they both got married. Similar to the name of the story , there was a physical storm; ironically, there was also an emotional and a sexual ones at the same time. As the rain poured, it was so heavy and threatened to pull off the roof they were in. Calixta was worried about her son, and she moved close to the window to inspect the situation at hand. She expressed her fears about her son’s safety, and as she fell back she fell into the arms of Alcee who assured her that her son was fine. They started conversing about their sexual desires As the storm raged on, they had no regard for their safety or for their marital status.
After the storm, the sun came out, and everything went back to normal.The imagery that K. Chopin used in this particular story is interesting because it is seen as beginning with discomfort, then sexual satisfaction, and then a happy ending which clearly reflects Kate’s affair with Albert. In the story, after the storm, Bolibot and his son came back home and were welcome by kisses and hugs instead of arguments. More so, Bibi had come home dirty. However, none of them suspected anybody as they were not used to such a behavior. As they sat down to take dinner at the dining table, they laughed a lot, and enjoyed each other’s company.
Alcee, on the other hand, wrote a very romantic and strongly-worded letter to his wife encouraging her to make her vacation even longer. In the end, the affair helped make both their life in marriage better. In reflection to K. Chopin’s life, it was quite clear why she used Albert’s name in all her characters in “The Awakening” and “The Storm” to depict an individual who awakened woman’s sexual desire that she had never known before. After examining Kate’s life, it is quite clear that even though she ended her affair with Albert, she carried on the memories about him, and wrote memoirs about their sexual escapades.“The Story of an Hour” also explores the sophistication of the married state. Just as the title of the work depicts, this is a story about an hour in the life of a protagonist, Mrs.
Gillard. She is fragile in nature and has a weak heart. Thus, when her husband died in a train accident, her sister Josephine and her husband Richard had to be very careful in the way they broke the sad news to her. Even though they thought that the sad news would make Mrs. Gillard’s health deteriorate, it was quite the opposite as she found liberation and independence in her huband’s death. Initially, when Josephine and Richard broke the news Mrs. Gillard, she was overwhelmed with grief and mourned her husband for a few days.
However, after the time passed, and she started to notice things she had not noticed before. Unfortunately, her freedom was short-lived as her husband came back without a single slightest idea about the accident. She died immediately after seeing him. Ironically, the ending phrase is that “she died of Joy that kills.”
Throughout the works of Kate Chopin, it is evident that her inspiration in writing her stories was largely influenced by her life experiences. From such stories as “The Story of an Hour”, “The Awakening” and “The Storm”, an image of her experiences can be clearly seen, even including some persons that she met in her lifetime.
“The Storm.” Lives Through Literature: A Thematic Anthology. Ed. Helane Levine Keating and Walter Levy. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001.Chopin, Kate.
“The Story of an Hour.” The Complete Works of Kate Chopin, 2006.Davis, Sara DE Saussure. “Kate Chopin”. Dictionary of Literary Biography. Volume 12., 1982.
Hicks, Jennifer. An overview of “The Story of an Hour”. Literature Resource Center. Gale. Pace Univ. Mortola Library. Seyersted.
Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1969.Skaggs, Peggy. Kate Chopin. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1985. | <urn:uuid:95a82426-d5b1-453e-bbd2-9bfa32e4f70e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-kate-chopin-and-her-writing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.987832 | 2,912 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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-0.1910131722688675... | 1 | Kate Chopin and Her Writing
Many authors of different generations draw their inspiration from different things. In writing, one draws their inspiration from various events in his life. This could be a past life experience, an ideology, a religious belief, a personal history or life experience, traits in the society, and many other reasons that people find important to write about. The most important thing in writing that distinguishes authors from the common people is their inspiration. One’s source of inspiration can easily influence the way the author writes. It is the compass of both the authors and the readers.
Authors do base their works on inspirations, either consciously or sub-consciously. As it is well known, literature is the image of the society, hence the author’s work seeks to be a reflection of who the people in this society are.That is to mean their personality, beliefs, ideology and upbringing. All these factors do contribute to one being a particular kind of an author.
A perfect example is Kate Chopin who grew up in a Louisiana family in the nineteenth century. In those times there lived many male chauvinists, and women oppression was rather common. In that society, it was a prerogative of the men to determine how far a woman could go in any sphere of life.
It is therefore correct to say that women empowerment was only a dream during those times that Kate Chopin was born and brought up in. This particular environment and upbringing that surrounded K. Chopin influenced her writing in many ways. This research paper will seek to illuminate the ways mentioned by explaining K. Chopin’s life history in relation to her writing. Her books have a massive ideological view of feminism and women empowerment in consequence to the fact that she grew up in male chauvinist environment. This trait is evident in some of her short stories like “The Storm” and “The Story of an Hour”.
KATE CHOPIN’S LIFE HISTORY IN RELATION TO HER WRITING
Katherine O’Flaherty, who later came to be known as Kate Chopin, was born on February 8th 1851 in the state St. Louis Missouri. Her parents, Eliza and Thomas O’Flaherty, were well-known and respected individuals in that time and in the neighborhood where Kate lived. Her mother Eliza was of a French Creole descent while her father Thomas was originally from Ireland. Unfortunately, when Kate was only 5 years old, her father was involved in a grisly train accident and lost his life. As a result, Kate was left with her mother and spent her preteen years in the woman-centered environment. This can attributed to the fact that she lived with her mother, grandmother and great grandmother who were all widows.
Her great grandmother, Victoria Chardone Charleville, was substantially involved in the upbringing of Kate. She natured her artistic and mental capacity growth, and indoctrinated in Kate the talent of storytelling (Davis 3). The great grandmother cultivated the mentioned talent through the stories she told Kate. They were about the early settled unabashed settlers in Louisiana.Chopin’s education life, which started at the Sacred Heart Louisiana Academy, was an interesting one. Her father admitted her to that school at the age of five, and she went there sporadically for a couple of years. The academic program in that institution was similar to what her great grandmother had taught her.
Due to the fact that school was Catholic, Kate was taught Catholic teachings and the French academic and intellectual vigor. As a result, Kate became very inquisitive in her observations (Seryester 15). Kate was taught to think independently and make her own decisions but also to be respectful and submissive to the opposite sex. However, the fact that Chopin was brought up in a house full of women and was taught by nuns in her school did not prepare her psychologically to acknowledge the limitation that came with the woman’s autonomy. Therefore, despite the fact that Kate was taught to think independently, she acknowledged the fact that she might end up being a housewife after all.Kate was accustomed to seeing women exercising authority, both at home and in school. Moreover, this indoctrination of training and upbringing contributed to the irony of her writing in which most women felt like prisoners and trapped in their marriage.
This was ironically said because as it will be discussed in this paper later, Kate lived her happy marriage. Despite Kate’s controversial and unusual upbringing, she got married at the age of 25 to man named Oscar Chopin in June 1970. Her husband worked as a financial broker. During her marriage, Kate fulfilled a great deal of the wife’s social responsibility. She, however, did not conform to the rules and norms of society pertaining women. For instance, she could go on long walks alone and even smoke in public in the society where women were not allowed to smoke at all. After her husband’s business failed, they moved to Cloutierville where she continued with her defiant behavioral traits.
For example, people talked about her mode of dressing which they said was seductive in nature, since she wore short skirts. They also criticized her for not doing her house chores and choosing to loiter up and down in the streets. In other words, the people wanted her to be a normal wife like others in society.Amusingly, her husband did not complain about Kate being as she was. Instead, he was even happy that his wife was different. Unfortunately, years later Oscar contracted swamp fever and died on 8th December 1882. K.
Chopin became not only the sole parent to her children, she also inherited her husbands’ business and debts. She was running the business successfully for one year. It is not surprising that K. Chopin was able to run her husband’s business and at the same time be a parent to her children. This is solely attributed to the fact that she grew up in a female-centered environment which was not dependent on men’s input. Moreover, a family had many widows, and Kate had grown up in that life since she was five years old (Skaggs 9).The losses K.
Chopin suffered had a serious consequence on her writer’s career. For example, the death of her father inspired her to write “The Story of an Hour” which was her imagination of what she thought about her father’s death. Moreover, K. Chopin had to endure the loss of her great grandmother and her half-brother George O’Floherty who died the next month after the great grandmother. As if this was not enough, she had to endure the death of her husband Oscar. It, in turn, made K. Chopin to be depressed, and influenced her writings on solace.
In the midst of her grief and solace, Kate had an affair with a man called Joseph Albert Sampite who was commonly known as Albert. He was married to a woman named Marie Lodoiska (“Loca”), and together they had two children. Around the neighbor and the town as whole, Albert was known to be a womanizer, and everyone knew that he was pursuing Kate. They more often referred to Kate as “the beautiful Widow”. An interesting point to note is that Kate and Albert shared a lot of similarities. For example, they both loved horses, drinking beer, gambling and riding out at night. Albert and Kate became close as times went by.
However, this affair was short-lived as sources close to the two stated that Albert was in love with the pretty widow while she was not. Others, however, said that she was in love with Albert as well but the reason as to why she left her business and returned to St. Louis is not known to date.The story “The Storm” by Chopin was a story that she wrote years after her affair with Albert. As seen in many of her novels, she named most characters after Albert, only making a few changes. This made some people think that she might have been actually in love with Albert. For example, when K.
Chopin wrote about men who have an insatiable sexual behavior, she named them Alcee, a short form of Albert Sampite. In “At the Canadian Ball” and “The Storm”, Alcee Laberrielle was a very handsome young man who was a seed planter and loved to talk about politics, women and did a little mischief when intoxicated. Just like Alcee, Albert was an alcoholic who drank so much and came home to abuse his wife. This trait as said by some people could have been the reason why K. Chopin ended the affair. However, the most prominent use of Albert’s name by K. Chopin was in “The Awakening” when she named Ednas’ jilted lovers Alcee and Robert.
The story “The Storm” by K. Chopin is seen to be a reflection of her beliefs and experiences above all of her other works. The story here is basically about two married couples, Calixta and Bolibot, and Alcee and Clarisse. In this story, Alcee and Calixta were both married. In a certain day there was a storm that had come over the town. While Calixta’s husband and son Bibi took shelter at a local store, Calixta and Alcee were busy consenting to each other’s sexual desires. The two were not strangers one to another.
They had known each other for some time and had even flirted before. They, however, had not met since they both got married. Similar to the name of the story , there was a physical storm; ironically, there was also an emotional and a sexual ones at the same time. As the rain poured, it was so heavy and threatened to pull off the roof they were in. Calixta was worried about her son, and she moved close to the window to inspect the situation at hand. She expressed her fears about her son’s safety, and as she fell back she fell into the arms of Alcee who assured her that her son was fine. They started conversing about their sexual desires As the storm raged on, they had no regard for their safety or for their marital status.
After the storm, the sun came out, and everything went back to normal.The imagery that K. Chopin used in this particular story is interesting because it is seen as beginning with discomfort, then sexual satisfaction, and then a happy ending which clearly reflects Kate’s affair with Albert. In the story, after the storm, Bolibot and his son came back home and were welcome by kisses and hugs instead of arguments. More so, Bibi had come home dirty. However, none of them suspected anybody as they were not used to such a behavior. As they sat down to take dinner at the dining table, they laughed a lot, and enjoyed each other’s company.
Alcee, on the other hand, wrote a very romantic and strongly-worded letter to his wife encouraging her to make her vacation even longer. In the end, the affair helped make both their life in marriage better. In reflection to K. Chopin’s life, it was quite clear why she used Albert’s name in all her characters in “The Awakening” and “The Storm” to depict an individual who awakened woman’s sexual desire that she had never known before. After examining Kate’s life, it is quite clear that even though she ended her affair with Albert, she carried on the memories about him, and wrote memoirs about their sexual escapades.“The Story of an Hour” also explores the sophistication of the married state. Just as the title of the work depicts, this is a story about an hour in the life of a protagonist, Mrs.
Gillard. She is fragile in nature and has a weak heart. Thus, when her husband died in a train accident, her sister Josephine and her husband Richard had to be very careful in the way they broke the sad news to her. Even though they thought that the sad news would make Mrs. Gillard’s health deteriorate, it was quite the opposite as she found liberation and independence in her huband’s death. Initially, when Josephine and Richard broke the news Mrs. Gillard, she was overwhelmed with grief and mourned her husband for a few days.
However, after the time passed, and she started to notice things she had not noticed before. Unfortunately, her freedom was short-lived as her husband came back without a single slightest idea about the accident. She died immediately after seeing him. Ironically, the ending phrase is that “she died of Joy that kills.”
Throughout the works of Kate Chopin, it is evident that her inspiration in writing her stories was largely influenced by her life experiences. From such stories as “The Story of an Hour”, “The Awakening” and “The Storm”, an image of her experiences can be clearly seen, even including some persons that she met in her lifetime.
“The Storm.” Lives Through Literature: A Thematic Anthology. Ed. Helane Levine Keating and Walter Levy. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001.Chopin, Kate.
“The Story of an Hour.” The Complete Works of Kate Chopin, 2006.Davis, Sara DE Saussure. “Kate Chopin”. Dictionary of Literary Biography. Volume 12., 1982.
Hicks, Jennifer. An overview of “The Story of an Hour”. Literature Resource Center. Gale. Pace Univ. Mortola Library. Seyersted.
Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1969.Skaggs, Peggy. Kate Chopin. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1985. | 2,801 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the 18th Century when slavery was rife, France had several colonies in the Caribbean.
However, the most important was Saint Domingue (now Haiti) as it was then a sugar island, and the French largely depended on it for economic growth.
Accounts state that around 1789, France had about 500,000 slaves in Saint Domingue who worked as sources of labour for cotton, sugar and coffee plantations.
More about this
The enslaved people would, however, soon start rising against their French enslavers and this would begin the biggest and bloodiest slave revolt in history, otherwise known as the Haitian Revolution.
Most accounts state that Haiti’s fight towards independence was largely made possible by the role of Maroons; fugitive slaves who often fled into the mountains and lived in small bands or independent settlements.
One of these powerful maroon leaders was François Mackandal who became a pain in the butt of the French during the early– to mid-eighteenth century.
“Actually, Mackandal was the first to declare slaves would overthrow the French and end slavery,” writes The Louverture Project.
Mackandal, also Makandal or Macandal, conspired to poison all the white plantation owners in the North of Saint Domingue and to later spread this to all corners of the colony.
Some slaves even began poisoning their masters’ households across the North, including other slaves who couldn’t be trusted. But a female slave would later be Mackandal’s downfall, leading to his execution.
Believed to have been born in West Africa, Mackandal was brought to the North of Saint-Domingue to work on a sugar plantation at the age of twelve. He was sold to Lenormand plantation near Cap Français.
According to anthropologist Mark Davis, Mackandal had been educated by an ‘important’ family in the Congo as he was very clever and could speak, read and write Arabic fluently.
He also knew sculpture, painting, and music, and had in-depth knowledge of herbs and medicinal plants. These attributes would become useful in his later fight against the French.
While working on the plantation, Mackandal lost his arm in a sugar mill and was, therefore, made to care for livestock. He later fled the plantation and joined a maroon community where he became a leader.
Claiming to have supernatural abilities and having prophesied that slaves ultimately would have their freedom and independence, Mackandal was able to successfully organise the different maroon groups in Saint Domingue’s wild hills into a strong fighting force.
Having knowledge of herbs and plants, he was able to make powerful poisons as well.
“Using the network of maroons and sympathetic plantation slaves, Mackandal and his followers successfully poisoned plantation owners, animals, and even other enslaved people,” an account by Slavery and Remembrance said.
For years, the whites searched for the cause of the illnesses and deaths without any result. Meanwhile, Mackandal had also begun planning for a rebellion.
After 12 years, towards the end of 1757, the natural and charismatic leader was ready to carry out a mass poisoning of whites that would have heralded the revolt. However, he was betrayed by the female slave and was captured and sentenced to death at Cap-Français in January 1758.
Sources say he was to be burned at the stake, but he broke free at the first flames.
“The most common written accounts (most of which are re-tellings based on the same sources) state that Mackandal escaped his first burning by wriggling free from bonds that had been inadequately secured over the stump of his arm. Most of those go on to say that he was re-captured, retied and consumed in a second burning,” according to The Louverture Project.
Essentially, Mackandal was burned at the stake in the middle of the square in Le Cap. Plantation owners brought their slaves and forced them to watch.
It is documented that even after his death, many slaves insisted in his immortality and he, thus, became a major inspirational figure for the slaves during the Haitian revolution.
At the moment, many believe that his soul escaped the flames in which he was burned at the stake and that it still roams through Haiti. | <urn:uuid:b1b189fd-e719-4798-abd8-9a73d88d459a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://face2faceafrica.com/article/a-pain-in-the-butt-of-the-french-this-maroon-leader-was-burned-alive-in-1758-but-his-soul-still-roams-through-haiti12 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.987122 | 894 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.268446624279022... | 3 | In the 18th Century when slavery was rife, France had several colonies in the Caribbean.
However, the most important was Saint Domingue (now Haiti) as it was then a sugar island, and the French largely depended on it for economic growth.
Accounts state that around 1789, France had about 500,000 slaves in Saint Domingue who worked as sources of labour for cotton, sugar and coffee plantations.
More about this
The enslaved people would, however, soon start rising against their French enslavers and this would begin the biggest and bloodiest slave revolt in history, otherwise known as the Haitian Revolution.
Most accounts state that Haiti’s fight towards independence was largely made possible by the role of Maroons; fugitive slaves who often fled into the mountains and lived in small bands or independent settlements.
One of these powerful maroon leaders was François Mackandal who became a pain in the butt of the French during the early– to mid-eighteenth century.
“Actually, Mackandal was the first to declare slaves would overthrow the French and end slavery,” writes The Louverture Project.
Mackandal, also Makandal or Macandal, conspired to poison all the white plantation owners in the North of Saint Domingue and to later spread this to all corners of the colony.
Some slaves even began poisoning their masters’ households across the North, including other slaves who couldn’t be trusted. But a female slave would later be Mackandal’s downfall, leading to his execution.
Believed to have been born in West Africa, Mackandal was brought to the North of Saint-Domingue to work on a sugar plantation at the age of twelve. He was sold to Lenormand plantation near Cap Français.
According to anthropologist Mark Davis, Mackandal had been educated by an ‘important’ family in the Congo as he was very clever and could speak, read and write Arabic fluently.
He also knew sculpture, painting, and music, and had in-depth knowledge of herbs and medicinal plants. These attributes would become useful in his later fight against the French.
While working on the plantation, Mackandal lost his arm in a sugar mill and was, therefore, made to care for livestock. He later fled the plantation and joined a maroon community where he became a leader.
Claiming to have supernatural abilities and having prophesied that slaves ultimately would have their freedom and independence, Mackandal was able to successfully organise the different maroon groups in Saint Domingue’s wild hills into a strong fighting force.
Having knowledge of herbs and plants, he was able to make powerful poisons as well.
“Using the network of maroons and sympathetic plantation slaves, Mackandal and his followers successfully poisoned plantation owners, animals, and even other enslaved people,” an account by Slavery and Remembrance said.
For years, the whites searched for the cause of the illnesses and deaths without any result. Meanwhile, Mackandal had also begun planning for a rebellion.
After 12 years, towards the end of 1757, the natural and charismatic leader was ready to carry out a mass poisoning of whites that would have heralded the revolt. However, he was betrayed by the female slave and was captured and sentenced to death at Cap-Français in January 1758.
Sources say he was to be burned at the stake, but he broke free at the first flames.
“The most common written accounts (most of which are re-tellings based on the same sources) state that Mackandal escaped his first burning by wriggling free from bonds that had been inadequately secured over the stump of his arm. Most of those go on to say that he was re-captured, retied and consumed in a second burning,” according to The Louverture Project.
Essentially, Mackandal was burned at the stake in the middle of the square in Le Cap. Plantation owners brought their slaves and forced them to watch.
It is documented that even after his death, many slaves insisted in his immortality and he, thus, became a major inspirational figure for the slaves during the Haitian revolution.
At the moment, many believe that his soul escaped the flames in which he was burned at the stake and that it still roams through Haiti. | 865 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) was a horror writer and poet who died a mysterious death. Edgar Allan Poe’s Ghost is said to haunt his gravesite in downtown Baltimore. The house where he lived is also reported to be haunted, but by others.
Poe was born in Boston on January 19,1809, the son of David Poe, Jr., a traveling actor, and Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins Poe. He was the middle child of three—a brother, William Henry (called Henry), was born in 1807, and a sister, Rosalie, was born in 1810. In 1811, Poe’s mother sickened and died in Richmond, Virginia, and his father reportedly died—or disappeared—a few days later. Orphaned, Poe was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond. Rosalie was taken in by another family in Richmond. Henry was taken in by grandparents in Baltimore.
In 1816, Poe and his adopted parents went to London, where he was enrolled in a boarding school. They returned to Richmond in 1820. In 1826, Poe entered the University of Virginia in Charlottesville. The same year, he suffered a severe emotional disappointment when he learned that his childhood sweetheart, Elmira Royster, had agreed to marry another man. In 1827, he moved to Baltimore and enlisted in the U.S. Army. In 1830, he enrolled in the military academy at West Point, New York, and immediately found it not to his liking. He tried to get out by refusing to attend classes or church services. He was court martialed and expelled in 1831.
In 1835, Poe returned to Virginia, where he married his 13-year-old cousin, Virginia Clemm. He was 27.
Poe and his wife moved around the East Coast, while he pursued his literary career. His work was published, and he edited various magazines, worked for newspapers, and tried to launch a literary magazine. He enjoyed modest success. In 1847, Virginia died of tuberculosis in Fordham, outside of New York City, and was buried there. Poe continued to live in their small cottage, which he shared with his mother-in-law, Maria Clemm.
By this time, Poe—a melancholic man—had a reputation for bouts of drinking. In 1848, he proposed to Sarah Whitman, a poetess. She agreed on the condition that he stop drinking. He was unable to do so, and she called off the engagement. He then rediscovered his childhood love, Elmira Royster Shelton, who was by then a widow. He proposed to her. She accepted, but the marriage never took place, for Poe met an untimely death.
In August 1849, he joined a temperance organization in an apparent effort to control his drinking. In September, he went back to Baltimore, with intentions to travel to Philadelphia.
Accounts of his death vary. According to one, he took ill in Philadelphia and intended to return to New York, but got sent by friends to Baltimore instead. Another account holds that he was found lying in a gutter, unconscious, outside a tavern in downtown Baltimore, wearing clothes not his own and with a strange walking stick.
According to the Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore, there is no substantiation for the gutter story. On October 3, a Baltimore friend of Poe’s Dr. J. E. Snodgrass received a note from Joseph W. Walker saying that Poe was at Gunner’s Hall, a voting place and tavern, in great distress and requiring his immediate assistance. Snodgrass and Poe’s uncle, Henry Herring, arrived and found Poe in what appeared to be a drunken condition. They took him to Washington College Hospital, where he deteriorated rapidly. He lapsed in and out of consciousness and was incoherent, unable to give an account of what had happened to him. He cried out, “Reynolds!” After three days, he whispered, “Lord help my poor soul,” fell into a coma, and died. The cause of death was ruled “congestion of the brain.”
It is not known how much alcohol may have contributed to his death; Snodgrass believed alcohol to be the cause. There is no evidence that Poe was an abuser of opium, speculation that has arisen from the opium use of the first-person narrators of his fiction.
It has been speculated that he was killed or murdered, perhaps for a vote. A practice of “cooping” was prevalent at the time; it was a brutal way of stuffi ng the ballot box. Gangs would kidnap people off the street and force them to vote repeatedly, sometimes making them change clothing to look different. No evidence substantiates this theory—but no explanation has ever been found for the strange clothing or the identity of the mysterious “Reynolds.” The walking stick is said to have belonged to a friend in New York, Dr. John F. Carter, visited by Poe prior to his departure for Baltimore. Poe reportedly took Carter’s cane by accident and left his in its place.
Poe was buried in his grandfather’s plot in the 200- year-old Westminster Burying Ground, located at the intersection of Fayette and Green Streets in west downtown, a short distance from the Poe residence. His grave is located in the rear of the cemetery with its original marker. In 1875, a large monument was erected in the front of the cemetery, inscribed with the names of Poe, Virginia, and Maria. Many people erroneously believe this to be Poe’s true grave.
Poe is known for his gloomy short stories and poetry, especially the poem “The Raven” and the stories “The Fall of the House of Usher,” “The Murders in the Rue Morgue,” “The Pit and the Pendulum,” “The Tell-Tale Heart,” and “The Purloined Letter.” His works have been made into films and continue to chill modern audiences. During his life, Poe achieved modest success.
In 1949, a mysterious visitor started a tradition of making a secretive visit to Poe’s grave on the anniversary of his birth. A man dressed in black, wearing a black hat, and carrying a walking stick leaves a tribute of three red roses and an opened and partially filled bottle of expensive cognac at the monument. Spectators began to assemble on the night of January 19 in hopes of seeing the man dressed in black, who was able to enter even though the gates of the cemetery were locked. In 1993, the Poe Toaster, as the visitor had become known, left a note on the monument that “the torch will be passed.” The Poe Toaster reportedly died in 1998 and passed the tradition on to his sons. Jeff Jerome, curator of the house and museum, said he had seen the Toaster every year since 1976. Others have speculated that the tradition is upheld by members of a secret society devoted to Poe. It is thought that the three red roses are for Poe, Virginia, and Maria. Cognac is featured in Poe’s work.
Poe House and Museum
Poe lived briefly in a house at 203 Amity Street in Baltimore; it has been a historical museum since 1949. Elizabeth Poe, the grandmother, died there in 1835. The house sat vacant from 1922 to 1949.
Haunting phenomena have been reported at the house since the 1960s. They include lights coming on by themselves when no one is present inside; visitors being tapped by unseen hands; phantom voices and noises; doors opening and closing by themselves. Most of the activity is in the attic room used by Poe. The ghost of a woman has been reported in the house, as well as a ghost known as “Mr. Eddie,” who seems to watch over the place. Electronic Voice Phenomena have been recorded at the house.
Poe himself is said to haunt the downtown streets of Baltimore around his house and the Westminster churchyard and also the cemetery itself.
Further Reading :
- The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore Web site. Available online. URL: https://www.eapoe.org. Downloaded April 3, 2007.
- Myers, Arthur. The Ghostly Register: Haunted Dwellings— Active Spirits, A Journey to America’s Strangest Landmarks. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1986.
- Okonowicz, Ed. Baltimore Ghosts: History, Mystery, Legends and More. Elkton, Md.: Myst and Lace Publishing, 2004. | <urn:uuid:07aa9c46-af3d-4b6e-80cf-3987bb6911b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://occult-world.com/authors/edgar-allan-poe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.986992 | 1,798 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.066819846630... | 2 | Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) was a horror writer and poet who died a mysterious death. Edgar Allan Poe’s Ghost is said to haunt his gravesite in downtown Baltimore. The house where he lived is also reported to be haunted, but by others.
Poe was born in Boston on January 19,1809, the son of David Poe, Jr., a traveling actor, and Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins Poe. He was the middle child of three—a brother, William Henry (called Henry), was born in 1807, and a sister, Rosalie, was born in 1810. In 1811, Poe’s mother sickened and died in Richmond, Virginia, and his father reportedly died—or disappeared—a few days later. Orphaned, Poe was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond. Rosalie was taken in by another family in Richmond. Henry was taken in by grandparents in Baltimore.
In 1816, Poe and his adopted parents went to London, where he was enrolled in a boarding school. They returned to Richmond in 1820. In 1826, Poe entered the University of Virginia in Charlottesville. The same year, he suffered a severe emotional disappointment when he learned that his childhood sweetheart, Elmira Royster, had agreed to marry another man. In 1827, he moved to Baltimore and enlisted in the U.S. Army. In 1830, he enrolled in the military academy at West Point, New York, and immediately found it not to his liking. He tried to get out by refusing to attend classes or church services. He was court martialed and expelled in 1831.
In 1835, Poe returned to Virginia, where he married his 13-year-old cousin, Virginia Clemm. He was 27.
Poe and his wife moved around the East Coast, while he pursued his literary career. His work was published, and he edited various magazines, worked for newspapers, and tried to launch a literary magazine. He enjoyed modest success. In 1847, Virginia died of tuberculosis in Fordham, outside of New York City, and was buried there. Poe continued to live in their small cottage, which he shared with his mother-in-law, Maria Clemm.
By this time, Poe—a melancholic man—had a reputation for bouts of drinking. In 1848, he proposed to Sarah Whitman, a poetess. She agreed on the condition that he stop drinking. He was unable to do so, and she called off the engagement. He then rediscovered his childhood love, Elmira Royster Shelton, who was by then a widow. He proposed to her. She accepted, but the marriage never took place, for Poe met an untimely death.
In August 1849, he joined a temperance organization in an apparent effort to control his drinking. In September, he went back to Baltimore, with intentions to travel to Philadelphia.
Accounts of his death vary. According to one, he took ill in Philadelphia and intended to return to New York, but got sent by friends to Baltimore instead. Another account holds that he was found lying in a gutter, unconscious, outside a tavern in downtown Baltimore, wearing clothes not his own and with a strange walking stick.
According to the Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore, there is no substantiation for the gutter story. On October 3, a Baltimore friend of Poe’s Dr. J. E. Snodgrass received a note from Joseph W. Walker saying that Poe was at Gunner’s Hall, a voting place and tavern, in great distress and requiring his immediate assistance. Snodgrass and Poe’s uncle, Henry Herring, arrived and found Poe in what appeared to be a drunken condition. They took him to Washington College Hospital, where he deteriorated rapidly. He lapsed in and out of consciousness and was incoherent, unable to give an account of what had happened to him. He cried out, “Reynolds!” After three days, he whispered, “Lord help my poor soul,” fell into a coma, and died. The cause of death was ruled “congestion of the brain.”
It is not known how much alcohol may have contributed to his death; Snodgrass believed alcohol to be the cause. There is no evidence that Poe was an abuser of opium, speculation that has arisen from the opium use of the first-person narrators of his fiction.
It has been speculated that he was killed or murdered, perhaps for a vote. A practice of “cooping” was prevalent at the time; it was a brutal way of stuffi ng the ballot box. Gangs would kidnap people off the street and force them to vote repeatedly, sometimes making them change clothing to look different. No evidence substantiates this theory—but no explanation has ever been found for the strange clothing or the identity of the mysterious “Reynolds.” The walking stick is said to have belonged to a friend in New York, Dr. John F. Carter, visited by Poe prior to his departure for Baltimore. Poe reportedly took Carter’s cane by accident and left his in its place.
Poe was buried in his grandfather’s plot in the 200- year-old Westminster Burying Ground, located at the intersection of Fayette and Green Streets in west downtown, a short distance from the Poe residence. His grave is located in the rear of the cemetery with its original marker. In 1875, a large monument was erected in the front of the cemetery, inscribed with the names of Poe, Virginia, and Maria. Many people erroneously believe this to be Poe’s true grave.
Poe is known for his gloomy short stories and poetry, especially the poem “The Raven” and the stories “The Fall of the House of Usher,” “The Murders in the Rue Morgue,” “The Pit and the Pendulum,” “The Tell-Tale Heart,” and “The Purloined Letter.” His works have been made into films and continue to chill modern audiences. During his life, Poe achieved modest success.
In 1949, a mysterious visitor started a tradition of making a secretive visit to Poe’s grave on the anniversary of his birth. A man dressed in black, wearing a black hat, and carrying a walking stick leaves a tribute of three red roses and an opened and partially filled bottle of expensive cognac at the monument. Spectators began to assemble on the night of January 19 in hopes of seeing the man dressed in black, who was able to enter even though the gates of the cemetery were locked. In 1993, the Poe Toaster, as the visitor had become known, left a note on the monument that “the torch will be passed.” The Poe Toaster reportedly died in 1998 and passed the tradition on to his sons. Jeff Jerome, curator of the house and museum, said he had seen the Toaster every year since 1976. Others have speculated that the tradition is upheld by members of a secret society devoted to Poe. It is thought that the three red roses are for Poe, Virginia, and Maria. Cognac is featured in Poe’s work.
Poe House and Museum
Poe lived briefly in a house at 203 Amity Street in Baltimore; it has been a historical museum since 1949. Elizabeth Poe, the grandmother, died there in 1835. The house sat vacant from 1922 to 1949.
Haunting phenomena have been reported at the house since the 1960s. They include lights coming on by themselves when no one is present inside; visitors being tapped by unseen hands; phantom voices and noises; doors opening and closing by themselves. Most of the activity is in the attic room used by Poe. The ghost of a woman has been reported in the house, as well as a ghost known as “Mr. Eddie,” who seems to watch over the place. Electronic Voice Phenomena have been recorded at the house.
Poe himself is said to haunt the downtown streets of Baltimore around his house and the Westminster churchyard and also the cemetery itself.
Further Reading :
- The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore Web site. Available online. URL: https://www.eapoe.org. Downloaded April 3, 2007.
- Myers, Arthur. The Ghostly Register: Haunted Dwellings— Active Spirits, A Journey to America’s Strangest Landmarks. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1986.
- Okonowicz, Ed. Baltimore Ghosts: History, Mystery, Legends and More. Elkton, Md.: Myst and Lace Publishing, 2004. | 1,824 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The staircase of Loretto Chapel in Santa Fe, New Mexico is well known for being surrounded by at least two mysteries: the identity of its builder and the physics of its structure. No one is able to fully understand how the structure can stand on its feet without any kind of central support attached to it. There is, maybe, a third mystery, too: although the staircase is known to be made of spruce wood, no one has been able to determine either what subspecies of spruce it is, or even how the wood got to the chapel.
In 1852, by order of the bishop of Santa Fe, Jean Baptiste Lamy, the Chapel of Our Lady of Light (inspired by the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris) was built. It was placed under the care of the Sisters of Loretto, who were to arrive from Kentucky to found a school for girls.
When the chapel was ready, builders were faced with an unexpected problem: there was no way to climb from the nave to the choir, on the second floor. It was a sad error in the design — one that the building’s architect, Antonio Mouly, could not solve, since he had already passed away. When the nuns insisted on building a staircase, the builders told them it would be impossible, and that building a normal, regular ladder would take too much room. Finally, they advised the nuns to demolish the choir.
Instead, the nuns decided to pray a novena to St. Joseph, patron saint of carpenters, asking for a solution.
After finishing the novena, according to testimonies that have passed from generation to generation since the mid-nineteenth century, a man appeared at the door of the chapel, saying that he could build a stairway, under one condition: he be granted total privacy.
The stranger locked himself in the chapel for three months with a saw, a square and a few other simple tools, and disappeared as soon as the work was finished, without ever having asked for any payment for his services.
The staircase, which is around six meters high, takes two full turns over its axis until it reaches the choir. It was built without any nails or glue, and lacks any kind of central support. The construction itself is said to be “impossible.” According to some, it should have collapsed the very first moment someone used it, although it is assumed that the central spiral staircase is narrow enough to work as a central support on its own.
In any case, the original staircase was not attached to any wall until 1887, ten years later, when the railing was added, and the outer spiral was attached to a nearby pillar.
Tradition claims the mystery of the identity of the carpenter has never been satisfactorily solved, and there is not even a delivery report that might help decipher where the wood came from. During those three months, no one saw anyone entering or leaving the chapel.
As the carpenter left before the Mother Superior could pay him, the Sisters of Loretto offered a reward to anyone who could his make identity known, but no one ever showed up. So, yes: since then, the crafting of the staircase has been attributed by many to St. Joseph himself. | <urn:uuid:14908d99-62c4-4721-915f-43e1fac8f579> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://metrovoicenews.com/the-mysterious-staircase-st-joseph-built-in-new-mexico/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.984752 | 670 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.28514650464... | 3 | The staircase of Loretto Chapel in Santa Fe, New Mexico is well known for being surrounded by at least two mysteries: the identity of its builder and the physics of its structure. No one is able to fully understand how the structure can stand on its feet without any kind of central support attached to it. There is, maybe, a third mystery, too: although the staircase is known to be made of spruce wood, no one has been able to determine either what subspecies of spruce it is, or even how the wood got to the chapel.
In 1852, by order of the bishop of Santa Fe, Jean Baptiste Lamy, the Chapel of Our Lady of Light (inspired by the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris) was built. It was placed under the care of the Sisters of Loretto, who were to arrive from Kentucky to found a school for girls.
When the chapel was ready, builders were faced with an unexpected problem: there was no way to climb from the nave to the choir, on the second floor. It was a sad error in the design — one that the building’s architect, Antonio Mouly, could not solve, since he had already passed away. When the nuns insisted on building a staircase, the builders told them it would be impossible, and that building a normal, regular ladder would take too much room. Finally, they advised the nuns to demolish the choir.
Instead, the nuns decided to pray a novena to St. Joseph, patron saint of carpenters, asking for a solution.
After finishing the novena, according to testimonies that have passed from generation to generation since the mid-nineteenth century, a man appeared at the door of the chapel, saying that he could build a stairway, under one condition: he be granted total privacy.
The stranger locked himself in the chapel for three months with a saw, a square and a few other simple tools, and disappeared as soon as the work was finished, without ever having asked for any payment for his services.
The staircase, which is around six meters high, takes two full turns over its axis until it reaches the choir. It was built without any nails or glue, and lacks any kind of central support. The construction itself is said to be “impossible.” According to some, it should have collapsed the very first moment someone used it, although it is assumed that the central spiral staircase is narrow enough to work as a central support on its own.
In any case, the original staircase was not attached to any wall until 1887, ten years later, when the railing was added, and the outer spiral was attached to a nearby pillar.
Tradition claims the mystery of the identity of the carpenter has never been satisfactorily solved, and there is not even a delivery report that might help decipher where the wood came from. During those three months, no one saw anyone entering or leaving the chapel.
As the carpenter left before the Mother Superior could pay him, the Sisters of Loretto offered a reward to anyone who could his make identity known, but no one ever showed up. So, yes: since then, the crafting of the staircase has been attributed by many to St. Joseph himself. | 665 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Communities exerted pressure on people to form pair-bonds in places such as Europe; in China, society "demanded people get married before having a sexual relationship" and many societies found that some formally recognized bond between a man and a woman was the best way of rearing and educating children as well as helping to avoid conflicts and misunderstandings regarding competition for mates.
Generally, during much of recorded history of humans in civilization, and into the Middle Ages in Europe, weddings were seen as business arrangements between families, while romance was something that happened outside of marriage discreetly, such as covert meetings.
The protocols and practices of dating, and the terms used to describe it, vary considerably from country to country and over time.
While the term has several meanings, the most frequent usage refers to two people exploring whether they are romantically or sexually compatible by participating in dates with the other.
Cars extended the range of dating as well as enabled back-seat sexual exploration.
In the mid-twentieth century, the advent of birth control as well as safer procedures for abortion changed the equation considerably, and there was less pressure to marry as a means for satisfying sexual urges.
Thus, the concept of marriage is changing widely in many countries.
Information about human sexuality grew, and with it an acceptance of all types of sexual orientations is becoming more common.Accordingly, there was little need for a temporary trial period such as dating before a permanent community-recognized union was formed between a man and a woman.While pair-bonds of varying forms were recognized by most societies as acceptable social arrangements, marriage was reserved for heterosexual pairings and had a transactional nature, where wives were in many cases a form of property being exchanged between father and husband, and who would have to serve the function of reproduction.With the use of modern technology, people can date via telephone or computer or meet in person.Dating may also involve two or more people who have already decided that they share romantic or sexual feelings toward each other. | <urn:uuid:1c5eb3bc-dba7-4320-9b5b-fce931b59869> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://livebright74.ru/american-dating-online-single-site-web-11618.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00409.warc.gz | en | 0.983169 | 413 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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Generally, during much of recorded history of humans in civilization, and into the Middle Ages in Europe, weddings were seen as business arrangements between families, while romance was something that happened outside of marriage discreetly, such as covert meetings.
The protocols and practices of dating, and the terms used to describe it, vary considerably from country to country and over time.
While the term has several meanings, the most frequent usage refers to two people exploring whether they are romantically or sexually compatible by participating in dates with the other.
Cars extended the range of dating as well as enabled back-seat sexual exploration.
In the mid-twentieth century, the advent of birth control as well as safer procedures for abortion changed the equation considerably, and there was less pressure to marry as a means for satisfying sexual urges.
Thus, the concept of marriage is changing widely in many countries.
Information about human sexuality grew, and with it an acceptance of all types of sexual orientations is becoming more common.Accordingly, there was little need for a temporary trial period such as dating before a permanent community-recognized union was formed between a man and a woman.While pair-bonds of varying forms were recognized by most societies as acceptable social arrangements, marriage was reserved for heterosexual pairings and had a transactional nature, where wives were in many cases a form of property being exchanged between father and husband, and who would have to serve the function of reproduction.With the use of modern technology, people can date via telephone or computer or meet in person.Dating may also involve two or more people who have already decided that they share romantic or sexual feelings toward each other. | 396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Diane Iahn knew in her youth that her grandfather’s upbringing wasn’t as straightforward as it appeared.
She was the only person he ever confided in with the detail about his life that was likely most painful: he wasn’t born in Canada, and he wasn’t raised here by his parents.
Biggs was a British Home Child — taken from an impoverished mother at the age of 12 in notoriously poor East London in 1911, and shipped the following year with his younger brother to Canada to work as farm labour for separate families until the boys reached legal age, bound by contracts signed before they left on ships.
“When I was growing up, I knew he was born in and came from England and that he had grown up with a family near Portland and worked on a big farm when he was young,” Iahn said from her home in Kingston. “He never talked about it to anyone, ever. The only time that he ever talked about England was when I was in Grade 7 or 8, and I had to do a family tree.”
She asked her grandfather for his parents’ names, and he gave them to her.
Iahn remembers letters and parcels arriving from England, but it wasn’t until the past 15 years that she really began to uncover the history of her grandfather’s forced exodus from his home in England to Ontario.
The Biggs brothers were two of 100,000 children identified now as British Home Children, sent from organizations that cared for orphans or children from impoverished families from the British Isles to Canada to be helpers for families or cheap labour on family farms between 1869 and 1939.
It’s a chapter of Canadian history that is not widely known, even though as many as four million Canadians can trace their heritage to a British Home Child somewhere in their family tree.
On Friday, the first-ever National British Home Child Day will be observed in Canada, a vital step in the exposure of what many feel has been a dark and hidden portion of Canada’s past.
Bernard and Leslie Biggs were removed from their mother, who lived in poverty and at the mercy of a drunken husband. An intervention into the family situation saw the two boys removed from their family home and placed in one of Dr. Thomas Barnardo’s homes.
Barnardo is well known for his philanthropic work with impoverished and homeless children in England at the turn of the 20th century, and his organization still exists today.
After one year at Barnardo’s, the boys were sent overseas.
“One day after the year was up, they were on a ship to Canada, and I don’t know if [their mother] gave permission for that or not,” Iahn said. “But a lot of the time the parents were convinced that this was a better opportunity for the children.”
Barnardo’s facilitated the immigration of more than 33,000 children from the U.K. to Canada during the British Home Child period of Canada’s history. The shipping of children to families in Canada created revenue for organizations like Barnardo’s.
Iahn’s grandfather ended up with a good family, with whom he kept ties throughout his life.
Not all children were so fortunate.
According to carefully compiled records of the lives of home children in Canada, many young people suffered all types of abuse, neglect and mistreatment at the hands of the families who received them.
Lori Oschefski founded the British Home Child Advocacy and Research Association. The Barrie resident has 20 British Home Child ancestors.
Her family history is a testament to the luck-of-the-draw nature that was the life of a British Home Child in Canada.
Her grandfather, an orphan arrested for stealing and placed in Barnardo’s, was sent to Canada to a good family and became a farmer. In his case, Oschefski said, the system worked.
“My Aunt Mary came from despicable circumstances in the U.K., pulled from underneath the bed of a dying woman,” she said. “They took her to Barkingside Girls’ Village and she thrived and got better in a home surrounded by hundreds of girls. Then she was sent to Canada and moved 20 times in eight years. She was whipped, beaten and gave birth to a stillborn baby at 14. Her life was absolutely dreadful. Did they do her a favour? Not at all.”
The stories of abuse are rampant, and some researchers have asked Oschefski why she chooses to present those so prominently.
“I talk about the bad stories and the good stories,” she said. “I tell the stories as they come to me. It’s not up to me to go back and change history to make everyone feel better. The fact is, there are more bad stories than good.”
Oschefski said the stigma associated with being a British Home Child kept many silent, leaving families in the dark about their parents’ and grandparents’ stories.
An example of the stigmatization of this demographic can been seen in a lecture by Dr. C. K. Clarke, heralded as the “father of Canadian psychiatry.”
According to Oschefski’s research, during a lecture that Clarke gave in Kingston at Queen’s University during the height of the British Home Child immigration wave, he stated that “in Canada we are deliberately adding to our population hundreds of children bearing all the stigmata of physical and mental degeneracy. … The next generation must be considered, but the harvest has already commenced — a juvenile criminal here, an insane person there.”
“These are the things that these children faced when they got to Canada,” Oschefski said.
Oschefski said that youth were “indentured labour.”
“They were typically not adopted. They signed contracts as indentured farm labour,” she said.
Oschefski’s mother was sent to Canada at the age of two, but she was quickly adopted by a family and given a good life.
“A lot of good people in Canada did look after these children, but there are two sides of the coin,” she said.
British Home Children can be found in many facets of Canada’s history, including heavily involved in the First World War.
“One hundred per cent of eligible home boys in Canada enlisted,” Oschefski said. “We had over 10,000 home children who enlisted in the First World War. That’s patriotic, but it’s also, ‘Get me out of here.’”
Canada’s celebrity pool isn’t untouched by this little-known ancestry. Television personality Don Cherry has been vocal about his grandfather, who was a British Home Child.
“Four million Canadians [can trace lineage], and that’s a significant percentage of our population,” Oschefski said.
“I think people should read and understand the history,” Iahn said, holding 15 years’ worth of research that uncovered her grandfather’s story in her hands. “I think this is part of Canadian history that most people have never even heard of. It’s been kept hush-hush because there are some pretty horrible stories that go with it. Do some research, do some reading and find out the stories.”
“Every story is going to be told,” Oschefski said. “And every story should be told.”
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0.284235358238... | 3 | Diane Iahn knew in her youth that her grandfather’s upbringing wasn’t as straightforward as it appeared.
She was the only person he ever confided in with the detail about his life that was likely most painful: he wasn’t born in Canada, and he wasn’t raised here by his parents.
Biggs was a British Home Child — taken from an impoverished mother at the age of 12 in notoriously poor East London in 1911, and shipped the following year with his younger brother to Canada to work as farm labour for separate families until the boys reached legal age, bound by contracts signed before they left on ships.
“When I was growing up, I knew he was born in and came from England and that he had grown up with a family near Portland and worked on a big farm when he was young,” Iahn said from her home in Kingston. “He never talked about it to anyone, ever. The only time that he ever talked about England was when I was in Grade 7 or 8, and I had to do a family tree.”
She asked her grandfather for his parents’ names, and he gave them to her.
Iahn remembers letters and parcels arriving from England, but it wasn’t until the past 15 years that she really began to uncover the history of her grandfather’s forced exodus from his home in England to Ontario.
The Biggs brothers were two of 100,000 children identified now as British Home Children, sent from organizations that cared for orphans or children from impoverished families from the British Isles to Canada to be helpers for families or cheap labour on family farms between 1869 and 1939.
It’s a chapter of Canadian history that is not widely known, even though as many as four million Canadians can trace their heritage to a British Home Child somewhere in their family tree.
On Friday, the first-ever National British Home Child Day will be observed in Canada, a vital step in the exposure of what many feel has been a dark and hidden portion of Canada’s past.
Bernard and Leslie Biggs were removed from their mother, who lived in poverty and at the mercy of a drunken husband. An intervention into the family situation saw the two boys removed from their family home and placed in one of Dr. Thomas Barnardo’s homes.
Barnardo is well known for his philanthropic work with impoverished and homeless children in England at the turn of the 20th century, and his organization still exists today.
After one year at Barnardo’s, the boys were sent overseas.
“One day after the year was up, they were on a ship to Canada, and I don’t know if [their mother] gave permission for that or not,” Iahn said. “But a lot of the time the parents were convinced that this was a better opportunity for the children.”
Barnardo’s facilitated the immigration of more than 33,000 children from the U.K. to Canada during the British Home Child period of Canada’s history. The shipping of children to families in Canada created revenue for organizations like Barnardo’s.
Iahn’s grandfather ended up with a good family, with whom he kept ties throughout his life.
Not all children were so fortunate.
According to carefully compiled records of the lives of home children in Canada, many young people suffered all types of abuse, neglect and mistreatment at the hands of the families who received them.
Lori Oschefski founded the British Home Child Advocacy and Research Association. The Barrie resident has 20 British Home Child ancestors.
Her family history is a testament to the luck-of-the-draw nature that was the life of a British Home Child in Canada.
Her grandfather, an orphan arrested for stealing and placed in Barnardo’s, was sent to Canada to a good family and became a farmer. In his case, Oschefski said, the system worked.
“My Aunt Mary came from despicable circumstances in the U.K., pulled from underneath the bed of a dying woman,” she said. “They took her to Barkingside Girls’ Village and she thrived and got better in a home surrounded by hundreds of girls. Then she was sent to Canada and moved 20 times in eight years. She was whipped, beaten and gave birth to a stillborn baby at 14. Her life was absolutely dreadful. Did they do her a favour? Not at all.”
The stories of abuse are rampant, and some researchers have asked Oschefski why she chooses to present those so prominently.
“I talk about the bad stories and the good stories,” she said. “I tell the stories as they come to me. It’s not up to me to go back and change history to make everyone feel better. The fact is, there are more bad stories than good.”
Oschefski said the stigma associated with being a British Home Child kept many silent, leaving families in the dark about their parents’ and grandparents’ stories.
An example of the stigmatization of this demographic can been seen in a lecture by Dr. C. K. Clarke, heralded as the “father of Canadian psychiatry.”
According to Oschefski’s research, during a lecture that Clarke gave in Kingston at Queen’s University during the height of the British Home Child immigration wave, he stated that “in Canada we are deliberately adding to our population hundreds of children bearing all the stigmata of physical and mental degeneracy. … The next generation must be considered, but the harvest has already commenced — a juvenile criminal here, an insane person there.”
“These are the things that these children faced when they got to Canada,” Oschefski said.
Oschefski said that youth were “indentured labour.”
“They were typically not adopted. They signed contracts as indentured farm labour,” she said.
Oschefski’s mother was sent to Canada at the age of two, but she was quickly adopted by a family and given a good life.
“A lot of good people in Canada did look after these children, but there are two sides of the coin,” she said.
British Home Children can be found in many facets of Canada’s history, including heavily involved in the First World War.
“One hundred per cent of eligible home boys in Canada enlisted,” Oschefski said. “We had over 10,000 home children who enlisted in the First World War. That’s patriotic, but it’s also, ‘Get me out of here.’”
Canada’s celebrity pool isn’t untouched by this little-known ancestry. Television personality Don Cherry has been vocal about his grandfather, who was a British Home Child.
“Four million Canadians [can trace lineage], and that’s a significant percentage of our population,” Oschefski said.
“I think people should read and understand the history,” Iahn said, holding 15 years’ worth of research that uncovered her grandfather’s story in her hands. “I think this is part of Canadian history that most people have never even heard of. It’s been kept hush-hush because there are some pretty horrible stories that go with it. Do some research, do some reading and find out the stories.”
“Every story is going to be told,” Oschefski said. “And every story should be told.”
For more information, go online to www.britishhomechildren.com. | 1,488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We are a community where creative minds can collect their voices online and find their audience. A community that makes it easy for neighborhoods to discover their local talents, as well as a better way to connect artists with fans across the globe.
Fauvism is considered to be one of the first major avant-garde movements to occur in Europe during the 20th century. This style of art is characterized by the way the paintings would use very vibrant and exuberant, but colors that were not natural. In many ways, this was similar to the expressionist style due to the distorted landscapes in the paintings. It was about vivid color and painterly qualities rather than the realistic approach of impressionism. This type of art was inspired by artists like Georges Seurat and Vincent van Gogh.
Goal of Fauvism
There has been a lot of comparison between Fauvism and the German expressionism. Both of these art styles emphasized the usage of bold colors and spontaneous brushworks. They also both took inspiration from the same artists, such as van Gogh. The biggest difference between these two styles is that the French focused more on the composition of the painting whereas the German expressionists were more focused on the emotional impact of the piece. These art works stand out even today due to their vibrant colors that screamed emotion while not sticking to the constraints of realism in nature.
This art form didn’t last long, primarily disappearing after the 1930s. Many of the early artists of this movement used this movement as more of a transitional period during their art rather than a style they stuck with. Matisse was one of the only artists who stuck with this style of art throughout his entire career, even if he did adopt some other styles as well. Georges Brauque would go on to work with Pablo Picasso to develop cubism. Some of these artists went onto the neoclassical style, a more traditional approach to art. The art form may not have lasted long in terms of art periods, but it was still a style that did have an impact on future art styles.
The group of artists that started this movement were known as The Fauves, which means “wild beasts”. This loosely associated group of artists were students of Gustave Moreau, who was a symbolist artist. One of these students, Henri Matisse, would become the leader of The Fauves. This group wanted to redefine the idea of pure color, using intense color schemes as a way to communicate the emotions of the artist. For this reason, it would become an important gateway to other movements like expressionism and cubism. Color had this incredible ability to project a mood while establishing the structure of the work regardless of how “true” the colors were to nature.
Fauvism was an art movement that was very much focused on the individual expression of the artist, something this movement valued greatly. The entire composition of these pieces is about the artist’s individual experience of its subject and the emotional response they experienced in nature. There was no concern over the academic theory that they were taught. These artists rejected the traditional 3D space and used patches of color or flat areas to create the space in the painting. | <urn:uuid:43e481ea-bf30-4b27-a383-cc8925610070> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://playthemove.com/%E2%80%8BFauvism-c40715299 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.983264 | 660 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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Fauvism is considered to be one of the first major avant-garde movements to occur in Europe during the 20th century. This style of art is characterized by the way the paintings would use very vibrant and exuberant, but colors that were not natural. In many ways, this was similar to the expressionist style due to the distorted landscapes in the paintings. It was about vivid color and painterly qualities rather than the realistic approach of impressionism. This type of art was inspired by artists like Georges Seurat and Vincent van Gogh.
Goal of Fauvism
There has been a lot of comparison between Fauvism and the German expressionism. Both of these art styles emphasized the usage of bold colors and spontaneous brushworks. They also both took inspiration from the same artists, such as van Gogh. The biggest difference between these two styles is that the French focused more on the composition of the painting whereas the German expressionists were more focused on the emotional impact of the piece. These art works stand out even today due to their vibrant colors that screamed emotion while not sticking to the constraints of realism in nature.
This art form didn’t last long, primarily disappearing after the 1930s. Many of the early artists of this movement used this movement as more of a transitional period during their art rather than a style they stuck with. Matisse was one of the only artists who stuck with this style of art throughout his entire career, even if he did adopt some other styles as well. Georges Brauque would go on to work with Pablo Picasso to develop cubism. Some of these artists went onto the neoclassical style, a more traditional approach to art. The art form may not have lasted long in terms of art periods, but it was still a style that did have an impact on future art styles.
The group of artists that started this movement were known as The Fauves, which means “wild beasts”. This loosely associated group of artists were students of Gustave Moreau, who was a symbolist artist. One of these students, Henri Matisse, would become the leader of The Fauves. This group wanted to redefine the idea of pure color, using intense color schemes as a way to communicate the emotions of the artist. For this reason, it would become an important gateway to other movements like expressionism and cubism. Color had this incredible ability to project a mood while establishing the structure of the work regardless of how “true” the colors were to nature.
Fauvism was an art movement that was very much focused on the individual expression of the artist, something this movement valued greatly. The entire composition of these pieces is about the artist’s individual experience of its subject and the emotional response they experienced in nature. There was no concern over the academic theory that they were taught. These artists rejected the traditional 3D space and used patches of color or flat areas to create the space in the painting. | 650 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ludwig van Beethoven ( (listen); German: [ˈluːtvɪç fan ˈbeːthoːfn̩] (listen); baptised 17 December 1770 – 26 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. He was a crucial figure in the transition between the classical and romantic eras in classical music and is considered to be one of the greatest composers of all time.
Beethoven was born in Bonn, the capital of the Electorate of Cologne, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire. His musical talent was obvious at an early age, and he was harshly and intensively taught by his father Johann van Beethoven, who thought this would enable him to become a child prodigy like Mozart. He was later taught by the composer and conductor Christian Gottlob Neefe. At age 21, he moved to Vienna and studied composition with Joseph Haydn. Beethoven then gained a reputation as a virtuoso pianist, and he was soon courted by Karl Alois, Prince Lichnowsky for compositions, which resulted in Opus 1 in 1795.
The piece was a great critical and commercial success and was followed by Symphony No. 1 in 1800. This composition was distinguished by its frequent use of sforzandi, sudden shifts in tonal centers (which were uncommon for traditional symphonic form), and the prominent, more independent use of wind instruments. In 1801, he also gained fame for his six String Quartets and for the ballet The Creatures of Prometheus. During this period, his hearing began to deteriorate, but he continued to conduct, premiering his third and fifth symphonies in 1804 and 1808, respectively. His condition worsened to almost complete deafness by 1811, and he then gave up performing and appearing in public.
During this period of self-exile, Beethoven composed many of his most admired works; his seventh symphony premiered in 1813, with its second movement, Allegretto, achieving widespread critical acclaim. He composed his Missa Solemnis for a number of years before it premiered prior to his ninth symphony in 1824, with the latter gaining fame for being among the first examples of a choral symphony. In 1826, his fourteenth String Quartet was noted not only for its seven linked movements played without a break and is considered the final major piece performed before his death a year later.
His career is conventionally divided into early, middle, and late periods; the "early" period is typically seen to last until 1802, the "middle" period from 1802 to 1812, and the "late" period from 1812 to his death in 1827. During his life, he composed nine symphonies, five piano concertos, one violin concerto, thirty-two piano sonatas, sixteen string quartets, two masses, and the opera Fidelio. Other works, like Für Elise, were discovered after his death and are also considered historic musical achievements. Beethoven's legacy is characterized by his innovative compositions, including innovative combinations of vocals and instruments, and also by widening the scope of the sonata, symphony, concerto, and quartet, while he is also noted for his troublesome relationship with his contemporaries. | <urn:uuid:f37a6cde-a1c9-4eda-8246-9d55f36683cf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.coverium.com/music-video/ludwig_van_beethoven-fur-elise-instrumental-cover-by-cole-rolland/tEWl60cUd_Y | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.98809 | 685 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.0663753002882003... | 1 | Ludwig van Beethoven ( (listen); German: [ˈluːtvɪç fan ˈbeːthoːfn̩] (listen); baptised 17 December 1770 – 26 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. He was a crucial figure in the transition between the classical and romantic eras in classical music and is considered to be one of the greatest composers of all time.
Beethoven was born in Bonn, the capital of the Electorate of Cologne, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire. His musical talent was obvious at an early age, and he was harshly and intensively taught by his father Johann van Beethoven, who thought this would enable him to become a child prodigy like Mozart. He was later taught by the composer and conductor Christian Gottlob Neefe. At age 21, he moved to Vienna and studied composition with Joseph Haydn. Beethoven then gained a reputation as a virtuoso pianist, and he was soon courted by Karl Alois, Prince Lichnowsky for compositions, which resulted in Opus 1 in 1795.
The piece was a great critical and commercial success and was followed by Symphony No. 1 in 1800. This composition was distinguished by its frequent use of sforzandi, sudden shifts in tonal centers (which were uncommon for traditional symphonic form), and the prominent, more independent use of wind instruments. In 1801, he also gained fame for his six String Quartets and for the ballet The Creatures of Prometheus. During this period, his hearing began to deteriorate, but he continued to conduct, premiering his third and fifth symphonies in 1804 and 1808, respectively. His condition worsened to almost complete deafness by 1811, and he then gave up performing and appearing in public.
During this period of self-exile, Beethoven composed many of his most admired works; his seventh symphony premiered in 1813, with its second movement, Allegretto, achieving widespread critical acclaim. He composed his Missa Solemnis for a number of years before it premiered prior to his ninth symphony in 1824, with the latter gaining fame for being among the first examples of a choral symphony. In 1826, his fourteenth String Quartet was noted not only for its seven linked movements played without a break and is considered the final major piece performed before his death a year later.
His career is conventionally divided into early, middle, and late periods; the "early" period is typically seen to last until 1802, the "middle" period from 1802 to 1812, and the "late" period from 1812 to his death in 1827. During his life, he composed nine symphonies, five piano concertos, one violin concerto, thirty-two piano sonatas, sixteen string quartets, two masses, and the opera Fidelio. Other works, like Für Elise, were discovered after his death and are also considered historic musical achievements. Beethoven's legacy is characterized by his innovative compositions, including innovative combinations of vocals and instruments, and also by widening the scope of the sonata, symphony, concerto, and quartet, while he is also noted for his troublesome relationship with his contemporaries. | 726 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry I c. 1068/9–1135
King Henry I of England was born at Selby, the youngest son of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders. He ascended to the throne only three days after the death of his brother, King William II, while his other brother, Robert, was on crusade. As a result Robert invaded England in 1101 and Henry was forced to cede to him his Lordship of Normandy. The pair met again in 1106 – this time on the battlefield at Tinchebrai. Henry was the victor and quickly re-conquered Normandy. Robert, however, spent the next twenty-eight years as Henry’s prisoner.
In 1100 Henry married the Scottish princess, Edith, creating an alliance that would bring peace to the Anglo–Scottish border. The pair had two children: Matilda, born 1102, and William, born 1103, but Henry also fathered around twenty-five illegitimate children, a record among British kings. After the White Ship disaster and death of his heir, William, in 1120, Henry became increasingly preoccupied with the succession. Now a widow, he remarried and recalled his daughter, Matilda, from Germany, in a bid to secure the futures of England and Normandy. He urged his barons to support Matilda’s succession and had them swear three separate oaths of fealty to her. He died on 1 December 1135 after eating lampreys and is buried at Reading Abbey.
Empress Matilda 1102–1167
The only legitimate daughter of King Henry I and Edith of Scotland, Matilda was born on 7 February 1102 at Sutton Courtenay. She was betrothed to Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, at her father’s Whitsun Court on 13 June 1109 and left England in the following year. The marriage took place in February 1114, less than one month before her twelfth birthday, and she was crowned Queen of the Romans in a ceremony at Mainz shortly after.
Matilda spent the next twelve years in the Empire, referring always to herself as Empress, but was unable to produce an heir that would secure the succession. After Henry’s death in 1125, Matilda was left in the care of his nephew, Friedrich, only to be recalled to England by her father to be recognized as heir to the English throne and Duchy of Normandy.
A second marriage was arranged, this time to the young and handsome Geoffrey of Anjou. Though the pair quarrelled soon after the ceremony, they were reconciled at her father’s council in 1131 and went on to have three sons: Henry, born 1133; Geoffrey, born 1134; and William, born 1136. When her father died in 1135, Matilda was in Anjou, leaving Stephen of Blois free to usurp the throne. In 1139, with the support of her half-brother, Robert of Gloucester, she sailed to England and began a nine-year campaign to reclaim her rightful inheritance.
During the ensuing civil war Matilda came close to the throne only once, at London in 1141, and returned to Normandy after the death of her beloved Gloucester in 1147. Matilda actively championed the cause of her eldest son, Henry, who ascended to the English throne and Duchy of Normandy in 1154. She spent her later years in Normandy, tirelessly supporting her son and often intervening in political affairs on his behalf, including his famous quarrel with Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. She died on 10 September 1167 and is buried at Bec Abbey in Normandy.
Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou 1113–1151
Born 24 August 1113, Geoffrey was the son of Fulk V, Count of Anjou and King of Jerusalem, and Erembourg, Countess of Maine. Nicknamed ‘le bel’ (handsome), Geoffrey was renowned for his good looks and military prowess. He married Matilda, daughter of Henry I and heir to the English throne, in 1128. He had three sons with Matilda and also three illegitimate children by one or more mistresses.
After the death of Henry I in 1135, he supported his wife’s campaign to reclaim her inheritance and worked tirelessly to bring Normandy under Angevin control. By 1144 he had conquered the Duchy and assumed the title of Duke of Normandy – an honour he later ceded to his son, Henry. He died unexpectedly at Château-du-Loir on 7 September 1151 whilst making preparations to invade England. He is buried at St Julien’s in Maine.
King Stephen c. 1092–1154
The third son of Etienne, Count of Blois, and Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, Stephen was born in Blois in central France. He was raised at the English court of his uncle Henry I, soon becoming his favourite, and was given in marriage, Matilda of Boulogne, in 1125. After the death of William Adelin, Stephen supported Matilda’s accession but in fact usurped the throne in 1135. Immediately after his coronation, the Scottish king invaded England and Stephen was forced to cede much of his northern territory.
A further invasion in 1138 resulted in an English victory at the Battle of Standard, but was followed by the defection of Robert of Gloucester and the beginnings of civil war in England. Throughout the course of his reign, Stephen was never able to overcome Matilda and was in fact captured by her forces at the Battle of Lincoln in 1141. Matilda’s son, Henry, continued the fight after her departure from England in 1147. Henry’s invasion and the sudden death of Stephen’s son, Eustace, in 1153 paved the way for a peace settlement under which Matilda’s son, Henry, inherited the throne. Stephen died on 25 October 1154 and is buried with his son at Faversham Abbey.
David I, King of Scotland c. 1085–1153
The youngest son of Malcolm III, David spent much of his youth at the court of his brother-in-law, Henry I. In 1113 he married Matilda, daughter of the Earl of Huntingdon, and succeeded to the Scottish throne on the death of his brother, Alexander, in 1124. While he promoted religious revival in Scotland, he also played an active role in English politics.
He was the first person to swear an oath of fealty to his niece, Empress Matilda, in 1127 and went to war against Stephen after the death of Henry I. Although he was defeated at the Battle of the Standard, he gained control over much of Northern England and took part in the Siege of Winchester, narrowly escaping Stephen’s forces during the rout. His support for the Angevin cause continued after Matilda’s departure from England and he knighted her eldest son, Henry, at Carlisle in 1149. David died on 24 May 1153 at Carlisle Castle and was succeeded by his twelve-year-old grandson, Malcolm.
Robert, Earl of Gloucester c. 1100–1147
Probably the eldest of King Henry I’s illegitimate children, Robert was born some time before his father’s accession in 1100. His mother’s name is unknown but she was likely a member of the Gay family from Oxfordshire. A favourite of his father, Robert was given in marriage the heiress, Mabel, who brought him extensive lands in the West Country, and was made earl of Gloucester in 1121. He was a leading figure in Henry’s court and actively supported the accession of his half-sister, Matilda, being one of the first men to swear loyalty to her in 1127.
When his father died in 1135, he escorted the body to Rouen and was still in Normandy as Stephen usurped the throne. Although he initially accepted Stephen’s accession, he switched allegiance in 1138 and accompanied Matilda to England in the following year. From then on Robert became Matilda’s military commander, masterminding her campaigns. He was captured by royal forces at the Rout of Winchester on 14 September 1141 and later released in an arrangement that also freed King Stephen. He crossed the Channel in the following year on a relief mission to Count Geoffrey but instead returned with Henry, his adolescent nephew. As the war raged on, Robert was unable to gain the upper hand over Stephen or even negotiate a peaceful settlement. He died from a fever on 31 October 1147 at Bristol and is buried at the priory church of St James.
Brian FitzCount c. 1090–?
Loyal supporter of the Empress Matilda, Brian FitzCount was the illegitimate son of Alan Fergant, Duke of Brittany. Little is known of FitzCount’s early life but by 1114 he was a central figure in Henry I’s household and was given in marriage Matilda, Lady of Wallingford. FitzCount swore an oath of fealty to Empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I, in January 1127 and escorted her to Anjou in May for her marriage to Count Geoffrey.
After the death of Henry I in 1135, FitzCount attended Stephen’s Easter court but switched allegiance to Matilda when she landed in England in 1139. He was said to be ‘delighted’ at her arrival and would later write a treatise justifying his actions in her support. He defended his castle at Wallingford against Stephen and the Royalist army in 1139 and travelled with Matilda to London after the Battle of Lincoln. He also escorted the Empress to safety after the Battle of Winchester and spent some time with her at Oxford in 1142. He fended off another Royalist attack on Wallingford in 1146 but is rarely mentioned in the sources after this date.
Details of his final years are scant; the Abergavenny chronicler states FitzCount went on crusade in 1147 and died in Jerusalem shortly after, while modern historians have suggested that he retired to Bec Abbey with his wife where he died in c. 1149.
Miles of Gloucester c. 1100–1143
Son of Walter, Sheriff of Gloucester, Miles was an active supporter of the Empress Matilda and he rose to prominence under Henry I. In 1121 he married Sybil, daughter of the Lord of Brecon, and inherited the title of sheriff in 1127. Miles paid homage to Stephen after his coronation in 1135 and worked in his service as a sheriff and royal justice. He also joined Stephen at the Siege of Shrewsbury in 1138.
With some persuasion from Robert of Gloucester, Miles sided with the Empress in 1139 and was an active figure in many of her campaigns, including the attack on Worcester and the relief efforts during the Siege of Wallingford. He brought Hereford under Angevin control and received it from Matilda as an earldom in 1141. During the same year he famously avoided capture by shedding his clothes and armour at the Rout of Winchester. Miles died on Christmas Eve 1143, after being struck with a stray arrow while hunting in the Forest of Dean.
Ranulf de Gernons, Earl of Chester before 1100–1153
The second earl of Chester, Ranulf was a loyal supporter of Henry I, swearing an oath to Matilda, in 1131, but he flitted between the Angevins and Royalists during the civil war. Though he married Robert of Gloucester’s daughter in c.1135, he accepted Stephen’s accession to the throne and was present at his Easter court in 1136.
He first rose to prominence in 1140 when he and his half-brother, William de Roumare, seized the royal castle at Lincoln. Ranulf escaped during the ensuing siege and fought against Stephen at the Battle of Lincoln. He then returned to the Royalist camp, joining Queen Matilda at the siege of Winchester, but was treated with such suspicion that he went over to the Angevins. He made peace with Stephen at Stamford in 1146, helping him capture Bedford and besiege Wallingford Castle, but was once again treated with much suspicion. Such attitudes among Stephen’s barons may have contributed to his sudden arrest later that year and the surrender of his property. After his release, he mounted an armed campaign to reclaim his property, which led to four separate encounters with King Stephen and Eustace.
Ranulf sided with Henry of Anjou after the death of his father-in-law and Matilda’s retirement from England. He was present at Henry’s knighting ceremony at Carlisle in 1149 and played an active role in the expedition of 1153. He did not live to see Henry’s accession, however, and died at Derbyshire on 17 December 1153 after drinking poisoned wine.
Henry II 1133–1189
The eldest son of Empress Matilda and Count Geoffrey of Anjou, Henry was born at Le Mans on 5 March 1133. He experienced The Anarchy during three visits to England in the 1140s when he unsuccessfully launched his first military campaign against King Stephen and was knighted by his uncle, King David. Back in France, he became Duke of Normandy in 1149 and married the French king’s ex-wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, in 1152. A final expedition to England in 1153 resulted in the Treaty of Winchester and brought the civil war to a peaceful end.
He was crowned King of England on 19 December 1154. Though he spent only thirteen years of his reign in England, he reorganized the judicial system and extended his Lordship into neighbouring Ireland. Henry did not become king but became overlord of Ireland – he held a significant amount of land there and therefore extended Angevin influence and control. The murder of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1170, however, would bring him into direct conflict with the English Church and result in public penance for his sins.
Henry ruled a significant empire, stretching from Ireland to the Pyrenees, but his succession policy of dividing up his territories brought him into direct conflict with his family on several occasions. The revolt of his wife and sons in 1173–4, for example, propelled his empire into outright civil war and resulted in Eleanor’s arrest and permanent imprisonment. Such succession disputes continued until Henry’s death on 6 July 1189 with his sons, Richard and John, in rebellion against him. He is buried at Fontevrault Abbey in Anjou.
Eleanor of Aquitaine c. 1122–1204
Eleanor was the elder daughter of Guillaume, Count of Poitou and Duke of Aquitaine. His sudden death in 1137 transformed Eleanor into the wealthiest and most desirable heiress in Medieval Europe. She married Louis VII in July 1137 but the pair were ill-matched and Louis initiated divorce proceedings in early 1152. Within months of her divorce, however, she remarried Henry of Anjou and became Queen of England on his succession in 1154.
During the early years of the marriage, Eleanor bore five sons and three daughters and played an active role in the political affairs of her husband’s great empire. After her participation in the Revolt of 1173–4, Eleanor was imprisoned by her husband and released only after his death in 1189. She resumed her political role in England and acted as regent for her son, Richard, while he was away on crusade. After his death and the succession of her youngest son, John, in 1199, she left England and spent her final years in Aquitaine, still active in family and political affairs. She died on 1 April 1204 and is buried beside Henry at Fontevrault Abbey. | <urn:uuid:6abab0aa-c959-444e-800d-326bc7f42114> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/postclassical/the-medieval-anarchy/17.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.985451 | 3,323 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.1758727431... | 6 | Henry I c. 1068/9–1135
King Henry I of England was born at Selby, the youngest son of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders. He ascended to the throne only three days after the death of his brother, King William II, while his other brother, Robert, was on crusade. As a result Robert invaded England in 1101 and Henry was forced to cede to him his Lordship of Normandy. The pair met again in 1106 – this time on the battlefield at Tinchebrai. Henry was the victor and quickly re-conquered Normandy. Robert, however, spent the next twenty-eight years as Henry’s prisoner.
In 1100 Henry married the Scottish princess, Edith, creating an alliance that would bring peace to the Anglo–Scottish border. The pair had two children: Matilda, born 1102, and William, born 1103, but Henry also fathered around twenty-five illegitimate children, a record among British kings. After the White Ship disaster and death of his heir, William, in 1120, Henry became increasingly preoccupied with the succession. Now a widow, he remarried and recalled his daughter, Matilda, from Germany, in a bid to secure the futures of England and Normandy. He urged his barons to support Matilda’s succession and had them swear three separate oaths of fealty to her. He died on 1 December 1135 after eating lampreys and is buried at Reading Abbey.
Empress Matilda 1102–1167
The only legitimate daughter of King Henry I and Edith of Scotland, Matilda was born on 7 February 1102 at Sutton Courtenay. She was betrothed to Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, at her father’s Whitsun Court on 13 June 1109 and left England in the following year. The marriage took place in February 1114, less than one month before her twelfth birthday, and she was crowned Queen of the Romans in a ceremony at Mainz shortly after.
Matilda spent the next twelve years in the Empire, referring always to herself as Empress, but was unable to produce an heir that would secure the succession. After Henry’s death in 1125, Matilda was left in the care of his nephew, Friedrich, only to be recalled to England by her father to be recognized as heir to the English throne and Duchy of Normandy.
A second marriage was arranged, this time to the young and handsome Geoffrey of Anjou. Though the pair quarrelled soon after the ceremony, they were reconciled at her father’s council in 1131 and went on to have three sons: Henry, born 1133; Geoffrey, born 1134; and William, born 1136. When her father died in 1135, Matilda was in Anjou, leaving Stephen of Blois free to usurp the throne. In 1139, with the support of her half-brother, Robert of Gloucester, she sailed to England and began a nine-year campaign to reclaim her rightful inheritance.
During the ensuing civil war Matilda came close to the throne only once, at London in 1141, and returned to Normandy after the death of her beloved Gloucester in 1147. Matilda actively championed the cause of her eldest son, Henry, who ascended to the English throne and Duchy of Normandy in 1154. She spent her later years in Normandy, tirelessly supporting her son and often intervening in political affairs on his behalf, including his famous quarrel with Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. She died on 10 September 1167 and is buried at Bec Abbey in Normandy.
Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou 1113–1151
Born 24 August 1113, Geoffrey was the son of Fulk V, Count of Anjou and King of Jerusalem, and Erembourg, Countess of Maine. Nicknamed ‘le bel’ (handsome), Geoffrey was renowned for his good looks and military prowess. He married Matilda, daughter of Henry I and heir to the English throne, in 1128. He had three sons with Matilda and also three illegitimate children by one or more mistresses.
After the death of Henry I in 1135, he supported his wife’s campaign to reclaim her inheritance and worked tirelessly to bring Normandy under Angevin control. By 1144 he had conquered the Duchy and assumed the title of Duke of Normandy – an honour he later ceded to his son, Henry. He died unexpectedly at Château-du-Loir on 7 September 1151 whilst making preparations to invade England. He is buried at St Julien’s in Maine.
King Stephen c. 1092–1154
The third son of Etienne, Count of Blois, and Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, Stephen was born in Blois in central France. He was raised at the English court of his uncle Henry I, soon becoming his favourite, and was given in marriage, Matilda of Boulogne, in 1125. After the death of William Adelin, Stephen supported Matilda’s accession but in fact usurped the throne in 1135. Immediately after his coronation, the Scottish king invaded England and Stephen was forced to cede much of his northern territory.
A further invasion in 1138 resulted in an English victory at the Battle of Standard, but was followed by the defection of Robert of Gloucester and the beginnings of civil war in England. Throughout the course of his reign, Stephen was never able to overcome Matilda and was in fact captured by her forces at the Battle of Lincoln in 1141. Matilda’s son, Henry, continued the fight after her departure from England in 1147. Henry’s invasion and the sudden death of Stephen’s son, Eustace, in 1153 paved the way for a peace settlement under which Matilda’s son, Henry, inherited the throne. Stephen died on 25 October 1154 and is buried with his son at Faversham Abbey.
David I, King of Scotland c. 1085–1153
The youngest son of Malcolm III, David spent much of his youth at the court of his brother-in-law, Henry I. In 1113 he married Matilda, daughter of the Earl of Huntingdon, and succeeded to the Scottish throne on the death of his brother, Alexander, in 1124. While he promoted religious revival in Scotland, he also played an active role in English politics.
He was the first person to swear an oath of fealty to his niece, Empress Matilda, in 1127 and went to war against Stephen after the death of Henry I. Although he was defeated at the Battle of the Standard, he gained control over much of Northern England and took part in the Siege of Winchester, narrowly escaping Stephen’s forces during the rout. His support for the Angevin cause continued after Matilda’s departure from England and he knighted her eldest son, Henry, at Carlisle in 1149. David died on 24 May 1153 at Carlisle Castle and was succeeded by his twelve-year-old grandson, Malcolm.
Robert, Earl of Gloucester c. 1100–1147
Probably the eldest of King Henry I’s illegitimate children, Robert was born some time before his father’s accession in 1100. His mother’s name is unknown but she was likely a member of the Gay family from Oxfordshire. A favourite of his father, Robert was given in marriage the heiress, Mabel, who brought him extensive lands in the West Country, and was made earl of Gloucester in 1121. He was a leading figure in Henry’s court and actively supported the accession of his half-sister, Matilda, being one of the first men to swear loyalty to her in 1127.
When his father died in 1135, he escorted the body to Rouen and was still in Normandy as Stephen usurped the throne. Although he initially accepted Stephen’s accession, he switched allegiance in 1138 and accompanied Matilda to England in the following year. From then on Robert became Matilda’s military commander, masterminding her campaigns. He was captured by royal forces at the Rout of Winchester on 14 September 1141 and later released in an arrangement that also freed King Stephen. He crossed the Channel in the following year on a relief mission to Count Geoffrey but instead returned with Henry, his adolescent nephew. As the war raged on, Robert was unable to gain the upper hand over Stephen or even negotiate a peaceful settlement. He died from a fever on 31 October 1147 at Bristol and is buried at the priory church of St James.
Brian FitzCount c. 1090–?
Loyal supporter of the Empress Matilda, Brian FitzCount was the illegitimate son of Alan Fergant, Duke of Brittany. Little is known of FitzCount’s early life but by 1114 he was a central figure in Henry I’s household and was given in marriage Matilda, Lady of Wallingford. FitzCount swore an oath of fealty to Empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I, in January 1127 and escorted her to Anjou in May for her marriage to Count Geoffrey.
After the death of Henry I in 1135, FitzCount attended Stephen’s Easter court but switched allegiance to Matilda when she landed in England in 1139. He was said to be ‘delighted’ at her arrival and would later write a treatise justifying his actions in her support. He defended his castle at Wallingford against Stephen and the Royalist army in 1139 and travelled with Matilda to London after the Battle of Lincoln. He also escorted the Empress to safety after the Battle of Winchester and spent some time with her at Oxford in 1142. He fended off another Royalist attack on Wallingford in 1146 but is rarely mentioned in the sources after this date.
Details of his final years are scant; the Abergavenny chronicler states FitzCount went on crusade in 1147 and died in Jerusalem shortly after, while modern historians have suggested that he retired to Bec Abbey with his wife where he died in c. 1149.
Miles of Gloucester c. 1100–1143
Son of Walter, Sheriff of Gloucester, Miles was an active supporter of the Empress Matilda and he rose to prominence under Henry I. In 1121 he married Sybil, daughter of the Lord of Brecon, and inherited the title of sheriff in 1127. Miles paid homage to Stephen after his coronation in 1135 and worked in his service as a sheriff and royal justice. He also joined Stephen at the Siege of Shrewsbury in 1138.
With some persuasion from Robert of Gloucester, Miles sided with the Empress in 1139 and was an active figure in many of her campaigns, including the attack on Worcester and the relief efforts during the Siege of Wallingford. He brought Hereford under Angevin control and received it from Matilda as an earldom in 1141. During the same year he famously avoided capture by shedding his clothes and armour at the Rout of Winchester. Miles died on Christmas Eve 1143, after being struck with a stray arrow while hunting in the Forest of Dean.
Ranulf de Gernons, Earl of Chester before 1100–1153
The second earl of Chester, Ranulf was a loyal supporter of Henry I, swearing an oath to Matilda, in 1131, but he flitted between the Angevins and Royalists during the civil war. Though he married Robert of Gloucester’s daughter in c.1135, he accepted Stephen’s accession to the throne and was present at his Easter court in 1136.
He first rose to prominence in 1140 when he and his half-brother, William de Roumare, seized the royal castle at Lincoln. Ranulf escaped during the ensuing siege and fought against Stephen at the Battle of Lincoln. He then returned to the Royalist camp, joining Queen Matilda at the siege of Winchester, but was treated with such suspicion that he went over to the Angevins. He made peace with Stephen at Stamford in 1146, helping him capture Bedford and besiege Wallingford Castle, but was once again treated with much suspicion. Such attitudes among Stephen’s barons may have contributed to his sudden arrest later that year and the surrender of his property. After his release, he mounted an armed campaign to reclaim his property, which led to four separate encounters with King Stephen and Eustace.
Ranulf sided with Henry of Anjou after the death of his father-in-law and Matilda’s retirement from England. He was present at Henry’s knighting ceremony at Carlisle in 1149 and played an active role in the expedition of 1153. He did not live to see Henry’s accession, however, and died at Derbyshire on 17 December 1153 after drinking poisoned wine.
Henry II 1133–1189
The eldest son of Empress Matilda and Count Geoffrey of Anjou, Henry was born at Le Mans on 5 March 1133. He experienced The Anarchy during three visits to England in the 1140s when he unsuccessfully launched his first military campaign against King Stephen and was knighted by his uncle, King David. Back in France, he became Duke of Normandy in 1149 and married the French king’s ex-wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, in 1152. A final expedition to England in 1153 resulted in the Treaty of Winchester and brought the civil war to a peaceful end.
He was crowned King of England on 19 December 1154. Though he spent only thirteen years of his reign in England, he reorganized the judicial system and extended his Lordship into neighbouring Ireland. Henry did not become king but became overlord of Ireland – he held a significant amount of land there and therefore extended Angevin influence and control. The murder of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1170, however, would bring him into direct conflict with the English Church and result in public penance for his sins.
Henry ruled a significant empire, stretching from Ireland to the Pyrenees, but his succession policy of dividing up his territories brought him into direct conflict with his family on several occasions. The revolt of his wife and sons in 1173–4, for example, propelled his empire into outright civil war and resulted in Eleanor’s arrest and permanent imprisonment. Such succession disputes continued until Henry’s death on 6 July 1189 with his sons, Richard and John, in rebellion against him. He is buried at Fontevrault Abbey in Anjou.
Eleanor of Aquitaine c. 1122–1204
Eleanor was the elder daughter of Guillaume, Count of Poitou and Duke of Aquitaine. His sudden death in 1137 transformed Eleanor into the wealthiest and most desirable heiress in Medieval Europe. She married Louis VII in July 1137 but the pair were ill-matched and Louis initiated divorce proceedings in early 1152. Within months of her divorce, however, she remarried Henry of Anjou and became Queen of England on his succession in 1154.
During the early years of the marriage, Eleanor bore five sons and three daughters and played an active role in the political affairs of her husband’s great empire. After her participation in the Revolt of 1173–4, Eleanor was imprisoned by her husband and released only after his death in 1189. She resumed her political role in England and acted as regent for her son, Richard, while he was away on crusade. After his death and the succession of her youngest son, John, in 1199, she left England and spent her final years in Aquitaine, still active in family and political affairs. She died on 1 April 1204 and is buried beside Henry at Fontevrault Abbey. | 3,567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The globe theater was one of the great theatres that was built in London in 1599 by a group of actors known as "Lord Chamberlain's Men" who were affiliated to William Shakespeare, with a Latin motto that went "Totus mundus agit histrionem" also translated "All the World's a Stage". This was later destroyed by fire in June 1613 two years before Shakespeare's death (The History of the Globe, para.2).
A year later that is in the year 1614 the Second Globe Thearter was built on the same spot.; but was unfortunately closed down in the year 1642 (McCudden, pg 144). The theatre has undergone a lot of challenges as a result of it being destroyed and rebuilt. This has all gone to past because of the completion of a modern reconstruction of the Globe "Shakespeare's Globe" that was opened in 1997 located about 230 meters from the original theatre site.
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The original Globe Theatre was owned by six actors who also were shareholders; two of the six shareholders were held a large fraction of the globe with them having 25% while the rest had 12.5% each. In 1599 the Globe was built of wood by one of the actors in the group Richard Burbage's father, James Burbage; who had a 21 year lease of the land the building was built on (Gurr, pg 22). And the landlord was saying that once the lease of The Burbages is over the theater will be his. This resulted to the dismantling of the building and kept in a warehouse near Bridewell and later on its was built in Thames; where it stayed till it went up in flames during the performance of Henry the Eighth.
It was erected a year later and just like any other theatres in London it was closed down in 1642 and every person who is caught playing fined 5 shillings and that brought the fall of the original Globe Theater. It took a longtime before the thearter was reconstructed but it was eventually reconstructed in the 20th century close to the site of the original Globe thearter (McCudden, p.144).
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:fb6c7f6d-a00c-4621-818f-d95c5f73a199> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/a-history-of-the-globe-theatre.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.988331 | 489 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.346260547637939... | 1 | The globe theater was one of the great theatres that was built in London in 1599 by a group of actors known as "Lord Chamberlain's Men" who were affiliated to William Shakespeare, with a Latin motto that went "Totus mundus agit histrionem" also translated "All the World's a Stage". This was later destroyed by fire in June 1613 two years before Shakespeare's death (The History of the Globe, para.2).
A year later that is in the year 1614 the Second Globe Thearter was built on the same spot.; but was unfortunately closed down in the year 1642 (McCudden, pg 144). The theatre has undergone a lot of challenges as a result of it being destroyed and rebuilt. This has all gone to past because of the completion of a modern reconstruction of the Globe "Shakespeare's Globe" that was opened in 1997 located about 230 meters from the original theatre site.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
The original Globe Theatre was owned by six actors who also were shareholders; two of the six shareholders were held a large fraction of the globe with them having 25% while the rest had 12.5% each. In 1599 the Globe was built of wood by one of the actors in the group Richard Burbage's father, James Burbage; who had a 21 year lease of the land the building was built on (Gurr, pg 22). And the landlord was saying that once the lease of The Burbages is over the theater will be his. This resulted to the dismantling of the building and kept in a warehouse near Bridewell and later on its was built in Thames; where it stayed till it went up in flames during the performance of Henry the Eighth.
It was erected a year later and just like any other theatres in London it was closed down in 1642 and every person who is caught playing fined 5 shillings and that brought the fall of the original Globe Theater. It took a longtime before the thearter was reconstructed but it was eventually reconstructed in the 20th century close to the site of the original Globe thearter (McCudden, p.144).
Most popular orders | 523 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tutankhamun was the son of whom was believed as Akhenaten and Kira. He was born in ancient Egypt and grew up to become the twelfth king of the eighteenth dynasty. When he became pharaoh he was only at the age of nine or ten, he married his half sister Ankhesenamun. With his wife he had no children, but two died from miscarriages. The little babies are mummified in coffins in their father’s tomb.
When king Tutankhamun was only nineteen years old, he died. The death of the Pharaoh is an unsolved mystery, but when his body was found in 1922 by Howard Carter, there were many theories. But the two main theories were: he was assassinated by being hit on the skull with a rock or accidentally got hit on the skull, or sprained his ankle whilst falling off his chariot.
During autopsies of his body it was shown that one of his feet was crooked, which supports the chariot theory. It was said it was there during birth. The cause for this was that both his parents were siblings, and Tutankhamun was an incest product.
Many strange series of events occurred shortly after the opening of Tutankhamun’s tomb, like when Lord Carnarvon gave Howard Carter money to help his expedition. Seven weeks after the opening of Tut’s tomb Carnarvon got bitten by a mosquito on the cheek and it caught an infection. After his death, his dog howled in the night, and dropped dead. Soon after that event Carter’s dog Susie, was bitten by a snake at his home.
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0.44403263926506... | 12 | Tutankhamun was the son of whom was believed as Akhenaten and Kira. He was born in ancient Egypt and grew up to become the twelfth king of the eighteenth dynasty. When he became pharaoh he was only at the age of nine or ten, he married his half sister Ankhesenamun. With his wife he had no children, but two died from miscarriages. The little babies are mummified in coffins in their father’s tomb.
When king Tutankhamun was only nineteen years old, he died. The death of the Pharaoh is an unsolved mystery, but when his body was found in 1922 by Howard Carter, there were many theories. But the two main theories were: he was assassinated by being hit on the skull with a rock or accidentally got hit on the skull, or sprained his ankle whilst falling off his chariot.
During autopsies of his body it was shown that one of his feet was crooked, which supports the chariot theory. It was said it was there during birth. The cause for this was that both his parents were siblings, and Tutankhamun was an incest product.
Many strange series of events occurred shortly after the opening of Tutankhamun’s tomb, like when Lord Carnarvon gave Howard Carter money to help his expedition. Seven weeks after the opening of Tut’s tomb Carnarvon got bitten by a mosquito on the cheek and it caught an infection. After his death, his dog howled in the night, and dropped dead. Soon after that event Carter’s dog Susie, was bitten by a snake at his home.
These deaths could have been coincidences, it stays unknown. Who will ever solve the mystery of King Tutankhamun. | 363 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Died||before March 12, 1706|
|Children||Samuel, Nathaniel, Rachel Hayes Messenger (m. Andrew Messenger), Elizabeth, Mary and James|
Nathaniel Haies (also Nathaniel Hayes) (1634 – died before March 12, 1706) was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He was a signer of the treaty with the Norwalke Indians in 1655.
A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. Settlers are generally from a sedentary culture, as opposed to nomads who share and rotate their settlements with little or no concept of individual land ownership. Settlements are often built on land already claimed or owned by another group. Many times settlers are backed by governments or large countries. They also sometimes leave in search of religious freedom.
Norwalk is a U.S. city located in southwestern Connecticut, in southern Fairfield County, on the northern shore of Long Island Sound. Norwalk lies within both the New York metropolitan area as well as the Bridgeport metropolitan area.
Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the United States. As of the 2010 Census, it has the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index (0.962), and median household income in the United States. It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital is Hartford and its most populous city is Bridgeport. It is part of New England, although portions of it are often grouped with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-state area. The state is named for the Connecticut River which approximately bisects the state. The word "Connecticut" is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for "long tidal river".
It took until March 30, 1686 before the planters at Norwalk obtained a Royal Charter from King James II. On this patent, John Ruscoe, Nathaniel Hayes, Matthew Marvin Sr., and Thomas Seamore were signatories.
James II and VII was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, his reign is now remembered primarily for struggles over religious tolerance. However, it also involved the principles of absolutism and divine right of kings and his deposition ended a century of political and civil strife by confirming the primacy of Parliament over the Crown.
John Ruscoe was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut.
Matthew Marvin Sr. was a founding settler of Hartford and Norwalk, Connecticut. He served as a deputy of the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut from Norwalk in the May 1654 session. He served as a magistrate in 1659.
He was born in 1634 in Dover, England. He came to Norwalk in 1651 as a member of the Runckingheage deed settlers.
Dover is a major ferry port in Kent, South East England. It faces France across the Strait of Dover, the narrowest part of the English Channel, and lies south-east of Canterbury and east of Maidstone. The town is the administrative centre of the Dover District and home of the Dover Calais ferry through the Port of Dover. The surrounding chalk cliffs are known as the White Cliffs of Dover.
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to the west and Scotland to the north-northwest. The Irish Sea lies west of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south. The country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain, which lies in the North Atlantic, and includes over 100 smaller islands, such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
He is listed on the Founders Stone bearing the names of the founding settlers of Norwalk in the East Norwalk Historical Cemetery.
The history of Norwalk, Connecticut ranges from pre-contact cultures and Native Americans to the 21st century.
Established in 1655, the East Norwalk Historical Cemetery is Norwalk's oldest cemetery, and many of the area's first settlers are buried there. The cemetery is owned and maintained by the Third Taxing District, formally known as the East Norwalk Fire District of the Town of Norwalk, and before that it was known as the Down Town School District. Triangle shaped and surrounded clockwise by Gregory Boulevard, Cemetery Street and East Avenue it is situated in the neighborhood of East Norwalk.
Moses Comstock was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from Norwalk in 1777.
Matthew Canfield was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut and Newark, New Jersey. He served as a deputy of the General Court of the Connecticut Colony representing Norwalk in the sessions of May 1654, May 1655, May 1656, May 1657, May 1658, May 1659, May 1660, May 1661, May and October 1662, October 1663, May and October 1664, May and October 1665, and May and October 1666.
Nathaniel Ely was a founding settler of Hartford and Norwalk, Connecticut. He served as a deputy of the General Court of the Connecticut Colony from Norwalk in the October 1656 session.
Isaac Moore was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He served as a deputy of the General Court of the Connecticut Colony from Norwalk in the October 1657 session.
John Gregory was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He was a deputy of the General Court of the Connecticut Colony in the sessions of October 1659, October 1662, May 1663, May 1665, October 1667, May 1668, May and October 1669, October 1670, October 1671, May 1674, May 1675, October 1677, May 1679, October 1680, May 1681, October 1695.
Samuel Hayes was an early settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He was a member of the General Assembly of the Colony of Connecticut from Norwalk in the sessions of May 1686, May and October 1687, October 1689, May 1692, May and October 1693, May 1694, May 1695, May 1696, May and October 1697, May and October 1698, October 1699, May 1700, May 1701, October 1702, and October 1703.
George Abbitt (1634–1689) was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut.
Stephen Beckwith was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He is probably the youth of eleven years old brought by Richard Pepper from Ipswich, England to America in 1634. He was at Hartford in 1649, and moved to Norwalk prior to 1655. He sold his farm to Richard Homes in March 1663. He was still living in Norwalk as late as 1687.
Thomas Hales was a founding settler of Hartford, and Norwalk, Connecticut. He was the son of Thomas Hale, born 1590 in Hertfordshire, England, and Joan Kirby Hale, born 1590, died 1640.
Thomas Hanford was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He was the first minister in Norwalk, and continued in charge of the settlement's church for forty-one years, until his death in 1693. In addition to his spiritual leadership, he also served as the civic leader and school teacher of the settlement.
Richard Holmes was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut.
Ralph Keeler was a founding settler of both Hartford, and Norwalk, Connecticut, United States.
Jonathan Marsh (1621–1672) was a founding settler of the New Haven Colony, and of Norwalk, Connecticut. He came to Norwalk from New Haven sometime prior to March 1656. He was the settlement's miller.
Thomas Seamer was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He served as a deputy of the General Assembly of the Connecticut Colony from Norwalk in the May 1690 session.
Widow Morgan was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. There is very little information in the historical records about her. She is listed among the "Ludlow Agreement" settlers in 1650.
Walter Keeler was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. There is very little information on him in the historical records. He is listed among the "Table of Estates" settlers of 1655. He is the brother of Ralph Keeler, the Norwalk settler who is listed among the "Ludlow Agreement" settlers of 1650.
John Reed was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from Norwalk, Connecticut Colony in the May 1715 and October 1717 sessions.
Joseph Birchard was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from Norwalk, Connecticut Colony in the sessions of May 1730 and May 1734. | <urn:uuid:5f846465-e327-4c7e-859d-858f86e71707> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Nathaniel_Haies | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00088.warc.gz | en | 0.98273 | 1,918 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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|Children||Samuel, Nathaniel, Rachel Hayes Messenger (m. Andrew Messenger), Elizabeth, Mary and James|
Nathaniel Haies (also Nathaniel Hayes) (1634 – died before March 12, 1706) was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He was a signer of the treaty with the Norwalke Indians in 1655.
A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. Settlers are generally from a sedentary culture, as opposed to nomads who share and rotate their settlements with little or no concept of individual land ownership. Settlements are often built on land already claimed or owned by another group. Many times settlers are backed by governments or large countries. They also sometimes leave in search of religious freedom.
Norwalk is a U.S. city located in southwestern Connecticut, in southern Fairfield County, on the northern shore of Long Island Sound. Norwalk lies within both the New York metropolitan area as well as the Bridgeport metropolitan area.
Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the United States. As of the 2010 Census, it has the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index (0.962), and median household income in the United States. It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital is Hartford and its most populous city is Bridgeport. It is part of New England, although portions of it are often grouped with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-state area. The state is named for the Connecticut River which approximately bisects the state. The word "Connecticut" is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for "long tidal river".
It took until March 30, 1686 before the planters at Norwalk obtained a Royal Charter from King James II. On this patent, John Ruscoe, Nathaniel Hayes, Matthew Marvin Sr., and Thomas Seamore were signatories.
James II and VII was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, his reign is now remembered primarily for struggles over religious tolerance. However, it also involved the principles of absolutism and divine right of kings and his deposition ended a century of political and civil strife by confirming the primacy of Parliament over the Crown.
John Ruscoe was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut.
Matthew Marvin Sr. was a founding settler of Hartford and Norwalk, Connecticut. He served as a deputy of the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut from Norwalk in the May 1654 session. He served as a magistrate in 1659.
He was born in 1634 in Dover, England. He came to Norwalk in 1651 as a member of the Runckingheage deed settlers.
Dover is a major ferry port in Kent, South East England. It faces France across the Strait of Dover, the narrowest part of the English Channel, and lies south-east of Canterbury and east of Maidstone. The town is the administrative centre of the Dover District and home of the Dover Calais ferry through the Port of Dover. The surrounding chalk cliffs are known as the White Cliffs of Dover.
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to the west and Scotland to the north-northwest. The Irish Sea lies west of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south. The country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain, which lies in the North Atlantic, and includes over 100 smaller islands, such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
He is listed on the Founders Stone bearing the names of the founding settlers of Norwalk in the East Norwalk Historical Cemetery.
The history of Norwalk, Connecticut ranges from pre-contact cultures and Native Americans to the 21st century.
Established in 1655, the East Norwalk Historical Cemetery is Norwalk's oldest cemetery, and many of the area's first settlers are buried there. The cemetery is owned and maintained by the Third Taxing District, formally known as the East Norwalk Fire District of the Town of Norwalk, and before that it was known as the Down Town School District. Triangle shaped and surrounded clockwise by Gregory Boulevard, Cemetery Street and East Avenue it is situated in the neighborhood of East Norwalk.
Moses Comstock was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from Norwalk in 1777.
Matthew Canfield was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut and Newark, New Jersey. He served as a deputy of the General Court of the Connecticut Colony representing Norwalk in the sessions of May 1654, May 1655, May 1656, May 1657, May 1658, May 1659, May 1660, May 1661, May and October 1662, October 1663, May and October 1664, May and October 1665, and May and October 1666.
Nathaniel Ely was a founding settler of Hartford and Norwalk, Connecticut. He served as a deputy of the General Court of the Connecticut Colony from Norwalk in the October 1656 session.
Isaac Moore was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He served as a deputy of the General Court of the Connecticut Colony from Norwalk in the October 1657 session.
John Gregory was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He was a deputy of the General Court of the Connecticut Colony in the sessions of October 1659, October 1662, May 1663, May 1665, October 1667, May 1668, May and October 1669, October 1670, October 1671, May 1674, May 1675, October 1677, May 1679, October 1680, May 1681, October 1695.
Samuel Hayes was an early settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He was a member of the General Assembly of the Colony of Connecticut from Norwalk in the sessions of May 1686, May and October 1687, October 1689, May 1692, May and October 1693, May 1694, May 1695, May 1696, May and October 1697, May and October 1698, October 1699, May 1700, May 1701, October 1702, and October 1703.
George Abbitt (1634–1689) was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut.
Stephen Beckwith was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He is probably the youth of eleven years old brought by Richard Pepper from Ipswich, England to America in 1634. He was at Hartford in 1649, and moved to Norwalk prior to 1655. He sold his farm to Richard Homes in March 1663. He was still living in Norwalk as late as 1687.
Thomas Hales was a founding settler of Hartford, and Norwalk, Connecticut. He was the son of Thomas Hale, born 1590 in Hertfordshire, England, and Joan Kirby Hale, born 1590, died 1640.
Thomas Hanford was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He was the first minister in Norwalk, and continued in charge of the settlement's church for forty-one years, until his death in 1693. In addition to his spiritual leadership, he also served as the civic leader and school teacher of the settlement.
Richard Holmes was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut.
Ralph Keeler was a founding settler of both Hartford, and Norwalk, Connecticut, United States.
Jonathan Marsh (1621–1672) was a founding settler of the New Haven Colony, and of Norwalk, Connecticut. He came to Norwalk from New Haven sometime prior to March 1656. He was the settlement's miller.
Thomas Seamer was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. He served as a deputy of the General Assembly of the Connecticut Colony from Norwalk in the May 1690 session.
Widow Morgan was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. There is very little information in the historical records about her. She is listed among the "Ludlow Agreement" settlers in 1650.
Walter Keeler was a founding settler of Norwalk, Connecticut. There is very little information on him in the historical records. He is listed among the "Table of Estates" settlers of 1655. He is the brother of Ralph Keeler, the Norwalk settler who is listed among the "Ludlow Agreement" settlers of 1650.
John Reed was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from Norwalk, Connecticut Colony in the May 1715 and October 1717 sessions.
Joseph Birchard was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from Norwalk, Connecticut Colony in the sessions of May 1730 and May 1734. | 2,132 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The students in Art III studied the principles of the late-19th/early 20th century movement dubbed “Symbolism” that originated in Paris. They specifically studied Edvard Munch and his use of composition, color, and developing a “mood” to visually communicate his feelings and ideas. Students were required to use the Fibonacci spiral or Golden Rectangle to guide their composition, and had to communicate a distressful feeling or event that they have experienced in their life. Each student had to create their work on a 24″ x 18″ piece of cardboard, as Munch was known for using cardboard as a surface material for painting. Students also had to use at least three media; one being oil paint and the other two media were of the students’ choosing. Below are examples from the 2nd and 7th hour Art III classes.
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0.05594473332166... | 4 | The students in Art III studied the principles of the late-19th/early 20th century movement dubbed “Symbolism” that originated in Paris. They specifically studied Edvard Munch and his use of composition, color, and developing a “mood” to visually communicate his feelings and ideas. Students were required to use the Fibonacci spiral or Golden Rectangle to guide their composition, and had to communicate a distressful feeling or event that they have experienced in their life. Each student had to create their work on a 24″ x 18″ piece of cardboard, as Munch was known for using cardboard as a surface material for painting. Students also had to use at least three media; one being oil paint and the other two media were of the students’ choosing. Below are examples from the 2nd and 7th hour Art III classes.
Copyright © 2020 | MH Purity lite WordPress Theme by MH Themes | 194 | ENGLISH | 1 |
September 17th many not seem like a special day, but it is. On that day, in 1787, the U.S. Constitution was signed by thirty-nine men, the founding fathers of our great nation. This document was created after the Declaration of Independence, which announced our separation from England, and was written to establish a government where no one person was ruling over the country. It was designed to be a system of checks and balances so that its citizens could be represented and heard. It is the document in which our branches of government were created: Judicial, Legislative, and Executive Branch.
It is a living document, that even today, is looked at and amended to ensure the rights of its citizens. From 1787 to present day, there have been twenty-seven amendments to the Constitution. These amendments were created in order to clarify the rights for the people, because as times change, the documents by which we govern our society must change with us and ensure equality.
MedQuest College recognizes the importance of Constitution Day and takes extreme efforts to spread awareness of this important occasion to all students. Knowing where you come from can help pave your path forward. It is because of the Constitution that this school is able to train its students in their chosen career field. The Constitution is a document that helped establish our government, and entities such as the Department of Education and Federal Student Aid program stem from this establishment and exist today to help citizens with their educational needs.
If you live near Louisville or Frankfort, Kentucky and have interest in Medical Assisting or Dental Assisting, check out MedQuest College; you will be glad you did! Click here for more information! | <urn:uuid:d98f6962-4982-44eb-8814-7713194cde46> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://medquestcollege.edu/medquest-college-celebrates-constitution-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00539.warc.gz | en | 0.983569 | 338 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.0553054362535... | 4 | September 17th many not seem like a special day, but it is. On that day, in 1787, the U.S. Constitution was signed by thirty-nine men, the founding fathers of our great nation. This document was created after the Declaration of Independence, which announced our separation from England, and was written to establish a government where no one person was ruling over the country. It was designed to be a system of checks and balances so that its citizens could be represented and heard. It is the document in which our branches of government were created: Judicial, Legislative, and Executive Branch.
It is a living document, that even today, is looked at and amended to ensure the rights of its citizens. From 1787 to present day, there have been twenty-seven amendments to the Constitution. These amendments were created in order to clarify the rights for the people, because as times change, the documents by which we govern our society must change with us and ensure equality.
MedQuest College recognizes the importance of Constitution Day and takes extreme efforts to spread awareness of this important occasion to all students. Knowing where you come from can help pave your path forward. It is because of the Constitution that this school is able to train its students in their chosen career field. The Constitution is a document that helped establish our government, and entities such as the Department of Education and Federal Student Aid program stem from this establishment and exist today to help citizens with their educational needs.
If you live near Louisville or Frankfort, Kentucky and have interest in Medical Assisting or Dental Assisting, check out MedQuest College; you will be glad you did! Click here for more information! | 339 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Recreating the first digital computer music
By Robyn Williams on The Science Show
In 1949, Australia leapt into the digital age when the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Automatic Computer (CSIRAC) began running its first stored programs.
Computer scientists and programmers used the machine to generate some of the first numerical weather forecasts, to design electrical grids, and to run nuclear physics calculations.
They didn't stop there though - some wanted to teach the computer how to sing.
History almost forgot about Australia's place in creating the world's first digital computer music.
But a music historian and a team of researchers have recreated those first early bleeps, and restored CSIRAC's place in the history books.
Carl Smith: What is that?
Paul Doornbusch: That's probably the first music ever played by a computer.
Carl Smith: Probably?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, to the best documented evidence available in the world.
Carl Smith: 70 years ago, Australia's first digital computer started running its first program. It launched Australia into the digital age in 1949, just after the US and UK. But this computer did something no other digital computer had done before; it played music.
Dr Paul Doornbusch is a music historian who studies computer-generated music and he's the Associate Dean of the Australian College of the Arts. He accidentally stumbled upon the story of that jaunty little tune we heard while reading a newspaper in Europe in the '90s.
Paul Doornbusch: I was working at the Royal Conservatory of Holland, and like a good expat Melburnian I would regularly read the Age online. And I read an obituary of Trevor Pearcey and how he built this computer CSIRAC.
Carl Smith: In that obituary he read that Trevor Pearcey was an extraordinary and visionary computer scientist.
Barbara Ainsworth is a curator at the Monash Museum of Computing History, and she wrote a biography about Pearcey.
Barbara Ainsworth: Trevor Pearcey was a physicist, a mathematician, and a computer scientist and an academic. He did so many different things. He started working in physics and microwave propagation. And when he came to Australia to work for the CSIRO he was very interested in mechanical computing. And he knew they needed a machine to increase their efficiency, and he designed one from nothing.
Carl Smith: That machine was called CSIRAC, which stands for the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Automatic Computer, Australia's first computer. And depending on how people categorise early computers, which is surprisingly contentious, it's either the 3rd, 4th or maybe the 5th digital computer in the world.
Dr Peter Thorne is the former head of computer science at the University of Melbourne.
Peter Thorne: Before that, only a handful or only two or three computers had worked anywhere in the world. So this was a pioneering effort here in Australia and quite a remarkable achievement.
Carl Smith: Peter Thorne was the author of the obituary that Paul Doornbusch read in Holland. He'd worked on CSIRAC and with Trevor Pearcey. So he wrote things like this about Pearcey's work:
Peter Thorne: Trevor was 26, and by the end of 1949 they had at least the start of this computer in the sense that it could now execute and store programs. So we date the starting point from then.
Carl Smith: But he'd also included something like this in the obituary:
Peter Thorne: The computer was exhibited publicly in 1951, and by then it was playing computer music.
Carl Smith: That was what really struck Paul Doornbusch while he was reading Pearcey's obituary in the Age in Holland.
Paul Doornbusch: And there was one line in there that said it played music in 1951 or 1950 or '49 or something. And I was at one of the world's most prestigious computer music departments at the Royal Conservatory of Holland, the Sonology Institute. I thought, no, it's a typo, because I knew that computer music started in 1957 at Bell Labs. They were interested in telephony, so through a little bit of sleight of hand they established a computer music department because it might have relationship to what we do with telephones.
Carl Smith: For a long time that was considered the first computer music. Max Mathews at Bell Labs in the USA worked with composer Newman Guttman to create it and it was played for the first time in 1957. So Paul Doornbusch decided to follow up with Peter Thorne.
Paul Doornbusch: Almost as a second thought I thought I'll send off an email, and so I just sent off an email and said, yeah, I just read this obituary and there was just a small error in it, computer music started in '57 at Bell Labs. And I got a reply from Peter Thorne saying, no, no, it happened in the early '50s in Australia, people remember it, people were there.
Peter Thorne: Those who'd worked with CSIRAC always knew that it had played music. We hadn't realised the significance of that.
Paul Doornbusch: And I remember going and speaking to my colleagues in Holland and saying, people reckoned this happened. And they're going, wow man, that's pretty weird. If that happened, that is amazing, that is completely amazing. And so that started the whole thing, me then writing another email, you know, 'Are you sure?'
Peter Thorne: Paul contacted me and said this is really important, we have to recreate this music. And I sent something back saying, 'Paul, this is a mad idea. The computer, although it's intact, doesn't work. We are not going to make it work.'
Paul Doornbusch: Well, maybe it is possible, why don't we work on it.
Peter Thorne: We have paper tapes.
Carl Smith: Yes, in this era of computing, machines were fed reams of paper with holes punched into them, that was their data and they were known as paper tapes.
Peter Thorne: And this was what the programs were stored on. So there was a set of pigeonholes with these programs all on this paper tape, and you chose the programs you wanted, maybe spliced some of them together. If you wanted to change a program, you might be able to just punch another hole in the tape or you might be able to fill in a hole with a piece of sticky tape.
Carl Smith: CSIRAC's old paper tapes were still lying around.
Peter Thorne: We have those in modern translated form. We scanned them, as it were.
Paul Doornbusch: Well, eventually we had a project in I think 2000, 2001, to resurrect, reconstruct the music played by CSIRAC, because it was never recorded.
Peter Thorne: And Paul was right and I was wrong, and an amazing project was commenced which involved Paul and senior engineers who were still alive at that time and still working, and they managed to do a faithful reproduction of the music.
Paul Doornbusch: That is CSIRAC playing 'Colonel Bogey's March' which was a popular song of the wartime era.
Carl Smith: To recreate this music and how it would have sounded coming out of CSIRAC was an enormous feat for Paul Doornbusch and his team. It began by trying to understand how the machine originally operated. Thankfully CSIRAC was and still is intact. And Dr Peter Thorne had been a service engineer operating the machine, so he knew how it worked. We went to take a closer look at CSIRAC at Melbourne's Scienceworks Museum where it's currently on display.
Peter Thorne: I worked with this computer, CSIRAC, way, way back in the late 1950s, and it is the only first-generation computer intact anywhere on the planet.
Carl Smith: It is quite an impressive and large computer, much larger than the computers we are used to seeing. Can you describe to me each of these different components we are seeing?
Peter Thorne: Yes, well actually there are no transistors in this computer. It has vacuum tubes, valves that glow, rather like a light globes, and it has 2,000 of them, each of which glows away when the computer is working, and the components are all separately wired and separately soldered. And so the computer weighs about 2 tonnes, and it used about 35 kilowatts of electrical energy, which is about enough to power a street of houses. Of course the capacity of a computer is far less than a modern computer. It's a million times slower than the computers in your phone or in your laptop, and it's got a very, very small amount of storage, about 2,000 or 3,000 bytes compared with the gigabytes that you store in a modern computer or indeed in a modern smart phone. It was used…
Carl Smith: Well, we just got rudely interrupted by the machine there. What sort of work was this computer doing for university and research scientists?
Peter Thorne: It was used to generate some of the world's first numerical weather forecasts, designing the state electricity power grid, some banking calculations. It was used by nuclear physicists for their calculations. Although it only worked at about 1,000 operations a second, the only choice one had before this was a desk calculator that worked at about one operation per second. So on this computer in an hour you could do equivalent calculation that would take you three months on a desk calculator.
Barbara Ainsworth: The first computers were calculators that were electromechanical. So they would move and shift things, they were analogue, they simply moved digits around but they didn't store them.
Carl Smith: Barbara Ainsworth.
CSIRAC and the first generation of digital computers could run any kind of operation rather than just running fixed programs with fixed parts. That's because digital computers used digital code which made them more flexible.
Barbara Ainsworth: What we needed to achieve was a machine that could take on different problems without wiring to make them work that way or perhaps a set of cards to direct them. So the achievement is to perceive that problem and solve it.
Carl Smith: Despite their flexibility, digital computers hadn't been designed to play music. It's not yet known why the researchers behind CSIRAC decided to program it to play songs but Paul Doornbusch says its unusual design meant it had the capability to do so from when it first started spitting out data.
Paul Doornbusch: A couple of things about early computers. There was no display, no screen. The input was a punched paper tape, and the output would also be a punched paper tape. So the computer had a speaker on it to be used as a diagnostic aid because you wouldn't really know if a program had finished. So they would put a stream of pulses just going to the speaker at the end of a program, they called it a blurt. It would go [pthh] and the program had finished, and you'd go, hurray, the program has finished. And they would often run the program is a couple of times to check that they got the same results. And sometimes if they were trying to debug a program, they would put some different blurts throughout the piece.
Geoff Hill was an Australian programmer, Australia's first programmer, who wrote this program for CSIRAC to play that tune. He must have gone, oh, I've just made this thing make a sound, if I can get to those pulses to go at a regular period, I'll get a steady pitch. If I can then control that, I can get a note, and multiple notes to create some music. And so I think that was probably the progression of events. There is no evidence one way or the other, but that's a logical sort of thing to think.
Carl Smith: But by talking to those working on CSIRAC or their relatives and digging through the old paper tapes, Paul Doornbusch was then able to figure out what happened next. Although Trevor Pearcey had designed the machine itself, it was programmer Geoff Hill who made it sing.
Paul Doornbusch: He had coaxed it into playing scales. And Geoff Hill was an incredibly interesting character. He was a savant mathematician, but also he came from a very musical family, and many members of his family had perfect pitch. His mother I think was a piano teacher, one of his sisters was another music teacher. And I heard stories about him calling up his mother at nine o'clock at night saying, 'Mum, can you have a listen to this?' And him holding the telephone receiver down to the computer and playing notes and him asking her, 'Are all of the notes in tune?' Because he was trying to get the tuning right. And her saying, 'Geoff, don't be stupid, why are you playing silly games with a paper and comb at this time of night? Come home, your dinner's in the oven.'
Carl Smith: What was the first song that we are aware of that he made, and what's the story behind why he decided to do that?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, the first song on the music tape is 'Colonel Bogey's March', which we've heard. His widow, who I interviewed, suggested there might have been an earlier song, something like 'Baa Baa Black Sheep' with fairly sequential and stepwise motion to the melody that he could have programmed before that.
Carl Smith: The dates around when these songs were programmed and played in the lab are still a bit fuzzy, somewhere between 1949 and 1951. But then in '51 CSIRAC played its first song to a public audience. I guess you can kind of think of this as an early electronic music party, just a different sort of crowd. And Geoff Hill was the headline and only act for that first set using CSIRAC.
Paul Doornbusch: November 1951, at Australia's first computing conference full of computing specialists, from locally and from around the world. And people's jaws fell apparently when CSIRAC played some music for them.
Carl Smith: Why? Why would that have been so shocking at the time, hearing one of these early computers suddenly singing?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, I don't think people expected it. There was very little in the way of tangible output from these machines. They generated a lot of noise in their operation, the clattering of the readers and the punched paper tape machines, the air-conditioning would have been quite loud. Any disks that they had it would have been driven by a washing machine motors. So they were loud, noisy machines with no visual display, and to have it play music was a kind of tangible output.
Carl Smith: You went on quite a journey of forensically piecing together what happened back in the '50s. Can you tell me about the journey you went on through this project?
Paul Doornbusch: I remember excepting the Australia Council grant to do it, without knowing how to do it. So I felt under pressure, and I had an office at the University of Melbourne to do this, and I remember standing in my office with a whiteboard and pacing backwards and forwards and going, hmm, how are we going to do this?
And so we built some hardware to reconstruct the pulse shapes, valve hardware, thermionic valves, electron tubes as the Americans call them, and they behave very differently to modern-day circuitry. And we'd found the punched paper tapes, we read the paper tapes, some of them by hand, two of us doing it and then comparing results, where we didn't agree going back on checking, typing it all into a file. And we built an emulator and we added to that some software to drop a file out of the timing of the pulses. Once we had the timing of the pulses and the shape of the pulses, it was a matter of just combining them, and there's your digital audio file. But to get one step closer to authenticity, it had to be played back through the speaker. So the museum very kindly gave me access to the machine. The original speaker was damaged, so I found one from the same month of production, bolted it onto the door, filled the cavity with the same sort of volume that was in there, and played this digital audio file through the speaker and recorded it with a microphone to get as close as possible to what would have happened recording it in the day.
Carl Smith: How did you do that? How did you recreate the background noises there as well?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, it's called physical modelling technique and it's used for things like simulating guitar amplifiers today and simulating musical instruments, and so it's the same sort of technique. I learned all of those sorts of things in Holland, and so I just applied it to the concept of, okay, what are all the moving parts, what's their rotation speed, what's their likely frequencies coming out of them, the air con, et cetera,, the volume of the room that it's in, what sort of reverberation doesn't have. It's an approximation but I have played it to people who were there and they say it's actually pretty good.
Carl Smith: There's been ongoing contention around whether these weird grainy blurts are indeed the first computer-generated songs. A lot of it comes down to definitions of what makes a computer and what makes a computer digital or electronic.
But by 2004 the Computer Music Journal published a story about Paul Doornbusch's research and the body of evidence he'd accumulated. In 2005 Dornbusch also released a book.
Peter Thorne: This became noted internationally and ultimately it was acknowledged that Australia was the first place in which computer music was played.
Paul Doornbusch: Who knows, something might become available at some later time, something might be unearthed because there have been some odd claims made. But for the best evidence available from any research to date, that's the first thing played by a computer ever.
Barbara Ainsworth: It was a physical demonstration of how a computer worked to a community in Australia that was thousands of miles away from what had been achieved in Europe and in America. When they had a public exhibition of it, it demonstrated to Australia what could be built here, what was achieved with Australian engineering, and also what could a computer do. People did not really understand how a computer could be used.
Carl Smith: Barbara Ainsworth.
Shortly after CSIRAC started singing, the CSIRO decided to can the project and move away from Australian-designed computers. Many were disappointed. The computer itself was packed up in Sydney and driven down the highway to live a second life as the University of Melbourne's first computer.
Peter Thorne says that while that decision might have led to Australia missing the first digital wave, CSIRAC still had a lasting legacy in many different parts of society.
Peter Thorne: What did come from this was a realisation of the capability of these machines in terms of the public, but also the development of generations of people who could use these machines.
Carl Smith: For Paul Doornbusch, CSIRAC's music is a bittersweet milestone. He says while Australia pioneered computer music, the country didn't capitalise on it.
Paul Doornbusch: I would still say Max Mathews from Bell Labs is the father of computer music because he was the one with the vision to say, well, this could go somewhere, let's keep pushing it, get composers involved. It's a bit sad that nobody was able to take what happened with CSIRAC and develop it, and that takes some foresight, to look at something with no practical application that you can see at the time and think this might go somewhere.
Carl Smith: Where did it go?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, it went to the digitisation of sound, sound being available on computers, on the internet, recording sounds digitally, which is what we are doing right now, to enable the lossless editing of them. It opened up a whole new world, a completely different universe.
Carl Smith: And eventually a completely different universe of music, for better or worse.
Peter Thorne: We knew that we were at the start of something amazing, but we could not foresee how far it would go. We couldn't foresee that one could carry around in one's pocket something that could play music, take digital photographs, play computer games, communicate and all the amazing things that have happened in the years since.
Carl Smith: And for Paul Doornbusch, whenever he hears those weird little early computer blurts, he hears something innately human.
Paul Doornbusch: It just shows that humans will try and make music with everything, and I think that is the best reflection. Whatever tools we have, we will try and make music with it. | <urn:uuid:02c12a39-a9bf-4534-b35e-dd79076ecbd8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/scienceshow/recreating-the-first-digital-computer-music/11227382 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.980156 | 4,399 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.1168346181... | 3 | Recreating the first digital computer music
By Robyn Williams on The Science Show
In 1949, Australia leapt into the digital age when the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Automatic Computer (CSIRAC) began running its first stored programs.
Computer scientists and programmers used the machine to generate some of the first numerical weather forecasts, to design electrical grids, and to run nuclear physics calculations.
They didn't stop there though - some wanted to teach the computer how to sing.
History almost forgot about Australia's place in creating the world's first digital computer music.
But a music historian and a team of researchers have recreated those first early bleeps, and restored CSIRAC's place in the history books.
Carl Smith: What is that?
Paul Doornbusch: That's probably the first music ever played by a computer.
Carl Smith: Probably?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, to the best documented evidence available in the world.
Carl Smith: 70 years ago, Australia's first digital computer started running its first program. It launched Australia into the digital age in 1949, just after the US and UK. But this computer did something no other digital computer had done before; it played music.
Dr Paul Doornbusch is a music historian who studies computer-generated music and he's the Associate Dean of the Australian College of the Arts. He accidentally stumbled upon the story of that jaunty little tune we heard while reading a newspaper in Europe in the '90s.
Paul Doornbusch: I was working at the Royal Conservatory of Holland, and like a good expat Melburnian I would regularly read the Age online. And I read an obituary of Trevor Pearcey and how he built this computer CSIRAC.
Carl Smith: In that obituary he read that Trevor Pearcey was an extraordinary and visionary computer scientist.
Barbara Ainsworth is a curator at the Monash Museum of Computing History, and she wrote a biography about Pearcey.
Barbara Ainsworth: Trevor Pearcey was a physicist, a mathematician, and a computer scientist and an academic. He did so many different things. He started working in physics and microwave propagation. And when he came to Australia to work for the CSIRO he was very interested in mechanical computing. And he knew they needed a machine to increase their efficiency, and he designed one from nothing.
Carl Smith: That machine was called CSIRAC, which stands for the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Automatic Computer, Australia's first computer. And depending on how people categorise early computers, which is surprisingly contentious, it's either the 3rd, 4th or maybe the 5th digital computer in the world.
Dr Peter Thorne is the former head of computer science at the University of Melbourne.
Peter Thorne: Before that, only a handful or only two or three computers had worked anywhere in the world. So this was a pioneering effort here in Australia and quite a remarkable achievement.
Carl Smith: Peter Thorne was the author of the obituary that Paul Doornbusch read in Holland. He'd worked on CSIRAC and with Trevor Pearcey. So he wrote things like this about Pearcey's work:
Peter Thorne: Trevor was 26, and by the end of 1949 they had at least the start of this computer in the sense that it could now execute and store programs. So we date the starting point from then.
Carl Smith: But he'd also included something like this in the obituary:
Peter Thorne: The computer was exhibited publicly in 1951, and by then it was playing computer music.
Carl Smith: That was what really struck Paul Doornbusch while he was reading Pearcey's obituary in the Age in Holland.
Paul Doornbusch: And there was one line in there that said it played music in 1951 or 1950 or '49 or something. And I was at one of the world's most prestigious computer music departments at the Royal Conservatory of Holland, the Sonology Institute. I thought, no, it's a typo, because I knew that computer music started in 1957 at Bell Labs. They were interested in telephony, so through a little bit of sleight of hand they established a computer music department because it might have relationship to what we do with telephones.
Carl Smith: For a long time that was considered the first computer music. Max Mathews at Bell Labs in the USA worked with composer Newman Guttman to create it and it was played for the first time in 1957. So Paul Doornbusch decided to follow up with Peter Thorne.
Paul Doornbusch: Almost as a second thought I thought I'll send off an email, and so I just sent off an email and said, yeah, I just read this obituary and there was just a small error in it, computer music started in '57 at Bell Labs. And I got a reply from Peter Thorne saying, no, no, it happened in the early '50s in Australia, people remember it, people were there.
Peter Thorne: Those who'd worked with CSIRAC always knew that it had played music. We hadn't realised the significance of that.
Paul Doornbusch: And I remember going and speaking to my colleagues in Holland and saying, people reckoned this happened. And they're going, wow man, that's pretty weird. If that happened, that is amazing, that is completely amazing. And so that started the whole thing, me then writing another email, you know, 'Are you sure?'
Peter Thorne: Paul contacted me and said this is really important, we have to recreate this music. And I sent something back saying, 'Paul, this is a mad idea. The computer, although it's intact, doesn't work. We are not going to make it work.'
Paul Doornbusch: Well, maybe it is possible, why don't we work on it.
Peter Thorne: We have paper tapes.
Carl Smith: Yes, in this era of computing, machines were fed reams of paper with holes punched into them, that was their data and they were known as paper tapes.
Peter Thorne: And this was what the programs were stored on. So there was a set of pigeonholes with these programs all on this paper tape, and you chose the programs you wanted, maybe spliced some of them together. If you wanted to change a program, you might be able to just punch another hole in the tape or you might be able to fill in a hole with a piece of sticky tape.
Carl Smith: CSIRAC's old paper tapes were still lying around.
Peter Thorne: We have those in modern translated form. We scanned them, as it were.
Paul Doornbusch: Well, eventually we had a project in I think 2000, 2001, to resurrect, reconstruct the music played by CSIRAC, because it was never recorded.
Peter Thorne: And Paul was right and I was wrong, and an amazing project was commenced which involved Paul and senior engineers who were still alive at that time and still working, and they managed to do a faithful reproduction of the music.
Paul Doornbusch: That is CSIRAC playing 'Colonel Bogey's March' which was a popular song of the wartime era.
Carl Smith: To recreate this music and how it would have sounded coming out of CSIRAC was an enormous feat for Paul Doornbusch and his team. It began by trying to understand how the machine originally operated. Thankfully CSIRAC was and still is intact. And Dr Peter Thorne had been a service engineer operating the machine, so he knew how it worked. We went to take a closer look at CSIRAC at Melbourne's Scienceworks Museum where it's currently on display.
Peter Thorne: I worked with this computer, CSIRAC, way, way back in the late 1950s, and it is the only first-generation computer intact anywhere on the planet.
Carl Smith: It is quite an impressive and large computer, much larger than the computers we are used to seeing. Can you describe to me each of these different components we are seeing?
Peter Thorne: Yes, well actually there are no transistors in this computer. It has vacuum tubes, valves that glow, rather like a light globes, and it has 2,000 of them, each of which glows away when the computer is working, and the components are all separately wired and separately soldered. And so the computer weighs about 2 tonnes, and it used about 35 kilowatts of electrical energy, which is about enough to power a street of houses. Of course the capacity of a computer is far less than a modern computer. It's a million times slower than the computers in your phone or in your laptop, and it's got a very, very small amount of storage, about 2,000 or 3,000 bytes compared with the gigabytes that you store in a modern computer or indeed in a modern smart phone. It was used…
Carl Smith: Well, we just got rudely interrupted by the machine there. What sort of work was this computer doing for university and research scientists?
Peter Thorne: It was used to generate some of the world's first numerical weather forecasts, designing the state electricity power grid, some banking calculations. It was used by nuclear physicists for their calculations. Although it only worked at about 1,000 operations a second, the only choice one had before this was a desk calculator that worked at about one operation per second. So on this computer in an hour you could do equivalent calculation that would take you three months on a desk calculator.
Barbara Ainsworth: The first computers were calculators that were electromechanical. So they would move and shift things, they were analogue, they simply moved digits around but they didn't store them.
Carl Smith: Barbara Ainsworth.
CSIRAC and the first generation of digital computers could run any kind of operation rather than just running fixed programs with fixed parts. That's because digital computers used digital code which made them more flexible.
Barbara Ainsworth: What we needed to achieve was a machine that could take on different problems without wiring to make them work that way or perhaps a set of cards to direct them. So the achievement is to perceive that problem and solve it.
Carl Smith: Despite their flexibility, digital computers hadn't been designed to play music. It's not yet known why the researchers behind CSIRAC decided to program it to play songs but Paul Doornbusch says its unusual design meant it had the capability to do so from when it first started spitting out data.
Paul Doornbusch: A couple of things about early computers. There was no display, no screen. The input was a punched paper tape, and the output would also be a punched paper tape. So the computer had a speaker on it to be used as a diagnostic aid because you wouldn't really know if a program had finished. So they would put a stream of pulses just going to the speaker at the end of a program, they called it a blurt. It would go [pthh] and the program had finished, and you'd go, hurray, the program has finished. And they would often run the program is a couple of times to check that they got the same results. And sometimes if they were trying to debug a program, they would put some different blurts throughout the piece.
Geoff Hill was an Australian programmer, Australia's first programmer, who wrote this program for CSIRAC to play that tune. He must have gone, oh, I've just made this thing make a sound, if I can get to those pulses to go at a regular period, I'll get a steady pitch. If I can then control that, I can get a note, and multiple notes to create some music. And so I think that was probably the progression of events. There is no evidence one way or the other, but that's a logical sort of thing to think.
Carl Smith: But by talking to those working on CSIRAC or their relatives and digging through the old paper tapes, Paul Doornbusch was then able to figure out what happened next. Although Trevor Pearcey had designed the machine itself, it was programmer Geoff Hill who made it sing.
Paul Doornbusch: He had coaxed it into playing scales. And Geoff Hill was an incredibly interesting character. He was a savant mathematician, but also he came from a very musical family, and many members of his family had perfect pitch. His mother I think was a piano teacher, one of his sisters was another music teacher. And I heard stories about him calling up his mother at nine o'clock at night saying, 'Mum, can you have a listen to this?' And him holding the telephone receiver down to the computer and playing notes and him asking her, 'Are all of the notes in tune?' Because he was trying to get the tuning right. And her saying, 'Geoff, don't be stupid, why are you playing silly games with a paper and comb at this time of night? Come home, your dinner's in the oven.'
Carl Smith: What was the first song that we are aware of that he made, and what's the story behind why he decided to do that?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, the first song on the music tape is 'Colonel Bogey's March', which we've heard. His widow, who I interviewed, suggested there might have been an earlier song, something like 'Baa Baa Black Sheep' with fairly sequential and stepwise motion to the melody that he could have programmed before that.
Carl Smith: The dates around when these songs were programmed and played in the lab are still a bit fuzzy, somewhere between 1949 and 1951. But then in '51 CSIRAC played its first song to a public audience. I guess you can kind of think of this as an early electronic music party, just a different sort of crowd. And Geoff Hill was the headline and only act for that first set using CSIRAC.
Paul Doornbusch: November 1951, at Australia's first computing conference full of computing specialists, from locally and from around the world. And people's jaws fell apparently when CSIRAC played some music for them.
Carl Smith: Why? Why would that have been so shocking at the time, hearing one of these early computers suddenly singing?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, I don't think people expected it. There was very little in the way of tangible output from these machines. They generated a lot of noise in their operation, the clattering of the readers and the punched paper tape machines, the air-conditioning would have been quite loud. Any disks that they had it would have been driven by a washing machine motors. So they were loud, noisy machines with no visual display, and to have it play music was a kind of tangible output.
Carl Smith: You went on quite a journey of forensically piecing together what happened back in the '50s. Can you tell me about the journey you went on through this project?
Paul Doornbusch: I remember excepting the Australia Council grant to do it, without knowing how to do it. So I felt under pressure, and I had an office at the University of Melbourne to do this, and I remember standing in my office with a whiteboard and pacing backwards and forwards and going, hmm, how are we going to do this?
And so we built some hardware to reconstruct the pulse shapes, valve hardware, thermionic valves, electron tubes as the Americans call them, and they behave very differently to modern-day circuitry. And we'd found the punched paper tapes, we read the paper tapes, some of them by hand, two of us doing it and then comparing results, where we didn't agree going back on checking, typing it all into a file. And we built an emulator and we added to that some software to drop a file out of the timing of the pulses. Once we had the timing of the pulses and the shape of the pulses, it was a matter of just combining them, and there's your digital audio file. But to get one step closer to authenticity, it had to be played back through the speaker. So the museum very kindly gave me access to the machine. The original speaker was damaged, so I found one from the same month of production, bolted it onto the door, filled the cavity with the same sort of volume that was in there, and played this digital audio file through the speaker and recorded it with a microphone to get as close as possible to what would have happened recording it in the day.
Carl Smith: How did you do that? How did you recreate the background noises there as well?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, it's called physical modelling technique and it's used for things like simulating guitar amplifiers today and simulating musical instruments, and so it's the same sort of technique. I learned all of those sorts of things in Holland, and so I just applied it to the concept of, okay, what are all the moving parts, what's their rotation speed, what's their likely frequencies coming out of them, the air con, et cetera,, the volume of the room that it's in, what sort of reverberation doesn't have. It's an approximation but I have played it to people who were there and they say it's actually pretty good.
Carl Smith: There's been ongoing contention around whether these weird grainy blurts are indeed the first computer-generated songs. A lot of it comes down to definitions of what makes a computer and what makes a computer digital or electronic.
But by 2004 the Computer Music Journal published a story about Paul Doornbusch's research and the body of evidence he'd accumulated. In 2005 Dornbusch also released a book.
Peter Thorne: This became noted internationally and ultimately it was acknowledged that Australia was the first place in which computer music was played.
Paul Doornbusch: Who knows, something might become available at some later time, something might be unearthed because there have been some odd claims made. But for the best evidence available from any research to date, that's the first thing played by a computer ever.
Barbara Ainsworth: It was a physical demonstration of how a computer worked to a community in Australia that was thousands of miles away from what had been achieved in Europe and in America. When they had a public exhibition of it, it demonstrated to Australia what could be built here, what was achieved with Australian engineering, and also what could a computer do. People did not really understand how a computer could be used.
Carl Smith: Barbara Ainsworth.
Shortly after CSIRAC started singing, the CSIRO decided to can the project and move away from Australian-designed computers. Many were disappointed. The computer itself was packed up in Sydney and driven down the highway to live a second life as the University of Melbourne's first computer.
Peter Thorne says that while that decision might have led to Australia missing the first digital wave, CSIRAC still had a lasting legacy in many different parts of society.
Peter Thorne: What did come from this was a realisation of the capability of these machines in terms of the public, but also the development of generations of people who could use these machines.
Carl Smith: For Paul Doornbusch, CSIRAC's music is a bittersweet milestone. He says while Australia pioneered computer music, the country didn't capitalise on it.
Paul Doornbusch: I would still say Max Mathews from Bell Labs is the father of computer music because he was the one with the vision to say, well, this could go somewhere, let's keep pushing it, get composers involved. It's a bit sad that nobody was able to take what happened with CSIRAC and develop it, and that takes some foresight, to look at something with no practical application that you can see at the time and think this might go somewhere.
Carl Smith: Where did it go?
Paul Doornbusch: Well, it went to the digitisation of sound, sound being available on computers, on the internet, recording sounds digitally, which is what we are doing right now, to enable the lossless editing of them. It opened up a whole new world, a completely different universe.
Carl Smith: And eventually a completely different universe of music, for better or worse.
Peter Thorne: We knew that we were at the start of something amazing, but we could not foresee how far it would go. We couldn't foresee that one could carry around in one's pocket something that could play music, take digital photographs, play computer games, communicate and all the amazing things that have happened in the years since.
Carl Smith: And for Paul Doornbusch, whenever he hears those weird little early computer blurts, he hears something innately human.
Paul Doornbusch: It just shows that humans will try and make music with everything, and I think that is the best reflection. Whatever tools we have, we will try and make music with it. | 4,413 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Forgetting the Alamo
by Jeff Wagg
Thanks to movies and advertisements, The Alamo has become a permanent part of the American story. But how accurate is that story, and is it a story worth remembering? In this episode, I'll examine some of the many assumptions about the place and event known as "The Alamo" and try to add a bit of context to the legend that endures.
First, the short, basic version of the story from the official website of the Alamo:
On February 23, 1836, the arrival of General Antonio López de Santa Anna's army outside San Antonio nearly caught them by surprise. Undaunted, the Texians and Tejanos prepared to defend the Alamo together. The defenders held out for 13 days against Santa Anna's army.
As with all shortened versions of stories, this one leaves out some important facts. Let's examine a few to see if we can get a better picture of what happened that day.
The Alamo is a distinctive building with an arched facade.
Let's get this one out the way quickly. "The Alamo" refers to a fortress about four acres in size. The building that is commonly associated with the words "the Alamo" was an unfinished chapel built on the site of Mission San Antonio de Valero, a Spanish Catholic mission tasked with converting the native population. Some of that native population, the Payaya, provided the manual labor for building the mission.
After about 75 years, the mission was secularized and no longer had any religious significance. The well-known chapel building remained unfinished and without a roof.
In 1803, a Spanish force converted the area into a temporary, walled fortress, with the chapel in one corner. They built a ramp inside the structure to mount canon on the walls. The unit came from Alamo de Parras, which gave the complex its current name. Alamo, in Spanish, means "cottonwood."
The distinctive "hump" that is the signature architecture of the Alamo was added by US troops stationed there in the 1850s. During the siege and battle of the Alamo, the facade of the chapel was a ruin, with a mostly flat or jagged top. Most people today would not recognize it, which is why nearly all movies and posters show the chapel as it looked after its reconstruction.
The US Army added a wooden roof over the structure, and there is mid-19th century graffiti from these troops all over the walls, inside and out. After a brief time as a Confederate stronghold, the chapel became a warehouse for a mercantile institution in what is now called "the low barrack," also within the Alamo walls. Visitors often chipped away portions of the columns and filigree, giving the structure a battle-worn look that's actually the result of vandalism more than battle.
The state bought the property from the Catholic Church in the 1890s, at which point the Daughters of the Republic of Texas donated large sums money to turn the site into a shrine. Though they've been embroiled in controversy and lost control of the gift shop (which used to be a museum), the Daughters still have a contract to administer the site today, with oversight from the State of Texas.
If you visit the Alamo expecting a museum or a national park in the desert, you might be surprised to learn that it is actually a monument in the middle of a bustling city. Though there are a few exhibits scattered about, the Alamo is a shrine. It's official name is the "Shrine of Texas Liberty," and it's considered a holy place. A private armed force known as the Alamo Rangers will enforce policies such as no hats, and no photography. Reverence is expected, once you run the gauntlet of gift shop photographers holding up the line at the front door.
The Men Defending the Alamo Were Defending Their Home, Texas
While the Tejanos were defending their homes against what they saw as a despotic ruler, most of the men at the Alamo were illegal aliens. Some, like Jim Bowie, had moved to Mexico and become Mexican citizens, but a large percentage of the defenders had only arrived in Texas just a few weeks earlier. As Texas was part of Mexico, they were in all ways illegal aliens.
As the United States expanded west, land got more expensive. The Austin family under agreement with Spain and then Mexico, offered land in sparsely-populated Texas for 1/10th of what it was selling for in the US, and under better terms. Payment could be extended over years. The Mexican constitution of 1824 granted rights to these newcomers, and they prospered.
As Santa Anna came to power, and suspended the constitution of 1824, the Texians and their Tejano neighbors revolted. It was generally believed that Texas was going to be its own country, and down-on-their luck men from the U.S. swarmed south for what they saw as a new chance at life. All they had to do was defeat the Mexican army.
It is not accurate to say that the men at the Alamo were defending Texas. They were defending what they hoped Texas would be, against the wishes of the ruling government.
Santa Anna Was a Ruthless Dictator
Santa Anna was a power-hungry opportunist. When Mexico successfully fought for their freedom from Spain, Santa Anna rose through the ranks. He would switch his politics to whatever side he thought could help him. At first, he was very friendly to the people of Texas, as they supported Mexico in the revolution against Spain. But over the course of a few years, he turned from friend to foe. All the rights and privileges that had been granted to them by Spain and then Mexico were gradually whittled away, until finally, the constitution was suspended.
All Mexicans and American immigrants who wished to remain in Mexico were required to be Catholic and slavery was severely restricted. More on that later. Also, the amount of land an immigrant could hold was drastically reduced. By 1835, militias were being organized to defend the rights granted by the old constitution. Santa Anna declared recalcitrant immigrants as "pirates," and sent a letter to Andrew Jackson asking him to exert whatever influence he had over these people, and to proclaim that no quarter would be given. In short, Santa Anna was saying that he would mercilessly kill all non-conforming immigrants in Texas. Jackson did not share the contents of this letter widely.
So yes, Santa Anna was a ruthless dictator. The Texians were promised something, and it was taken away from them. But it's important to remember that the vast majority of Americans and Europeans flooding into Texas were doing so after Santa Anna had suspended the constitution. They were illegal aliens, and as they came with arms, they could also be considered an invading force.
If there's one person who can be called "legendary," it's David Crockett, who never went by the name "Davey" so far as historians can tell. There's also no reliable record of him wearing a coonskin cap. Witnesses saying that he did told their stories decades after actual events. Coonskin caps weren't unheard of among frontier types, but the image of Crockett wearing one were probably from the stage shows depicting his antics in hyperbolic style.
Crockett was a Tennessee Congressman, who moved to Texas after losing re-election. He arrived there just three months before the battle, hoping to find a new start for his political career and a new home for his family. Yes, Crockett and his Tennessee followers were also illegal aliens.
As soon as he arrived, he joined the militia and was sent to the Alamo under the command of Jim Bowie and William Travis, co-commanders of the fort.
And then things get murky. At the Alamo shrine today, a plaque to the left of the chapel door marks the spot where Crocket supposedly fell during the battle. But that narrative has been replaced by the idea that he and a few others somehow survived the event, only to be executed later.
The best evidence for this is the supposed journal of José Enrique de le Peña, an officer in Santa Anna's army. In it, he claims to have seen Crockett executed by order of Santa Anna. But the "journal" wasn't published until 1955, a time when "Davey Crockett Fever" was at its height due to the Disney series. What's more, there are reports of Travis and Bowie surviving as well, and these are certainly false, as there is contemporary, corroborative evidence of their deaths during the battle.
The truth is, we don't know where Crockett died. We only know that he died during, or immediately after the battle. As for his swinging his rifle after running out of ammunition, or running to blow up the ammunition stores though mortally wounded, those are pure Hollywood fiction. Also in doubt is the idea that he killed him a 'bar when he was only three.
Hollywood depicts Jim Bowie has a heroic frontier knife fighter who died defending the Alamo. He was even the star character of a 50's TV show. It's true that the Bowie family made wide-bladed knives, but there is no single "Bowie Knife" and the large knife that's come to be known by that name probably wasn't used by Jim Bowie at all.
Jim Bowie was a likable criminal. Though most people said he was friendly and charismatic, he was also guilty of fraud in several land speculation deals. His reason for emigrating to Texas was simple: he was running from the law. He converted to Catholicism and married a local politician's daughter. They had two children, and in 1833, while Bowie was away, his new Mexican family died from cholera.
He was a seasoned fighter, and assigned to the garrison at the Alamo. He was supposed to be under the command of William Travis, but his men, mostly volunteers, wouldn't follow young Travis, so they agreed to co-command. Bowie also brought his slave Jim with him to the Alamo. Bowie was also a smuggler, and what he smuggled was slaves.
In movies, Bowie is depicted as either fighting wounded on the battlements, or fighting bravely from his sick bed. The latter is closer to the truth: during the siege and battle, Bowie was deathly ill with either tuberculosis or pneumonia. It's questionable that he was even conscious during the final battle. Contemporary reports have him "hiding under a blanket" but it's quite possible that he was simply too sick to move.
Colonel Travis Drew a Line In the Sand
Colonel William B. Travis was a young South Carolina lawyer. Saddled with debt, and under threat of arrest, he'd heard that Texas was a land of opportunity for lawyers, and he hoped to head there to escape prosecution and earn enough to pay his debts.
Travis arrived in Texas in 1831 at the age of 21, and having been there five years before the battle made him one of the few men at the Alamo who had any experience living in Texas. After setting up shop as a lawyer, he became embroiled in the fomenting revolution and joined the militia as a lieutenant colonel of the calvary. He was sent to the Alamo, which he considered beneath someone of his rank.
After Bowie fell sick, Travis was in charge. As Santa Anna rolled into town, Travis wrote a series of famous letters pleading for help from other Texians and Americans still in the United States as well. A few dozen men did answer the call, but most did not, with the nascent government of Texas worrying itself with creating a new government. Houston and others encouraged Travis to abandon the Alamo as unimportant, but he refused.
Legend has it that when Travis knew no help would be coming, he drew a line in the sand and asked every man who would fight with him to cross it. All but one, Moses Rose, did. This legend is in the official materials and video from the Alamo, though it's carefully worded as "Legend has it…"
In fact, there's little evidence that this event took place, and there's even less evidence that anyone named Moses Rose was at the Alamo. The Alamo was filled with largely volunteers, and as such not everyone knew each other and there wasn't the record keeping one would find in an organized army. The story of Travis drawing a line didn't appear until decades after the event. That didn't stop the placing of a brass line directly in front of the Alamo chapel to commemorate the likely non-event.
Travis was one of the first killed during the battle. His slaves fought by his side right up until the moment he was killed, and then went into hiding, their service done. There have been attempts by Hollywood to depict the Alamo's slaves as loyal beyond their enslavement, but in reality they knew they were slaves, and they knew this wasn't their fight.
The Alamo Defenders Killed Many More Soldiers Than They Lost
If there's one thing that's true about the Alamo, it's that you can find lots of different, conflicting facts. While most historians put the number of Mexican casualties at around 600, and the Texan casualties at around 200, some lower the Mexican figure to 78 dead, and raise the number of dead Texans to 250. Those who wish to immortalize the defenders of course want to imagine them fighting fiercly, taking down 10 for every man they lost. But there's a lot to consider here.
The siege didn't last a day, but instead took place over two weeks. During the day, Mexican artillery blasted the fort, while defenders took cover. At night, they were forced to reinforce their battered perimeter. With dwindling supplies and very little sleep, the men of the Alamo were likely exhausted.
We also don''t know how many men were inside the Alamo. There were at least 182, with 187 being officially commemorated. Some put the figure as high as 260. Santa Anna had 1,800 troops, though many times his entire army of 6,000 is reported as being there.
When the actual battle started, it was short, and took place at dawn while most of the defenders were sleeping. Some say the battle lasted only 30 minutes, others stretch that to 90 minutes or two hours. The Mexicans charged the walls before the sun came up, and it makes sense that they'd lose a lot of men. The defenders were shooting cannons and long guns from behind barriers at men standing in a line out in the open. Santa Anna fully expected to lose one third of his force. So yes, the Alamo defenders did cause more casualties than they received, but this is not surprising in any way.
The Alamo Was All About Slavery
It's become popular to suggest that the Alamo was a battle for slavery. Slavery was part of the reason Texas wanted to secede from Mexico. There's barely a mention of slavery at the Alamo today, but many of those who went to Texas in the 1830s were pro-slavery, and intended to uphold the institution.
At all times until the end of the American Civil War, Texas was strongly in favor of slavery. One need only read the Constitution of the Republic of Texas to see how important slavery was. Not only was slavery legal, it became illegal to free slaves. And those freed slaves who already lived there had virtually all their rights revoked. If they were ever found guilty of a crime, they were slaves once again. What's more, the few Indians living in Texas were also denied citizenship. There is much irony in people claiming to fight on behalf of lost rights subsequently removing the rights of others.
But to say The Alamo and and the Texas Revolution were all about slavery is to go too far. It was more about land speculation, and starting a new life in a fresh country. Texas has a very bad history when it comes to race, but slavery is just a part of the Texas birth story.
We Should Remember The Alamo
The Alamo is literally larger than life, and while it was an important event, the reasons why we should remember it aren't obvious. While it's presented to us as a pivotal moment in American history, it's more accurately described as one major event in the war for Texas independence. The Battle of San Jacinto and the massacre of Goliad are perhaps more important, but they receive far less attention.
I propose that the Alamo became the official shrine of all that is Texas simply because there was a building there that people could affix their pride to. But while we shouldn't completely forget the Alamo, perhaps we should try to remember the Alamo as it truly was: the last hold out for a ragtag band of speculators who distracted Santa Anna and motivated the rest of the Texian Army to defeat Santa Anna. These were heroic men who died fighting, but they were no more heroic than the Mexican volunteers and conscripts that charged the walls to defeat them. If the Alamo is a shrine to bravery, those dead Mexican soldiers should also be mentioned, yet the idea of a simple plaque dedicated to their memory brings howls of protests from Texans, some of whom claim that the losers don't get plaques. I wonder how these folks would explain the large Confederate monument on the state house grounds in Austin.
So yes, Remember the Alamo… and remember that the largest part of history is "story," and that story is most often written by people who have only one perspective in mind.
Oh, and in case you're wondering... I did check the basement at the Alamo. There was nothing there but an old bicycle.
By Jeff Wagg
Cite this article:
Copyright ©2020 Skeptoid Media, Inc. All Rights Reserved. | <urn:uuid:a8226a3c-924b-45cc-aba4-6ada2e7fa555> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4457 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.988475 | 3,691 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2129825949668... | 4 | Forgetting the Alamo
by Jeff Wagg
Thanks to movies and advertisements, The Alamo has become a permanent part of the American story. But how accurate is that story, and is it a story worth remembering? In this episode, I'll examine some of the many assumptions about the place and event known as "The Alamo" and try to add a bit of context to the legend that endures.
First, the short, basic version of the story from the official website of the Alamo:
On February 23, 1836, the arrival of General Antonio López de Santa Anna's army outside San Antonio nearly caught them by surprise. Undaunted, the Texians and Tejanos prepared to defend the Alamo together. The defenders held out for 13 days against Santa Anna's army.
As with all shortened versions of stories, this one leaves out some important facts. Let's examine a few to see if we can get a better picture of what happened that day.
The Alamo is a distinctive building with an arched facade.
Let's get this one out the way quickly. "The Alamo" refers to a fortress about four acres in size. The building that is commonly associated with the words "the Alamo" was an unfinished chapel built on the site of Mission San Antonio de Valero, a Spanish Catholic mission tasked with converting the native population. Some of that native population, the Payaya, provided the manual labor for building the mission.
After about 75 years, the mission was secularized and no longer had any religious significance. The well-known chapel building remained unfinished and without a roof.
In 1803, a Spanish force converted the area into a temporary, walled fortress, with the chapel in one corner. They built a ramp inside the structure to mount canon on the walls. The unit came from Alamo de Parras, which gave the complex its current name. Alamo, in Spanish, means "cottonwood."
The distinctive "hump" that is the signature architecture of the Alamo was added by US troops stationed there in the 1850s. During the siege and battle of the Alamo, the facade of the chapel was a ruin, with a mostly flat or jagged top. Most people today would not recognize it, which is why nearly all movies and posters show the chapel as it looked after its reconstruction.
The US Army added a wooden roof over the structure, and there is mid-19th century graffiti from these troops all over the walls, inside and out. After a brief time as a Confederate stronghold, the chapel became a warehouse for a mercantile institution in what is now called "the low barrack," also within the Alamo walls. Visitors often chipped away portions of the columns and filigree, giving the structure a battle-worn look that's actually the result of vandalism more than battle.
The state bought the property from the Catholic Church in the 1890s, at which point the Daughters of the Republic of Texas donated large sums money to turn the site into a shrine. Though they've been embroiled in controversy and lost control of the gift shop (which used to be a museum), the Daughters still have a contract to administer the site today, with oversight from the State of Texas.
If you visit the Alamo expecting a museum or a national park in the desert, you might be surprised to learn that it is actually a monument in the middle of a bustling city. Though there are a few exhibits scattered about, the Alamo is a shrine. It's official name is the "Shrine of Texas Liberty," and it's considered a holy place. A private armed force known as the Alamo Rangers will enforce policies such as no hats, and no photography. Reverence is expected, once you run the gauntlet of gift shop photographers holding up the line at the front door.
The Men Defending the Alamo Were Defending Their Home, Texas
While the Tejanos were defending their homes against what they saw as a despotic ruler, most of the men at the Alamo were illegal aliens. Some, like Jim Bowie, had moved to Mexico and become Mexican citizens, but a large percentage of the defenders had only arrived in Texas just a few weeks earlier. As Texas was part of Mexico, they were in all ways illegal aliens.
As the United States expanded west, land got more expensive. The Austin family under agreement with Spain and then Mexico, offered land in sparsely-populated Texas for 1/10th of what it was selling for in the US, and under better terms. Payment could be extended over years. The Mexican constitution of 1824 granted rights to these newcomers, and they prospered.
As Santa Anna came to power, and suspended the constitution of 1824, the Texians and their Tejano neighbors revolted. It was generally believed that Texas was going to be its own country, and down-on-their luck men from the U.S. swarmed south for what they saw as a new chance at life. All they had to do was defeat the Mexican army.
It is not accurate to say that the men at the Alamo were defending Texas. They were defending what they hoped Texas would be, against the wishes of the ruling government.
Santa Anna Was a Ruthless Dictator
Santa Anna was a power-hungry opportunist. When Mexico successfully fought for their freedom from Spain, Santa Anna rose through the ranks. He would switch his politics to whatever side he thought could help him. At first, he was very friendly to the people of Texas, as they supported Mexico in the revolution against Spain. But over the course of a few years, he turned from friend to foe. All the rights and privileges that had been granted to them by Spain and then Mexico were gradually whittled away, until finally, the constitution was suspended.
All Mexicans and American immigrants who wished to remain in Mexico were required to be Catholic and slavery was severely restricted. More on that later. Also, the amount of land an immigrant could hold was drastically reduced. By 1835, militias were being organized to defend the rights granted by the old constitution. Santa Anna declared recalcitrant immigrants as "pirates," and sent a letter to Andrew Jackson asking him to exert whatever influence he had over these people, and to proclaim that no quarter would be given. In short, Santa Anna was saying that he would mercilessly kill all non-conforming immigrants in Texas. Jackson did not share the contents of this letter widely.
So yes, Santa Anna was a ruthless dictator. The Texians were promised something, and it was taken away from them. But it's important to remember that the vast majority of Americans and Europeans flooding into Texas were doing so after Santa Anna had suspended the constitution. They were illegal aliens, and as they came with arms, they could also be considered an invading force.
If there's one person who can be called "legendary," it's David Crockett, who never went by the name "Davey" so far as historians can tell. There's also no reliable record of him wearing a coonskin cap. Witnesses saying that he did told their stories decades after actual events. Coonskin caps weren't unheard of among frontier types, but the image of Crockett wearing one were probably from the stage shows depicting his antics in hyperbolic style.
Crockett was a Tennessee Congressman, who moved to Texas after losing re-election. He arrived there just three months before the battle, hoping to find a new start for his political career and a new home for his family. Yes, Crockett and his Tennessee followers were also illegal aliens.
As soon as he arrived, he joined the militia and was sent to the Alamo under the command of Jim Bowie and William Travis, co-commanders of the fort.
And then things get murky. At the Alamo shrine today, a plaque to the left of the chapel door marks the spot where Crocket supposedly fell during the battle. But that narrative has been replaced by the idea that he and a few others somehow survived the event, only to be executed later.
The best evidence for this is the supposed journal of José Enrique de le Peña, an officer in Santa Anna's army. In it, he claims to have seen Crockett executed by order of Santa Anna. But the "journal" wasn't published until 1955, a time when "Davey Crockett Fever" was at its height due to the Disney series. What's more, there are reports of Travis and Bowie surviving as well, and these are certainly false, as there is contemporary, corroborative evidence of their deaths during the battle.
The truth is, we don't know where Crockett died. We only know that he died during, or immediately after the battle. As for his swinging his rifle after running out of ammunition, or running to blow up the ammunition stores though mortally wounded, those are pure Hollywood fiction. Also in doubt is the idea that he killed him a 'bar when he was only three.
Hollywood depicts Jim Bowie has a heroic frontier knife fighter who died defending the Alamo. He was even the star character of a 50's TV show. It's true that the Bowie family made wide-bladed knives, but there is no single "Bowie Knife" and the large knife that's come to be known by that name probably wasn't used by Jim Bowie at all.
Jim Bowie was a likable criminal. Though most people said he was friendly and charismatic, he was also guilty of fraud in several land speculation deals. His reason for emigrating to Texas was simple: he was running from the law. He converted to Catholicism and married a local politician's daughter. They had two children, and in 1833, while Bowie was away, his new Mexican family died from cholera.
He was a seasoned fighter, and assigned to the garrison at the Alamo. He was supposed to be under the command of William Travis, but his men, mostly volunteers, wouldn't follow young Travis, so they agreed to co-command. Bowie also brought his slave Jim with him to the Alamo. Bowie was also a smuggler, and what he smuggled was slaves.
In movies, Bowie is depicted as either fighting wounded on the battlements, or fighting bravely from his sick bed. The latter is closer to the truth: during the siege and battle, Bowie was deathly ill with either tuberculosis or pneumonia. It's questionable that he was even conscious during the final battle. Contemporary reports have him "hiding under a blanket" but it's quite possible that he was simply too sick to move.
Colonel Travis Drew a Line In the Sand
Colonel William B. Travis was a young South Carolina lawyer. Saddled with debt, and under threat of arrest, he'd heard that Texas was a land of opportunity for lawyers, and he hoped to head there to escape prosecution and earn enough to pay his debts.
Travis arrived in Texas in 1831 at the age of 21, and having been there five years before the battle made him one of the few men at the Alamo who had any experience living in Texas. After setting up shop as a lawyer, he became embroiled in the fomenting revolution and joined the militia as a lieutenant colonel of the calvary. He was sent to the Alamo, which he considered beneath someone of his rank.
After Bowie fell sick, Travis was in charge. As Santa Anna rolled into town, Travis wrote a series of famous letters pleading for help from other Texians and Americans still in the United States as well. A few dozen men did answer the call, but most did not, with the nascent government of Texas worrying itself with creating a new government. Houston and others encouraged Travis to abandon the Alamo as unimportant, but he refused.
Legend has it that when Travis knew no help would be coming, he drew a line in the sand and asked every man who would fight with him to cross it. All but one, Moses Rose, did. This legend is in the official materials and video from the Alamo, though it's carefully worded as "Legend has it…"
In fact, there's little evidence that this event took place, and there's even less evidence that anyone named Moses Rose was at the Alamo. The Alamo was filled with largely volunteers, and as such not everyone knew each other and there wasn't the record keeping one would find in an organized army. The story of Travis drawing a line didn't appear until decades after the event. That didn't stop the placing of a brass line directly in front of the Alamo chapel to commemorate the likely non-event.
Travis was one of the first killed during the battle. His slaves fought by his side right up until the moment he was killed, and then went into hiding, their service done. There have been attempts by Hollywood to depict the Alamo's slaves as loyal beyond their enslavement, but in reality they knew they were slaves, and they knew this wasn't their fight.
The Alamo Defenders Killed Many More Soldiers Than They Lost
If there's one thing that's true about the Alamo, it's that you can find lots of different, conflicting facts. While most historians put the number of Mexican casualties at around 600, and the Texan casualties at around 200, some lower the Mexican figure to 78 dead, and raise the number of dead Texans to 250. Those who wish to immortalize the defenders of course want to imagine them fighting fiercly, taking down 10 for every man they lost. But there's a lot to consider here.
The siege didn't last a day, but instead took place over two weeks. During the day, Mexican artillery blasted the fort, while defenders took cover. At night, they were forced to reinforce their battered perimeter. With dwindling supplies and very little sleep, the men of the Alamo were likely exhausted.
We also don''t know how many men were inside the Alamo. There were at least 182, with 187 being officially commemorated. Some put the figure as high as 260. Santa Anna had 1,800 troops, though many times his entire army of 6,000 is reported as being there.
When the actual battle started, it was short, and took place at dawn while most of the defenders were sleeping. Some say the battle lasted only 30 minutes, others stretch that to 90 minutes or two hours. The Mexicans charged the walls before the sun came up, and it makes sense that they'd lose a lot of men. The defenders were shooting cannons and long guns from behind barriers at men standing in a line out in the open. Santa Anna fully expected to lose one third of his force. So yes, the Alamo defenders did cause more casualties than they received, but this is not surprising in any way.
The Alamo Was All About Slavery
It's become popular to suggest that the Alamo was a battle for slavery. Slavery was part of the reason Texas wanted to secede from Mexico. There's barely a mention of slavery at the Alamo today, but many of those who went to Texas in the 1830s were pro-slavery, and intended to uphold the institution.
At all times until the end of the American Civil War, Texas was strongly in favor of slavery. One need only read the Constitution of the Republic of Texas to see how important slavery was. Not only was slavery legal, it became illegal to free slaves. And those freed slaves who already lived there had virtually all their rights revoked. If they were ever found guilty of a crime, they were slaves once again. What's more, the few Indians living in Texas were also denied citizenship. There is much irony in people claiming to fight on behalf of lost rights subsequently removing the rights of others.
But to say The Alamo and and the Texas Revolution were all about slavery is to go too far. It was more about land speculation, and starting a new life in a fresh country. Texas has a very bad history when it comes to race, but slavery is just a part of the Texas birth story.
We Should Remember The Alamo
The Alamo is literally larger than life, and while it was an important event, the reasons why we should remember it aren't obvious. While it's presented to us as a pivotal moment in American history, it's more accurately described as one major event in the war for Texas independence. The Battle of San Jacinto and the massacre of Goliad are perhaps more important, but they receive far less attention.
I propose that the Alamo became the official shrine of all that is Texas simply because there was a building there that people could affix their pride to. But while we shouldn't completely forget the Alamo, perhaps we should try to remember the Alamo as it truly was: the last hold out for a ragtag band of speculators who distracted Santa Anna and motivated the rest of the Texian Army to defeat Santa Anna. These were heroic men who died fighting, but they were no more heroic than the Mexican volunteers and conscripts that charged the walls to defeat them. If the Alamo is a shrine to bravery, those dead Mexican soldiers should also be mentioned, yet the idea of a simple plaque dedicated to their memory brings howls of protests from Texans, some of whom claim that the losers don't get plaques. I wonder how these folks would explain the large Confederate monument on the state house grounds in Austin.
So yes, Remember the Alamo… and remember that the largest part of history is "story," and that story is most often written by people who have only one perspective in mind.
Oh, and in case you're wondering... I did check the basement at the Alamo. There was nothing there but an old bicycle.
By Jeff Wagg
Cite this article:
Copyright ©2020 Skeptoid Media, Inc. All Rights Reserved. | 3,716 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In feudalism, the nobility were comprised of several classes, the top of the hierarchy being the nobles. The ruler was the head and then there were the dukes, counts and knights. Knights were noblemen who left home at seven in order to learn how to ride, how to take care of their armor and how to fight. When a “trainee” turned 21, he became a knight. Knights existed to protect the lord and his land, which included the women and the peasants (World History Connections To Today, 192). The noblewoman’s education incorporated learning in the womanly crafts before she could be considered for marriage. Her learning consisted on knowing how to spin, how to weave and how to supervise servants. Her wifely duties were bearing many children, remaining loyal to her husband and to watch the manor while the man was away (World History Connections To Today, 193).
The lord’s land was worked several days a week by peasants who received protection and housing from the lord, but were granted permission to work a small patch of land to farm for themselves. They were bound to the lord’s land and had to ask permission to leave it. If another family bought the manor, the serfs were included with it and thus, they had a new lord. In addition to working the lord’s land, they also made repairs around the manor. Peasants did not get free housing and free protection; they had to pay the lord when marrying, inheriting acres or using the mill to grind grain. The short supply of money meant that the payments were commonly in the form of chickens, eggs, grain, etc. (World History Connections To Today, 194).
The clergy attended to the community and God. They were monks and nuns who rescinded their worldly lifestyle to become devoted to the spiritual one. They took oaths of poverty and vows of chastity, purity or obedience. Their main duties were prayer and worship and to provide basic social services to community like tending to the sick and impoverished. They were not completely cloistered; some became missionaries to spread Christianity and good works even further. (World History Connections To Today, 198). Therefore, everyone under the feudal system had a job. The nobles and knights gave shelter and protection, the noblewomen tended the manor, the peasants worked the land and the clergy assisted the village. | <urn:uuid:c222f322-99bd-4d98-9633-c2c329de8fce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bereavementpractitioners.org/essay-feudalism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.99046 | 491 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.197422266... | 1 | In feudalism, the nobility were comprised of several classes, the top of the hierarchy being the nobles. The ruler was the head and then there were the dukes, counts and knights. Knights were noblemen who left home at seven in order to learn how to ride, how to take care of their armor and how to fight. When a “trainee” turned 21, he became a knight. Knights existed to protect the lord and his land, which included the women and the peasants (World History Connections To Today, 192). The noblewoman’s education incorporated learning in the womanly crafts before she could be considered for marriage. Her learning consisted on knowing how to spin, how to weave and how to supervise servants. Her wifely duties were bearing many children, remaining loyal to her husband and to watch the manor while the man was away (World History Connections To Today, 193).
The lord’s land was worked several days a week by peasants who received protection and housing from the lord, but were granted permission to work a small patch of land to farm for themselves. They were bound to the lord’s land and had to ask permission to leave it. If another family bought the manor, the serfs were included with it and thus, they had a new lord. In addition to working the lord’s land, they also made repairs around the manor. Peasants did not get free housing and free protection; they had to pay the lord when marrying, inheriting acres or using the mill to grind grain. The short supply of money meant that the payments were commonly in the form of chickens, eggs, grain, etc. (World History Connections To Today, 194).
The clergy attended to the community and God. They were monks and nuns who rescinded their worldly lifestyle to become devoted to the spiritual one. They took oaths of poverty and vows of chastity, purity or obedience. Their main duties were prayer and worship and to provide basic social services to community like tending to the sick and impoverished. They were not completely cloistered; some became missionaries to spread Christianity and good works even further. (World History Connections To Today, 198). Therefore, everyone under the feudal system had a job. The nobles and knights gave shelter and protection, the noblewomen tended the manor, the peasants worked the land and the clergy assisted the village. | 495 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our opening hours are reduced on the Australia Day public holiday, Monday 27 January. More information ›
The First Folio was published in 1623, 8 years after Shakespeare’s death. Apart from the Bible, this volume is now considered the most influential book ever published in the English language.
In the early 17th century drama did not have a high literary value. Plays were written for the stage and generally remained the property of the theatre company. It is rare to see a volume of plays listed in any large library of the period. Thomas Bodley, founder of the Bodleian Library in Oxford, considered them as “baggage books….some plaies may be worthy of keeping: but hardly one in fortie...”
In 1622, two of Shakespeare’s fellow actors and friends, John Heminges and Henry Condell, decided to publish a collection of his plays as a memorial and testimony to Shakespeare’s work. They gathered together both fair and “foule” copies of Shakespeare’s plays, selecting the version which they felt was true to Shakespeare’s intent. Troilus and Cressida proved the most difficult and reached the printers so late that it was too late to be included in the printed contents page. Of the 36 plays included in the First Folio collection 18 had never been published. It is possible that without this publication plays such as the Tempest, Twelfth Night, Antony & Cleopatra and Macbeth would have been lost. Heminges and Condell also decided the divisions between comedies, histories and tragedies.
The famous portrait on the title page was also commissioned by Heminges and Condell from a Flemish engraver, Martin Droeshout, and presumably was based on a portrait or sketch which as not survived.
The First Folio was printed in London, near St Paul’s Cathedral. It was a large and ambitious undertaking which took almost two years, requiring at least 5 compositors to prepare the copy. The main financial burden was born by the printers, William and Isaac Jaggard, who also had to undertake the complex task of negotiating copyright and registering the plays with the Stationers’ Guild in London. It was a busy printing house with other books in production while the folio was being printed. This often led to curious spellings and type-setting as the printers ran short of particular letters. The exact print run for the First Folio is unknown although estimates are around 750 with 234 known copies remaining today. It was sold for just one pound in a plain calf binding, and 15 shillings unbound.
The Library’s copy of the First Folio was donated to the Sydney Free Public Library in February 1885 by Richard and George Tangye who purchased the volume for £850 in 1884. As the auction records no longer exist we have no information on previous owners. When the Folio arrived in Australia it was housed in a carved oak casket which is now on display in the Shakespeare Room. According to newspaper reports from 1885, the casket was made from oak grown in the historic forest of Arden, which featured in Shakespeare's play As You Like It.
Richard Tangye was a Cornish engineer and manufacturer. The Birmingham engineering firm formed by the Tangye brothers grew to become one of the largest suppliers of jacks, pumps, steam and oil engines, hydraulic presses, gas producers and machine tools in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Richard travelled extensively for his business including a number of trips to Australia where branches were established in Sydney and Melbourne. One of the firm’s great engineering achievements was the use of their hydraulic jacks in placing Cleopatra's Needle (weighing over 186 tons) the Thames Embankment in September 1878.
The Library’s copy of the First Folio is the only known copy held in Australia. The Library also holds the three later editions published in the 1600s.
The Second Folio was published 9 years later in 1632. It was almost an exact reprint of the First Folio with the addition of a poem in praise of Shakespeare by John Milton. The Library’s copy of the Second Folio was donated by the Australian Shakespearian actress, Essie Jenyns in 1922. She received the copy from a group of admirers while she was performing in Hobart in 1887.
In 1664 a Third Folio was published. This edition included seven additional plays including Pericles, The Puritan Widow, The History of Thomas Cromwell and The London Prodigall of which only Pericles is now accepted as genuinely Shakespearian. The Third Folio is extremely rare as a large number of copies were destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666. The Library’s copy was purchased by the Library Trustees in 1964.
A Fourth Folio was printed in 1685. The contents was the same as the Third Folio however the typography and layout of the text was improved making the edition more readable.
The Library received the Fourth Folio as part of the David Scott Mitchell bequest and the volume carries his bookplate. | <urn:uuid:2cde4b45-9a2b-4dcf-872c-07295cf19f3c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/stories/shakespeare-library/shakespeares-first-folio | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.981201 | 1,064 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.447613894... | 1 | Our opening hours are reduced on the Australia Day public holiday, Monday 27 January. More information ›
The First Folio was published in 1623, 8 years after Shakespeare’s death. Apart from the Bible, this volume is now considered the most influential book ever published in the English language.
In the early 17th century drama did not have a high literary value. Plays were written for the stage and generally remained the property of the theatre company. It is rare to see a volume of plays listed in any large library of the period. Thomas Bodley, founder of the Bodleian Library in Oxford, considered them as “baggage books….some plaies may be worthy of keeping: but hardly one in fortie...”
In 1622, two of Shakespeare’s fellow actors and friends, John Heminges and Henry Condell, decided to publish a collection of his plays as a memorial and testimony to Shakespeare’s work. They gathered together both fair and “foule” copies of Shakespeare’s plays, selecting the version which they felt was true to Shakespeare’s intent. Troilus and Cressida proved the most difficult and reached the printers so late that it was too late to be included in the printed contents page. Of the 36 plays included in the First Folio collection 18 had never been published. It is possible that without this publication plays such as the Tempest, Twelfth Night, Antony & Cleopatra and Macbeth would have been lost. Heminges and Condell also decided the divisions between comedies, histories and tragedies.
The famous portrait on the title page was also commissioned by Heminges and Condell from a Flemish engraver, Martin Droeshout, and presumably was based on a portrait or sketch which as not survived.
The First Folio was printed in London, near St Paul’s Cathedral. It was a large and ambitious undertaking which took almost two years, requiring at least 5 compositors to prepare the copy. The main financial burden was born by the printers, William and Isaac Jaggard, who also had to undertake the complex task of negotiating copyright and registering the plays with the Stationers’ Guild in London. It was a busy printing house with other books in production while the folio was being printed. This often led to curious spellings and type-setting as the printers ran short of particular letters. The exact print run for the First Folio is unknown although estimates are around 750 with 234 known copies remaining today. It was sold for just one pound in a plain calf binding, and 15 shillings unbound.
The Library’s copy of the First Folio was donated to the Sydney Free Public Library in February 1885 by Richard and George Tangye who purchased the volume for £850 in 1884. As the auction records no longer exist we have no information on previous owners. When the Folio arrived in Australia it was housed in a carved oak casket which is now on display in the Shakespeare Room. According to newspaper reports from 1885, the casket was made from oak grown in the historic forest of Arden, which featured in Shakespeare's play As You Like It.
Richard Tangye was a Cornish engineer and manufacturer. The Birmingham engineering firm formed by the Tangye brothers grew to become one of the largest suppliers of jacks, pumps, steam and oil engines, hydraulic presses, gas producers and machine tools in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Richard travelled extensively for his business including a number of trips to Australia where branches were established in Sydney and Melbourne. One of the firm’s great engineering achievements was the use of their hydraulic jacks in placing Cleopatra's Needle (weighing over 186 tons) the Thames Embankment in September 1878.
The Library’s copy of the First Folio is the only known copy held in Australia. The Library also holds the three later editions published in the 1600s.
The Second Folio was published 9 years later in 1632. It was almost an exact reprint of the First Folio with the addition of a poem in praise of Shakespeare by John Milton. The Library’s copy of the Second Folio was donated by the Australian Shakespearian actress, Essie Jenyns in 1922. She received the copy from a group of admirers while she was performing in Hobart in 1887.
In 1664 a Third Folio was published. This edition included seven additional plays including Pericles, The Puritan Widow, The History of Thomas Cromwell and The London Prodigall of which only Pericles is now accepted as genuinely Shakespearian. The Third Folio is extremely rare as a large number of copies were destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666. The Library’s copy was purchased by the Library Trustees in 1964.
A Fourth Folio was printed in 1685. The contents was the same as the Third Folio however the typography and layout of the text was improved making the edition more readable.
The Library received the Fourth Folio as part of the David Scott Mitchell bequest and the volume carries his bookplate. | 1,093 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Schlieffen Plan is the name given to Germany's tactics in the opening stages of the Great War. These tactics sought to defeat the French quickly on the Western Front before the Russian army on the Eastern Front had a chance to mobilise, and were inspired by a military plan devised by Alfred von Schlieffen. The extent to which von Schlieffen's original plan was implemented and whether or not the original plan could have succeeded have been subject to debate and disagreement by historians over the last hundred years.
Who Was Alfred von Schlieffen?
Alfred von Schlieffen (1833-1913) was the successor to Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, the general who had defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War. Alfred von Schlieffen was appointed Chief of the General Staff in 1891, a position he held until 1906. It was in 1905-6 that he developed his final version of the German army tactical deployment guide known as the Schlieffen Plan.
It is said that the plan was so important to von Schlieffen that his dying words concerned it, It must come to a fight, but do not weaken the right flank. Von Schlieffen died in January 1913, just before his 80th birthday.
Germany and the Development of the Plan
Since the 1880s, relations between Germany and Russia grew extremely hostile, with the possibility of conflict increasingly likely. France too was strongly anti-German, having lost the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1). In 1893 Russia entered into a defensive pact with France called the Dual Alliance treaty. This stated that if either country was attacked, the other would come to its aid.
This gave Germany a large potential problem; if war came, Germany would face a war on two fronts. How could it win if its army was divided? Especially as both France and Belgium were constructing fortresses aimed to prevent any invasion. If Germany was fenced in, defeat would be inevitable. Yet the Schlieffen Plan was devised as a method in which to solve these problems and ensure victory for Germany over both Russia and France should a war occur.
The Plan's Principles
The first principle put into place was that in order to win, Germany would need the element of surprise. Which country, then, should be attacked first, Russia or France?
Russia was nicknamed 'the Steamroller'. It was believed that their army would be slow to fully mobilise, but because of its vast numbers, was immensely powerful and difficult to slow down or stop. Von Schlieffen estimated that it would take at least two months for Russia to mobilise.
Von Schlieffen knew that France would not take so long to prepare. France was a much smaller military power than Russia that Germany had defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Von Schlieffen decided then that when Germany declared war on Russia, the German Army would first march west and conquer France, before turning east and conquering Russia.
With the basic premise decided, precision planning and timing would be needed in order to conquer France in just eight weeks. The problem was that France's border with Germany was extensively fortified and would be heavily defended. Schlieffen thought that the heavy French fortification would make it impossible to defeat France quickly by attacking head on across the Franco-German border with the number of soldiers available. The only way to attack France swiftly would be to bypass the French fort system, which meant either heading north or south of the border through a neutral country. Switzerland was obviously too mountainous, yet despite the presence of its forts, Belgium was a far more practical proposition.
Von Schlieffen decided that he should leave a portion of the German Army in the east to defend from any preliminary Russian foray, while leaving some soldiers on the Franco-German Border at Alsace-Lorraine, where he predicted that the French army would attack. Alsace-Lorraine was German-held territory that had been conquered from France following the Franco-Prussian War that France would seek to recapture. Rather than confront the main French army head on, he planned to advance the majority of his army through Belgium, north of Germany's border with France, while drawing the French army into a trap at Alsace-Lorraine. With the French army distracted some distance away, the main German force would manoeuvre west of Paris, capture the capital city, wheel back to attack the French army at Alsace-Lorraine from behind and complete the trap, thus defeating France.
Belgium, Man, Belgium!
Out-manoeuvring the French army in this way by attacking Belgium did have potential problems. The prospect of moving the vast German army, as well as their ammunition, fuel, food and other supplies was bordering on an impossible logistical exercise to say the least. Belgium had a small, vulnerable railway system that not only was not intended for such a task but also would need to be captured swiftly, without the loss of too many key bridges. To complicate matters further, the heavily fortified Belgian city of Liège, widely believed to be impregnable, stood directly in their path. This meant that vital time would be spent capturing Liège, while everything else was swiftly moved through Belgium rapidly enough to take Paris and then defeat the French army, ready to take on Russia.
Britain's Old Contemptibles
Another drawback of this strategy was that it risked involving Great Britain in the war. Though traditionally Britain had a comparatively small army, the Royal Navy was intended to be more powerful than any other two navies in the world combined and could enforce a blockade. The Treaty of London, 1839, stated that Britain would aid Belgium against foreign attack. However, considering Britain's tiny army had been reliant on part-time volunteers such as the Yeomanry and Militia in case of attack and the Second Boer War (1899-1902) exposed the British army's shortcomings, von Schlieffen was not particularly worried. If France and Russia were defeated quickly and according to plan, the war would have ended before a naval blockade would have had any effect.
Yet von Schlieffen had conceived his plan in stages by 1906. By the time it was enacted, Britain had also joined the alliance against Germany, signing the entente cordiale with France in 1904 and Anglo-Russian entente in 1907. Britain had learned the lessons of the Boer War too and had completely remodelled its army. Despite the Liberal government's reluctance regarding military spending and reduced military budget, Secretary of State for War Richard Burdon Haldane created an extremely well-equipped and very highly trained British Expeditionary Force. The British Army's new philosophy was founded on accurate, rapid rifle fire, with the standard Lee-Enfield rifle1 holding a detachable 10-round magazine when the German Mauser rifle held only five rounds. British soldiers were trained to be able to fire at least 15 rounds a minute with 80% accuracy. It was also ensured that ammunition was interchangeable with the army's machine guns. Though consisting of only 100,000 men and dismissed by Kaiser Wilhelm as a contemptible little army (a comment that led to the troops labelling themselves 'the Old Contemptibles'), the small, overlooked army would prove pivotal to the plan's failure.
The Plan in Action
War was declared the year after von Schlieffen had died, and his successor, General Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, changed key parts of the plan. Von Schlieffen had conceived of five vast German armies marching through France, leaving the German border only lightly defended. He also planned to ignore potential distractions in Belgium and on the eastern border until France was defeated. Von Moltke, however, feared this could lead to catastrophe and deployed far fewer men to the invading force, keeping more in reserve for defence.
On 2 August, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium as part of von Moltke's modified version of the plan. This action led to Britain declaring war on Germany on 4 August. The German First Army, commanded by General Alexander von Kluck, led the northernmost right-flank, supported closely by Field Marshal Karl von Bülow leading the Second Army. The impregnable fortress of Liège was attacked, but resisted the German offensive for 5 days longer than von Schlieffen predicted. It was not until Germany was able to deploy their infamous 'Big Bertha' siege howitzers that Liège fell, after being bombarded by the German superweapons for just a day. Belgium was open to German troops by 13th August.
Where There's A Rail There's A Way
Germany had engaged in major railway building in preparation for war, as the Franco-Prussian War had taught them the vital importance of being able to move troops quickly. Quadruple-track railways were built across Germany to allow troops to get across the country, with stations designed for the swift movement of troops. When war was declared, a phenomenal timetable ensured that trains crossed the Rhine bridges at two or three minute intervals, both day and night.
Here Comes Alsace-Lorraine Again
Despite the German advance in the north, the French army under General Joseph Joffre enacted their Plan XVII on 14 August. This was the predicted mass-invasion of Alsace-Lorraine, heading right into the German trap on schedule. Yet von Moltke had chosen to weaken his attacking force in order to strengthen the defence at Alsace-Lorraine.
One often overlooked factor in the early stages of the war was how swiftly the British Expeditionary Force under General John French was assembled and positioned in France following the invasion of Belgium, a logistical triumph orchestrated by the former Secretary of State for War Jack Seely. While France reluctantly accepted Britain as an ally, they wanted to keep the British army out of the way of where they felt the key battle would be in Alsace-Lorraine, and instead positioned the 70,000 British troops to the northernmost end of their defence, close to Mons. Yet Mons was exactly where the 170,000 strong German First Army was heading while the German Second Army under von Bülow forced the nearby French Fifth Army under General Charles Lanrezac to retreat, leaving the British Expeditionary Force isolated and exposed.
Men of Mons
Neither the French nor Germans recognised that the BEF, though small, was an elite company of soldiers. The German assumption that the BEF was just 'a contemptible little army' was soon squashed, and the BEF support at Mons in Belgium slowed the German advance.
The German and British armies clashed on 23 August, though 16-year-old bicyclist scout John Parr had been the first British casualty two days earlier. Despite being vastly outnumbered, the superior marksmanship of the British troops successfully defeated each German attack, holding them at bay. Indeed, so fast was the British rifle fire that the German soldiers were convinced they were facing machine-guns. Yet General John French knew that tactically the British position was hopeless. The German Army was a formidably large force that could launch flanking attacks on both sides, and so on 24 August the BEF retreated out of Belgium and into northern France.
The British and Belgians still held the valuable, isolated port of Antwerp for the time being. Although von Schlieffen had stated that troops defending ports would be only a minor irritation, von Moltke weakened the key right flank further, sending men there. Antwerp would not fall to the Germans until 10 October.
Here Comes Alsace-Lorraine Again
On 14 August, the French army had launched Plan XVII, the anticipated mass attack on Alsace-Lorraine that General Joffre believed would show the world that French fighting spirit would triumph over all. Von Schlieffen had hoped that the French army would be able to be lured as far away from Paris as possible by a weak German defending force, yet his successor von Moltke had stationed a higher proportion of his men to this area than von Schlieffen had felt wise, in order to ensure that the French army would not prove successful.
The strongly defended German Sixth Army were equipped with heavy artillery that outranged the French equivalent, giving the Germans a decisive advantage. The German commander in the area, Prince Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, was unwilling to sit idly by and allow the French to attack him, and pressed for the opportunity to counter-attack. On 20 August, the Germans launched a counter-attack, forcing the French army back within two days. In a minor victory that was a strategic defeat, the bulk of the French army were retreating back towards Paris at the key time when the plan had been for them to be too far from the city to prevent its capture.
The Marne Event
On 23 August, when the BEF were holding the German advance at bay at Mons, Joffre realised how close to danger of losing France they were. He superbly redeemed his earlier blunder by methodically and miraculously redeploying the French army north to where the danger lay, forming the Sixth and Ninth armies under Generals Michel-Joseph Maunoury and Ferdinand Foch, while a new army was raised in Paris by General Joseph Galliéni.
The Allies were aided by the fledgling Royal Flying Corps (today's Royal Air Force), who informed the French of von Kluck's manoeuvring; the tactical advantage of aerial reconnaissance was a factor that von Schlieffen could not have predicted when his plan was being developed. Yet despite this, the BEF still almost faced total destruction during the retreat from Mons when it met an overwhelming German force at Le Cateau on 26 August.
It was at this time that Moltke learned that Russia had launched a preliminary invasion into East Prussia. Fearing that this was the forefront of a full-scale invasion, potentially leading to a war on two fronts, Moltke sent two army corps from his right flank back to Germany. Ironically, the immediate Russian threat was defeated while these men were still crossing Germany in the Battle of Tannenberg (26-30 August). It has been speculated that the reason that Moltke disregarded von Schlieffen's instruction to ignore any such minor distractions until after Paris had been conquered was he believed, with the BEF retreating and surely soon defeated, and the French army in tatters close to Alsace-Lorraine, Paris would be easy pickings.
This led to a fatal decision by the Germans on 31 August. Instead of heading straight for Paris, General von Kluck and Field Marshal Karl von Bülow decided to ignore Paris for now and head east. They hoped to surprise and defeat the retreating French army, yet instead the French had positioned two armies on the River Marne, near Paris, to catch the now weakened advancing German Army.
Joffre launched a tactical masterstroke. On 6 September, the start of the First Battle of the Marne, the French Sixth Army under Maunory struck at the flank of the German First Army. In order to meet this threat, von Kluck reinforced his right flank with men from his left, creating a gap between the German First and Second armies. The British Expeditionary Force broke through the gap, dividing the German armies. Yet the German First Army began to overwhelm the French Sixth Army, potentially leaving the British Expeditionary Force isolated between two much larger German armies and facing complete destruction.
You Wait Ages for a Bus to the Marne and 600 Arrive at Once...
By 8 September it looked as if the war was over and that the Germans had won. Then Galliéni saved the day with the fabled Taxis of the Marne. Knowing that Maunoury needed reinforcements desperately, Galliéni dispatched 6,000 men to the front in 600 taxis and buses, any vehicle suitable for transporting troops in. Von Moltke, positioned in Luxembourg, had lost contact with his troops and on 9 September, the order was given for the German army to retreat to more defensible ground at the River Aisne. The Germans had captured most of Belgium and much of northern France.
The Schlieffen Plan Abandoned
It was by now obvious to Germany that things had not gone according to the Schlieffen Plan, and Kaiser Wilhelm had von Moltke replaced by Erich von Falkenhayn, who attempted to bypass the Allied troops and head north. Both sides tried to outflank each other in the phase of battle known as The Race to the Sea. The Germans saw the Channel Ports as their main targets, and the Allies sought to protect these vital supply arteries at all costs. Once again, aerial reconnaissance was essential to the Allies, alerting them of outflanking manoeuvres from the Germans and allowed them to retaliate.
In November, the two sides fought each other to a standstill at the River Aisne. French troops failed to dislodge the Germans there, who had dug shallow trenches. The Battle of Aisne was the first occasion of trench warfare. In October the Germans had successfully captured Antwerp and Zeebrugge and then headed in strength for the key port of Ypres on 31 October. Ypres was defended by the BEF, and through the use of machine-guns and artillery, were able to withstand the assault of the superior German force.
Thus by late 1914 it was evident that a stalemate had been reached, with both sides deepening, fortifying and equipping trenches with barbed wire, artillery and bunkers in which to stay. These trenches stretched from the English Channel to Switzerland. For the war's duration neither side was willing to give an inch, even if it cost the lives of millions of men.
The Plan's Cost
By the close of 1914, the German army had captured almost all of Belgium and much of France at a cost of 120,000 men. France had lost 65,000, but of the 70,000 men of the British Expeditionary Force sent to France and kept out of the way from where the battle had been expected, 55,000 had died. Yet Paris had been protected and the war was not over, and Germany faced what the plan had meant to prevent; a war on two fronts.
The traditional view of the Schlieffen Plan has been to see it as the genius masterstroke of von Schlieffen that would have inevitably succeeded had von Moltke not deviated from the plan and thus undermined it. Is this view fair and indeed accurate? To what extent was the plan Schlieffen's, and what extent Moltke's?
Many historians have argued that though von Schlieffen was renowned for his tactical prowess, he was unconcerned with political implications. Initial drafts of the von Schlieffen plan proposed invading the Netherlands as well as Belgium. Although this would make moving troops and equipment easier, the political implication would ensure that the Dutch would ally themselves against Germany. Fighting in the Netherlands also would not only slow their advance when speed was key, but would have resulted in Germany losing access to the Dutch ports.
Many have suggested that the capture of Liège was Moltke's masterstroke. Defenders of Moltke have also suggested that von Schlieffen did not take into account that the French would be able to move troops in France quickly, having the benefit of an intact rail network, while German troops would need to traverse bridges etc destroyed by the defenders. He is also accused of not considering the possibility of trench warfare and the impact of barbed wire and machine-guns. Instead, von Schlieffen had been inspired by the rapid manoeuvres seen in the battle of Cannae, in which Hannibal defeated a much larger Roman force, as well as by Napoleon's strategies. These tactics did not take into account the armies of the early 20th Century, especially with regards the development of aircraft and machine-guns. A modified version of von Schlieffen's plan inspired the highly effective Blitzkrieg attacks of the Second World War. | <urn:uuid:a7a21ab6-14b7-4044-a85c-fef4afddc4fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://h2g2.com/entry/A87842028 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00300.warc.gz | en | 0.980178 | 4,113 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.549388945... | 3 | The Schlieffen Plan is the name given to Germany's tactics in the opening stages of the Great War. These tactics sought to defeat the French quickly on the Western Front before the Russian army on the Eastern Front had a chance to mobilise, and were inspired by a military plan devised by Alfred von Schlieffen. The extent to which von Schlieffen's original plan was implemented and whether or not the original plan could have succeeded have been subject to debate and disagreement by historians over the last hundred years.
Who Was Alfred von Schlieffen?
Alfred von Schlieffen (1833-1913) was the successor to Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, the general who had defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War. Alfred von Schlieffen was appointed Chief of the General Staff in 1891, a position he held until 1906. It was in 1905-6 that he developed his final version of the German army tactical deployment guide known as the Schlieffen Plan.
It is said that the plan was so important to von Schlieffen that his dying words concerned it, It must come to a fight, but do not weaken the right flank. Von Schlieffen died in January 1913, just before his 80th birthday.
Germany and the Development of the Plan
Since the 1880s, relations between Germany and Russia grew extremely hostile, with the possibility of conflict increasingly likely. France too was strongly anti-German, having lost the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1). In 1893 Russia entered into a defensive pact with France called the Dual Alliance treaty. This stated that if either country was attacked, the other would come to its aid.
This gave Germany a large potential problem; if war came, Germany would face a war on two fronts. How could it win if its army was divided? Especially as both France and Belgium were constructing fortresses aimed to prevent any invasion. If Germany was fenced in, defeat would be inevitable. Yet the Schlieffen Plan was devised as a method in which to solve these problems and ensure victory for Germany over both Russia and France should a war occur.
The Plan's Principles
The first principle put into place was that in order to win, Germany would need the element of surprise. Which country, then, should be attacked first, Russia or France?
Russia was nicknamed 'the Steamroller'. It was believed that their army would be slow to fully mobilise, but because of its vast numbers, was immensely powerful and difficult to slow down or stop. Von Schlieffen estimated that it would take at least two months for Russia to mobilise.
Von Schlieffen knew that France would not take so long to prepare. France was a much smaller military power than Russia that Germany had defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Von Schlieffen decided then that when Germany declared war on Russia, the German Army would first march west and conquer France, before turning east and conquering Russia.
With the basic premise decided, precision planning and timing would be needed in order to conquer France in just eight weeks. The problem was that France's border with Germany was extensively fortified and would be heavily defended. Schlieffen thought that the heavy French fortification would make it impossible to defeat France quickly by attacking head on across the Franco-German border with the number of soldiers available. The only way to attack France swiftly would be to bypass the French fort system, which meant either heading north or south of the border through a neutral country. Switzerland was obviously too mountainous, yet despite the presence of its forts, Belgium was a far more practical proposition.
Von Schlieffen decided that he should leave a portion of the German Army in the east to defend from any preliminary Russian foray, while leaving some soldiers on the Franco-German Border at Alsace-Lorraine, where he predicted that the French army would attack. Alsace-Lorraine was German-held territory that had been conquered from France following the Franco-Prussian War that France would seek to recapture. Rather than confront the main French army head on, he planned to advance the majority of his army through Belgium, north of Germany's border with France, while drawing the French army into a trap at Alsace-Lorraine. With the French army distracted some distance away, the main German force would manoeuvre west of Paris, capture the capital city, wheel back to attack the French army at Alsace-Lorraine from behind and complete the trap, thus defeating France.
Belgium, Man, Belgium!
Out-manoeuvring the French army in this way by attacking Belgium did have potential problems. The prospect of moving the vast German army, as well as their ammunition, fuel, food and other supplies was bordering on an impossible logistical exercise to say the least. Belgium had a small, vulnerable railway system that not only was not intended for such a task but also would need to be captured swiftly, without the loss of too many key bridges. To complicate matters further, the heavily fortified Belgian city of Liège, widely believed to be impregnable, stood directly in their path. This meant that vital time would be spent capturing Liège, while everything else was swiftly moved through Belgium rapidly enough to take Paris and then defeat the French army, ready to take on Russia.
Britain's Old Contemptibles
Another drawback of this strategy was that it risked involving Great Britain in the war. Though traditionally Britain had a comparatively small army, the Royal Navy was intended to be more powerful than any other two navies in the world combined and could enforce a blockade. The Treaty of London, 1839, stated that Britain would aid Belgium against foreign attack. However, considering Britain's tiny army had been reliant on part-time volunteers such as the Yeomanry and Militia in case of attack and the Second Boer War (1899-1902) exposed the British army's shortcomings, von Schlieffen was not particularly worried. If France and Russia were defeated quickly and according to plan, the war would have ended before a naval blockade would have had any effect.
Yet von Schlieffen had conceived his plan in stages by 1906. By the time it was enacted, Britain had also joined the alliance against Germany, signing the entente cordiale with France in 1904 and Anglo-Russian entente in 1907. Britain had learned the lessons of the Boer War too and had completely remodelled its army. Despite the Liberal government's reluctance regarding military spending and reduced military budget, Secretary of State for War Richard Burdon Haldane created an extremely well-equipped and very highly trained British Expeditionary Force. The British Army's new philosophy was founded on accurate, rapid rifle fire, with the standard Lee-Enfield rifle1 holding a detachable 10-round magazine when the German Mauser rifle held only five rounds. British soldiers were trained to be able to fire at least 15 rounds a minute with 80% accuracy. It was also ensured that ammunition was interchangeable with the army's machine guns. Though consisting of only 100,000 men and dismissed by Kaiser Wilhelm as a contemptible little army (a comment that led to the troops labelling themselves 'the Old Contemptibles'), the small, overlooked army would prove pivotal to the plan's failure.
The Plan in Action
War was declared the year after von Schlieffen had died, and his successor, General Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, changed key parts of the plan. Von Schlieffen had conceived of five vast German armies marching through France, leaving the German border only lightly defended. He also planned to ignore potential distractions in Belgium and on the eastern border until France was defeated. Von Moltke, however, feared this could lead to catastrophe and deployed far fewer men to the invading force, keeping more in reserve for defence.
On 2 August, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium as part of von Moltke's modified version of the plan. This action led to Britain declaring war on Germany on 4 August. The German First Army, commanded by General Alexander von Kluck, led the northernmost right-flank, supported closely by Field Marshal Karl von Bülow leading the Second Army. The impregnable fortress of Liège was attacked, but resisted the German offensive for 5 days longer than von Schlieffen predicted. It was not until Germany was able to deploy their infamous 'Big Bertha' siege howitzers that Liège fell, after being bombarded by the German superweapons for just a day. Belgium was open to German troops by 13th August.
Where There's A Rail There's A Way
Germany had engaged in major railway building in preparation for war, as the Franco-Prussian War had taught them the vital importance of being able to move troops quickly. Quadruple-track railways were built across Germany to allow troops to get across the country, with stations designed for the swift movement of troops. When war was declared, a phenomenal timetable ensured that trains crossed the Rhine bridges at two or three minute intervals, both day and night.
Here Comes Alsace-Lorraine Again
Despite the German advance in the north, the French army under General Joseph Joffre enacted their Plan XVII on 14 August. This was the predicted mass-invasion of Alsace-Lorraine, heading right into the German trap on schedule. Yet von Moltke had chosen to weaken his attacking force in order to strengthen the defence at Alsace-Lorraine.
One often overlooked factor in the early stages of the war was how swiftly the British Expeditionary Force under General John French was assembled and positioned in France following the invasion of Belgium, a logistical triumph orchestrated by the former Secretary of State for War Jack Seely. While France reluctantly accepted Britain as an ally, they wanted to keep the British army out of the way of where they felt the key battle would be in Alsace-Lorraine, and instead positioned the 70,000 British troops to the northernmost end of their defence, close to Mons. Yet Mons was exactly where the 170,000 strong German First Army was heading while the German Second Army under von Bülow forced the nearby French Fifth Army under General Charles Lanrezac to retreat, leaving the British Expeditionary Force isolated and exposed.
Men of Mons
Neither the French nor Germans recognised that the BEF, though small, was an elite company of soldiers. The German assumption that the BEF was just 'a contemptible little army' was soon squashed, and the BEF support at Mons in Belgium slowed the German advance.
The German and British armies clashed on 23 August, though 16-year-old bicyclist scout John Parr had been the first British casualty two days earlier. Despite being vastly outnumbered, the superior marksmanship of the British troops successfully defeated each German attack, holding them at bay. Indeed, so fast was the British rifle fire that the German soldiers were convinced they were facing machine-guns. Yet General John French knew that tactically the British position was hopeless. The German Army was a formidably large force that could launch flanking attacks on both sides, and so on 24 August the BEF retreated out of Belgium and into northern France.
The British and Belgians still held the valuable, isolated port of Antwerp for the time being. Although von Schlieffen had stated that troops defending ports would be only a minor irritation, von Moltke weakened the key right flank further, sending men there. Antwerp would not fall to the Germans until 10 October.
Here Comes Alsace-Lorraine Again
On 14 August, the French army had launched Plan XVII, the anticipated mass attack on Alsace-Lorraine that General Joffre believed would show the world that French fighting spirit would triumph over all. Von Schlieffen had hoped that the French army would be able to be lured as far away from Paris as possible by a weak German defending force, yet his successor von Moltke had stationed a higher proportion of his men to this area than von Schlieffen had felt wise, in order to ensure that the French army would not prove successful.
The strongly defended German Sixth Army were equipped with heavy artillery that outranged the French equivalent, giving the Germans a decisive advantage. The German commander in the area, Prince Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, was unwilling to sit idly by and allow the French to attack him, and pressed for the opportunity to counter-attack. On 20 August, the Germans launched a counter-attack, forcing the French army back within two days. In a minor victory that was a strategic defeat, the bulk of the French army were retreating back towards Paris at the key time when the plan had been for them to be too far from the city to prevent its capture.
The Marne Event
On 23 August, when the BEF were holding the German advance at bay at Mons, Joffre realised how close to danger of losing France they were. He superbly redeemed his earlier blunder by methodically and miraculously redeploying the French army north to where the danger lay, forming the Sixth and Ninth armies under Generals Michel-Joseph Maunoury and Ferdinand Foch, while a new army was raised in Paris by General Joseph Galliéni.
The Allies were aided by the fledgling Royal Flying Corps (today's Royal Air Force), who informed the French of von Kluck's manoeuvring; the tactical advantage of aerial reconnaissance was a factor that von Schlieffen could not have predicted when his plan was being developed. Yet despite this, the BEF still almost faced total destruction during the retreat from Mons when it met an overwhelming German force at Le Cateau on 26 August.
It was at this time that Moltke learned that Russia had launched a preliminary invasion into East Prussia. Fearing that this was the forefront of a full-scale invasion, potentially leading to a war on two fronts, Moltke sent two army corps from his right flank back to Germany. Ironically, the immediate Russian threat was defeated while these men were still crossing Germany in the Battle of Tannenberg (26-30 August). It has been speculated that the reason that Moltke disregarded von Schlieffen's instruction to ignore any such minor distractions until after Paris had been conquered was he believed, with the BEF retreating and surely soon defeated, and the French army in tatters close to Alsace-Lorraine, Paris would be easy pickings.
This led to a fatal decision by the Germans on 31 August. Instead of heading straight for Paris, General von Kluck and Field Marshal Karl von Bülow decided to ignore Paris for now and head east. They hoped to surprise and defeat the retreating French army, yet instead the French had positioned two armies on the River Marne, near Paris, to catch the now weakened advancing German Army.
Joffre launched a tactical masterstroke. On 6 September, the start of the First Battle of the Marne, the French Sixth Army under Maunory struck at the flank of the German First Army. In order to meet this threat, von Kluck reinforced his right flank with men from his left, creating a gap between the German First and Second armies. The British Expeditionary Force broke through the gap, dividing the German armies. Yet the German First Army began to overwhelm the French Sixth Army, potentially leaving the British Expeditionary Force isolated between two much larger German armies and facing complete destruction.
You Wait Ages for a Bus to the Marne and 600 Arrive at Once...
By 8 September it looked as if the war was over and that the Germans had won. Then Galliéni saved the day with the fabled Taxis of the Marne. Knowing that Maunoury needed reinforcements desperately, Galliéni dispatched 6,000 men to the front in 600 taxis and buses, any vehicle suitable for transporting troops in. Von Moltke, positioned in Luxembourg, had lost contact with his troops and on 9 September, the order was given for the German army to retreat to more defensible ground at the River Aisne. The Germans had captured most of Belgium and much of northern France.
The Schlieffen Plan Abandoned
It was by now obvious to Germany that things had not gone according to the Schlieffen Plan, and Kaiser Wilhelm had von Moltke replaced by Erich von Falkenhayn, who attempted to bypass the Allied troops and head north. Both sides tried to outflank each other in the phase of battle known as The Race to the Sea. The Germans saw the Channel Ports as their main targets, and the Allies sought to protect these vital supply arteries at all costs. Once again, aerial reconnaissance was essential to the Allies, alerting them of outflanking manoeuvres from the Germans and allowed them to retaliate.
In November, the two sides fought each other to a standstill at the River Aisne. French troops failed to dislodge the Germans there, who had dug shallow trenches. The Battle of Aisne was the first occasion of trench warfare. In October the Germans had successfully captured Antwerp and Zeebrugge and then headed in strength for the key port of Ypres on 31 October. Ypres was defended by the BEF, and through the use of machine-guns and artillery, were able to withstand the assault of the superior German force.
Thus by late 1914 it was evident that a stalemate had been reached, with both sides deepening, fortifying and equipping trenches with barbed wire, artillery and bunkers in which to stay. These trenches stretched from the English Channel to Switzerland. For the war's duration neither side was willing to give an inch, even if it cost the lives of millions of men.
The Plan's Cost
By the close of 1914, the German army had captured almost all of Belgium and much of France at a cost of 120,000 men. France had lost 65,000, but of the 70,000 men of the British Expeditionary Force sent to France and kept out of the way from where the battle had been expected, 55,000 had died. Yet Paris had been protected and the war was not over, and Germany faced what the plan had meant to prevent; a war on two fronts.
The traditional view of the Schlieffen Plan has been to see it as the genius masterstroke of von Schlieffen that would have inevitably succeeded had von Moltke not deviated from the plan and thus undermined it. Is this view fair and indeed accurate? To what extent was the plan Schlieffen's, and what extent Moltke's?
Many historians have argued that though von Schlieffen was renowned for his tactical prowess, he was unconcerned with political implications. Initial drafts of the von Schlieffen plan proposed invading the Netherlands as well as Belgium. Although this would make moving troops and equipment easier, the political implication would ensure that the Dutch would ally themselves against Germany. Fighting in the Netherlands also would not only slow their advance when speed was key, but would have resulted in Germany losing access to the Dutch ports.
Many have suggested that the capture of Liège was Moltke's masterstroke. Defenders of Moltke have also suggested that von Schlieffen did not take into account that the French would be able to move troops in France quickly, having the benefit of an intact rail network, while German troops would need to traverse bridges etc destroyed by the defenders. He is also accused of not considering the possibility of trench warfare and the impact of barbed wire and machine-guns. Instead, von Schlieffen had been inspired by the rapid manoeuvres seen in the battle of Cannae, in which Hannibal defeated a much larger Roman force, as well as by Napoleon's strategies. These tactics did not take into account the armies of the early 20th Century, especially with regards the development of aircraft and machine-guns. A modified version of von Schlieffen's plan inspired the highly effective Blitzkrieg attacks of the Second World War. | 4,177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Llywelyn ap Gruffydd was born somewhere around 1225 (amazingly, historians are sure of neither the date nor his true mother–although there are enough hints to conclude that it was Senana, his father’s wife). He was the second son of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. Other sons were Owain, the eldest, Rhodri, who never made a claim for any power in Wales, and Dafydd, who was thirteen years younger.
When Llywelyn Fawr, the great Prince of Wales, died in 1240, he left two sons: Gruffydd, who was the eldest but illegitimate and Dafydd, who was younger but born to Llywelyn Fawr’s lawful wife, Joanna, the illegitimate daughter of King John of England. Although it was customary in Wales to divide an inheritance equally between all sons no matter on which side of the blanket they’d been born, Llywelyn Fawr instructed that only Dafydd would follow him as the Prince of Wales. This decree was supported by King Henry of England, who was the ruler at the time, and the Church, whose aim was discourage the production of by-blows. This law was not the only conflict between Welsh tradition and the Catholic Church, although one of the most contentious.
Gruffydd, quite naturally, objected to his disinheritance, and set about undermining Dafydd’s rule, in the great tradition of warring, Welsh nobility and brotherhood. Dafydd retaliated by imprisoning Gruffydd and his eldest son, Owain, in one of his castles. In a further attempt to undermine her brother-in-law, Gruffydd’s wife, Senana, went to King Henry, begging for her husband’s deliverance.
King Henry responded to her plea by offering Gruffydd’s entire family asylum in England. When the family arrived, however, King Henry threw them into the Tower of London. Consequently, Gruffydd’s young son, Dafydd, only three years old at the time, grew up in England. He spent his days playing with Henry’s son, Edward (and the future king of England), was more fluent in French than Welsh, and hardly knew the lands he claimed to love, or the people in them.
Llywelyn was sixteen at this time. Rather than follow his father and elder brother into captivity, he ran away to Aber Garth Celyn and his uncle’s court. That single action set him apart from his brothers and ensured that he was at Garth Celyn, ready to take over, when his Uncle Dafydd died unexpectedly and without an heir in 1246.
Gruffydd, however, had already died first. In 1244, while trying to escape the Tower of London, the rope he was using to scale down from his window broke. By this time, Dafydd was six years old and Llywelyn nineteen. Instead of returning to Wales, Senana made the fateful decision to stay in England, under the continued patronage of the kings of England, and keep her younger sons with her, leaving the field open for Llywelyn and his older brother Owain, with whom he established an uneasy truce.
Llywelyn ap Gruffydd died on 11 December 1282 in the region of Buellt, having left Gwynedd to pursue the war in the Marche. See http://www.sarahwoodbury.com/cilmeri1282/ for the full story.
I have a whole series of books featuring him, which can be found here … The After Cilmeri Series
And a new series that takes place after his death … Crouchback. | <urn:uuid:062a75cc-eee1-4a16-bf90-554e79c4927c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sarahwoodbury.com/llywelyn-ap-gruffydd/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.987198 | 807 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.4070622920... | 4 | Llywelyn ap Gruffydd was born somewhere around 1225 (amazingly, historians are sure of neither the date nor his true mother–although there are enough hints to conclude that it was Senana, his father’s wife). He was the second son of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. Other sons were Owain, the eldest, Rhodri, who never made a claim for any power in Wales, and Dafydd, who was thirteen years younger.
When Llywelyn Fawr, the great Prince of Wales, died in 1240, he left two sons: Gruffydd, who was the eldest but illegitimate and Dafydd, who was younger but born to Llywelyn Fawr’s lawful wife, Joanna, the illegitimate daughter of King John of England. Although it was customary in Wales to divide an inheritance equally between all sons no matter on which side of the blanket they’d been born, Llywelyn Fawr instructed that only Dafydd would follow him as the Prince of Wales. This decree was supported by King Henry of England, who was the ruler at the time, and the Church, whose aim was discourage the production of by-blows. This law was not the only conflict between Welsh tradition and the Catholic Church, although one of the most contentious.
Gruffydd, quite naturally, objected to his disinheritance, and set about undermining Dafydd’s rule, in the great tradition of warring, Welsh nobility and brotherhood. Dafydd retaliated by imprisoning Gruffydd and his eldest son, Owain, in one of his castles. In a further attempt to undermine her brother-in-law, Gruffydd’s wife, Senana, went to King Henry, begging for her husband’s deliverance.
King Henry responded to her plea by offering Gruffydd’s entire family asylum in England. When the family arrived, however, King Henry threw them into the Tower of London. Consequently, Gruffydd’s young son, Dafydd, only three years old at the time, grew up in England. He spent his days playing with Henry’s son, Edward (and the future king of England), was more fluent in French than Welsh, and hardly knew the lands he claimed to love, or the people in them.
Llywelyn was sixteen at this time. Rather than follow his father and elder brother into captivity, he ran away to Aber Garth Celyn and his uncle’s court. That single action set him apart from his brothers and ensured that he was at Garth Celyn, ready to take over, when his Uncle Dafydd died unexpectedly and without an heir in 1246.
Gruffydd, however, had already died first. In 1244, while trying to escape the Tower of London, the rope he was using to scale down from his window broke. By this time, Dafydd was six years old and Llywelyn nineteen. Instead of returning to Wales, Senana made the fateful decision to stay in England, under the continued patronage of the kings of England, and keep her younger sons with her, leaving the field open for Llywelyn and his older brother Owain, with whom he established an uneasy truce.
Llywelyn ap Gruffydd died on 11 December 1282 in the region of Buellt, having left Gwynedd to pursue the war in the Marche. See http://www.sarahwoodbury.com/cilmeri1282/ for the full story.
I have a whole series of books featuring him, which can be found here … The After Cilmeri Series
And a new series that takes place after his death … Crouchback. | 791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The analysis of The Gift of the Magi
“The Gift of the Magi” is a short story created by famous short story writer O. Henry. Through the most common action in daily life, present the Christmas gift as a center, the story is mainly talking about a poor but loving couple, Della and Jim, they want to give a wonderful gift to each other in the Christmas, but due to the factor that they do not have enough money to get that. Thus they sell their most worthy things to grain money ( Della’s hair and Jim’s gold watch) and buy the gift. However, in the end, they discover that gifts they send to one another must match with their treasures respectively (A serious of combs and a beautiful chain). Nevertheless, they have sold the hair and the watch already.
At the beginning of the story, the writer has explained the setting of the story, that the protagonist Della and her husband Jim is a needy couple, ‘Furnished rooms at a cost of $8 a week.’ This is a cultural conflict, because nowadays, follow the developing of the social, it cannot happen that people only need pay 8 dollar, you can have a place to live, this merely is a price of a cup of Starbucks’s coffee, but at that period, the country is not so advanced, the money is not as valuable as now, that you just need cost a little money, you can own a house. Then the story has said the reason of why does Della want to save money because she wants to present a fantastic Christmas gift for Jim. Although she just had 1.87 dollars now……. “Only $ 1.87 to buy a gift for Jim. Her Jim. She had had many happy hours planning something nice for him.” Here is a direct characterization that expresses Della’s sincere love for Jim. On the other hand, Della is a brave woman. That when she is sad, she will cry soundlessly, that does not let Jim see her this state.”
Della finished her crying and cleaned the marks of it from her face.” Then the writers have to use an internal conflict of Della to display the significance of her hair and Jim’s watch, ” Della knew her hair was more beautiful than any queen’s jewels and gifts.” And This has set the stage for the below content, that emphasizes the significance of Della cut her hair.
Something is worthing to indicate is Della and Jim both are static characters, they love each other throughout whole fiction, which could see from “He said. ‘Nothing like a haircut could make me love you any less.’ Oh, this is so sweet…… And we can see this condition from the movement that they both are willing to use their most precious things to change the things which their lover like. Della uses her hair to get the gold watch chain, and Jim uses his gold watch which his father’s father gave him to get serious about combs which Della likes very much.Whereas, Della also is a dynamic character in this story. Her mood from restless to excited, that at first she just have 1.87 dollars, and she is worried about what gift could she present to her husband, but then she finds that she could sell her pretty hair to get money and then buy the gift. Thus she became excited. Second, she from excited to nervous, on account of after she loses her hair, she afraid of that Jim did not like she like this. And here appears an internal conflict, too. Della afraid of her husband back home, she fears her husband dislikes her, meantime, she hopes her husband come back quickly, because she wants to show the gift to Jim immediately, and let Jim happy. This is more vivid to let a person feeling that Della’s cute and her affection for Jim. Third, she from nervous to be grieved, her Christmas gift from Jim is combs, however, she has sold her hair. And she cannot bear this surprising, she cried. In that moment, her mood is changing, so she is a dynamic character, too.
Jim is a character made very rich, that although there are no plots in the novel have written especially about how does Jim love his wife. From some indirect describe, the reader still could feel Jim’s love, take Jim presents Della combs as an example, ” For there lay The Combs—the combs that Della had seen in a shop window and loved for a long time.” From here, people know that Jim
noticed this point, and always remember this. If this is not loving, what is this? Not only this, the reader also could realize that Jim wants to give Della a surprise about the comb for Della when he backs home. Nevertheless, due to the factor that Della has cut her hair, therefore, this means his present is useless, and this has shocked him. This is the cause that why does Jim freeze when he saw Della’s long hair disappear.
Overall, O. Henry writing “The Gift of the Magi ” to manifest at that sociality which is settling on money, people even could find the love of money. Whereas, on the contrary, Della and Jim lose their treasures, but they have made a closer love between themselves, this is really admirable and the writer hopes more people respect the love. In that dark sociality, their relationship lets me feel touched and warmth.
The analysis of The Gift of the Magi | <urn:uuid:ae0263ae-cb20-428d-beba-94d05a62a57b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://firstnightdanbury.org/the-you-can-have-a-place-to/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00426.warc.gz | en | 0.983279 | 1,165 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.4957278966903... | 1 | The analysis of The Gift of the Magi
“The Gift of the Magi” is a short story created by famous short story writer O. Henry. Through the most common action in daily life, present the Christmas gift as a center, the story is mainly talking about a poor but loving couple, Della and Jim, they want to give a wonderful gift to each other in the Christmas, but due to the factor that they do not have enough money to get that. Thus they sell their most worthy things to grain money ( Della’s hair and Jim’s gold watch) and buy the gift. However, in the end, they discover that gifts they send to one another must match with their treasures respectively (A serious of combs and a beautiful chain). Nevertheless, they have sold the hair and the watch already.
At the beginning of the story, the writer has explained the setting of the story, that the protagonist Della and her husband Jim is a needy couple, ‘Furnished rooms at a cost of $8 a week.’ This is a cultural conflict, because nowadays, follow the developing of the social, it cannot happen that people only need pay 8 dollar, you can have a place to live, this merely is a price of a cup of Starbucks’s coffee, but at that period, the country is not so advanced, the money is not as valuable as now, that you just need cost a little money, you can own a house. Then the story has said the reason of why does Della want to save money because she wants to present a fantastic Christmas gift for Jim. Although she just had 1.87 dollars now……. “Only $ 1.87 to buy a gift for Jim. Her Jim. She had had many happy hours planning something nice for him.” Here is a direct characterization that expresses Della’s sincere love for Jim. On the other hand, Della is a brave woman. That when she is sad, she will cry soundlessly, that does not let Jim see her this state.”
Della finished her crying and cleaned the marks of it from her face.” Then the writers have to use an internal conflict of Della to display the significance of her hair and Jim’s watch, ” Della knew her hair was more beautiful than any queen’s jewels and gifts.” And This has set the stage for the below content, that emphasizes the significance of Della cut her hair.
Something is worthing to indicate is Della and Jim both are static characters, they love each other throughout whole fiction, which could see from “He said. ‘Nothing like a haircut could make me love you any less.’ Oh, this is so sweet…… And we can see this condition from the movement that they both are willing to use their most precious things to change the things which their lover like. Della uses her hair to get the gold watch chain, and Jim uses his gold watch which his father’s father gave him to get serious about combs which Della likes very much.Whereas, Della also is a dynamic character in this story. Her mood from restless to excited, that at first she just have 1.87 dollars, and she is worried about what gift could she present to her husband, but then she finds that she could sell her pretty hair to get money and then buy the gift. Thus she became excited. Second, she from excited to nervous, on account of after she loses her hair, she afraid of that Jim did not like she like this. And here appears an internal conflict, too. Della afraid of her husband back home, she fears her husband dislikes her, meantime, she hopes her husband come back quickly, because she wants to show the gift to Jim immediately, and let Jim happy. This is more vivid to let a person feeling that Della’s cute and her affection for Jim. Third, she from nervous to be grieved, her Christmas gift from Jim is combs, however, she has sold her hair. And she cannot bear this surprising, she cried. In that moment, her mood is changing, so she is a dynamic character, too.
Jim is a character made very rich, that although there are no plots in the novel have written especially about how does Jim love his wife. From some indirect describe, the reader still could feel Jim’s love, take Jim presents Della combs as an example, ” For there lay The Combs—the combs that Della had seen in a shop window and loved for a long time.” From here, people know that Jim
noticed this point, and always remember this. If this is not loving, what is this? Not only this, the reader also could realize that Jim wants to give Della a surprise about the comb for Della when he backs home. Nevertheless, due to the factor that Della has cut her hair, therefore, this means his present is useless, and this has shocked him. This is the cause that why does Jim freeze when he saw Della’s long hair disappear.
Overall, O. Henry writing “The Gift of the Magi ” to manifest at that sociality which is settling on money, people even could find the love of money. Whereas, on the contrary, Della and Jim lose their treasures, but they have made a closer love between themselves, this is really admirable and the writer hopes more people respect the love. In that dark sociality, their relationship lets me feel touched and warmth.
The analysis of The Gift of the Magi | 1,118 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A 5,700-year-old wad of “chewing gum” has given Danish researchers insight into the life of a person in the Stone Age.
Researchers from the University of Copenhagen were able to reconstruct a complete human genome from birch pitch — an ancient chewing gum-like material — found during archaeological excavations at Syltholm, southern Denmark.
Through the DNA extracted from the birch pitch, the researchers determine the chewer was female and that she likely had dark hair, dark skin and blue eyes.
Genetic material from the two-centimetre-long birch pitch also revealed that she was lactose intolerant and that she had previously eaten a meal, that included duck and hazelnuts. These were likely staples of her diet.
They also discovered DNA from microbes that may have lived in her mouth, including older versions of Epstein-Barr virus, which causes mononucleosis, and bacteria that can cause pneumonia or gum disease.
Birch pitch has been used for thousands of years as a natural adhesive for making arrowheads and other tools. The tar was likely chewed to make it more pliable through heat.
The researchers also believe that the female may have chewed birch pitch — a natural antiseptic — to help relieve toothache, clean her teeth or use as an ancient chewing gum.
The study was published Tuesday in the journal Nature Communications. | <urn:uuid:a68c98de-11ca-4f69-8949-f21612d94f69> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vancouversun.com/technology/5700-year-old-chewing-gum-helps-create-profile-of-person-who-lived-in-the-stone-age/wcm/35d4bb99-5aed-4fd2-80a5-dbbb5d22c00d | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.982249 | 290 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.041429534... | 6 | A 5,700-year-old wad of “chewing gum” has given Danish researchers insight into the life of a person in the Stone Age.
Researchers from the University of Copenhagen were able to reconstruct a complete human genome from birch pitch — an ancient chewing gum-like material — found during archaeological excavations at Syltholm, southern Denmark.
Through the DNA extracted from the birch pitch, the researchers determine the chewer was female and that she likely had dark hair, dark skin and blue eyes.
Genetic material from the two-centimetre-long birch pitch also revealed that she was lactose intolerant and that she had previously eaten a meal, that included duck and hazelnuts. These were likely staples of her diet.
They also discovered DNA from microbes that may have lived in her mouth, including older versions of Epstein-Barr virus, which causes mononucleosis, and bacteria that can cause pneumonia or gum disease.
Birch pitch has been used for thousands of years as a natural adhesive for making arrowheads and other tools. The tar was likely chewed to make it more pliable through heat.
The researchers also believe that the female may have chewed birch pitch — a natural antiseptic — to help relieve toothache, clean her teeth or use as an ancient chewing gum.
The study was published Tuesday in the journal Nature Communications. | 280 | ENGLISH | 1 |
People - Ancient Greece: Philetaerus (ca. 343 BC–263 BC) He was the founder of the
Attalid dynasty of Pergamon in Anatolia.
Philetaerus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898)
（Φιλέταιρος). The founder of the kingdom of Pergamum, a native of Paphlagonia (Strabo, pp. 543, 623). He had served in the army of Antigonus and later in that of Lysimachus, who put him in charge of the treasure stored at Pergamum. Philetaerus, shifting for himself, declared in favour of Seleucus (q.v.), but after the death of the latter (B.C. 280) practically established his own independence, and on his death (B.C. 263) left the government to his nephew Eumenes (Lucian, Macrob. 12).
Philetaerus in Wikipedia
Philetaerus (Greek: Φιλέταιρος, Philétairos, ca. 343 BC–263 BC) was the founder of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon in Anatolia.
He was born in Tieium (Greek: Tieion), a small town on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia between Bithynia to the west and Paphlagonia to the east. His father was Attalus (Greek: Attalos) (perhaps from Macedon) and his mother Boa was Paphlagonian.
After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Philetaerus became embroiled in the struggle for supremacy, called the Wars of the Diadochi (diadochi means "successors" in Greek) between Alexander's regional governors, Antigonus in Phrygia, Lysimachus in Thrace and Seleucus in Babylonia (among others). Philetaerus served first under Antigonus. He then shifted his allegiance to Lysimachus (ruler of Pergamon from 323 BC to 281 BC), who, after Antigonus was killed at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, made Philetaerus commander of Pergamon, where Lysimachus kept a treasury of nine thousand talents of silver.
Philetaerus served Lysimachus until 282 BC, when perhaps because of conflicts involving the court intrigues of Arsinoe, Lysimachus' third wife, Philetaerus deserted Lysimachus, offering himself and the important fortress of Pergamon, along with its treasury to Seleucus, who subsequently defeated and killed Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC. Seleucus himself was killed by Ptolemy Ceraunus, a brother of Arsinoe at Lysimachia a few months later.
Though nominally under Seleucid control, Philetaerus, especially after the death of Seleucus, had considerable autonomy and was able with the help of his considerable wealth to increase his power and influence beyond Pergamon. There are numerous records of Philetaerus as benefactor to neighboring cities and temples, including the temples at Delphi and Delos. He also contributed troops, money and food to the city of Cyzicus for defense against the invading Gauls. As a result Philetaerus gained prestige and goodwill for himself and his family.
During his nearly forty year rule, he constructed on the acropolis of Pergamon, the temple of Demeter, and the temple of Athena (Pergamon's patron deity), and Pergamon's first palace and he added considerably to the city's fortifications.
Philetaerus was a eunuch, though scholars differ on the reason for his castration. Attalus I, the first Attalid king of Pergamon, explained that when Philetaerus was a baby, he was brought into a crowd where he was pressed upon and his testicles were crushed. Some scholars believe that this story was concocted by Attalus as a way to make the origins of his dynasty look better, for eunuchs that were castrated for the purpose of royal service (which is the other plausible reason for Philetaerus' eunuchism) were often humiliated. The fact that Philetaerus was a eunuch can be seen by his overweight appearance on coins minted after his death.
"Philetaerus of Tieium, was a eunuch from boyhood; for it came to pass at a certain burial, when a spectacle was being given at which many people were present, that the nurse who was carrying Philetaerus, still an infant, was caught in the crowd and pressed so hard that the child was incapacitated. He was a eunuch, therefore, but he was well trained and proved worthy of this trust."
Philetaerus never married and, since he was a eunuch, had no children. He adopted his nephew Eumenes I (the son of Philetaerus' brother also named Eumenes), who succeeded him as ruler of Pergamon, upon his death in 263 BC. With the exception of Eumenes II, all future Attalid rulers depicted the bust of Philetaerus on their coins, paying tribute to the founder of their dynasty. | <urn:uuid:33399566-aafa-4a23-95c9-81b6eea7520b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=48&sub=4310&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Greece&subcat_name=Philetaerus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00280.warc.gz | en | 0.981686 | 1,144 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.20826983451843... | 1 | People - Ancient Greece: Philetaerus (ca. 343 BC–263 BC) He was the founder of the
Attalid dynasty of Pergamon in Anatolia.
Philetaerus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898)
（Φιλέταιρος). The founder of the kingdom of Pergamum, a native of Paphlagonia (Strabo, pp. 543, 623). He had served in the army of Antigonus and later in that of Lysimachus, who put him in charge of the treasure stored at Pergamum. Philetaerus, shifting for himself, declared in favour of Seleucus (q.v.), but after the death of the latter (B.C. 280) practically established his own independence, and on his death (B.C. 263) left the government to his nephew Eumenes (Lucian, Macrob. 12).
Philetaerus in Wikipedia
Philetaerus (Greek: Φιλέταιρος, Philétairos, ca. 343 BC–263 BC) was the founder of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon in Anatolia.
He was born in Tieium (Greek: Tieion), a small town on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia between Bithynia to the west and Paphlagonia to the east. His father was Attalus (Greek: Attalos) (perhaps from Macedon) and his mother Boa was Paphlagonian.
After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Philetaerus became embroiled in the struggle for supremacy, called the Wars of the Diadochi (diadochi means "successors" in Greek) between Alexander's regional governors, Antigonus in Phrygia, Lysimachus in Thrace and Seleucus in Babylonia (among others). Philetaerus served first under Antigonus. He then shifted his allegiance to Lysimachus (ruler of Pergamon from 323 BC to 281 BC), who, after Antigonus was killed at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, made Philetaerus commander of Pergamon, where Lysimachus kept a treasury of nine thousand talents of silver.
Philetaerus served Lysimachus until 282 BC, when perhaps because of conflicts involving the court intrigues of Arsinoe, Lysimachus' third wife, Philetaerus deserted Lysimachus, offering himself and the important fortress of Pergamon, along with its treasury to Seleucus, who subsequently defeated and killed Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC. Seleucus himself was killed by Ptolemy Ceraunus, a brother of Arsinoe at Lysimachia a few months later.
Though nominally under Seleucid control, Philetaerus, especially after the death of Seleucus, had considerable autonomy and was able with the help of his considerable wealth to increase his power and influence beyond Pergamon. There are numerous records of Philetaerus as benefactor to neighboring cities and temples, including the temples at Delphi and Delos. He also contributed troops, money and food to the city of Cyzicus for defense against the invading Gauls. As a result Philetaerus gained prestige and goodwill for himself and his family.
During his nearly forty year rule, he constructed on the acropolis of Pergamon, the temple of Demeter, and the temple of Athena (Pergamon's patron deity), and Pergamon's first palace and he added considerably to the city's fortifications.
Philetaerus was a eunuch, though scholars differ on the reason for his castration. Attalus I, the first Attalid king of Pergamon, explained that when Philetaerus was a baby, he was brought into a crowd where he was pressed upon and his testicles were crushed. Some scholars believe that this story was concocted by Attalus as a way to make the origins of his dynasty look better, for eunuchs that were castrated for the purpose of royal service (which is the other plausible reason for Philetaerus' eunuchism) were often humiliated. The fact that Philetaerus was a eunuch can be seen by his overweight appearance on coins minted after his death.
"Philetaerus of Tieium, was a eunuch from boyhood; for it came to pass at a certain burial, when a spectacle was being given at which many people were present, that the nurse who was carrying Philetaerus, still an infant, was caught in the crowd and pressed so hard that the child was incapacitated. He was a eunuch, therefore, but he was well trained and proved worthy of this trust."
Philetaerus never married and, since he was a eunuch, had no children. He adopted his nephew Eumenes I (the son of Philetaerus' brother also named Eumenes), who succeeded him as ruler of Pergamon, upon his death in 263 BC. With the exception of Eumenes II, all future Attalid rulers depicted the bust of Philetaerus on their coins, paying tribute to the founder of their dynasty. | 1,163 | ENGLISH | 1 |
April 1946: 1,040 Jews bound for Palestine stage a protest at the Italian port town of La Spezia. Leon Uris, in his epic book Exodus, and later Otto Preminger in his film of the same name, tell the near-true story that caught the world's attention. Theirs, however, is set in Cyprus, Ari Ben Canaan, played by Paul Newman, is the hero and the ship is called the Exodus. In reality, the ship at La Spezia was called the Fede, later renamed the Dov Hoz, the good people were Italian, not Cypriots, and the hero was a Palestine-raised Polish Jew named Yehuda Arazi. In 1946, after years of fascist rule and Nazi rule, the displaced Jews of Europe, numbering almost 100,000, were desperate to find a home, and no one would have them. Refugee camps around Europe overflowed and Palestine, the only place with outstretched arms, was closed to them. As tension in Europe escalated in 1939, a movement called Bricha (escape) began, aimed at getting Jewish refugees from all over Europe into Palestine. In 1946, the way out of Europe was Italy. From the end of WWII to Israel's declaration of statehood, Arazi helped send more than 26,000 Jewish refugees from Italy to Palestine. No book has him as the main character, however, and though the story from La Spezia made front-page news the world over for a week in April 1946, not once was Arazi mentioned. That said, I would like to take up the task, and honor, of telling you of our modern-day Moses, and how he led his people out of Egypt. Arazi, perhaps one of the most wanted men of the Mandate, borrowed (that is, you understand, a loose term) enough trucks from the British army to convey nearly 1,200 concentration camp survivors and supplies from Italian DP camps to the port at La Spezia. He also "borrowed" enough food to keep the refugees nourished during their sea voyage. The refugees made their way through the Italian countryside to the port, boarded the Fede and renamed it the Dov Hoz, but before they could lift anchor, the ship was boarded by Italian police. The police believed that the ship was full of fascists escaping to Spain. The police, who were under British control, were ordered to seize the ship and detain it, though they would have preferred to let the refugees seek refuge in Palestine. As soon as the British demanded that the Jews disembark from the Dov Hoz and return "home," Arazi, using his charisma, and no shortage of willingness from the refugees, conspired in a mass suicide pact. The threat: If any British soldier boarded the ship they would blow themselves up. The hook: A hunger strike; anyone over 17 fasted until demands were met. The demand: Let my people go! No Italian mother can see a bambino go hungry, and many went down to the port and started clamoring. Before long, the media got wind of the situation and the circus began. During the late Forties, it didn't take much to make the British look bad, and on this occasion they looked very bad indeed. As if Italian mothers and reporters weren't enough, Arazi started sending telegrams from the Dov Hoz to world leaders. Before long, he had the US and USSR breathing down the proverbial British neck. As the hunger strike entered its second day, those over 13 in the Yishuv, the Jewish community in Palestine, joined in as well. Pessah approached and the rabbis of the Yishuv said that at the Seder that year all were to eat one piece of matza no bigger than an olive, and the four cups of wine were to be replaced with tea. I can only imagine that on that night, the people aboard the Dov Hoz and those in Palestine read from their Haggadot that every generation must see itself as if they had personally left Egypt. The fulfillment of the promise that God had saved not only their ancestors but them as well, was confirmed the next day when the 101-hour hunger strike ended with British permission for the 1,040 refugees to enter Israel. Why do we tell the Pessah story? I believe we do it for the reminder and the realization that we - and I mean the greater We, humanity as a whole - live in our own personal Egypt. Nonetheless, we are hopeful that the possibility of a better life, a Promised Land, is attainable, and reaffirm so each year through our retelling of the story. That the Promised Land is my birthright, I do not doubt; that the way forward lies through the wilderness is a given. What I convey to myself and my children each year is the knowledge that the only way to get there is by joining together. | <urn:uuid:11d52627-79fe-4da7-b948-59183fc89612> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jpost.com/Local-Israel/In-Jerusalem/Let-my-people-go | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.983609 | 1,013 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.69530773162... | 3 | April 1946: 1,040 Jews bound for Palestine stage a protest at the Italian port town of La Spezia. Leon Uris, in his epic book Exodus, and later Otto Preminger in his film of the same name, tell the near-true story that caught the world's attention. Theirs, however, is set in Cyprus, Ari Ben Canaan, played by Paul Newman, is the hero and the ship is called the Exodus. In reality, the ship at La Spezia was called the Fede, later renamed the Dov Hoz, the good people were Italian, not Cypriots, and the hero was a Palestine-raised Polish Jew named Yehuda Arazi. In 1946, after years of fascist rule and Nazi rule, the displaced Jews of Europe, numbering almost 100,000, were desperate to find a home, and no one would have them. Refugee camps around Europe overflowed and Palestine, the only place with outstretched arms, was closed to them. As tension in Europe escalated in 1939, a movement called Bricha (escape) began, aimed at getting Jewish refugees from all over Europe into Palestine. In 1946, the way out of Europe was Italy. From the end of WWII to Israel's declaration of statehood, Arazi helped send more than 26,000 Jewish refugees from Italy to Palestine. No book has him as the main character, however, and though the story from La Spezia made front-page news the world over for a week in April 1946, not once was Arazi mentioned. That said, I would like to take up the task, and honor, of telling you of our modern-day Moses, and how he led his people out of Egypt. Arazi, perhaps one of the most wanted men of the Mandate, borrowed (that is, you understand, a loose term) enough trucks from the British army to convey nearly 1,200 concentration camp survivors and supplies from Italian DP camps to the port at La Spezia. He also "borrowed" enough food to keep the refugees nourished during their sea voyage. The refugees made their way through the Italian countryside to the port, boarded the Fede and renamed it the Dov Hoz, but before they could lift anchor, the ship was boarded by Italian police. The police believed that the ship was full of fascists escaping to Spain. The police, who were under British control, were ordered to seize the ship and detain it, though they would have preferred to let the refugees seek refuge in Palestine. As soon as the British demanded that the Jews disembark from the Dov Hoz and return "home," Arazi, using his charisma, and no shortage of willingness from the refugees, conspired in a mass suicide pact. The threat: If any British soldier boarded the ship they would blow themselves up. The hook: A hunger strike; anyone over 17 fasted until demands were met. The demand: Let my people go! No Italian mother can see a bambino go hungry, and many went down to the port and started clamoring. Before long, the media got wind of the situation and the circus began. During the late Forties, it didn't take much to make the British look bad, and on this occasion they looked very bad indeed. As if Italian mothers and reporters weren't enough, Arazi started sending telegrams from the Dov Hoz to world leaders. Before long, he had the US and USSR breathing down the proverbial British neck. As the hunger strike entered its second day, those over 13 in the Yishuv, the Jewish community in Palestine, joined in as well. Pessah approached and the rabbis of the Yishuv said that at the Seder that year all were to eat one piece of matza no bigger than an olive, and the four cups of wine were to be replaced with tea. I can only imagine that on that night, the people aboard the Dov Hoz and those in Palestine read from their Haggadot that every generation must see itself as if they had personally left Egypt. The fulfillment of the promise that God had saved not only their ancestors but them as well, was confirmed the next day when the 101-hour hunger strike ended with British permission for the 1,040 refugees to enter Israel. Why do we tell the Pessah story? I believe we do it for the reminder and the realization that we - and I mean the greater We, humanity as a whole - live in our own personal Egypt. Nonetheless, we are hopeful that the possibility of a better life, a Promised Land, is attainable, and reaffirm so each year through our retelling of the story. That the Promised Land is my birthright, I do not doubt; that the way forward lies through the wilderness is a given. What I convey to myself and my children each year is the knowledge that the only way to get there is by joining together. | 1,047 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The story of the Good Samaritan is narrated in the gospel of Saint Luke in the bible in the New Testament. The parable is narrated to a lawyer who intended to test Jesus. The lawyer had first asked Jesus what he had to do in order to inherit the kingdom of heaven. The lawyer was an expert of law. This means that he was just testing Jesus since he already knew what he was to do. As a teacher of law, this lawyer knew all the laws. However, he was trying to find a reason which he could use to prosecute Jesus.
Jesus does not answer the question but asks the lawyer what the law says about the issue. Jesus already knew the intentions of this lawyer and this is why he did not directly answer the question from him but instead asked him another question. The lawyer answers the question himself by saying that you should love God with all your heart, soul and mind. He also says that you should love your neighbor as you love yourself. This is the summary of the commandments that were given by Moses. Jesus then tells the lawyer that the answer he had given is correct and the lawyer should do this and he will live. This is enough prove that the lawyer was an expert of the Law of Moses but he was after testing Jesus.
The lawyer then asks Jesus, “Who is your neighbor?” this lawyer was not seeking humility and the true meaning of a neighbor (Peter, 47). The lawyer seemed not satisfied with the answer given by Jesus and he wanted to trick him more. The lawyer just wanted to justify that what he does is correct and therefore he is worth inheriting the kingdom of heaven. He thought that a neighbor is his relatives who lived next to him. He would then approve his actions since he loved and helped his relatives. By loving the people who lived next to him and his relatives, the lawyer was sure that he obeyed the commandment that requires Christians to love their neighbors. The lawyer did not actually know the meaning of neighbor. This is why Jesus gives the parable of the Good Samaritan as an answer to the meaning of a neighbor.
The parable of the Good Samaritan demonstrates the true love that the law talks about and many people ignore this love. The road from Jerusalem to Jericho was characterized by a lot of insecurity (Funk, 57). There were many robbers along the road. Jesus therefore gives a story of a man who was attacked by the robbers, beaten and left half dead. This man was a Jew. The first person to pass by was a priest. This priest passed on the other side of the road. He gave no assistance to the man who was already robbed, beaten and was left with no clothes. The priest may be thought that the man was dead and it was unclean to touch dead bodies according to the Jewish traditions. The priest did not therefore risk becoming unclean. He did not even look at the man again. In addition, the priest tried to avoid being associated with the robbery.
The second person who passed by was a Levite. Levites were individuals who helped in the temple activities. All these individuals were Jews. The Levite also passed because he did not want to risk being unclean. The Levite however moved closer to see the man who was already injured and half dead. The Levite also did not risk being associated with the robbery and therefore went away and left the man on the road. The priest and the Levites were regarded as holy people in those days and therefore could not be attacked by the robbers. However, they did not risk helping their fellow Jew who needed their help.
The third person was a Samaritan (Funk, 58). During those times, the relationship between the Jews and the Samaritans was not good. The Samaritans were always hated by the Jews and it is not expected that the Samaritan would help the Jew. However, the Samaritan put aside the enmity between them and the Jews and decided to help the Jew who was in need. He gave first aid to the Jew and then paid another person to take care of the Jew. In addition, he gave the Jew food. He was even ready to pay any other expenses that would be incurred. Jesus after giving the parable to the lawyer, he asked who was a neighbor according to the parable. Since the lawyer knew that the practices of the Jews did not demonstrate true love, he was not comfortable to answer Jesus that the good neighbor in the story was the Samaritan. Instead, he answered by saying that whenever helped the suffering Jew was a good neighbor. Jesus comments that we should also do as the Samaritan did.
After the story of the Good Samaritan, Jesus went to the home of Martha and Mary. Mary sat near Jesus listening to the teachings of Jesus. However, Martha started complaining that Mary was not helping her in the house. However, Jesus said that Mary had chosen the right thing (Funk, 59).
The story of the Good Samaritan is affected by the preceding stories. The story of the Good Samaritan and the stories before and after the parable help to clearly describe a neighbor. The lawyer thought that by helping his relative, he was observing the law that requires people to love their neighbors. However, the parable shows that the neighbors of the lawyer were not his relatives but the people who needed the help of the lawyer. This clearly shows that the Christians
Should help the people in need of their help and not only their relatives and the people living next to them. This shows the true love that the scripture talks about.
The story that comes after the parable of the Good Samaritan also helps to describe the meaning of a neighbor better. Even though Martha was in need of Mary’s help, Jesus shows that this is not the kind of help that a neighbor requires. Mary was doing the right thing and therefore she was not required to go and help Martha. This shows that the help given to a person in need should not be against the will of God.
The story of the Good Samaritan intended to criticize the Jews for their behavior. The Jews loved themselves and hated other people such as the Samaritans. The parable shows the act of the Jews were against the teachings of god. Even though they knew the teachings of the scripture, the Jews only did the things that favored them and ignored the true teachings of God. In addition, individuals such as priests and the Levites thought that they were very pure and did not consider helping the individuals who were in need of their help. They had their own traditions which they followed strictly but some of these traditions were against the teachings of God.
The story teaches that Christians should ignore their bad relationship with others and instead go ahead and help them. The parable shows that even though the Samaritans did not know the teachings of the law, they obeyed the law more than the Jews who knew the law but did not follow it. The Samaritan who helped the person who was attacked by the robbers gave help to the person without caring whether he was a Jew or a Samaritan. Christians should therefore help others regardless of the relationship, color, race or the religion of the individual. This is the love for the neighbors that the law talks about.
The parable of the Good Samaritan represents allegoric structure in writing. The characters used in the parable have their literal meaning. The robbers who had injured and robbed the Jew represent the Satan who makes man to sin. The injuries on the Jew represent the sins against the lord. The Jew who had been injured and left on the road represents Adam or men who sin against God. The oil that was used to clean wounds on the injured Jew represents the blood and mercy of Jesus that cleaned the sins of mankind by dying on the cross.
The Jew was taken care at an inn representing the church whereby Christians are taught that they should repent so that their sins are forgiven as the injuries of the man got cured(Peter, 47) . The person employed to take care of the Jew represents the leaders of the church who are supposed to help the Christians to repent and pray for forgiveness. On the other hand, the priest represents the law while the Levite represents the prophets. The fact that the Good Samaritan promised to come back and pay the expenses of the Jew represents the meaning that Jesus will come back for his people. Therefore the parable has a literal meaning and this is why it is said to be allegorical in nature. This comparison of the characters in the parable is what is called allegorist. The good Samaritans are compared with the priest and the Levite. In addition, these characters represented different things in the actual setting of the story. The use of allegories helps people do better understand the teachings that Jesus was delivering to the people.
Allegory has also been used in other parts of the bible. Allegory is used in the old testament whereby silver snake so that whoever was bitten by a snake would look at the silver snake and get healed. This is an allegory because the silver snake represents Jesus who was crucified while the individuals who were bitten represented the sinners. Allegory is used in the New Testament books. Allegory is used because it is easy to understand the intended meaning. This is why Jesus used many parables that were allegorical.
Parallelism is a structure in writing where different stories are told about a similar thing. There is a lot of parallelism that is demonstrated in the gospel books namely Luke Mathew and mark (Klyne, 97). Many parables had similar teachings. Most of them addressed the issue of the salvation of the mankind. The parables in the gospels that demonstrate parallelism include the parable of the Good Samaritan, the parable of the prodigal son and the parable of the good thief. All these parables demonstrate that the salvation was not only brought to the Jews. Instead, Jesus intended to save all the individuals regardless of their tribe, race, religion or color. It can be observed that parallelism has been applied in the above parables since they aim at teaching a similar thing.
Redaction critics were fully applied in the book of Luke when writing the parable of the Good Samaritan. This is due to the fact that the author new the traditions of the individuals in the context. The parable is not given as it was told but the author had the independence of including more since he knew the relationship that existed between the Jews and the Samaritans.
The author knew the traditions of the Jews. He was aware that they did not touch the dead bodies and this is why the priest did not touch the man who was lying on the road. The author also knew that the road from Jerusalem to Jericho was risky due to the robbers, rocky and the mountainous conditions of the region. He also knew that the Jews hated the Samaritans and this is why he used this information when writing the parable. He also knew that the priests and the Levites were individuals who viewed themselves as clean people and therefore avoided anything that would make them to be unclean. The writer also knew that the Jews considered themselves a special tribe separate from the others. With this knowledge, the author of the passage was able to change the parable to make the readers of the bible better understand the whole context. He used the information to criticize the Jews who viewed themselves as holy and special chosen race.
The theologically important words in the bible include the priest, Levites and the law. These words are also found in other parts of the bible. The priests mean people who usually preach and direct the other Christians (Klyne, 102). They are the individuals believed to know the scriptures and teach the others. The Levites are the leaders who usually help in the church. They also know the teachings of the scriptures and they help the Christians on the matters of spirituality. The word law is usually used by the theologists to refer to the commandments of the lord. These are the Ten Commandments that were given to Moses by God at Mount Sinai. These were the laws that the Israelites were supposed to obey. The word gentiles theologically mean the people who are not yet baptized and are non Jews. All these theological words have been used in the parable of the Good Samaritan.
This passage shows the love that God has to the mankind. In the parable, the Good Samaritan is viewed as Jesus who died on behalf of the sinners. Even though the sinners destroy the relationship between man and God, God is always willing to renew this relationship. God also doesn’t discriminate the races or the tribes. Jesus served both Jews and the gentiles equally and He wanted everybody to know that there is no special tribe. If anybody accepts to repent and follow the Laws, then he/she will inherit the kingdom of God. God’s always wants a good relationship with the people and this is why he made sure that there are the priests to guide te people to do the right things.
The parable of the Good Samaritan helped solve several issues that existed in the time. First, the belief that the Jews were the only chosen tribe was brought to an end. This is because the parable demonstrated that Samaritans were obeying the lord even more than the Jews were doing. The Jews thought that they were obeying the law by passing by without giving assistance to the injured Jew with an aim of avoiding becoming unclean (John, 84). Jesus was able to show that the Jews were breaking the commandments even though they knew the correct teachings of the scriptures.
The parable also helped to clearly define a neighbor. The people who lived during the times were able to know that a neighbor is an individual in need of their help and not only the neighbors. This is as opposed to the earlier belief that a neighbor is a person who lives next to you. The belief that the Levites and the priests are the pure people following the commandments was clarified. If the priests and the Levites are the right people to follow, then they would have helped the man who had been injured by the robbers.
The parable of the Good Samaritan helped the people of the time to see the need for loving each other and avoiding hatred. The parable showed that people should be able to be united and live peacefully helping each other. If the Good Samaritan hated the Jews, he would have avoided giving assistance to the Jew who was already wounded and abandoned.
The parable of the Good Samaritan helped to warn the Jews to avoid their traditional beliefs such as touching a dead body makes an individual to be unclean (John, 89). This is because such beliefs make people to avoid assisting other when in problems. The other problem that the parable solved that time is the disbelief that Jesus was the son of God. When the lawyer noticed that Jesus had a lot of wisdom and answered the questions he asked with a lot of integrity, the lawyer and the other people should have believed that Jesus was not a man like them. In conclusion, the parable of the Good Samaritan helped answer many questions that the people who lived those days had no clear information. In addition, the parable taught people the changes that they needed in their lives in order to inherit the kingdom of heaven.
Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Print
John Barton and John Muddiman, The Oxford Bible Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2001 print.
John W. Welch, The Good Samaritan: Forgotten Symbols, Liahona, Feb. 2007, print.
Peter Rhea Jones, Studying the Parables of Jesus, Smyth & Helwys, 1999 print.
Caird, the Language and Imagery of the Bible. Duckworth. 1980. Print
Vermes, Geza. The authentic gospel of Jesus. London, Penguin Books. 2004
Klyne Snodgrass, Stories with Intent: A comprehensive guide to the parables of Jesus, Eerdmans, 2008 print | <urn:uuid:c7a7de19-df22-41f9-919e-ef617ded3ad8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/exegetical-research-paper-on-the-good-samaritan-parable-research-paper/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00464.warc.gz | en | 0.987004 | 3,271 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.0740099400... | 2 | The story of the Good Samaritan is narrated in the gospel of Saint Luke in the bible in the New Testament. The parable is narrated to a lawyer who intended to test Jesus. The lawyer had first asked Jesus what he had to do in order to inherit the kingdom of heaven. The lawyer was an expert of law. This means that he was just testing Jesus since he already knew what he was to do. As a teacher of law, this lawyer knew all the laws. However, he was trying to find a reason which he could use to prosecute Jesus.
Jesus does not answer the question but asks the lawyer what the law says about the issue. Jesus already knew the intentions of this lawyer and this is why he did not directly answer the question from him but instead asked him another question. The lawyer answers the question himself by saying that you should love God with all your heart, soul and mind. He also says that you should love your neighbor as you love yourself. This is the summary of the commandments that were given by Moses. Jesus then tells the lawyer that the answer he had given is correct and the lawyer should do this and he will live. This is enough prove that the lawyer was an expert of the Law of Moses but he was after testing Jesus.
The lawyer then asks Jesus, “Who is your neighbor?” this lawyer was not seeking humility and the true meaning of a neighbor (Peter, 47). The lawyer seemed not satisfied with the answer given by Jesus and he wanted to trick him more. The lawyer just wanted to justify that what he does is correct and therefore he is worth inheriting the kingdom of heaven. He thought that a neighbor is his relatives who lived next to him. He would then approve his actions since he loved and helped his relatives. By loving the people who lived next to him and his relatives, the lawyer was sure that he obeyed the commandment that requires Christians to love their neighbors. The lawyer did not actually know the meaning of neighbor. This is why Jesus gives the parable of the Good Samaritan as an answer to the meaning of a neighbor.
The parable of the Good Samaritan demonstrates the true love that the law talks about and many people ignore this love. The road from Jerusalem to Jericho was characterized by a lot of insecurity (Funk, 57). There were many robbers along the road. Jesus therefore gives a story of a man who was attacked by the robbers, beaten and left half dead. This man was a Jew. The first person to pass by was a priest. This priest passed on the other side of the road. He gave no assistance to the man who was already robbed, beaten and was left with no clothes. The priest may be thought that the man was dead and it was unclean to touch dead bodies according to the Jewish traditions. The priest did not therefore risk becoming unclean. He did not even look at the man again. In addition, the priest tried to avoid being associated with the robbery.
The second person who passed by was a Levite. Levites were individuals who helped in the temple activities. All these individuals were Jews. The Levite also passed because he did not want to risk being unclean. The Levite however moved closer to see the man who was already injured and half dead. The Levite also did not risk being associated with the robbery and therefore went away and left the man on the road. The priest and the Levites were regarded as holy people in those days and therefore could not be attacked by the robbers. However, they did not risk helping their fellow Jew who needed their help.
The third person was a Samaritan (Funk, 58). During those times, the relationship between the Jews and the Samaritans was not good. The Samaritans were always hated by the Jews and it is not expected that the Samaritan would help the Jew. However, the Samaritan put aside the enmity between them and the Jews and decided to help the Jew who was in need. He gave first aid to the Jew and then paid another person to take care of the Jew. In addition, he gave the Jew food. He was even ready to pay any other expenses that would be incurred. Jesus after giving the parable to the lawyer, he asked who was a neighbor according to the parable. Since the lawyer knew that the practices of the Jews did not demonstrate true love, he was not comfortable to answer Jesus that the good neighbor in the story was the Samaritan. Instead, he answered by saying that whenever helped the suffering Jew was a good neighbor. Jesus comments that we should also do as the Samaritan did.
After the story of the Good Samaritan, Jesus went to the home of Martha and Mary. Mary sat near Jesus listening to the teachings of Jesus. However, Martha started complaining that Mary was not helping her in the house. However, Jesus said that Mary had chosen the right thing (Funk, 59).
The story of the Good Samaritan is affected by the preceding stories. The story of the Good Samaritan and the stories before and after the parable help to clearly describe a neighbor. The lawyer thought that by helping his relative, he was observing the law that requires people to love their neighbors. However, the parable shows that the neighbors of the lawyer were not his relatives but the people who needed the help of the lawyer. This clearly shows that the Christians
Should help the people in need of their help and not only their relatives and the people living next to them. This shows the true love that the scripture talks about.
The story that comes after the parable of the Good Samaritan also helps to describe the meaning of a neighbor better. Even though Martha was in need of Mary’s help, Jesus shows that this is not the kind of help that a neighbor requires. Mary was doing the right thing and therefore she was not required to go and help Martha. This shows that the help given to a person in need should not be against the will of God.
The story of the Good Samaritan intended to criticize the Jews for their behavior. The Jews loved themselves and hated other people such as the Samaritans. The parable shows the act of the Jews were against the teachings of god. Even though they knew the teachings of the scripture, the Jews only did the things that favored them and ignored the true teachings of God. In addition, individuals such as priests and the Levites thought that they were very pure and did not consider helping the individuals who were in need of their help. They had their own traditions which they followed strictly but some of these traditions were against the teachings of God.
The story teaches that Christians should ignore their bad relationship with others and instead go ahead and help them. The parable shows that even though the Samaritans did not know the teachings of the law, they obeyed the law more than the Jews who knew the law but did not follow it. The Samaritan who helped the person who was attacked by the robbers gave help to the person without caring whether he was a Jew or a Samaritan. Christians should therefore help others regardless of the relationship, color, race or the religion of the individual. This is the love for the neighbors that the law talks about.
The parable of the Good Samaritan represents allegoric structure in writing. The characters used in the parable have their literal meaning. The robbers who had injured and robbed the Jew represent the Satan who makes man to sin. The injuries on the Jew represent the sins against the lord. The Jew who had been injured and left on the road represents Adam or men who sin against God. The oil that was used to clean wounds on the injured Jew represents the blood and mercy of Jesus that cleaned the sins of mankind by dying on the cross.
The Jew was taken care at an inn representing the church whereby Christians are taught that they should repent so that their sins are forgiven as the injuries of the man got cured(Peter, 47) . The person employed to take care of the Jew represents the leaders of the church who are supposed to help the Christians to repent and pray for forgiveness. On the other hand, the priest represents the law while the Levite represents the prophets. The fact that the Good Samaritan promised to come back and pay the expenses of the Jew represents the meaning that Jesus will come back for his people. Therefore the parable has a literal meaning and this is why it is said to be allegorical in nature. This comparison of the characters in the parable is what is called allegorist. The good Samaritans are compared with the priest and the Levite. In addition, these characters represented different things in the actual setting of the story. The use of allegories helps people do better understand the teachings that Jesus was delivering to the people.
Allegory has also been used in other parts of the bible. Allegory is used in the old testament whereby silver snake so that whoever was bitten by a snake would look at the silver snake and get healed. This is an allegory because the silver snake represents Jesus who was crucified while the individuals who were bitten represented the sinners. Allegory is used in the New Testament books. Allegory is used because it is easy to understand the intended meaning. This is why Jesus used many parables that were allegorical.
Parallelism is a structure in writing where different stories are told about a similar thing. There is a lot of parallelism that is demonstrated in the gospel books namely Luke Mathew and mark (Klyne, 97). Many parables had similar teachings. Most of them addressed the issue of the salvation of the mankind. The parables in the gospels that demonstrate parallelism include the parable of the Good Samaritan, the parable of the prodigal son and the parable of the good thief. All these parables demonstrate that the salvation was not only brought to the Jews. Instead, Jesus intended to save all the individuals regardless of their tribe, race, religion or color. It can be observed that parallelism has been applied in the above parables since they aim at teaching a similar thing.
Redaction critics were fully applied in the book of Luke when writing the parable of the Good Samaritan. This is due to the fact that the author new the traditions of the individuals in the context. The parable is not given as it was told but the author had the independence of including more since he knew the relationship that existed between the Jews and the Samaritans.
The author knew the traditions of the Jews. He was aware that they did not touch the dead bodies and this is why the priest did not touch the man who was lying on the road. The author also knew that the road from Jerusalem to Jericho was risky due to the robbers, rocky and the mountainous conditions of the region. He also knew that the Jews hated the Samaritans and this is why he used this information when writing the parable. He also knew that the priests and the Levites were individuals who viewed themselves as clean people and therefore avoided anything that would make them to be unclean. The writer also knew that the Jews considered themselves a special tribe separate from the others. With this knowledge, the author of the passage was able to change the parable to make the readers of the bible better understand the whole context. He used the information to criticize the Jews who viewed themselves as holy and special chosen race.
The theologically important words in the bible include the priest, Levites and the law. These words are also found in other parts of the bible. The priests mean people who usually preach and direct the other Christians (Klyne, 102). They are the individuals believed to know the scriptures and teach the others. The Levites are the leaders who usually help in the church. They also know the teachings of the scriptures and they help the Christians on the matters of spirituality. The word law is usually used by the theologists to refer to the commandments of the lord. These are the Ten Commandments that were given to Moses by God at Mount Sinai. These were the laws that the Israelites were supposed to obey. The word gentiles theologically mean the people who are not yet baptized and are non Jews. All these theological words have been used in the parable of the Good Samaritan.
This passage shows the love that God has to the mankind. In the parable, the Good Samaritan is viewed as Jesus who died on behalf of the sinners. Even though the sinners destroy the relationship between man and God, God is always willing to renew this relationship. God also doesn’t discriminate the races or the tribes. Jesus served both Jews and the gentiles equally and He wanted everybody to know that there is no special tribe. If anybody accepts to repent and follow the Laws, then he/she will inherit the kingdom of God. God’s always wants a good relationship with the people and this is why he made sure that there are the priests to guide te people to do the right things.
The parable of the Good Samaritan helped solve several issues that existed in the time. First, the belief that the Jews were the only chosen tribe was brought to an end. This is because the parable demonstrated that Samaritans were obeying the lord even more than the Jews were doing. The Jews thought that they were obeying the law by passing by without giving assistance to the injured Jew with an aim of avoiding becoming unclean (John, 84). Jesus was able to show that the Jews were breaking the commandments even though they knew the correct teachings of the scriptures.
The parable also helped to clearly define a neighbor. The people who lived during the times were able to know that a neighbor is an individual in need of their help and not only the neighbors. This is as opposed to the earlier belief that a neighbor is a person who lives next to you. The belief that the Levites and the priests are the pure people following the commandments was clarified. If the priests and the Levites are the right people to follow, then they would have helped the man who had been injured by the robbers.
The parable of the Good Samaritan helped the people of the time to see the need for loving each other and avoiding hatred. The parable showed that people should be able to be united and live peacefully helping each other. If the Good Samaritan hated the Jews, he would have avoided giving assistance to the Jew who was already wounded and abandoned.
The parable of the Good Samaritan helped to warn the Jews to avoid their traditional beliefs such as touching a dead body makes an individual to be unclean (John, 89). This is because such beliefs make people to avoid assisting other when in problems. The other problem that the parable solved that time is the disbelief that Jesus was the son of God. When the lawyer noticed that Jesus had a lot of wisdom and answered the questions he asked with a lot of integrity, the lawyer and the other people should have believed that Jesus was not a man like them. In conclusion, the parable of the Good Samaritan helped answer many questions that the people who lived those days had no clear information. In addition, the parable taught people the changes that they needed in their lives in order to inherit the kingdom of heaven.
Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Print
John Barton and John Muddiman, The Oxford Bible Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2001 print.
John W. Welch, The Good Samaritan: Forgotten Symbols, Liahona, Feb. 2007, print.
Peter Rhea Jones, Studying the Parables of Jesus, Smyth & Helwys, 1999 print.
Caird, the Language and Imagery of the Bible. Duckworth. 1980. Print
Vermes, Geza. The authentic gospel of Jesus. London, Penguin Books. 2004
Klyne Snodgrass, Stories with Intent: A comprehensive guide to the parables of Jesus, Eerdmans, 2008 print | 3,310 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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