text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Louis Armstrong was one of the many people who have Influence Jazz music over the years. Although we may not realize It, he had the most Influence in the Jazz world during his time and is well known today for the changes that he made to the jazz world many years ago. First is the impact that he had on the way Jazz music was played. Louis Armstrong began revolutionize the sound of Jazz music in the sass when he introduced the extended solo” to Jazz music.Before Armstrong introduced this idea to the Jazz world, most Jazz music was only played in two different styles.
These two styles were the highly orchestrated arrangements and the loosely structured Dixieland-type ensemble. In both of these styles, musicians did not solo for an extended period of time. By Introducing the extended solo, Armstrong created a new style of Jazz that allowed a single soloist to create long elaborate solos that allowed for the soloist to show off their talent.This style of Jazz became popular among Jazz musicians and caused an Increased Armstrong’s popularity. Everyone wanted to play Like him and tried to imitate him and his creative way. This caused solos to become more prominent and popular within the Jazz world. He also caused the rhythmic and melodic vocabulary of jazz music to become more complex and varied.
This change most likely developed from the increased popularity of the extended solo which allowed soloists to add different sounds to the music.The soloists could add their win flare and emotion to the music during their solos which could change the melodic feel of the music and set a stage for a new rhythmic feel. Solos were often improved, though the soloist usually practiced, the output could vary each time a song was played. Armstrong introduction of the extended solo also changed the ethos of Jazz music. The ethos of Jazz music originally emphasized the Jazz ensemble as a whole. The extended solo caused the ethos to shift from the whole ensemble to the individual who was playing the solo.This is due to the fact that during the solos, musicians loved to show off as much as could which drew a lot of attention to them.
During the extended solos, people would turn their attention to the soloist and marvel at their talent. The second impact that Louis Armstrong had on Jazz music was the way that Jazz music was sang. Armstrong came at singing with his own approach. Like a lot of Jazz singer, he liked to incorporate scat-singing but no one did it like he did. Louis Armstrong had a rough and throaty voice which he used to his own advantage.While inning, he phased what he was singing to capture the syncopation that existed in early Jazz music. By doing this, he added a bit more excitement into the music.
With his rough voice he also created a sense of gritty roughness but was also able to offer sentimental tenderness to him music which created a nice balance for his music. As you can see, Louis Armstrong had a great influence on the world of jazz music who was risky with his music, which worked out for him in the end. His innovations have lived on over the years and will continue to live on forever. | <urn:uuid:965936a4-0f9f-4c0b-b053-eb84535cbbd6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-louis-armstrong-2-2635/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00540.warc.gz | en | 0.987365 | 642 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.05872618... | 6 | Louis Armstrong was one of the many people who have Influence Jazz music over the years. Although we may not realize It, he had the most Influence in the Jazz world during his time and is well known today for the changes that he made to the jazz world many years ago. First is the impact that he had on the way Jazz music was played. Louis Armstrong began revolutionize the sound of Jazz music in the sass when he introduced the extended solo” to Jazz music.Before Armstrong introduced this idea to the Jazz world, most Jazz music was only played in two different styles.
These two styles were the highly orchestrated arrangements and the loosely structured Dixieland-type ensemble. In both of these styles, musicians did not solo for an extended period of time. By Introducing the extended solo, Armstrong created a new style of Jazz that allowed a single soloist to create long elaborate solos that allowed for the soloist to show off their talent.This style of Jazz became popular among Jazz musicians and caused an Increased Armstrong’s popularity. Everyone wanted to play Like him and tried to imitate him and his creative way. This caused solos to become more prominent and popular within the Jazz world. He also caused the rhythmic and melodic vocabulary of jazz music to become more complex and varied.
This change most likely developed from the increased popularity of the extended solo which allowed soloists to add different sounds to the music.The soloists could add their win flare and emotion to the music during their solos which could change the melodic feel of the music and set a stage for a new rhythmic feel. Solos were often improved, though the soloist usually practiced, the output could vary each time a song was played. Armstrong introduction of the extended solo also changed the ethos of Jazz music. The ethos of Jazz music originally emphasized the Jazz ensemble as a whole. The extended solo caused the ethos to shift from the whole ensemble to the individual who was playing the solo.This is due to the fact that during the solos, musicians loved to show off as much as could which drew a lot of attention to them.
During the extended solos, people would turn their attention to the soloist and marvel at their talent. The second impact that Louis Armstrong had on Jazz music was the way that Jazz music was sang. Armstrong came at singing with his own approach. Like a lot of Jazz singer, he liked to incorporate scat-singing but no one did it like he did. Louis Armstrong had a rough and throaty voice which he used to his own advantage.While inning, he phased what he was singing to capture the syncopation that existed in early Jazz music. By doing this, he added a bit more excitement into the music.
With his rough voice he also created a sense of gritty roughness but was also able to offer sentimental tenderness to him music which created a nice balance for his music. As you can see, Louis Armstrong had a great influence on the world of jazz music who was risky with his music, which worked out for him in the end. His innovations have lived on over the years and will continue to live on forever. | 627 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Albert Einstein was the most influential scientist of our time. Despite troubles in education and learning as a child, Einstein surpassed the odds and helped revolutionize science today. With his theories on relativity and gravity, Einstein would inspire other great scientists explain the unexplainable. Einstein also helped in the advancement of modern warfare, by helping Robert Oppenheimer and Enrico Fermi in the creation of the atomic bomb. Although born in Germany, Albert Einstein indirectly helped the Allies win World War II and overcome Hitler's rampage for power.
Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1879. His parents moved from Ulm to Munich when he was an infant because of the family business, manufacturing electrical parts. There were no early indications of Albert's intellectual capabilities, and there was some actual concern on the part of his parents that he was a bit slow. Albert did very mediocre as a child in school because of his dislike of the rigid methods of instruction. He was also considered quite disruptive by school officials. Albert, however, had strong interests in Math and Science, the subjects that he studied on his own. When in High School, Albert dropped out to join his parents in Milan, Italy, where they had moved because of business failure.
In 1896 Einstein was able to enroll in the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, after making up a few subject deficiencies. It is here that Einstein met a classmate, Mileva, who would be his future wife. Albert did not like the methods of instruction in the Institute, but he was able to pass his examinations for his degree and graduated in 1900. In the two years following his graduation, Einstein subsisted on odd teaching jobs. In 1901 Mileva was pregnant by Albert, and Albert was held back from getting a job as a teacher because of troubles with his old physics teacher. In 1902, Mileva had a daughter that was given up for adoption before Einstein could even see her. | <urn:uuid:0200e6e3-9240-48e4-b817-07c6a93dbc5a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/68688.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00352.warc.gz | en | 0.991749 | 393 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.29202878475189... | 5 | Albert Einstein was the most influential scientist of our time. Despite troubles in education and learning as a child, Einstein surpassed the odds and helped revolutionize science today. With his theories on relativity and gravity, Einstein would inspire other great scientists explain the unexplainable. Einstein also helped in the advancement of modern warfare, by helping Robert Oppenheimer and Enrico Fermi in the creation of the atomic bomb. Although born in Germany, Albert Einstein indirectly helped the Allies win World War II and overcome Hitler's rampage for power.
Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1879. His parents moved from Ulm to Munich when he was an infant because of the family business, manufacturing electrical parts. There were no early indications of Albert's intellectual capabilities, and there was some actual concern on the part of his parents that he was a bit slow. Albert did very mediocre as a child in school because of his dislike of the rigid methods of instruction. He was also considered quite disruptive by school officials. Albert, however, had strong interests in Math and Science, the subjects that he studied on his own. When in High School, Albert dropped out to join his parents in Milan, Italy, where they had moved because of business failure.
In 1896 Einstein was able to enroll in the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, after making up a few subject deficiencies. It is here that Einstein met a classmate, Mileva, who would be his future wife. Albert did not like the methods of instruction in the Institute, but he was able to pass his examinations for his degree and graduated in 1900. In the two years following his graduation, Einstein subsisted on odd teaching jobs. In 1901 Mileva was pregnant by Albert, and Albert was held back from getting a job as a teacher because of troubles with his old physics teacher. In 1902, Mileva had a daughter that was given up for adoption before Einstein could even see her. | 412 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edna Pontellier in Kate Chopin’s Awakening
In the post-civil war era regionalism work, “The Awakening,” author Kate Chopin delves into the concept of feminism in a white, male dominated society. Edna Pontellier, the female protagonist, is faced with situations that push her to make decisions in order to pursue her own sense of identity, which ultimately ends in her taking her own life. The reasoning behind her death is a subject of debate amongst literary scholars. Would she rather die than live within the confines of a socially strict society with regards to female freedoms, or seize the day and live the way she chooses with no sense of consequence
In the period of history in which Edna Pontellier and her husband raised their family, there were strict societal rules that today would seem extremely sexist and degrading to women. Other than the servants, it seemed as if women were just above them on the societal ladder. Women were to fit into a mold. “They were women who idolized their children, worshipped their husbands and esteemed it a holy privilege to efface themselves as individuals and grow wings as ministering angels” (Chopin 567).
These were not the ideals that Edna had set as priority for herself. Throughout her self-exploration in the story, she chooses to forego what is expected of her and does what makes her happy. The happiness seems to always be closely followed by a looming cloud of sadness. Her road to freedom, in the end, places her in a position where she has decisions that need to be made. Does she comply with what is expected and fly back into her proverbial cage Should she divorce her husband and marry Robert
She could also decide that she needs no man and live alone pursuing her own livelihood. “No longer was she content to “feed upon opinion when her own soul had invited her” (Chopin 635). She was now in far too deep. She had to choose a path based off the consequences of her actions. Compromise her progression and go back to the chains of society or take her own life. She was not the caged bird she feared so much of returning too, but more of what she saw right before she walked into the gulf.
A bird with a broken wing was beating the air above, reeling, fluttering, circling disabled down, down to the water” (Chopin 651). Edna Pontellier made a selfish decision in taking her own life. She went against what she stood for, living a life that makes her happy regardless of what people thought of her. She essentially destroyed all of the progression she made. She certainly realized her friend Mademoiselle Reisz would condemn her when she imagined her saying “And you call yourself an artist! What pretensions, Madame!
The artist must possess the courageous soul that dares and defies” (Chopin 652). Although, she did get temporary asylum from the conformities of the Victorian lifestyle, she ultimately did nothing to promote a movement to help other women break the same chains. Had she taken the hard right over the easy wrong and faced the consequences of her actions, while sticking to her own morals and not those of society, she might have made more of a positive impact on similar thinking women and the culture of her time. | <urn:uuid:2681e4cd-5080-469b-be62-eba588a1bba7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/edna-pontellier-in-kate-chopins-awakening-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00415.warc.gz | en | 0.98361 | 690 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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-0.13569971919059753... | 1 | Edna Pontellier in Kate Chopin’s Awakening
In the post-civil war era regionalism work, “The Awakening,” author Kate Chopin delves into the concept of feminism in a white, male dominated society. Edna Pontellier, the female protagonist, is faced with situations that push her to make decisions in order to pursue her own sense of identity, which ultimately ends in her taking her own life. The reasoning behind her death is a subject of debate amongst literary scholars. Would she rather die than live within the confines of a socially strict society with regards to female freedoms, or seize the day and live the way she chooses with no sense of consequence
In the period of history in which Edna Pontellier and her husband raised their family, there were strict societal rules that today would seem extremely sexist and degrading to women. Other than the servants, it seemed as if women were just above them on the societal ladder. Women were to fit into a mold. “They were women who idolized their children, worshipped their husbands and esteemed it a holy privilege to efface themselves as individuals and grow wings as ministering angels” (Chopin 567).
These were not the ideals that Edna had set as priority for herself. Throughout her self-exploration in the story, she chooses to forego what is expected of her and does what makes her happy. The happiness seems to always be closely followed by a looming cloud of sadness. Her road to freedom, in the end, places her in a position where she has decisions that need to be made. Does she comply with what is expected and fly back into her proverbial cage Should she divorce her husband and marry Robert
She could also decide that she needs no man and live alone pursuing her own livelihood. “No longer was she content to “feed upon opinion when her own soul had invited her” (Chopin 635). She was now in far too deep. She had to choose a path based off the consequences of her actions. Compromise her progression and go back to the chains of society or take her own life. She was not the caged bird she feared so much of returning too, but more of what she saw right before she walked into the gulf.
A bird with a broken wing was beating the air above, reeling, fluttering, circling disabled down, down to the water” (Chopin 651). Edna Pontellier made a selfish decision in taking her own life. She went against what she stood for, living a life that makes her happy regardless of what people thought of her. She essentially destroyed all of the progression she made. She certainly realized her friend Mademoiselle Reisz would condemn her when she imagined her saying “And you call yourself an artist! What pretensions, Madame!
The artist must possess the courageous soul that dares and defies” (Chopin 652). Although, she did get temporary asylum from the conformities of the Victorian lifestyle, she ultimately did nothing to promote a movement to help other women break the same chains. Had she taken the hard right over the easy wrong and faced the consequences of her actions, while sticking to her own morals and not those of society, she might have made more of a positive impact on similar thinking women and the culture of her time. | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The city of Rome was to become the capital of one of the largest superpowers the world has ever known. This huge empire stretched across the globe from North Africa to Russia.
However, it was not always a grand empire.
It was some time before the Romans built gigantic aqueducts and impressive amphitheatres around the world.
Rome started life as a little town. This little town appeared on the Palatine Hills along the River Tiber in Central Italy in the 8th century.
Over the next few centuries, this small town turned into the huge Roman Empire that covered thousands of miles and ruled over millions of people.
The Romans kept fantastic records. They produced lots of art and built long lasting-structures. This is why we know so much about them to this day.
Rome as a Kingdom
Rome was in a good position on the Tiber River and went on to grow and grow. It was situated on the Palatine Hill.
Being surrounded by these hills was always an advantage when defending against enemy attacks.
Over time, Rome spread out over the Aventine Hill, Caelian Hill, Capitoline Hill, Esquiline Hill, Quirinal Hill and the Viminal Hill.
Even in Rome’s later history, the rich and important people, including emperors and noblemen, had large villas on these hills.
Early Rome was governed by Kings which made early Rome a Kingdom. Romulus was claimed in the records to be the first King of Rome, and Numa Pompilius was the second King according to legends.
Historians have some records that contain myths about how Rome began. The most famous myth is of Romulus and Remus.
The Myth of Romulus and Remus
The most famous myth about the beginnings of Rome claims Rome began with a dispute between two special twin brothers, Romulus and Remus.
These twins were the sons of the god of war, Mars. The two twins were left in a basket on the River Tiber.
As the legend goes, Romulus and Remus had no mother and were brought up by a wolf. When they grew up, they decided to build a town.
Romulus and Remus argued about whether to build Rome on the Aventine Hill or the Palatine Hill. Romulus built a wall around the town.
The myth says that his brother, Remus, laughed at Romulus’s wall and mocked him. Romulus then killed Remus and named the town after himself, Rome.
The senate in the myth
Romulus selected 100 men from groups of people in the surrounding area. These groups of men became the powerful classes. They were named patricians. These patricians became the Senate.
The Senate was the group of men who controlled Rome and made all the decisions during the Republic.
The Senate were supposed to be related to the original men of early Rome. In the myth and real life, they helped to govern the city throughout the 1000 years that the Romans ruled.
In the myth, Romulus organised the army too. The organisation of the army in the myth was very similar to the way the army was organised throughout Rome’s history.
Is this myth true?
This myth about early Rome became more popular than other myths during the era of the Roman Empire.
A myth is a story that explains how something happens, often the early history of a people. Myths are generally seen as false. However, they are normally important to the societies that produce them.
We should remember that within each myth there can be truths. Within history there can also be small myths too.
Myths help people to understand the world. They contain messages for people at the time about how things are organised.
They also contain messages for historians about what was important to a society in the past.
Historians have some records from this time but not many. There are archaeological records that historians have used to understand the history of early Rome.
Historians look at the findings of archaeology alongside written records and myths. Archaeologists find remains in the ground of old structures or objects.
Archaeological records show that there was a small town around the Palatine Hill from around the 8th Century. Archaeologists have found evidence of a small wall around the town.
However, this wall dated 100 years later than the wall that Romulus built in the legend. They have dated this wall to the 9th century.
What happened to the Kings?
Rome had seven kings after Romulus. This made it a kingdom. Rome then became the Roman Republic in 509 BC. The Republic did not have a king but consuls.
These were elected by a group of noblemen called the Senate, just like in the myth. | <urn:uuid:57d7b088-2f23-4e04-adf4-fe8068030d21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.savvyleo.com/world-history/ancient-rome/early-rome/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00075.warc.gz | en | 0.982351 | 993 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.384379863... | 14 | The city of Rome was to become the capital of one of the largest superpowers the world has ever known. This huge empire stretched across the globe from North Africa to Russia.
However, it was not always a grand empire.
It was some time before the Romans built gigantic aqueducts and impressive amphitheatres around the world.
Rome started life as a little town. This little town appeared on the Palatine Hills along the River Tiber in Central Italy in the 8th century.
Over the next few centuries, this small town turned into the huge Roman Empire that covered thousands of miles and ruled over millions of people.
The Romans kept fantastic records. They produced lots of art and built long lasting-structures. This is why we know so much about them to this day.
Rome as a Kingdom
Rome was in a good position on the Tiber River and went on to grow and grow. It was situated on the Palatine Hill.
Being surrounded by these hills was always an advantage when defending against enemy attacks.
Over time, Rome spread out over the Aventine Hill, Caelian Hill, Capitoline Hill, Esquiline Hill, Quirinal Hill and the Viminal Hill.
Even in Rome’s later history, the rich and important people, including emperors and noblemen, had large villas on these hills.
Early Rome was governed by Kings which made early Rome a Kingdom. Romulus was claimed in the records to be the first King of Rome, and Numa Pompilius was the second King according to legends.
Historians have some records that contain myths about how Rome began. The most famous myth is of Romulus and Remus.
The Myth of Romulus and Remus
The most famous myth about the beginnings of Rome claims Rome began with a dispute between two special twin brothers, Romulus and Remus.
These twins were the sons of the god of war, Mars. The two twins were left in a basket on the River Tiber.
As the legend goes, Romulus and Remus had no mother and were brought up by a wolf. When they grew up, they decided to build a town.
Romulus and Remus argued about whether to build Rome on the Aventine Hill or the Palatine Hill. Romulus built a wall around the town.
The myth says that his brother, Remus, laughed at Romulus’s wall and mocked him. Romulus then killed Remus and named the town after himself, Rome.
The senate in the myth
Romulus selected 100 men from groups of people in the surrounding area. These groups of men became the powerful classes. They were named patricians. These patricians became the Senate.
The Senate was the group of men who controlled Rome and made all the decisions during the Republic.
The Senate were supposed to be related to the original men of early Rome. In the myth and real life, they helped to govern the city throughout the 1000 years that the Romans ruled.
In the myth, Romulus organised the army too. The organisation of the army in the myth was very similar to the way the army was organised throughout Rome’s history.
Is this myth true?
This myth about early Rome became more popular than other myths during the era of the Roman Empire.
A myth is a story that explains how something happens, often the early history of a people. Myths are generally seen as false. However, they are normally important to the societies that produce them.
We should remember that within each myth there can be truths. Within history there can also be small myths too.
Myths help people to understand the world. They contain messages for people at the time about how things are organised.
They also contain messages for historians about what was important to a society in the past.
Historians have some records from this time but not many. There are archaeological records that historians have used to understand the history of early Rome.
Historians look at the findings of archaeology alongside written records and myths. Archaeologists find remains in the ground of old structures or objects.
Archaeological records show that there was a small town around the Palatine Hill from around the 8th Century. Archaeologists have found evidence of a small wall around the town.
However, this wall dated 100 years later than the wall that Romulus built in the legend. They have dated this wall to the 9th century.
What happened to the Kings?
Rome had seven kings after Romulus. This made it a kingdom. Rome then became the Roman Republic in 509 BC. The Republic did not have a king but consuls.
These were elected by a group of noblemen called the Senate, just like in the myth. | 968 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1887, suffrage leader Olympia Brown tested the law that allowed women to vote in school elections by also voting for municipal offices. Brown argued that because women were not explicitly forbidden from voting in these elections that her ballot was valid because city officials made many decisions that shaped the local schools. Brown sued the city of Racine in an attempt to compel city officials to accept her ballot. Brown won her case in the Circuit Courts but the state Supreme Court reversed the decision in Brown v. Phillips (1888). In the meantime, many women found that their votes were thrown out because the ballots for some school board elections were the same forms that included other electoral races. The women of Wisconsin faced this obstacle until 1901 when the legislature authorized separate ballots for men and women. By this time, however, the women of Wisconsin were pushing for full suffrage rights.
Women pressed for full suffrage rights in other elections in the next three decades and secured a referendum on the measure in 1912. Although two-thirds of the all-male electorate rejected the provision, Wisconsin women escalated their efforts in the next seven years, organizing suffrage schools that taught a curriculum of civics and politics. In the next year, bills providing for equal suffrage were presented to each session of the legislature. Women also lobbied successfully for equal suffrage in presidential elections in 1919. Most famously, Wisconsin women pushed for the ratification of the 19th amendment and Wisconsin became the first state to ratify the amendment. The successful campaign was the culmination of years of efforts, the most recent of which occurred right here at the steps of the state capitol. | <urn:uuid:e9c3a60d-a209-4be4-a643-4f9d97f8fa1f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/7373 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00216.warc.gz | en | 0.981305 | 324 | 4.53125 | 5 | [
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0.007823768... | 2 | In 1887, suffrage leader Olympia Brown tested the law that allowed women to vote in school elections by also voting for municipal offices. Brown argued that because women were not explicitly forbidden from voting in these elections that her ballot was valid because city officials made many decisions that shaped the local schools. Brown sued the city of Racine in an attempt to compel city officials to accept her ballot. Brown won her case in the Circuit Courts but the state Supreme Court reversed the decision in Brown v. Phillips (1888). In the meantime, many women found that their votes were thrown out because the ballots for some school board elections were the same forms that included other electoral races. The women of Wisconsin faced this obstacle until 1901 when the legislature authorized separate ballots for men and women. By this time, however, the women of Wisconsin were pushing for full suffrage rights.
Women pressed for full suffrage rights in other elections in the next three decades and secured a referendum on the measure in 1912. Although two-thirds of the all-male electorate rejected the provision, Wisconsin women escalated their efforts in the next seven years, organizing suffrage schools that taught a curriculum of civics and politics. In the next year, bills providing for equal suffrage were presented to each session of the legislature. Women also lobbied successfully for equal suffrage in presidential elections in 1919. Most famously, Wisconsin women pushed for the ratification of the 19th amendment and Wisconsin became the first state to ratify the amendment. The successful campaign was the culmination of years of efforts, the most recent of which occurred right here at the steps of the state capitol. | 344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As Americans travel to spend Thanksgiving with their friends and family, we think and sometimes even sing "Over the river and through the wood to grandfather's house we go... (or some variation thereof)." I didn't know until quite recently that the poem/song was written by a woman! Other women have also written poems that have become well-loved and familiar songs. Match the woman with her poem/song:
____ 1. She penned a poem titled "A Boy's Thanksgiving Day" which began "Over the river, and through the wood to grandfather's house we go"
____ 2. She wrote the lyrics for America the Beautiful
____ 3. She wrote Battle Hymn of the Republic
____ 4. She wrote the hymn Blessed Assurance
A. Julia Ward Howe
B. Lydia Maria Child
C. Fanny Crosby
D. Katharine Lee Bates
Julia Ward Howe came by her writing talent congenitally; her mother had been a published poet. At a time when girls were not educated (at least not to the standards we know today and certainly not to the same level as boys), Howe read the books that her brother sent home from England and became quite well educated. During the early years of their marriage, Howe adhered to her husband's wishes and did not publish her work. After their separation, however, she began to publish her poetry. A supporter of abolition, women's rights, and education as well as a newspaper editor and writer, Howe wrote the Battle Hymn of the Republic in 1861. She was also instrumental in creating Mother's Day. Howe has been inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
Author, abolitionist and human rights advocate Lydia Maria Child wrote her first novel in 1824. The success of her second novel in 1825, led to her founding a bimonthly magazine for children in 1826. Her 1833 book is considered the first anti-slavery publication and led many Americans to consider abolishing slavery. Probably best known for her poem "A Boy's Thanksgiving Day" which began "Over the river and through the wood", she was the first woman who earned an income from her writing. Child has been inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
The most prolific hymnist in history, Fanny Crosby became blind at the age of six weeks. Her first verse was written when she was eight years old. She was educated at the New York Institute for the Blind, and later served for many years as a teacher there. During the course of her life, she wrote more than 8,000 hymns with one of the best known being "Blessed Assurance." Because so many of the songs in the hymnals would have borne her name, she also wrote under a number of pseudonyms.
Known for penning an 1893 poem that became the lyrics for the song "America the Beautiful", Katharine Lee Bates was a professor of English at Wellesley College. Known as a scholar of English literature, particularly of William Shakespeare, Bates spent the summer of 1893 in Colorado. Inspired by the view from Pike's Peak, she wrote her poem which was first published in 1895. Revised several times over the years, by 1926 it was sung in the form that we know today.
Learn about more she-roes and celebrate amazing women. These poetic women are profiled in the book Her Story: A Timeline of the Women Who Changed America. They contributed to our culture and we salute their accomplishments.
(Answers 1-B, 2-D, 3-A, 4-C ) | <urn:uuid:d568867d-30ab-4140-8605-d1f69caacefa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.huffpost.com/entry/over-the-river-and-through-the-wood_b_8639194 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.99057 | 736 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.085357218980... | 1 | As Americans travel to spend Thanksgiving with their friends and family, we think and sometimes even sing "Over the river and through the wood to grandfather's house we go... (or some variation thereof)." I didn't know until quite recently that the poem/song was written by a woman! Other women have also written poems that have become well-loved and familiar songs. Match the woman with her poem/song:
____ 1. She penned a poem titled "A Boy's Thanksgiving Day" which began "Over the river, and through the wood to grandfather's house we go"
____ 2. She wrote the lyrics for America the Beautiful
____ 3. She wrote Battle Hymn of the Republic
____ 4. She wrote the hymn Blessed Assurance
A. Julia Ward Howe
B. Lydia Maria Child
C. Fanny Crosby
D. Katharine Lee Bates
Julia Ward Howe came by her writing talent congenitally; her mother had been a published poet. At a time when girls were not educated (at least not to the standards we know today and certainly not to the same level as boys), Howe read the books that her brother sent home from England and became quite well educated. During the early years of their marriage, Howe adhered to her husband's wishes and did not publish her work. After their separation, however, she began to publish her poetry. A supporter of abolition, women's rights, and education as well as a newspaper editor and writer, Howe wrote the Battle Hymn of the Republic in 1861. She was also instrumental in creating Mother's Day. Howe has been inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
Author, abolitionist and human rights advocate Lydia Maria Child wrote her first novel in 1824. The success of her second novel in 1825, led to her founding a bimonthly magazine for children in 1826. Her 1833 book is considered the first anti-slavery publication and led many Americans to consider abolishing slavery. Probably best known for her poem "A Boy's Thanksgiving Day" which began "Over the river and through the wood", she was the first woman who earned an income from her writing. Child has been inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
The most prolific hymnist in history, Fanny Crosby became blind at the age of six weeks. Her first verse was written when she was eight years old. She was educated at the New York Institute for the Blind, and later served for many years as a teacher there. During the course of her life, she wrote more than 8,000 hymns with one of the best known being "Blessed Assurance." Because so many of the songs in the hymnals would have borne her name, she also wrote under a number of pseudonyms.
Known for penning an 1893 poem that became the lyrics for the song "America the Beautiful", Katharine Lee Bates was a professor of English at Wellesley College. Known as a scholar of English literature, particularly of William Shakespeare, Bates spent the summer of 1893 in Colorado. Inspired by the view from Pike's Peak, she wrote her poem which was first published in 1895. Revised several times over the years, by 1926 it was sung in the form that we know today.
Learn about more she-roes and celebrate amazing women. These poetic women are profiled in the book Her Story: A Timeline of the Women Who Changed America. They contributed to our culture and we salute their accomplishments.
(Answers 1-B, 2-D, 3-A, 4-C ) | 760 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Role of Women During and Post WWI
Before World War I, the role of women was generally accepted to be that of a homemaker. Women cooked, women cleaned, women cared for children, and women were sexual partners. Women were idealized to the point where when men searched for a partner, they looked for beauty rather than intelligence and skill. With the advent of World War I, the role of women in society began to change. On the home front, women began to take on jobs as housekeepers, as well as jobs in factories and at railroad companies, which at the time were considered “masculine” occupations.
Other women went out into the war by joining organizations such as the Red Cross as nurses. Nevertheless, the role of the female still ultimately was geared toward serving males in the end. While World War I did have some influence on the feminine role, it ultimately preserved the idealization of women, as demonstrated by literature, scholarly analysis, and historical facts. In literature, particularly in Ernest Hemingway’s novel A Farewell to Arms, we can observe that while the role of the female changes, Hemingway still idealizes the woman.
In the novel, Frederic leaves the United States to be an ambulance driver in Italy. He meets a woman from England named Catherine, who is helping the war effort as a Red Cross nurse. Hemingway demonstrates the shift of the feminine role by presenting Catherine as a nurse. However, when she is around Frederic, it seems as if Catherine takes on the pre-war female stereotype of a motherly, sex-related, idealized figure. For example, when Frederic finds out that he got Catherine pregnant, Catherine immediately starts apologizing and telling him, “I’ll try and not make trouble for you.
I know I’ve made trouble now” (Hemingway 138). Catherine seems inferior to Frederic, and acts as if she has caused “trouble” to him by getting pregnant. She practically worships Frederic and has a mission of serving him to make him happy. Hemingway idealizes Catherine and essentially turns her into a fantasy. Catherine even desires to be “one” with Frederic, essentially wanting to be a part of Frederic to the point where she would be incomplete without him (Hemingway 115).
Hemingway, using Catherine, portrays women during World War I as more responsible people, but still paints a picture of the “perfect” idealized woman. In addition to literature, scholars such as Joshua Goldstein discuss the feminine role during war. Goldstein, in his book War and Gender, discusses the links between sex and violence, and argues that war increases the male sex drive. In one segment of the book, Goldstein quotes a British officer in World War I who said that “‘[m]ost soldiers were ready to have sexual intercourse with almost any woman whenever they could’” (Goldstein).
This quote portrays women during the period as sex objects. Goldstein argues that World War I’s “sexless front” contributed greatly to sex hunger, which some women helped resolve. In battles after World War I, especially in World War II, some women would trade sex for food or money. Others, such as the “Victory Girls,” would give free sex to soldiers as their “patriotic duty” (Goldstein). From these examples, we see again that both during and after World War I, women gained new responsibilities, but ultimately remained at the service of males.
Lastly, historical facts give additional insight on the roles of females during wartime. Before World War I, men chose to date women based on their physical beauty rather than their intelligence or abilities. In addition, the main role of women was that of a homemaker, and their duties consisted of caring for the house, the children, and the yard (Kim 1). World War I changed many of the responsibilities of women, however, since men left their jobs to serve in the war. World War I not only increased the number of jobs, but also the number of jobs for women.
In addition to housekeeping, women also worked as telegraphers, stenographers, and ammunition factory workers. Even more surprising were the women who took on masculine occupations such as doctors, lawyers, bankers, and civil servants (Kim). However, women still were not on the same level as men. Labor unions were unfriendly to females, and equal pay policies were worked around. Wages of women were lower than that of men because employers would replace one man with several women, or divide tasks into ones that were “less skilled” (Kim).
It ultimately can be argued that women did not advance in societal status during World War I, despite taking on new responsibilities. Women performed masculine jobs to maintain society while the men were away at war, but most women were only temporary workers. They were position fillers, and most would again become idealized homemakers as soon as their husbands returned from the war. Yes, many other women did advance in society and gained more respect in the workplace, but most women still received much discrimination for many years after the war (“Women in wartime”).
Women who worked in ammunition factories worked these jobs to serve the men in the war, and so did the women who volunteered on the warfront, thus furthering the argument that women served men before, during, and after World War I. From literary examples in Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms, to scholarly works such as Goldstein’s War and Gender, to historical evidence in United States and global history, it is apparent that while females did gain responsibilities during World War I, they ultimately remained idealized in the eyes of most of the world.
Women were of help at home before the war, and most went back to homemaking after the war. During the war was not very different. While many women worked during wartime, they worked to maintain society for when the males returned to take back over. Ultimately, females remained idealized during and after the war and, in the end, while woman made progress, their status in society was largely unaffected until decades later. | <urn:uuid:1016f03b-bb95-4d8c-8fb8-e5aa3abd5db9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/the-role-of-women-during-and-post-wwi-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00185.warc.gz | en | 0.984876 | 1,287 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.3137930631... | 1 | The Role of Women During and Post WWI
Before World War I, the role of women was generally accepted to be that of a homemaker. Women cooked, women cleaned, women cared for children, and women were sexual partners. Women were idealized to the point where when men searched for a partner, they looked for beauty rather than intelligence and skill. With the advent of World War I, the role of women in society began to change. On the home front, women began to take on jobs as housekeepers, as well as jobs in factories and at railroad companies, which at the time were considered “masculine” occupations.
Other women went out into the war by joining organizations such as the Red Cross as nurses. Nevertheless, the role of the female still ultimately was geared toward serving males in the end. While World War I did have some influence on the feminine role, it ultimately preserved the idealization of women, as demonstrated by literature, scholarly analysis, and historical facts. In literature, particularly in Ernest Hemingway’s novel A Farewell to Arms, we can observe that while the role of the female changes, Hemingway still idealizes the woman.
In the novel, Frederic leaves the United States to be an ambulance driver in Italy. He meets a woman from England named Catherine, who is helping the war effort as a Red Cross nurse. Hemingway demonstrates the shift of the feminine role by presenting Catherine as a nurse. However, when she is around Frederic, it seems as if Catherine takes on the pre-war female stereotype of a motherly, sex-related, idealized figure. For example, when Frederic finds out that he got Catherine pregnant, Catherine immediately starts apologizing and telling him, “I’ll try and not make trouble for you.
I know I’ve made trouble now” (Hemingway 138). Catherine seems inferior to Frederic, and acts as if she has caused “trouble” to him by getting pregnant. She practically worships Frederic and has a mission of serving him to make him happy. Hemingway idealizes Catherine and essentially turns her into a fantasy. Catherine even desires to be “one” with Frederic, essentially wanting to be a part of Frederic to the point where she would be incomplete without him (Hemingway 115).
Hemingway, using Catherine, portrays women during World War I as more responsible people, but still paints a picture of the “perfect” idealized woman. In addition to literature, scholars such as Joshua Goldstein discuss the feminine role during war. Goldstein, in his book War and Gender, discusses the links between sex and violence, and argues that war increases the male sex drive. In one segment of the book, Goldstein quotes a British officer in World War I who said that “‘[m]ost soldiers were ready to have sexual intercourse with almost any woman whenever they could’” (Goldstein).
This quote portrays women during the period as sex objects. Goldstein argues that World War I’s “sexless front” contributed greatly to sex hunger, which some women helped resolve. In battles after World War I, especially in World War II, some women would trade sex for food or money. Others, such as the “Victory Girls,” would give free sex to soldiers as their “patriotic duty” (Goldstein). From these examples, we see again that both during and after World War I, women gained new responsibilities, but ultimately remained at the service of males.
Lastly, historical facts give additional insight on the roles of females during wartime. Before World War I, men chose to date women based on their physical beauty rather than their intelligence or abilities. In addition, the main role of women was that of a homemaker, and their duties consisted of caring for the house, the children, and the yard (Kim 1). World War I changed many of the responsibilities of women, however, since men left their jobs to serve in the war. World War I not only increased the number of jobs, but also the number of jobs for women.
In addition to housekeeping, women also worked as telegraphers, stenographers, and ammunition factory workers. Even more surprising were the women who took on masculine occupations such as doctors, lawyers, bankers, and civil servants (Kim). However, women still were not on the same level as men. Labor unions were unfriendly to females, and equal pay policies were worked around. Wages of women were lower than that of men because employers would replace one man with several women, or divide tasks into ones that were “less skilled” (Kim).
It ultimately can be argued that women did not advance in societal status during World War I, despite taking on new responsibilities. Women performed masculine jobs to maintain society while the men were away at war, but most women were only temporary workers. They were position fillers, and most would again become idealized homemakers as soon as their husbands returned from the war. Yes, many other women did advance in society and gained more respect in the workplace, but most women still received much discrimination for many years after the war (“Women in wartime”).
Women who worked in ammunition factories worked these jobs to serve the men in the war, and so did the women who volunteered on the warfront, thus furthering the argument that women served men before, during, and after World War I. From literary examples in Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms, to scholarly works such as Goldstein’s War and Gender, to historical evidence in United States and global history, it is apparent that while females did gain responsibilities during World War I, they ultimately remained idealized in the eyes of most of the world.
Women were of help at home before the war, and most went back to homemaking after the war. During the war was not very different. While many women worked during wartime, they worked to maintain society for when the males returned to take back over. Ultimately, females remained idealized during and after the war and, in the end, while woman made progress, their status in society was largely unaffected until decades later. | 1,246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
April 8 1931
By Ken Zurski
On April 8 1931 at Pitcairn Field in Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, the most famous woman pilot in the world stepped into an autogiro, a horizontally propelled winged aircraft she had been testing with other pioneer aviators for more than a year.
Her name, of course, was Amelia Earhart, who in 1928, had become the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic. Now several years later, a large appreciate crowd was on hand to see her attempt another record. This time an altitude peak in the mostly untested autogiro, a prototype for the modern day helicopter.
She would not disappoint.
Introduced in the 1930’s, the autogiros was considered a more practical and efficient alternative to the airplane. It was also unstable and unproven. There were, however, striking differences in flight. Autigiros could take off from a relatively small space and fly just as high and as long as its front-propelled counterpart. But unlike the airplane, it could also stop on a dime and seem to float in the sky. Landing was simply lowering itself to the ground. The blade on top was free spinning and powered by air from an engine-propelled rotor on the side that also provided thrust.
Today, a smaller version, called a gyrocopter, is similar to the original design without the wings. So when you talk about the pioneer fliers of the autogiro, or the forerunner of the helicopter, one person must be recognized.
One you famously know.
The aforementioned Amelia Earhart.
So in 1931, with a large contingent of press on site, Earhart in her thick insulated overalls gave it a go. Her first attempt failed. Perhaps as some noted, she was testing her own capabilities. Maybe she would abandon the next attempt, the press speculated. She answered that question by going up again, this time reaching a height of 18,415 feet and breaking – or making –a new record. She safely brought the craft back to the ground.
She was lauded in her efforts, but wanted more. So did the press. They figured she would try a transcontinental trip in an autogiro, the first of its kind, which she did successfully. But her efforts were overshadowed by another pilot named John Miller who quietly attempted the same feat without the fanfare or publicity that Earhart demanded. He completed the route first, although both pilots had no idea of the other’s intentions.
That same year in 1931, Earhart crashed her autogiro at an airshow in Detroit. Her husband, George Putnam, was the first to arrive at the wreckage: “I saw Amelia emerge from the dust and wave her hands in the air,” he said. “She was unhurt.” But Putnam was on the ground, writhing in pain. In his haste to reach the wreck site he tripped, fell and cracked three ribs. “Never had I run so fast,” he described afterwards, “until one of the guy wires caught my pumping legs exactly at the ankles.”
Unaware of her husband’s injury, Earhart happily acknowledged to the crowd.
While she was glad to walk away unscathed and Putman’s predicament was just an unfortunate accident, it would be her last call with the autogiro.
She went back to an aircraft with wings and a propeller in the front.
Tragically, six years later in 1937, over the Pacific, her legacy as it is known today would begin. | <urn:uuid:d07df684-a370-4b2f-ae4b-27e63e4f2296> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://unrememberedhistory.com/tag/april-8-1931/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.982605 | 741 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.4130308628082... | 1 | April 8 1931
By Ken Zurski
On April 8 1931 at Pitcairn Field in Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, the most famous woman pilot in the world stepped into an autogiro, a horizontally propelled winged aircraft she had been testing with other pioneer aviators for more than a year.
Her name, of course, was Amelia Earhart, who in 1928, had become the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic. Now several years later, a large appreciate crowd was on hand to see her attempt another record. This time an altitude peak in the mostly untested autogiro, a prototype for the modern day helicopter.
She would not disappoint.
Introduced in the 1930’s, the autogiros was considered a more practical and efficient alternative to the airplane. It was also unstable and unproven. There were, however, striking differences in flight. Autigiros could take off from a relatively small space and fly just as high and as long as its front-propelled counterpart. But unlike the airplane, it could also stop on a dime and seem to float in the sky. Landing was simply lowering itself to the ground. The blade on top was free spinning and powered by air from an engine-propelled rotor on the side that also provided thrust.
Today, a smaller version, called a gyrocopter, is similar to the original design without the wings. So when you talk about the pioneer fliers of the autogiro, or the forerunner of the helicopter, one person must be recognized.
One you famously know.
The aforementioned Amelia Earhart.
So in 1931, with a large contingent of press on site, Earhart in her thick insulated overalls gave it a go. Her first attempt failed. Perhaps as some noted, she was testing her own capabilities. Maybe she would abandon the next attempt, the press speculated. She answered that question by going up again, this time reaching a height of 18,415 feet and breaking – or making –a new record. She safely brought the craft back to the ground.
She was lauded in her efforts, but wanted more. So did the press. They figured she would try a transcontinental trip in an autogiro, the first of its kind, which she did successfully. But her efforts were overshadowed by another pilot named John Miller who quietly attempted the same feat without the fanfare or publicity that Earhart demanded. He completed the route first, although both pilots had no idea of the other’s intentions.
That same year in 1931, Earhart crashed her autogiro at an airshow in Detroit. Her husband, George Putnam, was the first to arrive at the wreckage: “I saw Amelia emerge from the dust and wave her hands in the air,” he said. “She was unhurt.” But Putnam was on the ground, writhing in pain. In his haste to reach the wreck site he tripped, fell and cracked three ribs. “Never had I run so fast,” he described afterwards, “until one of the guy wires caught my pumping legs exactly at the ankles.”
Unaware of her husband’s injury, Earhart happily acknowledged to the crowd.
While she was glad to walk away unscathed and Putman’s predicament was just an unfortunate accident, it would be her last call with the autogiro.
She went back to an aircraft with wings and a propeller in the front.
Tragically, six years later in 1937, over the Pacific, her legacy as it is known today would begin. | 748 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Montessori Method of Education was developed by Dr. Maria Montessori and is a child-centred educational approach that is based on scientific observations of children. It is a method of education that has been time tested with over 100 years of success throughout the world. Maria Montessori believed that children were intrinsically motivated to explore and learn from their environment and that they will choose an activity sensitive to their level of need and development at that time. The teacher, the child and the environment form a learning triangle. The child has the freedom to explore and choose the work that calls to him. The teacher’s role is to construct and maintain the prepared environment and is that of a guide to the children. The specially prepared environment encourages independence, freedom within limits and a sense of order. It is through his interaction with the Montessori material that the child can learn to organise his thinking, develop his concentration and discover the joy of learning. | <urn:uuid:2f143e61-092b-463c-a9a8-f43b42b36952> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kidsplay.ie/why-montessori/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.980909 | 191 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.619473993778228... | 8 | The Montessori Method of Education was developed by Dr. Maria Montessori and is a child-centred educational approach that is based on scientific observations of children. It is a method of education that has been time tested with over 100 years of success throughout the world. Maria Montessori believed that children were intrinsically motivated to explore and learn from their environment and that they will choose an activity sensitive to their level of need and development at that time. The teacher, the child and the environment form a learning triangle. The child has the freedom to explore and choose the work that calls to him. The teacher’s role is to construct and maintain the prepared environment and is that of a guide to the children. The specially prepared environment encourages independence, freedom within limits and a sense of order. It is through his interaction with the Montessori material that the child can learn to organise his thinking, develop his concentration and discover the joy of learning. | 193 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A History of Seat Belt Litigation
It is undeniable that seat belts save lives and personal injury lawyers have historically used the courts to champion their usage and proper installation. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the use of seat belts reduces automobile fatalities and injuries by about 50%. Car manufacturers began installing seat belts in cars during the first half of the 20th century. In the 1960s, the argument for seat belt usage made its way into the courts. Automobile accident defendants began using a seat belt argument to lessen their liability in these cases. According to a report on seat belt litigation, a Wisconsin jury reduced a plaintiff’s recovery amount based on her failure to wear an available seat belt. Though this conclusion sparked an abundance of seat belt-related arguments, courts were reluctant to recognize them as viable defenses. Their primary concerns reportedly included:
Plaintiff should not be punished if the lack of seat belt did not cause the accident;
- At the time, there was little evidence about the effectiveness of seat belts in reducing injuries;
- A belief that most people were not using seat belts at the time;
- Seat belt arguments would require expert testimony, making trials more expensive and lengthy; and
- A belief that the courts should not impose a seat belt duty that had not yet been implemented by state law.
Seat Belt Laws
By the mid-sixties, the federal government was requiring the installation of seat belts in all newly manufactured passenger vehicles. The states were not willingly following their lead though, as there were still very few laws concerning their usage. In the 1980s, the federal government began tying highway safety funding with the establishment of seat belt laws. Not wanting to lose their needed funds, the states complied and seat belt requirements were born. The state of Florida reportedly enacted its first seat belt law in July of 1986. As much impact as these laws had on the everyday lives of citizens, they also impacted the court system. While many states do not allow courts to use seat belt negligence as a bar to recovery, others do allow its usage to reduce recovery amounts.
But the courtroom fight over seat belts was not limited to the parties of an accident. Lawyers dragged car manufacturers into court in response to increased incidents of seat belt failure. As accident investigation became more detailed and sophisticated, it was discovered that faulty seat belts contribute to the seriousness of the accident. In response, lawsuits were initiated to determine the liability of car makers. Some of the most notable cases include:
- A Chrysler installed seat belt, called the Gen-3, was found to unlatch during accidents.
- Toyota has faced numerous allegations about the alleged inability of its seat belts to properly restrain the driver and passengers during a collision.
- General Motors seat belt concerns prompted widespread vehicle recalls and lawsuits.
If you or a family member has been injured due to a faulty seat belt, call Pita Weber & Del Prado in Miami at 305-670-2889 for a free consultation. Put the skills of experienced trial lawyers to work for you. | <urn:uuid:817229d8-655e-4915-b9de-361b801394d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pwdlawfirm.com/legal-advice/a-history-of-seat-belt-litigation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.981401 | 619 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3592065572738647... | 9 | A History of Seat Belt Litigation
It is undeniable that seat belts save lives and personal injury lawyers have historically used the courts to champion their usage and proper installation. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the use of seat belts reduces automobile fatalities and injuries by about 50%. Car manufacturers began installing seat belts in cars during the first half of the 20th century. In the 1960s, the argument for seat belt usage made its way into the courts. Automobile accident defendants began using a seat belt argument to lessen their liability in these cases. According to a report on seat belt litigation, a Wisconsin jury reduced a plaintiff’s recovery amount based on her failure to wear an available seat belt. Though this conclusion sparked an abundance of seat belt-related arguments, courts were reluctant to recognize them as viable defenses. Their primary concerns reportedly included:
Plaintiff should not be punished if the lack of seat belt did not cause the accident;
- At the time, there was little evidence about the effectiveness of seat belts in reducing injuries;
- A belief that most people were not using seat belts at the time;
- Seat belt arguments would require expert testimony, making trials more expensive and lengthy; and
- A belief that the courts should not impose a seat belt duty that had not yet been implemented by state law.
Seat Belt Laws
By the mid-sixties, the federal government was requiring the installation of seat belts in all newly manufactured passenger vehicles. The states were not willingly following their lead though, as there were still very few laws concerning their usage. In the 1980s, the federal government began tying highway safety funding with the establishment of seat belt laws. Not wanting to lose their needed funds, the states complied and seat belt requirements were born. The state of Florida reportedly enacted its first seat belt law in July of 1986. As much impact as these laws had on the everyday lives of citizens, they also impacted the court system. While many states do not allow courts to use seat belt negligence as a bar to recovery, others do allow its usage to reduce recovery amounts.
But the courtroom fight over seat belts was not limited to the parties of an accident. Lawyers dragged car manufacturers into court in response to increased incidents of seat belt failure. As accident investigation became more detailed and sophisticated, it was discovered that faulty seat belts contribute to the seriousness of the accident. In response, lawsuits were initiated to determine the liability of car makers. Some of the most notable cases include:
- A Chrysler installed seat belt, called the Gen-3, was found to unlatch during accidents.
- Toyota has faced numerous allegations about the alleged inability of its seat belts to properly restrain the driver and passengers during a collision.
- General Motors seat belt concerns prompted widespread vehicle recalls and lawsuits.
If you or a family member has been injured due to a faulty seat belt, call Pita Weber & Del Prado in Miami at 305-670-2889 for a free consultation. Put the skills of experienced trial lawyers to work for you. | 626 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Hinduism, any of the four stages of life through which a “twice-born” (see upanayana) Hindu ideally will pass. These stages are: the student, who is devoted and obedient to his teacher; the householder, who supports his family and the priests and fulfills duties to the gods and ancestors; the hermit, who withdraws from society to pursue ascetic and yogic practices; and the homeless mendicant, who renounces all possessions and wanders from place to place begging for food. In English the word has come to mean a place for the pursuit of spiritual or religious disciplines, often under a guru.
An Ashram in ancient India was a Hindu hermitage where sages lived in peace and tranquility amidst nature. Today, the term ashram is usually used to refer to an intentional community formed primarily for spiritual upliftment of its members, often headed by a religious leader or mystic.
Traditionally, ashrams were usually located far from human habitation, in forests or mountainous regions, amidst refreshing natural surroundings conducive to spiritual instruction and meditation. Spiritual and physical exercises, such as the various forms of Yoga, were regularly performed by the residents of an ashram. Other sacrifices and penances, such as Yajnas were also performed. Many Ashrams also served as Gurukuls or residential schools for children. The word ashram is derived from the Sanskrit term “aashraya”, which means protection.
Ashrams have been a powerful symbol throughout Hindu history and theology. Most Hindu kings until the medieval ages are known to have had a sage who would advise the royal family in spiritual matters, or in times of crisis, who was called the rajguru which literally translates to royal teacher. A world-weary emperor going to this guru’s ashram, and finding solace and tranquility, is a recurring motif in many folktales and legends of ancient India. | <urn:uuid:828b0c82-10d4-4096-9be5-9d9c5a2bbcad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pranichealingforall.com/ashram/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00173.warc.gz | en | 0.98282 | 404 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.27192091941... | 11 | In Hinduism, any of the four stages of life through which a “twice-born” (see upanayana) Hindu ideally will pass. These stages are: the student, who is devoted and obedient to his teacher; the householder, who supports his family and the priests and fulfills duties to the gods and ancestors; the hermit, who withdraws from society to pursue ascetic and yogic practices; and the homeless mendicant, who renounces all possessions and wanders from place to place begging for food. In English the word has come to mean a place for the pursuit of spiritual or religious disciplines, often under a guru.
An Ashram in ancient India was a Hindu hermitage where sages lived in peace and tranquility amidst nature. Today, the term ashram is usually used to refer to an intentional community formed primarily for spiritual upliftment of its members, often headed by a religious leader or mystic.
Traditionally, ashrams were usually located far from human habitation, in forests or mountainous regions, amidst refreshing natural surroundings conducive to spiritual instruction and meditation. Spiritual and physical exercises, such as the various forms of Yoga, were regularly performed by the residents of an ashram. Other sacrifices and penances, such as Yajnas were also performed. Many Ashrams also served as Gurukuls or residential schools for children. The word ashram is derived from the Sanskrit term “aashraya”, which means protection.
Ashrams have been a powerful symbol throughout Hindu history and theology. Most Hindu kings until the medieval ages are known to have had a sage who would advise the royal family in spiritual matters, or in times of crisis, who was called the rajguru which literally translates to royal teacher. A world-weary emperor going to this guru’s ashram, and finding solace and tranquility, is a recurring motif in many folktales and legends of ancient India. | 392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If the American of today could transport himself to one of the first railroad lines built in the United States it is not unlikely that he would side with the canal enthusiast in his argument. The rough pictures which accompany most accounts of early railroad days, showing a train of omnibus-like carriages pulled by a locomotive with an upright boiler, really represent a somewhat advanced stage of development. Though Stephenson had demonstrated the practicability of the locomotive in 1814 and although the American, John Stevens, had constructed one in 1826 which had demonstrated its ability to take a curve, local prejudice against this innovation continued strong. The farmers asserted that the sparks set fire to their hayricks and barns and that the noise frightened their hens so that they would not lay and their cows so that they could not give milk.
On the earliest railroads, therefore, almost any other method of propulsion was preferred. Horses and dogs were used, winches turned by men were occasionally installed, and in some cases, cars were even fitted with sails.
Of all these methods, the horse was the most popular: he sent out no sparks, he carried his own fuel, he made little noise, and he would not explode. His only failing was that he would leave the track, and to remedy this defect the early railroad builders hit upon a happy device. Sometimes they would fix a treadmill inside the car; two horses would patiently propel the caravan, the seats for passengers being arranged on either side. So unformed was the prevalent conception of the ultimate function of the railroad, and so pronounced was the fear of monopoly that, on certain lines, the roadbed was laid as a state enterprise and the users furnished their own cars, just as the individual owners of towboats did on the canals. The drivers, however, were an exceedingly rough lot; no schedules were observed and as the first lines had only single tracks and infrequent turnouts when the opposing sides would meet each other coming and going, precedence was usually awarded to the side which had the stronger arm. The roadbed showed little improvement over the mine tramways of the eighteenth century, and the rails were only long wooden stringers with strap iron nailed on top. So undeveloped were the resources of the country that the builders of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1828 petitioned Congress to remit the duty on the iron which it was compelled to import from England. The trains consisted of a string of little cars, with the baggage piled on the roof, and when they reached a hill they sometimes had to be pulled up the inclined plane by a rope. Yet the traveling in these earliest days was probably more comfortable than in those which immediately followed the general adoption of locomotives. When, five or ten years later, the advantages of mechanical as opposed to animal traction caused engines to be introduced extensively, the passengers behind them rode through the constant smoke and hot cinders that made railway travel an incessant torture.
Yet the railroad speedily demonstrated its practical value; many of the first lines were extremely profitable, and the hostility with which they had been first received soon changed to an enthusiasm which was just as unreasoning. The speculative craze which invariably follows a new discovery swept over the country in the thirties and the forties and manifested itself most unfortunately in the new Western States — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. Here, bonfires and public meetings whipped up the zeal; people believed that railroads would not only immediately open the wilderness and pay the interest on the bonds issued to construct them, but that they would become a source Of revenue to sadly depleted state treasuries.
Much has been heard of government ownership in recent years; yet it is nothing particularly new, for many of the early railroads in these new Western States were built as government enterprises, with results which were frequently disastrous. This mania, with the land speculation accompanying it, was largely responsible for the panic of 1837 and led to that repudiation of debts in certain States which for so many years gave American investments an evil reputation abroad.
In the more settled parts of the country, however, railroad building had comparatively a more solid foundation. Yet the railroad map of the forties indicates that railroad building in this early period was incoherent and haphazard.
Practically everywhere the railroad was an individual enterprise; the builders had no further conception of it than as a line connecting two given points usually a short distance apart. The roads of those days began anywhere and ended almost anywhere. A few miles of iron rail connected Albany and Schenectady.
There was a road from Hartford to New Haven, but there was none from New Haven to New York. A line connected Philadelphia with Columbia; Baltimore had a road to Washington; Charleston, South Carolina, had a similar contact with Hamburg in the same State. By 1842, New York State, from Albany to Buffalo, possessed several disconnected stretches of railroad. It was not until 1836, when work was begun on the Erie Railroad, that a plan was adopted for a single line reaching several hundred miles from an obvious point, such as New York, to an obvious destination, such as Lake Erie. Even then a few farsighted men could foresee the day when the railroad train would cross the plains and the Rockies and link the Atlantic and the Pacific. Yet, in 1850 nearly all the railroads in the United States lay east of the Mississippi River, and all of them, even when they were physically mere extensions of one another, were separately owned and separately managed.
Successful as many of the railroads were, they had hardly yet established themselves as the one preeminent means of transportation. The canal had lost in the struggle for supremacy, but certain of these constructed waterways, particularly the Erie, were flourishing with little-diminished vigor. The river steamboat had enjoyed development in the first few decades of the nineteenth century almost as great as that of the railroad itself. The Mississippi River was the great natural highway for the products and the passenger traffic of the South Central States; it had made New Orleans one of the largest and most flourishing cities in the country; and certainly the rich cotton planter of the fifties would have smiled at any suggestion that the “floating palaces” which plied this mighty stream would ever surrender their preeminence to the rusty and struggling railroads which wound along its banks.
This period, which may be taken as the first in American railroad development, ended about the middle of the century. It was an age of great progress but not of absolutely assured success. A few lines earned handsome profits, but in the main, the railroad business was not favorably regarded and railroad investments everywhere were held in suspicion. The condition that prevailed in many railroads is illustrated by the fact that the directors of the Michigan and Southern, when they held their annual meeting in 1853, had to borrow chairs from an adjoining office as the sheriff had walked away with their own for debt. Even a railroad with such a territory as the Hudson River Valley, and extending from New York to Albany existed in a state of chronic dilapidation; and the New York and Harlem, which had an entrance into New York City as an asset of incalculable value, was looked upon merely as a vehicle for Wall Street speculation. | <urn:uuid:0689dcea-200b-4ae5-bcff-c67aee8bd203> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.legendsofamerica.com/rr-railroadbuilders/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00377.warc.gz | en | 0.987518 | 1,484 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.18551400303... | 2 | If the American of today could transport himself to one of the first railroad lines built in the United States it is not unlikely that he would side with the canal enthusiast in his argument. The rough pictures which accompany most accounts of early railroad days, showing a train of omnibus-like carriages pulled by a locomotive with an upright boiler, really represent a somewhat advanced stage of development. Though Stephenson had demonstrated the practicability of the locomotive in 1814 and although the American, John Stevens, had constructed one in 1826 which had demonstrated its ability to take a curve, local prejudice against this innovation continued strong. The farmers asserted that the sparks set fire to their hayricks and barns and that the noise frightened their hens so that they would not lay and their cows so that they could not give milk.
On the earliest railroads, therefore, almost any other method of propulsion was preferred. Horses and dogs were used, winches turned by men were occasionally installed, and in some cases, cars were even fitted with sails.
Of all these methods, the horse was the most popular: he sent out no sparks, he carried his own fuel, he made little noise, and he would not explode. His only failing was that he would leave the track, and to remedy this defect the early railroad builders hit upon a happy device. Sometimes they would fix a treadmill inside the car; two horses would patiently propel the caravan, the seats for passengers being arranged on either side. So unformed was the prevalent conception of the ultimate function of the railroad, and so pronounced was the fear of monopoly that, on certain lines, the roadbed was laid as a state enterprise and the users furnished their own cars, just as the individual owners of towboats did on the canals. The drivers, however, were an exceedingly rough lot; no schedules were observed and as the first lines had only single tracks and infrequent turnouts when the opposing sides would meet each other coming and going, precedence was usually awarded to the side which had the stronger arm. The roadbed showed little improvement over the mine tramways of the eighteenth century, and the rails were only long wooden stringers with strap iron nailed on top. So undeveloped were the resources of the country that the builders of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1828 petitioned Congress to remit the duty on the iron which it was compelled to import from England. The trains consisted of a string of little cars, with the baggage piled on the roof, and when they reached a hill they sometimes had to be pulled up the inclined plane by a rope. Yet the traveling in these earliest days was probably more comfortable than in those which immediately followed the general adoption of locomotives. When, five or ten years later, the advantages of mechanical as opposed to animal traction caused engines to be introduced extensively, the passengers behind them rode through the constant smoke and hot cinders that made railway travel an incessant torture.
Yet the railroad speedily demonstrated its practical value; many of the first lines were extremely profitable, and the hostility with which they had been first received soon changed to an enthusiasm which was just as unreasoning. The speculative craze which invariably follows a new discovery swept over the country in the thirties and the forties and manifested itself most unfortunately in the new Western States — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. Here, bonfires and public meetings whipped up the zeal; people believed that railroads would not only immediately open the wilderness and pay the interest on the bonds issued to construct them, but that they would become a source Of revenue to sadly depleted state treasuries.
Much has been heard of government ownership in recent years; yet it is nothing particularly new, for many of the early railroads in these new Western States were built as government enterprises, with results which were frequently disastrous. This mania, with the land speculation accompanying it, was largely responsible for the panic of 1837 and led to that repudiation of debts in certain States which for so many years gave American investments an evil reputation abroad.
In the more settled parts of the country, however, railroad building had comparatively a more solid foundation. Yet the railroad map of the forties indicates that railroad building in this early period was incoherent and haphazard.
Practically everywhere the railroad was an individual enterprise; the builders had no further conception of it than as a line connecting two given points usually a short distance apart. The roads of those days began anywhere and ended almost anywhere. A few miles of iron rail connected Albany and Schenectady.
There was a road from Hartford to New Haven, but there was none from New Haven to New York. A line connected Philadelphia with Columbia; Baltimore had a road to Washington; Charleston, South Carolina, had a similar contact with Hamburg in the same State. By 1842, New York State, from Albany to Buffalo, possessed several disconnected stretches of railroad. It was not until 1836, when work was begun on the Erie Railroad, that a plan was adopted for a single line reaching several hundred miles from an obvious point, such as New York, to an obvious destination, such as Lake Erie. Even then a few farsighted men could foresee the day when the railroad train would cross the plains and the Rockies and link the Atlantic and the Pacific. Yet, in 1850 nearly all the railroads in the United States lay east of the Mississippi River, and all of them, even when they were physically mere extensions of one another, were separately owned and separately managed.
Successful as many of the railroads were, they had hardly yet established themselves as the one preeminent means of transportation. The canal had lost in the struggle for supremacy, but certain of these constructed waterways, particularly the Erie, were flourishing with little-diminished vigor. The river steamboat had enjoyed development in the first few decades of the nineteenth century almost as great as that of the railroad itself. The Mississippi River was the great natural highway for the products and the passenger traffic of the South Central States; it had made New Orleans one of the largest and most flourishing cities in the country; and certainly the rich cotton planter of the fifties would have smiled at any suggestion that the “floating palaces” which plied this mighty stream would ever surrender their preeminence to the rusty and struggling railroads which wound along its banks.
This period, which may be taken as the first in American railroad development, ended about the middle of the century. It was an age of great progress but not of absolutely assured success. A few lines earned handsome profits, but in the main, the railroad business was not favorably regarded and railroad investments everywhere were held in suspicion. The condition that prevailed in many railroads is illustrated by the fact that the directors of the Michigan and Southern, when they held their annual meeting in 1853, had to borrow chairs from an adjoining office as the sheriff had walked away with their own for debt. Even a railroad with such a territory as the Hudson River Valley, and extending from New York to Albany existed in a state of chronic dilapidation; and the New York and Harlem, which had an entrance into New York City as an asset of incalculable value, was looked upon merely as a vehicle for Wall Street speculation. | 1,501 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Albania - Italian protectorate (1939-1943)
"The Italian protectorate of Albania, also known as Greater Albania, existed as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy. It was practically a union between Italy and Albania, officially led by Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III and its government: Albania was led by Italian governors, after being militarily occupied by Italy, from 1939 until 1943. During this time, Albania ceased to exist as an independent country and remained as an autonomous part of the Italian Empire led by Italian government officials, who intended to make Albania part of a Greater Italy by assimilating Albanians as Italians and colonizing Albania with Italian settlers from the Italian Peninsula to transform it gradually into an Italian land."
© | Source:Wikipedia | <urn:uuid:743830e9-1534-499b-b049-ff93ef36e512> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.numizmatika.si/numismatics/europe/albania/albania-italian-protectorate-1939-1943 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.984648 | 154 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.77217990159988... | 7 | Albania - Italian protectorate (1939-1943)
"The Italian protectorate of Albania, also known as Greater Albania, existed as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy. It was practically a union between Italy and Albania, officially led by Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III and its government: Albania was led by Italian governors, after being militarily occupied by Italy, from 1939 until 1943. During this time, Albania ceased to exist as an independent country and remained as an autonomous part of the Italian Empire led by Italian government officials, who intended to make Albania part of a Greater Italy by assimilating Albanians as Italians and colonizing Albania with Italian settlers from the Italian Peninsula to transform it gradually into an Italian land."
© | Source:Wikipedia | 165 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Child-Rearing Practices in the 1800s
According to the Dr. James Ford Historic Home's website, child-rearing practices changed significantly during the 1800s 1. Up to this point, children were seen as smaller adults and did not have a "childhood" as such. They were expected to learn tasks and responsibilities quickly, and to work alongside adults as soon as they were ready and able. An article entitled "New Rules for Children" that was published in "Harper's Roundtable" magazine made suggestions for families to change the way they raised children and to set a positive example for them.
Parents were encouraged to show approval to their children when they achieved something or behaved well. Children began to be regarded by adults as young learners who needed to follow a good example set by their elders. They began to learn by receiving constructive responses from their parents, instead of only being punished for their mistakes.
Restraint in Punishment
Parents were encouraged to behave humanely towards their children. "New Rules for Parents" advised that adults should never punish children when they were angry. If the child is to receive the correct message about what she has done wrong, the parent must communicate this in a calm but firm way. Violent punishments and threatening behavior towards children were strongly advised against. The way that children were to learn from adults was being revolutionized during the 1800s.
Education and Labor
Education for children in the 1800s was piecemeal because they were needed at home for farm labor and household work. In rural areas, the schools tended to consist of just one room in which children of all ages were taught. The emphasis on education during the 1800s was on reading, writing and basic mathematics (also known as "the three Rs"). Many parents recognized that their children needed this basic education to have a choice of professions and trades when they reached adulthood. Christian instruction was also a significant part of education for children in the 1800s, with the ability to read the Bible seen as an essential way of becoming a good Christian. Mores and values such as honesty, manners and charity were also taught at school.
During the 1800s, Americans believed that males and females should occupy very distinct spheres, and children were prepared for this from a young age. Boys were encouraged to be inventive and enterprising, so that they would grow up to be entrepreneurs, engineers, politicians, ministers. They were considered to be the state-builders of the future. Girls were taught to develop nurturing qualities, such as patience, kindness and gentleness. Girls were expected to learn how to be homemakers and to develop the moral wisdom to support the men in their families.
- Jupiterimages/BananaStock/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:15f29ece-14ca-4a8d-9a49-cec0ce2c8acc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://howtoadult.com/childrearing-practices-1800s-8084427.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.992084 | 548 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.2956296... | 12 | Child-Rearing Practices in the 1800s
According to the Dr. James Ford Historic Home's website, child-rearing practices changed significantly during the 1800s 1. Up to this point, children were seen as smaller adults and did not have a "childhood" as such. They were expected to learn tasks and responsibilities quickly, and to work alongside adults as soon as they were ready and able. An article entitled "New Rules for Children" that was published in "Harper's Roundtable" magazine made suggestions for families to change the way they raised children and to set a positive example for them.
Parents were encouraged to show approval to their children when they achieved something or behaved well. Children began to be regarded by adults as young learners who needed to follow a good example set by their elders. They began to learn by receiving constructive responses from their parents, instead of only being punished for their mistakes.
Restraint in Punishment
Parents were encouraged to behave humanely towards their children. "New Rules for Parents" advised that adults should never punish children when they were angry. If the child is to receive the correct message about what she has done wrong, the parent must communicate this in a calm but firm way. Violent punishments and threatening behavior towards children were strongly advised against. The way that children were to learn from adults was being revolutionized during the 1800s.
Education and Labor
Education for children in the 1800s was piecemeal because they were needed at home for farm labor and household work. In rural areas, the schools tended to consist of just one room in which children of all ages were taught. The emphasis on education during the 1800s was on reading, writing and basic mathematics (also known as "the three Rs"). Many parents recognized that their children needed this basic education to have a choice of professions and trades when they reached adulthood. Christian instruction was also a significant part of education for children in the 1800s, with the ability to read the Bible seen as an essential way of becoming a good Christian. Mores and values such as honesty, manners and charity were also taught at school.
During the 1800s, Americans believed that males and females should occupy very distinct spheres, and children were prepared for this from a young age. Boys were encouraged to be inventive and enterprising, so that they would grow up to be entrepreneurs, engineers, politicians, ministers. They were considered to be the state-builders of the future. Girls were taught to develop nurturing qualities, such as patience, kindness and gentleness. Girls were expected to learn how to be homemakers and to develop the moral wisdom to support the men in their families.
- Jupiterimages/BananaStock/Getty Images | 572 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before the late 1960s women only wore pants while working in the garden or around the house, engaging in such female-approved sports as bowling, or traveling to the beach. In most any business, school, or formal public or social setting women were expected to wear skirts or dresses. As feminism, the social movement to gain full and equal rights for women, grew more powerful in the 1960s and women increased their presence in the workplace, the notion that females and skirts were synonymous was viewed as impractical and outdated. French designer Yves Saint Laurent (1936–) and other top designers responded to this desire for skirt-liberation by creating the pantsuit: an outfit, designed and tailored specifically for women, comprised of matching slacks and jacket. By the mid-1960s nearly all the important Paris, France, designers were creating and marketing pantsuits. Pantsuits allowed women in the workplace the opportunity to enjoy the mobility and flexibility they lacked when wearing a dress or skirt.
Some pantsuits were female versions of traditional male suits. They featured solid colors, blacks and blues and browns, or came in plaid or tweed. Others were more traditionally feminine, designed in pastel colors or even in white lace over pink. Jackets came in varying lengths and were single or double-breasted. Pants were narrow, tapered, or flared. The suits were made of a range of materials, such as wool, suede, leather, twill, velvet, silk, cotton, polyester, and cotton-polyester blends. Unlike their male counterparts, women accessorized their pantsuits with necklaces, pins, gloves, scarves, and designer handbags and shoes.
Pantsuits were not immediately accepted as formal social or workplace attire. Younger women began wearing them and were scornfully viewed not only by the male establishment but by their older female coworkers as well. Exclusive restaurants refused to seat women dressed in even the most stylish and expensive pantsuits. Eventually, workplace and restaurant dress codes were altered to accommodate women wearing them.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Molloy, John T. New Women's Dress for Success. New York: Warner Books, 1996. | <urn:uuid:e05df46b-10ae-420b-be4f-fada77928c2b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia.com/sports-and-everyday-life/fashion-and-clothing/clothing-jewelry-and-personal-adornment/pantsuit | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00146.warc.gz | en | 0.981507 | 441 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.16110292077... | 3 | Before the late 1960s women only wore pants while working in the garden or around the house, engaging in such female-approved sports as bowling, or traveling to the beach. In most any business, school, or formal public or social setting women were expected to wear skirts or dresses. As feminism, the social movement to gain full and equal rights for women, grew more powerful in the 1960s and women increased their presence in the workplace, the notion that females and skirts were synonymous was viewed as impractical and outdated. French designer Yves Saint Laurent (1936–) and other top designers responded to this desire for skirt-liberation by creating the pantsuit: an outfit, designed and tailored specifically for women, comprised of matching slacks and jacket. By the mid-1960s nearly all the important Paris, France, designers were creating and marketing pantsuits. Pantsuits allowed women in the workplace the opportunity to enjoy the mobility and flexibility they lacked when wearing a dress or skirt.
Some pantsuits were female versions of traditional male suits. They featured solid colors, blacks and blues and browns, or came in plaid or tweed. Others were more traditionally feminine, designed in pastel colors or even in white lace over pink. Jackets came in varying lengths and were single or double-breasted. Pants were narrow, tapered, or flared. The suits were made of a range of materials, such as wool, suede, leather, twill, velvet, silk, cotton, polyester, and cotton-polyester blends. Unlike their male counterparts, women accessorized their pantsuits with necklaces, pins, gloves, scarves, and designer handbags and shoes.
Pantsuits were not immediately accepted as formal social or workplace attire. Younger women began wearing them and were scornfully viewed not only by the male establishment but by their older female coworkers as well. Exclusive restaurants refused to seat women dressed in even the most stylish and expensive pantsuits. Eventually, workplace and restaurant dress codes were altered to accommodate women wearing them.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Molloy, John T. New Women's Dress for Success. New York: Warner Books, 1996. | 450 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fort Griswold in Groton, Conn. was the scene of Benedict’s Arnold’s final act of treason against his fellow Connecticut countrymen – the little remembered Fort Griswold massacre.
It was September 6, 1781. The American army under George Washington was intent on trapping English General Charles Cornwallis and his army at Yorktown, Virginia – setting the stage for the decisive victory that would end the American Revolution.
The commander of English forces for the colonies, Henry Clinton, was in New York. Upon realizing Washington’s strategy, he wanted to distract the American army from its pursuit of General Cornwallis in Virginia.
Clinton turned to Benedict Arnold. By this time Arnold, a one-time officer in the Connecticut militia, had joined the British side and been given the rank of brigadier general. Clinton ordered Arnold to attack Connecticut forces at New London and capture the city. Clinton hoped to make the port a useful base of operation for future fighting.
On September 6, at Fort Griswold in Groton, the battle came to a conclusion. The British committed 1700 soldiers to the campaign. Eight hundred soldiers had surrounded Fort Griswold. Connecticut forces totaled about 150. Of that, about 75 remained trapped in the fort as the British surrounded it.
Connecticut Colonel William Ledyard, in command at the fort, knew he was hopelessly outnumbered. There was no assistance coming from Washington’s army in the south.
Ledyard ordered the American flag struck and stepped outside the fort to parley with his British counterpart, who asked him who commanded the fort. Ledyard’s answer: “I did, but you do now.”
Ledyard offered his sword to the British officer in charge, a symbolic gesture marking the surrender. At that moment, Ledyard could have expected one of two responses dictated by military custom. The British officer might acknowledge the surrender and then return the sword, if the battle had been honorable. If there were harsh feelings about the conduct of the fighting, the conquering officer might take the sword and keep it, as a sign of contempt for his enemy.
But the British officer in this instance chose a third option. He took Ledyard’s sword and then stabbed him to death with it. The details of the event have been muddied by time. Some claim the Americans then stabbed the British officer. Others say they did not succeed in avenging his death.
What followed was the slaughter of many of the remaining American troops at Fort Griswold (estimates of the dead vary from as few as 30 to more than 80). Arnold was in command of the British forces in Connecticut during the fighting, but not directly in a position stop the massacre. Still, some have suggested his hostility toward his former compatriots contributed to the incident.
In his report on the fighting, Arnold did not mention the incident. War historian William Gordon noted: “a severe execution took place after resistance ceased.”
Historians have been puzzled about why the Fort Griswold Massacre took place. Some suggested that earlier in the fighting the American flag had been shot down. British soldiers mistook it as a sign of surrender and some had been killed when they lowered their guard.
Rhode Island soldier Joseph Wood gave an account of the incident:
When Colonel Ledyard found that he was not able to withstand the attack upon the fort, he opened the gate to surrender. As he did so, the British commander asked, ‘Who commands this fort?’
Colonel Ledyard answered, ‘I did, but you do now,’ and presented to the British commander his sword.
The British commander took the sword and thrust it through Colonel Ledyard. This I heard and saw. Upon that, Captain Allen, who was standing nearby in the act of presenting his sword to surrender, drew it back and thrust it through the British officer who had thus killed Colonel Ledyard. Captain Allen was then immediately killed by the British. This I also saw. I then leaped the walls and made my escape.
In the aftermath, much of New London lay in ruins as the British plundered the town. Clinton praised Arnold for his success, but complained about the number of British casualties that had occurred during the fighting.
The battle marked the one of the last major British victories of the American Revolution as it was followed shortly by Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown. | <urn:uuid:dd98297e-2d7d-4e4f-8229-2ddfdd71a139> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/fort-griswold-massacre-benedict-arnolds-last-treachery/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00200.warc.gz | en | 0.984477 | 925 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.71190541982... | 7 | Fort Griswold in Groton, Conn. was the scene of Benedict’s Arnold’s final act of treason against his fellow Connecticut countrymen – the little remembered Fort Griswold massacre.
It was September 6, 1781. The American army under George Washington was intent on trapping English General Charles Cornwallis and his army at Yorktown, Virginia – setting the stage for the decisive victory that would end the American Revolution.
The commander of English forces for the colonies, Henry Clinton, was in New York. Upon realizing Washington’s strategy, he wanted to distract the American army from its pursuit of General Cornwallis in Virginia.
Clinton turned to Benedict Arnold. By this time Arnold, a one-time officer in the Connecticut militia, had joined the British side and been given the rank of brigadier general. Clinton ordered Arnold to attack Connecticut forces at New London and capture the city. Clinton hoped to make the port a useful base of operation for future fighting.
On September 6, at Fort Griswold in Groton, the battle came to a conclusion. The British committed 1700 soldiers to the campaign. Eight hundred soldiers had surrounded Fort Griswold. Connecticut forces totaled about 150. Of that, about 75 remained trapped in the fort as the British surrounded it.
Connecticut Colonel William Ledyard, in command at the fort, knew he was hopelessly outnumbered. There was no assistance coming from Washington’s army in the south.
Ledyard ordered the American flag struck and stepped outside the fort to parley with his British counterpart, who asked him who commanded the fort. Ledyard’s answer: “I did, but you do now.”
Ledyard offered his sword to the British officer in charge, a symbolic gesture marking the surrender. At that moment, Ledyard could have expected one of two responses dictated by military custom. The British officer might acknowledge the surrender and then return the sword, if the battle had been honorable. If there were harsh feelings about the conduct of the fighting, the conquering officer might take the sword and keep it, as a sign of contempt for his enemy.
But the British officer in this instance chose a third option. He took Ledyard’s sword and then stabbed him to death with it. The details of the event have been muddied by time. Some claim the Americans then stabbed the British officer. Others say they did not succeed in avenging his death.
What followed was the slaughter of many of the remaining American troops at Fort Griswold (estimates of the dead vary from as few as 30 to more than 80). Arnold was in command of the British forces in Connecticut during the fighting, but not directly in a position stop the massacre. Still, some have suggested his hostility toward his former compatriots contributed to the incident.
In his report on the fighting, Arnold did not mention the incident. War historian William Gordon noted: “a severe execution took place after resistance ceased.”
Historians have been puzzled about why the Fort Griswold Massacre took place. Some suggested that earlier in the fighting the American flag had been shot down. British soldiers mistook it as a sign of surrender and some had been killed when they lowered their guard.
Rhode Island soldier Joseph Wood gave an account of the incident:
When Colonel Ledyard found that he was not able to withstand the attack upon the fort, he opened the gate to surrender. As he did so, the British commander asked, ‘Who commands this fort?’
Colonel Ledyard answered, ‘I did, but you do now,’ and presented to the British commander his sword.
The British commander took the sword and thrust it through Colonel Ledyard. This I heard and saw. Upon that, Captain Allen, who was standing nearby in the act of presenting his sword to surrender, drew it back and thrust it through the British officer who had thus killed Colonel Ledyard. Captain Allen was then immediately killed by the British. This I also saw. I then leaped the walls and made my escape.
In the aftermath, much of New London lay in ruins as the British plundered the town. Clinton praised Arnold for his success, but complained about the number of British casualties that had occurred during the fighting.
The battle marked the one of the last major British victories of the American Revolution as it was followed shortly by Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown. | 905 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Written by The Weekend Vote
Published: May 1, 2015 at 5:40 AM [UTC]
Though I can't do that, I do have relative pitch, and that allows me to do things like sing in tune, play in tune, and do a transcription from a point of reference. I'm told that perfect pitch doesn't help you play in tune and can actually hinder that (when the orchestra has to tune to a different pitch, like the A=415 in Baroque music or a really flat church organ), but honestly, everyone I've known with perfect pitch has also played quite well in tune!
So what exactly is perfect pitch? Perfect pitch, or absolute pitch, is the ability to accurately identify a pitch, with no reference point. Relative pitch is the ability to identify pitches, but with a reference point. Can perfect pitch and relative pitch be learned? I think so, at least to a degree. I do wonder how much having those pitches identified as a young person helps a person to have "perfect pitch." Until I was nearly nine and started learning to play the violin, I was fairly unaware of the fact that music notes even had names, much less could I name them!
Do you have perfect pitch? What are your thoughts on the matter?
You might also like:
Since 415 is about a half-step below 440, I just think of a piece written in A as being played in A-flat when the players use 415 tuning. What really throws me off is tuning somewhere between 415 and 440. Fortunately, I have strong relative pitch; so I can adapt to playing with a piano in the ensemble that has its tuning a bit off. For my own practicing and playing, I use 440.
Pitches and note names are variable, even in a440. So any sense of perfect pitch is your brain feeding you misguided information.
Also - how can a person have perfect pitch without having learned about why notes have which names. And even the person who said that working with A=415 - or such- adjusts from thinking about A as 440 and thinks of it as though the A flat is now A. Seems that all of these are Relative Pitch recognitions with some being better at it than others - more naturally receptive, having to work less.
"Since 415 is about a half-step below 440, I just think of a piece written in A as being played in A-flat when the players use 415 tuning."
In other words, with my 440-pitch orientation, it's as if they had transposed the piece down a half-step to A-flat.
And I have found myself in "a situation with a different A -- say 436 or 443" -- e.g., having to play when the accompanying piano is tuned lower or higher than 440. Fortunately, I also have good relative pitch, and here is where relative pitch takes over. In high school musical shows, we, the orchestra, sometimes had to transpose a number down or up a half-step -- sometimes more -- to suit the individual singer's voice. In opera, the conductor occasionally has to tell players on the very day of the performance to do this; e.g., if the lead baritone is unwell and can't sing the high G called for in the score -- but can still hit high F.
@184.108.40.206: Re " 'perfect pitch' is a curse not a gift":
For players so bound by it that they can't function musically apart from 440 -- or whatever their usual reference point is -- this is probably true. I have perfect pitch and strong relative pitch. The former has come in handy -- never considered it a curse; but I find the latter far more valuable to overall musicianship.
Mathew Schneider wrote:
"I too am glad to not have it [perfect pitch]. … any sense of perfect pitch is your brain feeding you misguided information."
Information isn't misguided. People are misguided. Also, if you don't have perfect pitch, how can you be so sure what perfect pitch is and isn't? I have perfect pitch. Best way I can describe it: It's like being able to tell colors apart -- or like voice recognition. In this case, it's pitch recognition or pitch memory.
ADDENDUM - 5-8-2015: Mathew, it appears you and I will have to "agree to disagree." From the review I just did of the base verb, misguide --
-- I stand by my statement as well.
About "people with perfect pitch [who] have difficulties playing and listening to other frequencies of A":
I don't know if this is "pretty common." I majored in music and personally knew at least one player with this problem -- a pianist who had to play a piece written in A-flat on a piano with tuning a half-step low. The piece sounded as if she were playing it in the key of G instead. She told us, "I could not play."
I suspect the problem is more common among pianists than violinists, but I'd have to do some research on that point. Fortunately, my sense of perfect pitch isn't so absolute and inflexible that I can't tune lower or higher than 440, if I have to, and still play just as well. As long as I've mastered the material and have had at least one run-through with my ensemble partners, I'm fine. But preparation and run-throughs are expected anyway, whether at 440 or some other tuning. Then, too, during performance, violin strings can drift off pitch, as you know, and players routinely compensate -- often only subconsciously. Again, this is an example of where relative pitch comes into play.
But my adaptability and strong sense of relative pitch haven't at all diminished my sense of perfect pitch -- the ability to name individual tones and keys. You've reported that you don't have perfect pitch. I do have it, and I've proved it over and over. I know what I'm talking about.
After consulting a dictionary, I stand by my use of the word "misguided".
I'm basing this on what other people have said, as well as extrapolating from other things my brain does.
It seems pretty common that people with perfect pitch have difficulties playing and listening to other frequencies of A.
You mentioned relative pitch needing to take over with A=436. But that's actually the value of A when when played together in just temperament with a C in A=440.
This entry has been archived and is no longer accepting comments.
Violinist.com is made possible by...
Discover the best of Violinist.com in these collections of editor Laurie Niles' exclusive interviews. | <urn:uuid:24821995-46fc-4ab1-be0d-9c75da58249a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.violinist.com/blog/weekendvote/20154/16754/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.98222 | 1,392 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.28148028254508... | 3 | Written by The Weekend Vote
Published: May 1, 2015 at 5:40 AM [UTC]
Though I can't do that, I do have relative pitch, and that allows me to do things like sing in tune, play in tune, and do a transcription from a point of reference. I'm told that perfect pitch doesn't help you play in tune and can actually hinder that (when the orchestra has to tune to a different pitch, like the A=415 in Baroque music or a really flat church organ), but honestly, everyone I've known with perfect pitch has also played quite well in tune!
So what exactly is perfect pitch? Perfect pitch, or absolute pitch, is the ability to accurately identify a pitch, with no reference point. Relative pitch is the ability to identify pitches, but with a reference point. Can perfect pitch and relative pitch be learned? I think so, at least to a degree. I do wonder how much having those pitches identified as a young person helps a person to have "perfect pitch." Until I was nearly nine and started learning to play the violin, I was fairly unaware of the fact that music notes even had names, much less could I name them!
Do you have perfect pitch? What are your thoughts on the matter?
You might also like:
Since 415 is about a half-step below 440, I just think of a piece written in A as being played in A-flat when the players use 415 tuning. What really throws me off is tuning somewhere between 415 and 440. Fortunately, I have strong relative pitch; so I can adapt to playing with a piano in the ensemble that has its tuning a bit off. For my own practicing and playing, I use 440.
Pitches and note names are variable, even in a440. So any sense of perfect pitch is your brain feeding you misguided information.
Also - how can a person have perfect pitch without having learned about why notes have which names. And even the person who said that working with A=415 - or such- adjusts from thinking about A as 440 and thinks of it as though the A flat is now A. Seems that all of these are Relative Pitch recognitions with some being better at it than others - more naturally receptive, having to work less.
"Since 415 is about a half-step below 440, I just think of a piece written in A as being played in A-flat when the players use 415 tuning."
In other words, with my 440-pitch orientation, it's as if they had transposed the piece down a half-step to A-flat.
And I have found myself in "a situation with a different A -- say 436 or 443" -- e.g., having to play when the accompanying piano is tuned lower or higher than 440. Fortunately, I also have good relative pitch, and here is where relative pitch takes over. In high school musical shows, we, the orchestra, sometimes had to transpose a number down or up a half-step -- sometimes more -- to suit the individual singer's voice. In opera, the conductor occasionally has to tell players on the very day of the performance to do this; e.g., if the lead baritone is unwell and can't sing the high G called for in the score -- but can still hit high F.
@184.108.40.206: Re " 'perfect pitch' is a curse not a gift":
For players so bound by it that they can't function musically apart from 440 -- or whatever their usual reference point is -- this is probably true. I have perfect pitch and strong relative pitch. The former has come in handy -- never considered it a curse; but I find the latter far more valuable to overall musicianship.
Mathew Schneider wrote:
"I too am glad to not have it [perfect pitch]. … any sense of perfect pitch is your brain feeding you misguided information."
Information isn't misguided. People are misguided. Also, if you don't have perfect pitch, how can you be so sure what perfect pitch is and isn't? I have perfect pitch. Best way I can describe it: It's like being able to tell colors apart -- or like voice recognition. In this case, it's pitch recognition or pitch memory.
ADDENDUM - 5-8-2015: Mathew, it appears you and I will have to "agree to disagree." From the review I just did of the base verb, misguide --
-- I stand by my statement as well.
About "people with perfect pitch [who] have difficulties playing and listening to other frequencies of A":
I don't know if this is "pretty common." I majored in music and personally knew at least one player with this problem -- a pianist who had to play a piece written in A-flat on a piano with tuning a half-step low. The piece sounded as if she were playing it in the key of G instead. She told us, "I could not play."
I suspect the problem is more common among pianists than violinists, but I'd have to do some research on that point. Fortunately, my sense of perfect pitch isn't so absolute and inflexible that I can't tune lower or higher than 440, if I have to, and still play just as well. As long as I've mastered the material and have had at least one run-through with my ensemble partners, I'm fine. But preparation and run-throughs are expected anyway, whether at 440 or some other tuning. Then, too, during performance, violin strings can drift off pitch, as you know, and players routinely compensate -- often only subconsciously. Again, this is an example of where relative pitch comes into play.
But my adaptability and strong sense of relative pitch haven't at all diminished my sense of perfect pitch -- the ability to name individual tones and keys. You've reported that you don't have perfect pitch. I do have it, and I've proved it over and over. I know what I'm talking about.
After consulting a dictionary, I stand by my use of the word "misguided".
I'm basing this on what other people have said, as well as extrapolating from other things my brain does.
It seems pretty common that people with perfect pitch have difficulties playing and listening to other frequencies of A.
You mentioned relative pitch needing to take over with A=436. But that's actually the value of A when when played together in just temperament with a C in A=440.
This entry has been archived and is no longer accepting comments.
Violinist.com is made possible by...
Discover the best of Violinist.com in these collections of editor Laurie Niles' exclusive interviews. | 1,423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I’m sure very few people have not seen Zack Snyder’s film “300.” After the movie was released, interest in the Spartans and their story increased. Units began adopting hoplite helmets as their unofficial logos, and supporters of the second amendment adopted the phrase “ΜΩΛΟΝ ΛΑΒΕ”—King Leonidas’ famous taunt to his Persian adversaries.
Their popularity is well deserved, as the Spartans are among the greatest warrior cultures in history. The comic book by Frank Miller, upon which the movie was based, is a masterpiece, although it is only an adaptation of the historical facts. Those historical facts are impressive, especially to anyone that has served, as they are the embodiment of honor and duty.
The Battle of Thermopylae
The Persian empire under the rule of King Darius was expanding to Europe and had already conquered Thrace and Macedonia before aiming to subjugate the rest of Greece. To be sure, this campaign was not for economic gain, since Greece, as today, was not a wealthy area. It may have held strategic importance due to its position in the Mediterranean, but the most plausible reason for the Persian expansion seems to be the pursuit of prestige or the need to quell potentially troublesome neighbors.
Anyhow, they decided to send envoys to all southern Greek cities, asking for their surrender. The response of Athens and Sparta was clear and harsh; the envoys were killed. Athens and Sparta then formed an alliance.
The first Persian invasion, led by Datis and Artaphernes, was crushed in the Battle of Marathon. The defeat at Marathon signaled the end of the Persian empire’s first attempt, and Darius began preparations for a second attack. This time, he planned to lead the invasion himself, but death got to him first. The task was passed to his son, Xerxes.
On a day in late August of 480 BCE, Xerxes’ huge army stopped in the narrow passage of Thermopylae, which his army had to pass through on the road to Athens. The number of men comprising that army differ greatly from source to source and from history scholar to history scholar, ranging from millions, which I believe is a gross exaggeration, to 20,000, which I believe is a gross understatement. The safest bet is they numbered somewhere between 100,000 and 150,000.
The Greeks that had been sent to stop them, on the other hand, numbered between five and seven thousand. The passage was the right choice for defense, as whenever a Greek army had tried to face the Persians on open ground, it lost. In the narrow pass, the numbers would not matter, and the light infantry used by the Persians would be at a disadvantage—forced to face head-on the armored machine of the Greek phalanx.
The Greek army consisted of King Leonidas and his 300 Spartans, most of whom were members of his personal guard. He only took with him men who had male descendants. This was a unit of fathers. Units like this were formed when chances of winning were slim. The average age of the 300 was around 40, and the king himself was in his late 50s or early 60s—a perfect example of the saying, “Don’t pick a fight with an old man; if he’s too old to fight, he’ll just kill you.”
With the Spartans were 900 Lacedaemonian auxiliaries and other city-states’ armies. Here, the historians Herodotus and Diodorus give us different numbers. More or less, there were 500 Mantineans, 500 Tegeans, 400 Corinthians, 700 Thespians, 1000 Phocians, 1000 Arcadians, 200 Philians, 80 Mycenaeans, and 1000 Locrians.
The battle didn’t start right away. An emissary was sent by Xerxes to ask for the surrender of the defending force and to offer them peace terms by naming them friends of the Persian people, guaranteeing their freedom and relocation to a better land. When these terms were refused, they received a written message from Xerxes prompting them to hand over their arms. This is when King Leonidas gave his famous response: ‘’ΜΩΛΟΝ ΛΑΒΕ’’ (translated as “Come and take them”). After that, Xerxes sat on his butt for four days hoping that the sight of his massive army would demoralize the defenders of the pass. No such thing happened.
The battle begins
The battle opened when Xerxes sent his Median and Kissian troops to attack, following a barrage of arrows. They couldn’t even make a crack in the Greek defense. It was time for the elite Immortals to enter the fray. The result was the same: The lightly armored Persians were unable to dent the heavily armored Greek phalanx. A tactic used by the Greeks was the feigning of a disorganized retreat before turning to face the enemy that had broken ranks in pursuit of an ostensibly routed enemy.
Some scholars suggest that the Spartans knew how to make steel and, in that narrow passage, they could pierce multiple enemies with each stroke of their steel-tipped spears. Steel or no steel, their military training—known as agoge—which they began at age seven, had definitely produced some of the most elite soldiers of ancient times.
The second day was a repetition of the first. Arrows, followed by Medians, Kissians, and Immortals. Again, with no success. The successful Greek defense to that point was not only the work of the Spartans. Every city-state took turns holding the pass. The men would pass through the ranks of the contingent that were fighting and replace them at the front line after a certain amount of time.
The Greek army was holding its ground and seemed to even have chances of winning, until things went horribly wrong in a most unexpected way. A local man named Ephialtes went to Xerxes and told him about a mountain pass that was lightly guarded and would lead his army to the rear of the defending force. Ephialtes’ name has since not only became synonymous with the word “traitor,” but has also entered Greek vocabulary as the word for “nightmare.”
The passage was defended by the Phocians, who did not do a good job defending when attacked at night on the second day. They retreated to a higher defending position, thus leaving the passage open for the Persian army. King Leonidas ordered the bulk of his army to retreat and stayed behind with the survivors of his 300, the auxiliaries, and 700 Thespians to fight a rearguard battle.
He was most probably motivated by the prophecy of the Delphi oracle he had received before marching into battle. She had said that Sparta would have to lose a king or be destroyed. That morning, Leonidas gave his men his now-famous advice to eat a good breakfast, as that night they were going to dine in Hades. He rode into battle and into legend. He died in the first clash with the Persian force, which was now attacking from all sides. The Spartans fought fiercely to protect the body of their fallen leader and kept on fighting until the last of them died under a barrage of Persian arrows.
The reason for the initial success is obvious when we examine the two armies. From one side, we have the heavily armored Greek phalanx, a very tight formation of men wearing breastplates and carrying heavy shields called hoplon (hence the name hoplites), strong spears, and a short sword called a xyphos—a strong and stout weapon. No, the Spartans did not fight half naked, with their sexy abs glimmering in the sun. On the Persian side were lightly armored troops carrying swords that had no central strengthening ridge and light javelins that could not withstand the clash with the heavy shields and spears of the Greeks, in a place where their usual tactic of moving fast and encircling the enemy could not be used.
The Persians achieved a pyrrhic victory, losing much in the way of numbers, but even more in morale. This is what rejuvenated the hopes of the Greek world. The battle at Thermopylae and the Spartan sacrifice have become a timeless legend.
The Persian army captured and sacked Athens, but the Athenians had evacuated the city and their fleet was stationed in Salamis. The Persians attacked it in hopes of bringing the campaign to an end. Their hopes proved futile, as the clever positioning of the Greek fleet in the narow seaways by Themistocles made the Persian fleet unable to make use of its vast numbers. The proficiency of the Greek crews made all the difference, granting the victory to the Greek side. The Persians made new attempts at a political solution, but they were met with rejection from the Greeks. The battle of Platea was the final stroke to the Persian ambitions in mainland Greece.
Despite their defeat, the Greeks who fought in the Battle of Thermopylae set the foundation for the final victory achieved by their countrymen one year later in the Battle of Platea. They embody the notion of patriotism and devotion to duty.
Go, tell the Spartans, stranger passing by
That here, obedient to their laws, we lie
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0.271799832582473... | 1 | I’m sure very few people have not seen Zack Snyder’s film “300.” After the movie was released, interest in the Spartans and their story increased. Units began adopting hoplite helmets as their unofficial logos, and supporters of the second amendment adopted the phrase “ΜΩΛΟΝ ΛΑΒΕ”—King Leonidas’ famous taunt to his Persian adversaries.
Their popularity is well deserved, as the Spartans are among the greatest warrior cultures in history. The comic book by Frank Miller, upon which the movie was based, is a masterpiece, although it is only an adaptation of the historical facts. Those historical facts are impressive, especially to anyone that has served, as they are the embodiment of honor and duty.
The Battle of Thermopylae
The Persian empire under the rule of King Darius was expanding to Europe and had already conquered Thrace and Macedonia before aiming to subjugate the rest of Greece. To be sure, this campaign was not for economic gain, since Greece, as today, was not a wealthy area. It may have held strategic importance due to its position in the Mediterranean, but the most plausible reason for the Persian expansion seems to be the pursuit of prestige or the need to quell potentially troublesome neighbors.
Anyhow, they decided to send envoys to all southern Greek cities, asking for their surrender. The response of Athens and Sparta was clear and harsh; the envoys were killed. Athens and Sparta then formed an alliance.
The first Persian invasion, led by Datis and Artaphernes, was crushed in the Battle of Marathon. The defeat at Marathon signaled the end of the Persian empire’s first attempt, and Darius began preparations for a second attack. This time, he planned to lead the invasion himself, but death got to him first. The task was passed to his son, Xerxes.
On a day in late August of 480 BCE, Xerxes’ huge army stopped in the narrow passage of Thermopylae, which his army had to pass through on the road to Athens. The number of men comprising that army differ greatly from source to source and from history scholar to history scholar, ranging from millions, which I believe is a gross exaggeration, to 20,000, which I believe is a gross understatement. The safest bet is they numbered somewhere between 100,000 and 150,000.
The Greeks that had been sent to stop them, on the other hand, numbered between five and seven thousand. The passage was the right choice for defense, as whenever a Greek army had tried to face the Persians on open ground, it lost. In the narrow pass, the numbers would not matter, and the light infantry used by the Persians would be at a disadvantage—forced to face head-on the armored machine of the Greek phalanx.
The Greek army consisted of King Leonidas and his 300 Spartans, most of whom were members of his personal guard. He only took with him men who had male descendants. This was a unit of fathers. Units like this were formed when chances of winning were slim. The average age of the 300 was around 40, and the king himself was in his late 50s or early 60s—a perfect example of the saying, “Don’t pick a fight with an old man; if he’s too old to fight, he’ll just kill you.”
With the Spartans were 900 Lacedaemonian auxiliaries and other city-states’ armies. Here, the historians Herodotus and Diodorus give us different numbers. More or less, there were 500 Mantineans, 500 Tegeans, 400 Corinthians, 700 Thespians, 1000 Phocians, 1000 Arcadians, 200 Philians, 80 Mycenaeans, and 1000 Locrians.
The battle didn’t start right away. An emissary was sent by Xerxes to ask for the surrender of the defending force and to offer them peace terms by naming them friends of the Persian people, guaranteeing their freedom and relocation to a better land. When these terms were refused, they received a written message from Xerxes prompting them to hand over their arms. This is when King Leonidas gave his famous response: ‘’ΜΩΛΟΝ ΛΑΒΕ’’ (translated as “Come and take them”). After that, Xerxes sat on his butt for four days hoping that the sight of his massive army would demoralize the defenders of the pass. No such thing happened.
The battle begins
The battle opened when Xerxes sent his Median and Kissian troops to attack, following a barrage of arrows. They couldn’t even make a crack in the Greek defense. It was time for the elite Immortals to enter the fray. The result was the same: The lightly armored Persians were unable to dent the heavily armored Greek phalanx. A tactic used by the Greeks was the feigning of a disorganized retreat before turning to face the enemy that had broken ranks in pursuit of an ostensibly routed enemy.
Some scholars suggest that the Spartans knew how to make steel and, in that narrow passage, they could pierce multiple enemies with each stroke of their steel-tipped spears. Steel or no steel, their military training—known as agoge—which they began at age seven, had definitely produced some of the most elite soldiers of ancient times.
The second day was a repetition of the first. Arrows, followed by Medians, Kissians, and Immortals. Again, with no success. The successful Greek defense to that point was not only the work of the Spartans. Every city-state took turns holding the pass. The men would pass through the ranks of the contingent that were fighting and replace them at the front line after a certain amount of time.
The Greek army was holding its ground and seemed to even have chances of winning, until things went horribly wrong in a most unexpected way. A local man named Ephialtes went to Xerxes and told him about a mountain pass that was lightly guarded and would lead his army to the rear of the defending force. Ephialtes’ name has since not only became synonymous with the word “traitor,” but has also entered Greek vocabulary as the word for “nightmare.”
The passage was defended by the Phocians, who did not do a good job defending when attacked at night on the second day. They retreated to a higher defending position, thus leaving the passage open for the Persian army. King Leonidas ordered the bulk of his army to retreat and stayed behind with the survivors of his 300, the auxiliaries, and 700 Thespians to fight a rearguard battle.
He was most probably motivated by the prophecy of the Delphi oracle he had received before marching into battle. She had said that Sparta would have to lose a king or be destroyed. That morning, Leonidas gave his men his now-famous advice to eat a good breakfast, as that night they were going to dine in Hades. He rode into battle and into legend. He died in the first clash with the Persian force, which was now attacking from all sides. The Spartans fought fiercely to protect the body of their fallen leader and kept on fighting until the last of them died under a barrage of Persian arrows.
The reason for the initial success is obvious when we examine the two armies. From one side, we have the heavily armored Greek phalanx, a very tight formation of men wearing breastplates and carrying heavy shields called hoplon (hence the name hoplites), strong spears, and a short sword called a xyphos—a strong and stout weapon. No, the Spartans did not fight half naked, with their sexy abs glimmering in the sun. On the Persian side were lightly armored troops carrying swords that had no central strengthening ridge and light javelins that could not withstand the clash with the heavy shields and spears of the Greeks, in a place where their usual tactic of moving fast and encircling the enemy could not be used.
The Persians achieved a pyrrhic victory, losing much in the way of numbers, but even more in morale. This is what rejuvenated the hopes of the Greek world. The battle at Thermopylae and the Spartan sacrifice have become a timeless legend.
The Persian army captured and sacked Athens, but the Athenians had evacuated the city and their fleet was stationed in Salamis. The Persians attacked it in hopes of bringing the campaign to an end. Their hopes proved futile, as the clever positioning of the Greek fleet in the narow seaways by Themistocles made the Persian fleet unable to make use of its vast numbers. The proficiency of the Greek crews made all the difference, granting the victory to the Greek side. The Persians made new attempts at a political solution, but they were met with rejection from the Greeks. The battle of Platea was the final stroke to the Persian ambitions in mainland Greece.
Despite their defeat, the Greeks who fought in the Battle of Thermopylae set the foundation for the final victory achieved by their countrymen one year later in the Battle of Platea. They embody the notion of patriotism and devotion to duty.
Go, tell the Spartans, stranger passing by
That here, obedient to their laws, we lie
(Simonides of Ceos’ inscription to the tomb of the fallen Spartans) | 1,983 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The two men were found with their fingers entwined in each other’s hands.
Archaeologists have discovered the skeletons of two men who died more than 600 years ago holding hands in a grave underneath London.
Furthermore, the team from the Museum of London Archaeology that excavated the shared grave told Live Science that they were puzzled as to why the two men were holding hands. They suspect that the pair were either lovers or were related to each other.
The two men were both facing to the right and had their hands clasped together and their fingers entwined, according to Live Science.
The archaeologists found the two men in the deepest level of a cemetery containing more than 50,000 dead bodies in total.
Roughly half of the corpses excavated from this site were infected with the bacteria that causes the bubonic plague (although the test for such bacteria only has a 30 percent chance of returning a positive result if a corpse is infected).
“This confirmed that the cemetery was used for the burial of Black Death victims,” Don Walker, a senior human osteologist at the Museum of London Archaeology, told Live Science. “The results suggest that a high proportion of the burials may have had [the] plague.”
And as for the two male victims in question, according to Live Science, Walker thinks that both men were indeed victims of the bubonic plague. One of the men was somewhere between the age of 36 to 45 years old while the other was at least 46 years old.
“It was quite common for family members to be buried together if they died at or around the same time,” Walker said, speculating on why they were holding hands. “They may have been brothers or had some other connection. Until DNA testing is done, we cannot be sure.”
Alternatively, time itself could have moved the two hands together. “As the bodies were lying side-by-side, the hands may well have been close already,” Walker said. “For example, the arms could have fallen off the hip onto the grave floor.”
Originally Published on All Day | <urn:uuid:d73df7ce-7f99-4bcd-aa0b-bf5af728aeae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ohmygeez.com/archaeologists-find-two-male-victims-black-death-holding-hands-shared-grave/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00131.warc.gz | en | 0.988064 | 445 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.298282980... | 14 | The two men were found with their fingers entwined in each other’s hands.
Archaeologists have discovered the skeletons of two men who died more than 600 years ago holding hands in a grave underneath London.
Furthermore, the team from the Museum of London Archaeology that excavated the shared grave told Live Science that they were puzzled as to why the two men were holding hands. They suspect that the pair were either lovers or were related to each other.
The two men were both facing to the right and had their hands clasped together and their fingers entwined, according to Live Science.
The archaeologists found the two men in the deepest level of a cemetery containing more than 50,000 dead bodies in total.
Roughly half of the corpses excavated from this site were infected with the bacteria that causes the bubonic plague (although the test for such bacteria only has a 30 percent chance of returning a positive result if a corpse is infected).
“This confirmed that the cemetery was used for the burial of Black Death victims,” Don Walker, a senior human osteologist at the Museum of London Archaeology, told Live Science. “The results suggest that a high proportion of the burials may have had [the] plague.”
And as for the two male victims in question, according to Live Science, Walker thinks that both men were indeed victims of the bubonic plague. One of the men was somewhere between the age of 36 to 45 years old while the other was at least 46 years old.
“It was quite common for family members to be buried together if they died at or around the same time,” Walker said, speculating on why they were holding hands. “They may have been brothers or had some other connection. Until DNA testing is done, we cannot be sure.”
Alternatively, time itself could have moved the two hands together. “As the bodies were lying side-by-side, the hands may well have been close already,” Walker said. “For example, the arms could have fallen off the hip onto the grave floor.”
Originally Published on All Day | 427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THE EXTENDED FAMILY A SOURCE OF STRENGTH AND HOPE Essay
THE EXTENDED FAMILY: A SOURCE OF STRENGTH AND HOPE
In his books Grapes of Wrath and Of Mice and Men, John Steinbeck captured the reality of the struggles that struck mankind in different forms and in various levels as he had observed during his lifetime. Steinbeck observed mainly Californians and migrants who had suffered from poverty and distress brought to them by the Depression and the Dust Bowl, the dust storm that brought drought to the Great Plains during 1932 to 1939. He began to write books to sympathize with and encourage the many downtrodden people whom he had watched.
Steinbeck suggested a method of comfort and relief to those who were alone and suffering; he discussed the significance that an extended family has in providing its constituents the strength to cope with their economic insecurities and social problems.
Due to the Dust Bowl and the Depression that hit the United States in the thirties, many Oklahomans experienced a sudden abandonment from their landlords.
Since most Oklahomans were farmers, many were left jobless once they were kicked off their land. For the sake of survival, this economic catastrophe resulted in two different cases of reactions: that of Muley Graves and that of the Joads.
Steinbeck introduced a character, Muley Graves, who became a beggar because he was too attached to the land to leave and too independent to abide with his family that had left, travelling to California. Too stubborn to budge, Muley just scowled, “If they throw me off, I’ll come back… I ain’t a –goin’…An’ I ain’t a-going” while remanding behind by the land that no longer was under his family control or estate, eating wild animals to survive. However, a different mentality of the farmers was shown through the Joads. When their land was taken away, for the sake of survival, Joads did not hesitate to leave their land at once: their “houses were left vacant on the land, because… only the tractors…were alive.”
When many other Oklahomans were out of work, out of place to live, and out of food to eat, people began to migrate to California in large numbers. Just as the Graves family had left, the Joads followed the promise of an ad for work, which publicized “800 pickers wanted” to California. Many other families, such as the Wilsons family joined the Joads in the popular migration movement to California.
However, when the Joads traveled on Route 66, they were faced with only discouragement that lowered their level of expectations about California. Steinbeck foreshadowed this economic situation in a returning migrant’s comment that California was no longer “big… big enough…for rich and poor together all in one country, for thieves and honest men…for hunger and fat.” Once they reached California, the Joads were unable to find work, like many other families in California, because they did not know where to begin their new life in a foreign land with little opportunity available. Until the Joads were able to find a place to work, they had camped in Hoovervilles.
Gradually, the Joads found themselves in government ran camps and a government run ranch. Even after reaching the point of finding a ranch to pick fruits, the Joads found themselves with low wages, which were half the announced wage, due to the overabundant amount of workers.
These economic afflictions were followed directly by social recessions. The Dust Bowl had a great impact on the social and the psychological aspect of the farmers, because for a farmer to depart from their land was a death-like experience at the time. Muley Graves stayed with his land, even when it meant that he was to be a beggar. In like manner, Grampa “died the minute we took ‘im off the place” for he was too bounded to the land, for “he was that place, an’ he knowed it.”
From Grampa’s death to the Mrs.Wilson’s death, the death in a family brought about unplanned changes or shifts of roles in the family structure. Death of Grampa expedited the death of Gramma; and the passing away of the two ended the older generation of the Joads and gave the younger generations the definite responsibility to lead the family and the adopted family members such as Casy and the Wilsons. Moreover, an unseen death in Rose of Sharon’s miscarriage brought sadness as well as a spontaneous change to her personality. However, when Mrs. Wilson was close to her deathbed, the Wilsons discontinued their journey and returned home, forcing them to impede their vision to go to California.
While some were able to endure even through the death of her child, some migrants were unable to endure through the challenges, and ended up giving up or leaving the family. Noah’s fear of starving kept him by the river, where a “fella can’t starve beside a nice river.” Although Noah Joad was one family member who was unnoticeably quiet, his leaving contributed to the breakdown of the family. His departure was extremely untimely, adding onto the chaos that already existed due to the sheriff warning against Ma to leave, Gramma’s extreme sickness, and Sairy’s deathly illness. Connie, likewise, left the family at a malapropos time, when Casy was taking Tom’s place to go to the jail and when Rose of Sharon had just lost a baby. His departure added to the breakdown of the family, and to the despondency of his wife, Rose of Sharon.
Not only did many individual persons have a social impact on the other migrants or the family, few organizations and their corruptness were responsible for most workers’ distresses. As for the Sheriff’s lying characters, such as attempting to arrest Floyd, an innocent worker, and arrest anybody in place of Tom, demonstrated how untrustworthy the county organizations were. Moreover, the employer’s deceitful advertisement and contradicting wages to the advertised wages caused Casy and Tom to be strike-leaders and many workers to partake in a strike movement.
Regardless of the adversities, the migrants found strength in the extended family that began to take shape as the Joads family began to dissipate. When Grampa passed away, the Wilsons joined the Joads. This represented the breakdown of the Joads family, to be replaced by the extended family of migrants. The growth of the extended family became far more evident when the children at the Weedpatch camp, other migrants, and ranch workers united after Noah, Gramma, and the Wilsons had departed the family.
As the extended family continued growing, it was essential to be part of the extended family for people needed each other and needed to help one another in every step of the way. The Joads were the assistance that the Wilsons needed to go on with the journey. The Joads provided a ride, food, and comfort to the Wilsons who were in worse situation than they were in. Steinbeck showed people’s dependence on others’ help in vast amount of examples: Mrs. Wainwright helped Rose of Sharon in her childbirth; Ma shared food with the other people’s children at the Weedpatch camp; Casy rescued Tom by going to jail in his place. Nonetheless, the genuine love and support that the member of extended family provides for the fellow members was manifested when Rose of Sharon offered her breast milk to a dying stranger.However, through Of Mice and Men, John Steinbeck showed how the extended family could be a source of strength in socioeconomic despairs by giving a counter example of how people did not manage to overcome their problems apart from the extended family. The setting of Of Mice and Men was very similar to that of Grapes of Wrath, the depression during nineteen-thirties in California, a time when everyone suffered from economic and social predicaments.
During the Depression, many were unable to accomplish their dreams because the Great Depression was a source of “economic climate in which the achievement of that dream [the American Dream] seemed more remote than ever for many.” It was extremely difficult to carry out one’s dreams because saving up of money was a difficult task. In George and Lennie’s case for example, they were being constantly kicked off of several ranches because of Lennie’s many irrational actions such as padding a woman’s dress. In the beginning of the novel, George and Lennie were running away from a town called Weeds, once again, for absurd actions of Lennie. Being constantly tossed from one ranch to another, they were not able to save up any money.
In a different manner, other men did not save up money because they would waste their money in whorehouses and bars during their Saturday nights. The life of a ranch worker during his free spare time was shown in the conversations exchanged between George and Whit:
Whit said, “…you ought ta come in town with us guys tomorra night.”
“Jus’ the usual thing. We goin’ to old Susy’s place…got five girls there.”
“What’s it set you back?” George asked. …“Come along, it’s a hell of a lot of fun–.”
Despite the money spending that inhibited the workers from saving the money, the working conditions and wages were terrible at the time. Because there were so many migrants entering California on a daily basis, the number of unemployment skyrocketed. As the competition for the job became fiercer, the owners lower the wages nearly to starvation levels because they still found takers for the most wretched of jobs.
Furthermore, Steinbeck placed his Of Mice and Men characters in social dilemma quite different from the social recession that resulted due to economic depression in Grapes of Wrath. The social insecurities of the characters in Of Mice and Men were due to the characters’ own traits and personalities. Crooks’ loneliness and isolation was due to his non-socializing character. He felt intimidated by other peoples’ accompany for he was the “Negro stable buck”. Candy’s loneliness was due to his old age, physical challenges, and lack of a family. Theses two characters were thrust into a conflict with the social structure and were discriminated for their misfit.
Curley’s wife, on the other hand, was not a misfit of the social structure like Crooks and Candy. She was a sad and a lonely character because of her misfortune with men. She married a man who was notably overprotective and jealous, someone who she did not love. The kind of loneliness that she had from having no luck with love or men drove Curley’s wife to be seductive and provocative in her ways. She had full, rouged lips and wide-spaced eyes, heavily made up. Her fingernails were red. Her hair hung in little rolled clusters…. “Oh!” She put her hands behind her back and leaned against the doorframe so that her body was thrown forward.”
Curley’s wife, Candy, and Crook could have all overcome their loneliness and despondency if they belonged to a family or had a friend like Lennie had Geroge. Despite Lennie’s inability to control his physical strength and his stupidity, Lennie was not lonely because of his friend George. As George once told Lennie,
Guys like us, that work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. They got no family. They don’t belong no place… With us it ain’t like that. We got future. We got somebody to talk to… that gives a damn about us…
Lennie broke in. “But not us…Because I got you to look after me, and you got me to look after you…”
Only relevant form of unit that existed on the ranch was the friendship between George and Lennie. For reasons of escape from despair and happiness, the other characters desired to be part of George and Lennie’s dream of owning a farm, a place of their own. Candy desired to settle down and to be acquainted, Crooks wanted to be accepted and to belong, and Curley’s wife wished to be associated. On their farm, in the extended family, the characters would have found their economic freedom, their elated fraternity, and their fulfilled dreams.
Not only did Candy, Crooks, and Curley’s wife needed to be part of George and Lennie’s dream, but George and Lennie needed other’s help for the economical reasons. Under George’s estimation, George and Lennie needed about $600 in order to buy a small farm. Since George and Lennie did not have any money saved up, they were forced to depend on others for financial aid, especially that of Candy’s.Although it could have been achieved, the dream failed because the extended family was not created. George did not allow anybody on the farm to partake in the fraternity and the friendship that he and Lennie shared. Those, such as Candy, who provided a means of service or an aid, partook in the dream of owning a small farm. However, hindering person, such as Curley’s wife, could not share the dream. Because every member of the ranch community could not work together in unison and accord, they struggled and faced conflicts in trying to accomplish their goals. No one took care of one another when what most characters wanted and needed was to belong to a family.Forming of the extended family became more challenging when Lennie accidentally killed Curley’s wife, however. This action immediately led to the killing of Lennie by George, which destroyed the core elements of the unit. The dream, perhaps, still could have continued if the extended family continued by method of replacing the lost members as in Grapes of Wrath. When Candy mentioned to George the idea of continuing the dream, George seemed not to hear nor care. This ended Of Mice and Men with unaccomplished dreams, and an undeveloped extended family.
Steinbeck depicted how extended family served as a source of hope and strength in time of economical and social difficulties through the characters’ relationships to one another and to their surroundings in Grapes of Wrath and Of Mice and Men. He believed in the idea that universe had a unity of its own, that there existed a “natural evolution from people to group, because it was a tactic, not a fundamental change.” Although the process was difficult, for his characters to belong to a particular group was a necessity. For this reason, those who abide in the extended family found the hope and the strength such as in Grapes of Wrath, yet those who failed to partake in the extended family found only discouragement and despondency such as in Of Mice and Men.
Cite this THE EXTENDED FAMILY A SOURCE OF STRENGTH AND HOPE Essay
THE EXTENDED FAMILY A SOURCE OF STRENGTH AND HOPE Essay. (2018, Jul 07). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/the-extended-family-a-source-of-strength-and-hope-essay/ | <urn:uuid:6f8c846e-54c7-4401-b21c-e1634d7dabbf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/the-extended-family-a-source-of-strength-and-hope-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00282.warc.gz | en | 0.983662 | 3,278 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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THE EXTENDED FAMILY: A SOURCE OF STRENGTH AND HOPE
In his books Grapes of Wrath and Of Mice and Men, John Steinbeck captured the reality of the struggles that struck mankind in different forms and in various levels as he had observed during his lifetime. Steinbeck observed mainly Californians and migrants who had suffered from poverty and distress brought to them by the Depression and the Dust Bowl, the dust storm that brought drought to the Great Plains during 1932 to 1939. He began to write books to sympathize with and encourage the many downtrodden people whom he had watched.
Steinbeck suggested a method of comfort and relief to those who were alone and suffering; he discussed the significance that an extended family has in providing its constituents the strength to cope with their economic insecurities and social problems.
Due to the Dust Bowl and the Depression that hit the United States in the thirties, many Oklahomans experienced a sudden abandonment from their landlords.
Since most Oklahomans were farmers, many were left jobless once they were kicked off their land. For the sake of survival, this economic catastrophe resulted in two different cases of reactions: that of Muley Graves and that of the Joads.
Steinbeck introduced a character, Muley Graves, who became a beggar because he was too attached to the land to leave and too independent to abide with his family that had left, travelling to California. Too stubborn to budge, Muley just scowled, “If they throw me off, I’ll come back… I ain’t a –goin’…An’ I ain’t a-going” while remanding behind by the land that no longer was under his family control or estate, eating wild animals to survive. However, a different mentality of the farmers was shown through the Joads. When their land was taken away, for the sake of survival, Joads did not hesitate to leave their land at once: their “houses were left vacant on the land, because… only the tractors…were alive.”
When many other Oklahomans were out of work, out of place to live, and out of food to eat, people began to migrate to California in large numbers. Just as the Graves family had left, the Joads followed the promise of an ad for work, which publicized “800 pickers wanted” to California. Many other families, such as the Wilsons family joined the Joads in the popular migration movement to California.
However, when the Joads traveled on Route 66, they were faced with only discouragement that lowered their level of expectations about California. Steinbeck foreshadowed this economic situation in a returning migrant’s comment that California was no longer “big… big enough…for rich and poor together all in one country, for thieves and honest men…for hunger and fat.” Once they reached California, the Joads were unable to find work, like many other families in California, because they did not know where to begin their new life in a foreign land with little opportunity available. Until the Joads were able to find a place to work, they had camped in Hoovervilles.
Gradually, the Joads found themselves in government ran camps and a government run ranch. Even after reaching the point of finding a ranch to pick fruits, the Joads found themselves with low wages, which were half the announced wage, due to the overabundant amount of workers.
These economic afflictions were followed directly by social recessions. The Dust Bowl had a great impact on the social and the psychological aspect of the farmers, because for a farmer to depart from their land was a death-like experience at the time. Muley Graves stayed with his land, even when it meant that he was to be a beggar. In like manner, Grampa “died the minute we took ‘im off the place” for he was too bounded to the land, for “he was that place, an’ he knowed it.”
From Grampa’s death to the Mrs.Wilson’s death, the death in a family brought about unplanned changes or shifts of roles in the family structure. Death of Grampa expedited the death of Gramma; and the passing away of the two ended the older generation of the Joads and gave the younger generations the definite responsibility to lead the family and the adopted family members such as Casy and the Wilsons. Moreover, an unseen death in Rose of Sharon’s miscarriage brought sadness as well as a spontaneous change to her personality. However, when Mrs. Wilson was close to her deathbed, the Wilsons discontinued their journey and returned home, forcing them to impede their vision to go to California.
While some were able to endure even through the death of her child, some migrants were unable to endure through the challenges, and ended up giving up or leaving the family. Noah’s fear of starving kept him by the river, where a “fella can’t starve beside a nice river.” Although Noah Joad was one family member who was unnoticeably quiet, his leaving contributed to the breakdown of the family. His departure was extremely untimely, adding onto the chaos that already existed due to the sheriff warning against Ma to leave, Gramma’s extreme sickness, and Sairy’s deathly illness. Connie, likewise, left the family at a malapropos time, when Casy was taking Tom’s place to go to the jail and when Rose of Sharon had just lost a baby. His departure added to the breakdown of the family, and to the despondency of his wife, Rose of Sharon.
Not only did many individual persons have a social impact on the other migrants or the family, few organizations and their corruptness were responsible for most workers’ distresses. As for the Sheriff’s lying characters, such as attempting to arrest Floyd, an innocent worker, and arrest anybody in place of Tom, demonstrated how untrustworthy the county organizations were. Moreover, the employer’s deceitful advertisement and contradicting wages to the advertised wages caused Casy and Tom to be strike-leaders and many workers to partake in a strike movement.
Regardless of the adversities, the migrants found strength in the extended family that began to take shape as the Joads family began to dissipate. When Grampa passed away, the Wilsons joined the Joads. This represented the breakdown of the Joads family, to be replaced by the extended family of migrants. The growth of the extended family became far more evident when the children at the Weedpatch camp, other migrants, and ranch workers united after Noah, Gramma, and the Wilsons had departed the family.
As the extended family continued growing, it was essential to be part of the extended family for people needed each other and needed to help one another in every step of the way. The Joads were the assistance that the Wilsons needed to go on with the journey. The Joads provided a ride, food, and comfort to the Wilsons who were in worse situation than they were in. Steinbeck showed people’s dependence on others’ help in vast amount of examples: Mrs. Wainwright helped Rose of Sharon in her childbirth; Ma shared food with the other people’s children at the Weedpatch camp; Casy rescued Tom by going to jail in his place. Nonetheless, the genuine love and support that the member of extended family provides for the fellow members was manifested when Rose of Sharon offered her breast milk to a dying stranger.However, through Of Mice and Men, John Steinbeck showed how the extended family could be a source of strength in socioeconomic despairs by giving a counter example of how people did not manage to overcome their problems apart from the extended family. The setting of Of Mice and Men was very similar to that of Grapes of Wrath, the depression during nineteen-thirties in California, a time when everyone suffered from economic and social predicaments.
During the Depression, many were unable to accomplish their dreams because the Great Depression was a source of “economic climate in which the achievement of that dream [the American Dream] seemed more remote than ever for many.” It was extremely difficult to carry out one’s dreams because saving up of money was a difficult task. In George and Lennie’s case for example, they were being constantly kicked off of several ranches because of Lennie’s many irrational actions such as padding a woman’s dress. In the beginning of the novel, George and Lennie were running away from a town called Weeds, once again, for absurd actions of Lennie. Being constantly tossed from one ranch to another, they were not able to save up any money.
In a different manner, other men did not save up money because they would waste their money in whorehouses and bars during their Saturday nights. The life of a ranch worker during his free spare time was shown in the conversations exchanged between George and Whit:
Whit said, “…you ought ta come in town with us guys tomorra night.”
“Jus’ the usual thing. We goin’ to old Susy’s place…got five girls there.”
“What’s it set you back?” George asked. …“Come along, it’s a hell of a lot of fun–.”
Despite the money spending that inhibited the workers from saving the money, the working conditions and wages were terrible at the time. Because there were so many migrants entering California on a daily basis, the number of unemployment skyrocketed. As the competition for the job became fiercer, the owners lower the wages nearly to starvation levels because they still found takers for the most wretched of jobs.
Furthermore, Steinbeck placed his Of Mice and Men characters in social dilemma quite different from the social recession that resulted due to economic depression in Grapes of Wrath. The social insecurities of the characters in Of Mice and Men were due to the characters’ own traits and personalities. Crooks’ loneliness and isolation was due to his non-socializing character. He felt intimidated by other peoples’ accompany for he was the “Negro stable buck”. Candy’s loneliness was due to his old age, physical challenges, and lack of a family. Theses two characters were thrust into a conflict with the social structure and were discriminated for their misfit.
Curley’s wife, on the other hand, was not a misfit of the social structure like Crooks and Candy. She was a sad and a lonely character because of her misfortune with men. She married a man who was notably overprotective and jealous, someone who she did not love. The kind of loneliness that she had from having no luck with love or men drove Curley’s wife to be seductive and provocative in her ways. She had full, rouged lips and wide-spaced eyes, heavily made up. Her fingernails were red. Her hair hung in little rolled clusters…. “Oh!” She put her hands behind her back and leaned against the doorframe so that her body was thrown forward.”
Curley’s wife, Candy, and Crook could have all overcome their loneliness and despondency if they belonged to a family or had a friend like Lennie had Geroge. Despite Lennie’s inability to control his physical strength and his stupidity, Lennie was not lonely because of his friend George. As George once told Lennie,
Guys like us, that work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. They got no family. They don’t belong no place… With us it ain’t like that. We got future. We got somebody to talk to… that gives a damn about us…
Lennie broke in. “But not us…Because I got you to look after me, and you got me to look after you…”
Only relevant form of unit that existed on the ranch was the friendship between George and Lennie. For reasons of escape from despair and happiness, the other characters desired to be part of George and Lennie’s dream of owning a farm, a place of their own. Candy desired to settle down and to be acquainted, Crooks wanted to be accepted and to belong, and Curley’s wife wished to be associated. On their farm, in the extended family, the characters would have found their economic freedom, their elated fraternity, and their fulfilled dreams.
Not only did Candy, Crooks, and Curley’s wife needed to be part of George and Lennie’s dream, but George and Lennie needed other’s help for the economical reasons. Under George’s estimation, George and Lennie needed about $600 in order to buy a small farm. Since George and Lennie did not have any money saved up, they were forced to depend on others for financial aid, especially that of Candy’s.Although it could have been achieved, the dream failed because the extended family was not created. George did not allow anybody on the farm to partake in the fraternity and the friendship that he and Lennie shared. Those, such as Candy, who provided a means of service or an aid, partook in the dream of owning a small farm. However, hindering person, such as Curley’s wife, could not share the dream. Because every member of the ranch community could not work together in unison and accord, they struggled and faced conflicts in trying to accomplish their goals. No one took care of one another when what most characters wanted and needed was to belong to a family.Forming of the extended family became more challenging when Lennie accidentally killed Curley’s wife, however. This action immediately led to the killing of Lennie by George, which destroyed the core elements of the unit. The dream, perhaps, still could have continued if the extended family continued by method of replacing the lost members as in Grapes of Wrath. When Candy mentioned to George the idea of continuing the dream, George seemed not to hear nor care. This ended Of Mice and Men with unaccomplished dreams, and an undeveloped extended family.
Steinbeck depicted how extended family served as a source of hope and strength in time of economical and social difficulties through the characters’ relationships to one another and to their surroundings in Grapes of Wrath and Of Mice and Men. He believed in the idea that universe had a unity of its own, that there existed a “natural evolution from people to group, because it was a tactic, not a fundamental change.” Although the process was difficult, for his characters to belong to a particular group was a necessity. For this reason, those who abide in the extended family found the hope and the strength such as in Grapes of Wrath, yet those who failed to partake in the extended family found only discouragement and despondency such as in Of Mice and Men.
Cite this THE EXTENDED FAMILY A SOURCE OF STRENGTH AND HOPE Essay
THE EXTENDED FAMILY A SOURCE OF STRENGTH AND HOPE Essay. (2018, Jul 07). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/the-extended-family-a-source-of-strength-and-hope-essay/ | 3,106 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This stone monument and replica log cabin designate the supposed birthplace of Nancy Hanks, the mother of President Abraham Lincoln. Many different theories surround the date and location of Hanks' birth, which was complicated by the fact that she was likely illegitimate. One popular theory proposes that Hanks was born in present-day Mineral County, West Virginia, based on evidence from one Lincoln biographer that her grandparents owned a farm at this location in the early 1780s. Despite confirmation of this theory by a state-appointed commission in 1929, a lack of primary evidence makes it difficult to verify. In 1933, the stone monument was placed at this site, believed to be where the original Hanks family cabin stood. A replica log cabin was added at a later time to give an idea of life during the late eighteenth century. The memorial is located in a remote area, and the cabin is typically not open for visitors. In 2015, it was designated as a Mineral County Historic Landmark.
The circumstances of
Nancy Hanks’ birth are uncertain and have been the source of debate among
scholars. She is generally considered to have been born out of wedlock;
therefore it would have been a taboo subject at the time. Primary sources on
her are scant as well. The prevailing theory is that she was born on February
5, 1784 to Lucy Hanks, the daughter of Ann and Joseph Hanks. Soon afterwards
the family moved to Kentucky, where Nancy was raised at different times by her
grandparents, her mother, and her aunt and uncle.
Nancy worked as a
seamstress until she married Thomas Lincoln in 1806. They would have three
children; Sarah in 1807, Abraham in 1809, and Thomas Jr., who died in infancy,
in 1812. The Lincolns lived at three different properties in Kentucky, but had
to leave each due to property disputes. In 1816 they moved to Spencer County,
Kentucky, where Abraham would spend the rest of his childhood. It was here that
Nancy Hanks Lincoln died on October 5, 1818 at the age of thirty-four. The
cause was said to be either milk sickness or tuberculosis. Abraham would later
be raised by a step-mother, Sarah Bush Johnston, but he always credited his
mother Nancy with having a profound influence on his life.
By the early 1900s, one
theory that Nancy Hanks had been born in West Virginia was gaining traction.
Records indicate that Joseph Hanks owned 108 acres of land in the Mikes Run
area near the community of Antioch in Hampshire County, Virginia, now Mineral County,
West Virginia. It was speculated that his daughter Lucy gave birth to Nancy
Hanks here, out of wedlock, sometime between 1782 and 1784. By 1784 the Hanks
family had sold their farm and moved to Kentucky. In 1929, Governor William
Conley designated a commission to investigate this theory. On September 21,
they presented their findings, based largely off the research of Lincoln
biographer William E. Barton, and declared that West Virginia was in fact the
birthplace of Nancy Hanks. Despite the investigation, doubts still linger over
the authenticity of the claim. In 1966, Governor Hulett Smith announced that
there was not enough available evidence to definitively prove that Nancy Hanks
had been born in the state.
Following the findings
of the 1929 commission, a stone memorial with a plaque honoring Nancy Hanks was
placed on property formerly belonging to the Hanks family in 1933. At some
point a replica log cabin with period furniture was constructed and placed
across the road from the memorial. Sources differ as to when and how the cabin
was created. Some state that it was built at the same time as the memorial in
1933; others say that the cabin was originally built on a different property and
was relocated in either the 1960s or 1970s.
In the summer of 2015
there were concerns that the Nancy Hanks Farm Association, a local property
owners’ organization responsible for maintaining the cabin, would demolish it.
The costs of upkeep and insurance, as well as incidents of vandalism, were
cited as reasons. A significant amount of debate ensued in the local community
as a result, and various solutions were proposed. In August, 2015, the Mineral
County Historic Landmarks Commission designated the cabin and memorial as a
Mineral County Historic Landmark in an attempt to protect it. As of 2018 the
cabin is still standing. | <urn:uuid:50530a6c-7bd3-485f-bdd9-905ba448ab54> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/71931 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.982785 | 943 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.516323864... | 2 | This stone monument and replica log cabin designate the supposed birthplace of Nancy Hanks, the mother of President Abraham Lincoln. Many different theories surround the date and location of Hanks' birth, which was complicated by the fact that she was likely illegitimate. One popular theory proposes that Hanks was born in present-day Mineral County, West Virginia, based on evidence from one Lincoln biographer that her grandparents owned a farm at this location in the early 1780s. Despite confirmation of this theory by a state-appointed commission in 1929, a lack of primary evidence makes it difficult to verify. In 1933, the stone monument was placed at this site, believed to be where the original Hanks family cabin stood. A replica log cabin was added at a later time to give an idea of life during the late eighteenth century. The memorial is located in a remote area, and the cabin is typically not open for visitors. In 2015, it was designated as a Mineral County Historic Landmark.
The circumstances of
Nancy Hanks’ birth are uncertain and have been the source of debate among
scholars. She is generally considered to have been born out of wedlock;
therefore it would have been a taboo subject at the time. Primary sources on
her are scant as well. The prevailing theory is that she was born on February
5, 1784 to Lucy Hanks, the daughter of Ann and Joseph Hanks. Soon afterwards
the family moved to Kentucky, where Nancy was raised at different times by her
grandparents, her mother, and her aunt and uncle.
Nancy worked as a
seamstress until she married Thomas Lincoln in 1806. They would have three
children; Sarah in 1807, Abraham in 1809, and Thomas Jr., who died in infancy,
in 1812. The Lincolns lived at three different properties in Kentucky, but had
to leave each due to property disputes. In 1816 they moved to Spencer County,
Kentucky, where Abraham would spend the rest of his childhood. It was here that
Nancy Hanks Lincoln died on October 5, 1818 at the age of thirty-four. The
cause was said to be either milk sickness or tuberculosis. Abraham would later
be raised by a step-mother, Sarah Bush Johnston, but he always credited his
mother Nancy with having a profound influence on his life.
By the early 1900s, one
theory that Nancy Hanks had been born in West Virginia was gaining traction.
Records indicate that Joseph Hanks owned 108 acres of land in the Mikes Run
area near the community of Antioch in Hampshire County, Virginia, now Mineral County,
West Virginia. It was speculated that his daughter Lucy gave birth to Nancy
Hanks here, out of wedlock, sometime between 1782 and 1784. By 1784 the Hanks
family had sold their farm and moved to Kentucky. In 1929, Governor William
Conley designated a commission to investigate this theory. On September 21,
they presented their findings, based largely off the research of Lincoln
biographer William E. Barton, and declared that West Virginia was in fact the
birthplace of Nancy Hanks. Despite the investigation, doubts still linger over
the authenticity of the claim. In 1966, Governor Hulett Smith announced that
there was not enough available evidence to definitively prove that Nancy Hanks
had been born in the state.
Following the findings
of the 1929 commission, a stone memorial with a plaque honoring Nancy Hanks was
placed on property formerly belonging to the Hanks family in 1933. At some
point a replica log cabin with period furniture was constructed and placed
across the road from the memorial. Sources differ as to when and how the cabin
was created. Some state that it was built at the same time as the memorial in
1933; others say that the cabin was originally built on a different property and
was relocated in either the 1960s or 1970s.
In the summer of 2015
there were concerns that the Nancy Hanks Farm Association, a local property
owners’ organization responsible for maintaining the cabin, would demolish it.
The costs of upkeep and insurance, as well as incidents of vandalism, were
cited as reasons. A significant amount of debate ensued in the local community
as a result, and various solutions were proposed. In August, 2015, the Mineral
County Historic Landmarks Commission designated the cabin and memorial as a
Mineral County Historic Landmark in an attempt to protect it. As of 2018 the
cabin is still standing. | 1,021 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In these days, the conventional typewriter comprised of an oak box, 13 inch by 5 inch, with a “feeder” at the top where paper was to be drawn through during writing. An inventor, a Mr Cary, who was clearly not a big fan of these standard machines, made a bold claim in his patent that the “human hand will perform this operation far better than any set of wires invented by man.”
According to an article in the papermaking journal series The Quarterly, an examination of the glove-typewriter shows it to have been made of a wash-leather with rubber letters fixed upon the fingers in “terraces.” The lower-case letters were on the “fingers inside the hand, while the capitals are on the back of the fingers.” As far as we know, all numbers were omitted from this device in its early patent stages. To use capital letters, it would be necessary to turn the thumb uncomfortably away from the body. The inventor also describes the apparatus as possessing many advantages over existing typewriters, or typewriting machines. For instance, a glove typewriter would be much quieter to use, simplicity maintained, and novelty secured. It is understood that despite its very limited success, Mr Cary had the opportunity to exhibit his invention before the London Shorthand Writers’ Association.
In 1897, another reference was made to the glove typewriter which suggested that some ‘improvements,’ or certainly changes, had been made to the design. Now both hands were to be used, with “Caps” on the left hand and lower-case letters on the right. The ink was supplied by a couple of pads that were fixed to the palms of the gloves. An “alternate opening and shutting of the hand was supposed to bring it into contact with the type.” Then the operator was to dab the impression of the letter they desired to “use upon the paper in front of him.”
Whilst this is certainly an intriguing idea, it appears as though little progress was made with it. Disappointingly no records of anyone using this device, or paper samples, have been found. | <urn:uuid:7a7c1669-61b5-44c3-8a89-10718b671399> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://millsarchive.org/news/entry/212462/volunteer-spotlight-a-glove-typewriter | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00160.warc.gz | en | 0.982803 | 456 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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-0.0406469143... | 1 | In these days, the conventional typewriter comprised of an oak box, 13 inch by 5 inch, with a “feeder” at the top where paper was to be drawn through during writing. An inventor, a Mr Cary, who was clearly not a big fan of these standard machines, made a bold claim in his patent that the “human hand will perform this operation far better than any set of wires invented by man.”
According to an article in the papermaking journal series The Quarterly, an examination of the glove-typewriter shows it to have been made of a wash-leather with rubber letters fixed upon the fingers in “terraces.” The lower-case letters were on the “fingers inside the hand, while the capitals are on the back of the fingers.” As far as we know, all numbers were omitted from this device in its early patent stages. To use capital letters, it would be necessary to turn the thumb uncomfortably away from the body. The inventor also describes the apparatus as possessing many advantages over existing typewriters, or typewriting machines. For instance, a glove typewriter would be much quieter to use, simplicity maintained, and novelty secured. It is understood that despite its very limited success, Mr Cary had the opportunity to exhibit his invention before the London Shorthand Writers’ Association.
In 1897, another reference was made to the glove typewriter which suggested that some ‘improvements,’ or certainly changes, had been made to the design. Now both hands were to be used, with “Caps” on the left hand and lower-case letters on the right. The ink was supplied by a couple of pads that were fixed to the palms of the gloves. An “alternate opening and shutting of the hand was supposed to bring it into contact with the type.” Then the operator was to dab the impression of the letter they desired to “use upon the paper in front of him.”
Whilst this is certainly an intriguing idea, it appears as though little progress was made with it. Disappointingly no records of anyone using this device, or paper samples, have been found. | 428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Salem Witch Trials took place in the year 1692, in the small town of Salem, a town in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
This series of events began when three girls started acting strangely, climbing under tables, muttering to themselves and claiming spirits were talking to them. People saw and heard this and began to believe there were witches. (Usually the sentence for accused witches was to be hung.) Though many people think convicted witches were burn or thrown in water to drown, this is only in other countries. In Massachusetts the usual sentence for witches was hanging. Sir William Philip, the governor of Massachusetts, built a courthouse to investigate the matter.
Sarah Good was one of many women to be accused of witchcraft. She was accused of flying through the air on a broom stick on her way to a witch meeting. Another accused witch was Tituba, the Indian slave of Reverand Samuel Parris. Parris, aside from being a reverend, was at one point a judge of the witch trials. It was quite rare for a man to be accused of witch craft, | <urn:uuid:278df609-6699-4244-a66e-8e6371bfd06b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.germantownacademy.org/academics/LS/4/sstudies/Colonial/4R/4r98/4rcjh.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00387.warc.gz | en | 0.985589 | 217 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.27816721796... | 1 | The Salem Witch Trials took place in the year 1692, in the small town of Salem, a town in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
This series of events began when three girls started acting strangely, climbing under tables, muttering to themselves and claiming spirits were talking to them. People saw and heard this and began to believe there were witches. (Usually the sentence for accused witches was to be hung.) Though many people think convicted witches were burn or thrown in water to drown, this is only in other countries. In Massachusetts the usual sentence for witches was hanging. Sir William Philip, the governor of Massachusetts, built a courthouse to investigate the matter.
Sarah Good was one of many women to be accused of witchcraft. She was accused of flying through the air on a broom stick on her way to a witch meeting. Another accused witch was Tituba, the Indian slave of Reverand Samuel Parris. Parris, aside from being a reverend, was at one point a judge of the witch trials. It was quite rare for a man to be accused of witch craft, | 219 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The people who built Stonehenge came from the Mediterranean, according to a DNA research. Researchers took DNA samples of ancient Britons as well as modern inhabitants of the UK and discovered that their ancestors all came from regions in Anatolia, which is in modern day Turkey from across the Mediterranean.
Based on the research, scientists believe that there was indeed a population of hunter gatherers living in the British isles at the time people came from the East. However, the populations were so small, they were entirely replaced.
According to the data, these neolithic people brought farming, from where it began in Anatolia, moved through Spain and Portugal (Iberia) before crossing over the channel to Britain. They began arriving in 4,000 BC.
This would mean that these farmers nearly immediately started building megalithic structures to track the solar year. Although Stonehenge was most likely not constructed until around 3,000 BC, there are earlier signs of megalithic architecture in the region beginning earlier.
It is believed the earliest people could have come via Wales. Although there is no genetic trace of the earlier peoples living in the region, except for a tiny part of Scotland, scientists think the populations were so small, the DNA was simply lost in the ocean of genetic diversity pouring into the region. | <urn:uuid:c663583f-5ac9-493f-8124-c5ae91dc380c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://buzzesque.com/people-who-built-stonehenge-came-from-mediterranean/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00199.warc.gz | en | 0.98363 | 267 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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... | 4 | The people who built Stonehenge came from the Mediterranean, according to a DNA research. Researchers took DNA samples of ancient Britons as well as modern inhabitants of the UK and discovered that their ancestors all came from regions in Anatolia, which is in modern day Turkey from across the Mediterranean.
Based on the research, scientists believe that there was indeed a population of hunter gatherers living in the British isles at the time people came from the East. However, the populations were so small, they were entirely replaced.
According to the data, these neolithic people brought farming, from where it began in Anatolia, moved through Spain and Portugal (Iberia) before crossing over the channel to Britain. They began arriving in 4,000 BC.
This would mean that these farmers nearly immediately started building megalithic structures to track the solar year. Although Stonehenge was most likely not constructed until around 3,000 BC, there are earlier signs of megalithic architecture in the region beginning earlier.
It is believed the earliest people could have come via Wales. Although there is no genetic trace of the earlier peoples living in the region, except for a tiny part of Scotland, scientists think the populations were so small, the DNA was simply lost in the ocean of genetic diversity pouring into the region. | 268 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For men who worked outdoors, an additional protective garment would usually be worn in cold or rainy weather. This could be a simple sleeveless cape or a coat with sleeves. In the earlier Middle Ages, men wore fur capes and cloaks, but there was a general view among medieval people that fur was worn only by savages, and its use went out of vogue for all but garment linings for quite some time.
Though they lacked today's plastic, rubber and Scotch-Guard, medieval folk could still manufacture fabric that resisted water, at least to a degree. This could be done by fulling wool during the manufacturing process, or by waxing the garment once it was complete. Waxing was known to be done in England, but seldom elsewhere due to the scarcity and expense of wax. If wool was made without the stringent cleansing of professional manufacturing, it would retain some of the sheep's lanolin and would therefore be naturally somewhat water-resistant.
Most women worked indoors and didn't often have need of a protective outer garment. When they went out in cold weather, they might wear a simple shawl, cape, or pelisse. This last was a fur-lined coat or jacket; the modest means of peasants and poor laborers limited the fur to cheaper varieties, such as goat or cat.
The Laborer's Apron
Many jobs required protective gear to keep the laborer's everyday wear clean enough to wear every day. The most common protective garment was the apron.
Men would wear an apron whenever they performed a task that could cause a mess: filling barrels, butchering animals, mixing paint. Usually, the apron was a simple square or rectangular piece of cloth, often linen and sometimes hemp, which the wearer would tie around his waist by its corners. Men usually didn't wear their aprons until it was necessary, and removed them when their messy tasks were done.
Most chores that occupied the peasant housewife's time were potentially messy; cooking, cleaning, gardening, drawing water from the well, changing diapers. Thus, women typically wore aprons throughout the day. A woman's apron often fell to her feet and sometimes covered her torso as well as her skirt. So common was the apron that it eventually became a standard part of the peasant woman's costume.
Through much of the Middle Ages, aprons were undyed hemp or linen, but in the later medieval period they began to be dyed a variety of colors.
Belts, also known as girdles, were common accoutrements for men and women. They might be made from rope, fabric cords, or leather. Occasionally belts might have buckles, but it was more common for poorer folk to tie them instead. Laborers and peasants not only tucked up their clothing with their girdles, they attached tools, purses, and utility pouches to them.
Gloves and mittens were also fairly common and were used to protect the hands from injury as well as for warmth in cold weather. Workers such as masons, blacksmiths, and even peasants cutting wood and making hay were known to use gloves. Gloves and mittens could be of virtually any material, depending on their specific purpose. One type of worker's glove was made from sheepskin, with the wool on the inside, and had a thumb and two fingers to offer a little more manual dexterity than a mitten.
The idea that "all" medieval people slept naked is unlikely; in fact, some period artwork shows folk in bed wearing a simple shirt or gown. But due to the expense of clothing and the limited wardrobe of the working class, it is quite possible that many laborers and peasants slept naked, at least during warmer weather. On cooler nights, they could wear shifts to bed -- possibly even the same ones they'd worn that day under their clothes.
Making and Buying Clothes
All clothing was hand-sewn, of course, and was time-consuming to make compared to modern machine methods. Working class folk couldn't afford to have a tailor make their clothes, but they could trade with or purchase from a neighborhood seamstress or make their outfits themselves, especially since fashion was not their foremost concern. While some made their own cloth, it was far more common to purchase or barter for finished cloth, either from a draper or peddler or from fellow villagers. Mass-produced items like hats, belts, shoes and other accessories were sold in specialty stores in big towns and cities, by peddlers in rural areas, and at markets everywhere.
The Working Class Wardrobe
It was sadly all too common for the poorest folk to own nothing more than the clothes on their back. But most people, even peasants, weren't quite that poor. People usually had at least two sets of clothes: everyday wear and the equivalent of "Sunday best," which would not only be worn to church (at least once a week, often more frequently) but to social events, as well. Virtually every woman, and many men, were capable of sewing -- if only just a little-- and garments were patched and mended for years. Garments and good linen undergarments were even bequeathed to heirs or donated to the poor when their owner died.
More prosperous peasants and artisans would often have several suits of clothes and more than one pair of shoes, depending on their needs. But the amount of clothing in any medieval person's wardrobe -- even a royal personage -- couldn't come near what modern people usually have in their closets today.
Sources and Suggested Reading
Piponnier, Francoise, and Perrine Mane, Dress in the Middle Ages. Yale University Press, 1997, 167 pp.
Köhler, Carl, A History of Costume. George G. Harrap and Company, Limited, 1928; reprinted by Dover; 464 pp.
Norris, Herbert, Medieval Costume and Fashion. J.M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., London, 1927; reprinted by Dover; 485 pp.
Netherton, Robin, and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, Medieval Clothing and Textiles. Boydell Press, 2007, 221 pp.
Jenkins, D.T., editor, The Cambridge History of Western Textiles , vols. I and II. Cambridge University Press, 2003, 1191 pp. | <urn:uuid:92e77903-b5be-4239-926f-558e7c87c5a0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.feedsday.com/articles_cxczja.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00530.warc.gz | en | 0.984737 | 1,304 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.2159767746925354,... | 2 | For men who worked outdoors, an additional protective garment would usually be worn in cold or rainy weather. This could be a simple sleeveless cape or a coat with sleeves. In the earlier Middle Ages, men wore fur capes and cloaks, but there was a general view among medieval people that fur was worn only by savages, and its use went out of vogue for all but garment linings for quite some time.
Though they lacked today's plastic, rubber and Scotch-Guard, medieval folk could still manufacture fabric that resisted water, at least to a degree. This could be done by fulling wool during the manufacturing process, or by waxing the garment once it was complete. Waxing was known to be done in England, but seldom elsewhere due to the scarcity and expense of wax. If wool was made without the stringent cleansing of professional manufacturing, it would retain some of the sheep's lanolin and would therefore be naturally somewhat water-resistant.
Most women worked indoors and didn't often have need of a protective outer garment. When they went out in cold weather, they might wear a simple shawl, cape, or pelisse. This last was a fur-lined coat or jacket; the modest means of peasants and poor laborers limited the fur to cheaper varieties, such as goat or cat.
The Laborer's Apron
Many jobs required protective gear to keep the laborer's everyday wear clean enough to wear every day. The most common protective garment was the apron.
Men would wear an apron whenever they performed a task that could cause a mess: filling barrels, butchering animals, mixing paint. Usually, the apron was a simple square or rectangular piece of cloth, often linen and sometimes hemp, which the wearer would tie around his waist by its corners. Men usually didn't wear their aprons until it was necessary, and removed them when their messy tasks were done.
Most chores that occupied the peasant housewife's time were potentially messy; cooking, cleaning, gardening, drawing water from the well, changing diapers. Thus, women typically wore aprons throughout the day. A woman's apron often fell to her feet and sometimes covered her torso as well as her skirt. So common was the apron that it eventually became a standard part of the peasant woman's costume.
Through much of the Middle Ages, aprons were undyed hemp or linen, but in the later medieval period they began to be dyed a variety of colors.
Belts, also known as girdles, were common accoutrements for men and women. They might be made from rope, fabric cords, or leather. Occasionally belts might have buckles, but it was more common for poorer folk to tie them instead. Laborers and peasants not only tucked up their clothing with their girdles, they attached tools, purses, and utility pouches to them.
Gloves and mittens were also fairly common and were used to protect the hands from injury as well as for warmth in cold weather. Workers such as masons, blacksmiths, and even peasants cutting wood and making hay were known to use gloves. Gloves and mittens could be of virtually any material, depending on their specific purpose. One type of worker's glove was made from sheepskin, with the wool on the inside, and had a thumb and two fingers to offer a little more manual dexterity than a mitten.
The idea that "all" medieval people slept naked is unlikely; in fact, some period artwork shows folk in bed wearing a simple shirt or gown. But due to the expense of clothing and the limited wardrobe of the working class, it is quite possible that many laborers and peasants slept naked, at least during warmer weather. On cooler nights, they could wear shifts to bed -- possibly even the same ones they'd worn that day under their clothes.
Making and Buying Clothes
All clothing was hand-sewn, of course, and was time-consuming to make compared to modern machine methods. Working class folk couldn't afford to have a tailor make their clothes, but they could trade with or purchase from a neighborhood seamstress or make their outfits themselves, especially since fashion was not their foremost concern. While some made their own cloth, it was far more common to purchase or barter for finished cloth, either from a draper or peddler or from fellow villagers. Mass-produced items like hats, belts, shoes and other accessories were sold in specialty stores in big towns and cities, by peddlers in rural areas, and at markets everywhere.
The Working Class Wardrobe
It was sadly all too common for the poorest folk to own nothing more than the clothes on their back. But most people, even peasants, weren't quite that poor. People usually had at least two sets of clothes: everyday wear and the equivalent of "Sunday best," which would not only be worn to church (at least once a week, often more frequently) but to social events, as well. Virtually every woman, and many men, were capable of sewing -- if only just a little-- and garments were patched and mended for years. Garments and good linen undergarments were even bequeathed to heirs or donated to the poor when their owner died.
More prosperous peasants and artisans would often have several suits of clothes and more than one pair of shoes, depending on their needs. But the amount of clothing in any medieval person's wardrobe -- even a royal personage -- couldn't come near what modern people usually have in their closets today.
Sources and Suggested Reading
Piponnier, Francoise, and Perrine Mane, Dress in the Middle Ages. Yale University Press, 1997, 167 pp.
Köhler, Carl, A History of Costume. George G. Harrap and Company, Limited, 1928; reprinted by Dover; 464 pp.
Norris, Herbert, Medieval Costume and Fashion. J.M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., London, 1927; reprinted by Dover; 485 pp.
Netherton, Robin, and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, Medieval Clothing and Textiles. Boydell Press, 2007, 221 pp.
Jenkins, D.T., editor, The Cambridge History of Western Textiles , vols. I and II. Cambridge University Press, 2003, 1191 pp. | 1,312 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the Soviet Union, however, the majority of working women held low-paid jobs and were minimally represented in party and government councils. Birth-control techniques were primitive, day-care centers were few, and working wives were responsible for keeping house and tending children. China more fully preserved its revolutionary ideals, but some job discrimination against women existed. Socialist governments in Sweden in the s established wide-ranging programs of equal rights for women, which included extensive child-care arrangements.
Already have an account? They began trying to get young women who were just out of college to join their cause. Ma ny of these new women had faced discrimination to be able to attend college and were familiar with it. Most of them were not married yet so they had more time that they could use on the suffrage movement than some of the older women who had to take care of their kids.
They went on strike because they had to work 7 days a week, 7 am to 8 pm. The workers were allowed one half-hour lunch break. They were locked inside the factory so that they would not take more breaks or steal the materials. The factory workers wanted a pay increase so that they would not have to work for such long hours, and they wanted to be payed extra for the extra time they had to work.
To try to get this the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory workers went on strike. Soon workers from other factories began to go on strike too. The company owners hired thugs to beat up the strikers. Police arrested strikers although they were prostesting peacefully.
Rich women began to join the strikers.
They set up fundraisers to raise money, arranged meetings and went on strike with the workers. Even the replacement workers at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory joined the strike, so that it had no workers to run the machines.
Most factories had given in to the strikers and rehired them; however, not the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory. The strikers there had to go back to work without any change, although they had started the strike.
On March 25, a fire started in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory. Since the workers were locked in they could not escape through the doors.
Soon the fire escapes broke and the elevator stopped. Some women jumped down the elevator shaft or off the building. Almost all of them died. Some women perished inside the factory because of the flames and smoke.
The owners escaped on the roof. Out of the workers about one third died. Afterward factory buildings had to meet safety standards. That she was elected was amazing, because in women in only 14 states including Montana had complete voting rights.
Instead more attention was being payed to World War I which was taking place in Europe. While the NWP picketed, other groups were trying different strategies.
They aimed to show men that women could help the war effort and were able to work.
A Woman’s Agenda for the 21st Century fashioned after the Center for American Progress’s Social Security Cares model for a social insurance program that would allow workers to earn up to. Throughout most of history women generally have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men. Wifehood and motherhood were regarded as women's most significant professions. In the 20th century, however, women in most nations won the right to vote and increased their educational and job opportunities. Despite major advances in civil and political rights, our country still has a long way to go in addressing the issue of gender inequality. Many of the achievements that have been made for women’s rights in the 20th century have been under attack by the Republican party — denying women control.
At first the picketers led by Alice Paul a suffragette who had studied in England and was in the suffrage movement there were mostly ignored, but when the United States joined World War I people thought that it was unpatriotic to say that something was wrong with the government.
The[ 9 ]conditions at the workhouse were terrible; rats lived in the walls and when one women seemed to be having a heart attack she was not given medical care. Another suffragette was knocked out when her head hit the bed frame after being hurled into her jail cell.
In the jail and workhouse the suffragettes started hunger strikes. They were force fed by tubes pushed down their throats, through a nostril or their mouth.
Once the public learned how the suffragettes were being treated in the workhouse, they disagreed with the way that they were being treated.
The suffragettes in the Occoquan workhouse were moved into the jail, which was a little bit better.Throughout most of history women generally have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men.
Wifehood and motherhood were regarded as women's most significant professions. In the 20th century, however, women in most nations won the right to vote and increased their educational and job opportunities.
Women's rights activism in Canada during the 19th and early 20th centuries focused on increasing women's role in public life, with goals including women's suffrage, increased property rights, increased access to education, and recognition of women as "persons" under the law. This brought together many of the leading figures of the 19th-century women's rights movements, including Lucretia Mott, Sojourner Truth, and the architect of .
A Timeline of Women's Legal History in the United States profiting or suffering from it. It ranges from to the present, covering jury rights, voting rights, marriage rights, the right of a woman to pass on the status of free or slave 17th 18th 19th 20th The Seventeenth Century.
the 20th century Colonized peoples rise up against imperialism in Asia and Africa Workers movements in Europe, India and the US; in Moscow , workers demonstrate.
Women’s Rights in the Late 20th Century After World War II, women’s struggle for equality achieved a mixed record of success.
The women’s rights movement won equal opportunities in higher education and employment relatively quickly in . | <urn:uuid:6be0de39-008d-46c3-a8a5-6b4bf33bf4de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vytixypujazab.heartoftexashop.com/the-increase-of-womens-rights-in-the-20th-century-474wq.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00026.warc.gz | en | 0.990105 | 1,247 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | In the Soviet Union, however, the majority of working women held low-paid jobs and were minimally represented in party and government councils. Birth-control techniques were primitive, day-care centers were few, and working wives were responsible for keeping house and tending children. China more fully preserved its revolutionary ideals, but some job discrimination against women existed. Socialist governments in Sweden in the s established wide-ranging programs of equal rights for women, which included extensive child-care arrangements.
Already have an account? They began trying to get young women who were just out of college to join their cause. Ma ny of these new women had faced discrimination to be able to attend college and were familiar with it. Most of them were not married yet so they had more time that they could use on the suffrage movement than some of the older women who had to take care of their kids.
They went on strike because they had to work 7 days a week, 7 am to 8 pm. The workers were allowed one half-hour lunch break. They were locked inside the factory so that they would not take more breaks or steal the materials. The factory workers wanted a pay increase so that they would not have to work for such long hours, and they wanted to be payed extra for the extra time they had to work.
To try to get this the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory workers went on strike. Soon workers from other factories began to go on strike too. The company owners hired thugs to beat up the strikers. Police arrested strikers although they were prostesting peacefully.
Rich women began to join the strikers.
They set up fundraisers to raise money, arranged meetings and went on strike with the workers. Even the replacement workers at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory joined the strike, so that it had no workers to run the machines.
Most factories had given in to the strikers and rehired them; however, not the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory. The strikers there had to go back to work without any change, although they had started the strike.
On March 25, a fire started in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory. Since the workers were locked in they could not escape through the doors.
Soon the fire escapes broke and the elevator stopped. Some women jumped down the elevator shaft or off the building. Almost all of them died. Some women perished inside the factory because of the flames and smoke.
The owners escaped on the roof. Out of the workers about one third died. Afterward factory buildings had to meet safety standards. That she was elected was amazing, because in women in only 14 states including Montana had complete voting rights.
Instead more attention was being payed to World War I which was taking place in Europe. While the NWP picketed, other groups were trying different strategies.
They aimed to show men that women could help the war effort and were able to work.
A Woman’s Agenda for the 21st Century fashioned after the Center for American Progress’s Social Security Cares model for a social insurance program that would allow workers to earn up to. Throughout most of history women generally have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men. Wifehood and motherhood were regarded as women's most significant professions. In the 20th century, however, women in most nations won the right to vote and increased their educational and job opportunities. Despite major advances in civil and political rights, our country still has a long way to go in addressing the issue of gender inequality. Many of the achievements that have been made for women’s rights in the 20th century have been under attack by the Republican party — denying women control.
At first the picketers led by Alice Paul a suffragette who had studied in England and was in the suffrage movement there were mostly ignored, but when the United States joined World War I people thought that it was unpatriotic to say that something was wrong with the government.
The[ 9 ]conditions at the workhouse were terrible; rats lived in the walls and when one women seemed to be having a heart attack she was not given medical care. Another suffragette was knocked out when her head hit the bed frame after being hurled into her jail cell.
In the jail and workhouse the suffragettes started hunger strikes. They were force fed by tubes pushed down their throats, through a nostril or their mouth.
Once the public learned how the suffragettes were being treated in the workhouse, they disagreed with the way that they were being treated.
The suffragettes in the Occoquan workhouse were moved into the jail, which was a little bit better.Throughout most of history women generally have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men.
Wifehood and motherhood were regarded as women's most significant professions. In the 20th century, however, women in most nations won the right to vote and increased their educational and job opportunities.
Women's rights activism in Canada during the 19th and early 20th centuries focused on increasing women's role in public life, with goals including women's suffrage, increased property rights, increased access to education, and recognition of women as "persons" under the law. This brought together many of the leading figures of the 19th-century women's rights movements, including Lucretia Mott, Sojourner Truth, and the architect of .
A Timeline of Women's Legal History in the United States profiting or suffering from it. It ranges from to the present, covering jury rights, voting rights, marriage rights, the right of a woman to pass on the status of free or slave 17th 18th 19th 20th The Seventeenth Century.
the 20th century Colonized peoples rise up against imperialism in Asia and Africa Workers movements in Europe, India and the US; in Moscow , workers demonstrate.
Women’s Rights in the Late 20th Century After World War II, women’s struggle for equality achieved a mixed record of success.
The women’s rights movement won equal opportunities in higher education and employment relatively quickly in . | 1,243 | ENGLISH | 1 |
| Rescue tugboat|
Thames was a Rescue tugboat that saw service with the Royal Navy during the Second World War.
Named for the River Thames in England, she was launched in 1938. With the outbreak of the Second World War, she was acquired by the Royal Navy in June 1940. She was based at the strategically vital naval base at Gibraltar, moving the large warships there in and out of the harbour. Her duties also included coming to the assistance of any allied ships, naval or merchant, that might be damaged and require towing to safety. If this was impossible, she would take off survivors. To protect against air attacks she was fitted with a 12-pounder anti-aircraft gun.
HMT Thames (1938) Wikipedia
On 13 November 1941, the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was torpedoed some 30 miles off Gibraltar by the German submarine U-81. After damage control efforts seemed to have stabilised the subsequent flooding, the commander of Force H, Sir James Somerville sped into Gibraltar aboard the battleship HMS Malaya to organise salvage operations. The Thames and another tug, the St Day were dispatched to the scene. Thames arrived first and was able to attach a tow line to the stricken carrier. She then attempted to tow her to Gibraltar, but her efforts were foiled by the strong current flowing through the Strait of Gibraltar. Despite towing Ark Royal for nine hours at a speed of two knots, she could make little headway. Ark Royal capsized and sank the following day, 14 November, after being overwhelmed by flooding that could not be controlled.
The belief that Ark Royal had been under tow for nine hours led the subsequent Board of Inquiry to assume that Ark Royal had sunk closer to Gibraltar than was actually the case. The true site of the sinking was not discovered until Ark Royal’s wreck was located by a film crew in 2002.
Thames continued in service with the Navy until 1944, by which time the allies had largely secured control of the Mediterranean. She then left Navy service. | <urn:uuid:6e116f32-5b08-4a14-a48e-337d6ca9a99a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/HMT-Thames-%281938%29 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.983695 | 414 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.29582414031... | 2 | | Rescue tugboat|
Thames was a Rescue tugboat that saw service with the Royal Navy during the Second World War.
Named for the River Thames in England, she was launched in 1938. With the outbreak of the Second World War, she was acquired by the Royal Navy in June 1940. She was based at the strategically vital naval base at Gibraltar, moving the large warships there in and out of the harbour. Her duties also included coming to the assistance of any allied ships, naval or merchant, that might be damaged and require towing to safety. If this was impossible, she would take off survivors. To protect against air attacks she was fitted with a 12-pounder anti-aircraft gun.
HMT Thames (1938) Wikipedia
On 13 November 1941, the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was torpedoed some 30 miles off Gibraltar by the German submarine U-81. After damage control efforts seemed to have stabilised the subsequent flooding, the commander of Force H, Sir James Somerville sped into Gibraltar aboard the battleship HMS Malaya to organise salvage operations. The Thames and another tug, the St Day were dispatched to the scene. Thames arrived first and was able to attach a tow line to the stricken carrier. She then attempted to tow her to Gibraltar, but her efforts were foiled by the strong current flowing through the Strait of Gibraltar. Despite towing Ark Royal for nine hours at a speed of two knots, she could make little headway. Ark Royal capsized and sank the following day, 14 November, after being overwhelmed by flooding that could not be controlled.
The belief that Ark Royal had been under tow for nine hours led the subsequent Board of Inquiry to assume that Ark Royal had sunk closer to Gibraltar than was actually the case. The true site of the sinking was not discovered until Ark Royal’s wreck was located by a film crew in 2002.
Thames continued in service with the Navy until 1944, by which time the allies had largely secured control of the Mediterranean. She then left Navy service. | 435 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Researchers have demonstrated with the largest ever multinational study of parental age and autism risk that the children of teen mothers, older parents and parents with an age gap of 10 years or more have a higher risk of autism spectrum disorder than other children.
The study, published in Molecular Psychiatry, involved the analysis of more than 5.7 million children in Australia, Denmark, Israel, Norway and Sweden.
While previous research has established the association between older paternal age and autism spectrum disorders (ASD), there have been significant differences between studies, as well as a lack of definitive information on whether paternal and maternal ages are independent risk factors.
Co-author Michael Rosanoff, director of public health research for Autism Speaks, funders of the study, suggests that the study is unique among research conducted on ASD and parental age.
"By linking national health registries across five countries, we created the world's largest dataset for research into autism's risk factors," he explains. "The size allowed us to look at the relationship between parents' age and autism at a much higher resolution - under a microscope, if you will."
The aim of the researchers was to establish whether or not maternal and paternal ages independently increase the risk of ASD and, if so, to what extent.
Of the 5,766,794 children examined by the study, more than 30,000 had ASD. Each child included in the study was born between 1985-2004 and their development was tracked by the researchers until 2009. The researchers obtained autism diagnoses by consulting the appropriate national health records.
To separate the influence of maternal and paternal ages, the researchers adjusted their findings for the possible influence of the other parent's age, as well as controlling for other age-related influences that could influence ASD risk.
Age gaps between parents 'contribute significantly' to ASD risk
The researchers found ASD prevalence was 66% higher in children born to fathers aged older than 50 and 28% higher in children born to fathers in their 40s, compared with those born to fathers in their 20s.
Similarly, ASD prevalence among children born to mothers in their 40s was 15% higher, compared with children born to mothers in their 20s. However, ASD rates were also 18% higher among children born to teenage mothers.
ASD rates also rose when both parents were older and with widening gaps between the two parents' ages, with high rates observed whether it was the father or the mother who was oldest. ASD rates were highest when the father was aged 35-44 and his partner was 10 or more years younger.
"After finding that paternal age, maternal age and parental age gaps all influence autism risk independently, we calculated which aspect was most important," co-author Dr. Sven Sandin states. "It turned out to be parental age, though age gaps also contribute significantly."
The higher risk of ASD associated with fathers aged over 50 could be explained by the idea that genetic mutations in sperm, which become more prevalent as a man ages, could contribute to ASD. However, the association of ASD risk with maternal age and gaps in parental ages remains a mystery.
"In this study, we show for the first time that autism risk is associated with disparately aged parents," states co-author Abraham Reichenberg, a neuropsychologist and epidemiologist with the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York City, NY. "Future research should look into this to understand the mechanisms."
The authors acknowledge a number of limitations for their study. There is a lack of information about some variables that could affect their findings, such as parental psychiatric history, and as an observational study, it is unable to rule out factors associated with parental age - such as birth weight and obstetric complications - as contributing to the results.
"Although parental age is a risk factor for autism," adds Dr. Sandin, "it is important to remember that, overall, the majority of children born to older or younger parents will develop normally." | <urn:uuid:c5be7c04-74db-446e-b960-ba85508240e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/295063.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.981634 | 808 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.46484702... | 1 | Researchers have demonstrated with the largest ever multinational study of parental age and autism risk that the children of teen mothers, older parents and parents with an age gap of 10 years or more have a higher risk of autism spectrum disorder than other children.
The study, published in Molecular Psychiatry, involved the analysis of more than 5.7 million children in Australia, Denmark, Israel, Norway and Sweden.
While previous research has established the association between older paternal age and autism spectrum disorders (ASD), there have been significant differences between studies, as well as a lack of definitive information on whether paternal and maternal ages are independent risk factors.
Co-author Michael Rosanoff, director of public health research for Autism Speaks, funders of the study, suggests that the study is unique among research conducted on ASD and parental age.
"By linking national health registries across five countries, we created the world's largest dataset for research into autism's risk factors," he explains. "The size allowed us to look at the relationship between parents' age and autism at a much higher resolution - under a microscope, if you will."
The aim of the researchers was to establish whether or not maternal and paternal ages independently increase the risk of ASD and, if so, to what extent.
Of the 5,766,794 children examined by the study, more than 30,000 had ASD. Each child included in the study was born between 1985-2004 and their development was tracked by the researchers until 2009. The researchers obtained autism diagnoses by consulting the appropriate national health records.
To separate the influence of maternal and paternal ages, the researchers adjusted their findings for the possible influence of the other parent's age, as well as controlling for other age-related influences that could influence ASD risk.
Age gaps between parents 'contribute significantly' to ASD risk
The researchers found ASD prevalence was 66% higher in children born to fathers aged older than 50 and 28% higher in children born to fathers in their 40s, compared with those born to fathers in their 20s.
Similarly, ASD prevalence among children born to mothers in their 40s was 15% higher, compared with children born to mothers in their 20s. However, ASD rates were also 18% higher among children born to teenage mothers.
ASD rates also rose when both parents were older and with widening gaps between the two parents' ages, with high rates observed whether it was the father or the mother who was oldest. ASD rates were highest when the father was aged 35-44 and his partner was 10 or more years younger.
"After finding that paternal age, maternal age and parental age gaps all influence autism risk independently, we calculated which aspect was most important," co-author Dr. Sven Sandin states. "It turned out to be parental age, though age gaps also contribute significantly."
The higher risk of ASD associated with fathers aged over 50 could be explained by the idea that genetic mutations in sperm, which become more prevalent as a man ages, could contribute to ASD. However, the association of ASD risk with maternal age and gaps in parental ages remains a mystery.
"In this study, we show for the first time that autism risk is associated with disparately aged parents," states co-author Abraham Reichenberg, a neuropsychologist and epidemiologist with the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York City, NY. "Future research should look into this to understand the mechanisms."
The authors acknowledge a number of limitations for their study. There is a lack of information about some variables that could affect their findings, such as parental psychiatric history, and as an observational study, it is unable to rule out factors associated with parental age - such as birth weight and obstetric complications - as contributing to the results.
"Although parental age is a risk factor for autism," adds Dr. Sandin, "it is important to remember that, overall, the majority of children born to older or younger parents will develop normally." | 836 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Learners of all ages require boundaries and rules in which to work within. By setting these out from the start of any training programme regardless of the length of the course (For example a one day course or an entire semester) you will create an environment of trust and respect which will enable learners to achieve their goals. By having ground rules in place that learners have been involved in the process of making, Ann Gravells (2006 p8) states that ‘having ground rules gives a firm boundary for all learners to work within’.
Roberto Marzano’s study into Classroom Management (2003) discovered that by clearly and simply expressing rules and expectations, cause and consequence, that the number of ...view middle of the document...
I am most familiar with teaching groups of up to 20 students aged 18 to 60 and found that by involving the learners in creating the ground rules, they are more likely to adhere to them. If the whole group is made up of confident individuals, I would ask the learners to shout out their thoughts in a brainstorming session and write them on a flipchart. By using Flemings VAK model, the visual learners would relate to the written notes on the flipchart, the auditory learners would relate to the spoken rules and the kinaesthetic learners would relate by being involved in the process. Through all learners being involved in their own particular style of learning would help to satisfy their safety needs as suggested by Maslow.
If some learners are shy or nervous I would adopt a different approach to ensure that each is involved. I would either put the learners into smaller groups and challenge each group to come up with as many ideas as they think necessary. This would encourage the learners to communicate with each other as well as setting the boundaries within which to learn. I may also ask the learners to each write one rule and put it in an anonymous box for me to read out.
For younger students, I would ensure that they were all involved in the decision making process. I would start by asking them about why we have rules in sports and try and relate this to the rules in the classroom. I may also include a game such as setting up a student council and for them to decide on a list of rules I have given them. I would ask them if they think the rule is fair, why it has been suggested and so on. | <urn:uuid:987a3598-5cad-4df0-a22e-adf01a1b553c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.avroarrow.org/essay/describe-different-ways-in-which-you-would-establish-ground-rules-with-your-learners-which-would-underpin-behaviour-and-respect-for-others | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.984771 | 481 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.4639923274... | 1 | Learners of all ages require boundaries and rules in which to work within. By setting these out from the start of any training programme regardless of the length of the course (For example a one day course or an entire semester) you will create an environment of trust and respect which will enable learners to achieve their goals. By having ground rules in place that learners have been involved in the process of making, Ann Gravells (2006 p8) states that ‘having ground rules gives a firm boundary for all learners to work within’.
Roberto Marzano’s study into Classroom Management (2003) discovered that by clearly and simply expressing rules and expectations, cause and consequence, that the number of ...view middle of the document...
I am most familiar with teaching groups of up to 20 students aged 18 to 60 and found that by involving the learners in creating the ground rules, they are more likely to adhere to them. If the whole group is made up of confident individuals, I would ask the learners to shout out their thoughts in a brainstorming session and write them on a flipchart. By using Flemings VAK model, the visual learners would relate to the written notes on the flipchart, the auditory learners would relate to the spoken rules and the kinaesthetic learners would relate by being involved in the process. Through all learners being involved in their own particular style of learning would help to satisfy their safety needs as suggested by Maslow.
If some learners are shy or nervous I would adopt a different approach to ensure that each is involved. I would either put the learners into smaller groups and challenge each group to come up with as many ideas as they think necessary. This would encourage the learners to communicate with each other as well as setting the boundaries within which to learn. I may also ask the learners to each write one rule and put it in an anonymous box for me to read out.
For younger students, I would ensure that they were all involved in the decision making process. I would start by asking them about why we have rules in sports and try and relate this to the rules in the classroom. I may also include a game such as setting up a student council and for them to decide on a list of rules I have given them. I would ask them if they think the rule is fair, why it has been suggested and so on. | 483 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Originally published February 2015.
Wikipedia describes the Fianna (singular fian) as:
“small, semi-independent warrior bands in Irish mythology and Scottish mythology. They are featured in the stories of the Fenian Cycle, where they are led by Fionn mac Cumhaill. They are based on historical bands of landless young men in early medieval Ireland known as kerns.”
And it explains that references in Medieval Irish law describe a fian as made up of landless young men and women, sometimes including young nobles who had not yet come into their inheritance. In more modern times the word seems to have evolved from the “Fennians” who were the war band of Fionn Mac Cumhaill into the English term Fenian used for the Irish rebels who fought for an independent Irish republic.
I recently ran across a slightly different, possibly older, explanation of the Fianna. It said that it was part of an early tribal tradition that was not uncommon across Europe and and ranged as far as India. (Unfortunately the article didn’t supply references outside of a couple unsourced quotes). At a certain age young men would leave the tribe and spend a period of time in the wilderness probably as a training and coming-of-age rite. They would adopt new names, go naked and live off the land. They would gather together in bands fight with each other and harass or raid the regular folk. (-I assume, preferably those of other tribes…) After some amount of allotted time they might return to their tribes as men, presumably ready to marry, but hardened warriors who could live off the land and were ready to fight in wartime.
The ninth century text “The Instructions of Cormac“ is a dialogue between the legendary High-King of Ireland, Cormac mac Airt, and his son, and may describe this practice:
“What were your deeds when you were a young man?”
“Not hard to tell,” said Cormac.
“I would slay a boar, I would follow a track when I was alone, I would march against a band of five when I was one of five, I was ready to slay and wreck when I was one of ten, I was ready for a raid when I was one of twenty, I was ready to give battle when I was one of a hundred. Those were my deeds!”
Although considered more a collection of traditions than accurate history, Geoffrey Keating, in his 17th-century History of Ireland, said that during the winter the Fianna were quartered and fed by the nobility. But during the summer, from Beltaine to Samhain, they would live by hunting for food and for pelts to sell.
The Fianna, thus, depending on the region, or era, may have been a combination of independent bands of un-landed men, the local tribe’s, or noble’s warrior band that might be called up in times of need, as well as part of a rite of passage into manhood. | <urn:uuid:409907fb-2c85-47a8-9683-7f40ac3779e8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kilts-n-stuff.com/Blog/the-fianna/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00017.warc.gz | en | 0.986376 | 638 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.08748855441808... | 3 | Originally published February 2015.
Wikipedia describes the Fianna (singular fian) as:
“small, semi-independent warrior bands in Irish mythology and Scottish mythology. They are featured in the stories of the Fenian Cycle, where they are led by Fionn mac Cumhaill. They are based on historical bands of landless young men in early medieval Ireland known as kerns.”
And it explains that references in Medieval Irish law describe a fian as made up of landless young men and women, sometimes including young nobles who had not yet come into their inheritance. In more modern times the word seems to have evolved from the “Fennians” who were the war band of Fionn Mac Cumhaill into the English term Fenian used for the Irish rebels who fought for an independent Irish republic.
I recently ran across a slightly different, possibly older, explanation of the Fianna. It said that it was part of an early tribal tradition that was not uncommon across Europe and and ranged as far as India. (Unfortunately the article didn’t supply references outside of a couple unsourced quotes). At a certain age young men would leave the tribe and spend a period of time in the wilderness probably as a training and coming-of-age rite. They would adopt new names, go naked and live off the land. They would gather together in bands fight with each other and harass or raid the regular folk. (-I assume, preferably those of other tribes…) After some amount of allotted time they might return to their tribes as men, presumably ready to marry, but hardened warriors who could live off the land and were ready to fight in wartime.
The ninth century text “The Instructions of Cormac“ is a dialogue between the legendary High-King of Ireland, Cormac mac Airt, and his son, and may describe this practice:
“What were your deeds when you were a young man?”
“Not hard to tell,” said Cormac.
“I would slay a boar, I would follow a track when I was alone, I would march against a band of five when I was one of five, I was ready to slay and wreck when I was one of ten, I was ready for a raid when I was one of twenty, I was ready to give battle when I was one of a hundred. Those were my deeds!”
Although considered more a collection of traditions than accurate history, Geoffrey Keating, in his 17th-century History of Ireland, said that during the winter the Fianna were quartered and fed by the nobility. But during the summer, from Beltaine to Samhain, they would live by hunting for food and for pelts to sell.
The Fianna, thus, depending on the region, or era, may have been a combination of independent bands of un-landed men, the local tribe’s, or noble’s warrior band that might be called up in times of need, as well as part of a rite of passage into manhood. | 609 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The German engraver, printmaker, mathematician, and theorist, Albrecht Durer established his career with his woodcuts that gained him his reputation beginning in his twenties. Since then, he has been recognised as one of the greatest artists of the Northern Renaissance.
Durer’s work is highly associated with having a religious undertone, such as in his woodcuts the Apocalypse series, and his iconic etching of Adam and Eve (in which his signature is widely visible hanging from the sign on the branch Adam is holding). The artist’s work is highly influenced from Italian theory, in which the idea of the human form correlated to a system of proportions and measurements which is demonstrated in the work Adam and Eve. Yet he is not only known for his woodcuts, he too is highly sought after for his paintings, alter pieces, amongst other religious works, including portraits and self portraits, for example, his Self Portrait dated to 1500 shows the artist as Jesus in which not only the resemblance through physical characteristics are visible, but also through his hand gesture portrayed, which represents the sign of the benediction.
What is intriguing though is that while he is most sighted for his religious works, whether it be paintings, etchings, alter pieces, etc., he is also acknowledged as one of the first European landscape artists, in which watercolour was used to embellish the final woodcut print. | <urn:uuid:d6e04731-f926-4ebe-a6ab-cc15e5122dcf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.printed-editions.com/artist/albrecht-durer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00048.warc.gz | en | 0.990797 | 288 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.33572474... | 6 | The German engraver, printmaker, mathematician, and theorist, Albrecht Durer established his career with his woodcuts that gained him his reputation beginning in his twenties. Since then, he has been recognised as one of the greatest artists of the Northern Renaissance.
Durer’s work is highly associated with having a religious undertone, such as in his woodcuts the Apocalypse series, and his iconic etching of Adam and Eve (in which his signature is widely visible hanging from the sign on the branch Adam is holding). The artist’s work is highly influenced from Italian theory, in which the idea of the human form correlated to a system of proportions and measurements which is demonstrated in the work Adam and Eve. Yet he is not only known for his woodcuts, he too is highly sought after for his paintings, alter pieces, amongst other religious works, including portraits and self portraits, for example, his Self Portrait dated to 1500 shows the artist as Jesus in which not only the resemblance through physical characteristics are visible, but also through his hand gesture portrayed, which represents the sign of the benediction.
What is intriguing though is that while he is most sighted for his religious works, whether it be paintings, etchings, alter pieces, etc., he is also acknowledged as one of the first European landscape artists, in which watercolour was used to embellish the final woodcut print. | 286 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rome before Hannibal
At this point we should perhaps pause to go back and consider the more conventional history of Rome in these two vital centuries.
Following the settlement with the Latins, the Latin towns remained under their own control. They could elect their own magistrates, retain their town councils and popular assemblies: one of the unexpected features of Pompeii are the election slogans – a fierce election for the town council was taking place when the town was overwhelmed by Vesuvius, and we must expect that similar elections took place regularly in all the Roman allies. Similarly, the administration of justice was divided: the allies could keep their own magistrates, and to a large extent their own laws, though Rome had a system of circuit judges – a praetor or his junior the prefect, who would preside over the hard cases; gradually, local laws tended to align themselves with Roman law.
There was the downside of course, first and foremost the demand to provide troops for the Roman army – indeed rather under half of the Roman army consists of allied troops; though for the soldiers, the harshness of the service was to some extent alleviated by the prospect of bringing home booty and plunder – which the Romans normally shared with their allies. A solder could return home rich. And there were taxes to pay, though these were light. The Romans alone paid tributum, the property tax; allied taxes were limited to the customs duties and the rent paid for farming on the public lands: the Romans had the habit of confiscating much of the best land, and then renting it back – at a price. Against this were the benefits: there was the pax Romana the Roman peace: wars with neighbours were no longer permitted. The ius commercii permitted trade, the Roman roads encouraged it, and the combination of peace and free trade allowed the Roman allies to grew rich: they soon felt themselves to be ‘Roman’.
Some were even allowed to participate in the elections in Rome – they could be enrolled in a tribe – several tribes were set aside for this. In practical terms the effects would be minimal – the Roman upper classes packed the main tribes – but it was also possible to stand for office – and in this way, the provincial voice could be heard. A distinction was made between the best allies who had this privilege, and the allies sine suffragio – without the vote – who did not receive this privilege.
But after this, the Roman expansion continued. Was it because the Romans were inherently warlike? Did they need to conquer fresh territories to provide fresh land to distribute to the plebs? Or was it because the prestige of the patricians was geared to war and to success in war? Or was it that the Romans were no different to any other state at the time, that war with one’s neighbours was to some extent the norm – the only difference being that the Romans were rather more successful at it, and rather better at holding ont0 the land they had conquered?
But the expansion continued. First it was against the Sabines, the hill people who lived in the Apennines behind and to the south of Rome. It took three successive wars to defeat them, but their defeat gave Rome the mastery of Central Italy. The next stage saw Rome fighting in southern Italy, this time against foreign invaders from Greece. It is interesting to realise that this was the time when Alexander the Great was transforming the geography of the eastern Mediterranean and the near East. But though Alexander himself was never tempted in his short life to turn to the West, others did. An earlier attempt was his cousin Alexander of Molossos from North Western Greece who was tempted who came over to southern Italy in 334 with a band of followers, only to perish a couple of years later in a comparatively small skirmish. Rome was changing from being the oppressors of the Italian peoples to becoming their champion.
More serious was the invasion of Pyrrhus in 280 BC. Pyrrhus was King of Epirus again in north west Greece, and in 280 he crossed over to support the Greek colonies against Rome. He was a commander of genius, and he brought a secret weapon – 20 elephants with him. He won several ‘Pyrrhic’ victories, where he won the battle but with enormous losses of his troops. He marched on Rome, but the Roman allies failed to support him: this was the first demonstration of the success of the Roman system, that allies and colonists were beginning to feel that they were part of Rome, and that being part of Rome was preferable to joining a foreign enemy. But when in 275, Pyrrhus withdrew from Italy, Rome emerged as the leader: it was after this that the Etruscan states virtually disintegrate, and the Roman empire extended up to the broad plain of the Po, where by now the Gauls were firmly ensconced.
But the real turning point were the three wars with Carthage, the Punic wars, the second being the best known, because this was fought against one of the greatest military geniuses of all time, Hannibal.
The problem of Carthage
Carthage presents the archaeologist/historian with a problem. Why did they, and indeed the Etruscans fail, when Greece and Rome succeeded? With the Etruscans one can always give the glib, though possibly not full answer to say that they never adopted money. The Carthaginians on the other hand did adopt money, but nevertheless they were defeated by Rome. What is the reason for their failure? Conventional historians simply say that they were defeated by Rome, but is this the full story? Was their society really not up to running a great empire?
The Carthaginians originally came from Tyre, in what is today Syria, and had been sent out as a colony, probably as early as the 8th century BC – the traditional date is of 814 BC may not be far wrong. But to some extent they were only a stepping stone to the really important settlements in Gadir (Cadiz) in southern Spain where the silver, lead and tin mines provided the metals on which the eastern Mediterranean countries depended. How far should we see Carthage as being simply a middleman for taking silver from Spain to the east?
The problem with Carthage lay in the very nature of this original expansion from Tyre in Phoenicia. The settlements along the North African coast were mostly hemmed in by the desert, and Carthage in modern-day Tunisia was the only settlement that had a substantial fertile hinterland.
But the desert beyond was occupied by the Numidians, who led a very different form of life : sometimes they were allied to the settlers on the coast, more often they were hostile. Thus if the Carthaginians wanted to expand, there were only really two options: Spain or the islands in the Mediterranean. In Spain they were faced with the Iberians who were rapidly developing a sophisticated society that is now becoming better known, but who resented Carthaginian expansion every bit as much as the Etruscans resented the Roman expansion. The other alternative was in the Mediterranean itself, notably the three big islands, Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, of which the most important was Sicily.
In the sixth to fourth century, the Mediterranean Islands were fiercely fought over between Etruscans, Greeks and Carthaginians, with the Romans playing in an ever increasing role. Sicily in particular was the major source of conflict, with the Greeks holding the eastern end around the great Greek city of Syracuse, while the Carthaginians held the western end. But as Rome expanded, Sicily became a major battlefield, and in the first Punic War from 264 – 241 BC, Romans and Carthaginians battled it out. ( The term ‘Punic War’ is derived from the Phoenicians, reminding us that Carthage was originally a Phoenician colony). Much of the war was played out at sea, where the Carthaginians at first had the advantage, as they were essentially a seafaring nation. But during the war the Romans built their own fleet, and eventually at the end of the war they defeated the Carthaginians and found themselves in control of Sicily. Sicily became their first ‘province’, and the bread basket for the growing city of Rome itself. Shortly afterwards Corsica and Sardinia were added to the Roman Empire.
Archaeologically, the Carthaginians remain difficult to assess: comparatively little work has been done on native Carthaginian sites. Much of the literary evidence comes from the hostile sources of the Romans. The Romans complain about their habit of child sacrifice, and a number of burial grounds have been discovered, known as tophet which contain huge numbers of child burials – always cremations of children under three. Artistically the Carthaginians have little to show, their best work being derived from the Greeks or the Egyptians, and their pottery is very workaday — but then, at this time, the Romans had little to show either.
The one extensive settlement that has been explored is Kerkouane, a substantial town on the coast 50 miles north east of Carthage. Here there are extensive remains of houses many of them containing small hip baths which either suggests that they were excessively clean or that they formed part of some ritual. There are indeed a few larger houses which appear to be in a Greek style but surprisingly there is no major central space nor indeed any major buildings or indeed a major public square: is this because they have not been discovered, swept away by the sea perhaps? Or is it that they did not exist? Or was Kerkouane, and the other towns and villages so completely under Carthaginian dominance that there was no effort at local rule or local control?
After the loss of Sicily, the only place where Carthage could expand was in Spain, and it is here that the next stage in Carthaginian history takes place. From 237 to 229, Carthage’s greatest general Hamilcar Barca campaigned in Spain to expand the Carthaginian territory. However in 232 he was killed and his place was taken by his slightly less bellicose son-in-law, Hasdrubal. But in 221 Hasdrubal was assassinated and was succeeded as commander by Hamilcar’s son – Hannibal: the Carthaginian advance was now in the hands of one of the world’s greatest strategists.
Hannibal was born to greatness. When we was nine, so the story goes, he accompanied his father to Spain, and his father (Livy 21,1) made him swear that he would be an enemy to the Roman people. And when, at the age of 25, he succeeded as Commander in chief, he at once showed his genius by securing Spain. He made a sweep through central Spain, and partly by diplomacy, but partly by force, he brought the heartlands of Spain within the Carthaginian sphere.
But Rome was the enemy, so he decided to strike the enemy in their homeland, and he set out for Rome, famously taking his elephants with him, passing through southern France and then heroically over the Alps. The Romans were not great soldiers: whenever they fought Hannibal in open battle, Hannibal usually won.
Having arrived in northern Italy, he made friends with the Gauls in the north and soon won an important battle at Trebia in 218 BC. The Romans sent out a large army to oppose him but it was then that they realise that they were fighting a formidable opponent. At Lake Trasimene in 217 BC he trapped them in a narrow ravine and slaughtered two legions. But Rome did not give in, and a year later at the Battle of Cannae, this time in the southern Italy, Hannibal once again annihilated the Roman army and it was only by the skin of their teeth and the support of their allies that Rome managed to survive. In their despair, Rome appointed a dictator, Fabius Maximus known as Fabius Cunctator, or Fabius the Delayer, who realised that the Romans would never defeat Hannibal in open battle so he always evaded direct fight and shadowed Hannibal. This meant refraining from attacking when Hannibal laid waste the fields of the allies, but nevertheless the Roman army, and indeed Rome itself, survived.
Eventually Rome acquired a general of genius, Scipio the younger. Scipio decided to attack Hannibal in his rear, so he went to Spain and turned the tables on Hannibal and soon turned a Carthaginian empire into a Roman one. Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal decided to abandon Spain and set out with a relief force to Italy but was himself defeated and killed at the Battle of Metaurus: according to the story, his head was cut off and taken to Hannibal’s camp, hundreds of miles to the south and tossed in by the Romans as proof that his brother and the vital reinforcements had failed. As a result, Hannibal lost his air of invincibility, and many of the Italian towns that had been wavering, returned in their allegiance to Rome. Finally, Scipio invaded north Africa, and in 203, Hannibal was recalled and in 201, at the battle of Zama, he — and Carthage — were finally defeated. Hannibal fled to the east and eventually died – committing suicide to escape the Romans, probably in 183 BC aged 63.
The end of Carthage shows Rome both at its best, and at its worst. Most modern Romanists like to assume that the Romans were always bloodthirsty and constantly looking for war. To them I would say, consider the period of 50 years between the second and third Punic war: there was a war party led by the old monster Cato who ended every speech in the Senate with the words Carthago delenda est —Carthage must be destroyed. Equally there was fairly consistently a peace party, led for much of the time by Corculum, one of the junior members of the Scipio family; and for 50 years the two parties were evenly balanced.
Following the battle of Zama, Rome imposed peace conditions that left Carthage viable, stripping it of its overseas empire, forbidding it to have a significant army or navy, and imposing a huge indemnity. At first the Carthaginians had difficulty in paying, due to mis-rule by the ruling oligarchs. But then Hannibal was elected chief magistrate and reformed the constitution so effectively that the Carthaginians were able to pay the indemnity promptly. But Carthage was in an awkward position, for the tribes of the interior, the Numidians, led by a warrior of genius, Masinissa, were constantly trying to increase their territories at the expense of the Carthaginians. And the Romans, having forbidden the Carthaginians to make war, always took the side of the Numidians.
Eventually the war party at Rome came out on top, and when the Numidians were particularly aggressive, they took the opportunity to argue that Carthage had broken the 50-year old treaty, declared war and after a three-year siege Carthage, was finally destroyed and the inhabitants sold into slavery. Nevertheless the Roman historians were clearly somewhat unhappy about the reasons for the war, and the unease felt about Rome’s treatment of Carthage suggests that some Romans at least felt that Rome had been unduly bellicose. | <urn:uuid:33945bbb-0d27-460d-a12f-f5b9487fe735> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.civilization.org.uk/origins-rome/hannibal | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.987825 | 3,159 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.343573689... | 8 | Rome before Hannibal
At this point we should perhaps pause to go back and consider the more conventional history of Rome in these two vital centuries.
Following the settlement with the Latins, the Latin towns remained under their own control. They could elect their own magistrates, retain their town councils and popular assemblies: one of the unexpected features of Pompeii are the election slogans – a fierce election for the town council was taking place when the town was overwhelmed by Vesuvius, and we must expect that similar elections took place regularly in all the Roman allies. Similarly, the administration of justice was divided: the allies could keep their own magistrates, and to a large extent their own laws, though Rome had a system of circuit judges – a praetor or his junior the prefect, who would preside over the hard cases; gradually, local laws tended to align themselves with Roman law.
There was the downside of course, first and foremost the demand to provide troops for the Roman army – indeed rather under half of the Roman army consists of allied troops; though for the soldiers, the harshness of the service was to some extent alleviated by the prospect of bringing home booty and plunder – which the Romans normally shared with their allies. A solder could return home rich. And there were taxes to pay, though these were light. The Romans alone paid tributum, the property tax; allied taxes were limited to the customs duties and the rent paid for farming on the public lands: the Romans had the habit of confiscating much of the best land, and then renting it back – at a price. Against this were the benefits: there was the pax Romana the Roman peace: wars with neighbours were no longer permitted. The ius commercii permitted trade, the Roman roads encouraged it, and the combination of peace and free trade allowed the Roman allies to grew rich: they soon felt themselves to be ‘Roman’.
Some were even allowed to participate in the elections in Rome – they could be enrolled in a tribe – several tribes were set aside for this. In practical terms the effects would be minimal – the Roman upper classes packed the main tribes – but it was also possible to stand for office – and in this way, the provincial voice could be heard. A distinction was made between the best allies who had this privilege, and the allies sine suffragio – without the vote – who did not receive this privilege.
But after this, the Roman expansion continued. Was it because the Romans were inherently warlike? Did they need to conquer fresh territories to provide fresh land to distribute to the plebs? Or was it because the prestige of the patricians was geared to war and to success in war? Or was it that the Romans were no different to any other state at the time, that war with one’s neighbours was to some extent the norm – the only difference being that the Romans were rather more successful at it, and rather better at holding ont0 the land they had conquered?
But the expansion continued. First it was against the Sabines, the hill people who lived in the Apennines behind and to the south of Rome. It took three successive wars to defeat them, but their defeat gave Rome the mastery of Central Italy. The next stage saw Rome fighting in southern Italy, this time against foreign invaders from Greece. It is interesting to realise that this was the time when Alexander the Great was transforming the geography of the eastern Mediterranean and the near East. But though Alexander himself was never tempted in his short life to turn to the West, others did. An earlier attempt was his cousin Alexander of Molossos from North Western Greece who was tempted who came over to southern Italy in 334 with a band of followers, only to perish a couple of years later in a comparatively small skirmish. Rome was changing from being the oppressors of the Italian peoples to becoming their champion.
More serious was the invasion of Pyrrhus in 280 BC. Pyrrhus was King of Epirus again in north west Greece, and in 280 he crossed over to support the Greek colonies against Rome. He was a commander of genius, and he brought a secret weapon – 20 elephants with him. He won several ‘Pyrrhic’ victories, where he won the battle but with enormous losses of his troops. He marched on Rome, but the Roman allies failed to support him: this was the first demonstration of the success of the Roman system, that allies and colonists were beginning to feel that they were part of Rome, and that being part of Rome was preferable to joining a foreign enemy. But when in 275, Pyrrhus withdrew from Italy, Rome emerged as the leader: it was after this that the Etruscan states virtually disintegrate, and the Roman empire extended up to the broad plain of the Po, where by now the Gauls were firmly ensconced.
But the real turning point were the three wars with Carthage, the Punic wars, the second being the best known, because this was fought against one of the greatest military geniuses of all time, Hannibal.
The problem of Carthage
Carthage presents the archaeologist/historian with a problem. Why did they, and indeed the Etruscans fail, when Greece and Rome succeeded? With the Etruscans one can always give the glib, though possibly not full answer to say that they never adopted money. The Carthaginians on the other hand did adopt money, but nevertheless they were defeated by Rome. What is the reason for their failure? Conventional historians simply say that they were defeated by Rome, but is this the full story? Was their society really not up to running a great empire?
The Carthaginians originally came from Tyre, in what is today Syria, and had been sent out as a colony, probably as early as the 8th century BC – the traditional date is of 814 BC may not be far wrong. But to some extent they were only a stepping stone to the really important settlements in Gadir (Cadiz) in southern Spain where the silver, lead and tin mines provided the metals on which the eastern Mediterranean countries depended. How far should we see Carthage as being simply a middleman for taking silver from Spain to the east?
The problem with Carthage lay in the very nature of this original expansion from Tyre in Phoenicia. The settlements along the North African coast were mostly hemmed in by the desert, and Carthage in modern-day Tunisia was the only settlement that had a substantial fertile hinterland.
But the desert beyond was occupied by the Numidians, who led a very different form of life : sometimes they were allied to the settlers on the coast, more often they were hostile. Thus if the Carthaginians wanted to expand, there were only really two options: Spain or the islands in the Mediterranean. In Spain they were faced with the Iberians who were rapidly developing a sophisticated society that is now becoming better known, but who resented Carthaginian expansion every bit as much as the Etruscans resented the Roman expansion. The other alternative was in the Mediterranean itself, notably the three big islands, Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, of which the most important was Sicily.
In the sixth to fourth century, the Mediterranean Islands were fiercely fought over between Etruscans, Greeks and Carthaginians, with the Romans playing in an ever increasing role. Sicily in particular was the major source of conflict, with the Greeks holding the eastern end around the great Greek city of Syracuse, while the Carthaginians held the western end. But as Rome expanded, Sicily became a major battlefield, and in the first Punic War from 264 – 241 BC, Romans and Carthaginians battled it out. ( The term ‘Punic War’ is derived from the Phoenicians, reminding us that Carthage was originally a Phoenician colony). Much of the war was played out at sea, where the Carthaginians at first had the advantage, as they were essentially a seafaring nation. But during the war the Romans built their own fleet, and eventually at the end of the war they defeated the Carthaginians and found themselves in control of Sicily. Sicily became their first ‘province’, and the bread basket for the growing city of Rome itself. Shortly afterwards Corsica and Sardinia were added to the Roman Empire.
Archaeologically, the Carthaginians remain difficult to assess: comparatively little work has been done on native Carthaginian sites. Much of the literary evidence comes from the hostile sources of the Romans. The Romans complain about their habit of child sacrifice, and a number of burial grounds have been discovered, known as tophet which contain huge numbers of child burials – always cremations of children under three. Artistically the Carthaginians have little to show, their best work being derived from the Greeks or the Egyptians, and their pottery is very workaday — but then, at this time, the Romans had little to show either.
The one extensive settlement that has been explored is Kerkouane, a substantial town on the coast 50 miles north east of Carthage. Here there are extensive remains of houses many of them containing small hip baths which either suggests that they were excessively clean or that they formed part of some ritual. There are indeed a few larger houses which appear to be in a Greek style but surprisingly there is no major central space nor indeed any major buildings or indeed a major public square: is this because they have not been discovered, swept away by the sea perhaps? Or is it that they did not exist? Or was Kerkouane, and the other towns and villages so completely under Carthaginian dominance that there was no effort at local rule or local control?
After the loss of Sicily, the only place where Carthage could expand was in Spain, and it is here that the next stage in Carthaginian history takes place. From 237 to 229, Carthage’s greatest general Hamilcar Barca campaigned in Spain to expand the Carthaginian territory. However in 232 he was killed and his place was taken by his slightly less bellicose son-in-law, Hasdrubal. But in 221 Hasdrubal was assassinated and was succeeded as commander by Hamilcar’s son – Hannibal: the Carthaginian advance was now in the hands of one of the world’s greatest strategists.
Hannibal was born to greatness. When we was nine, so the story goes, he accompanied his father to Spain, and his father (Livy 21,1) made him swear that he would be an enemy to the Roman people. And when, at the age of 25, he succeeded as Commander in chief, he at once showed his genius by securing Spain. He made a sweep through central Spain, and partly by diplomacy, but partly by force, he brought the heartlands of Spain within the Carthaginian sphere.
But Rome was the enemy, so he decided to strike the enemy in their homeland, and he set out for Rome, famously taking his elephants with him, passing through southern France and then heroically over the Alps. The Romans were not great soldiers: whenever they fought Hannibal in open battle, Hannibal usually won.
Having arrived in northern Italy, he made friends with the Gauls in the north and soon won an important battle at Trebia in 218 BC. The Romans sent out a large army to oppose him but it was then that they realise that they were fighting a formidable opponent. At Lake Trasimene in 217 BC he trapped them in a narrow ravine and slaughtered two legions. But Rome did not give in, and a year later at the Battle of Cannae, this time in the southern Italy, Hannibal once again annihilated the Roman army and it was only by the skin of their teeth and the support of their allies that Rome managed to survive. In their despair, Rome appointed a dictator, Fabius Maximus known as Fabius Cunctator, or Fabius the Delayer, who realised that the Romans would never defeat Hannibal in open battle so he always evaded direct fight and shadowed Hannibal. This meant refraining from attacking when Hannibal laid waste the fields of the allies, but nevertheless the Roman army, and indeed Rome itself, survived.
Eventually Rome acquired a general of genius, Scipio the younger. Scipio decided to attack Hannibal in his rear, so he went to Spain and turned the tables on Hannibal and soon turned a Carthaginian empire into a Roman one. Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal decided to abandon Spain and set out with a relief force to Italy but was himself defeated and killed at the Battle of Metaurus: according to the story, his head was cut off and taken to Hannibal’s camp, hundreds of miles to the south and tossed in by the Romans as proof that his brother and the vital reinforcements had failed. As a result, Hannibal lost his air of invincibility, and many of the Italian towns that had been wavering, returned in their allegiance to Rome. Finally, Scipio invaded north Africa, and in 203, Hannibal was recalled and in 201, at the battle of Zama, he — and Carthage — were finally defeated. Hannibal fled to the east and eventually died – committing suicide to escape the Romans, probably in 183 BC aged 63.
The end of Carthage shows Rome both at its best, and at its worst. Most modern Romanists like to assume that the Romans were always bloodthirsty and constantly looking for war. To them I would say, consider the period of 50 years between the second and third Punic war: there was a war party led by the old monster Cato who ended every speech in the Senate with the words Carthago delenda est —Carthage must be destroyed. Equally there was fairly consistently a peace party, led for much of the time by Corculum, one of the junior members of the Scipio family; and for 50 years the two parties were evenly balanced.
Following the battle of Zama, Rome imposed peace conditions that left Carthage viable, stripping it of its overseas empire, forbidding it to have a significant army or navy, and imposing a huge indemnity. At first the Carthaginians had difficulty in paying, due to mis-rule by the ruling oligarchs. But then Hannibal was elected chief magistrate and reformed the constitution so effectively that the Carthaginians were able to pay the indemnity promptly. But Carthage was in an awkward position, for the tribes of the interior, the Numidians, led by a warrior of genius, Masinissa, were constantly trying to increase their territories at the expense of the Carthaginians. And the Romans, having forbidden the Carthaginians to make war, always took the side of the Numidians.
Eventually the war party at Rome came out on top, and when the Numidians were particularly aggressive, they took the opportunity to argue that Carthage had broken the 50-year old treaty, declared war and after a three-year siege Carthage, was finally destroyed and the inhabitants sold into slavery. Nevertheless the Roman historians were clearly somewhat unhappy about the reasons for the war, and the unease felt about Rome’s treatment of Carthage suggests that some Romans at least felt that Rome had been unduly bellicose. | 3,235 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leonardo da Vinci was an inventor that was probably ahead of his time, and as such, it wasn’t surprising that not all of his ideas and designs were made into reality. One of those designs was a bridge that was rejected by his clients. This was due to the design of the bridge that raised some concerns, but now thanks to the work of researchers at MIT, they have since proven that da Vinci’s bridge would have worked.
While the bridge was not built in his time, due to the idea being rejected, the researchers attempted to bring his idea to life through his notes and sketches. This included relying on terms like “masonry” in which it tipped the researchers to a possible design strategy that da Vinci could have employed. They also inferred what kind of materials he would have used to sustain a bridge of that size.
It also seems that da Vinci had the idea of using wing walls, a common design element of modern bridges, that would have helped the bridge protect itself during strong winds. Clearly building the bridge in real-life would be impossible, so the researchers turned to 3D printing to create a 1 to 500 scale.
According to one of the researchers, Karly Bast, “When we put it in, we had to squeeze it in. That was the critical moment when we first put the bridge together. I had a lot of doubts. When I put the keystone in, I thought, ‘this is going to work.’ And after that, we took the scaffolding out, and it stood up.” | <urn:uuid:e39f44bf-d3ee-4d69-ac39-c23ef7d40010> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ubergizmo.com/2019/10/leonardo-da-vinci-bridge-design-proven-science/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.995616 | 327 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.25478854775... | 9 | Leonardo da Vinci was an inventor that was probably ahead of his time, and as such, it wasn’t surprising that not all of his ideas and designs were made into reality. One of those designs was a bridge that was rejected by his clients. This was due to the design of the bridge that raised some concerns, but now thanks to the work of researchers at MIT, they have since proven that da Vinci’s bridge would have worked.
While the bridge was not built in his time, due to the idea being rejected, the researchers attempted to bring his idea to life through his notes and sketches. This included relying on terms like “masonry” in which it tipped the researchers to a possible design strategy that da Vinci could have employed. They also inferred what kind of materials he would have used to sustain a bridge of that size.
It also seems that da Vinci had the idea of using wing walls, a common design element of modern bridges, that would have helped the bridge protect itself during strong winds. Clearly building the bridge in real-life would be impossible, so the researchers turned to 3D printing to create a 1 to 500 scale.
According to one of the researchers, Karly Bast, “When we put it in, we had to squeeze it in. That was the critical moment when we first put the bridge together. I had a lot of doubts. When I put the keystone in, I thought, ‘this is going to work.’ And after that, we took the scaffolding out, and it stood up.” | 312 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ville-Marie, the tiny settlement from which would grow the city of Montreal, had its origins in the desire to communicate the Christian faith to the Native Peoples of New France. The Jesuits began their missionary work in what is now Canada in 1611; their written reports on that work soon began to circulate in France and to awaken a response especially among some of their former students. Among these was Jérôme Le Royer de la Dauversière, a layman, husband and father, who had already founded a community of nursing nuns in his native La Flèche and Jean-Jacques Olier de Verneuil, a young secularpriest. They gathered with them a group that included lay people and clerics, men and women, single and married, nobles, middle-class and working people to form the Société de Notre-Dame de Montréal. They believed that, as their ancestors had received the Christian faith through missionaries who had come to northern Europe in the early Christian centuries, so it was now their responsibility to share that faith with the Native Peoples of America. To realize this, they planned and financed the establishment of a settlement that would itself be a model of a Christian community. The site chosen for this settlement was the island of Montreal at the junction of the Ottawa and Saint Lawrence rivers. Colonists were recruited and two leaders were appointed to make the foundation, Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve, a young soldier, and Jeanne Mance, who became bursar of the expedition and was entrusted with the task of founding a hospital. Despite many difficulties, that foundation was made in mid-May 1642 by a group of about forty persons.
Introduction - Unique Foundation in the New World
Unique Foundation in the New World
A Touch of Grace
In her later years, Marguerite Bourgeoys always associated an event that permanently changed her life with the foundation of Montreal. Born in 1620 in Troyes, the ancient capital of the province of Champagne in France, Marguerite was the daughter of a master candle maker who operated his own shop and held a position in the Troyes mint; her mother’s family was engaged in the textile trade. As was often the case for women in the class to which she was born, she learned not only the manual skills of the family trades but also the business skills of reading, writing, accounting and economic planning. Marguerite was gifted with both intelligence and a joyful and attractive disposition. In 1640 she experienced what she called a “touch” of grace that inspired her with the desire to give herself to God. When her attempts to enter a contemplative religious communitywere unsuccessful, she joined and eventually became leader of a group of young lay women who made it possible for the cloistered Congrégation de Notre-Dame of Troyes to reach out to the poor of that city. Marguerite began her work of education among the poor and dispossessed, trained by a group of women using the most advanced techniques of the time for the education of the ordinary people. Pierre Fourier who, with Alix Le Clerc, had founded the Congrégation de Notre-Dame, was a great innovator. His experience among the poor in his first parish had led him to the conclusion that almsgiving was not enough, that education was the means to allow the poor to improve their condition and to live with honour and self-respect. He gave himself to the invention of a pedagogy that would make that possible. The Congregation sister who directed the group in which Marguerite worked during these years was Louise de Chomedey, sister of Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve. Through her, Marguerite received the invitation to go and open a school in Montreal in 1653.
A Missionary Church
The 17th century saw the development of what is known as the French School of Spirituality, part of the movement of renewal associated with the Catholic Reformation. This spirituality has at its heart, the person of Jesus Christ whose life and missioncontinues in Christians through the presence of the Holy Spirit. The great feast of this spirituality is Pentecost, the day in which the Church came into being through the action of the Spirit of the Risen Christ. The sense of the missionary dimension of the Christian calling is apparent in the stated motivation of the Société de Notre-Dame de Montréal and in the writings of Marguerite Bourgeoys. The French Church of this period saw education as playing a huge role in this missionary activity from the education and formation of priests to the education by both word and example of the least members of society. The desire to work among the more disadvantaged in society led to a great desire among religious women to establish communities that would not be cloistered but would live close to and share the life of those they hoped to serve. Among the most important figures of the French School was Jean-Jacques Olier, founding member of the Société de Notre-Dame de Montréal and also of an association of priests known now as the Priests of Saint Sulpice. This group eventually assumed responsibility for Montreal and their support for the work of Marguerite Bourgeoys would become an important factor in its growth and survival. | <urn:uuid:ee4dd14a-be2c-42c4-ab11-ad3821054ac1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://archivesvirtuelles-cnd.org/en/history/introduction | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.982063 | 1,090 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.17731420... | 10 | Ville-Marie, the tiny settlement from which would grow the city of Montreal, had its origins in the desire to communicate the Christian faith to the Native Peoples of New France. The Jesuits began their missionary work in what is now Canada in 1611; their written reports on that work soon began to circulate in France and to awaken a response especially among some of their former students. Among these was Jérôme Le Royer de la Dauversière, a layman, husband and father, who had already founded a community of nursing nuns in his native La Flèche and Jean-Jacques Olier de Verneuil, a young secularpriest. They gathered with them a group that included lay people and clerics, men and women, single and married, nobles, middle-class and working people to form the Société de Notre-Dame de Montréal. They believed that, as their ancestors had received the Christian faith through missionaries who had come to northern Europe in the early Christian centuries, so it was now their responsibility to share that faith with the Native Peoples of America. To realize this, they planned and financed the establishment of a settlement that would itself be a model of a Christian community. The site chosen for this settlement was the island of Montreal at the junction of the Ottawa and Saint Lawrence rivers. Colonists were recruited and two leaders were appointed to make the foundation, Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve, a young soldier, and Jeanne Mance, who became bursar of the expedition and was entrusted with the task of founding a hospital. Despite many difficulties, that foundation was made in mid-May 1642 by a group of about forty persons.
Introduction - Unique Foundation in the New World
Unique Foundation in the New World
A Touch of Grace
In her later years, Marguerite Bourgeoys always associated an event that permanently changed her life with the foundation of Montreal. Born in 1620 in Troyes, the ancient capital of the province of Champagne in France, Marguerite was the daughter of a master candle maker who operated his own shop and held a position in the Troyes mint; her mother’s family was engaged in the textile trade. As was often the case for women in the class to which she was born, she learned not only the manual skills of the family trades but also the business skills of reading, writing, accounting and economic planning. Marguerite was gifted with both intelligence and a joyful and attractive disposition. In 1640 she experienced what she called a “touch” of grace that inspired her with the desire to give herself to God. When her attempts to enter a contemplative religious communitywere unsuccessful, she joined and eventually became leader of a group of young lay women who made it possible for the cloistered Congrégation de Notre-Dame of Troyes to reach out to the poor of that city. Marguerite began her work of education among the poor and dispossessed, trained by a group of women using the most advanced techniques of the time for the education of the ordinary people. Pierre Fourier who, with Alix Le Clerc, had founded the Congrégation de Notre-Dame, was a great innovator. His experience among the poor in his first parish had led him to the conclusion that almsgiving was not enough, that education was the means to allow the poor to improve their condition and to live with honour and self-respect. He gave himself to the invention of a pedagogy that would make that possible. The Congregation sister who directed the group in which Marguerite worked during these years was Louise de Chomedey, sister of Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve. Through her, Marguerite received the invitation to go and open a school in Montreal in 1653.
A Missionary Church
The 17th century saw the development of what is known as the French School of Spirituality, part of the movement of renewal associated with the Catholic Reformation. This spirituality has at its heart, the person of Jesus Christ whose life and missioncontinues in Christians through the presence of the Holy Spirit. The great feast of this spirituality is Pentecost, the day in which the Church came into being through the action of the Spirit of the Risen Christ. The sense of the missionary dimension of the Christian calling is apparent in the stated motivation of the Société de Notre-Dame de Montréal and in the writings of Marguerite Bourgeoys. The French Church of this period saw education as playing a huge role in this missionary activity from the education and formation of priests to the education by both word and example of the least members of society. The desire to work among the more disadvantaged in society led to a great desire among religious women to establish communities that would not be cloistered but would live close to and share the life of those they hoped to serve. Among the most important figures of the French School was Jean-Jacques Olier, founding member of the Société de Notre-Dame de Montréal and also of an association of priests known now as the Priests of Saint Sulpice. This group eventually assumed responsibility for Montreal and their support for the work of Marguerite Bourgeoys would become an important factor in its growth and survival. | 1,088 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History and museums
Barrett Point is located at the foot of Mount Hayes at the entrance to Prince Rupert Harbour at 54°14′28″N 130°20′02″W. It was a coastal fortification during World War II.
The city of Prince Rupert was the nearest railhead to the Alaska and was strategically important to the defence of Alaska and West Coast of Canada. Barrett point battery was the key component of the defences of Prince Rupert in World War II. In 1938 Major Treatt of the Canada War Department, inspected the West Coast of Canada and determined suitable locations for Coastal defences. Barrett Point became the focal point of the defences that included gun batteries at Fredrick Point, Casey Point, Fairview Point and Dundas Point. The fort had 3 gun positions which were first equipped with Mk 12 6” anti-aircraft guns on Mk 7 mounts, later replaced by 3x 6” Mk 24 guns two on Mk5 mounts and one on a Mk5 mount. In addition a 6 pounder Hotchkiss quick firing gun was mounted, as well as 2x 40mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns. The guns of this fort and the others were controlled by a director station behind and above the centre gun position. Ammunition was stored in an underground magazine accessed by an electrical hoist for each gun. Behind the main battery protected by the hill was hardened generator room and other support buildings. Two searchlight towers front the fort along the shoreline. Bearings from these lights would be fed to the director for fire control. An observation post was established above the fort on top of Mt Hayes.
The guns were manned by the Northern British Columbia heavy battery, Royal Canadian Artillery, later designated the 102nd Coast Battery of the 17th North British Columbia Coast Regiment. It’s unclear as to when the battery ceased operations, as war progressed and the threat of attacked diminished, the soldiers manning the defences were drawn down to serve elsewhere. It would appear the guns were removed some time between Sept 1945 and the end of 1946. The last coastal defences along the West Coast of Canada at Fort Rodd Hill were disbanded in 1958.
Much of the Battery fortifications are overgrown but can be seen on foot. Caution is advised as there are unmarked openings and entering the bunker should only be done with the proper equipment. | <urn:uuid:1ff4244a-d1bf-4c33-b566-1bc4b9b1f541> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cruisebe.com/barrett-point-prince-rupert-bc-canada | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00282.warc.gz | en | 0.982008 | 476 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.36574921011924... | 2 | History and museums
Barrett Point is located at the foot of Mount Hayes at the entrance to Prince Rupert Harbour at 54°14′28″N 130°20′02″W. It was a coastal fortification during World War II.
The city of Prince Rupert was the nearest railhead to the Alaska and was strategically important to the defence of Alaska and West Coast of Canada. Barrett point battery was the key component of the defences of Prince Rupert in World War II. In 1938 Major Treatt of the Canada War Department, inspected the West Coast of Canada and determined suitable locations for Coastal defences. Barrett Point became the focal point of the defences that included gun batteries at Fredrick Point, Casey Point, Fairview Point and Dundas Point. The fort had 3 gun positions which were first equipped with Mk 12 6” anti-aircraft guns on Mk 7 mounts, later replaced by 3x 6” Mk 24 guns two on Mk5 mounts and one on a Mk5 mount. In addition a 6 pounder Hotchkiss quick firing gun was mounted, as well as 2x 40mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns. The guns of this fort and the others were controlled by a director station behind and above the centre gun position. Ammunition was stored in an underground magazine accessed by an electrical hoist for each gun. Behind the main battery protected by the hill was hardened generator room and other support buildings. Two searchlight towers front the fort along the shoreline. Bearings from these lights would be fed to the director for fire control. An observation post was established above the fort on top of Mt Hayes.
The guns were manned by the Northern British Columbia heavy battery, Royal Canadian Artillery, later designated the 102nd Coast Battery of the 17th North British Columbia Coast Regiment. It’s unclear as to when the battery ceased operations, as war progressed and the threat of attacked diminished, the soldiers manning the defences were drawn down to serve elsewhere. It would appear the guns were removed some time between Sept 1945 and the end of 1946. The last coastal defences along the West Coast of Canada at Fort Rodd Hill were disbanded in 1958.
Much of the Battery fortifications are overgrown but can be seen on foot. Caution is advised as there are unmarked openings and entering the bunker should only be done with the proper equipment. | 516 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Naïve (pronounce: "na-EEV") is a French word which is used in English to mean that someone is very simple and does not understand about the dangers around them. Someone who is naïve does not have enough experience of life to know about things he or she ought to know. Very often they may be very trusting, not realizing that some people in the world are evil.
The word is sometimes spelt in English without the French double dot on the letter i: "naive". It is an adjective. The noun is naïveté, but is sometimes spelt naïvety in English. It is similar in meaning to the word "innocent", but it is not always bad to be naive, though it may seem.
- Naïve art is art which is created by people who have not been trained as artists.
- Naïve realism is the way that most people see and understand the world.
- In ecology it can mean animals that have not learned to be afraid of other animals that might attack and eat them. | <urn:uuid:61083883-2419-4454-877e-79a02ac37635> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.982946 | 214 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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... | 4 | Naïve (pronounce: "na-EEV") is a French word which is used in English to mean that someone is very simple and does not understand about the dangers around them. Someone who is naïve does not have enough experience of life to know about things he or she ought to know. Very often they may be very trusting, not realizing that some people in the world are evil.
The word is sometimes spelt in English without the French double dot on the letter i: "naive". It is an adjective. The noun is naïveté, but is sometimes spelt naïvety in English. It is similar in meaning to the word "innocent", but it is not always bad to be naive, though it may seem.
- Naïve art is art which is created by people who have not been trained as artists.
- Naïve realism is the way that most people see and understand the world.
- In ecology it can mean animals that have not learned to be afraid of other animals that might attack and eat them. | 215 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to Whitefield, the only type of faith that pleased God was heartfelt. Wealthy whites worried over the presence of this large class of laborers and the relative freedom they enjoyed, as well as the alliance that black and white servants had forged in the course of the rebellion.
The Great Awakening provided a language of individualism, reinforced in print culture, which reappeared in the call for independence.
British towns located on the border between New England and New France experienced intermittent raiding by French-allied Native Americans.
Shopping was more difficult, most of the farms and plantations were therefore self-sufficient.
Concurrently, restrictions were placed on finished goods. Reference Material I.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, different 'classes' of people were referred to as lower sort, middle sort, and the upper sort, also known as the gentry. Because they were responsible for managing household affairs, gentry women needed to read, write, and have mathematical skills. During busy times, they might work 16 hours a day for six days a week.
Gentry women were not expected to care for animals and make basic items for the house, but they were, essentially, business managers. While life was not all leisure, gentry men frequently played musical instruments, studied classic languages and literature, and devoted themselves to the natural sciences. | <urn:uuid:6cd3642d-b2b8-4f5f-8c35-2a9635c3e8e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vytovytypacady.whatshanesaid.com/colonial-middle-class-american-life559097994ob.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00355.warc.gz | en | 0.983687 | 273 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.4829776883... | 1 | According to Whitefield, the only type of faith that pleased God was heartfelt. Wealthy whites worried over the presence of this large class of laborers and the relative freedom they enjoyed, as well as the alliance that black and white servants had forged in the course of the rebellion.
The Great Awakening provided a language of individualism, reinforced in print culture, which reappeared in the call for independence.
British towns located on the border between New England and New France experienced intermittent raiding by French-allied Native Americans.
Shopping was more difficult, most of the farms and plantations were therefore self-sufficient.
Concurrently, restrictions were placed on finished goods. Reference Material I.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, different 'classes' of people were referred to as lower sort, middle sort, and the upper sort, also known as the gentry. Because they were responsible for managing household affairs, gentry women needed to read, write, and have mathematical skills. During busy times, they might work 16 hours a day for six days a week.
Gentry women were not expected to care for animals and make basic items for the house, but they were, essentially, business managers. While life was not all leisure, gentry men frequently played musical instruments, studied classic languages and literature, and devoted themselves to the natural sciences. | 274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|The BLACK HILLS GOLD RUSH took place in Dakota
Territory in the United States. It began in 1874 following the Custer Expedition
and reached a peak in 1876-1877. Rumors and poorly documented reports of
gold in the Black Hills go back to the early 19th century.
In the 1860s, Roman Catholic missionary Father De Smet is reported to have seen Sioux Indians carrying gold which they told him came from the Black Hills. Prior to the Gold Rush, the Black Hills were used by Native Americans (primarily bands of Sioux, but others also, ranged through the area). The United States government recognized the Black Hills as belonging to the Sioux by the Treaty of Laramie in 1868. Despite being within Indian territory, and therefore off-limits, white Americans were increasingly interested in the gold-mining possibilities of the Black Hills. Prospectors found gold in 1874 near present-day Custer, South Dakota, but the deposit turned out to be small.
The large placer gold deposits of Deadwood Gulch were discovered in November 1875, and, in 1876, thousands of gold-seekers flocked to the new town of Deadwood, although it was still within Indian land. The first arrivals were a force of one thousand men led by George Armstrong Custer to investigate reports that the area contained gold, even though the land was owned by the Sioux. They found small amounts of gold in present-day Custer, South Dakota, and looked for better paying locations. They moved north, establishing the towns of Hill City, Sheridan, and Pactola. At each spot, they found flakes of gold, but not the bonanza they sought.
Things changed when the miners stumbled across Deadwood and Whitewood Creeks in the northern Black Hills. For the initial discoverers, each spade of earth revealed a veritable fortune in Gold. By 1876, miners had claimed all the land around the creeks. Although all the land was claimed, thousands more flocked in, hoping to find a missed spot. The gold the miners found was placer gold, loose gold pieces that were mixed in with the rocks and dirt around streams. Most good prospectors knew that this placer gold was eroded from hard rock deposits. So, while many still flocked to Deadwood, others looked for the hard rocks deposits that were the source of the placer gold.
On April 9, 1876, Fred and Moses Manuel, Hank Harney, and Alex Engh discovered a gold outcropping near Lead, South Dakota; they claimed their find and named it the Homestake. They had located the area from which the placer gold in Deadwood Creek had eroded. It was here that men would produce ten percent of the world’s gold supply over the next one hundred and twenty-five years. Many more prospectors hoped to find another “Homestake” so they continued to look, but the Homestake mine was unique. The workers crushed the rock to release the gold, concentrated the gold by gravity methods, and then exposed the concentrate to mercury which would amalgamate or mix with the gold. Miners call this kind of gold ore free milling.
Gold existed elsewhere in the Black Hills, but it was not in the free milling state. Instead the gold was chemically bound to the rock and very difficult to remove. It was called refractory gold ore. New processes had to come along to treat this type of ore. So for a number of years, the Homestake operated as the only major gold mine in the Black Hills.New processes did come along, however. By 1890, chlorination and smelting were seen as two methods that could remove gold from the refractory ore, and some new hard-rock mining regions opened around Lead and Deadwood. Then by 1900, the cyanide process was refined. Cyanide dissolves gold out of crushed ore, and this procedure became universally adopted in the Black Hills. Mines at Galena, Carbonate, Bald Mountain, and Ruby Basin all came to life.
During the gold rush, “Treasure Coaches” transporting large quantities of the precious metal worth up to $300,000 on each haul to Cheyenne, Wyoming, became a favorite target for road agents. The last recorded hold-up occurred around 3:00 p.m. on September 26, 1878, at the Canyon Springs station, about 35 miles south of Deadwood. The robbers bound and gagged the stableman and lined the stable wall with their guns through cracks between the logs. As the coach approached the station, the desperadoes opened fire. One guard was killed and two guards were wounded. The chief guard took cover behind a large pine tree, exchanged a few shots with the bandits, and got them to agree to let him go if he would leave the coach with them. After he left, the outlaws tied the driver to one of the coach’s wheels, opened the safe with a sledge hammer and chisels, divided the loot, and rode off in different directions. Aroused citizens in the area organized manhunts, and the stage company offered a $2,500 reward. Several suspects were lynched, others were convicted at trial on various counts, and more than half of the gold was eventually recovered.
(This information came from Wikipedia and the Black Hills Visitor.)
Copyright 2020 Gold Rush Days | <urn:uuid:4792e659-9f38-42b0-acf7-201da8be0191> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://sidneygoldrushdays.org/history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.980324 | 1,120 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.421982496976... | 2 | |The BLACK HILLS GOLD RUSH took place in Dakota
Territory in the United States. It began in 1874 following the Custer Expedition
and reached a peak in 1876-1877. Rumors and poorly documented reports of
gold in the Black Hills go back to the early 19th century.
In the 1860s, Roman Catholic missionary Father De Smet is reported to have seen Sioux Indians carrying gold which they told him came from the Black Hills. Prior to the Gold Rush, the Black Hills were used by Native Americans (primarily bands of Sioux, but others also, ranged through the area). The United States government recognized the Black Hills as belonging to the Sioux by the Treaty of Laramie in 1868. Despite being within Indian territory, and therefore off-limits, white Americans were increasingly interested in the gold-mining possibilities of the Black Hills. Prospectors found gold in 1874 near present-day Custer, South Dakota, but the deposit turned out to be small.
The large placer gold deposits of Deadwood Gulch were discovered in November 1875, and, in 1876, thousands of gold-seekers flocked to the new town of Deadwood, although it was still within Indian land. The first arrivals were a force of one thousand men led by George Armstrong Custer to investigate reports that the area contained gold, even though the land was owned by the Sioux. They found small amounts of gold in present-day Custer, South Dakota, and looked for better paying locations. They moved north, establishing the towns of Hill City, Sheridan, and Pactola. At each spot, they found flakes of gold, but not the bonanza they sought.
Things changed when the miners stumbled across Deadwood and Whitewood Creeks in the northern Black Hills. For the initial discoverers, each spade of earth revealed a veritable fortune in Gold. By 1876, miners had claimed all the land around the creeks. Although all the land was claimed, thousands more flocked in, hoping to find a missed spot. The gold the miners found was placer gold, loose gold pieces that were mixed in with the rocks and dirt around streams. Most good prospectors knew that this placer gold was eroded from hard rock deposits. So, while many still flocked to Deadwood, others looked for the hard rocks deposits that were the source of the placer gold.
On April 9, 1876, Fred and Moses Manuel, Hank Harney, and Alex Engh discovered a gold outcropping near Lead, South Dakota; they claimed their find and named it the Homestake. They had located the area from which the placer gold in Deadwood Creek had eroded. It was here that men would produce ten percent of the world’s gold supply over the next one hundred and twenty-five years. Many more prospectors hoped to find another “Homestake” so they continued to look, but the Homestake mine was unique. The workers crushed the rock to release the gold, concentrated the gold by gravity methods, and then exposed the concentrate to mercury which would amalgamate or mix with the gold. Miners call this kind of gold ore free milling.
Gold existed elsewhere in the Black Hills, but it was not in the free milling state. Instead the gold was chemically bound to the rock and very difficult to remove. It was called refractory gold ore. New processes had to come along to treat this type of ore. So for a number of years, the Homestake operated as the only major gold mine in the Black Hills.New processes did come along, however. By 1890, chlorination and smelting were seen as two methods that could remove gold from the refractory ore, and some new hard-rock mining regions opened around Lead and Deadwood. Then by 1900, the cyanide process was refined. Cyanide dissolves gold out of crushed ore, and this procedure became universally adopted in the Black Hills. Mines at Galena, Carbonate, Bald Mountain, and Ruby Basin all came to life.
During the gold rush, “Treasure Coaches” transporting large quantities of the precious metal worth up to $300,000 on each haul to Cheyenne, Wyoming, became a favorite target for road agents. The last recorded hold-up occurred around 3:00 p.m. on September 26, 1878, at the Canyon Springs station, about 35 miles south of Deadwood. The robbers bound and gagged the stableman and lined the stable wall with their guns through cracks between the logs. As the coach approached the station, the desperadoes opened fire. One guard was killed and two guards were wounded. The chief guard took cover behind a large pine tree, exchanged a few shots with the bandits, and got them to agree to let him go if he would leave the coach with them. After he left, the outlaws tied the driver to one of the coach’s wheels, opened the safe with a sledge hammer and chisels, divided the loot, and rode off in different directions. Aroused citizens in the area organized manhunts, and the stage company offered a $2,500 reward. Several suspects were lynched, others were convicted at trial on various counts, and more than half of the gold was eventually recovered.
(This information came from Wikipedia and the Black Hills Visitor.)
Copyright 2020 Gold Rush Days | 1,147 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alfred Lord Tennyson, an English poet often regarded as the chief representative of the Victorian age in poetry, wrote “Charge of the light Brigade,” a poem to commemorate a battle bravely fought by the British troops in the Crimean War. In this poem, Tennyson expresses the deep emotions he felt after reading a newspaper in which there was an account of the Battle of Balaclava, a battle that the British lost. This poem presents a theme of courage and honor, as we can see from the author’s use of detail, diction, and imagery.
Alfred was the fourth of 12 children, born into an old Lincolnshire family. His father was a rector who sent him and two of his older brothers to the Leuth grammar school in 1815, when Alfred was only 6 years
…show more content…
Before Arthur and Emily could get married, however, Arthur died suddenly on a visit to Vienna. This shocked Tennyson severely and added to the problems and unhappiness already present at his home; he had three brothers suffering from mental illness and his works were receiving a bad reception. Yet it was in this period that he wrote some of his most characteristic work, which eventually led to his work In Memoriam, a collection of poems celebrating Hallam’s death, along with other subjects raised by his death such as Christianity, belief and doubt, friendship, God, hope, marriage, etc. (In Memoriam, 2). 1850 marked a turning point in Tennyson’s life. He got engaged to Emily Sellwood and his work, In Memoriam, got published and had great success with both reviewers and the public. It also won him Queen Victoria’s friendship and his appointment as poet laureate (Encyclopedia Britannica Online School Edition, 2-3).
Tennyson finally settled down and led a more peaceful and happy life. “After his marriage, which was happy, Tennyson's life became more secure and outwardly uneventful. There were two sons: Hallam and Lionel. The times of wandering and unsettlement ended in 1853, when the Tennysons took a house, Farringford, in the Isle of Wight. Tennyson was to spend most of the rest of his life there and at Aldworth” (Encyclopedia Britannica | <urn:uuid:14644b4d-de93-4353-a108-7ede9e67154d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/the-charge-of-the-light-brigade/F3BRG4NSJ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.99037 | 476 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.12171395868... | 1 | Alfred Lord Tennyson, an English poet often regarded as the chief representative of the Victorian age in poetry, wrote “Charge of the light Brigade,” a poem to commemorate a battle bravely fought by the British troops in the Crimean War. In this poem, Tennyson expresses the deep emotions he felt after reading a newspaper in which there was an account of the Battle of Balaclava, a battle that the British lost. This poem presents a theme of courage and honor, as we can see from the author’s use of detail, diction, and imagery.
Alfred was the fourth of 12 children, born into an old Lincolnshire family. His father was a rector who sent him and two of his older brothers to the Leuth grammar school in 1815, when Alfred was only 6 years
…show more content…
Before Arthur and Emily could get married, however, Arthur died suddenly on a visit to Vienna. This shocked Tennyson severely and added to the problems and unhappiness already present at his home; he had three brothers suffering from mental illness and his works were receiving a bad reception. Yet it was in this period that he wrote some of his most characteristic work, which eventually led to his work In Memoriam, a collection of poems celebrating Hallam’s death, along with other subjects raised by his death such as Christianity, belief and doubt, friendship, God, hope, marriage, etc. (In Memoriam, 2). 1850 marked a turning point in Tennyson’s life. He got engaged to Emily Sellwood and his work, In Memoriam, got published and had great success with both reviewers and the public. It also won him Queen Victoria’s friendship and his appointment as poet laureate (Encyclopedia Britannica Online School Edition, 2-3).
Tennyson finally settled down and led a more peaceful and happy life. “After his marriage, which was happy, Tennyson's life became more secure and outwardly uneventful. There were two sons: Hallam and Lionel. The times of wandering and unsettlement ended in 1853, when the Tennysons took a house, Farringford, in the Isle of Wight. Tennyson was to spend most of the rest of his life there and at Aldworth” (Encyclopedia Britannica | 484 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Around 2500 BC, the territory of the modern state of Guatemala was inhabited by tribes who spoke a language called by researchers protomaya. Over the years these people were spread to different regions and thus formed a striking Maya civilization.
In her zenith in 250-900, the Mayan empire encompassed vast territories. They extended to the southwestern parts of Mexico and southern United States, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and parts of Honduras.
For centuries the Mayans learned how to drain wetlands, how to build irrigation and drainage systems. They were subsisting in agriculture, hunting and fishing.
Cities of the Mayas possessed an unique outlook, temples were built in the form of stepped pyramids, decorated with statues and reliefs.
The Mayan territory was divided into city-states that often fought among themselves. At the head of each tribe stood a hereditary chief. The priests and rulers, with their servants, lived in cities and ordinary people lived in huts in small villages.
The Mayans created the only American hieroglyphic letter, containing more than 800 characters. They had impressive achievements in astronomy and mathematics.
In 230, a volcano destroyed large areas. This was the end of the pre- classical period in the history of the Mayan nation.
Between 300 and 800, the Mayans and their civilization reached their zenith. On the Yucatan Peninsula were built many new cities.
The Mayans were the first people in America who began to build cities of stone. To connect the cities they built roads, passing through jungles and swamps. They did not use metal tools, pack animals or carts. In their cities stood towering palaces and temples.
For them, life on earth and life after death were comparable. They thought it was the most natural thing to offer sacrifices to appease the gods. Numerous wars have been waged and this led to a drastic population decline. Agriculture declined, and by 950 most cities had turned into rubble. In 1200 came a short period of prosperity, but were destroyed by their Spanish conquerors after three centuries.
In 1511, when the Spaniards first reached these lands, the ceremonial centers of the empire has long been abandoned and the territory was conquered by the invaders. They destroyed the advanced culture that they found there.
The most vandalistic act was committed Bishop Diego de Landa. He burned all the manuscripts and works of art, which he discovered.See more | <urn:uuid:60fe9fe3-d2c8-43d2-b05e-329ccf7625bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteries24.com/n3-26556-Who_were_the_Mayans | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.980345 | 497 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.121854759752... | 4 | Around 2500 BC, the territory of the modern state of Guatemala was inhabited by tribes who spoke a language called by researchers protomaya. Over the years these people were spread to different regions and thus formed a striking Maya civilization.
In her zenith in 250-900, the Mayan empire encompassed vast territories. They extended to the southwestern parts of Mexico and southern United States, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and parts of Honduras.
For centuries the Mayans learned how to drain wetlands, how to build irrigation and drainage systems. They were subsisting in agriculture, hunting and fishing.
Cities of the Mayas possessed an unique outlook, temples were built in the form of stepped pyramids, decorated with statues and reliefs.
The Mayan territory was divided into city-states that often fought among themselves. At the head of each tribe stood a hereditary chief. The priests and rulers, with their servants, lived in cities and ordinary people lived in huts in small villages.
The Mayans created the only American hieroglyphic letter, containing more than 800 characters. They had impressive achievements in astronomy and mathematics.
In 230, a volcano destroyed large areas. This was the end of the pre- classical period in the history of the Mayan nation.
Between 300 and 800, the Mayans and their civilization reached their zenith. On the Yucatan Peninsula were built many new cities.
The Mayans were the first people in America who began to build cities of stone. To connect the cities they built roads, passing through jungles and swamps. They did not use metal tools, pack animals or carts. In their cities stood towering palaces and temples.
For them, life on earth and life after death were comparable. They thought it was the most natural thing to offer sacrifices to appease the gods. Numerous wars have been waged and this led to a drastic population decline. Agriculture declined, and by 950 most cities had turned into rubble. In 1200 came a short period of prosperity, but were destroyed by their Spanish conquerors after three centuries.
In 1511, when the Spaniards first reached these lands, the ceremonial centers of the empire has long been abandoned and the territory was conquered by the invaders. They destroyed the advanced culture that they found there.
The most vandalistic act was committed Bishop Diego de Landa. He burned all the manuscripts and works of art, which he discovered.See more | 513 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Welcome to Redwood Class!
Your teacher will very soon be filling this page with exciting class news, pictures of things we’ve done and more.
Do you have any ideas for this page? Why not let your Teacher know!
Have you seen the Kids' Zone? Play games and visit some cool websites. You can vote for your favourites.
This term Year 3 have been learning all about Pre-History and were particularly interested in Skara Brae (a Neolithic Settlement in Scotland). We created models of a Skara Brae house and then wrote information plaques about them. Last week, we transformed our classrooms into museums and our Year 5 reading buddies came for a visit. The Year 3s explained what they have learnt effectively and the Year 5s were enthusiastic and attentive listeners.
This morning, we had a fun filled morning with Sutton Schools' Christian Workers. We learnt what Christmas means to Christians and that we can all be a light in the world.
The children applied their knowledge about Skara Brae- a Neolithic settlement- by making models of their houses. I was so impressed with how kindly they shared their resources and helped each other. It was a great afternoon and we even spotted a rainbow out of the window!
Odd socks day 13th November
Yesterday, we celebrated that we are all different by wearing odd socks. It was lovely to hear how all the children are unique when they designed their own odd socks. We also discussed what a difference we can make through kindness, smiling at someone, giving a compliment, friendship, caring for each other, respecting each other and including everyone.
In Science today, we predicted and then investigated which materials were magnetic. The materials that were magnetic were made from
metal. However, not all the metal objects were magnetic.
Today was a fun-filled day! This morning, we dissected poo from the Mesolithic Age, Iron Age and Modern Day to see how our diets have changed over time.
In the afternoon, we had a workshop where we learned all about Pre-History (before the Romans brought writing to us). First, we looked at a time line and were amazed at how long ago the Stone Age began. We then had a go at using various tools to drill holes, make wool and make flour. We also had the opportunity to try on clothing from the Mesolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
This week, we had a great time when Sutton Schools Workers brought the 'iwonder space' to Robin Hood Junior School. It was a lovely chance for the children to to relax and reflect. We talked about the people in our lives that we are thankful for, how important it is to let our light shine and were encouraged to be brave.
This half term our DT project has been all about smoothies. First, we did some market research- trying existing smoothies and discussing what we liked and didn't like about them. We used this research to design and make our own smoothies and packaging: lots of tasty creations were producded! Finally, we evaluated our smoothies by thinking about what we liked about them and what we would improve in the future. Much fun was had by all.
We had a great day yesterday celebrating European Languages Day! It was lovely to see all the children dressed in their flag colours and have some children share facts about European countries they are from or have visited. We tried lots of food and I was particularly impressed with those who tried the Sauerkraut. Then we listened to a French story and the children showed off their prior French learning. After break, we made Turkish jewellery, learnt a Romanian song and made ourselves into the Bulgarian flag. Finally, we flew to Italy and made models of the learning Tower of Pisa and a Colosseum out of newspaper.
On Tuesday, Donna from ASDA came in and let us try lots of fruit and vegetables. The children thought of great words to describe it including succulent and exotic! | <urn:uuid:078ebb9e-7332-4257-b7b0-2999d12341a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.robinhood-junior.org.uk/redwood/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00233.warc.gz | en | 0.981646 | 814 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.410766273736... | 2 | Welcome to Redwood Class!
Your teacher will very soon be filling this page with exciting class news, pictures of things we’ve done and more.
Do you have any ideas for this page? Why not let your Teacher know!
Have you seen the Kids' Zone? Play games and visit some cool websites. You can vote for your favourites.
This term Year 3 have been learning all about Pre-History and were particularly interested in Skara Brae (a Neolithic Settlement in Scotland). We created models of a Skara Brae house and then wrote information plaques about them. Last week, we transformed our classrooms into museums and our Year 5 reading buddies came for a visit. The Year 3s explained what they have learnt effectively and the Year 5s were enthusiastic and attentive listeners.
This morning, we had a fun filled morning with Sutton Schools' Christian Workers. We learnt what Christmas means to Christians and that we can all be a light in the world.
The children applied their knowledge about Skara Brae- a Neolithic settlement- by making models of their houses. I was so impressed with how kindly they shared their resources and helped each other. It was a great afternoon and we even spotted a rainbow out of the window!
Odd socks day 13th November
Yesterday, we celebrated that we are all different by wearing odd socks. It was lovely to hear how all the children are unique when they designed their own odd socks. We also discussed what a difference we can make through kindness, smiling at someone, giving a compliment, friendship, caring for each other, respecting each other and including everyone.
In Science today, we predicted and then investigated which materials were magnetic. The materials that were magnetic were made from
metal. However, not all the metal objects were magnetic.
Today was a fun-filled day! This morning, we dissected poo from the Mesolithic Age, Iron Age and Modern Day to see how our diets have changed over time.
In the afternoon, we had a workshop where we learned all about Pre-History (before the Romans brought writing to us). First, we looked at a time line and were amazed at how long ago the Stone Age began. We then had a go at using various tools to drill holes, make wool and make flour. We also had the opportunity to try on clothing from the Mesolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
This week, we had a great time when Sutton Schools Workers brought the 'iwonder space' to Robin Hood Junior School. It was a lovely chance for the children to to relax and reflect. We talked about the people in our lives that we are thankful for, how important it is to let our light shine and were encouraged to be brave.
This half term our DT project has been all about smoothies. First, we did some market research- trying existing smoothies and discussing what we liked and didn't like about them. We used this research to design and make our own smoothies and packaging: lots of tasty creations were producded! Finally, we evaluated our smoothies by thinking about what we liked about them and what we would improve in the future. Much fun was had by all.
We had a great day yesterday celebrating European Languages Day! It was lovely to see all the children dressed in their flag colours and have some children share facts about European countries they are from or have visited. We tried lots of food and I was particularly impressed with those who tried the Sauerkraut. Then we listened to a French story and the children showed off their prior French learning. After break, we made Turkish jewellery, learnt a Romanian song and made ourselves into the Bulgarian flag. Finally, we flew to Italy and made models of the learning Tower of Pisa and a Colosseum out of newspaper.
On Tuesday, Donna from ASDA came in and let us try lots of fruit and vegetables. The children thought of great words to describe it including succulent and exotic! | 800 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today that potent myth is enshrined (literally) on the sea shore under its classically-inspired canopy.
By Martyn Whittock
The Mayflower and its ‘Pilgrims’ reminds us of an event which has entered into the cultural DNA of the United States. This is so, despite the fact that those who sailed and settled did so as English citizens and subjects of the British crown. As with many such formational national epics, myths jostle with realities as events are remembered and celebrated. Three particularly stand out from this epic story.
The myth of Plymouth Rock and Mary Chilton’s bold leap ashore has reverberated through art and popular accounts of the Mayflower. It was a 17th-century event which might be summed up as: “One small step for a woman; one giant leap for the USA.”
The problem is that this story only emerged in 1741 when a project to build a new wharf at Plymouth, Massachusetts, prompted a ninety-five-year-old local resident – Elder Faunce – to claim that a particular rock (about to be buried in the construction process) had received the first step taken onto the shore. Elder Faunce had been born in about 1646, but he had heard of the rock’s ‘history’ from his father, who had arrived in Plymouth in 1623 (three years after the Mayflower). However, no account which is contemporary with the landing in 1620 substantiates this claim. Neither William Bradford nor Edward Winslow made any reference to the ‘rock’ in their records relating to the momentous arrival.
Despite this, the rest, as they say, is ‘history’. Or rather, ‘mythology’. But today that potent myth is enshrined (literally) on the sea shore under its classically-inspired canopy. The rock itself is now much reduced in size, having been broken by various attempts to move it and by the actions of souvenir hunters. Nevertheless, it is a reminder of the power of such symbols to engage with personal and community imaginations.
Then there is the myth of Thanksgiving. As with Plymouth Rock, the image of this event is vivid. And yet the reality is that nobody in the fall of 1621 would have described what occurred as ‘Thanksgiving’. This was because ‘Thanksgivings’ were solemn observances, with long services, preaching, prayer and praise. They did not officially have one of these until July 1623.
What occurred in 1621 was a ‘Harvest Home’ celebration. We do not even know exactly when it happened; but it probably took place in late October or early November. Native Americans were definitely there. However, whether they were invited in gratitude for their assistance or simply arrived because food was available we cannot know. What is strange is that when William Bradford later compiled the record known as Of Plymouth Plantation he failed to mention the event at all. He just said that the Pilgrims enjoyed “good plenty” after the harvest of 1621. He had clearly forgotten the event!
If it was not for the 115 words preserved in another document, called Mourt’s Relation, we would know nothing about it whatsoever. This account, probably written by Edward Winslow, says that after the harvest was safely brought in, four men were sent off on a day of duck hunting to provision a special celebration. This celebration included marching and the firing off of muskets, viewed by both Pilgrims and Native Americans. This was then followed by a feast that lasted three days. To this feast the Native Americans added a contribution of five deer. No turkey or cranberry sauce was present.
The myth of virgin territory is rather less specific but it tends to color much of how we view the matter of the Pilgrims’ arrival and settlement. In this construct we imagine the arrival of the Mayflower as the first footfall of Europeans on a territory hitherto untouched by such arrivals. Nothing seems to convey the sense of their epic voyage as much as the impression of ‘first contact’ between the emigrants and a landscape and native community that had no previous connection with Europeans. From this perspective, the First Encounter with the Nauset people, on Cape Cod in December 1620, seems to reveal a native community whose first reaction to the newcomers was inexplicably hostile.
The reality was much more complex and reveals both the remarkably connected nature of the northern Atlantic communities by the 1620s and the reasons why the Nauset were so unwelcoming in their reaction to the exploratory party of Pilgrims. French and English fishermen and Basque whalers had been landing on the New England coast for over a generation. This helps explain why the Pilgrims were later assisted by Native Americans (Samoset and Tisquantum) who could speak English. As a result, alien diseases had cleared coastal communities before anyone’s foot was placed on the legendary ‘Plymouth Rock’.
As early as 1616, perhaps as many as ninety per cent of the people living in the vicinity of what would become Plymouth had died in an epidemic. This was why the Pilgrims found cleared fields but no native inhabitants there. And the reason for the hostility shown by the Nauset was because they had lost members to English ‘traders’, who had kidnapped them as slaves. It was a slaving expedition that had taken Tisquantum to England, via Málaga in Spain, and then back to his (now devastated) North American home, with the ability to speak English.
When writing Mayflower Lives (published by Pegasus Books, New York), and exploring the contrasting lives of 14 ‘Saints’ and ‘Strangers’, the interplay between myth and reality was apparent. This is not to disparage the impact of the Mayflower voyage and settlement through a reductionist revisionism. It is simply to reaffirm the central nature of disentangling myth from reality in any historical exploration of this momentous time. That is the very nature of historical enquiry and we should not fear it, even when applying it to an iconic event.
Perhaps more importantly, though, it is a testimony to the remarkable potency of the Mayflower and its legacy, that it has become the stuff of mythology as well as of history. I think that the original Pilgrims would have understood, for they believed that what they had embarked on was not a run-of-the-mill activity. They believed that they walked hand-in-hand with providence and this was the foundation of their mindset and outlook. They always believed that what they were doing was of greater significance than it might outwardly appear.
In the 21st century we may agree or disagree with their perspective on life, but what is undeniable is the fact that what they achieved has inspired the imaginations of huge numbers of people and still challenges us, as we seek to understand it today. It is both history and myth intertwined to a remarkable extent. | <urn:uuid:c82c1e12-24ff-4037-9f08-d8b1f47a2853> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brewminate.com/the-history-and-mythology-of-the-mayflower-arrival-in-1620/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00425.warc.gz | en | 0.98532 | 1,468 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.38811701536... | 2 | Today that potent myth is enshrined (literally) on the sea shore under its classically-inspired canopy.
By Martyn Whittock
The Mayflower and its ‘Pilgrims’ reminds us of an event which has entered into the cultural DNA of the United States. This is so, despite the fact that those who sailed and settled did so as English citizens and subjects of the British crown. As with many such formational national epics, myths jostle with realities as events are remembered and celebrated. Three particularly stand out from this epic story.
The myth of Plymouth Rock and Mary Chilton’s bold leap ashore has reverberated through art and popular accounts of the Mayflower. It was a 17th-century event which might be summed up as: “One small step for a woman; one giant leap for the USA.”
The problem is that this story only emerged in 1741 when a project to build a new wharf at Plymouth, Massachusetts, prompted a ninety-five-year-old local resident – Elder Faunce – to claim that a particular rock (about to be buried in the construction process) had received the first step taken onto the shore. Elder Faunce had been born in about 1646, but he had heard of the rock’s ‘history’ from his father, who had arrived in Plymouth in 1623 (three years after the Mayflower). However, no account which is contemporary with the landing in 1620 substantiates this claim. Neither William Bradford nor Edward Winslow made any reference to the ‘rock’ in their records relating to the momentous arrival.
Despite this, the rest, as they say, is ‘history’. Or rather, ‘mythology’. But today that potent myth is enshrined (literally) on the sea shore under its classically-inspired canopy. The rock itself is now much reduced in size, having been broken by various attempts to move it and by the actions of souvenir hunters. Nevertheless, it is a reminder of the power of such symbols to engage with personal and community imaginations.
Then there is the myth of Thanksgiving. As with Plymouth Rock, the image of this event is vivid. And yet the reality is that nobody in the fall of 1621 would have described what occurred as ‘Thanksgiving’. This was because ‘Thanksgivings’ were solemn observances, with long services, preaching, prayer and praise. They did not officially have one of these until July 1623.
What occurred in 1621 was a ‘Harvest Home’ celebration. We do not even know exactly when it happened; but it probably took place in late October or early November. Native Americans were definitely there. However, whether they were invited in gratitude for their assistance or simply arrived because food was available we cannot know. What is strange is that when William Bradford later compiled the record known as Of Plymouth Plantation he failed to mention the event at all. He just said that the Pilgrims enjoyed “good plenty” after the harvest of 1621. He had clearly forgotten the event!
If it was not for the 115 words preserved in another document, called Mourt’s Relation, we would know nothing about it whatsoever. This account, probably written by Edward Winslow, says that after the harvest was safely brought in, four men were sent off on a day of duck hunting to provision a special celebration. This celebration included marching and the firing off of muskets, viewed by both Pilgrims and Native Americans. This was then followed by a feast that lasted three days. To this feast the Native Americans added a contribution of five deer. No turkey or cranberry sauce was present.
The myth of virgin territory is rather less specific but it tends to color much of how we view the matter of the Pilgrims’ arrival and settlement. In this construct we imagine the arrival of the Mayflower as the first footfall of Europeans on a territory hitherto untouched by such arrivals. Nothing seems to convey the sense of their epic voyage as much as the impression of ‘first contact’ between the emigrants and a landscape and native community that had no previous connection with Europeans. From this perspective, the First Encounter with the Nauset people, on Cape Cod in December 1620, seems to reveal a native community whose first reaction to the newcomers was inexplicably hostile.
The reality was much more complex and reveals both the remarkably connected nature of the northern Atlantic communities by the 1620s and the reasons why the Nauset were so unwelcoming in their reaction to the exploratory party of Pilgrims. French and English fishermen and Basque whalers had been landing on the New England coast for over a generation. This helps explain why the Pilgrims were later assisted by Native Americans (Samoset and Tisquantum) who could speak English. As a result, alien diseases had cleared coastal communities before anyone’s foot was placed on the legendary ‘Plymouth Rock’.
As early as 1616, perhaps as many as ninety per cent of the people living in the vicinity of what would become Plymouth had died in an epidemic. This was why the Pilgrims found cleared fields but no native inhabitants there. And the reason for the hostility shown by the Nauset was because they had lost members to English ‘traders’, who had kidnapped them as slaves. It was a slaving expedition that had taken Tisquantum to England, via Málaga in Spain, and then back to his (now devastated) North American home, with the ability to speak English.
When writing Mayflower Lives (published by Pegasus Books, New York), and exploring the contrasting lives of 14 ‘Saints’ and ‘Strangers’, the interplay between myth and reality was apparent. This is not to disparage the impact of the Mayflower voyage and settlement through a reductionist revisionism. It is simply to reaffirm the central nature of disentangling myth from reality in any historical exploration of this momentous time. That is the very nature of historical enquiry and we should not fear it, even when applying it to an iconic event.
Perhaps more importantly, though, it is a testimony to the remarkable potency of the Mayflower and its legacy, that it has become the stuff of mythology as well as of history. I think that the original Pilgrims would have understood, for they believed that what they had embarked on was not a run-of-the-mill activity. They believed that they walked hand-in-hand with providence and this was the foundation of their mindset and outlook. They always believed that what they were doing was of greater significance than it might outwardly appear.
In the 21st century we may agree or disagree with their perspective on life, but what is undeniable is the fact that what they achieved has inspired the imaginations of huge numbers of people and still challenges us, as we seek to understand it today. It is both history and myth intertwined to a remarkable extent. | 1,445 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Diocese of Hartford, established by Gregory XVI, 18 Sept., 1843. When erected it embraced the States of Connecticut and Rhode Island. As xxyyyk.htm">Providence was the most considerable city, the Bishop of Hartford resided there until 1872, when a new see was erected (see D IOCESE OF P ROVIDENCE ). As now constituted, the Diocese of Hartford is coextensive with the State of Connecticut . It has an area of about five thousand square miles and a Catholic population of 375,000, or one-third of the total population of Connecticut.
The vestiges of Catholic travellers and sojourners in the territory now embraced by the Diocese of Hartford are numerous. Irish immigrants were scattered throughout the colony, and they rendered notable service during the Pequot war of 1637. Their movements are chronicled in the governorship of Theophilus Eaton (1639-57). Their numbers became considerably augmented during the century which followed. In the War of Independence they took an important part, but they were deprived of the consolations of their religion. Throughout the Colonial period Spanish, Portuguese, and French sailors and adventurers landed at New London and the other ports of the State, and some remained to spend their lives and lose their faith among those by whom the Catholic Church was hated or feared. In the year 1756 four hundred Acadians were scattered throughout the State, but, bereft of priests, and plunged into a hostile atmosphere, they and their descendants made shipwreck of the faith so much cherished by their ancestors. Now and again priests visited Connecticut, coming either as emissaries or chaplains to the French troops, but they took no part in the upbuilding of the future diocese. The attitude of the white settlers was decidedly hostile to the Catholic Church, and the few confessors who persevered are lost in oblivion. Bishop Cheverus, of Boston (1810-23), and Bishop Fenwick, his successor, made occasional missionary journeys to Connecticut. At the request of the latter, the Rev. R. D. Woodley, of xxyyyk.htm">Providence, visited and ministered to the Catholics of the section during the earlier months of 1828. In August of that year the Rev. Bernard O'Cavanaugh was appointed first resident priest of the present Diocese of Hartford. His parish comprised the State of Connecticut, and he made Hartford his home. July, 1829, was a memorable month for the Catholics of the future diocese. On the 10th of that month Bishop Fenwick came to Hartford; on the 11th the first number of the "Catholic Press" appeared; on the evening of that day the visiting prelate preached to a fine concourse of people, and before departing answered an attack made upon the Catholics by the "Episcopalian Watchman". He also gave directions for the purchase of the old Episcopalian church which was subsequently moved to Talcott Street. Bishop Fenwick was pleased with the visit and wrote in his journal: "Splendid prospects for religion in Hartford". Father O'Cavanaugh laboured alone in Hartford until 1 July, 1830, when he was joined by the Rev. James Fitton. Father Fitton continued to serve in Connecticut, sometimes alone and sometimes with one or two assistants, for six years. On the erection of the diocese in 1843, there were but three resident priests in Connecticut. Hartford and New Haven had pastors, but Bridgeport was attended from the latter place. Father Fitton ministered to the Catholics in New London, going to them from Worcester, where he was then stationed.
BISHOPS OF HARTFORD
(1) WILLIAM TYLER was born at Derby, Vt., 5 June, 1806. He was from a family of converts. His parents, with their seven children, like the family of his maternal cousin, the Rev. Virgil Barber, renounced Protestantism for the Catholic Church, the future bishop embracing the Faith in his sixteenth year. Having completed his classical course at Mr. Barber's academy at Claremont, N.H., young Tyler became a member of the household of Bishop Fenwick in 1826. He was ordained three years later, and immediately distinguished himself for zeal on the missions of Massachusetts and Maine. He held the office of Vicar-General of Boston until his promotion to the Bishopric of Hartford. He was consecrated 17 March, 1844, and installed at Holy TrinityChurch 14 April. At his advent the entire diocese contained 9937 Catholics, of whom only 4817 resided in Connecticut. At that time Hartford was a city of 13,000 inhabitants, and of these only 600 were adult Catholics. xxyyyk.htm">Providence, however, could boast of 23,000 inhabitants, 2000 of whom were adherents of the Catholic Faith. The bishop accordingly petitioned Rome to move his see from Hartford to Providence, where he took up his residence in June, 1844. So poor was the Diocese of Hartford at its inception that Bishop Kendrick of Philadelphia, in writing to the rector of the Irish College at Rome, was constrained to make the following complaint: "The unfortunate haste with which Little Rock and Hartford were made sees in a former council should make us pause when a new see is to be erected". The chief anxiety of the new bishop was to provide priests and care for the instruction of the young. His episcopal residence was a mere shanty, "which could be easily drawn by oxen from one end of xxyyyk.htm">Providence to the other". Bishop Tyler appealed successfully for priests to All Hallows College, Dublin ; he likewise received substantial aid from the Society for the Propagation of the Faith , Lyons, France, and from The Leopold Society, Vienna. He attended the Seventh Provincial Council of Baltimore which convened 5 May, 1849. Never robust, his health was broken by consumption, and he petitioned the Fathers of the council to accept his resignation. They refused to accede to his wishes, but requested the Holy See to grant him a coadjutor in the person of the Very Rev. Bernard O'Reilly, Vicar-General of the Diocese of Buffalo. But it was a successor and not a coadjutor that the good bishop needed, for he was called to his reward 18 July, 1849. His episcopate covered five years. Bishop Fitzpatrick characterized him as "a man of saintly life consumed with true sacerdotal zeal ".
(2) BERNARD O'REILLY was a native of Columkille County Longford, Ireland, where he was born in 1801. He made his classical studies before coming to America, and completed his course of theology at St. Mary's Baltimore. He was ordained in New York, 13 Oct. 1831. He began his priestly life in the metropolis, the city of Brooklyn being his out-mission. The future bishop distinguished himself by devoted heroism during the plague which swept over New York in 1832. He was later on transferred to Rochester, where he served with great success for fifteen years. On the erection of the Diocese of Buffalo, in 1847, Father O'Reilly was made vicar-general, and remained in that capacity until appointed Bishop of Hartford. He was consecrated at St. Patrick's church, Rochester, N.Y., 10 Nov., 1850. Dearth of priests was the chief anxiety which weighed upon him in his new field. "A short time since", he wrote in 1852, "our affliction was very great, when, from almost every section of the State, the faithful were asking for priests, and we had none to give them." On his accession there were but seven priests in Connecticut, and five churches. The zealous bishop at once opened a seminary in his own house, over which he placed the Rev. Hugh Carmody. The institution prospered, and the clerical body was considerably augmented. Two years after his consecration, Bishop O'Reilly visited Europe, and at All Hallows, Dublin, he secured several priests for his growing mission. Among these was a young man named Thomas Hendricken who laboured with distinction in Connecticut, and later on became the first Bishop of Providence. To provide for the education of the young, Bishop O'Reilly brought to his diocese the Sisters of Mercy, establishing them in his episcopal city in 1851. When Knownothingism was raging, a mob assembled to demolish their convent. The Bishop came to the rescue, making use of these words: "The Sisters are in their home; they shall not leave it for an hour. I shall protect them while I have life, and if needs be, register their safety with my blood." The mob was not prepared for such heroism. Intent upon the welfare of the young, Bishop O'Reilly went to Europe again in 1854 in order to secure the aid of the Christian Brothers. He sailed for home 23 Jan., 1856, on the ill-fated "Pacific". He perished with all hands on board. The activity of Bishop O'Reilly may be realized when it is recalled that during the six years of his episcopate he added to the equipment of the diocese 34 churches, 28 priests, 5 academies, 9 parochial schools, and 3 orphan asylums. At his death there were within the present limits of the Diocese of Hartford 27 churches, 26 priests, 2 academies, and 2 orphan asylums.
(3) FRANCIS PATRICK MCFARLAND was born at Franklin, Penn., 16 April, 1819. He studied at Mt. St. Mary's, Emmitsburg, Md., and was ordained by Archbishop Hughes in New York. After teaching for a year at Fordham College , he was made pastor of Watertown, N.Y. On 1 March, 1851, he was sent to preside over the parish of Utica. He was appointed Vicar-Apostolic of Florida 9 June, 1857. He declined the honour, and was made Bishop of Hartford in March, 1858. The same labours that consumed the energies of his predecessor confronted the new bishop : the building of churches and schools, the securing of priests and religious women. The devoted prelate multiplied himself, visiting all corners of his extensive diocese, preaching, lecturing, and examining every child whom he admitted to confirmation. He went to Rome in 1869 to attend the Vatican Council. His health failing, he asked to be relieved from the cares of his office, or to be granted a coadjutor. Neither request was granted. But, as a compromise, the diocese was divided, the State of Rhode Island being cut off. Dr. McFarland retained his title of Bishop of Hartford, and came to reside in his episcopal city in February, 1872. He immedediately addressed himself to the labour of erecting a cathedral, an episcopal residence, and a mother-house for the Sisters of Mercy , who were already engaged in educational work throughout the State. Two of these works he lived to complete. The third, the statly edifice of which the faithful of the Diocese of Hartford are so justly proud, was well started before his death. He departed this life 2 Oct., 1874, in the fifty-sixth year of his age and the seventeenth of his episcopate. He was a scholar and a man of rare sanctity.
(4) THOMAS GALBERRY was likewise born outside of the diocese, coming from Ireland with his parents at the tender age of three years. He was educated at Villanova College, and was called from the presidency of that institution to the See of Hartford in 1875. When notified of his elevation, he declined the honour, and begged the Holy See to relieve him of the burden. A mandamus was returned 17 Feb., 1876. He then proceeded to prepare for his consecration. On coming to Hartford he selected St. Peter's church for his procathedral, pushing forward the erection of the new edifice with energy. He set out for his ad limina visit in May, 1876. Returning in autumn, his health began to fail, but he ceased not to provide churches and schools, priests and religious teachers for his rapidly developing diocese. Seeking rest, he set out for Villanova College 10 Oct., 1878. On the way to New York he was stricken with a haemorrhage and died in the Grand Union Hotel a few hours later. During his episcopate "The Connecticut Catholic " was established, and since that memorable day, in 1876, the Diocese of Hartford has never been without a Catholic paper.
(5) LAWRENCE S. MCMAHON, the fifth Bishop of Hartford, though a native of St. John's, N.B., spent his childhood and youth in Cambridge, Mass. He entered Holy Cross College, Worcester, Massachusetts, at the age of fifteen. He pursued his higher studies in France and Italy, and was ordained at Rome 21 March, 1860. He was serving as assistant at the cathedral at Boston when the 28th Massachusetts called from swamps of South Carolina for a chaplain. Father McMahon volunteered, and served with distinction until his health completely failed him. After the war he became pastor successively of Bridgewater and New Bedford. He was the first Vicar-General of the Diocese of Providence and was consecrated Bishop of Hartford 10 August, 1879. His great work in his new field was the erection and the adornment of St. Joseph's Cathedral. In ten years he collected more than $500,000, and on 8 May, 1892, he consecrated the splendid edifice free from all debt. While engaged in this work, he gave direction for the wise development of his diocese, organizing 18 new parishes, dedicating 70 churches, and establishing 16 parochial schools, as well as 16 convents. He died at Lakeville, 21 August, 1893, and was interred in the great cathedral to erect which he had laboured so hard and with such distinguished success.
(6) MICHAEL THERNEY was consecrated Bishop of Hartford 22 Feb., 1891. Born in Ireland, he spent his youth at Norwalk, in the diocese over which he was destined to preside with such fruit. After completing his studies at Bardstown, at Montreal, and at Troy, New York, he was ordained in May, 1866. Bishop McFarland immediately made the young priest his chancellor and the rector of his cathedral, which offices he held until his appointment as pastor of New London. After a year in that post he was transferred to Stamford, and three years later he was promoted to the rectorship of St. Peter's church, Hartford. Here, besides his parochial duties, he was charged with the responsible office of inspecting the erection of the new cathedral - a post for which he was admirably fitted by his aptitude for the technical details of the building art as well as by his experience at Providence, New London, and Stamford, where he was called upon successively to erect a school, to rebuild a church, and push to completion one of the stateliest ecclesiastical edifices in New England. Previously to the episcopate of Bishop Tierney, the resources at the disposal of the bishop were mainly absorbed in the erection of the cathedral, and it happened that there were within the confines of the State but few charitable institutions. The new bishop felt the need of a preparatory college for boys destined for the priesthood, and proceeded to erect one in his episcopal city. The foundation flourished, and before his death, that is, during the first decade of its existence, St. Thomas's Seminary could boast of 100 students. Other charitable works established under Bishop Tierney's inspiration are St. Mary's Home for the Aged, St. John's Industrial School, the hospitals at Hartford, New Haven, Bridgeport, Waterbury, Willimantic, and the numerous charitable enterprisis conducted by the Sisters of the Holy Ghost and the Little Sisters of the Poor. Bishop Tierney was a man of tireless activity. He multiplied himself, visiting every parish and every school-room in his diocese at least once a year. During his episcopate he confirmed 85,000 children and administered to every one of them the total-abstinence pledge. He was a patron of literature and established a diocesan missionary band to preach retreats to Catholics and non-Catholics. He died on 5 Oct., 1908, universally mourned.
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PRESENT CONDITION OF THE DIOCESE
Within the limits of the State of Connecticut there are now at least 375,000 Catholics. They are ministered to by 350 priests. The number of parishes in the diocese (9 July, 1909) is 173; of these 121 are English-speaking churches, 13 French, 6 German, 8 Italian, 13 Polish, 4 Lithuanian, 2 Hungarian, 2 Slavonian, and 4 Ruthenian. There are 1250 religious women in the diocese. The religious orders of men represented are the Dominican Friars at New Haven, Franciscan Friers Minor at Winsted, Franciscan Conventuals at Bridgeport, Jesuits at South Norwalk, Missionaries of La Salette at Hartford and Danielson, Fathers of the Congregation of St. Charles at New Haven and Bridgeport, Vincentian Fathers at Derby and New Haven, Fathers of the Holy Ghost at Darien. The Brothers of the Christian Schools have a house at Hartford, and the Xaverian Brothers conduct an industrial school at Deep River. The Sisters of Mercey have 3 mother-houses in Connecticut : that at Hartford has 440 sisters affiliated to it. They conduct a high school and an academy at Hartford, and academy at Putnam, and furnish the teaching staff for St. Francis Orphan Asylum at New Haven, for St. Augustine's Preparatory School for Boys at West Hartford, and for 21 parochial schools throughout the diocese. A second at Meriden numbers 133 sisters teaching 4100 children. The sisters of this community conduct an academy for young ladies at Milford. The third mother-house is situated at Middletown. It has 90 sisters who are responsible for the education of 2100 children. The Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame conduct an academy at Waterbury, the Sisters of St. Dominic at New Haven, and the Sisters of Charity at Baltic.
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Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:e59f4a34-de3f-49b4-829f-6acdfb49b63e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=5548 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.985028 | 3,981 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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Diocese of Hartford, established by Gregory XVI, 18 Sept., 1843. When erected it embraced the States of Connecticut and Rhode Island. As xxyyyk.htm">Providence was the most considerable city, the Bishop of Hartford resided there until 1872, when a new see was erected (see D IOCESE OF P ROVIDENCE ). As now constituted, the Diocese of Hartford is coextensive with the State of Connecticut . It has an area of about five thousand square miles and a Catholic population of 375,000, or one-third of the total population of Connecticut.
The vestiges of Catholic travellers and sojourners in the territory now embraced by the Diocese of Hartford are numerous. Irish immigrants were scattered throughout the colony, and they rendered notable service during the Pequot war of 1637. Their movements are chronicled in the governorship of Theophilus Eaton (1639-57). Their numbers became considerably augmented during the century which followed. In the War of Independence they took an important part, but they were deprived of the consolations of their religion. Throughout the Colonial period Spanish, Portuguese, and French sailors and adventurers landed at New London and the other ports of the State, and some remained to spend their lives and lose their faith among those by whom the Catholic Church was hated or feared. In the year 1756 four hundred Acadians were scattered throughout the State, but, bereft of priests, and plunged into a hostile atmosphere, they and their descendants made shipwreck of the faith so much cherished by their ancestors. Now and again priests visited Connecticut, coming either as emissaries or chaplains to the French troops, but they took no part in the upbuilding of the future diocese. The attitude of the white settlers was decidedly hostile to the Catholic Church, and the few confessors who persevered are lost in oblivion. Bishop Cheverus, of Boston (1810-23), and Bishop Fenwick, his successor, made occasional missionary journeys to Connecticut. At the request of the latter, the Rev. R. D. Woodley, of xxyyyk.htm">Providence, visited and ministered to the Catholics of the section during the earlier months of 1828. In August of that year the Rev. Bernard O'Cavanaugh was appointed first resident priest of the present Diocese of Hartford. His parish comprised the State of Connecticut, and he made Hartford his home. July, 1829, was a memorable month for the Catholics of the future diocese. On the 10th of that month Bishop Fenwick came to Hartford; on the 11th the first number of the "Catholic Press" appeared; on the evening of that day the visiting prelate preached to a fine concourse of people, and before departing answered an attack made upon the Catholics by the "Episcopalian Watchman". He also gave directions for the purchase of the old Episcopalian church which was subsequently moved to Talcott Street. Bishop Fenwick was pleased with the visit and wrote in his journal: "Splendid prospects for religion in Hartford". Father O'Cavanaugh laboured alone in Hartford until 1 July, 1830, when he was joined by the Rev. James Fitton. Father Fitton continued to serve in Connecticut, sometimes alone and sometimes with one or two assistants, for six years. On the erection of the diocese in 1843, there were but three resident priests in Connecticut. Hartford and New Haven had pastors, but Bridgeport was attended from the latter place. Father Fitton ministered to the Catholics in New London, going to them from Worcester, where he was then stationed.
BISHOPS OF HARTFORD
(1) WILLIAM TYLER was born at Derby, Vt., 5 June, 1806. He was from a family of converts. His parents, with their seven children, like the family of his maternal cousin, the Rev. Virgil Barber, renounced Protestantism for the Catholic Church, the future bishop embracing the Faith in his sixteenth year. Having completed his classical course at Mr. Barber's academy at Claremont, N.H., young Tyler became a member of the household of Bishop Fenwick in 1826. He was ordained three years later, and immediately distinguished himself for zeal on the missions of Massachusetts and Maine. He held the office of Vicar-General of Boston until his promotion to the Bishopric of Hartford. He was consecrated 17 March, 1844, and installed at Holy TrinityChurch 14 April. At his advent the entire diocese contained 9937 Catholics, of whom only 4817 resided in Connecticut. At that time Hartford was a city of 13,000 inhabitants, and of these only 600 were adult Catholics. xxyyyk.htm">Providence, however, could boast of 23,000 inhabitants, 2000 of whom were adherents of the Catholic Faith. The bishop accordingly petitioned Rome to move his see from Hartford to Providence, where he took up his residence in June, 1844. So poor was the Diocese of Hartford at its inception that Bishop Kendrick of Philadelphia, in writing to the rector of the Irish College at Rome, was constrained to make the following complaint: "The unfortunate haste with which Little Rock and Hartford were made sees in a former council should make us pause when a new see is to be erected". The chief anxiety of the new bishop was to provide priests and care for the instruction of the young. His episcopal residence was a mere shanty, "which could be easily drawn by oxen from one end of xxyyyk.htm">Providence to the other". Bishop Tyler appealed successfully for priests to All Hallows College, Dublin ; he likewise received substantial aid from the Society for the Propagation of the Faith , Lyons, France, and from The Leopold Society, Vienna. He attended the Seventh Provincial Council of Baltimore which convened 5 May, 1849. Never robust, his health was broken by consumption, and he petitioned the Fathers of the council to accept his resignation. They refused to accede to his wishes, but requested the Holy See to grant him a coadjutor in the person of the Very Rev. Bernard O'Reilly, Vicar-General of the Diocese of Buffalo. But it was a successor and not a coadjutor that the good bishop needed, for he was called to his reward 18 July, 1849. His episcopate covered five years. Bishop Fitzpatrick characterized him as "a man of saintly life consumed with true sacerdotal zeal ".
(2) BERNARD O'REILLY was a native of Columkille County Longford, Ireland, where he was born in 1801. He made his classical studies before coming to America, and completed his course of theology at St. Mary's Baltimore. He was ordained in New York, 13 Oct. 1831. He began his priestly life in the metropolis, the city of Brooklyn being his out-mission. The future bishop distinguished himself by devoted heroism during the plague which swept over New York in 1832. He was later on transferred to Rochester, where he served with great success for fifteen years. On the erection of the Diocese of Buffalo, in 1847, Father O'Reilly was made vicar-general, and remained in that capacity until appointed Bishop of Hartford. He was consecrated at St. Patrick's church, Rochester, N.Y., 10 Nov., 1850. Dearth of priests was the chief anxiety which weighed upon him in his new field. "A short time since", he wrote in 1852, "our affliction was very great, when, from almost every section of the State, the faithful were asking for priests, and we had none to give them." On his accession there were but seven priests in Connecticut, and five churches. The zealous bishop at once opened a seminary in his own house, over which he placed the Rev. Hugh Carmody. The institution prospered, and the clerical body was considerably augmented. Two years after his consecration, Bishop O'Reilly visited Europe, and at All Hallows, Dublin, he secured several priests for his growing mission. Among these was a young man named Thomas Hendricken who laboured with distinction in Connecticut, and later on became the first Bishop of Providence. To provide for the education of the young, Bishop O'Reilly brought to his diocese the Sisters of Mercy, establishing them in his episcopal city in 1851. When Knownothingism was raging, a mob assembled to demolish their convent. The Bishop came to the rescue, making use of these words: "The Sisters are in their home; they shall not leave it for an hour. I shall protect them while I have life, and if needs be, register their safety with my blood." The mob was not prepared for such heroism. Intent upon the welfare of the young, Bishop O'Reilly went to Europe again in 1854 in order to secure the aid of the Christian Brothers. He sailed for home 23 Jan., 1856, on the ill-fated "Pacific". He perished with all hands on board. The activity of Bishop O'Reilly may be realized when it is recalled that during the six years of his episcopate he added to the equipment of the diocese 34 churches, 28 priests, 5 academies, 9 parochial schools, and 3 orphan asylums. At his death there were within the present limits of the Diocese of Hartford 27 churches, 26 priests, 2 academies, and 2 orphan asylums.
(3) FRANCIS PATRICK MCFARLAND was born at Franklin, Penn., 16 April, 1819. He studied at Mt. St. Mary's, Emmitsburg, Md., and was ordained by Archbishop Hughes in New York. After teaching for a year at Fordham College , he was made pastor of Watertown, N.Y. On 1 March, 1851, he was sent to preside over the parish of Utica. He was appointed Vicar-Apostolic of Florida 9 June, 1857. He declined the honour, and was made Bishop of Hartford in March, 1858. The same labours that consumed the energies of his predecessor confronted the new bishop : the building of churches and schools, the securing of priests and religious women. The devoted prelate multiplied himself, visiting all corners of his extensive diocese, preaching, lecturing, and examining every child whom he admitted to confirmation. He went to Rome in 1869 to attend the Vatican Council. His health failing, he asked to be relieved from the cares of his office, or to be granted a coadjutor. Neither request was granted. But, as a compromise, the diocese was divided, the State of Rhode Island being cut off. Dr. McFarland retained his title of Bishop of Hartford, and came to reside in his episcopal city in February, 1872. He immedediately addressed himself to the labour of erecting a cathedral, an episcopal residence, and a mother-house for the Sisters of Mercy , who were already engaged in educational work throughout the State. Two of these works he lived to complete. The third, the statly edifice of which the faithful of the Diocese of Hartford are so justly proud, was well started before his death. He departed this life 2 Oct., 1874, in the fifty-sixth year of his age and the seventeenth of his episcopate. He was a scholar and a man of rare sanctity.
(4) THOMAS GALBERRY was likewise born outside of the diocese, coming from Ireland with his parents at the tender age of three years. He was educated at Villanova College, and was called from the presidency of that institution to the See of Hartford in 1875. When notified of his elevation, he declined the honour, and begged the Holy See to relieve him of the burden. A mandamus was returned 17 Feb., 1876. He then proceeded to prepare for his consecration. On coming to Hartford he selected St. Peter's church for his procathedral, pushing forward the erection of the new edifice with energy. He set out for his ad limina visit in May, 1876. Returning in autumn, his health began to fail, but he ceased not to provide churches and schools, priests and religious teachers for his rapidly developing diocese. Seeking rest, he set out for Villanova College 10 Oct., 1878. On the way to New York he was stricken with a haemorrhage and died in the Grand Union Hotel a few hours later. During his episcopate "The Connecticut Catholic " was established, and since that memorable day, in 1876, the Diocese of Hartford has never been without a Catholic paper.
(5) LAWRENCE S. MCMAHON, the fifth Bishop of Hartford, though a native of St. John's, N.B., spent his childhood and youth in Cambridge, Mass. He entered Holy Cross College, Worcester, Massachusetts, at the age of fifteen. He pursued his higher studies in France and Italy, and was ordained at Rome 21 March, 1860. He was serving as assistant at the cathedral at Boston when the 28th Massachusetts called from swamps of South Carolina for a chaplain. Father McMahon volunteered, and served with distinction until his health completely failed him. After the war he became pastor successively of Bridgewater and New Bedford. He was the first Vicar-General of the Diocese of Providence and was consecrated Bishop of Hartford 10 August, 1879. His great work in his new field was the erection and the adornment of St. Joseph's Cathedral. In ten years he collected more than $500,000, and on 8 May, 1892, he consecrated the splendid edifice free from all debt. While engaged in this work, he gave direction for the wise development of his diocese, organizing 18 new parishes, dedicating 70 churches, and establishing 16 parochial schools, as well as 16 convents. He died at Lakeville, 21 August, 1893, and was interred in the great cathedral to erect which he had laboured so hard and with such distinguished success.
(6) MICHAEL THERNEY was consecrated Bishop of Hartford 22 Feb., 1891. Born in Ireland, he spent his youth at Norwalk, in the diocese over which he was destined to preside with such fruit. After completing his studies at Bardstown, at Montreal, and at Troy, New York, he was ordained in May, 1866. Bishop McFarland immediately made the young priest his chancellor and the rector of his cathedral, which offices he held until his appointment as pastor of New London. After a year in that post he was transferred to Stamford, and three years later he was promoted to the rectorship of St. Peter's church, Hartford. Here, besides his parochial duties, he was charged with the responsible office of inspecting the erection of the new cathedral - a post for which he was admirably fitted by his aptitude for the technical details of the building art as well as by his experience at Providence, New London, and Stamford, where he was called upon successively to erect a school, to rebuild a church, and push to completion one of the stateliest ecclesiastical edifices in New England. Previously to the episcopate of Bishop Tierney, the resources at the disposal of the bishop were mainly absorbed in the erection of the cathedral, and it happened that there were within the confines of the State but few charitable institutions. The new bishop felt the need of a preparatory college for boys destined for the priesthood, and proceeded to erect one in his episcopal city. The foundation flourished, and before his death, that is, during the first decade of its existence, St. Thomas's Seminary could boast of 100 students. Other charitable works established under Bishop Tierney's inspiration are St. Mary's Home for the Aged, St. John's Industrial School, the hospitals at Hartford, New Haven, Bridgeport, Waterbury, Willimantic, and the numerous charitable enterprisis conducted by the Sisters of the Holy Ghost and the Little Sisters of the Poor. Bishop Tierney was a man of tireless activity. He multiplied himself, visiting every parish and every school-room in his diocese at least once a year. During his episcopate he confirmed 85,000 children and administered to every one of them the total-abstinence pledge. He was a patron of literature and established a diocesan missionary band to preach retreats to Catholics and non-Catholics. He died on 5 Oct., 1908, universally mourned.
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PRESENT CONDITION OF THE DIOCESE
Within the limits of the State of Connecticut there are now at least 375,000 Catholics. They are ministered to by 350 priests. The number of parishes in the diocese (9 July, 1909) is 173; of these 121 are English-speaking churches, 13 French, 6 German, 8 Italian, 13 Polish, 4 Lithuanian, 2 Hungarian, 2 Slavonian, and 4 Ruthenian. There are 1250 religious women in the diocese. The religious orders of men represented are the Dominican Friars at New Haven, Franciscan Friers Minor at Winsted, Franciscan Conventuals at Bridgeport, Jesuits at South Norwalk, Missionaries of La Salette at Hartford and Danielson, Fathers of the Congregation of St. Charles at New Haven and Bridgeport, Vincentian Fathers at Derby and New Haven, Fathers of the Holy Ghost at Darien. The Brothers of the Christian Schools have a house at Hartford, and the Xaverian Brothers conduct an industrial school at Deep River. The Sisters of Mercey have 3 mother-houses in Connecticut : that at Hartford has 440 sisters affiliated to it. They conduct a high school and an academy at Hartford, and academy at Putnam, and furnish the teaching staff for St. Francis Orphan Asylum at New Haven, for St. Augustine's Preparatory School for Boys at West Hartford, and for 21 parochial schools throughout the diocese. A second at Meriden numbers 133 sisters teaching 4100 children. The sisters of this community conduct an academy for young ladies at Milford. The third mother-house is situated at Middletown. It has 90 sisters who are responsible for the education of 2100 children. The Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame conduct an academy at Waterbury, the Sisters of St. Dominic at New Haven, and the Sisters of Charity at Baltic.
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 4,256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Outer Banks are a string of islands and shoals lying off the coast of North Carolina that, with their soft, sandy beaches and warm climate, are a very popular tourist attraction.
I’m sure at least some of you will have been there for vacations in the past and, if you have, and you happen to have visited Ocracoke Island, you may have wondered why there is a British Royal Navy ensign perpetually flying in one tiny corner of the island.
The reason is simple: There is a small patch of land there that is permanently leased by the United States to Great Britain because, buried there, are the remains of four Britons who lost their lives more than 75 years ago.
To discover how these four men ended up interred on an island so far from home, we have to go back to the dark days of World War II. Britain and Germany went to war in September of 1939 and almost immediately Britain began getting a lot of their much-needed supplies from America. In response, Germany launched submarine warfare to try to stop the merchant ships getting through.
Because the United States was a neutral country at that time, the U-boats couldn’t operate too close to the American coast, but all that changed on Dec. 7, 1941, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Immediately following that, Germany declared war on the US and the German Admiralty launched “Operation Drumbeat,” which meant that, instead of patrolling in the Atlantic as they had done up until then, the submarines could move inshore and catch heavily laden ships as they left East Coast ports.
The carnage began almost immediately and in January 1942 alone, 35 ships were sunk by submarines off the Atlantic coast. That meant enough supplies were lost to have fed the whole of Britain for a month. Something had to be done to protect the ships but, excellent as they were, the US Navy had too few patrol vessels and lacked experience at that time in conducting modern anti-submarine warfare. Britain desperately needed the supplies to get through and so the British Government offered to lend the United States 24 ships and crews who had spent the previous two years in the fight against the U boats.
The vessels they sent weren’t big ships; sending battleships to look for submarines was like trying to crack a nut with a sledgehammer, and was far more dangerous to the hammer than the nut. Instead the vessels that came were smaller ships and among them was HMT Bedfordshire.
Built and launched in 1935, Bedfordshire began life as a deep-sea arctic trawler. It was the role she was designed for, but it became obvious that war was coming by the middle of 1939 and, desperate for ships, the Royal Navy purchased her in August of that year and set about converting her to an anti-submarine role. They fitted her with a 4-inch gun and a Lewis machine gun as well as facilities for dropping up to 100 depth charges. By the end of 1940, she was ready for action and most of her pre-war crew remained with her, although they were supplemented by trained naval gunners and officers.
For the next 14 months or so, she patrolled off the southeast corner of England and then, in March of 1942 she, and 23 similar vessels, were sent to aid the US Navy in patrolling the east coast of the USA.
Bedfordshire was assigned a station operating out of Morehead City, North Carolina, and it was from there that she patrolled the Outer Banks, which had already proved to be a particularly prolific area for the U boats. The shoals and islands meant that ships heading east toward Europe were forced to take known routes and it was here that the submarines lay in wait.
The people on Ocracoke Island had already reported hearing explosions and seeing flashes on the horizon at night. It was known that ships were being lost in the area and so, on May 10, 1942, Bedfordshire and another converted trawler, HMT St. Loman, were ordered to patrol off the island to look for the U boat that it was suspected was lurking there.
The suspicions were right. U-558, commanded by Kapitanleutnant Gunther Krech, was lying offshore, waiting for passing ships. The two trawlers’ patrol route took them close by the submarine’s hiding place and the German, fearing he’d been detected, fired torpedoes at St. Loman.
The trawler’s crew saw the tracks and avoided the weapons, but the sighting confirmed a U boat was there and the hunt began. It went on throughout the night until, at just before 6 a.m. next day, Krech saw Bedfordshire through his periscope. He fired two torpedoes; the first missed, but the second hit the trawler amidships. The ship exploded and went down immediately.
There were 37 crew members on board and there were no survivors. Three days later, two bodies, identified as a British officer and a seaman, washed up on Ocracoke Island. They were buried with due honors next to the island’s small cemetery. Ironically, the British flag used at the funeral was one that the officer had himself given to the islanders just three weeks earlier. A few days later, two more of the Bedfordshire’s crew were also found lying dead on the beach and they were buried with their comrades, while a fifth body washed up on nearby Hatteras Island and was interred there.
The small burial plot on Ocracoke Island and that on Hatteras were leased by the British government on behalf of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission in 1976. As usual, the commission provided white, granite headstones to mark the graves and the plot is maintained by the United States Coastguard and local residents. Each year, on May 11, the anniversary of the sinking, Royal Navy and US Coastguard representatives hold a ceremony to honor the memory of the young men of the Bedfordshire who gave their lives to protect American shipping. | <urn:uuid:7d13621e-20b0-4d4c-bdea-5302983fea65> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.herald-dispatch.com/news/putnam_news/derek-coleman-why-small-plot-of-land-in-outer-banks/article_c38ea2b1-cf46-5fc4-8e13-86438e898813.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00465.warc.gz | en | 0.986638 | 1,247 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.2546623051... | 1 | The Outer Banks are a string of islands and shoals lying off the coast of North Carolina that, with their soft, sandy beaches and warm climate, are a very popular tourist attraction.
I’m sure at least some of you will have been there for vacations in the past and, if you have, and you happen to have visited Ocracoke Island, you may have wondered why there is a British Royal Navy ensign perpetually flying in one tiny corner of the island.
The reason is simple: There is a small patch of land there that is permanently leased by the United States to Great Britain because, buried there, are the remains of four Britons who lost their lives more than 75 years ago.
To discover how these four men ended up interred on an island so far from home, we have to go back to the dark days of World War II. Britain and Germany went to war in September of 1939 and almost immediately Britain began getting a lot of their much-needed supplies from America. In response, Germany launched submarine warfare to try to stop the merchant ships getting through.
Because the United States was a neutral country at that time, the U-boats couldn’t operate too close to the American coast, but all that changed on Dec. 7, 1941, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Immediately following that, Germany declared war on the US and the German Admiralty launched “Operation Drumbeat,” which meant that, instead of patrolling in the Atlantic as they had done up until then, the submarines could move inshore and catch heavily laden ships as they left East Coast ports.
The carnage began almost immediately and in January 1942 alone, 35 ships were sunk by submarines off the Atlantic coast. That meant enough supplies were lost to have fed the whole of Britain for a month. Something had to be done to protect the ships but, excellent as they were, the US Navy had too few patrol vessels and lacked experience at that time in conducting modern anti-submarine warfare. Britain desperately needed the supplies to get through and so the British Government offered to lend the United States 24 ships and crews who had spent the previous two years in the fight against the U boats.
The vessels they sent weren’t big ships; sending battleships to look for submarines was like trying to crack a nut with a sledgehammer, and was far more dangerous to the hammer than the nut. Instead the vessels that came were smaller ships and among them was HMT Bedfordshire.
Built and launched in 1935, Bedfordshire began life as a deep-sea arctic trawler. It was the role she was designed for, but it became obvious that war was coming by the middle of 1939 and, desperate for ships, the Royal Navy purchased her in August of that year and set about converting her to an anti-submarine role. They fitted her with a 4-inch gun and a Lewis machine gun as well as facilities for dropping up to 100 depth charges. By the end of 1940, she was ready for action and most of her pre-war crew remained with her, although they were supplemented by trained naval gunners and officers.
For the next 14 months or so, she patrolled off the southeast corner of England and then, in March of 1942 she, and 23 similar vessels, were sent to aid the US Navy in patrolling the east coast of the USA.
Bedfordshire was assigned a station operating out of Morehead City, North Carolina, and it was from there that she patrolled the Outer Banks, which had already proved to be a particularly prolific area for the U boats. The shoals and islands meant that ships heading east toward Europe were forced to take known routes and it was here that the submarines lay in wait.
The people on Ocracoke Island had already reported hearing explosions and seeing flashes on the horizon at night. It was known that ships were being lost in the area and so, on May 10, 1942, Bedfordshire and another converted trawler, HMT St. Loman, were ordered to patrol off the island to look for the U boat that it was suspected was lurking there.
The suspicions were right. U-558, commanded by Kapitanleutnant Gunther Krech, was lying offshore, waiting for passing ships. The two trawlers’ patrol route took them close by the submarine’s hiding place and the German, fearing he’d been detected, fired torpedoes at St. Loman.
The trawler’s crew saw the tracks and avoided the weapons, but the sighting confirmed a U boat was there and the hunt began. It went on throughout the night until, at just before 6 a.m. next day, Krech saw Bedfordshire through his periscope. He fired two torpedoes; the first missed, but the second hit the trawler amidships. The ship exploded and went down immediately.
There were 37 crew members on board and there were no survivors. Three days later, two bodies, identified as a British officer and a seaman, washed up on Ocracoke Island. They were buried with due honors next to the island’s small cemetery. Ironically, the British flag used at the funeral was one that the officer had himself given to the islanders just three weeks earlier. A few days later, two more of the Bedfordshire’s crew were also found lying dead on the beach and they were buried with their comrades, while a fifth body washed up on nearby Hatteras Island and was interred there.
The small burial plot on Ocracoke Island and that on Hatteras were leased by the British government on behalf of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission in 1976. As usual, the commission provided white, granite headstones to mark the graves and the plot is maintained by the United States Coastguard and local residents. Each year, on May 11, the anniversary of the sinking, Royal Navy and US Coastguard representatives hold a ceremony to honor the memory of the young men of the Bedfordshire who gave their lives to protect American shipping. | 1,271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 1860s was a time of uncertainty and political unrest in Japan. Finally, in 1868, the situation became so serious that Emperor Mutsuhito took control from the last Shogun (Military Dictator). Mutsuhito became known as the Meiji emperor, and this event is called the ‘Meiji Restoration’.
Under the emperor’s authority, Japan embarked on a program of modernization. In 1872, a group of Japanese politicians went on a tour of Europe and North America to learn more about industry, education and ways of life in the West. As a result, factories were built in Japan and the country started to change from agricultural to industrialized nation. This also included the establishment of a national railway system. During the period of Meiji rule, education was introduced for all Japanese people. The Meiji emperor also gave farmers ownership of their lands and changed Japan’s army and navy into modern military forces.
In 1870, a movement calling for Home Rule was founded in Ireland. Supporters of Home Rule wanted a separate parliament to deal with Irish affairs in Dublin. Although the British government was forced to introduce many reforms, two bills to introduce Home Rule were defeated in parliament in the 1880s and 1980s.
William Gladstone was Prime Minister of Britain four times during the reign of Queen Victoria. He believed that the Irish should run their own affairs and was a staunch supporter of Home Rule Bill. But he failed to get his Home Rule Bill approved by the parliament. During World War I, the issue of Home Rule continued to cause conflict in Ireland. The third Home Rule Bill had been passed by the British parliament in 1914, but the outbreak of war in the same year delayed the start. Irish protestants, however, were bitterly opposed to Home Rule. They were in the majority in the northern province of Ulster, and believed that they would be treated unfairly by a Dublin parliament. They formed the Ulster Volunteer Force to protect themselves if Home Rule was introduced | <urn:uuid:cce4d4a7-e1a9-4dcc-a86a-29dbf182165e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://giftedminds.com.ng/blog/what-were-these-rules-home-and-meiji-rule/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.987634 | 401 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.6354478... | 2 | The 1860s was a time of uncertainty and political unrest in Japan. Finally, in 1868, the situation became so serious that Emperor Mutsuhito took control from the last Shogun (Military Dictator). Mutsuhito became known as the Meiji emperor, and this event is called the ‘Meiji Restoration’.
Under the emperor’s authority, Japan embarked on a program of modernization. In 1872, a group of Japanese politicians went on a tour of Europe and North America to learn more about industry, education and ways of life in the West. As a result, factories were built in Japan and the country started to change from agricultural to industrialized nation. This also included the establishment of a national railway system. During the period of Meiji rule, education was introduced for all Japanese people. The Meiji emperor also gave farmers ownership of their lands and changed Japan’s army and navy into modern military forces.
In 1870, a movement calling for Home Rule was founded in Ireland. Supporters of Home Rule wanted a separate parliament to deal with Irish affairs in Dublin. Although the British government was forced to introduce many reforms, two bills to introduce Home Rule were defeated in parliament in the 1880s and 1980s.
William Gladstone was Prime Minister of Britain four times during the reign of Queen Victoria. He believed that the Irish should run their own affairs and was a staunch supporter of Home Rule Bill. But he failed to get his Home Rule Bill approved by the parliament. During World War I, the issue of Home Rule continued to cause conflict in Ireland. The third Home Rule Bill had been passed by the British parliament in 1914, but the outbreak of war in the same year delayed the start. Irish protestants, however, were bitterly opposed to Home Rule. They were in the majority in the northern province of Ulster, and believed that they would be treated unfairly by a Dublin parliament. They formed the Ulster Volunteer Force to protect themselves if Home Rule was introduced | 423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bring Home the Bacon: Origin and Meaning
The idiom bringing home the bacon started in the 1100s in a small town in Essex. The legend goes that the vicar of the church of Dunmow would reward the couple that hadn’t argued for a whole year and a day with “a side of bacon”.
The winners were considered to be role models for the community and the competition was designed to create harmony in the family unit.
However, there are others who believe that the idiom started in the 1500s. In those days one of the most fascinating fairground attractions was to try and catch a greased pig with your bare hands, and whoever managed to do so would be able to take the prized animal home. So, if you won you would literally be bringing home the bacon.
But where does the connection to money come from? Well, if you consider that in both stories you had to earn your prize and that money was probably short at the time, it would be fair to say that the side of bacon represented a cash prize of sorts.
– My husband stays home and looks after the children, and I bring home the bacon.
– I always tell my children to follow their passions, but that bringing home the bacon is also important. | <urn:uuid:f8bb3453-2da2-4c10-9d5d-fc9eca935781> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bloomsbury-international.com/student-ezone/idiom-of-the-week/1674-bring-home-the-bacon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00020.warc.gz | en | 0.983557 | 262 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.05293958634138107,... | 3 | Bring Home the Bacon: Origin and Meaning
The idiom bringing home the bacon started in the 1100s in a small town in Essex. The legend goes that the vicar of the church of Dunmow would reward the couple that hadn’t argued for a whole year and a day with “a side of bacon”.
The winners were considered to be role models for the community and the competition was designed to create harmony in the family unit.
However, there are others who believe that the idiom started in the 1500s. In those days one of the most fascinating fairground attractions was to try and catch a greased pig with your bare hands, and whoever managed to do so would be able to take the prized animal home. So, if you won you would literally be bringing home the bacon.
But where does the connection to money come from? Well, if you consider that in both stories you had to earn your prize and that money was probably short at the time, it would be fair to say that the side of bacon represented a cash prize of sorts.
– My husband stays home and looks after the children, and I bring home the bacon.
– I always tell my children to follow their passions, but that bringing home the bacon is also important. | 261 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This famous Spanish painter and innovator, over the course of his life, had great changes in mood and aspirations for his art. Miro's work was classified loosely as surrealist, and this quickly led to comparisons with fellow Catalan painter, Salvador Dali. Dali masterpieces included the likes of Elephants and The Persistence of Memory, famously incorporating melting clocks. Related Spanish artists include Cubists Juan Gris and Pablo Picasso. Also, see the work of Max Ernst, the German Surrealist, with the two becoming good friends as well as working collaboratively and sharing a lot of common ground within their own artistic styles.
Joan Miro was another Spanish artist who was deeply impacted by the Spanish Civil War. Facism rarely finds a middle ground with modern artists, as seen in Germany too. The likes of Picasso and other contemporary artists would not be accepted by these ultra conservative regimes and as such many were forced to move abroad to make the most of their creative talents. In terms of Catalan creativity, Antoni Gaudi was also another highly significant artist to have come from this region and made use of historical references to this region in many of his designs. He was an architect who also became involved in sculpture, furniture and interior design. His buildings in Barcelona have become part of a UNESCO cultural protection order in honour of their beauty and brilliance. | <urn:uuid:2425bf6f-08a3-4544-9200-266c9e0c95b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.joanmiropaintings.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.99168 | 275 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.4887064099311828... | 2 | This famous Spanish painter and innovator, over the course of his life, had great changes in mood and aspirations for his art. Miro's work was classified loosely as surrealist, and this quickly led to comparisons with fellow Catalan painter, Salvador Dali. Dali masterpieces included the likes of Elephants and The Persistence of Memory, famously incorporating melting clocks. Related Spanish artists include Cubists Juan Gris and Pablo Picasso. Also, see the work of Max Ernst, the German Surrealist, with the two becoming good friends as well as working collaboratively and sharing a lot of common ground within their own artistic styles.
Joan Miro was another Spanish artist who was deeply impacted by the Spanish Civil War. Facism rarely finds a middle ground with modern artists, as seen in Germany too. The likes of Picasso and other contemporary artists would not be accepted by these ultra conservative regimes and as such many were forced to move abroad to make the most of their creative talents. In terms of Catalan creativity, Antoni Gaudi was also another highly significant artist to have come from this region and made use of historical references to this region in many of his designs. He was an architect who also became involved in sculpture, furniture and interior design. His buildings in Barcelona have become part of a UNESCO cultural protection order in honour of their beauty and brilliance. | 269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
James II. of England and VII. of Scotland—William the Deliverer
A NY one could see that the people were everywhere ready for rebellion. The King alone would not see it and went on in his own way. He was angry and sullen, but very obstinate. "I will not give way," he said, "my father lost his head by giving way," and he resolved to punish the people.
But James had gone too far. The people were weary of a Popish tyrant, and they made up their minds to have a Protestant King. So they asked William, Prince of Orange, to come to rule over them, the Prince against whom Charles II. had fought in the Dutch wars. William had some claim to the throne. I will explain how.
Charles I. had a daughter called Mary. She married a Prince of Orange called William, and their son, also called William, was now Prince of Orange. He was thus the nephew of Charles II. and of James II., and besides this he had married his cousin, Mary, the eldest daughter of James II.
Although their father, James, was a Roman Catholic, Mary and her sister, Anne, were both Protestants, and except for their little brother, who was at this time a tiny baby, Mary was the next heir to the throne of Britain.
So when the British saw that James meant to rule as a tyrant and that there was no hope of any freedom or happiness for them as long as he was King, they sent messages to Holland begging William to come to take the crown.
William consented to come, and began to gather his ships and men. And one day a letter reached James telling him what the Prince of Orange was doing. As James read, he turned pale and the letter dropped from his hand. He had thought that he might ill-treat the people as he liked. Now he discovered his mistake and tried to undo the evil he had done. It was too late. His people had forsaken him.
William was ready to sail, but for some days he was prevented because of the wind which blew from the west. At last it changed, and what was known for many years after as the "Protestant East Wind" began to blow.
It blew the Prince and his great fleet to the shores of Britain. More than six hundred ships swept over the water, led by William in his vessel called the Brill. From the mast-head floated his standard, with the arms of Nassau and of Britain upon it, and in great shining letters the words, "I will maintain the liberties of England, and the Protestant religion." By night the dark sea glittered for miles with lights. By day the white sails glimmered in the wintry sun.
Once before in our story a great conqueror called William had sailed to these shores with mighty ships and men. This was no conqueror, but a deliverer.
On the 5th of November 1688 A.D., William landed at Torbay, in Devonshire. There the stone upon which he first placed his foot is still to be seen. Although now it is a town, then it was a little lonely village, and the Prince had to sleep the first night in a tiny thatched cottage. But over it, as proudly as over any castle, fluttered the great banner with its promise, "I will maintain the liberties of England and the Protestant religion."
Through rain and wintry weather, over roads knee-deep in mud, the Prince and his army marched northward. Worn, wet, and muddy as they were, the people crowded everywhere along the way to cheer them. The Prince rode upon a beautiful white horse, a white feather was in his hat, and armour glittered upon his breast. His face was grave and stern, his eyes keen and watchful. He looked a soldier and a King.
As he rode along an old woman pushed her way through the crowd, and afraid neither of the prancing horses nor the drawn swords of the soldiers, darted to the side of the Prince. She seized his hand, and, looking up into his face with eyes full of tears, cried, "I am happy now, I am happy now." And the grave and stern William smiled gently as he looked down upon her. The Deliverer had come.
James II., his Queen, and their little boy fled to France. No one wanted James, no one regretted him. To go to France was the best thing he could do, and the King there received him kindly and treated him as an honoured guest.
At Westminster a Parliament was called, which arranged that William and Mary should be King and Queen together. For although Mary had the better right to the throne she did not wish to reign without her husband, nor did he wish to accept a lower rank than that of his wife.
So ended the "Glorious Revolution." It had been brought about with hardly any fighting at all, and the war between the King and Parliament was at an end, for William and Mary received the throne by the will of Parliament. | <urn:uuid:74c682eb-6fa6-4b68-9705-70f679ae31cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=deliverer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.99311 | 1,052 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.012175688... | 1 | James II. of England and VII. of Scotland—William the Deliverer
A NY one could see that the people were everywhere ready for rebellion. The King alone would not see it and went on in his own way. He was angry and sullen, but very obstinate. "I will not give way," he said, "my father lost his head by giving way," and he resolved to punish the people.
But James had gone too far. The people were weary of a Popish tyrant, and they made up their minds to have a Protestant King. So they asked William, Prince of Orange, to come to rule over them, the Prince against whom Charles II. had fought in the Dutch wars. William had some claim to the throne. I will explain how.
Charles I. had a daughter called Mary. She married a Prince of Orange called William, and their son, also called William, was now Prince of Orange. He was thus the nephew of Charles II. and of James II., and besides this he had married his cousin, Mary, the eldest daughter of James II.
Although their father, James, was a Roman Catholic, Mary and her sister, Anne, were both Protestants, and except for their little brother, who was at this time a tiny baby, Mary was the next heir to the throne of Britain.
So when the British saw that James meant to rule as a tyrant and that there was no hope of any freedom or happiness for them as long as he was King, they sent messages to Holland begging William to come to take the crown.
William consented to come, and began to gather his ships and men. And one day a letter reached James telling him what the Prince of Orange was doing. As James read, he turned pale and the letter dropped from his hand. He had thought that he might ill-treat the people as he liked. Now he discovered his mistake and tried to undo the evil he had done. It was too late. His people had forsaken him.
William was ready to sail, but for some days he was prevented because of the wind which blew from the west. At last it changed, and what was known for many years after as the "Protestant East Wind" began to blow.
It blew the Prince and his great fleet to the shores of Britain. More than six hundred ships swept over the water, led by William in his vessel called the Brill. From the mast-head floated his standard, with the arms of Nassau and of Britain upon it, and in great shining letters the words, "I will maintain the liberties of England, and the Protestant religion." By night the dark sea glittered for miles with lights. By day the white sails glimmered in the wintry sun.
Once before in our story a great conqueror called William had sailed to these shores with mighty ships and men. This was no conqueror, but a deliverer.
On the 5th of November 1688 A.D., William landed at Torbay, in Devonshire. There the stone upon which he first placed his foot is still to be seen. Although now it is a town, then it was a little lonely village, and the Prince had to sleep the first night in a tiny thatched cottage. But over it, as proudly as over any castle, fluttered the great banner with its promise, "I will maintain the liberties of England and the Protestant religion."
Through rain and wintry weather, over roads knee-deep in mud, the Prince and his army marched northward. Worn, wet, and muddy as they were, the people crowded everywhere along the way to cheer them. The Prince rode upon a beautiful white horse, a white feather was in his hat, and armour glittered upon his breast. His face was grave and stern, his eyes keen and watchful. He looked a soldier and a King.
As he rode along an old woman pushed her way through the crowd, and afraid neither of the prancing horses nor the drawn swords of the soldiers, darted to the side of the Prince. She seized his hand, and, looking up into his face with eyes full of tears, cried, "I am happy now, I am happy now." And the grave and stern William smiled gently as he looked down upon her. The Deliverer had come.
James II., his Queen, and their little boy fled to France. No one wanted James, no one regretted him. To go to France was the best thing he could do, and the King there received him kindly and treated him as an honoured guest.
At Westminster a Parliament was called, which arranged that William and Mary should be King and Queen together. For although Mary had the better right to the throne she did not wish to reign without her husband, nor did he wish to accept a lower rank than that of his wife.
So ended the "Glorious Revolution." It had been brought about with hardly any fighting at all, and the war between the King and Parliament was at an end, for William and Mary received the throne by the will of Parliament. | 1,036 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King James IV seemed to have recklessly led the flower of Scottish nobility into a deadly battle against the English at Flodden Field on September 9, 1513. He was to die in battle leaving his only legitimate surviving son and heir, James, as king when he was only seventeen months old. Half of James V reign was to take place during his minority.
James V was born on April 10, 1512 at Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgowshire. He was the son of King James IV of Scotland and his wife, Margaret Tudor, daughter of King Henry VII of England. Seventeen months later, his father was dead. James IV stipulated in his official will that Margaret would be the authorized guardian of their children as long as she was unmarried. Margaret immediately took James to Stirling and had him crowned in the Chapel Royal on September 21, 1513. Margaret insisted she was regent but the regency council saw it differently. After the disastrous defeat of Flodden, they agreed they needed strong leadership and James IV’s cousin, John, Duke of Albany who lived in France, would the best candidate to rule as regent.
Margaret managed to retain the regency for her son until she made a disastrous mistake in the eyes of the council. Margaret had made peace with England after Flodden but she was insisting on a perpetual peace. She needed another husband to help her. In March of 1514 she met Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus and by August she had married him. The regency council said she had violated the terms of James IV’s will by marrying and forfeited her position as regent. They deposed her. They sent word to the Duke of Albany in France that he was needed in Scotland and he came in May of 1515. Albany insisted the young King be governed by a council of eight men. Margaret resisted but finally gave in and left for England.
Under Albany, the young king was well dressed, had a mule to ride and his own minstrel. He alternated living between the castles of Edinburgh, Stirling and Craigmillar. James does not seem to have received the extensive education his father had. His lack of education was remarked upon by chroniclers. The records indicate he had a tutor from age five to thirteen but he was more inclined to learn the rules of chivalry and courtesy. He learned riding, shooting, archery and sword play and he may have learned some music, dancing, games and tales from his gentleman usher. When James was thirteen he wanted an adult sword as opposed to a smaller child’s sword.
Albany’s regency was relatively peaceful and lasted until 1524. Albany never coveted the throne for himself and showed great skill in handling all the warring factions in Scotland. He administered justice and upheld the law but proceeded to drain the Scottish treasury, nearly leaving the country bankrupt. He was to travel back and forth between Scotland and France during his regency. Margaret was to return to Scotland from England in 1517 when Albany wanted to leave the country and she was to get along well with Albany.
The Duke of Albany pursued a pro-French policy throughout his regency and James was to continue this when he became king, probably due to Albany’s influence. Albany’s greatest achievement was the negotiation of the Treaty of Rouen in 1517. The treaty stipulated that James V would marry one of the King of France’s daughters. Albany broke ties with Scotland in 1524 and left, leaving Margaret as regent. Margaret was struggling to retain control. Her marriage to Angus had collapsed in acrimony and she was seeking a divorce. Margaret’s time as regent was to end by 1526. Struggles broke out between the Hamilton family and the Earl of Angus. A scheme was devised where custody of James would rotate between four factions in three month installments. This arrangement failed when Angus’ had custody of the king and refused to turn James over to the next faction when his three months was up. James adored his mother and was very upset when Angus made himself Chancellor, kept him from his mother, gave all his relatives appointments in his household and virtually kept James prisoner for two years.
Angus dressed James in fine clothes, indulged his every impulse and introduced him to many inappropriate pleasures to keep him occupied. It is said that Angus deliberately encouraged James to have amorous adventures beginning when he was fourteen or fifteen years old to distract him from exercising political power. His first illegitimate child was born when he was seventeen. While there are some names, kinship connections and births listed, very little is known about James’ many mistresses. They were probably mostly daughters of nobles in the king’s service. There were probably countless other mistresses we know nothing about and possibly other children too. By the time of James’ second marriage in 1538, James had seven acknowledged illegitimate sons and two illegitimate daughters. With all the turmoil and indulgence experienced by James at such a young age, he began to have a tendency toward being high strung, neurotic and emotionally unstable.
James was staying in Edinburgh Castle in early June of 1528. He knew the castle would be lightly guarded and let it be known he wanted to go out hunting early in the morning. He managed to make a dramatic escape from Edinburgh and made his way to his mother at Stirling Castle. One of the first things he did was come down hard on Angus and his family for his ill treatment during the regency. Parliament passed the death sentence against Angus three months later and Angus escaped to France. James was to begin his own personal rule as a dynamic king with clear views of his own and no longer relied on his mother or anyone else for direction.
James’ rule was to be dominated in foreign policy by shifting alliances between Scotland and France, England, the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy. At home, his kingdom was fractured. He began to work on creating peace and stability. He negotiated a treaty with England in 1528 that lasted for five years and then turned his attention to Scotland. He started out with punitive raids on the border area between Scotland and England in 1529 and 1530 which were very effective. He managed peace but the Lairds began to resent James and no longer trusted him. He then turned his attention to the Western Isles and the Highlands, trying to bring them under crown control. In 1531, he negotiated a peace agreement among warring chieftains in the Western Isles but again created enmity with the nobles. In James’ attempts to apply the rule of law, he could be repressive. His behavior alternated between high bouts of energy and black depressions. The nobles were always ready to accept bribes from James’ uncle, King Henry VIII of England.
James was serious about defending his realm and spent money on his navy and fortifications and rearmament. He negotiated with the Pope by promising to keep Scotland Catholic as his uncle Henry VIII worked to make Scotland Protestant. In order to not break with the Church, he accepted an annuity from the Pope and replenished the Scottish treasury. He also gave some of his illegitimate children abbeys and priories in Scotland so he could appropriate their revenues. He obtained papal agreement to heavily tax the Church, promising to use the money to fund a college for justice which he did at Edinburgh in 1532. But most of the money went into building and renovating royal palaces.
All the major royal residences received renovations with most of the work done on Falkland and Stirling. Extensive building was done on the palace at Holyrood before his marriages. James was a collector of tapestries, plate and jewels and possibly painting and illuminated manuscripts. He loved music and employed many musicians. James was fond of spectacle and ceremonial at his court. He would always enjoy staging and participating in pageants, jousts and tournaments. James would offset the spectacle with religious observance and deep acts of piety. He also gained a reputation for making incognito excursions amongst his regular subjects.
In 1536, James became serious about pursuing the terms of the Treaty of Rouen, strengthening an alliance with France and marrying. This culminated with his visit to France in March of that year. He met and fell passionately in love with the eldest daughter of King Francis I, Madeleine of Valois. The marriage negotiations progressed and the terms of Madeleine’s dowry were set at 100,000 crowns and a pension of 30,000 francs a year. James celebrated the end of the negotiations and then went to the abbey of Cluny for a religious retreat before the wedding. He had spent the time celebrating in a mood of high spirits and may have fallen into a lethargy and depression.
There was a grand entry into Paris. James and Madeleine were married in January of 1537 at the cathedral of Notre-Dame. The festivities lasted until May when James and Madeleine left for Scotland. After arriving in Scotland, Madeleine, who was already in bad health, began to become very ill, suffering from frightening bouts of fever and catarrh. She probably suffered from tuberculosis as her mother, Queen Claude did. Madeleine was to die on July 7, 1537 in her husband’s arms at Holyroodhouse.
James sent word to King Francis that his daughter had died and he was seeking a second wife. King Francis chose the widow of the Duke of Longueville, Marie of Guise. In June of 1538, James and Marie were married at St. Andrews. Marie did not become pregnant until September of 1539. A son, James, was born in May of 1540. In March of 1541, Marie was pregnant again and James was exhibiting signs of paranoia and depression. A second son, Robert, was born on April 12. On April 21, baby James died and a few days later Robert died. James and Marie were devastated.
James was increasingly at odds with his nobles by this time although he remained popular with the general public. James and Marie went on a tour of Scotland in the summer of 1541 and the nation shared in the grief of the death of the young princes. In May of 1542, Marie was pregnant again.
Relations between Scotland and England had seriously deteriorated. There was an anticipated meeting between James and Henry VIII. Henry travelled north but under the advice of King Francis I of France, James did not attend the meeting. Henry was threatening to attack France and Scotland’s treaty with France called for Scotland to attack England. There was no formal declaration of war but there was a series of conflicts on the border and Henry’s men under the Duke of Norfolk crossed into Scottish territory that summer. James’ army followed Norfolk but refused to enter England. James met the English army at Solway Moss on November 24, 1542. James’ nobles refused to support him and the army fell into confusion and disorder, making an English victory easy. Hardly anyone was killed but James’ army was routed.
The battle was a huge setback to James, humiliating him personally and greatly damaging his forces. He went to Linlithgow to see Marie where she awaited the birth of her child and then travelled to Falkland Palace and retired to his bed with a fever. Marie gave birth to a daughter named Mary on December 8th. James had no male heir, no support from his nobles and was unable to fight the English effectively. James was to die on December 14, possibly depressed over the military loss combined with dysentery. He was buried next to his first wife Madeleine at Holyrood Abbey. James’ newborn daughter was to become the ill-fated Mary Queen of Scots.
Further reading: “The Princelie Majestie: The Court of James V of Scotland, 1528-1542” by Andrea Thomas, “The Sisters of Henry VIII” by Maria Perry, “The Kings and Queens of Scotland” edited by Richard Oram, “The Royal Stuarts” by Allan Massie, “British Kings and Queens” by Mike Ashley, “Mary of Guise” by Rosalind K. Marshall | <urn:uuid:8064b76d-00d5-4160-925a-2f083c68fd08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thefreelancehistorywriter.com/tag/archibald-douglas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.990679 | 2,524 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.00089984515... | 22 | King James IV seemed to have recklessly led the flower of Scottish nobility into a deadly battle against the English at Flodden Field on September 9, 1513. He was to die in battle leaving his only legitimate surviving son and heir, James, as king when he was only seventeen months old. Half of James V reign was to take place during his minority.
James V was born on April 10, 1512 at Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgowshire. He was the son of King James IV of Scotland and his wife, Margaret Tudor, daughter of King Henry VII of England. Seventeen months later, his father was dead. James IV stipulated in his official will that Margaret would be the authorized guardian of their children as long as she was unmarried. Margaret immediately took James to Stirling and had him crowned in the Chapel Royal on September 21, 1513. Margaret insisted she was regent but the regency council saw it differently. After the disastrous defeat of Flodden, they agreed they needed strong leadership and James IV’s cousin, John, Duke of Albany who lived in France, would the best candidate to rule as regent.
Margaret managed to retain the regency for her son until she made a disastrous mistake in the eyes of the council. Margaret had made peace with England after Flodden but she was insisting on a perpetual peace. She needed another husband to help her. In March of 1514 she met Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus and by August she had married him. The regency council said she had violated the terms of James IV’s will by marrying and forfeited her position as regent. They deposed her. They sent word to the Duke of Albany in France that he was needed in Scotland and he came in May of 1515. Albany insisted the young King be governed by a council of eight men. Margaret resisted but finally gave in and left for England.
Under Albany, the young king was well dressed, had a mule to ride and his own minstrel. He alternated living between the castles of Edinburgh, Stirling and Craigmillar. James does not seem to have received the extensive education his father had. His lack of education was remarked upon by chroniclers. The records indicate he had a tutor from age five to thirteen but he was more inclined to learn the rules of chivalry and courtesy. He learned riding, shooting, archery and sword play and he may have learned some music, dancing, games and tales from his gentleman usher. When James was thirteen he wanted an adult sword as opposed to a smaller child’s sword.
Albany’s regency was relatively peaceful and lasted until 1524. Albany never coveted the throne for himself and showed great skill in handling all the warring factions in Scotland. He administered justice and upheld the law but proceeded to drain the Scottish treasury, nearly leaving the country bankrupt. He was to travel back and forth between Scotland and France during his regency. Margaret was to return to Scotland from England in 1517 when Albany wanted to leave the country and she was to get along well with Albany.
The Duke of Albany pursued a pro-French policy throughout his regency and James was to continue this when he became king, probably due to Albany’s influence. Albany’s greatest achievement was the negotiation of the Treaty of Rouen in 1517. The treaty stipulated that James V would marry one of the King of France’s daughters. Albany broke ties with Scotland in 1524 and left, leaving Margaret as regent. Margaret was struggling to retain control. Her marriage to Angus had collapsed in acrimony and she was seeking a divorce. Margaret’s time as regent was to end by 1526. Struggles broke out between the Hamilton family and the Earl of Angus. A scheme was devised where custody of James would rotate between four factions in three month installments. This arrangement failed when Angus’ had custody of the king and refused to turn James over to the next faction when his three months was up. James adored his mother and was very upset when Angus made himself Chancellor, kept him from his mother, gave all his relatives appointments in his household and virtually kept James prisoner for two years.
Angus dressed James in fine clothes, indulged his every impulse and introduced him to many inappropriate pleasures to keep him occupied. It is said that Angus deliberately encouraged James to have amorous adventures beginning when he was fourteen or fifteen years old to distract him from exercising political power. His first illegitimate child was born when he was seventeen. While there are some names, kinship connections and births listed, very little is known about James’ many mistresses. They were probably mostly daughters of nobles in the king’s service. There were probably countless other mistresses we know nothing about and possibly other children too. By the time of James’ second marriage in 1538, James had seven acknowledged illegitimate sons and two illegitimate daughters. With all the turmoil and indulgence experienced by James at such a young age, he began to have a tendency toward being high strung, neurotic and emotionally unstable.
James was staying in Edinburgh Castle in early June of 1528. He knew the castle would be lightly guarded and let it be known he wanted to go out hunting early in the morning. He managed to make a dramatic escape from Edinburgh and made his way to his mother at Stirling Castle. One of the first things he did was come down hard on Angus and his family for his ill treatment during the regency. Parliament passed the death sentence against Angus three months later and Angus escaped to France. James was to begin his own personal rule as a dynamic king with clear views of his own and no longer relied on his mother or anyone else for direction.
James’ rule was to be dominated in foreign policy by shifting alliances between Scotland and France, England, the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy. At home, his kingdom was fractured. He began to work on creating peace and stability. He negotiated a treaty with England in 1528 that lasted for five years and then turned his attention to Scotland. He started out with punitive raids on the border area between Scotland and England in 1529 and 1530 which were very effective. He managed peace but the Lairds began to resent James and no longer trusted him. He then turned his attention to the Western Isles and the Highlands, trying to bring them under crown control. In 1531, he negotiated a peace agreement among warring chieftains in the Western Isles but again created enmity with the nobles. In James’ attempts to apply the rule of law, he could be repressive. His behavior alternated between high bouts of energy and black depressions. The nobles were always ready to accept bribes from James’ uncle, King Henry VIII of England.
James was serious about defending his realm and spent money on his navy and fortifications and rearmament. He negotiated with the Pope by promising to keep Scotland Catholic as his uncle Henry VIII worked to make Scotland Protestant. In order to not break with the Church, he accepted an annuity from the Pope and replenished the Scottish treasury. He also gave some of his illegitimate children abbeys and priories in Scotland so he could appropriate their revenues. He obtained papal agreement to heavily tax the Church, promising to use the money to fund a college for justice which he did at Edinburgh in 1532. But most of the money went into building and renovating royal palaces.
All the major royal residences received renovations with most of the work done on Falkland and Stirling. Extensive building was done on the palace at Holyrood before his marriages. James was a collector of tapestries, plate and jewels and possibly painting and illuminated manuscripts. He loved music and employed many musicians. James was fond of spectacle and ceremonial at his court. He would always enjoy staging and participating in pageants, jousts and tournaments. James would offset the spectacle with religious observance and deep acts of piety. He also gained a reputation for making incognito excursions amongst his regular subjects.
In 1536, James became serious about pursuing the terms of the Treaty of Rouen, strengthening an alliance with France and marrying. This culminated with his visit to France in March of that year. He met and fell passionately in love with the eldest daughter of King Francis I, Madeleine of Valois. The marriage negotiations progressed and the terms of Madeleine’s dowry were set at 100,000 crowns and a pension of 30,000 francs a year. James celebrated the end of the negotiations and then went to the abbey of Cluny for a religious retreat before the wedding. He had spent the time celebrating in a mood of high spirits and may have fallen into a lethargy and depression.
There was a grand entry into Paris. James and Madeleine were married in January of 1537 at the cathedral of Notre-Dame. The festivities lasted until May when James and Madeleine left for Scotland. After arriving in Scotland, Madeleine, who was already in bad health, began to become very ill, suffering from frightening bouts of fever and catarrh. She probably suffered from tuberculosis as her mother, Queen Claude did. Madeleine was to die on July 7, 1537 in her husband’s arms at Holyroodhouse.
James sent word to King Francis that his daughter had died and he was seeking a second wife. King Francis chose the widow of the Duke of Longueville, Marie of Guise. In June of 1538, James and Marie were married at St. Andrews. Marie did not become pregnant until September of 1539. A son, James, was born in May of 1540. In March of 1541, Marie was pregnant again and James was exhibiting signs of paranoia and depression. A second son, Robert, was born on April 12. On April 21, baby James died and a few days later Robert died. James and Marie were devastated.
James was increasingly at odds with his nobles by this time although he remained popular with the general public. James and Marie went on a tour of Scotland in the summer of 1541 and the nation shared in the grief of the death of the young princes. In May of 1542, Marie was pregnant again.
Relations between Scotland and England had seriously deteriorated. There was an anticipated meeting between James and Henry VIII. Henry travelled north but under the advice of King Francis I of France, James did not attend the meeting. Henry was threatening to attack France and Scotland’s treaty with France called for Scotland to attack England. There was no formal declaration of war but there was a series of conflicts on the border and Henry’s men under the Duke of Norfolk crossed into Scottish territory that summer. James’ army followed Norfolk but refused to enter England. James met the English army at Solway Moss on November 24, 1542. James’ nobles refused to support him and the army fell into confusion and disorder, making an English victory easy. Hardly anyone was killed but James’ army was routed.
The battle was a huge setback to James, humiliating him personally and greatly damaging his forces. He went to Linlithgow to see Marie where she awaited the birth of her child and then travelled to Falkland Palace and retired to his bed with a fever. Marie gave birth to a daughter named Mary on December 8th. James had no male heir, no support from his nobles and was unable to fight the English effectively. James was to die on December 14, possibly depressed over the military loss combined with dysentery. He was buried next to his first wife Madeleine at Holyrood Abbey. James’ newborn daughter was to become the ill-fated Mary Queen of Scots.
Further reading: “The Princelie Majestie: The Court of James V of Scotland, 1528-1542” by Andrea Thomas, “The Sisters of Henry VIII” by Maria Perry, “The Kings and Queens of Scotland” edited by Richard Oram, “The Royal Stuarts” by Allan Massie, “British Kings and Queens” by Mike Ashley, “Mary of Guise” by Rosalind K. Marshall | 2,584 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Michael Russell
When the Republicans won in the 1860 election and Abraham Lincoln was the President-elect, the leaders of the Cotton Belt in the deep South knew perfectly well that although he was not an abolitionist and had never advocated the destruction of slavery in the states, slavery was not safe with him in the White House. They knew the tide was going to turn with a president and a dominant political party in Washington committed to the checking of slavery in the territories. They knew that if slavery was no longer able to expand, it eventually would have to die.
If the Southerners did not feel that they were going to war to defend slavery, they did have a deep feeling that the race question that would confront them if slavery were abolished was more than they could handle. They had been brought up, despite the quietness of their slave population, to suspect that under the surface dangerous violence lurked.
The example of Santo Domingo, where the slaves rose in revolt and massacred all the white people they could get their hands on, was something they never forgot. The Nat Turner Rebellion had pointed in that direction. A few other outbreaks in the South seemed to point the same way. And most Southerners frankly confessed that they did not see how the two races could get along together if the institution of Slavery were removed. If the Southerners were not fighting to preserve slavery, then they were at least fighting to preserve a situation in which they did not have to be afraid of a sudden violent uprising by the slave population.
What made John Brown, for instance, such a hated character in the South, was the fact that his strange abortive raid at Harpers Ferry was designed as a step to stir up a slave rebellion. If it had succeeded, it would undoubtedly have gotten out of hand. Brown was the man to start something like that; not the man to control it. Fortunately, it did not succeed and the country was spared what would have been a very tragic, bloody experience. But the fact that such a tragic, bloody experience seemed to lie below the surface of their lives was a frightening thing to the people of the South and helped persuade a great many that safety, for them, lay in getting out of the Union.
The black man in the North was not a slave, but he was very definitely not merely a second-class citizen, but a third or fourth-class citizen. He had few rights, practically no privileges, and no social standing whatever. In general, the poorest jobs, the lowest wages, and the worst housing were reserved for him. In some cases, indeed, it was possible to argue that some slaves in the South might be better off than black people were in the North, strictly from the standpoint of food, clothing, housing, and general treatment. Of course, that argument missed the point because, above everything else, the slave wanted his freedom and he was willing to pay a high price for it; and he did. The rest of the country paid an equal price to get it for him.
When the war began and Northern armies moved down into the South, the soldiers in the Northern armies discovered that the black men who were all around them were somehow on their side. The soldiers felt that they were in a foreign country, simply because slavery did not exist there. They passed the plantations with their slave quarters behind the big house and the work gangs out in the field. This was not life in Ohio or Pennsylvania.
This was foreign; it was different. The people here were enemies and yet, somehow these black folk were friendly. If a soldier was lost from his unit, or had straggled after a battle and did not know where he was or how to get back, it was the black people who would help him. They would give him something to eat, they would put him on the road, they would help him dodge the Confederate patrols; they were always on his side. Furthermore, they soon clustered around the camps and the Northern soldier began to realize that there was something wrong with the argument that the slaves were contented with their lot.
Compiled by Kathy Weiser-Alexander, updated December 2019.
About the Author: Michael Russell Your Independent guide to Civil War. Additionally, Mr. Russell has been involved in online business since early 2001, and whilst spending countless hours each month running his business still finds time for various hobbies and interests.
Article Source: Ezine Articles | <urn:uuid:1783ad66-03b1-4738-8267-cc59153ff13d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.legendsofamerica.com/ah-civilwarcurtain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00276.warc.gz | en | 0.992783 | 902 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.5673329830169... | 3 | By Michael Russell
When the Republicans won in the 1860 election and Abraham Lincoln was the President-elect, the leaders of the Cotton Belt in the deep South knew perfectly well that although he was not an abolitionist and had never advocated the destruction of slavery in the states, slavery was not safe with him in the White House. They knew the tide was going to turn with a president and a dominant political party in Washington committed to the checking of slavery in the territories. They knew that if slavery was no longer able to expand, it eventually would have to die.
If the Southerners did not feel that they were going to war to defend slavery, they did have a deep feeling that the race question that would confront them if slavery were abolished was more than they could handle. They had been brought up, despite the quietness of their slave population, to suspect that under the surface dangerous violence lurked.
The example of Santo Domingo, where the slaves rose in revolt and massacred all the white people they could get their hands on, was something they never forgot. The Nat Turner Rebellion had pointed in that direction. A few other outbreaks in the South seemed to point the same way. And most Southerners frankly confessed that they did not see how the two races could get along together if the institution of Slavery were removed. If the Southerners were not fighting to preserve slavery, then they were at least fighting to preserve a situation in which they did not have to be afraid of a sudden violent uprising by the slave population.
What made John Brown, for instance, such a hated character in the South, was the fact that his strange abortive raid at Harpers Ferry was designed as a step to stir up a slave rebellion. If it had succeeded, it would undoubtedly have gotten out of hand. Brown was the man to start something like that; not the man to control it. Fortunately, it did not succeed and the country was spared what would have been a very tragic, bloody experience. But the fact that such a tragic, bloody experience seemed to lie below the surface of their lives was a frightening thing to the people of the South and helped persuade a great many that safety, for them, lay in getting out of the Union.
The black man in the North was not a slave, but he was very definitely not merely a second-class citizen, but a third or fourth-class citizen. He had few rights, practically no privileges, and no social standing whatever. In general, the poorest jobs, the lowest wages, and the worst housing were reserved for him. In some cases, indeed, it was possible to argue that some slaves in the South might be better off than black people were in the North, strictly from the standpoint of food, clothing, housing, and general treatment. Of course, that argument missed the point because, above everything else, the slave wanted his freedom and he was willing to pay a high price for it; and he did. The rest of the country paid an equal price to get it for him.
When the war began and Northern armies moved down into the South, the soldiers in the Northern armies discovered that the black men who were all around them were somehow on their side. The soldiers felt that they were in a foreign country, simply because slavery did not exist there. They passed the plantations with their slave quarters behind the big house and the work gangs out in the field. This was not life in Ohio or Pennsylvania.
This was foreign; it was different. The people here were enemies and yet, somehow these black folk were friendly. If a soldier was lost from his unit, or had straggled after a battle and did not know where he was or how to get back, it was the black people who would help him. They would give him something to eat, they would put him on the road, they would help him dodge the Confederate patrols; they were always on his side. Furthermore, they soon clustered around the camps and the Northern soldier began to realize that there was something wrong with the argument that the slaves were contented with their lot.
Compiled by Kathy Weiser-Alexander, updated December 2019.
About the Author: Michael Russell Your Independent guide to Civil War. Additionally, Mr. Russell has been involved in online business since early 2001, and whilst spending countless hours each month running his business still finds time for various hobbies and interests.
Article Source: Ezine Articles | 901 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Newspaper editor John O’Sullivan is generally credited with coining the term manifest destiny in 1845 to describe the essence of this mindset, which was a rhetorical tone; however, the unsigned editorial titled “Annexation” in which it first appeared was arguably written by journalist and annexation advocate Jane Cazneau. The term was used by Democrats in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico and it was also used to divide half of Oregon with Great Britain. However, manifest destiny always limped along because of its internal limitations and the issue of slavery, says Merk. It never became a national priority. By 1843, former U. S. President John Quincy Adams, originally a major supporter of the concept underlying manifest destiny, had changed his mind and repudiated expansionism because it meant the expansion of slavery in Texas. | <urn:uuid:bc7944dc-7627-4772-94ec-4a2f7121e014> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mister-twister.club/manifest-destiny-coloring-pages/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.985783 | 171 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.1323388665914... | 2 | Newspaper editor John O’Sullivan is generally credited with coining the term manifest destiny in 1845 to describe the essence of this mindset, which was a rhetorical tone; however, the unsigned editorial titled “Annexation” in which it first appeared was arguably written by journalist and annexation advocate Jane Cazneau. The term was used by Democrats in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico and it was also used to divide half of Oregon with Great Britain. However, manifest destiny always limped along because of its internal limitations and the issue of slavery, says Merk. It never became a national priority. By 1843, former U. S. President John Quincy Adams, originally a major supporter of the concept underlying manifest destiny, had changed his mind and repudiated expansionism because it meant the expansion of slavery in Texas. | 180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Atlantic slave trade also known as the transatlantic slave trade was majorly the enslaving and transferring of Africans to work for the colonies in their homelands. The trade was carried out across the Atlantic Ocean and it existed for 3 centuries from 16th to 19th century. The origin of this trade can be traced back to 1500 when social patterns were still a unique feature in the society. The high class people used to force the low class people to work for them to do manual duties and as servants. The rulers were the majority group undermining their juniors. The Americans on the other hand used their natives as slaves to work on large tracks of land but due to constant internal and external attacks and increase in infectious diseases it wipe out a large population of slaves and there was need to replace them urgently so as to work on the farms. They had to import salves from other countries and this lead to international slave trade (Inikori & Engerman, 1992).
Buy The Atlantic Trade essay paper online
Agriculture was the only source of livelihood and the products were then used for commercial purposes. Before long, the westerners arrived in Africa for exploration. They were mainly Europeans and they had goods such as firearms, jewelry, carts. The main form of trade at that time was batter trade and in exchange of their goods, the Europeans wanted slaves. Due to the greed for commercialization and misuse of power, the African kings exchanged their slaves with European goods (Klein, 2010). Other Africans opposing the kings and businessmen also took part in slave trade secretly as competition and as heat back to the kings. The slave traded were mostly captives and prisoners of wars. The kings on the other hand sold those who were troublesome in the society as a way of reducing crimes and disciplining them (Inikori & Engerman, 1992).
After trading with the Africans, the Europeans transported the slaves to America where they were required to work in the plantation fields. The plantations include sugar, cotton, rice, cocoa and other crops. For exchange of slaves, the Americans gave out their farm products which now the Europeans took back to their country. This therefore formed the triangular pattern of trade which was the other name for the Atlantic trade (Klein, 2010).
The Atlantic slave trade transformed African cultures and heritage considerably. If we start with the economic view, you realize that although slavery was not the only form of trade, it manage to penetrate deeply into the society and was the occupation of most African kings. Since most slaves were prisoners and captives the kings and businessmen benefited a lot. They largely commercialize this activity because of the returns they were getting. Historian Walter Rodney stated that by 1770 the king of Dahomey was taking home more than $ 250,000 annually from this trade. Despite these gains by those in authority, the general economic growth of the country was affected negatively since the man power was being taken away. Instead of people concentrating on the economic activities they were on the run and hiding lest they be found and sold as slaves.
Likewise the political and social patterns were also harmed. The kings and rulers were seen as enemies of the people and this created a big drift to the politics of the day. People no longer used to obey their rulers and soldiers live in a state of fear since they could be sold anytime this lead to constant external attacks since the security was weakening at a very high rate. External tribes and neighboring communities were at risk of being attacked. These led to social sub evils and unrest state of the society. Social patterns was also affected so much that you will find only children, women and the old in the society since men were in hiding and only appear at odd hours. Children lack the attention of both parents since when captured and sold as a slave the probability of one returning back was almost zero. The child birth rate was very low and the mortality rate was high due to incurable diseases, external attacks and attacks by wild animals this led to low population (Klein, 1992).
The transatlantic slave trade has both negative and positive effects on different continents. For example those who benefited from the trade are the Europe, America and Asia while Africa was the greatest loser. Africans were exported to work in the fields and do forced labor in the new world. The whites in turn stabilize their economy through the intense agricultural activities which they exported and earn their countries a lot of foreign exchange. The sell of cotton, tobacco, sugar and cocoa improve the economic growth of the new world and its African slaves who were used to do all this activities (Richardson, 2010).
The population strata was also influenced by the slave trade in that while the population of Africans reduced considerably, the population of the new world was increasing because it was a combination of whites and blacks and when you have high population you are assured of enough man power to stimulate economic growth and development. Also due to enough resources in the new world, industrialization developed at a very high speed hence boosting economic growth. Most Africans were displaced by the colonist since other instead of trading alone they came to settle and they force the natives out of their lands, this affected the natural set up of the indigenous communities (Harrold, 2004).
Abolition movement was an anti slave movement that was established with the aim of ending slavery. Religious groups were the first to start this movement since slavery was not conforming to the religious teachings. At the initial stages they faced a lot of opposition since those who were for it thought that their business was going to be affected. Americans and the Europeans were at the forefront in opposing this movement because they were the most beneficiaries of the trade. There were laws created to free and protect the slaves and accord them full rights. The movement was first meant to enslave the natives but finally it was declared that all people were human and expects the same treatment. Though the journey was not easy the religious organization, the Africans and the government teamed up together and fight for the rights of the people by implementing slavery act which tackle all issues relating to slavery (Richardson, 2010).
Related Free Analytical Essays
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0.17142680287361... | 1 | The Atlantic slave trade also known as the transatlantic slave trade was majorly the enslaving and transferring of Africans to work for the colonies in their homelands. The trade was carried out across the Atlantic Ocean and it existed for 3 centuries from 16th to 19th century. The origin of this trade can be traced back to 1500 when social patterns were still a unique feature in the society. The high class people used to force the low class people to work for them to do manual duties and as servants. The rulers were the majority group undermining their juniors. The Americans on the other hand used their natives as slaves to work on large tracks of land but due to constant internal and external attacks and increase in infectious diseases it wipe out a large population of slaves and there was need to replace them urgently so as to work on the farms. They had to import salves from other countries and this lead to international slave trade (Inikori & Engerman, 1992).
Buy The Atlantic Trade essay paper online
Agriculture was the only source of livelihood and the products were then used for commercial purposes. Before long, the westerners arrived in Africa for exploration. They were mainly Europeans and they had goods such as firearms, jewelry, carts. The main form of trade at that time was batter trade and in exchange of their goods, the Europeans wanted slaves. Due to the greed for commercialization and misuse of power, the African kings exchanged their slaves with European goods (Klein, 2010). Other Africans opposing the kings and businessmen also took part in slave trade secretly as competition and as heat back to the kings. The slave traded were mostly captives and prisoners of wars. The kings on the other hand sold those who were troublesome in the society as a way of reducing crimes and disciplining them (Inikori & Engerman, 1992).
After trading with the Africans, the Europeans transported the slaves to America where they were required to work in the plantation fields. The plantations include sugar, cotton, rice, cocoa and other crops. For exchange of slaves, the Americans gave out their farm products which now the Europeans took back to their country. This therefore formed the triangular pattern of trade which was the other name for the Atlantic trade (Klein, 2010).
The Atlantic slave trade transformed African cultures and heritage considerably. If we start with the economic view, you realize that although slavery was not the only form of trade, it manage to penetrate deeply into the society and was the occupation of most African kings. Since most slaves were prisoners and captives the kings and businessmen benefited a lot. They largely commercialize this activity because of the returns they were getting. Historian Walter Rodney stated that by 1770 the king of Dahomey was taking home more than $ 250,000 annually from this trade. Despite these gains by those in authority, the general economic growth of the country was affected negatively since the man power was being taken away. Instead of people concentrating on the economic activities they were on the run and hiding lest they be found and sold as slaves.
Likewise the political and social patterns were also harmed. The kings and rulers were seen as enemies of the people and this created a big drift to the politics of the day. People no longer used to obey their rulers and soldiers live in a state of fear since they could be sold anytime this lead to constant external attacks since the security was weakening at a very high rate. External tribes and neighboring communities were at risk of being attacked. These led to social sub evils and unrest state of the society. Social patterns was also affected so much that you will find only children, women and the old in the society since men were in hiding and only appear at odd hours. Children lack the attention of both parents since when captured and sold as a slave the probability of one returning back was almost zero. The child birth rate was very low and the mortality rate was high due to incurable diseases, external attacks and attacks by wild animals this led to low population (Klein, 1992).
The transatlantic slave trade has both negative and positive effects on different continents. For example those who benefited from the trade are the Europe, America and Asia while Africa was the greatest loser. Africans were exported to work in the fields and do forced labor in the new world. The whites in turn stabilize their economy through the intense agricultural activities which they exported and earn their countries a lot of foreign exchange. The sell of cotton, tobacco, sugar and cocoa improve the economic growth of the new world and its African slaves who were used to do all this activities (Richardson, 2010).
The population strata was also influenced by the slave trade in that while the population of Africans reduced considerably, the population of the new world was increasing because it was a combination of whites and blacks and when you have high population you are assured of enough man power to stimulate economic growth and development. Also due to enough resources in the new world, industrialization developed at a very high speed hence boosting economic growth. Most Africans were displaced by the colonist since other instead of trading alone they came to settle and they force the natives out of their lands, this affected the natural set up of the indigenous communities (Harrold, 2004).
Abolition movement was an anti slave movement that was established with the aim of ending slavery. Religious groups were the first to start this movement since slavery was not conforming to the religious teachings. At the initial stages they faced a lot of opposition since those who were for it thought that their business was going to be affected. Americans and the Europeans were at the forefront in opposing this movement because they were the most beneficiaries of the trade. There were laws created to free and protect the slaves and accord them full rights. The movement was first meant to enslave the natives but finally it was declared that all people were human and expects the same treatment. Though the journey was not easy the religious organization, the Africans and the government teamed up together and fight for the rights of the people by implementing slavery act which tackle all issues relating to slavery (Richardson, 2010).
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Many lumber camps had them. The jumping Frenchmen tended to be shy, ticklish French-Canadians who responded dramatically when startled. They were often the victims of practical jokes.
Beard was a pioneering neurologist who defined the term ‘neurasthenia’ as a medical condition. He went to Moosehead Lake to see jumping Frenchmen with his own eyes. He found what he was looking for.
“When told to strike, he strikes, when told to throw it, he throws it, whatever he has in his hands,” wrote Beard.
But Beard couldn’t figure out what caused the Frenchmen to jump.
A century later, researchers were still trying to figure it out.
Robert Pike, who chronicled life in the Maine lumber camps, wrote that old woodsmen ascribed the Jumping Frenchman syndrome to inbreeding among French-Canadians, who seldom married outside their small villages.
The Jumping Frenchmen were a source of merriment among the loggers.
“If a jumper was shaving, or whistling, or just sitting on a riverbank, and someone came up behind him suddenly and cried, “Jump into the river!” (or “into the fire,” if there was a fire), in he’d jump,” wrote Pike in Tall Trees, Tough Men.
“If someone stepped up behind him and tickled him lightly, he’d jump through the roof… Strangely, the victims of such mean practical jokes never got made about them.”
A cook who was a jumper was an irresistible target. “The men would wait until he was about to place a dish of soup or some other spilly food on the table and then say, “Drop it!” and down it would come, right down the neck of the nearest man,” wrote Pike.
Or if a line of loggers were sitting on the deacon seat – a bench running the length of the bunkhouse – a lumberjack would pretend to strike his neighbor. “Every jumper in the line, if he saw the motion, would turn and strike at his neighbor,” wrote Pike. “Or a man would take his pipe from his mouth and pretend to throw it on the floor. Then the jumpers could not help dashing down their own pipes.”
Beard was struck by the forced obedience shown by the jumping Frenchmen as well as echolalia – the repetition of noises or phrases. Beard recited Latin to a lumberjack, “and he repeated or echoed the sound of the word as it came to him, in a quick sharp voice, at the same time he jumped, or struck, or threw, or raised his shoulders, or made some other violent muscular motion. They could not help repeating the word or sound that came from the person that ordered them…”
Beard found the jumping Frenchman syndrome started in childhood, lasted a lifetime and rarely occurred in women. Of 50 jumping Frenchmen in northern Maine, he found 14 cases in four families.
He didn’t conclude the syndrome was genetic, but speculated it was a temporary degeneration that resulted from life in the isolated lumber camp.
Beard’s research spread around the world, and a search for global variations of Jumping Frenchman syndrome uncovered latah in Malaysia, imu among the Japanese Ainu, miryachit in Russia and ramenajana in Madagascar.
Gilles de la Tourette translated Beard’s findings, and concluded Jumping Frenchman syndrome was part of a group of convulsive tic illnesses that included Tourette syndrome.
Neurologists picked up Beard’s research in the 1960s, debating whether Jumping Frenchman syndrome was a nervous disorder or a habit.
They’re Very Bored
In 1963, Harold Stevens studied a 59-year-old French-Canadian man whose father had worked as a lumberjack in northern Maine. He was easily startled and jumped about 10 inches off the bed when struck by a reflex hammer. He reacted the same way when the telephone rang.
Two years later, a Canadian neurologist named Reuben Rabinovitch wrote about his childhood experiences with Jumping Frenchmen in Quebec. When lumberjacks set up camp near his village in the spring, the children would play the horse-kicking game. Sneaking up on a jumper, a child would suddenly poke him while making a neighing sound. The victim would jump up and shout angrily.
Rabinovitch concluded the Jumping Frenchman syndrome was a conditioned reflex that grew out of the isolation and boredom of life in the lumber camp. When the traditional logging camp died out, so did jumping. In 1986, two Canadian neurologists studied eight jumpers in Quebec. They found the behavior started when the men began work as lumberjacks.
With thanks to Outbreak!: The Encyclopedia of Extraordinary Social Behavior by Hilary Evans, Robert E. Bartholomew. This story was updated in 2019. | <urn:uuid:6bb04167-9631-4641-9576-081b58a3d288> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/jumping-frenchmen-maine/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.981174 | 1,045 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.38726651668548584... | 4 | Many lumber camps had them. The jumping Frenchmen tended to be shy, ticklish French-Canadians who responded dramatically when startled. They were often the victims of practical jokes.
Beard was a pioneering neurologist who defined the term ‘neurasthenia’ as a medical condition. He went to Moosehead Lake to see jumping Frenchmen with his own eyes. He found what he was looking for.
“When told to strike, he strikes, when told to throw it, he throws it, whatever he has in his hands,” wrote Beard.
But Beard couldn’t figure out what caused the Frenchmen to jump.
A century later, researchers were still trying to figure it out.
Robert Pike, who chronicled life in the Maine lumber camps, wrote that old woodsmen ascribed the Jumping Frenchman syndrome to inbreeding among French-Canadians, who seldom married outside their small villages.
The Jumping Frenchmen were a source of merriment among the loggers.
“If a jumper was shaving, or whistling, or just sitting on a riverbank, and someone came up behind him suddenly and cried, “Jump into the river!” (or “into the fire,” if there was a fire), in he’d jump,” wrote Pike in Tall Trees, Tough Men.
“If someone stepped up behind him and tickled him lightly, he’d jump through the roof… Strangely, the victims of such mean practical jokes never got made about them.”
A cook who was a jumper was an irresistible target. “The men would wait until he was about to place a dish of soup or some other spilly food on the table and then say, “Drop it!” and down it would come, right down the neck of the nearest man,” wrote Pike.
Or if a line of loggers were sitting on the deacon seat – a bench running the length of the bunkhouse – a lumberjack would pretend to strike his neighbor. “Every jumper in the line, if he saw the motion, would turn and strike at his neighbor,” wrote Pike. “Or a man would take his pipe from his mouth and pretend to throw it on the floor. Then the jumpers could not help dashing down their own pipes.”
Beard was struck by the forced obedience shown by the jumping Frenchmen as well as echolalia – the repetition of noises or phrases. Beard recited Latin to a lumberjack, “and he repeated or echoed the sound of the word as it came to him, in a quick sharp voice, at the same time he jumped, or struck, or threw, or raised his shoulders, or made some other violent muscular motion. They could not help repeating the word or sound that came from the person that ordered them…”
Beard found the jumping Frenchman syndrome started in childhood, lasted a lifetime and rarely occurred in women. Of 50 jumping Frenchmen in northern Maine, he found 14 cases in four families.
He didn’t conclude the syndrome was genetic, but speculated it was a temporary degeneration that resulted from life in the isolated lumber camp.
Beard’s research spread around the world, and a search for global variations of Jumping Frenchman syndrome uncovered latah in Malaysia, imu among the Japanese Ainu, miryachit in Russia and ramenajana in Madagascar.
Gilles de la Tourette translated Beard’s findings, and concluded Jumping Frenchman syndrome was part of a group of convulsive tic illnesses that included Tourette syndrome.
Neurologists picked up Beard’s research in the 1960s, debating whether Jumping Frenchman syndrome was a nervous disorder or a habit.
They’re Very Bored
In 1963, Harold Stevens studied a 59-year-old French-Canadian man whose father had worked as a lumberjack in northern Maine. He was easily startled and jumped about 10 inches off the bed when struck by a reflex hammer. He reacted the same way when the telephone rang.
Two years later, a Canadian neurologist named Reuben Rabinovitch wrote about his childhood experiences with Jumping Frenchmen in Quebec. When lumberjacks set up camp near his village in the spring, the children would play the horse-kicking game. Sneaking up on a jumper, a child would suddenly poke him while making a neighing sound. The victim would jump up and shout angrily.
Rabinovitch concluded the Jumping Frenchman syndrome was a conditioned reflex that grew out of the isolation and boredom of life in the lumber camp. When the traditional logging camp died out, so did jumping. In 1986, two Canadian neurologists studied eight jumpers in Quebec. They found the behavior started when the men began work as lumberjacks.
With thanks to Outbreak!: The Encyclopedia of Extraordinary Social Behavior by Hilary Evans, Robert E. Bartholomew. This story was updated in 2019. | 1,007 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Garrett Morgan?
With only an elementary school education, Garrett Morgan, born in Kentucky on March 4, 1877, began his career as a sewing-machine mechanic. He went on to patent several inventions, including an improved sewing machine and traffic signal, a hair-straightening product, and a respiratory device that would later provide the blueprint for WWI gas masks. The inventor died on July 27, 1963, in Cleveland, Ohio.
Born in Paris, Kentucky, on March 4, 1877, Garrett Morgan was the seventh of 11 children. His mother, Elizabeth Reed, was of Indian and African descent, and the daughter of a Baptist minister. His father, Sydney, a former slave freed in 1863, was the son of John Hunt Morgan, a Confederate colonel. Garrett Morgan's mixed-race heritage would play a part in his business dealings as an adult.
When Morgan was in his mid-teens, he moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, to look for work, and found it as a handyman to a wealthy landowner. Although he only completed an elementary school education, Morgan was able to pay for more lessons from a private tutor. But jobs at several sewing-machine factories were to soon capture his imagination and determine his future. Learning the inner workings of the machines and how to fix them, Morgan obtained a patent for an improved sewing machine and opened his own repair business.
Morgan's business was a success, and it enabled him to marry a Bavarian woman named Mary Anne Hassek, and establish himself in Cleveland. (He and his wife would have three sons during their marriage.)
G.A. Morgan Hair Refining Company
Following the momentum of his business success, Morgan's patented sewing machine would soon pave the way to his financial freedom, albeit in a rather unorthodox way: In 1909, Morgan was working with sewing machines in his newly opened tailoring shop — a business he had opened with wife Mary, who had experience as a seamstress — when he encountered woolen fabric that had been scorched by a sewing-machine needle. It was a common problem at the time since sewing-machine needles ran at such high speeds. In hopes of alleviating the problem, Morgan experimented with a chemical solution in an effort to reduce friction created by the needle and subsequently noticed that the hairs of the cloth were straighter.
After trying his solution to good effect on a neighboring dog's fur, Morgan finally tested the concoction on himself. When that worked, he quickly established the G.A. Morgan Hair Refining Company and sold the cream to African Americans. The company was incredibly successful, bringing Morgan financial security and allowing him to pursue other interests.
In 1914, Morgan patented a breathing device, or "safety hood," providing its wearers with a safer breathing experience in the presence of smoke, gases and other pollutants. Morgan worked hard to market the device, especially to fire departments, often personally demonstrating its reliability in fires. Morgan's breathing device became the prototype and precursor for the gas masks used during World War I, protecting soldiers from toxic gas used in warfare. The invention earned him the first prize at the Second International Exposition of Safety and Sanitation in New York City.
There was some resistance to Morgan's devices among buyers, particularly in the South, where racial tension remained palpable despite advancements in African American rights. In an effort to counteract the resistance to his products, Morgan hired a white actor to pose as "the inventor" during presentations of his breathing device; Morgan would pose as the inventor's sidekick, disguised as a Native American man named "Big Chief Mason," and, wearing his hood, enter areas otherwise unsafe for breathing. The tactic was successful; sales of the device were brisk, especially from firefighters and rescue workers.
Cleveland Tunnel Explosion
In 1916, the city of Cleveland was drilling a new tunnel under Lake Erie for a fresh water supply. Workers hit a pocket of natural gas, which resulted in a huge explosion and trapped workers underground amidst suffocating noxious fumes and dust. When Morgan heard about the explosion, he and his brother put on breathing devices, made their way to the tunnel and entered as quickly as possible. The brothers managed to save two lives and recover four bodies before the rescue effort was shut down.
Despite his heroic efforts, the publicity that Morgan garnered from the incident hurt sales; the public was now fully aware that Morgan was an African American, and many refused to purchase his products. Adding to the detriment, neither the inventor nor his brother were fully recognized for their heroic efforts at Lake Erie — possibly another effect of racial discrimination. Morgan was nominated for a Carnegie Medal for his efforts, but ultimately wasn't chosen to receive the award. Additionally, some reports of the explosion named others as the rescuers.
While the public's lack of acknowledgment for Morgan's and his brother's roles at the Cleveland explosion was undoubtedly disheartening, Morgan was a voracious inventor and observer who focused on fixing problems and soon turned his attention to all kinds of things, from hats to belt fasteners to car parts.
The first black man in Cleveland to own a car, Morgan worked on his mechanical skills and developed a friction drive clutch. Then, in 1923, he created a new kind of traffic signal, one with a warning light to alert drivers that they would need to stop, after witnessing a carriage accident at a particularly problematic intersection in the city. Morgan quickly acquired patents for his traffic signal—a rudimentary version of the modern three-way traffic light—in the United States, Britain and Canada, but eventually sold the rights to General Electric for $40,000.
Death and Legacy
Morgan began developing glaucoma in 1943 and lost most of his sight as a result. The accomplished inventor died in Cleveland, Ohio, on July 27, 1963, shortly before the celebration of the Emancipation Proclamation centennial, an event he had been awaiting. Just before his death, Morgan was honored by the U.S. government for his traffic signal invention, and he was eventually restored to his place in history as a hero of the Lake Erie rescue.
Morgan improved and saved countless lives worldwide, including those of firefighters, soldiers and vehicle operators, with his profound inventions. His work provided the blueprint for many important advancements that came later and continues to inspire and serve as a basis for research conducted by modern-day inventors and engineers.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | <urn:uuid:70a9b620-e212-4db2-aa9b-6e6113b77680> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/inventor/garrett-morgan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00552.warc.gz | en | 0.985687 | 1,320 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.11053934693336487... | 2 | Who Was Garrett Morgan?
With only an elementary school education, Garrett Morgan, born in Kentucky on March 4, 1877, began his career as a sewing-machine mechanic. He went on to patent several inventions, including an improved sewing machine and traffic signal, a hair-straightening product, and a respiratory device that would later provide the blueprint for WWI gas masks. The inventor died on July 27, 1963, in Cleveland, Ohio.
Born in Paris, Kentucky, on March 4, 1877, Garrett Morgan was the seventh of 11 children. His mother, Elizabeth Reed, was of Indian and African descent, and the daughter of a Baptist minister. His father, Sydney, a former slave freed in 1863, was the son of John Hunt Morgan, a Confederate colonel. Garrett Morgan's mixed-race heritage would play a part in his business dealings as an adult.
When Morgan was in his mid-teens, he moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, to look for work, and found it as a handyman to a wealthy landowner. Although he only completed an elementary school education, Morgan was able to pay for more lessons from a private tutor. But jobs at several sewing-machine factories were to soon capture his imagination and determine his future. Learning the inner workings of the machines and how to fix them, Morgan obtained a patent for an improved sewing machine and opened his own repair business.
Morgan's business was a success, and it enabled him to marry a Bavarian woman named Mary Anne Hassek, and establish himself in Cleveland. (He and his wife would have three sons during their marriage.)
G.A. Morgan Hair Refining Company
Following the momentum of his business success, Morgan's patented sewing machine would soon pave the way to his financial freedom, albeit in a rather unorthodox way: In 1909, Morgan was working with sewing machines in his newly opened tailoring shop — a business he had opened with wife Mary, who had experience as a seamstress — when he encountered woolen fabric that had been scorched by a sewing-machine needle. It was a common problem at the time since sewing-machine needles ran at such high speeds. In hopes of alleviating the problem, Morgan experimented with a chemical solution in an effort to reduce friction created by the needle and subsequently noticed that the hairs of the cloth were straighter.
After trying his solution to good effect on a neighboring dog's fur, Morgan finally tested the concoction on himself. When that worked, he quickly established the G.A. Morgan Hair Refining Company and sold the cream to African Americans. The company was incredibly successful, bringing Morgan financial security and allowing him to pursue other interests.
In 1914, Morgan patented a breathing device, or "safety hood," providing its wearers with a safer breathing experience in the presence of smoke, gases and other pollutants. Morgan worked hard to market the device, especially to fire departments, often personally demonstrating its reliability in fires. Morgan's breathing device became the prototype and precursor for the gas masks used during World War I, protecting soldiers from toxic gas used in warfare. The invention earned him the first prize at the Second International Exposition of Safety and Sanitation in New York City.
There was some resistance to Morgan's devices among buyers, particularly in the South, where racial tension remained palpable despite advancements in African American rights. In an effort to counteract the resistance to his products, Morgan hired a white actor to pose as "the inventor" during presentations of his breathing device; Morgan would pose as the inventor's sidekick, disguised as a Native American man named "Big Chief Mason," and, wearing his hood, enter areas otherwise unsafe for breathing. The tactic was successful; sales of the device were brisk, especially from firefighters and rescue workers.
Cleveland Tunnel Explosion
In 1916, the city of Cleveland was drilling a new tunnel under Lake Erie for a fresh water supply. Workers hit a pocket of natural gas, which resulted in a huge explosion and trapped workers underground amidst suffocating noxious fumes and dust. When Morgan heard about the explosion, he and his brother put on breathing devices, made their way to the tunnel and entered as quickly as possible. The brothers managed to save two lives and recover four bodies before the rescue effort was shut down.
Despite his heroic efforts, the publicity that Morgan garnered from the incident hurt sales; the public was now fully aware that Morgan was an African American, and many refused to purchase his products. Adding to the detriment, neither the inventor nor his brother were fully recognized for their heroic efforts at Lake Erie — possibly another effect of racial discrimination. Morgan was nominated for a Carnegie Medal for his efforts, but ultimately wasn't chosen to receive the award. Additionally, some reports of the explosion named others as the rescuers.
While the public's lack of acknowledgment for Morgan's and his brother's roles at the Cleveland explosion was undoubtedly disheartening, Morgan was a voracious inventor and observer who focused on fixing problems and soon turned his attention to all kinds of things, from hats to belt fasteners to car parts.
The first black man in Cleveland to own a car, Morgan worked on his mechanical skills and developed a friction drive clutch. Then, in 1923, he created a new kind of traffic signal, one with a warning light to alert drivers that they would need to stop, after witnessing a carriage accident at a particularly problematic intersection in the city. Morgan quickly acquired patents for his traffic signal—a rudimentary version of the modern three-way traffic light—in the United States, Britain and Canada, but eventually sold the rights to General Electric for $40,000.
Death and Legacy
Morgan began developing glaucoma in 1943 and lost most of his sight as a result. The accomplished inventor died in Cleveland, Ohio, on July 27, 1963, shortly before the celebration of the Emancipation Proclamation centennial, an event he had been awaiting. Just before his death, Morgan was honored by the U.S. government for his traffic signal invention, and he was eventually restored to his place in history as a hero of the Lake Erie rescue.
Morgan improved and saved countless lives worldwide, including those of firefighters, soldiers and vehicle operators, with his profound inventions. His work provided the blueprint for many important advancements that came later and continues to inspire and serve as a basis for research conducted by modern-day inventors and engineers.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 1,349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is the second episode from the Best Sellers in History series. This series talks about some of the most successful people and sellers in history. We’ll talk about who they are and what made them so successful.
Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States of America and led the nation during some of the most turbulent times in American history, such as the Civil War. It was the bloodiest war and the greatest constitutional and political crisis faced by the U.S. at that time. President Lincoln persevered and was able to abolish slavery, strengthen the federal government and modernized the U.S. economy. Despite humble beginnings, Abraham Lincoln became one of the greatest statesmen leaders in our nation’s history.
A half-hour long episode isn’t enough time to discuss what made Abraham Lincoln persuasive and successful in his career. However, we can highlight The Gettysburg Address to illustrate how President Abraham Lincoln had the power of persuasion. Here are the four points we’ll be looking at in this episode:
In the era of Abraham Lincoln
In the early 1800s, slavery in the United States was a very common thing. At its height, there were 700,000 individuals who were slaves. The first slaves came into the country as early as 1619 and slavery was finally abolished in the year 1865. For 246 years slavery was entrenched in the U.S. economy and modern society. It was a fact of life and it brought in so much money that by today’s standards, slavery would account for roughly $6 billion. It’s been 154 years since Abraham Lincoln abolished slavery and still, slavery lasted almost a hundred years longer than we’ve known our country without it!
Abraham Lincoln was raised in Kentucky and eventually, it became a slave state. His father who was a farmer but they eventually had to leave their smaller farm. Larger farms had slaves and they couldn’t compete with the manpower. In addition, his father was a Christian and didn’t believe in slavery. Thomas Lincoln took his family and would move several more times before eventually settling in Illinois where Abraham Lincoln grew into adulthood. Lincoln married and his wife’s father had his own slaves. Through this exposure, Lincoln came to know how slavery operated and he didn’t like it.
Slavery was big business and everywhere. It was a system where some of the most influential people were involved. It would be a difficult system to change but Lincoln didn’t believe that people should be property. It became his passion to reverse slavery. When he became a president in 1860, many from the southern states weren’t happy about it. They looked at it as the North trying to impose their rights over their way of life and their economy. This eventually led to the bloodiest war in the U.S., the Civil War. The nation was divided. Family members who fought on different sides killed each other. This went on from 1861 to 1865. It was a difficult time for the nation. Democracy was hanging by a thread and with the war going on, everything was falling apart.
Through the need to unify, The Gettysburg Address was written. The four lessons highlighted in today’s episode came from this famous speech.
The Gettysburg Address was delivered in an attempt to pull the nation together. Abraham Lincoln wanted people to recognize they weren’t just the north and south but one nation.
Tim David wrote an article about this and he pointed out the lessons from the address, The first was the power of storytelling. He emphasized that the opening line of the Gettysburg Address was a story about our forefathers and their legacy. From the very first line of his speech, people wanted to know where Abraham Lincoln was going with his story.
Abraham Lincoln was a self-educated man. While kids during this time were working in the field, Lincoln was reading books. There were traveling teachers and when they came around, he’d get a formal education, but still, it wasn’t enough on its own. Most of his education stemmed from his desire to learn. He was dedicated to his education and as he read, he learned the power of a story and how it can make an impact when written well.
As a sales rep, you need to be able to engage your prospect with a story that is grounded in reality. Talk to your prospects about a successful experience you had with a client. Help your prospects see the positive results that can come from working with you. Instead of just talking about the benefits of your products and services, offering a real scenario can help to illustrate the point better. Talk about how you helped previous clients and their companies. For example, a social media marketer may say, “We helped ____ generate X amount of return with their social media ads. If I could share with you how we did it in just 5 minutes, would you be open to a conversation with us?”
Like Abraham Lincoln, use a quick story to pique their interest.
Abraham Lincoln looked for common ground.
With the war over, Lincoln wanted to make sure his speech would unify a divided nation. The time was ripe for rebuilding the country. Abraham Lincoln looked for common ground to ensure that his message would speak to the hearts of his people. He knew that regardless of where they came from, both Northerners and Southerners loved their nation. They fought together against the English, against the mother empire, and they won. He implored everyone to bring back that feeling of solidarity when the union was founded. Abraham Lincoln used the word Liberty because it was something that would resonate through the hearts of his listeners.
He capitalized on the American ideal and it made his speech compelling. His writings are persuasive because he knows exactly what topics people are passionate about.
Sales reps can utilize this skill, especially when meeting with prospects. It is your job to make them feel connected and have common ground. Donald Miller’s book uses Joseph Campbell’s idea of The Hero’s Journey. It is the story of a hero who is transformed after the difficulties he faced in war. As the salesperson, your role is the guide.. As the guide, you’re not trying to take over or compete with your client, you’re trying to move your prospect to action.
Before the meeting, do the research to find common ground. It may be the school attended or other notable experience or hobby. Bring up topics that both you and your prospects love to talk about. Always follow the basics: Build rapport and help them realize you’re coming from common ground.
Tim David pointed out how Abraham Lincoln used words that made people feel connected to him. He used a lot of personal pronouns like ours to help develop rapport and to create a sense of togetherness. The use of personal pronouns increased Lincoln’s status in the minds of his audience.
Tim continued to emphasize this point with James Pennebaker’s studies about how people use functional words such as pronouns. In his book, The Secret Life of Pronouns, he wrote that in any interaction between people, the person with a higher status uses fewer “I” words and instead, uses first-person plural pronouns such as we, us, and ours.
Abraham Lincoln’s use of personal pronouns early on in his speech allowed the audience to recognize his authority and role as a guide. They were able to classify him as someone they could listen to. Because he established his authority, people were willing to listen.
From a sales perspective, we can do the same thing when talking to prospects. Use inclusive personal pronouns in your conversations as you talk about common ground.
This will make your prospect feel involved in the process and let them know you’re there to help them. Assure them you are committed to their problem and you are there to work with them to come up with a solution.
Speak as if you are part of their organization.
Abraham Lincoln was particularly skilled at offering compelling reasons for people to do something different.
Salespeople want to have influence as well. We want to give prospects reasons to change and take action. Tim shared a 1970 Harvard Psychology research led by Helen Langer. In her study, she discovered that saying the word because increases your persuasive power from 60% to 92% even when you don’t actually have a compelling reason.
Tim has a concept called ABT or the Advanced Because Techniques. Abraham Lincoln may not have literally said because in his speech but even without using the word, he made the entire Gettysburg Address a speech that answers the question why.
Lincoln was giving compelling reasons to many Whys:
People responded to his speech because he gave compelling reasons. They saw the bigger purpose
Salespeople can’t just state facts about products and services. You need to give them the reasons why your products and services will work out to their advantage. Examples are as follows:
When you give them compelling reasons, people will take action.
We are no Abraham Lincoln and we are not facing a divided nation, however, we have daily battles and regardless of the severity, we can still use these principles in overcoming sales difficulties.
This episode is brought to you in part by TSE Certified Sales Training Program. It’s a course designed to help new and struggling sellers to master the fundamentals of sales and close more deals. Sign up now and get the first two modules for free! You can also call us at (561) 570-5077.
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We’d love for you to join us for our next episodes so tune in on Apple Podcast, Google Podcast, Stitcher, and Spotify. You can also leave comments, suggestions, and ratings to every episode you listen to.
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Donald is the host of the popular sales podcast,"The Sales Evangelist". He is the founder of The Sales Evangelist Consulting Firm where he helps small companies develop killer sales process to scale their business and increase growth.Donald is also an award-winning speaker, sales trainer, and coach. He's a big fan of traveling, South Florida staycations and high-quality family time. Donald has a belief that “anyone” can sell if they have the desire and receives the proper training. | <urn:uuid:145e41b2-da84-4b3d-9159-03742a37a279> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thesalesevangelist.com/episode1232/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.984954 | 2,197 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.3248162... | 2 | This is the second episode from the Best Sellers in History series. This series talks about some of the most successful people and sellers in history. We’ll talk about who they are and what made them so successful.
Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States of America and led the nation during some of the most turbulent times in American history, such as the Civil War. It was the bloodiest war and the greatest constitutional and political crisis faced by the U.S. at that time. President Lincoln persevered and was able to abolish slavery, strengthen the federal government and modernized the U.S. economy. Despite humble beginnings, Abraham Lincoln became one of the greatest statesmen leaders in our nation’s history.
A half-hour long episode isn’t enough time to discuss what made Abraham Lincoln persuasive and successful in his career. However, we can highlight The Gettysburg Address to illustrate how President Abraham Lincoln had the power of persuasion. Here are the four points we’ll be looking at in this episode:
In the era of Abraham Lincoln
In the early 1800s, slavery in the United States was a very common thing. At its height, there were 700,000 individuals who were slaves. The first slaves came into the country as early as 1619 and slavery was finally abolished in the year 1865. For 246 years slavery was entrenched in the U.S. economy and modern society. It was a fact of life and it brought in so much money that by today’s standards, slavery would account for roughly $6 billion. It’s been 154 years since Abraham Lincoln abolished slavery and still, slavery lasted almost a hundred years longer than we’ve known our country without it!
Abraham Lincoln was raised in Kentucky and eventually, it became a slave state. His father who was a farmer but they eventually had to leave their smaller farm. Larger farms had slaves and they couldn’t compete with the manpower. In addition, his father was a Christian and didn’t believe in slavery. Thomas Lincoln took his family and would move several more times before eventually settling in Illinois where Abraham Lincoln grew into adulthood. Lincoln married and his wife’s father had his own slaves. Through this exposure, Lincoln came to know how slavery operated and he didn’t like it.
Slavery was big business and everywhere. It was a system where some of the most influential people were involved. It would be a difficult system to change but Lincoln didn’t believe that people should be property. It became his passion to reverse slavery. When he became a president in 1860, many from the southern states weren’t happy about it. They looked at it as the North trying to impose their rights over their way of life and their economy. This eventually led to the bloodiest war in the U.S., the Civil War. The nation was divided. Family members who fought on different sides killed each other. This went on from 1861 to 1865. It was a difficult time for the nation. Democracy was hanging by a thread and with the war going on, everything was falling apart.
Through the need to unify, The Gettysburg Address was written. The four lessons highlighted in today’s episode came from this famous speech.
The Gettysburg Address was delivered in an attempt to pull the nation together. Abraham Lincoln wanted people to recognize they weren’t just the north and south but one nation.
Tim David wrote an article about this and he pointed out the lessons from the address, The first was the power of storytelling. He emphasized that the opening line of the Gettysburg Address was a story about our forefathers and their legacy. From the very first line of his speech, people wanted to know where Abraham Lincoln was going with his story.
Abraham Lincoln was a self-educated man. While kids during this time were working in the field, Lincoln was reading books. There were traveling teachers and when they came around, he’d get a formal education, but still, it wasn’t enough on its own. Most of his education stemmed from his desire to learn. He was dedicated to his education and as he read, he learned the power of a story and how it can make an impact when written well.
As a sales rep, you need to be able to engage your prospect with a story that is grounded in reality. Talk to your prospects about a successful experience you had with a client. Help your prospects see the positive results that can come from working with you. Instead of just talking about the benefits of your products and services, offering a real scenario can help to illustrate the point better. Talk about how you helped previous clients and their companies. For example, a social media marketer may say, “We helped ____ generate X amount of return with their social media ads. If I could share with you how we did it in just 5 minutes, would you be open to a conversation with us?”
Like Abraham Lincoln, use a quick story to pique their interest.
Abraham Lincoln looked for common ground.
With the war over, Lincoln wanted to make sure his speech would unify a divided nation. The time was ripe for rebuilding the country. Abraham Lincoln looked for common ground to ensure that his message would speak to the hearts of his people. He knew that regardless of where they came from, both Northerners and Southerners loved their nation. They fought together against the English, against the mother empire, and they won. He implored everyone to bring back that feeling of solidarity when the union was founded. Abraham Lincoln used the word Liberty because it was something that would resonate through the hearts of his listeners.
He capitalized on the American ideal and it made his speech compelling. His writings are persuasive because he knows exactly what topics people are passionate about.
Sales reps can utilize this skill, especially when meeting with prospects. It is your job to make them feel connected and have common ground. Donald Miller’s book uses Joseph Campbell’s idea of The Hero’s Journey. It is the story of a hero who is transformed after the difficulties he faced in war. As the salesperson, your role is the guide.. As the guide, you’re not trying to take over or compete with your client, you’re trying to move your prospect to action.
Before the meeting, do the research to find common ground. It may be the school attended or other notable experience or hobby. Bring up topics that both you and your prospects love to talk about. Always follow the basics: Build rapport and help them realize you’re coming from common ground.
Tim David pointed out how Abraham Lincoln used words that made people feel connected to him. He used a lot of personal pronouns like ours to help develop rapport and to create a sense of togetherness. The use of personal pronouns increased Lincoln’s status in the minds of his audience.
Tim continued to emphasize this point with James Pennebaker’s studies about how people use functional words such as pronouns. In his book, The Secret Life of Pronouns, he wrote that in any interaction between people, the person with a higher status uses fewer “I” words and instead, uses first-person plural pronouns such as we, us, and ours.
Abraham Lincoln’s use of personal pronouns early on in his speech allowed the audience to recognize his authority and role as a guide. They were able to classify him as someone they could listen to. Because he established his authority, people were willing to listen.
From a sales perspective, we can do the same thing when talking to prospects. Use inclusive personal pronouns in your conversations as you talk about common ground.
This will make your prospect feel involved in the process and let them know you’re there to help them. Assure them you are committed to their problem and you are there to work with them to come up with a solution.
Speak as if you are part of their organization.
Abraham Lincoln was particularly skilled at offering compelling reasons for people to do something different.
Salespeople want to have influence as well. We want to give prospects reasons to change and take action. Tim shared a 1970 Harvard Psychology research led by Helen Langer. In her study, she discovered that saying the word because increases your persuasive power from 60% to 92% even when you don’t actually have a compelling reason.
Tim has a concept called ABT or the Advanced Because Techniques. Abraham Lincoln may not have literally said because in his speech but even without using the word, he made the entire Gettysburg Address a speech that answers the question why.
Lincoln was giving compelling reasons to many Whys:
People responded to his speech because he gave compelling reasons. They saw the bigger purpose
Salespeople can’t just state facts about products and services. You need to give them the reasons why your products and services will work out to their advantage. Examples are as follows:
When you give them compelling reasons, people will take action.
We are no Abraham Lincoln and we are not facing a divided nation, however, we have daily battles and regardless of the severity, we can still use these principles in overcoming sales difficulties.
This episode is brought to you in part by TSE Certified Sales Training Program. It’s a course designed to help new and struggling sellers to master the fundamentals of sales and close more deals. Sign up now and get the first two modules for free! You can also call us at (561) 570-5077.
We have a new semester beginning in January and we would love to have you and your team join us. Follow this link to apply to the program.
We’d love for you to join us for our next episodes so tune in on Apple Podcast, Google Podcast, Stitcher, and Spotify. You can also leave comments, suggestions, and ratings to every episode you listen to.
You can also read more about sales or listen to audiobooks on Audible and explore this huge online library. Register now to get a free book and a 30-day free trial.
Donald is the host of the popular sales podcast,"The Sales Evangelist". He is the founder of The Sales Evangelist Consulting Firm where he helps small companies develop killer sales process to scale their business and increase growth.Donald is also an award-winning speaker, sales trainer, and coach. He's a big fan of traveling, South Florida staycations and high-quality family time. Donald has a belief that “anyone” can sell if they have the desire and receives the proper training. | 2,146 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In December 1485, Catherine of Aragon was born at Laredo Palace, in Alcalá de Henares near to Madrid. She was the youngest child of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. Her royal Spanish title was la Infanta Catalina de Aragón y Castilla.
The personal symbol of Catherine was a crowned pomegranate. She is sometimes referred to as the Pomegranate Queen.
When Catherine was just three years old, her parents decided that she would marry the English prince, Arthur Tudor. He was the first son of King Henry VII of England and heir to the English throne. It was considered that the marriage would create a strong bond between Spain and England.
The Spanish princess grew up knowing that her destiny was to travel to England where one day she would be Queen.
Below is a portrait of Catherine when she was eleven years old and a portrait of her future husband Arthur Tudor.
In 1501, Catherine and Arthur were married in St. Paul's Cathedral, London. They were given the titles Prince and Princess of Wales and they went to live in Ludlow Castle.
It is said that Catherine had very long hair that was a reddish blonde colour and that she had blue eyes.
Tragedy struck just five months after the wedding! In April 1502, Arthur fell ill with 'the sweating sickness' and died. He was only fifteen years old.
The newly-wed Catherine was suddenly a sixteen-year-old widow.
Years later, Catherine married Arthur's younger brother, Henry Tudor.
The wedding took place in 1509, when eighteen-year-old Henry had just become the new King of England: Henry VIII. Catherine was five years older than her second husband.
Below is a portrait of King Henry VIII painted at around the time of his marriage to Catherine.
Catherine gave birth to many children but they all died except for one daughter who was born in 1516. She was named Mary and many years later she would become Queen Mary I of England. This means that Mary Tudor was half Spanish!
Below is a portrait of Mary Tudor.
Henry VIII was desperate for a son to be born because he believed that there should be a male heir to the throne. He separated from Catherine in 1531 because it seemed unlikely that she would have any more children. In 1533, Henry married Anne Boleyn, one of Catherine's ladies-in-waiting.
Catherine refused to accept that her marriage to the king had been annulled. She still considered herself to be Henry's wife and the true Queen of England - even after he had married Anne Boleyn.
Catherine was sent away from Henry's court and her rooms were given to Anne Boleyn.
She was forbidden to be with her daughter, Mary. It is very sad that the mother and daughter never saw each other again.
Catherine was sent to live at a palace called The More in Hertfordshire and later she was sent to Kimbolton Castle in Cambridgeshire. At Kimbolton Castle, she had just a few servants to attend her. It is said that she lived in just one room, leaving it only when she went to pray in the chapel. It is believed that the poor living conditions and her sadness damaged her health.
Catherine of Aragon died in Kimbolton Castle on 7 January 1536, at the age of fifty years.
She was laid to rest in Peterborough Cathedral. Many visitors to the cathedral leave a pomegranate on Catherine's tomb - as this was her personal symbol.
When Catherine died, she was still heart-broken over Henry's decision to leave her. In her final hours she wrote the following letter to her husband: - | <urn:uuid:19d92142-dbcf-434b-8398-6ca3dac1f781> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euroclub-schools.org/catherine-of-aragon | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00259.warc.gz | en | 0.992128 | 778 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.401320576... | 10 | In December 1485, Catherine of Aragon was born at Laredo Palace, in Alcalá de Henares near to Madrid. She was the youngest child of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. Her royal Spanish title was la Infanta Catalina de Aragón y Castilla.
The personal symbol of Catherine was a crowned pomegranate. She is sometimes referred to as the Pomegranate Queen.
When Catherine was just three years old, her parents decided that she would marry the English prince, Arthur Tudor. He was the first son of King Henry VII of England and heir to the English throne. It was considered that the marriage would create a strong bond between Spain and England.
The Spanish princess grew up knowing that her destiny was to travel to England where one day she would be Queen.
Below is a portrait of Catherine when she was eleven years old and a portrait of her future husband Arthur Tudor.
In 1501, Catherine and Arthur were married in St. Paul's Cathedral, London. They were given the titles Prince and Princess of Wales and they went to live in Ludlow Castle.
It is said that Catherine had very long hair that was a reddish blonde colour and that she had blue eyes.
Tragedy struck just five months after the wedding! In April 1502, Arthur fell ill with 'the sweating sickness' and died. He was only fifteen years old.
The newly-wed Catherine was suddenly a sixteen-year-old widow.
Years later, Catherine married Arthur's younger brother, Henry Tudor.
The wedding took place in 1509, when eighteen-year-old Henry had just become the new King of England: Henry VIII. Catherine was five years older than her second husband.
Below is a portrait of King Henry VIII painted at around the time of his marriage to Catherine.
Catherine gave birth to many children but they all died except for one daughter who was born in 1516. She was named Mary and many years later she would become Queen Mary I of England. This means that Mary Tudor was half Spanish!
Below is a portrait of Mary Tudor.
Henry VIII was desperate for a son to be born because he believed that there should be a male heir to the throne. He separated from Catherine in 1531 because it seemed unlikely that she would have any more children. In 1533, Henry married Anne Boleyn, one of Catherine's ladies-in-waiting.
Catherine refused to accept that her marriage to the king had been annulled. She still considered herself to be Henry's wife and the true Queen of England - even after he had married Anne Boleyn.
Catherine was sent away from Henry's court and her rooms were given to Anne Boleyn.
She was forbidden to be with her daughter, Mary. It is very sad that the mother and daughter never saw each other again.
Catherine was sent to live at a palace called The More in Hertfordshire and later she was sent to Kimbolton Castle in Cambridgeshire. At Kimbolton Castle, she had just a few servants to attend her. It is said that she lived in just one room, leaving it only when she went to pray in the chapel. It is believed that the poor living conditions and her sadness damaged her health.
Catherine of Aragon died in Kimbolton Castle on 7 January 1536, at the age of fifty years.
She was laid to rest in Peterborough Cathedral. Many visitors to the cathedral leave a pomegranate on Catherine's tomb - as this was her personal symbol.
When Catherine died, she was still heart-broken over Henry's decision to leave her. In her final hours she wrote the following letter to her husband: - | 777 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is a unique, rare and important archeological treasure in Molėtai land. Under the water, at the bottom of Loukesai lake the first pile settlement was found. It represents lined ceramics culture and it is the first settlement of such a kind in Lithuania.
The first stilt-house settlement in Lithuania was found in summer of 2000 in Luokesos lake. Ancient settlement dates back to end of bronze age. It was set up in the shallow of northern bay
where it is almost 2 meters deep. Central area of the settlement was explored. Here was a living
complex. Vertical poles and parts of horizontal wooden structures survived until present times. Fragments of molded pottery, animal bones, parts of ax from stone were found in this area. Cultural layer of the stilt-house settlement is 39 centimeters thick. Birch poles are 2600 years old. It is believed that settlement was constructed pretty fast and easily due to nearby water and fertile land. People lived here for a period of twenty years. Trees were cut and used for construction at the same time. There were no corrections made later.
Second ancient settlement in Luokesos lake was found in 2001. It was located in the shallow of southern bay. It is 1,7 meters deep. Cultural layer is 35 centimeters thick. Wooden platform that was uncovered had three rows of poles and horizontal logs. Construction out of oak dates back 780 years before Christ. Fragment of pottery was found accidentally while digging.
Complex of these two settlements is an exceptional archeological monument in Europe. After ten year long excavation it can be said with certainty that people ate with spoons during bronze age in Lithuania. They also had nice pottery. Uncovered findings are being held at National Museum of Lithuania.It is a unique, rare and important archeological treasure in Molėtai land. Under the water, at the bottom of Loukesai lake the first pile settlement was found. It represents lined ceramics culture and it is the first settlement of such a kind in Lithuania. | <urn:uuid:e9f1f955-e0bb-4348-8c99-618bcde57b76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.infomoletai.lt/en/places-of-interest/two-ancient-underwater-pile-settlements-of-luokesai/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00131.warc.gz | en | 0.980609 | 418 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.863153636455... | 2 | It is a unique, rare and important archeological treasure in Molėtai land. Under the water, at the bottom of Loukesai lake the first pile settlement was found. It represents lined ceramics culture and it is the first settlement of such a kind in Lithuania.
The first stilt-house settlement in Lithuania was found in summer of 2000 in Luokesos lake. Ancient settlement dates back to end of bronze age. It was set up in the shallow of northern bay
where it is almost 2 meters deep. Central area of the settlement was explored. Here was a living
complex. Vertical poles and parts of horizontal wooden structures survived until present times. Fragments of molded pottery, animal bones, parts of ax from stone were found in this area. Cultural layer of the stilt-house settlement is 39 centimeters thick. Birch poles are 2600 years old. It is believed that settlement was constructed pretty fast and easily due to nearby water and fertile land. People lived here for a period of twenty years. Trees were cut and used for construction at the same time. There were no corrections made later.
Second ancient settlement in Luokesos lake was found in 2001. It was located in the shallow of southern bay. It is 1,7 meters deep. Cultural layer is 35 centimeters thick. Wooden platform that was uncovered had three rows of poles and horizontal logs. Construction out of oak dates back 780 years before Christ. Fragment of pottery was found accidentally while digging.
Complex of these two settlements is an exceptional archeological monument in Europe. After ten year long excavation it can be said with certainty that people ate with spoons during bronze age in Lithuania. They also had nice pottery. Uncovered findings are being held at National Museum of Lithuania.It is a unique, rare and important archeological treasure in Molėtai land. Under the water, at the bottom of Loukesai lake the first pile settlement was found. It represents lined ceramics culture and it is the first settlement of such a kind in Lithuania. | 427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frida Kahlo was a famous Mexican artist who was known for her self portraits and the intense colors that featured in most of her works. Kahlo was born in 1907 in Coyoacan a small township in Mexico City. She began her painting career after she was involved in a bus accident in 1925 that left her with severe injuries to her spine, her legs, her pelvis and the rest of her body.
Kahlo was constantly plagued with pain throughout the rest of her life that at times saw her confined to a hospital bed. She underwent a total of thirty five operations after the accident with most of them being performed on her legs and her back.
Kahlo began painting while she was recovering from her accident injuries to occupy her time. She mostly did self-portrayals during the three months she was inert and these pieces of art played a dominant part of her life. She explained that portraying herself in the self portraits was due to the fact that she was the subject she knew best.
She also painted herself because she was lonely for the duration she was under bed rest. Her mother, Matilde Calderon, had a special easel made for Frida so that she could paint while she was lying in bed. Her self portrayals mostly relayed the message of pain and anguish which was drawn from her own personal experiences1.
Frida Kahlo derived most of her work from the Mexican culture which was mostly characterized by Chicano art during that time. Chicano art works emerged from the Chicano movement that took place during the 1960s and 1970s in America. The term Chicano was used to refer to Mexican Americans who had migrated to America during this time.
The Chicano Movement was made up of South American groups such as the Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Costa Ricans, Hondurans, Chilean Americans, Ecuadorians and Dominican Americans. The movement was formed to fight against racial segregation of South American minorities as well as reassert their civil rights in the US during the1960s and 70s.
The Chicano art works mostly focused on the themes that were used in literary works with the preferred media being murals and graphic art forms. Rasquache art is the most common style of Chicano art and it was a unique subset of the political movement2.
Frida Kahlo’s Art
Frida Kahlo’s style of painting mostly involved the use of symbolic imagery and Mexican colors. She frequently incorporated the symbolic monkey in her art work which the Mexican culture depicted to be a symbol of lust but Kahlo portrayed the monkey as a tender creature in her work as well as a symbol of protection.
Her paintings also portrayed a feminist reality that so many women suffered with. Her husband’s infidelities, her physical handicaps and her inability to conceive were viewed to be feministic realities that afflicted many women around the world.
Many artists and curators viewed Frida Kahlo’s work to mostly portray feminist views as most of her paintings focused on women and gender issues. One of her artworks that demonstrated the feminist reality was a self portrait titled “My Birth” which she painted in 1932.
In this painting, Kahlo’s head emerges from a woman’s outstretched legs with an image above the bed portraying the Mexican Virgin of Sorrow known as Mater Dolorosa being pierced by swords and weeping. This demonstration was a portrayal of Kahlo’s miscarriage which occurred before she painted the art work.
Her “My Birth” self portrait was viewed by many feminist writers to be a depiction of childbirth issues in women that were not properly addressed in the Western world during that time. The self portrait was also a demonstration of the birth process where women played a more integral role than the men.
Her focus on feminism and gender issues also portrayed the various challenges that women went through in the 20th and also the 21st century. Women struggled to find some self identity and self determination as they took up the roles of being mothers and wives within the family context.
Kahlo developed an identity in her art work that was not easily expressed in the Mexican and Western society. Her art work dealt with conception, pregnancy, abortion and the role of women in a candid and open manner. Such candidness was viewed by many to be a political statement because before them women were not able to talk about such issues in the open.3
Despite the theme of psychological and physical pain in Kahlo’s work, other themes that were explores were those of Mexican cultural which were portrayed through the use of the country’s national colors. Some of her paintings depicted the love of Mexican things as well as Mexican nationalism which was referred to as “Mexicanidad”.
She depicted “Mexicanidad” within her art works by the native clothes she wore in her self portraits as well as the furnishings that were in her home. She used elements from popular Mexican art forms such as the ex-votos and the retablos that were 19th century tin paintings created by traveling artists.
The retablos paintings were used by these traveling artists to express their gratitude to the Catholic Saints after recovering from illnesses, diseases or from being rescued from disasters. Kahlo’s use of the ex-votos and retablos indigenous art themes demonstrated both political and cultural themes as she painted these themes in a way that was easily understood by the Mexican people.
She incorporated the use of Mexican and pre-Colombian art work, imagery and concepts in some of her works which included “My Nurse and I”, a self portrait that depicts Kahlo in the hands of a nurse with an Olmec mask, “Tree of Hope” which depicts an image of the sun and the moon as functions that depicted the two sided nature of life.
“The Love Embrace of the Universe” was a self portrait that depicted Kahlo and her husband, Diego, in the arms of the universe personified by the Colombian goddess.
Kahlo’s most famous self portrait was” What the Water Gave Me” which was viewed by many artists and feminists to be a self reflection of her traumatic life. The self portrait demonstrated a variety of images that were related to Kahlo’s personal life.
These images included an image of her parents, an image depicting her Indian and European background which is demonstrated by an image of one naked Indian woman and a white woman floating on a sponge.
Other images that depicted Kahlo’s tumultuous life included a bleeding heart, a skeleton seated on a mound, a dead bird on a tree and her Tehuana Indian dress which all depicted the physical and psychological pain that she experienced as a result of her accident injuries, the pain of loosing her child as well as her husband’s infidelities.4
As stated earlier Chicano art has its foundation from the Chicano movement that took place in the 1960s and 70s although contemporary artistic Chicano renaissance work had its roots from the folk arts that emerged in the southwestern regions of America during the same period.
Chicano artists who were part of the Chicano movement looked for artistic ways to protest about the social inequalities that they were experiencing during the 1960s and 70s. The Chicano artists focused on feminist concerns during that time as they incorporated the works of Frida Kahlo into their art forms.
They also used the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe as a feminist role model and a source of inspiration in their art works. The Chicano art circles organized themselves into groups that would be used to promote art and also advance their feminist concerns to the rest of the world.5
The renaissance of Chicano art was seen as a visual expression of the “movimiento” ideology that existed during the Chicano movement. Examples of these ideologies included cultural affirmation, emphasis on families and social status, brotherhood and political assertion.
The most notable Chicano artists included the famous muralist from south California, Judith Baca. Other Chicano artists included Patricia Rodriguez who was a retablo artist, Yolanda Lopez who was a specialist in La Guadalupana paintings, Carmen Lomas Garza who was a specialist on family portraits and Santa Barraza who was a cultural chronicler.
Despite the fact that Chicano art emerged from a political movement, it has continued to develop and grow over the years to represent the various cultural contexts of the Mexican society. By the 1990s many Chicano artists had joined a growing group of artists that practiced multiculturalism in their art works.
These artists recognized the various changes that were taking place in the society especially within the Mexican American community living in the United States. Chicano art work during this time experienced experimental designs with media forms such as films and videos as well as sculptures and other artistic forms.
The Chicano artists also incorporated some aspects of their older art forms to ensure that the original Mexican culture was incorporated into the new age art forms. As the Chicano artists entered into mainstream art, their works began to gain a broader appeal with the American society.
During the Chicano movement, Chicano artists mostly adapted themes from mythologies such as Aztec and Maya into their artistic works, in the process creating new art forms that symbolized the struggles that the political activists were going through during the movement.
The artists mostly used Pre-Columbian symbols and icons such as Emiliano Zapata who was a Mexican revolutionary and the Virgin of Guadalupe in their murals and artistic posters.
These icons were used to demonstrate and express the Chicano’s views on feminism and social realism during that time. Artists who painted murals usually used blank walls as their canvas and most of these artists were usually self-taught barrio youths. These murals were usually painted in urban centers and areas that had high numbers of people at a particular time.6
While many of the Chicano artists borrowed heavily from Mexican culture, some of these artists did not want to be associated with the Mexican culture and history. Some of these artists; Carmen Garza, Margarita Herrera, Alfredo Arreguin and Porfirio Salinas incorporated other aspects into their artistic works apart from Mexican culture.
For example, Arreguin’s paintings reflected Indian landscapes while Salinas’ paintings demonstrated Texan landscapes that were mostly characterized by bluebonnet flowers. Garza’s paintings depicted the life of Mexican Americans in Texas during the 1950s and 60s which showed that they did not primarily focus on the Mexican culture as a whole in their artistic works.
This shaped the 21st century Chicano artists who focused more on individual artistic expressions and inspiration for their subject matter which showed that their artwork was now focused on personal experiences and self expression.
Most of the mural artists viewed these form of canvas as a form of nonverbal communication that could be used to teach the community or Mexican society about ethnic solidarity and cultural nationalism during the political movement.
The murals conveyed the message of nationalism, unity and brotherhood through the use of Mexican imagery and symbols that were derived from Mexican Indian history and the 1910 Mexican revolution.
The Chicano murals also portrayed the native Mexican history of groups such as the Aztecs and the Maya. The growth of mural portraits and artistic expressions emerged as a result of a strong community orientation in public art forms that depicted the struggle for human rights. 7
Chicano art has began to receive some recognition and respect after many museums around the world failed to accord this type of art work any form of recognition during the 1960s and 70s. This growing recognition has been evidenced by the five year traveling exhibition known as the “Chicano Visions:
American Painters on the verge” that shows the various art works of Chicano artists whose style of painting peaked during the 1980s and 90s. The traveling exhibition took part in 15 cities within the United States with 50 paintings and pictures on display.
This exhibition was meant to demonstrate the ongoing reconciliation that Chicano art offered to the Mexican American community by demonstrating Mexican traditions and American culture. The Chicano art forms were inspired by indigenous pre-Columbian people as well as southwestern American styles of painting. The Chicano artists involved in this exhibition achieved regional success and recognition within the US and South America. 8
Chicano art derived most of its influences from Mexican artists such as Diego Rivera, David Alfaro and Clemente Orozco. These artists image of public art was depicted through their portrayals of liberation struggles and freedom movements during the 1910 revolution in Mexico.
The mural art forms that were painted during the 1930 Depression also had an influence on Chicano mural artists who plied most of their trade on blank walls. The Chicano mural artists were also influenced by Tres Grandes works which were mostly eminent during the post revolution period in Mexico.
The Chicano artists were stereotyped by major art critics in the US as being artists that produced poor people’s art that was mostly radical in nature. They also referred to these artists as being too folklore because of the bright colors they used in their paintings and their murals. Chicano art was therefore not readily acceptable in most of the galleries and exhibitions based in the United States during and after the movement.
The American art critics viewed Chicano art to be in conflict with the bourgeois and traditional art tastes that existed during that time. This rejection of Chicano art by the Westernized countries because it was not sophisticated led to the emergence of community based art galleries in the Mexican American communities within the United States.
One of the first community based galleries was the Mechicano Art Gallery that was based in the eastern parts of Los Angeles. This gallery mostly exhibited Chicano movement art works and also modern paintings that had Chicano or Mexican influences.
Institutions such as the Social and Public Art Resource Center were established to promote the work of Chicano artists that mostly painted murals. These murals continued to gain more prominence within Los Angeles and were accepted as artistic forms of public art within the city.9
Chicano art has gradually changed today to incorporate a more modern and urban outlook. The modern artists have retained the bold colors and the original format used in most Chicano murals but the subject matter and content in these murals is what has changed.
While Mexican natives influences and prominent people still have play a vital role in today’s Chicano artwork, the new subject matter tends to focus on societal issues that affect the Mexican American Chicano artists in the present context.
Some of these issues include inequality in education and health care services, immigration issues, drug problems and segregation by the American society. The current Chicano artists have continued to uphold the muralist tradition of painting while at the same time portraying the history of Mexico as well as Mexican culture.
Contribution of Kahlo’s and Chicano’s Art to 20th Century Art
Kahlo’s artistic work has been viewed by many people in the art world to have a positive influence in today’s modern art scene. Her work has mostly influenced 20th century Latino art as well as feminist artists because of her self portrait paintings that mostly portrayed the challenges that she went through as a woman.
Frida Kahlo has been viewed by many as the most fascinating artist of the 20th century because of her body work and the use of imagery in her self portraits. Kahlo was also viewed to be one of the enigmatic artists in the 20th century which was mostly attributed to her bold and unabashed imagery of her self and her life.
Some discomforting self portraits of herself showed her physical wounds such as her deformed right leg which had an open wound as a result of the many operations that she went through after her surgery. 10
Her self portraits have influenced a lot of feminist artists and literature writers because of the peaceful resolve that followed many of her discomforting paintings. Her portraits showed a woman who was confident and in total control of her self image despite the many psychological traumas she had gone through in her life.
Many female artists in the 20th century identified with Kahlo’s self portraits of psychological pain and suffering and the way she choose to express her emotional feelings on canvas.
Many of these 20th Century artists such as Christine Herrera viewed Frida Kahlo to be both a poet and a painter because of her visual comparisons and the use of metaphors in her self portraits to express her feelings. This form of expression contributed in part to the modern artists who mostly relied on their experiences and views on life to create various art forms and paintings.
Frida Kahlo’s work was also renowned for its emotional intensity as well as its unrealistic and dream like quality. She was referred to as the heroine of the 1980s because of how she overcame her personal problems to become a renowned artist during her time. In the last twenty years, her work has joined the same ranks as that of famous artists such as Picasso and Van Gaugh.
Her image changed from that of being a poster girl for young Latino adolescents to that of being a historical artistic figure used in postal stamps and key chains. Her husband, Diego Rivera, who was also a famous artist viewed Kahlo to be the first woman in art history brave enough to portray the various issues that affected women in an open and uncompromising way.11
Frida Kahlo introduced the aspect of symbolism in her paintings which made them different from those of other artists during her time. People were able to identify Kahlo’s works because of the unique and original introduction of symbolic imagery in most of her self portraits.
The symbolic imagery was mostly viewed as a metaphorical depiction of her life especially in her famous “What the Water Gave Me” self portrait which used symbols such as a dead bird and a bleeding heart to depict her physical and psychological pain.
These metaphors were viewed to represent real life issues that afflicted both men and women in their day to day struggles. Her use of metaphors and symbolism made her gain a lot of prominence in the 20th century art world that mostly focused on self expression and the use of symbolism to communicate a message.
Her work gained a lot of recognition during the 20th century because of her candid and unobscured portrayal of women’s issues such as menstruation, pregnancy, birth, death, miscarriage, love and suffering. Many 20th century artists viewed her paintings and self portraits as a demonstration of a different view of the world. Her self reflection and analysis of her image was viewed to be an analysis of her self image and worth.
This was viewed by many feminists and artists to be a confident look at her self despite the many traumas she had gone through in her life. The importance of her work in contemporary art culture demonstrated that modern cultures around the world were empty and lacked any meaning. Her self reflection was viewed by many people to be a reflection of today’s societal cultural conditions.12
The impact of Chicano art on 20th century art work was deemed to have a positive influence on modern mural paintings as a form of artistic self expression. The visibility of Chicano artists has continued to increase over the years from the period of the Chicano movement. However many Chicano artists during the 20th and 21st century did not receive the appropriate amount of recognition for the paintings and murals.
This lack of recognition was mostly attributed to the political affiliation that these artists had to the Chicano movement. Many post modernist artists viewed Chicano art to be full of political innuendos as well as narrative style imagery that was represented in bold and bright colors. Major galleries and exhibitions also failed to pick up Chicano paintings because they were tied to Mexican movements13.
Some museum curators have tried to incorporate the various styles of painting and imagery that Chicano artists used in their work over the years. Artistic works such as the “Phantom Sightings’’ incorporated the use of Chicano art practices as well as conceptual foundations in its imagery. This art work was the only notable art form painted in the 20th century that properly depicted the Chicano style of painting.
Chicano art incorporated the use of imagery mostly related to Mexican history and culture, an aspect that made it difficult to replicate in other art circles that existed during the 20th century. This categorization of Chicano art was what made it difficult to exhibit this type of art work in major art exhibitions and galleries because it focused on ethnicity and politics.14
The research work has mostly focused on the art of Frida Kahlo and Chicano and what effects these artists had on 20th century art. According to the findings, Frida Kahlo has been viewed as a feminist artist who contributed to the revolution of modern art through her use of symbolic imagery and metaphors.
Kahlo has been viewed by many artists and curators to be the initiator of self expressionist and self reflective art in the world as a result of her various self portraits. Her work is now receiving a lot of recognition because of this which is not the same case for Chicano art.
Chicano artists have been gaining slow recognition in the modern art world because their art has been viewed by many 20th century artists to be mostly ethnic, political and folklore. Their murals have however gained acceptance with the modern urban youth who express themselves by using bold colors in their wall paintings.
Callejo, Carlos.“Chicano art: now and beyond,” http://www.latinopov.com/blog/?p=344
Hanson, Doug. “Chicano art on the move: with its roots in political activism, Chicano art documents the evolution of the Mexican-American experience”. Art Business News. FindArticles.com. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HMU/is_12_30/ai_111164177/
Horsley, Carter B. “Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art,” http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html
Meadows, Mary M. “Kahlo as artist, woman, rebel,” http://www.solidarity- us.org/current/node/2782
Meier, Matt S., and Margo Gutierrez. The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia. Westport, Cincinnati: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003.
Miranda, Carolina A., “How Chicano is it?”, ARTnews, http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=3032
Patrick, Frank. Readings in Latin American Modern Arts. New York: Yale University Press, 2004.
Scott, John F. Latin American art: ancient to modern. Florida, US: University of Florida, 2000.
1 Patrick Frank, Readings in Latin American Modern Arts (New York: Yale University Press, 2004), 79
2 John F. Scott. Latin American art: ancient to modern. (Florida, US: University of Florida, 2000),203
3 Mary Motian Meadows, “Kahlo as artist, woman, rebel,” http://www.solidarity-us.org/current/node/2782
4 Mary Motian Meadows, “Kahlo as artist, woman, rebel,” http://www.solidarity-us.org/current/node/2782
5 Matt S. Meier and Margo Gutierrez, The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003), 29.
6 Matt S. Meier and Margo Gutierrez, The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003), 28.
7 Matt S. Meier and Margo Gutierrez, The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003), 27.
8 Doug Hanson “Chicano art on the move: with its roots in political activism, Chicano art documents the evolution of the Mexican-American experience”. Art Business News. FindArticles.com. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HMU/is_12_30/ai_111164177/
9 Carlos Callejo , “Chicano art: now and beyond , http://www.latinopov.com/blog/?p=344
10 Carter B. Horsley, “ Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art, http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html
11 Carter B. Horsley, “ Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art, http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html
12 Carter B. Horsley, “ Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art, http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html
13 Carolina A. Miranda, “How Chicano is it?, ARTnews, http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=3032
14 Carolina A. Miranda, “How Chicano is it?, ARTnews, http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=3032 | <urn:uuid:1c00d9d8-a08f-4dd5-a177-c3ead570032d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-art-of-frieda-kahlo-and-chicano-art/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.980694 | 5,249 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.2401200234889984... | 1 | Frida Kahlo was a famous Mexican artist who was known for her self portraits and the intense colors that featured in most of her works. Kahlo was born in 1907 in Coyoacan a small township in Mexico City. She began her painting career after she was involved in a bus accident in 1925 that left her with severe injuries to her spine, her legs, her pelvis and the rest of her body.
Kahlo was constantly plagued with pain throughout the rest of her life that at times saw her confined to a hospital bed. She underwent a total of thirty five operations after the accident with most of them being performed on her legs and her back.
Kahlo began painting while she was recovering from her accident injuries to occupy her time. She mostly did self-portrayals during the three months she was inert and these pieces of art played a dominant part of her life. She explained that portraying herself in the self portraits was due to the fact that she was the subject she knew best.
She also painted herself because she was lonely for the duration she was under bed rest. Her mother, Matilde Calderon, had a special easel made for Frida so that she could paint while she was lying in bed. Her self portrayals mostly relayed the message of pain and anguish which was drawn from her own personal experiences1.
Frida Kahlo derived most of her work from the Mexican culture which was mostly characterized by Chicano art during that time. Chicano art works emerged from the Chicano movement that took place during the 1960s and 1970s in America. The term Chicano was used to refer to Mexican Americans who had migrated to America during this time.
The Chicano Movement was made up of South American groups such as the Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Costa Ricans, Hondurans, Chilean Americans, Ecuadorians and Dominican Americans. The movement was formed to fight against racial segregation of South American minorities as well as reassert their civil rights in the US during the1960s and 70s.
The Chicano art works mostly focused on the themes that were used in literary works with the preferred media being murals and graphic art forms. Rasquache art is the most common style of Chicano art and it was a unique subset of the political movement2.
Frida Kahlo’s Art
Frida Kahlo’s style of painting mostly involved the use of symbolic imagery and Mexican colors. She frequently incorporated the symbolic monkey in her art work which the Mexican culture depicted to be a symbol of lust but Kahlo portrayed the monkey as a tender creature in her work as well as a symbol of protection.
Her paintings also portrayed a feminist reality that so many women suffered with. Her husband’s infidelities, her physical handicaps and her inability to conceive were viewed to be feministic realities that afflicted many women around the world.
Many artists and curators viewed Frida Kahlo’s work to mostly portray feminist views as most of her paintings focused on women and gender issues. One of her artworks that demonstrated the feminist reality was a self portrait titled “My Birth” which she painted in 1932.
In this painting, Kahlo’s head emerges from a woman’s outstretched legs with an image above the bed portraying the Mexican Virgin of Sorrow known as Mater Dolorosa being pierced by swords and weeping. This demonstration was a portrayal of Kahlo’s miscarriage which occurred before she painted the art work.
Her “My Birth” self portrait was viewed by many feminist writers to be a depiction of childbirth issues in women that were not properly addressed in the Western world during that time. The self portrait was also a demonstration of the birth process where women played a more integral role than the men.
Her focus on feminism and gender issues also portrayed the various challenges that women went through in the 20th and also the 21st century. Women struggled to find some self identity and self determination as they took up the roles of being mothers and wives within the family context.
Kahlo developed an identity in her art work that was not easily expressed in the Mexican and Western society. Her art work dealt with conception, pregnancy, abortion and the role of women in a candid and open manner. Such candidness was viewed by many to be a political statement because before them women were not able to talk about such issues in the open.3
Despite the theme of psychological and physical pain in Kahlo’s work, other themes that were explores were those of Mexican cultural which were portrayed through the use of the country’s national colors. Some of her paintings depicted the love of Mexican things as well as Mexican nationalism which was referred to as “Mexicanidad”.
She depicted “Mexicanidad” within her art works by the native clothes she wore in her self portraits as well as the furnishings that were in her home. She used elements from popular Mexican art forms such as the ex-votos and the retablos that were 19th century tin paintings created by traveling artists.
The retablos paintings were used by these traveling artists to express their gratitude to the Catholic Saints after recovering from illnesses, diseases or from being rescued from disasters. Kahlo’s use of the ex-votos and retablos indigenous art themes demonstrated both political and cultural themes as she painted these themes in a way that was easily understood by the Mexican people.
She incorporated the use of Mexican and pre-Colombian art work, imagery and concepts in some of her works which included “My Nurse and I”, a self portrait that depicts Kahlo in the hands of a nurse with an Olmec mask, “Tree of Hope” which depicts an image of the sun and the moon as functions that depicted the two sided nature of life.
“The Love Embrace of the Universe” was a self portrait that depicted Kahlo and her husband, Diego, in the arms of the universe personified by the Colombian goddess.
Kahlo’s most famous self portrait was” What the Water Gave Me” which was viewed by many artists and feminists to be a self reflection of her traumatic life. The self portrait demonstrated a variety of images that were related to Kahlo’s personal life.
These images included an image of her parents, an image depicting her Indian and European background which is demonstrated by an image of one naked Indian woman and a white woman floating on a sponge.
Other images that depicted Kahlo’s tumultuous life included a bleeding heart, a skeleton seated on a mound, a dead bird on a tree and her Tehuana Indian dress which all depicted the physical and psychological pain that she experienced as a result of her accident injuries, the pain of loosing her child as well as her husband’s infidelities.4
As stated earlier Chicano art has its foundation from the Chicano movement that took place in the 1960s and 70s although contemporary artistic Chicano renaissance work had its roots from the folk arts that emerged in the southwestern regions of America during the same period.
Chicano artists who were part of the Chicano movement looked for artistic ways to protest about the social inequalities that they were experiencing during the 1960s and 70s. The Chicano artists focused on feminist concerns during that time as they incorporated the works of Frida Kahlo into their art forms.
They also used the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe as a feminist role model and a source of inspiration in their art works. The Chicano art circles organized themselves into groups that would be used to promote art and also advance their feminist concerns to the rest of the world.5
The renaissance of Chicano art was seen as a visual expression of the “movimiento” ideology that existed during the Chicano movement. Examples of these ideologies included cultural affirmation, emphasis on families and social status, brotherhood and political assertion.
The most notable Chicano artists included the famous muralist from south California, Judith Baca. Other Chicano artists included Patricia Rodriguez who was a retablo artist, Yolanda Lopez who was a specialist in La Guadalupana paintings, Carmen Lomas Garza who was a specialist on family portraits and Santa Barraza who was a cultural chronicler.
Despite the fact that Chicano art emerged from a political movement, it has continued to develop and grow over the years to represent the various cultural contexts of the Mexican society. By the 1990s many Chicano artists had joined a growing group of artists that practiced multiculturalism in their art works.
These artists recognized the various changes that were taking place in the society especially within the Mexican American community living in the United States. Chicano art work during this time experienced experimental designs with media forms such as films and videos as well as sculptures and other artistic forms.
The Chicano artists also incorporated some aspects of their older art forms to ensure that the original Mexican culture was incorporated into the new age art forms. As the Chicano artists entered into mainstream art, their works began to gain a broader appeal with the American society.
During the Chicano movement, Chicano artists mostly adapted themes from mythologies such as Aztec and Maya into their artistic works, in the process creating new art forms that symbolized the struggles that the political activists were going through during the movement.
The artists mostly used Pre-Columbian symbols and icons such as Emiliano Zapata who was a Mexican revolutionary and the Virgin of Guadalupe in their murals and artistic posters.
These icons were used to demonstrate and express the Chicano’s views on feminism and social realism during that time. Artists who painted murals usually used blank walls as their canvas and most of these artists were usually self-taught barrio youths. These murals were usually painted in urban centers and areas that had high numbers of people at a particular time.6
While many of the Chicano artists borrowed heavily from Mexican culture, some of these artists did not want to be associated with the Mexican culture and history. Some of these artists; Carmen Garza, Margarita Herrera, Alfredo Arreguin and Porfirio Salinas incorporated other aspects into their artistic works apart from Mexican culture.
For example, Arreguin’s paintings reflected Indian landscapes while Salinas’ paintings demonstrated Texan landscapes that were mostly characterized by bluebonnet flowers. Garza’s paintings depicted the life of Mexican Americans in Texas during the 1950s and 60s which showed that they did not primarily focus on the Mexican culture as a whole in their artistic works.
This shaped the 21st century Chicano artists who focused more on individual artistic expressions and inspiration for their subject matter which showed that their artwork was now focused on personal experiences and self expression.
Most of the mural artists viewed these form of canvas as a form of nonverbal communication that could be used to teach the community or Mexican society about ethnic solidarity and cultural nationalism during the political movement.
The murals conveyed the message of nationalism, unity and brotherhood through the use of Mexican imagery and symbols that were derived from Mexican Indian history and the 1910 Mexican revolution.
The Chicano murals also portrayed the native Mexican history of groups such as the Aztecs and the Maya. The growth of mural portraits and artistic expressions emerged as a result of a strong community orientation in public art forms that depicted the struggle for human rights. 7
Chicano art has began to receive some recognition and respect after many museums around the world failed to accord this type of art work any form of recognition during the 1960s and 70s. This growing recognition has been evidenced by the five year traveling exhibition known as the “Chicano Visions:
American Painters on the verge” that shows the various art works of Chicano artists whose style of painting peaked during the 1980s and 90s. The traveling exhibition took part in 15 cities within the United States with 50 paintings and pictures on display.
This exhibition was meant to demonstrate the ongoing reconciliation that Chicano art offered to the Mexican American community by demonstrating Mexican traditions and American culture. The Chicano art forms were inspired by indigenous pre-Columbian people as well as southwestern American styles of painting. The Chicano artists involved in this exhibition achieved regional success and recognition within the US and South America. 8
Chicano art derived most of its influences from Mexican artists such as Diego Rivera, David Alfaro and Clemente Orozco. These artists image of public art was depicted through their portrayals of liberation struggles and freedom movements during the 1910 revolution in Mexico.
The mural art forms that were painted during the 1930 Depression also had an influence on Chicano mural artists who plied most of their trade on blank walls. The Chicano mural artists were also influenced by Tres Grandes works which were mostly eminent during the post revolution period in Mexico.
The Chicano artists were stereotyped by major art critics in the US as being artists that produced poor people’s art that was mostly radical in nature. They also referred to these artists as being too folklore because of the bright colors they used in their paintings and their murals. Chicano art was therefore not readily acceptable in most of the galleries and exhibitions based in the United States during and after the movement.
The American art critics viewed Chicano art to be in conflict with the bourgeois and traditional art tastes that existed during that time. This rejection of Chicano art by the Westernized countries because it was not sophisticated led to the emergence of community based art galleries in the Mexican American communities within the United States.
One of the first community based galleries was the Mechicano Art Gallery that was based in the eastern parts of Los Angeles. This gallery mostly exhibited Chicano movement art works and also modern paintings that had Chicano or Mexican influences.
Institutions such as the Social and Public Art Resource Center were established to promote the work of Chicano artists that mostly painted murals. These murals continued to gain more prominence within Los Angeles and were accepted as artistic forms of public art within the city.9
Chicano art has gradually changed today to incorporate a more modern and urban outlook. The modern artists have retained the bold colors and the original format used in most Chicano murals but the subject matter and content in these murals is what has changed.
While Mexican natives influences and prominent people still have play a vital role in today’s Chicano artwork, the new subject matter tends to focus on societal issues that affect the Mexican American Chicano artists in the present context.
Some of these issues include inequality in education and health care services, immigration issues, drug problems and segregation by the American society. The current Chicano artists have continued to uphold the muralist tradition of painting while at the same time portraying the history of Mexico as well as Mexican culture.
Contribution of Kahlo’s and Chicano’s Art to 20th Century Art
Kahlo’s artistic work has been viewed by many people in the art world to have a positive influence in today’s modern art scene. Her work has mostly influenced 20th century Latino art as well as feminist artists because of her self portrait paintings that mostly portrayed the challenges that she went through as a woman.
Frida Kahlo has been viewed by many as the most fascinating artist of the 20th century because of her body work and the use of imagery in her self portraits. Kahlo was also viewed to be one of the enigmatic artists in the 20th century which was mostly attributed to her bold and unabashed imagery of her self and her life.
Some discomforting self portraits of herself showed her physical wounds such as her deformed right leg which had an open wound as a result of the many operations that she went through after her surgery. 10
Her self portraits have influenced a lot of feminist artists and literature writers because of the peaceful resolve that followed many of her discomforting paintings. Her portraits showed a woman who was confident and in total control of her self image despite the many psychological traumas she had gone through in her life.
Many female artists in the 20th century identified with Kahlo’s self portraits of psychological pain and suffering and the way she choose to express her emotional feelings on canvas.
Many of these 20th Century artists such as Christine Herrera viewed Frida Kahlo to be both a poet and a painter because of her visual comparisons and the use of metaphors in her self portraits to express her feelings. This form of expression contributed in part to the modern artists who mostly relied on their experiences and views on life to create various art forms and paintings.
Frida Kahlo’s work was also renowned for its emotional intensity as well as its unrealistic and dream like quality. She was referred to as the heroine of the 1980s because of how she overcame her personal problems to become a renowned artist during her time. In the last twenty years, her work has joined the same ranks as that of famous artists such as Picasso and Van Gaugh.
Her image changed from that of being a poster girl for young Latino adolescents to that of being a historical artistic figure used in postal stamps and key chains. Her husband, Diego Rivera, who was also a famous artist viewed Kahlo to be the first woman in art history brave enough to portray the various issues that affected women in an open and uncompromising way.11
Frida Kahlo introduced the aspect of symbolism in her paintings which made them different from those of other artists during her time. People were able to identify Kahlo’s works because of the unique and original introduction of symbolic imagery in most of her self portraits.
The symbolic imagery was mostly viewed as a metaphorical depiction of her life especially in her famous “What the Water Gave Me” self portrait which used symbols such as a dead bird and a bleeding heart to depict her physical and psychological pain.
These metaphors were viewed to represent real life issues that afflicted both men and women in their day to day struggles. Her use of metaphors and symbolism made her gain a lot of prominence in the 20th century art world that mostly focused on self expression and the use of symbolism to communicate a message.
Her work gained a lot of recognition during the 20th century because of her candid and unobscured portrayal of women’s issues such as menstruation, pregnancy, birth, death, miscarriage, love and suffering. Many 20th century artists viewed her paintings and self portraits as a demonstration of a different view of the world. Her self reflection and analysis of her image was viewed to be an analysis of her self image and worth.
This was viewed by many feminists and artists to be a confident look at her self despite the many traumas she had gone through in her life. The importance of her work in contemporary art culture demonstrated that modern cultures around the world were empty and lacked any meaning. Her self reflection was viewed by many people to be a reflection of today’s societal cultural conditions.12
The impact of Chicano art on 20th century art work was deemed to have a positive influence on modern mural paintings as a form of artistic self expression. The visibility of Chicano artists has continued to increase over the years from the period of the Chicano movement. However many Chicano artists during the 20th and 21st century did not receive the appropriate amount of recognition for the paintings and murals.
This lack of recognition was mostly attributed to the political affiliation that these artists had to the Chicano movement. Many post modernist artists viewed Chicano art to be full of political innuendos as well as narrative style imagery that was represented in bold and bright colors. Major galleries and exhibitions also failed to pick up Chicano paintings because they were tied to Mexican movements13.
Some museum curators have tried to incorporate the various styles of painting and imagery that Chicano artists used in their work over the years. Artistic works such as the “Phantom Sightings’’ incorporated the use of Chicano art practices as well as conceptual foundations in its imagery. This art work was the only notable art form painted in the 20th century that properly depicted the Chicano style of painting.
Chicano art incorporated the use of imagery mostly related to Mexican history and culture, an aspect that made it difficult to replicate in other art circles that existed during the 20th century. This categorization of Chicano art was what made it difficult to exhibit this type of art work in major art exhibitions and galleries because it focused on ethnicity and politics.14
The research work has mostly focused on the art of Frida Kahlo and Chicano and what effects these artists had on 20th century art. According to the findings, Frida Kahlo has been viewed as a feminist artist who contributed to the revolution of modern art through her use of symbolic imagery and metaphors.
Kahlo has been viewed by many artists and curators to be the initiator of self expressionist and self reflective art in the world as a result of her various self portraits. Her work is now receiving a lot of recognition because of this which is not the same case for Chicano art.
Chicano artists have been gaining slow recognition in the modern art world because their art has been viewed by many 20th century artists to be mostly ethnic, political and folklore. Their murals have however gained acceptance with the modern urban youth who express themselves by using bold colors in their wall paintings.
Callejo, Carlos.“Chicano art: now and beyond,” http://www.latinopov.com/blog/?p=344
Hanson, Doug. “Chicano art on the move: with its roots in political activism, Chicano art documents the evolution of the Mexican-American experience”. Art Business News. FindArticles.com. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HMU/is_12_30/ai_111164177/
Horsley, Carter B. “Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art,” http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html
Meadows, Mary M. “Kahlo as artist, woman, rebel,” http://www.solidarity- us.org/current/node/2782
Meier, Matt S., and Margo Gutierrez. The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia. Westport, Cincinnati: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003.
Miranda, Carolina A., “How Chicano is it?”, ARTnews, http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=3032
Patrick, Frank. Readings in Latin American Modern Arts. New York: Yale University Press, 2004.
Scott, John F. Latin American art: ancient to modern. Florida, US: University of Florida, 2000.
1 Patrick Frank, Readings in Latin American Modern Arts (New York: Yale University Press, 2004), 79
2 John F. Scott. Latin American art: ancient to modern. (Florida, US: University of Florida, 2000),203
3 Mary Motian Meadows, “Kahlo as artist, woman, rebel,” http://www.solidarity-us.org/current/node/2782
4 Mary Motian Meadows, “Kahlo as artist, woman, rebel,” http://www.solidarity-us.org/current/node/2782
5 Matt S. Meier and Margo Gutierrez, The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003), 29.
6 Matt S. Meier and Margo Gutierrez, The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003), 28.
7 Matt S. Meier and Margo Gutierrez, The Mexican American experience: an encyclopedia, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003), 27.
8 Doug Hanson “Chicano art on the move: with its roots in political activism, Chicano art documents the evolution of the Mexican-American experience”. Art Business News. FindArticles.com. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HMU/is_12_30/ai_111164177/
9 Carlos Callejo , “Chicano art: now and beyond , http://www.latinopov.com/blog/?p=344
10 Carter B. Horsley, “ Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art, http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html
11 Carter B. Horsley, “ Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art, http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html
12 Carter B. Horsley, “ Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera and Twentieth-Century Mexican art, http://www.thecityreview.com/frida.html
13 Carolina A. Miranda, “How Chicano is it?, ARTnews, http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=3032
14 Carolina A. Miranda, “How Chicano is it?, ARTnews, http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=3032 | 5,226 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For now, in late May, as the unrelenting heat of summer approached, he needed a good rest. Babylon had all the necessary facilities. There was water everywhere; the river Euphrates on its way to the Persian Gulf passed through the center of the city and poured into the moats that lay alongside the lofty defensive walls of baked mud brick. And beyond the walls lay swamps and lagoons bursting with wildlife, irrigation channels, and reservoirs.
Two colossal palaces stood in the north of Babylon, with offices and workshops. One of them functioned, at least in part, as among the world's earliest museums, housing treasured artifacts from earlier times, and was probably where kings and their families lived in grand but private seclusion. The other, which modern archaeologists have named the Southern Palace, was set aside mainly for administration and for ceremonial functions. Offices and workshops surrounded five courtyards, one of which opened onto a vast throne room whose walls were glazed in blue and yellow tiles and decorated with floral reliefs, lions, and fan-shaped designs suggesting the fronds of a palm tree.
On the river's edge beside the palace, the Hanging Gardens astounded visitors. A set of ascending terraces, angled back one above the other, rested on great brick vaults. Each terrace contained a deep bed of earth and was planted with trees and shrubs. The effect was of a wooded hillside. A staircase led up to all the floors, and water drawn from the river by mechanical pumps irrigated each tier. The story was told that Babylon's most successful king, Nebuchadnezzar II, constructed the Hanging Gardens for his wife, who missed the mountains of her childhood.
In principle, there was nothing so very unusual about them, for they were a condensed urban version of the large walled garden or park much favored by the wealthy and the powerful, who sought refreshing green relief from the parched landscapes of the east. The Greek word for such a garden was paradeisos, from which we derive our "paradise."
As the design of the Hanging Gardens goes to show, the people of Babylon and other Mesopotamians were skillful managers of water. They built canals and irrigation systems, and just to the north of the Southern Palace they constructed what seems to have been a large reservoir.
On the eastern side of Babylon, an outer wall formed a first defense against attack and enclosed large areas of less populated ground. It led to a so-called summer palace, two thousand meters north of the main city. Here ventilation shafts counteracted the heat of the day and, away from the crowded city center, afforded some relief to the ruling family. The palace may also have functioned as a military headquarters; there was certainly plenty of space for an army encampment nearby. Alexander preferred being with his men to living in the city, and spent time in the royal tent or aboard ships on the river. So whether there or in the palace, he oversaw the preparations for his Arabian expedition and relaxed.
The navy was approaching a state of high readiness and an intensive training program was under way. Different classes of warship raced against one another and the winners were awarded golden wreaths. Alexander decided to organize a banquet for the army on the evening of May 29 (according to the Greek calendar, Daesius 18). It was held to celebrate the end of one campaign, the invasion of India, and the imminent onset of a new one, the invasion of Arabia.
But in the interval there was time for a good time. Wine was sent round to every unit in the encampment, as were animals for sacrifice to the gods—that is, for roasting on an altar and then, as was the way in the ancient world, for eating. The guest of honor at the king's table was his admiral of the fleet, a Greek called Nearchus, a loyal if not especially talented follower, who had been a boyhood friend.
Alexander knew well his Euripides, the Athenian tragic poet of the late fifth century, and recited verses from his play Andromeda. The plot concerned a beautiful young princess who was chained to a rock and awaited death from a sea monster. At the last minute the hero, Perseus, arrives on his flying horse, Pegasus, and rescues her. Only fragments of the drama have survived and we do not know what lines the king spoke, but one certainly fits his high opinion of himself.
I gained glory, not without many trials.
The convention among civilized partygoers was that serious drinking only began once the meal was over. Wine was a little syrupy and could have a high alcohol content compared with vintages today. It was usually served diluted with water. A large two-handled bowl, or crater, containing wine (it could hold as many as six quarts of liquid), was brought into the dining room where guests reclined on shared couches. The host, or a master of ceremonies chosen by those present, decided how much water should be mixed with the wine and how many top-ups should be allowed. Guests had individual cups, and servants used ladles to fill them. | <urn:uuid:55bc4a52-4cab-4897-9d63-485303e46db6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://broome-county.dailybookclubs.com/book/tuesday/6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00287.warc.gz | en | 0.983047 | 1,065 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.40353456... | 1 | For now, in late May, as the unrelenting heat of summer approached, he needed a good rest. Babylon had all the necessary facilities. There was water everywhere; the river Euphrates on its way to the Persian Gulf passed through the center of the city and poured into the moats that lay alongside the lofty defensive walls of baked mud brick. And beyond the walls lay swamps and lagoons bursting with wildlife, irrigation channels, and reservoirs.
Two colossal palaces stood in the north of Babylon, with offices and workshops. One of them functioned, at least in part, as among the world's earliest museums, housing treasured artifacts from earlier times, and was probably where kings and their families lived in grand but private seclusion. The other, which modern archaeologists have named the Southern Palace, was set aside mainly for administration and for ceremonial functions. Offices and workshops surrounded five courtyards, one of which opened onto a vast throne room whose walls were glazed in blue and yellow tiles and decorated with floral reliefs, lions, and fan-shaped designs suggesting the fronds of a palm tree.
On the river's edge beside the palace, the Hanging Gardens astounded visitors. A set of ascending terraces, angled back one above the other, rested on great brick vaults. Each terrace contained a deep bed of earth and was planted with trees and shrubs. The effect was of a wooded hillside. A staircase led up to all the floors, and water drawn from the river by mechanical pumps irrigated each tier. The story was told that Babylon's most successful king, Nebuchadnezzar II, constructed the Hanging Gardens for his wife, who missed the mountains of her childhood.
In principle, there was nothing so very unusual about them, for they were a condensed urban version of the large walled garden or park much favored by the wealthy and the powerful, who sought refreshing green relief from the parched landscapes of the east. The Greek word for such a garden was paradeisos, from which we derive our "paradise."
As the design of the Hanging Gardens goes to show, the people of Babylon and other Mesopotamians were skillful managers of water. They built canals and irrigation systems, and just to the north of the Southern Palace they constructed what seems to have been a large reservoir.
On the eastern side of Babylon, an outer wall formed a first defense against attack and enclosed large areas of less populated ground. It led to a so-called summer palace, two thousand meters north of the main city. Here ventilation shafts counteracted the heat of the day and, away from the crowded city center, afforded some relief to the ruling family. The palace may also have functioned as a military headquarters; there was certainly plenty of space for an army encampment nearby. Alexander preferred being with his men to living in the city, and spent time in the royal tent or aboard ships on the river. So whether there or in the palace, he oversaw the preparations for his Arabian expedition and relaxed.
The navy was approaching a state of high readiness and an intensive training program was under way. Different classes of warship raced against one another and the winners were awarded golden wreaths. Alexander decided to organize a banquet for the army on the evening of May 29 (according to the Greek calendar, Daesius 18). It was held to celebrate the end of one campaign, the invasion of India, and the imminent onset of a new one, the invasion of Arabia.
But in the interval there was time for a good time. Wine was sent round to every unit in the encampment, as were animals for sacrifice to the gods—that is, for roasting on an altar and then, as was the way in the ancient world, for eating. The guest of honor at the king's table was his admiral of the fleet, a Greek called Nearchus, a loyal if not especially talented follower, who had been a boyhood friend.
Alexander knew well his Euripides, the Athenian tragic poet of the late fifth century, and recited verses from his play Andromeda. The plot concerned a beautiful young princess who was chained to a rock and awaited death from a sea monster. At the last minute the hero, Perseus, arrives on his flying horse, Pegasus, and rescues her. Only fragments of the drama have survived and we do not know what lines the king spoke, but one certainly fits his high opinion of himself.
I gained glory, not without many trials.
The convention among civilized partygoers was that serious drinking only began once the meal was over. Wine was a little syrupy and could have a high alcohol content compared with vintages today. It was usually served diluted with water. A large two-handled bowl, or crater, containing wine (it could hold as many as six quarts of liquid), was brought into the dining room where guests reclined on shared couches. The host, or a master of ceremonies chosen by those present, decided how much water should be mixed with the wine and how many top-ups should be allowed. Guests had individual cups, and servants used ladles to fill them. | 1,058 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A compound sentence is a sentence with at least two independent clauses and no dependent clauses. What’s an independent clause? It’s a phrase that can stand alone as a sentence. “I slept late” is an independent clause. So are “The sun is shining” and “Ella got a new dog.” Each has a subject and a verb and makes sense on its own. Examples of dependent clauses, which can’t be complete sentences on their own include: “whenever I go to the lake,” “how she got lost,” and “what makes him happy.” They don’t make sense on their own.
A compound sentence must contain at least two independent clauses. Here’s an example: “I practiced piano every day, yet I never got very good at it.” The two independent clauses are “I practiced piano every day” and “I never got very good at it.” They are joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction “yet.” Both clauses have a subject and verb and make sense on their own, and since there are no dependent clauses, we know this is a compound sentence. | <urn:uuid:734db931-baaf-45e1-bd2d-ef1e4c8da698> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://hozir.org/what-is-a-compound-sentence.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00216.warc.gz | en | 0.983451 | 258 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.245853528... | 1 | A compound sentence is a sentence with at least two independent clauses and no dependent clauses. What’s an independent clause? It’s a phrase that can stand alone as a sentence. “I slept late” is an independent clause. So are “The sun is shining” and “Ella got a new dog.” Each has a subject and a verb and makes sense on its own. Examples of dependent clauses, which can’t be complete sentences on their own include: “whenever I go to the lake,” “how she got lost,” and “what makes him happy.” They don’t make sense on their own.
A compound sentence must contain at least two independent clauses. Here’s an example: “I practiced piano every day, yet I never got very good at it.” The two independent clauses are “I practiced piano every day” and “I never got very good at it.” They are joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction “yet.” Both clauses have a subject and verb and make sense on their own, and since there are no dependent clauses, we know this is a compound sentence. | 220 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The arrival of the Lundas, the Bembas, the Lozis, the Bisas and many more tribes in the 18th century marked the beginning of the history of Zambia.
This development was followed by the arrival of the traders and settlers. Missionaries were also part of the group and they travelled all over the country.
This was the time of David Livingstone, known for his discovery of the Victoria Falls, and Cecil Rhodes, where the country got its name as Northern Rhodesia in colonial times.
The discovery of copper deposits in the 1920,s led to an influx of whites into the Copperbelt. In 1924, the British declared the country a colony and the status quo remained unchanged for the next 40 years.
During this time, the country belonged to the federation of Northern Rhodesia (Now Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasaland (Malawi).
What featured much in this part of the early history of Zambia is strong opposition to the federation that people exhibited. Eventually, this led to the formation of the first political party, the African National Congress. Involved in the party were men like Simon Kapwepwe, Harry Mwanga Nkumbula and Kenneth Kaunda, who because of leadership misunderstandings formed the United National Independence Party (UNIP).
Kenneth Kaunda later became Zambia’s first president in 1964. This was after a lot of protests and demonstrations.
The new country started off very well. The prices of copper were at an all-time high. However, in 1972, the political scene changed with the declaration of the one party state. This meant that no other party, apart from UNIP, could exist. Other parties were either fused in or were disbanded.
Problems started in 1975. The country witnessed a slump in copper prices. Later on Kaunda began supporting liberation struggles of neighbouring countries.
The economy was sluggish and the people were going through hard times. They rioted and demonstrated. There were food shortages and high levels of unemployment. This led Kenneth Kaunda, the humanist and champion of the liberation struggles in southern Africa, to call for an early election, which marshalled in Frederick Chiluba as second Zambian President on 31st of October 1991, in the history of Zambia.
Frederick Chiluba had managed to sway the crowds in his favour with his oratory powers. The new president had a mammoth task of turning the economy around.
The president embarked on a wholesale privatization of the state enterprises. Some viable companies were sold but the non-profit enterprises were simply liquidated. He opened up the Zambian economy to the outside and the shops were filled up with foreign goods.
Because the goods from the outside were cheap compared to those locally manufactured, many companies which could not compete went under. Because of this, a lot of people were laid off.
When his last term came to a close, Chiluba’s bid to go for a third term failed.
This forced him to choose Levy Mwanawasa, the one-time vice-president in his first cabinet, to succeed him.
It was this same Mwanawasa who lifted his immunity to pave way for investigations into alleged corruption scandals. The court appearances went on for 8 years until his acquittal on 17th August 2009.
The acquittal was received with mixed feelings on the part of the populace. Time will tell…
Upon assuming office, the new president started to fight corruption and abuse of office in the last administration. This implicated Frederick Chiluba as well. His immunity was removed in March 2002, to pave way for investigations.
During his presidency, Levy Mwanawasa suffered two strokes, one in April 2006 and another on 29 June 2008 in Egypt. Due to complications attributed to the second stroke, President Levy Mwanawasa died on 19 August 2008.
His place was taken by Rupiah Banda, as acting president.
On 30 October 2008, elections were held and in a closely contested fight among four presidential contenders, Rupiah B Banda became victorious. Rupiah Banda scored 718,359 votes against his closest rival Michael Sata, who garnered 683,150 votes.
On 02 November 2008 at 14.42hrs Zambian time, Rupiah B Banda was inaugurated as president and became the fourth Zambian president in the history of Zambia.
Michael Chilufya Sata, popularly known as ‘King Cobra’, became the 5th democratically elected Zambian president on 23rd September 2011.
Edgar C Lungu, assumed office as the sixth President of Zambia on 25 January 2015. He was sworn in at the National Heroes Stadium in Lusaka.
Do have a story to tell about Zambia, town, or any activity?
Others who read this site will greatly appreciate it, too!
Submit your contribution and you can also browse what others had to say:
"Chinika Sikumbule" And Kanyama - In Lusaka
Chinika sikumbule was song taught to our grade seven class by our teacher a Mr Chipeta, part of the lyrics went like this: one would start "chinika sikumbule! …
What Happened to MaKasai and MaGomani Compounds?
I have never liked archeology but I must confess I used to pinch a few coins from my mother's Piggy Bank to buy tickets for the Indiana Jones movies. Now, …
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Looking for Zambia hotels, lodges and guesthouses? This is the right place for you!
Munich hotel deals in a town renowned for centuries-old buildings and numerous museums and also home to annual Oktoberfest celebrations (beer festivals) and its beer halls. | <urn:uuid:def90d7d-ad4c-4106-8fcf-ea6fe15f9317> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.itsbesttravel.com/HistoryofZambia.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00263.warc.gz | en | 0.982581 | 1,240 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.31741786003112793,... | 1 | The arrival of the Lundas, the Bembas, the Lozis, the Bisas and many more tribes in the 18th century marked the beginning of the history of Zambia.
This development was followed by the arrival of the traders and settlers. Missionaries were also part of the group and they travelled all over the country.
This was the time of David Livingstone, known for his discovery of the Victoria Falls, and Cecil Rhodes, where the country got its name as Northern Rhodesia in colonial times.
The discovery of copper deposits in the 1920,s led to an influx of whites into the Copperbelt. In 1924, the British declared the country a colony and the status quo remained unchanged for the next 40 years.
During this time, the country belonged to the federation of Northern Rhodesia (Now Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasaland (Malawi).
What featured much in this part of the early history of Zambia is strong opposition to the federation that people exhibited. Eventually, this led to the formation of the first political party, the African National Congress. Involved in the party were men like Simon Kapwepwe, Harry Mwanga Nkumbula and Kenneth Kaunda, who because of leadership misunderstandings formed the United National Independence Party (UNIP).
Kenneth Kaunda later became Zambia’s first president in 1964. This was after a lot of protests and demonstrations.
The new country started off very well. The prices of copper were at an all-time high. However, in 1972, the political scene changed with the declaration of the one party state. This meant that no other party, apart from UNIP, could exist. Other parties were either fused in or were disbanded.
Problems started in 1975. The country witnessed a slump in copper prices. Later on Kaunda began supporting liberation struggles of neighbouring countries.
The economy was sluggish and the people were going through hard times. They rioted and demonstrated. There were food shortages and high levels of unemployment. This led Kenneth Kaunda, the humanist and champion of the liberation struggles in southern Africa, to call for an early election, which marshalled in Frederick Chiluba as second Zambian President on 31st of October 1991, in the history of Zambia.
Frederick Chiluba had managed to sway the crowds in his favour with his oratory powers. The new president had a mammoth task of turning the economy around.
The president embarked on a wholesale privatization of the state enterprises. Some viable companies were sold but the non-profit enterprises were simply liquidated. He opened up the Zambian economy to the outside and the shops were filled up with foreign goods.
Because the goods from the outside were cheap compared to those locally manufactured, many companies which could not compete went under. Because of this, a lot of people were laid off.
When his last term came to a close, Chiluba’s bid to go for a third term failed.
This forced him to choose Levy Mwanawasa, the one-time vice-president in his first cabinet, to succeed him.
It was this same Mwanawasa who lifted his immunity to pave way for investigations into alleged corruption scandals. The court appearances went on for 8 years until his acquittal on 17th August 2009.
The acquittal was received with mixed feelings on the part of the populace. Time will tell…
Upon assuming office, the new president started to fight corruption and abuse of office in the last administration. This implicated Frederick Chiluba as well. His immunity was removed in March 2002, to pave way for investigations.
During his presidency, Levy Mwanawasa suffered two strokes, one in April 2006 and another on 29 June 2008 in Egypt. Due to complications attributed to the second stroke, President Levy Mwanawasa died on 19 August 2008.
His place was taken by Rupiah Banda, as acting president.
On 30 October 2008, elections were held and in a closely contested fight among four presidential contenders, Rupiah B Banda became victorious. Rupiah Banda scored 718,359 votes against his closest rival Michael Sata, who garnered 683,150 votes.
On 02 November 2008 at 14.42hrs Zambian time, Rupiah B Banda was inaugurated as president and became the fourth Zambian president in the history of Zambia.
Michael Chilufya Sata, popularly known as ‘King Cobra’, became the 5th democratically elected Zambian president on 23rd September 2011.
Edgar C Lungu, assumed office as the sixth President of Zambia on 25 January 2015. He was sworn in at the National Heroes Stadium in Lusaka.
Do have a story to tell about Zambia, town, or any activity?
Others who read this site will greatly appreciate it, too!
Submit your contribution and you can also browse what others had to say:
"Chinika Sikumbule" And Kanyama - In Lusaka
Chinika sikumbule was song taught to our grade seven class by our teacher a Mr Chipeta, part of the lyrics went like this: one would start "chinika sikumbule! …
What Happened to MaKasai and MaGomani Compounds?
I have never liked archeology but I must confess I used to pinch a few coins from my mother's Piggy Bank to buy tickets for the Indiana Jones movies. Now, …
The Fallsway villas are in a class of their own, a hallmark of Lusaka real estate. They are located in one of the safest areas of Lusaka...
Looking for Zambia hotels, lodges and guesthouses? This is the right place for you!
Munich hotel deals in a town renowned for centuries-old buildings and numerous museums and also home to annual Oktoberfest celebrations (beer festivals) and its beer halls. | 1,283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Welcome to Year 1!
On this page you can find out all about what we get up to in Year 1
This half term our topic is 'Fire and Ice' and we are asking Where do Dragons like to live? During this topic we will look at dragons in fairytale stories, complete fact files on Bearded dragons and use ice as a basis for Science investigations.
So far we have done investigations on how ice melts quickest and how ice is made. We have also thought about ice eggs and how the dragons got inside them as well as completing an investigation to see which method works quickest to get the dragon out. The children really enjoyed this and decided the salt was the quickest method to melt the ice.
In English we have had a mysterious creature come to Driffield and the Fairytale police asked us to help them with their investigation. The children were brilliant and created descriptions with exciting adjectives and designed missing posters for the characters in Fairytale land help find the dragon. We are also going to focus on a new story called 'There is no dragon in this story'.
In Maths we are thinking about number pairs to 20 and using number pairs to 10 to help us. The children have worked really hard on this and should be very proud of themselves, we are certainly proud of them.
In Art we have tried painting with ice cubes which was both fun and very messy!! The children are now completing a project using the research, design, make, evaluate method to create dragon eyes using clay. The children have done the research and will design their own dragon eye next week.
There is lots going on in Year 1 this half term, we will add pictures over the coming weeks so you can see what we are getting up to.
Wow, what a fantastic Christmas party we have had this afternoon. The children enjoyed party games, dancing and party food. They all looked lovely in their outfits and had a great time.
Year 1 had great fun making nature art during our outdoor learning sessions, they were very creative! The children also checked on the plants with Mrs Eling and found lots of worms in the process!
This week we had a visit from Becky and Di who work at Tesco in Driffield. They brought lots of different fruit for us to taste. The children loved talking about the fruit they like, don't like and the textures of each fruit.
We have been continuing our topic 'All about me' and thinking about the big question 'What would you like to know about me?' Thank you for sending in pictures and information about what makes them happy, you can see the collages they created on the pictures below. They had a fabulous afternoon making these and the discussion was lovely between the children.
They also created a mobile about themselves which included their favourite colour, animal and food!
What a busy start to the new year we have had! We are very proud of how the children have settled in and how they are becoming familiar with the new routines of year 1. We will add photos and information about what we are doing during the year so be sure to check the website regularly to see what we get up to!
The children had a lot of fun den building yesterday! Look how great their creations look...
On Tuesday we had some special visitors from Sam's Safari. They brought some animals for us to look at, hold and touch. There was a tree frog, armadillo, snake, tortoise, leaf insect, millipede and a gerbil. We were fascinated by how some of them move so quickly when we are not expecting it! The children were very good and so careful when handling and touching the animals and they asked some good questions to find out more information.
The year one children had a brilliant time at the end of year school disco. There was lots of dancing, prizes for the best dancer and even a custard pie game, Miss Hewitt was the chosen member of staff to play this game! Here are some photos of the fun we had.
Year 1 staff are so proud of all the children from our visit to Dalby Forest. We enjoyed playing on the park, having an ice-lolly and having our lunch together. We also did a walk through the woods and were very excited when we found Zog.
What a lovely afternoon the Caterpillars have had building minibeast habitats. They had really good ideas and suggestions, well done to them all. They also did some tidying up in the gardening area, which smells lovely now all the flowers are starting to grow.
We were really lucky to have a visit from All Star cricket to do a taster session. We played some warm up games to begin with and then played a game of cricket at the end. There was some really good batting and fielding skills. Well done everyone.
Once again, another fantastic outdoor learning session for the Bumble Bee's this afternoon. The children loved making their mini-beast habitats with Mr Holmes and came up with some fantastic creations!
Thank you to all the parents and grandparents who came to the stay and read this morning. It was so lovely to see the children enjoying reading with you all. It was a lovely experience for the children and adults! Click on the photos below to see a larger version.
If you were unable to make it watch out for one in the Summer term at the end of a school day...
This afternoon the Caterpillar class had their gardening and outdoor learning session. They sorted out the planters so they look neat and tidy ready for new plants starting to grow and they also planted lots of new seeds and bulbs. They also did some bird watching, listening for the sounds birds make and learning the names of 12 common birds.
On Monday 18th March we were very lucky to learn Morris Dancing. We learnt all about the instruments used and lots of different steps. We were given some costumes to wear and we also had bells on our wrists. All the staff were very impressed with how the children picked up the steps and kept to the beat as the did the whole thing at the end. Here are some pictures and videos of our Morris dancing.
We have been very busy in Year One during the Spring term. We have planted bean seeds and have discussed what plants need to grow and be healthy. To help us understand this, one of the seeds is not going to be watered and one of them is been watered but will stay in a dark cupboard so we can see if they still grow. We will be measuring our bean plants each week and completing a diary to keep track of how much they have grown! The Bumble Bees have enjoyed doing some bird watching and learned about different bird names and what they look like. Last half term, the Caterpillars completed six weeks of dancing.
This half term we have started to think about our new topic, Where will our wellies take us? We are travelling to the 7 continents in our magic wellies, so far we have been to Africa where we at the landscape and described different animals we saw on our safari adventure. This week we are wrapping up warm as we travel to Antarctica!
We wrapped up warm and went outside! We went to look for different types of birds. We saw some pigeons, blackbirds, sparrows and seagulls! The children went on a search to find pictures of birds hiding outside and marked off on their clipboards when they found them! With Mrs Eling in the gardening area the children were digging and planting and we have got some HUGE leeks from our garden!
Do dragons really breathe fire....?
Ask the children what they think! We had a great half term learning about all things fairy tale and dragons (Including real bearded dragons). We helped the fairy tale police solve the mystery of the missing creature, went to a castle in Jack and the beanstalk to see where dragons might live and we learnt about Bearded Dragons too! On Friday afternoons we did a design and technology project to make our own dragon sock puppets, we researched, designed, made and evaluated them - The children were so excited to take them home at the end of the term!
The Bumble Bee's had a lovely Outdoor Learning session on Tuesday afternoon. They made cheerio bird feeders to take home and hang in the their gardens and also did some gardening with Mrs Eling!
We have had a fabulous time today at our Christmas party, the children were brilliant and enjoyed food, drinks, games and lots of dancing. There was even a visit from a very special visitor.............Father Christmas! Merry Christmas everyone.
We went for a walk down to the church to see the Poppies we made for Remembrance Day - The church looked amazing!
Year One had a brilliant time at the Wolds Gymnastics Club and really enjoyed their sessions there... A big thank you to all the coaches that helped us and taught us new things!
We have been very creative during our outdoor learning sessions this term. We used different natural materials such as conkers, leaves, feathers, sticks and stones to make lots of animals. Here are some photos of some of them, can you guess what we made? We also did some gardening with Mrs Eling. She helped us to pick a pumpkin, plant some bulbs and make some bunches of lavender to take home, we hope you liked these.
We are having a very exciting time in year one. Here is a list of things we have been doing
- A visit from the PCSOs. The children all know how important it is to wear a helmet when out and about riding their bikes and scooters. The children all sat in the back of the van and tried different police helmets on.
- Salt Dough handprints. As we continue with our topic about 'Ourselves' we have made an imprint of our hands in Salt dough which we are going to decorate and bring home.
- Tasting in Science. We have been thinking about our senses in Science and in one lesson we learned about taste. The children tasted some different fruit and vegetables and thought of some adjectives to describe their taste and texture, there were some very funny faces when they tried the lime!
- Fruit and Vegetable portraits. The children looked at the work of artist Giuseppe Arcimboldo who paints portraits using different fruts and vegetables to create the features. We created our own using fruit and vegetables to print with. Who knew a rhubarb would make a good mouth?!
This week we have started to look at the story of Elmer. We looked at the colours and different patterns the other elephants wear on Elmer day. We each designed an Elmer and thought about how the colours make us happy. Here are a few photos to show our amazing designs.
And with the Year 2's ...When they were in Year 1!
The children has such a good day at Dalby Forest yesterday! We found the Gruffalo and the Highway Rat on the walk and they loved playing in the park! All the children behaved really well and we are all super proud of them! Well done Year 1!
The Bumble Bees has great fun acting out the story of Goldilocks and The Three Bears! Look at how well some of the children did....
"It was amazing!" Said Leo
"It was brilliant" Said Amelia
"I loved it" Said Liam
"It was fantastic" Said Ryan
The children have had a great afternoon with Sam's Safari. They brought in a snake, gecko, stick insect, frog, tortoise, hedgehog and a hissing cockroach! The children all got chance to hold or stroke the animals and they learnt all about where they come from and what they eat. It was such an enjoyable and educational afternoon for all the children and they were all very brave and loved every minute of it! | <urn:uuid:0a0ba21e-6c49-4af7-a826-648348add900> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.driffieldnorthfieldinfants.co.uk/governor-information/class-information/year-one | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.981397 | 2,427 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.159151107072... | 1 | Welcome to Year 1!
On this page you can find out all about what we get up to in Year 1
This half term our topic is 'Fire and Ice' and we are asking Where do Dragons like to live? During this topic we will look at dragons in fairytale stories, complete fact files on Bearded dragons and use ice as a basis for Science investigations.
So far we have done investigations on how ice melts quickest and how ice is made. We have also thought about ice eggs and how the dragons got inside them as well as completing an investigation to see which method works quickest to get the dragon out. The children really enjoyed this and decided the salt was the quickest method to melt the ice.
In English we have had a mysterious creature come to Driffield and the Fairytale police asked us to help them with their investigation. The children were brilliant and created descriptions with exciting adjectives and designed missing posters for the characters in Fairytale land help find the dragon. We are also going to focus on a new story called 'There is no dragon in this story'.
In Maths we are thinking about number pairs to 20 and using number pairs to 10 to help us. The children have worked really hard on this and should be very proud of themselves, we are certainly proud of them.
In Art we have tried painting with ice cubes which was both fun and very messy!! The children are now completing a project using the research, design, make, evaluate method to create dragon eyes using clay. The children have done the research and will design their own dragon eye next week.
There is lots going on in Year 1 this half term, we will add pictures over the coming weeks so you can see what we are getting up to.
Wow, what a fantastic Christmas party we have had this afternoon. The children enjoyed party games, dancing and party food. They all looked lovely in their outfits and had a great time.
Year 1 had great fun making nature art during our outdoor learning sessions, they were very creative! The children also checked on the plants with Mrs Eling and found lots of worms in the process!
This week we had a visit from Becky and Di who work at Tesco in Driffield. They brought lots of different fruit for us to taste. The children loved talking about the fruit they like, don't like and the textures of each fruit.
We have been continuing our topic 'All about me' and thinking about the big question 'What would you like to know about me?' Thank you for sending in pictures and information about what makes them happy, you can see the collages they created on the pictures below. They had a fabulous afternoon making these and the discussion was lovely between the children.
They also created a mobile about themselves which included their favourite colour, animal and food!
What a busy start to the new year we have had! We are very proud of how the children have settled in and how they are becoming familiar with the new routines of year 1. We will add photos and information about what we are doing during the year so be sure to check the website regularly to see what we get up to!
The children had a lot of fun den building yesterday! Look how great their creations look...
On Tuesday we had some special visitors from Sam's Safari. They brought some animals for us to look at, hold and touch. There was a tree frog, armadillo, snake, tortoise, leaf insect, millipede and a gerbil. We were fascinated by how some of them move so quickly when we are not expecting it! The children were very good and so careful when handling and touching the animals and they asked some good questions to find out more information.
The year one children had a brilliant time at the end of year school disco. There was lots of dancing, prizes for the best dancer and even a custard pie game, Miss Hewitt was the chosen member of staff to play this game! Here are some photos of the fun we had.
Year 1 staff are so proud of all the children from our visit to Dalby Forest. We enjoyed playing on the park, having an ice-lolly and having our lunch together. We also did a walk through the woods and were very excited when we found Zog.
What a lovely afternoon the Caterpillars have had building minibeast habitats. They had really good ideas and suggestions, well done to them all. They also did some tidying up in the gardening area, which smells lovely now all the flowers are starting to grow.
We were really lucky to have a visit from All Star cricket to do a taster session. We played some warm up games to begin with and then played a game of cricket at the end. There was some really good batting and fielding skills. Well done everyone.
Once again, another fantastic outdoor learning session for the Bumble Bee's this afternoon. The children loved making their mini-beast habitats with Mr Holmes and came up with some fantastic creations!
Thank you to all the parents and grandparents who came to the stay and read this morning. It was so lovely to see the children enjoying reading with you all. It was a lovely experience for the children and adults! Click on the photos below to see a larger version.
If you were unable to make it watch out for one in the Summer term at the end of a school day...
This afternoon the Caterpillar class had their gardening and outdoor learning session. They sorted out the planters so they look neat and tidy ready for new plants starting to grow and they also planted lots of new seeds and bulbs. They also did some bird watching, listening for the sounds birds make and learning the names of 12 common birds.
On Monday 18th March we were very lucky to learn Morris Dancing. We learnt all about the instruments used and lots of different steps. We were given some costumes to wear and we also had bells on our wrists. All the staff were very impressed with how the children picked up the steps and kept to the beat as the did the whole thing at the end. Here are some pictures and videos of our Morris dancing.
We have been very busy in Year One during the Spring term. We have planted bean seeds and have discussed what plants need to grow and be healthy. To help us understand this, one of the seeds is not going to be watered and one of them is been watered but will stay in a dark cupboard so we can see if they still grow. We will be measuring our bean plants each week and completing a diary to keep track of how much they have grown! The Bumble Bees have enjoyed doing some bird watching and learned about different bird names and what they look like. Last half term, the Caterpillars completed six weeks of dancing.
This half term we have started to think about our new topic, Where will our wellies take us? We are travelling to the 7 continents in our magic wellies, so far we have been to Africa where we at the landscape and described different animals we saw on our safari adventure. This week we are wrapping up warm as we travel to Antarctica!
We wrapped up warm and went outside! We went to look for different types of birds. We saw some pigeons, blackbirds, sparrows and seagulls! The children went on a search to find pictures of birds hiding outside and marked off on their clipboards when they found them! With Mrs Eling in the gardening area the children were digging and planting and we have got some HUGE leeks from our garden!
Do dragons really breathe fire....?
Ask the children what they think! We had a great half term learning about all things fairy tale and dragons (Including real bearded dragons). We helped the fairy tale police solve the mystery of the missing creature, went to a castle in Jack and the beanstalk to see where dragons might live and we learnt about Bearded Dragons too! On Friday afternoons we did a design and technology project to make our own dragon sock puppets, we researched, designed, made and evaluated them - The children were so excited to take them home at the end of the term!
The Bumble Bee's had a lovely Outdoor Learning session on Tuesday afternoon. They made cheerio bird feeders to take home and hang in the their gardens and also did some gardening with Mrs Eling!
We have had a fabulous time today at our Christmas party, the children were brilliant and enjoyed food, drinks, games and lots of dancing. There was even a visit from a very special visitor.............Father Christmas! Merry Christmas everyone.
We went for a walk down to the church to see the Poppies we made for Remembrance Day - The church looked amazing!
Year One had a brilliant time at the Wolds Gymnastics Club and really enjoyed their sessions there... A big thank you to all the coaches that helped us and taught us new things!
We have been very creative during our outdoor learning sessions this term. We used different natural materials such as conkers, leaves, feathers, sticks and stones to make lots of animals. Here are some photos of some of them, can you guess what we made? We also did some gardening with Mrs Eling. She helped us to pick a pumpkin, plant some bulbs and make some bunches of lavender to take home, we hope you liked these.
We are having a very exciting time in year one. Here is a list of things we have been doing
- A visit from the PCSOs. The children all know how important it is to wear a helmet when out and about riding their bikes and scooters. The children all sat in the back of the van and tried different police helmets on.
- Salt Dough handprints. As we continue with our topic about 'Ourselves' we have made an imprint of our hands in Salt dough which we are going to decorate and bring home.
- Tasting in Science. We have been thinking about our senses in Science and in one lesson we learned about taste. The children tasted some different fruit and vegetables and thought of some adjectives to describe their taste and texture, there were some very funny faces when they tried the lime!
- Fruit and Vegetable portraits. The children looked at the work of artist Giuseppe Arcimboldo who paints portraits using different fruts and vegetables to create the features. We created our own using fruit and vegetables to print with. Who knew a rhubarb would make a good mouth?!
This week we have started to look at the story of Elmer. We looked at the colours and different patterns the other elephants wear on Elmer day. We each designed an Elmer and thought about how the colours make us happy. Here are a few photos to show our amazing designs.
And with the Year 2's ...When they were in Year 1!
The children has such a good day at Dalby Forest yesterday! We found the Gruffalo and the Highway Rat on the walk and they loved playing in the park! All the children behaved really well and we are all super proud of them! Well done Year 1!
The Bumble Bees has great fun acting out the story of Goldilocks and The Three Bears! Look at how well some of the children did....
"It was amazing!" Said Leo
"It was brilliant" Said Amelia
"I loved it" Said Liam
"It was fantastic" Said Ryan
The children have had a great afternoon with Sam's Safari. They brought in a snake, gecko, stick insect, frog, tortoise, hedgehog and a hissing cockroach! The children all got chance to hold or stroke the animals and they learnt all about where they come from and what they eat. It was such an enjoyable and educational afternoon for all the children and they were all very brave and loved every minute of it! | 2,395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sitting high above the Verde River atop a ridge lies Tuzigoot, Tuzigoot consists of the pieces of one of the largest pueblos built by the Sinagua and is an ancient village. Tuzigoot, is an Apache word that means crooked water. It was built between 1100 and 1450 AD and consisted 110 rooms in two stories.
Tuzigoot is small but lovely and has been compared to resembling a castle or fort. It
is considered the most beautiful site of the Sinagua people. Tuzigoot is made of river cobbles and
the old structure was topped with a two-story watchtower that was later rebuilt
by the National Park Service.Tuzigoot only started off as small cluster of 50
people who lived there and this continued for 100 years. In the 1200s, the population soared to around 200 people since the farmers were fleeing the drought and decided to move here. The Hohokam were the first to live in
Verde Valley area around 600 A.D. Then the Sinagua came later and built above-ground dwellings that were influenced
by Anasazi to the north.A long time ago the river it overlooks once flowed in a loop around the west side but long before the arrival of any people it somehow changed its course. Today it runs along the east side of Tuzigoot. The original riverbed then became a
large marshy area that was used by the
inhabitants to grow crops.To enter into these dwellings, you would of have had to enter through the hatchways on the roofs. The walls inside were covered in red like mud plaster. The monument was
excavated from 1933 to 1935 by Louis Caywood as well as Edward Spicer both of the
University of Arizona. This was done with funding from the federal Civil Works Administration
and Works Project Administration. In 1935-1936, with additional funding, the ruins were made ready for public display.At this same time a Pueblo Revival-style
museum and visitor center were also constructed. The museum is home to several artifacts as well as a model of what the pueblo probably looked like. | <urn:uuid:0a788fdb-1458-4576-a74c-2606c3c53383> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/18627 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.984056 | 452 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.33268034458... | 2 | Sitting high above the Verde River atop a ridge lies Tuzigoot, Tuzigoot consists of the pieces of one of the largest pueblos built by the Sinagua and is an ancient village. Tuzigoot, is an Apache word that means crooked water. It was built between 1100 and 1450 AD and consisted 110 rooms in two stories.
Tuzigoot is small but lovely and has been compared to resembling a castle or fort. It
is considered the most beautiful site of the Sinagua people. Tuzigoot is made of river cobbles and
the old structure was topped with a two-story watchtower that was later rebuilt
by the National Park Service.Tuzigoot only started off as small cluster of 50
people who lived there and this continued for 100 years. In the 1200s, the population soared to around 200 people since the farmers were fleeing the drought and decided to move here. The Hohokam were the first to live in
Verde Valley area around 600 A.D. Then the Sinagua came later and built above-ground dwellings that were influenced
by Anasazi to the north.A long time ago the river it overlooks once flowed in a loop around the west side but long before the arrival of any people it somehow changed its course. Today it runs along the east side of Tuzigoot. The original riverbed then became a
large marshy area that was used by the
inhabitants to grow crops.To enter into these dwellings, you would of have had to enter through the hatchways on the roofs. The walls inside were covered in red like mud plaster. The monument was
excavated from 1933 to 1935 by Louis Caywood as well as Edward Spicer both of the
University of Arizona. This was done with funding from the federal Civil Works Administration
and Works Project Administration. In 1935-1936, with additional funding, the ruins were made ready for public display.At this same time a Pueblo Revival-style
museum and visitor center were also constructed. The museum is home to several artifacts as well as a model of what the pueblo probably looked like. | 480 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Over the past 2 weeks l have been testing my students to confirm what I think they already know, and to decide future teaching directions before these students finish Reading Recovery. (Anyone would think it was report writing time.)
The area that needed the most attention for all of the students was Writing Vocabulary, i.e. being able to recall and write the many, many words that they have previously written independently. The students were given 10 minutes to write as many words as they could.
Some students could not recall the words they did know. (These students would have been able to write more words if l told them which words to write from their individual lists.) Other students wrote some words with spelling errors, e.g. tow (two). One boy was determined to write big words (incorrectly) to impress me and did not write the many smaller words that he did know. This meant that all of the scores (number of words written in 10 minutes) was well below the number of words that l had recorded for each student as being known.
Why is this an issue? Students need to know what they know. If l know l can write day, then l know it will probably help me to write stayed.
If l can write many most-used words quickly without thinking much about it, l will have more time and energy to spend on new and more interesting words. | <urn:uuid:3c9da12e-27f7-49bd-9696-40adc32aaeef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://msfielding.global2.vic.edu.au/2015/06/14/remembering-how-to-write-words/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.990951 | 282 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.25769016146659... | 1 | Over the past 2 weeks l have been testing my students to confirm what I think they already know, and to decide future teaching directions before these students finish Reading Recovery. (Anyone would think it was report writing time.)
The area that needed the most attention for all of the students was Writing Vocabulary, i.e. being able to recall and write the many, many words that they have previously written independently. The students were given 10 minutes to write as many words as they could.
Some students could not recall the words they did know. (These students would have been able to write more words if l told them which words to write from their individual lists.) Other students wrote some words with spelling errors, e.g. tow (two). One boy was determined to write big words (incorrectly) to impress me and did not write the many smaller words that he did know. This meant that all of the scores (number of words written in 10 minutes) was well below the number of words that l had recorded for each student as being known.
Why is this an issue? Students need to know what they know. If l know l can write day, then l know it will probably help me to write stayed.
If l can write many most-used words quickly without thinking much about it, l will have more time and energy to spend on new and more interesting words. | 278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Giorgione was one of the most influential and renowned Venetian painters to have a profound influence of the High Renaissance style. He was one the first artists to have introduced painting people in a landscape setting. He is most famous for his best known work, “The Tempest”. In addition to his landscapes, Giorgione was a highly sought after artist for his half-length portraits.
Giorgione was born circa 1477 in the small town of Castelfranco Veneto, in Venice, Italy. Historians have been able to reveal very little about his childhood, but it is reported that Giorgione was born into a family of limited means and he began to exhibit his passion and talent for arts at a very young age. In 1490, Giorgione began his apprenticeship at the workshop of the notable master painter, Giovanni Bellini, who taught him how to inculcate in his art a profound awareness of lighting, color, mood and atmosphere. Under the tutelage of Giovanni, Giorgione perfected his skills and polished his talents to perfection.
Giorgione’s work and artistic approach was also influenced by fellow painters, and several other Renaissance artists, writers and philosophers of Italy during that time. His later works have depicted a profound influence taken from the works of writers, philosophers and poets such as Jacopo Sannazzaro, Pietro Pomponazzi and Pietro Bembo.
In 1495, Giorgione produced his two earliest and most influential works, “The Trial of Moses” and the “Judgement of Soloman”. Most of his paintings depicted religious subjects and scenes, however, his paintings were also celebrated and noted for their lush and beautiful landscapes. Some of his highly acclaimed and widely discussed religious paintings include, “The Holy Family”, “Castelfranco Madonna” and “Adoration of the Shepherds”.
In 1505, Giorgione painted his magnum opus, “The Tempest”, which became his best-known work and firmly established his position as an acclaimed and influential artist. The painting was set in the background of a raging storm ready to break out in an extremely pleasant and peaceful landscape. “The Tempest” forces and encourages its viewers to explore the hidden symbolic meaning in its depictions. Some of Giorgione’s half-length portraits include, “The Laura”, “La Vecchia” and “The Young Man”.
Giorgione passed away in 1510 after the prolonged suffrage with the plague, in Venice, Italy, at the age of 33. Shortly before his death, he had begun working on the “Sleeping Venus”, however his death rendered his work incomplete. Young painter Titian took over this project, and completed the landscape in Giorgione’s “Sleeping Venus”.
Unfortunately, only five works by Giorgione have survived the trial and hazards of time, they include, “The Tempest,” “The Three Philosophers,” “Boy with an Arrow,” “Shepherd with a Flute” and “Sleeping Venus”. | <urn:uuid:d1265e54-d6f5-4df1-9f35-788d6b7c891c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.famouspainters.net/giorgione/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00134.warc.gz | en | 0.988154 | 693 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.498074591159820... | 11 | Giorgione was one of the most influential and renowned Venetian painters to have a profound influence of the High Renaissance style. He was one the first artists to have introduced painting people in a landscape setting. He is most famous for his best known work, “The Tempest”. In addition to his landscapes, Giorgione was a highly sought after artist for his half-length portraits.
Giorgione was born circa 1477 in the small town of Castelfranco Veneto, in Venice, Italy. Historians have been able to reveal very little about his childhood, but it is reported that Giorgione was born into a family of limited means and he began to exhibit his passion and talent for arts at a very young age. In 1490, Giorgione began his apprenticeship at the workshop of the notable master painter, Giovanni Bellini, who taught him how to inculcate in his art a profound awareness of lighting, color, mood and atmosphere. Under the tutelage of Giovanni, Giorgione perfected his skills and polished his talents to perfection.
Giorgione’s work and artistic approach was also influenced by fellow painters, and several other Renaissance artists, writers and philosophers of Italy during that time. His later works have depicted a profound influence taken from the works of writers, philosophers and poets such as Jacopo Sannazzaro, Pietro Pomponazzi and Pietro Bembo.
In 1495, Giorgione produced his two earliest and most influential works, “The Trial of Moses” and the “Judgement of Soloman”. Most of his paintings depicted religious subjects and scenes, however, his paintings were also celebrated and noted for their lush and beautiful landscapes. Some of his highly acclaimed and widely discussed religious paintings include, “The Holy Family”, “Castelfranco Madonna” and “Adoration of the Shepherds”.
In 1505, Giorgione painted his magnum opus, “The Tempest”, which became his best-known work and firmly established his position as an acclaimed and influential artist. The painting was set in the background of a raging storm ready to break out in an extremely pleasant and peaceful landscape. “The Tempest” forces and encourages its viewers to explore the hidden symbolic meaning in its depictions. Some of Giorgione’s half-length portraits include, “The Laura”, “La Vecchia” and “The Young Man”.
Giorgione passed away in 1510 after the prolonged suffrage with the plague, in Venice, Italy, at the age of 33. Shortly before his death, he had begun working on the “Sleeping Venus”, however his death rendered his work incomplete. Young painter Titian took over this project, and completed the landscape in Giorgione’s “Sleeping Venus”.
Unfortunately, only five works by Giorgione have survived the trial and hazards of time, they include, “The Tempest,” “The Three Philosophers,” “Boy with an Arrow,” “Shepherd with a Flute” and “Sleeping Venus”. | 630 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the early morning hours of Aug. 28, 1955, Roy Bryant and J.W. Milam arrived at the Mississippi home of Moses Wright, demanding he turn over his 14-year-old nephew, Emmett Till. Armed with a pistol, the two white men kidnapped the teenager, and then murdered him. Till’s death would become a key turning point in the civil rights movement, in part because Wright did what no one expected: he stood up in court and accused Bryant and Milam of the gruesome crime.
But before the moment came for him to testify, Wright sent his wife and children to Chicago, understanding that it was simply too dangerous to keep his family in Mississippi. Wright knew that by standing up to state-sanctioned violence against black people, he would trigger his own execution. So, in his mid-60s, Wright took to the stand and accused Milam and Bryant of the violent crime—and then, to save his own life, he left behind just about everyone and everything he knew, quickly leaving the state to escape the trauma and violence of the South.
For African Americans, there is a long history of leaving family and friends behind, going elsewhere in search of safety. At the turn of the 20th century, decades before Wright’s testimony, African Americans fled from the violence of the South for opportunity in northern and western cities in a movement that became known as the Great Migration. But perhaps the most symbolic example of African Americans fleeing state-sanctioned violence features the Underground Railroad. A loosely connected system of safe havens, the Underground is given credit for shuttling tens of thousands of enslaved fugitives out of the South to non-slave holding states and Canada. Sitting at the center of this history is abolitionist and women’s rights activist Harriet Tubman Davis.
There is a negative connotation linked to flight. To run away is often seen as a cowardly thing to do. “Fight” and “flight” are opposites and those who flee are often seen as taking the easy way out; those who stay for the battle are brave. But hundreds of years of African American history belie that simplistic notion. Running can be just as brave as going to battle—and, in fact, they can be the same thing. If anyone knew the power behind fighting and flight, it was Tubman.
With the release this Friday of the biopic Harriet—written, directed and produced by a heavy-hitting team of black women filmmakers—audiences across the world will be introduced to an updated and multi-dimensional exploration of the woman who rescued enslaved men, women and children from certain terror and suffering. For almost a decade, Tubman put her own safety aside each time she ferried fugitives to safety. She was an indomitable leader who had her God and her gun as her only weapons.
That gun features prominently in advertisements for the movie. Across the several varieties of posters and trailers, there are a few common threads: there’s Cynthia Erivo as Tubman, there’s her unyielding stare and there’s her gun. Tubman’s own narrative—written by Sarah Bradford, based on interviews, and published in 1869—explained the obvious need to carry a pistol. Not only was she in danger of being captured or murdered during her time as a conductor on the Underground Railroad, but she also needed her weapon to convince weary and frightened fugitives not to give up and turn around. Tubman wasn’t the only one carrying a gun during her missions—some of the men and women in her care would have stolen firearms from unsuspecting enslavers. They too understood that their flight was a fight.
But Tubman was still unique. The facts surrounding her life are so incredible they seem almost impossible to believe. Born Araminta Ross some time around 1822 on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, Tubman lived through and witnessed the violence of slavery—the selling of her sisters, the brutal beatings of enslaved people, and the death and destruction that clung to slavery’s cloak. Her marriage to a free man, John Tubman, and her close relationship with her family were threatened in 1849 when she learned that she would be sold. After an aborted runaway attempt with her two brothers, Tubman escaped to the Pennsylvania border in the fall of 1849.
Having made it to freedom, for the close to ten years that followed, she repeatedly traveled back to Maryland to rescue her friends and family. She traveled by train and by foot through the marshy Eastern Shore to save her loved ones from torture. Her first return trip to Maryland was to orchestrate the rescue of her niece from a slave auction—the beginning of a sterling record of leading the enslaved out of bondage. Each time she went South, she did so with great urgency, often to protect a loved one from arrest or sale.
Tubman was unflinching in her commitment to liberation and would use the power of her pistol if necessary. Later in life, Tubman stated, “I had reasoned this out in my mind; there was one of two things I had a right to, liberty, or death; if I could not have one, I would have the other[.]”
She knew that the law was not on her side, evidenced by the federal government’s support of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which gave enslavers had the right to travel to any state in search of their human property, leaving no American city or town a safe haven for fugitives. Tubman knew that the only way to save her loved ones was to make them disappear.
It would take a war to destroy the system of slavery. Until that day arrived, Tubman helped her people steal away, one or a few at a time. She made 12 or 13 trips to Maryland and rescued nearly 70 people, defying federal law with each mission. In speaking engagements across northern cities she condemned the law of the land, taking aim at the system of slavery and the lawmakers who continued to condone it. After each speech she would disappear into a world of shadows inhabited only by fugitives and their allies.
Tubman knew then, as we know now, that in the absence of justice, running away is sometimes the only way to save a life.
Erica Armstrong Dunbar is the author of the forthcoming book She Came To Slay: The Life and Times of Harriet Tubman. | <urn:uuid:3d09b011-c86b-4453-baa9-ebe25e3cc84d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://time.com/5715477/harriet-tubman-escape/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.982199 | 1,329 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.095170728862... | 5 | In the early morning hours of Aug. 28, 1955, Roy Bryant and J.W. Milam arrived at the Mississippi home of Moses Wright, demanding he turn over his 14-year-old nephew, Emmett Till. Armed with a pistol, the two white men kidnapped the teenager, and then murdered him. Till’s death would become a key turning point in the civil rights movement, in part because Wright did what no one expected: he stood up in court and accused Bryant and Milam of the gruesome crime.
But before the moment came for him to testify, Wright sent his wife and children to Chicago, understanding that it was simply too dangerous to keep his family in Mississippi. Wright knew that by standing up to state-sanctioned violence against black people, he would trigger his own execution. So, in his mid-60s, Wright took to the stand and accused Milam and Bryant of the violent crime—and then, to save his own life, he left behind just about everyone and everything he knew, quickly leaving the state to escape the trauma and violence of the South.
For African Americans, there is a long history of leaving family and friends behind, going elsewhere in search of safety. At the turn of the 20th century, decades before Wright’s testimony, African Americans fled from the violence of the South for opportunity in northern and western cities in a movement that became known as the Great Migration. But perhaps the most symbolic example of African Americans fleeing state-sanctioned violence features the Underground Railroad. A loosely connected system of safe havens, the Underground is given credit for shuttling tens of thousands of enslaved fugitives out of the South to non-slave holding states and Canada. Sitting at the center of this history is abolitionist and women’s rights activist Harriet Tubman Davis.
There is a negative connotation linked to flight. To run away is often seen as a cowardly thing to do. “Fight” and “flight” are opposites and those who flee are often seen as taking the easy way out; those who stay for the battle are brave. But hundreds of years of African American history belie that simplistic notion. Running can be just as brave as going to battle—and, in fact, they can be the same thing. If anyone knew the power behind fighting and flight, it was Tubman.
With the release this Friday of the biopic Harriet—written, directed and produced by a heavy-hitting team of black women filmmakers—audiences across the world will be introduced to an updated and multi-dimensional exploration of the woman who rescued enslaved men, women and children from certain terror and suffering. For almost a decade, Tubman put her own safety aside each time she ferried fugitives to safety. She was an indomitable leader who had her God and her gun as her only weapons.
That gun features prominently in advertisements for the movie. Across the several varieties of posters and trailers, there are a few common threads: there’s Cynthia Erivo as Tubman, there’s her unyielding stare and there’s her gun. Tubman’s own narrative—written by Sarah Bradford, based on interviews, and published in 1869—explained the obvious need to carry a pistol. Not only was she in danger of being captured or murdered during her time as a conductor on the Underground Railroad, but she also needed her weapon to convince weary and frightened fugitives not to give up and turn around. Tubman wasn’t the only one carrying a gun during her missions—some of the men and women in her care would have stolen firearms from unsuspecting enslavers. They too understood that their flight was a fight.
But Tubman was still unique. The facts surrounding her life are so incredible they seem almost impossible to believe. Born Araminta Ross some time around 1822 on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, Tubman lived through and witnessed the violence of slavery—the selling of her sisters, the brutal beatings of enslaved people, and the death and destruction that clung to slavery’s cloak. Her marriage to a free man, John Tubman, and her close relationship with her family were threatened in 1849 when she learned that she would be sold. After an aborted runaway attempt with her two brothers, Tubman escaped to the Pennsylvania border in the fall of 1849.
Having made it to freedom, for the close to ten years that followed, she repeatedly traveled back to Maryland to rescue her friends and family. She traveled by train and by foot through the marshy Eastern Shore to save her loved ones from torture. Her first return trip to Maryland was to orchestrate the rescue of her niece from a slave auction—the beginning of a sterling record of leading the enslaved out of bondage. Each time she went South, she did so with great urgency, often to protect a loved one from arrest or sale.
Tubman was unflinching in her commitment to liberation and would use the power of her pistol if necessary. Later in life, Tubman stated, “I had reasoned this out in my mind; there was one of two things I had a right to, liberty, or death; if I could not have one, I would have the other[.]”
She knew that the law was not on her side, evidenced by the federal government’s support of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which gave enslavers had the right to travel to any state in search of their human property, leaving no American city or town a safe haven for fugitives. Tubman knew that the only way to save her loved ones was to make them disappear.
It would take a war to destroy the system of slavery. Until that day arrived, Tubman helped her people steal away, one or a few at a time. She made 12 or 13 trips to Maryland and rescued nearly 70 people, defying federal law with each mission. In speaking engagements across northern cities she condemned the law of the land, taking aim at the system of slavery and the lawmakers who continued to condone it. After each speech she would disappear into a world of shadows inhabited only by fugitives and their allies.
Tubman knew then, as we know now, that in the absence of justice, running away is sometimes the only way to save a life.
Erica Armstrong Dunbar is the author of the forthcoming book She Came To Slay: The Life and Times of Harriet Tubman. | 1,319 | ENGLISH | 1 |
NEW BEDFORD — During the month of January 2020, the 5th Lights for Peace flag to fly at the Fort Taber-Fort Rodman Military Museum honors the memory of William Harvey Carney, an African American who served in the Union Army during the Civil War, and was the first African American to earn the Medal of Honor.
Carney became an iconic figure in the city of New Bedford and his name is well-known throughout the city of New Bedford and beyond. Carney Academy, an elementary school here in the city, is named after Sgt. Carney as well as The William H. Carney Elks Lodge, also located in the city. His New Bedford home at 128 Mill St. is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Carney is also represented on a sculpture of the Robert Gould Shaw Memorial in Boston Common, depicting Col. Shaw leading members of the Massachusetts 54th Infantry Regiment as it marched.
Carney was born a slave on Feb. 29, 1840 in Norfolk, Virginia and according to most accounts, escaped to Massachusetts through the Underground Railroad. Carney joined the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry in March 1863. This was the first official all-black unit in U.S. history. A recruiting station to enlist black men for service was set up in the heart of downtown New Bedford.
According to the Military Times, he is most well-known for his heroic acts during the Civil War, in which he earned the Medal of Honor. Carney took part in the July 18, 1863 assault on Fort Wagner in Charleston, South Carolina, where he earned the “Medal of Honor.” When a color guard was killed during the battle, Carney retrieved the U.S. flag and marched forward with it, despite multiple serious wounds. When the Union troops were forced to retreat under fire, he struggled back across the battlefield, eventually returning to his own lines and turning over the colors to another survivor of the 54th, saying, "Boys, I only did my duty; the old flag never touched the ground!" He received an honorable discharge due to disability from his wounds in June 1864.
The Medal of Honor is the United States of America's highest and most prestigious personal military decoration that is awarded to recognize U.S. military service members who have distinguished themselves by acts of valor.
After his discharge from the military, Carney worked repairing streetlights in New Bedford and went on to deliver mail for the next 32 years. He became the founding vice president of the New Bedford Branch 18 of the National Assoc. of Letter Carriers in 1890. He married Susannah Williams and had a daughter, named Clara Heronia.
Carney was finally honored with the coveted Medal of Honor on May 23, 1900, nearly 37 years after the battle at Fort Wagner. It was common for awards from the Civil War to be presented 20 years later or more. “Throughout the Civil War, 25 African-American soldiers earned the Medal of Honor. However, his actions took place on July 18, 1863, which was the earliest date. Thus, he was the first recipient,” according to historycollection.com.
Shortly after that, a patriotic song entitled “Boys the Old Flag Never touched the Ground,” was published about his daring feats. According to Wikipedia, the account of Sgt. Carney's action as it appeared in 'The United States Service Magazine, 1864’:
"As our forces retire, Sergeant Carney, who has kept the colors of his regiment flying upon the parapet of Wagner during the entire conflict, is seen creeping along on one knee, still holding up the flag, and only yielding its sacred trust upon finding an officer of his regiment. As he entered the field-hospital, where his wounded comrades are being brought in, they cheer him and the colors. Though nearly exhausted with the loss of blood, he says, 'Boys, the old flag never touched the ground.'"
According to the New Bedford Historical Society website:
Carney’s father, also named William, had most likely adopted the last name of his master, Major Carney, owner of a large plantation. His mother’s name before her marriage was Ann Dean. She too, was the property of Major Carney. The elder Carneys understood the importance of an education and although blacks were forbidden from learning to read and write, young William was sent to a secret, private school in Norfolk, VA.
After Major Carney’s death, the slaves on the Carney plantation received their freedom. They first moved to Pennsylvania, but did not want to settle there. They then moved their family to New York City, but that also was not a place where they wanted to settle. The elder Carney wanted a “quiet, peaceful, freedom-loving place where he could bring up his son in security and dignity. Hence, like Frederick Douglass, he journeyed to the city of New Bedford,” the website said.
Young William spent the majority of his life in New Bedford. He did odd jobs, working in various stores throughout the city and won the respect of both white and black associates. Carney strongly considered making the ministry his career but once the Civil War started, he felt he could best serve his God by helping his oppressed and enslaved black brothers. On March 1863, Carney, along with the forty other black men from New Bedford enrolled in Company C of the Massachusetts, 54th to take part in the Civil War.
The Massachusetts 54th Regiment was the first black Army unit to be raised in the Northern States. After only three months of training, they were shipped to the main theater of the war, South Carolina. They saw action at Hilton Head, St. Simon’s Island, Darien, James Island and Fort Wagner.
The American Civil War broke out in the spring of 1861. According to the National Parks Service website, black men were excluded from military service until January 1863, when President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This document ensured African-Americans’ right to serve in the US Army and Navy.
During the battle at Fort Wagner, 272 men were killed, wounded or missing out of the 600 men who fought in the battle, according to the Military Times. Col. Shaw was among the dead. Total Union casualties were 1,515 out of about 5,000 in the assault force, while the Confederates had 173 casualties out of 1,800 defenders.
Post-war, Carney held several positions, including the first black postman in the city of New Bedford. In the final years of his life, he took a job as a messenger for Secretary of State, William Olin, in the Massachusetts State House, becoming the second black man to hold this position.
Carney died on Dec. 9, 1908 as the result of an elevator accident at the Massachusetts Statehouse. In a final gesture of respect, all flags in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts were lowered to half-staff and that marked the first time in Massachusetts' history that an African-American and “ordinary” citizen had been honored in this way.
The details in this story were compiled from the New Bedford Historical Society, the Military Times, Wikipedia, the National Parks Service website and historycollection.com.
Linda Ferreira, of Empire Ford of New Bedford, researches the life histories of area residents. American flags are provided by Empire Ford of New Bedford. Flags are raised by the staff at Fort Taber - Fort Rodman Military Museum. Those who would like to honor a local veteran in the future, can contact Ferreira at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:59541286-251f-46f9-8d35-f3fe3b625aeb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.southcoasttoday.com/news/20200116/fort-taber-fort-rodman-military-museum-flag-flying-in-honor-of-sgt-william-h-carney-in-january | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.982736 | 1,563 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.52494454383850... | 1 | NEW BEDFORD — During the month of January 2020, the 5th Lights for Peace flag to fly at the Fort Taber-Fort Rodman Military Museum honors the memory of William Harvey Carney, an African American who served in the Union Army during the Civil War, and was the first African American to earn the Medal of Honor.
Carney became an iconic figure in the city of New Bedford and his name is well-known throughout the city of New Bedford and beyond. Carney Academy, an elementary school here in the city, is named after Sgt. Carney as well as The William H. Carney Elks Lodge, also located in the city. His New Bedford home at 128 Mill St. is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Carney is also represented on a sculpture of the Robert Gould Shaw Memorial in Boston Common, depicting Col. Shaw leading members of the Massachusetts 54th Infantry Regiment as it marched.
Carney was born a slave on Feb. 29, 1840 in Norfolk, Virginia and according to most accounts, escaped to Massachusetts through the Underground Railroad. Carney joined the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry in March 1863. This was the first official all-black unit in U.S. history. A recruiting station to enlist black men for service was set up in the heart of downtown New Bedford.
According to the Military Times, he is most well-known for his heroic acts during the Civil War, in which he earned the Medal of Honor. Carney took part in the July 18, 1863 assault on Fort Wagner in Charleston, South Carolina, where he earned the “Medal of Honor.” When a color guard was killed during the battle, Carney retrieved the U.S. flag and marched forward with it, despite multiple serious wounds. When the Union troops were forced to retreat under fire, he struggled back across the battlefield, eventually returning to his own lines and turning over the colors to another survivor of the 54th, saying, "Boys, I only did my duty; the old flag never touched the ground!" He received an honorable discharge due to disability from his wounds in June 1864.
The Medal of Honor is the United States of America's highest and most prestigious personal military decoration that is awarded to recognize U.S. military service members who have distinguished themselves by acts of valor.
After his discharge from the military, Carney worked repairing streetlights in New Bedford and went on to deliver mail for the next 32 years. He became the founding vice president of the New Bedford Branch 18 of the National Assoc. of Letter Carriers in 1890. He married Susannah Williams and had a daughter, named Clara Heronia.
Carney was finally honored with the coveted Medal of Honor on May 23, 1900, nearly 37 years after the battle at Fort Wagner. It was common for awards from the Civil War to be presented 20 years later or more. “Throughout the Civil War, 25 African-American soldiers earned the Medal of Honor. However, his actions took place on July 18, 1863, which was the earliest date. Thus, he was the first recipient,” according to historycollection.com.
Shortly after that, a patriotic song entitled “Boys the Old Flag Never touched the Ground,” was published about his daring feats. According to Wikipedia, the account of Sgt. Carney's action as it appeared in 'The United States Service Magazine, 1864’:
"As our forces retire, Sergeant Carney, who has kept the colors of his regiment flying upon the parapet of Wagner during the entire conflict, is seen creeping along on one knee, still holding up the flag, and only yielding its sacred trust upon finding an officer of his regiment. As he entered the field-hospital, where his wounded comrades are being brought in, they cheer him and the colors. Though nearly exhausted with the loss of blood, he says, 'Boys, the old flag never touched the ground.'"
According to the New Bedford Historical Society website:
Carney’s father, also named William, had most likely adopted the last name of his master, Major Carney, owner of a large plantation. His mother’s name before her marriage was Ann Dean. She too, was the property of Major Carney. The elder Carneys understood the importance of an education and although blacks were forbidden from learning to read and write, young William was sent to a secret, private school in Norfolk, VA.
After Major Carney’s death, the slaves on the Carney plantation received their freedom. They first moved to Pennsylvania, but did not want to settle there. They then moved their family to New York City, but that also was not a place where they wanted to settle. The elder Carney wanted a “quiet, peaceful, freedom-loving place where he could bring up his son in security and dignity. Hence, like Frederick Douglass, he journeyed to the city of New Bedford,” the website said.
Young William spent the majority of his life in New Bedford. He did odd jobs, working in various stores throughout the city and won the respect of both white and black associates. Carney strongly considered making the ministry his career but once the Civil War started, he felt he could best serve his God by helping his oppressed and enslaved black brothers. On March 1863, Carney, along with the forty other black men from New Bedford enrolled in Company C of the Massachusetts, 54th to take part in the Civil War.
The Massachusetts 54th Regiment was the first black Army unit to be raised in the Northern States. After only three months of training, they were shipped to the main theater of the war, South Carolina. They saw action at Hilton Head, St. Simon’s Island, Darien, James Island and Fort Wagner.
The American Civil War broke out in the spring of 1861. According to the National Parks Service website, black men were excluded from military service until January 1863, when President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This document ensured African-Americans’ right to serve in the US Army and Navy.
During the battle at Fort Wagner, 272 men were killed, wounded or missing out of the 600 men who fought in the battle, according to the Military Times. Col. Shaw was among the dead. Total Union casualties were 1,515 out of about 5,000 in the assault force, while the Confederates had 173 casualties out of 1,800 defenders.
Post-war, Carney held several positions, including the first black postman in the city of New Bedford. In the final years of his life, he took a job as a messenger for Secretary of State, William Olin, in the Massachusetts State House, becoming the second black man to hold this position.
Carney died on Dec. 9, 1908 as the result of an elevator accident at the Massachusetts Statehouse. In a final gesture of respect, all flags in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts were lowered to half-staff and that marked the first time in Massachusetts' history that an African-American and “ordinary” citizen had been honored in this way.
The details in this story were compiled from the New Bedford Historical Society, the Military Times, Wikipedia, the National Parks Service website and historycollection.com.
Linda Ferreira, of Empire Ford of New Bedford, researches the life histories of area residents. American flags are provided by Empire Ford of New Bedford. Flags are raised by the staff at Fort Taber - Fort Rodman Military Museum. Those who would like to honor a local veteran in the future, can contact Ferreira at firstname.lastname@example.org. | 1,614 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Viticulture in Germany was introduced by the Romans around the 1st century BC. At that time (like today) the cultivation was mainly carried out on the left bank of the river Reno and along the river Mosella. According by historians, it seems that red wines were quite common in Germany during the Roman period. An interesting surprise considering the current vocation of the country for the production of white wines. Until the time of Charlemagne, the vine cultivation was mainly concentrated throughout the western part of the river Rhine, from Alsace to the area where the city of Koblenz is currently located.
The diffusion of the wine production was continued by the Christian monks. In 750 AC, viticulture in the Moselle area was led by monastic foundations that were based on Roman traditions. The monks also introduced viticulture in the areas of Franconia and Bavaria where this activity was strongly practiced even in the Middle Ages. During the era of the Carolingian Empire, Charlemagne worked on the diffusion and regulation of viticulture, mainly to support the spread of the Christian religion. At that time, in all Europe, the main cultivators and producers of wine were the monasteries and churches. It was during this period that the most famous vineyards of all Germany were planted, mainly in the Rheingau area, and which are still productive and renowned.
Viticulture in Germany developed rapidly. The production of wine was carried out both in monasteries and in churches, and in the properties of nobles and mere bourgeois. The grapes that were known and cultivated since those times were Elbling, Räuschling, Silvaner, Muscat and Traminer. The first written record of the cultivation of Riesling grapes (the most famous grape planted in Germany) date back to 1435, especially in the Rheingau areas.
Fonte (Di Wine Taste) | <urn:uuid:93f006a8-dcc3-4971-8234-ff19c0a88649> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.alwine.it/viticulture-in-germany/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00363.warc.gz | en | 0.984773 | 393 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.0201273262500762... | 11 | Viticulture in Germany was introduced by the Romans around the 1st century BC. At that time (like today) the cultivation was mainly carried out on the left bank of the river Reno and along the river Mosella. According by historians, it seems that red wines were quite common in Germany during the Roman period. An interesting surprise considering the current vocation of the country for the production of white wines. Until the time of Charlemagne, the vine cultivation was mainly concentrated throughout the western part of the river Rhine, from Alsace to the area where the city of Koblenz is currently located.
The diffusion of the wine production was continued by the Christian monks. In 750 AC, viticulture in the Moselle area was led by monastic foundations that were based on Roman traditions. The monks also introduced viticulture in the areas of Franconia and Bavaria where this activity was strongly practiced even in the Middle Ages. During the era of the Carolingian Empire, Charlemagne worked on the diffusion and regulation of viticulture, mainly to support the spread of the Christian religion. At that time, in all Europe, the main cultivators and producers of wine were the monasteries and churches. It was during this period that the most famous vineyards of all Germany were planted, mainly in the Rheingau area, and which are still productive and renowned.
Viticulture in Germany developed rapidly. The production of wine was carried out both in monasteries and in churches, and in the properties of nobles and mere bourgeois. The grapes that were known and cultivated since those times were Elbling, Räuschling, Silvaner, Muscat and Traminer. The first written record of the cultivation of Riesling grapes (the most famous grape planted in Germany) date back to 1435, especially in the Rheingau areas.
Fonte (Di Wine Taste) | 391 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Miracle and mystery plays evolved out of church services, becoming great spectacles throughout Europe.
The performance began as a vow of the townspeople in response to the threat of a plague epidemic: if God would spare them, they would continue to act out the play every year. Nevertheless, the Oberammergau Passion Play is part of a long line of public religious performances dating from medieval times.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, mystery and miracle plays developed among Christian nations at the end of the Middle Ages. Mystery plays are from the 15th century. Before this period dramatic pieces were called “plays” or “miracles.”
The art form originated in church itself. On certain solemn feasts, such as Easter and Christmas, priests dramatically depicted the religious event being celebrated, the encyclopedia explains. “At first the text of this liturgical drama was very brief, and was taken solely from the Gospel or the Office of the day,” it says. “But by degrees versification crept in. The earliest of such dramatic ‘tropes’ of the Easter service are from England and date from the 10th century.”
In time, the plays began to be performed in the vernacular, rather than in Latin, left the church and ceased to be liturgical.
One could say this was an early form of “taking the Gospel to the streets.” It was certainly a way for the masses, many of whom were probably illiterate, to learn the faith. Topics could be any period of salvation history, from the fall of man to the Apocalypse. And naturally, inventiveness and poetic license crept in.
The “mystery” plays that were popular during the 15th century often took up stories of the Old or New Testament or individual saints as their subjects. The word mystery is derived from the Latin ministerium, meaning “act,” not the mysteries of Christian belief.
“The most celebrated of these were the passion plays,” the Catholic Encyclopedia relates. Dramatic associations, such as the “Confrerie de la Passion” in Paris, were formed in large towns for the purpose of staging them. Being part of it demanded sacrifices.
“To play [the Passion Play], they condemned themselves to a labor to which few of our contemporaries would care to submit,” the encyclopedia says. “In some ‘passions’ the actor who represented Christ had to recite nearly 4,000 lines. Moreover, the scene of the crucifixion had to last as long as it did in reality. It is related that in 1437 the curé Nicolle, who was playing the part of Christ at Metz, was on the point of dying on the cross, and had to be revived in haste. During the same representation another priest, Jehan de Missey, who was playing the part of Judas, remained hanging for so long that his heart failed and he had to be cut down and borne away.”
Concludes the Encyclopedia, “And what the spectator saw represented was not fiction, but the holy realities which from his childhood he had learned to venerate. What was put before his eyes was most calculated to affect him, the doctrines of his faith the consolations it afforded in the sorrows of this life, and the immortal joys it promised in the next. Hence the great success of these religious performances. The greatest celebration a city could indulge in on a solemn occasion was to play the Passion.”
The York Mystery Plays, based on 15th-century scripts, are performed from a wagon in the city’s streets. Watch this performance from 2018.
Since you are here…
…we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you? | <urn:uuid:1bcd472f-3f8a-4fe2-940b-40fea80db5ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aleteia.org/2019/12/07/once-wildly-popular-mystery-plays-dramatized-the-bible/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.982412 | 905 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.0805369764... | 1 | Miracle and mystery plays evolved out of church services, becoming great spectacles throughout Europe.
The performance began as a vow of the townspeople in response to the threat of a plague epidemic: if God would spare them, they would continue to act out the play every year. Nevertheless, the Oberammergau Passion Play is part of a long line of public religious performances dating from medieval times.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, mystery and miracle plays developed among Christian nations at the end of the Middle Ages. Mystery plays are from the 15th century. Before this period dramatic pieces were called “plays” or “miracles.”
The art form originated in church itself. On certain solemn feasts, such as Easter and Christmas, priests dramatically depicted the religious event being celebrated, the encyclopedia explains. “At first the text of this liturgical drama was very brief, and was taken solely from the Gospel or the Office of the day,” it says. “But by degrees versification crept in. The earliest of such dramatic ‘tropes’ of the Easter service are from England and date from the 10th century.”
In time, the plays began to be performed in the vernacular, rather than in Latin, left the church and ceased to be liturgical.
One could say this was an early form of “taking the Gospel to the streets.” It was certainly a way for the masses, many of whom were probably illiterate, to learn the faith. Topics could be any period of salvation history, from the fall of man to the Apocalypse. And naturally, inventiveness and poetic license crept in.
The “mystery” plays that were popular during the 15th century often took up stories of the Old or New Testament or individual saints as their subjects. The word mystery is derived from the Latin ministerium, meaning “act,” not the mysteries of Christian belief.
“The most celebrated of these were the passion plays,” the Catholic Encyclopedia relates. Dramatic associations, such as the “Confrerie de la Passion” in Paris, were formed in large towns for the purpose of staging them. Being part of it demanded sacrifices.
“To play [the Passion Play], they condemned themselves to a labor to which few of our contemporaries would care to submit,” the encyclopedia says. “In some ‘passions’ the actor who represented Christ had to recite nearly 4,000 lines. Moreover, the scene of the crucifixion had to last as long as it did in reality. It is related that in 1437 the curé Nicolle, who was playing the part of Christ at Metz, was on the point of dying on the cross, and had to be revived in haste. During the same representation another priest, Jehan de Missey, who was playing the part of Judas, remained hanging for so long that his heart failed and he had to be cut down and borne away.”
Concludes the Encyclopedia, “And what the spectator saw represented was not fiction, but the holy realities which from his childhood he had learned to venerate. What was put before his eyes was most calculated to affect him, the doctrines of his faith the consolations it afforded in the sorrows of this life, and the immortal joys it promised in the next. Hence the great success of these religious performances. The greatest celebration a city could indulge in on a solemn occasion was to play the Passion.”
The York Mystery Plays, based on 15th-century scripts, are performed from a wagon in the city’s streets. Watch this performance from 2018.
Since you are here…
…we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you? | 863 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Though she did not participate in any major engagement, her story became widely publicized and inspired a number of works of art and literature. She is a national heroine in Poland and Lithuania, all formerly parts of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. She has been venerated by Polish artists and by the nation at large as a symbol of women fighting for the national cause.
Emilia Plater was born in Vilnius into a noble Polish–Lithuanian Plater family. Her family, of the Plater coat of arms, traced its roots to Westphalia, but was thoroughly Polonized. Much of the family relocated to Livonia during the 15th century and later to Lithuania, of which Vilnius is the capital. She is described as either Polish, Polish-Lithuanian or Lithuanian.
Her parents, Franciszek Ksawery Plater and Anna von der Mohl (Anna z Mohlów), divorced when she was nine years old, in 1815. She was brought up by distant relatives, Michał Plater-Zyberk and Izabela Helena Syberg zu Wischling, in their family's manor Līksna near Daugavpils (Dźwina), then Inflanty (now Latvia). Well-educated, Plater was brought up to appreciate the efforts of Tadeusz Kościuszko and the Prince Józef Poniatowski. She was fascinated by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller, who she could read in the original German language. She was raised in an environment that valued the history of Poland, and her literary heroes included Princess Wanda and Adam Mickiewicz's Grażyna. She also admired Bouboulina, a woman who became one of the icons of the Greek uprising against the Ottomans, a Polish fighter Anna Dorota Chrzanowska, as well as Joan of Arc. These pursuits were accompanied by an early interest in equestrianism and marksmanship, quite uncommon for early 19th-century girls from aristocratic families. She was also deeply interested in Ruthenian and Belarusian folk culture. She had contacts and friends in the Filaret Association.
In 1823, one of her cousins was forcibly conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army as a punishment for celebrating the Constitution of 3 May; this incident is said to be one of the key events in her life, and one that galvanized her pro-Polish and anti-Russian attitude. In 1829, Plater began a grand tour throughout the historical Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, visiting Warsaw and Kraków, and the battlefield of Raszyn. Her mother died a year later; her father remarried and refused to even meet his daughter. After the outbreak of the November Uprising against Imperial Russia, she became a vocal supporter of the anti-Tsarist sentiments in the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania. She became one of a dozen or so females to join the Uprising, and the most famous of them all.
A document from 25 March contains her note that joining the uprising was her sole idea, and that she had hoped that such a moment would come her entire life. She cut her hair, prepared a uniform for herself and organized and equipped a group of volunteers, speaking passionately after a mass on 29 March. On 4 April she signed a declaratory document marking her access to the local uprising forces. Her unit was composed of roughly 280 infantry, 60 cavalry and several hundred peasants armed with war scythes.
From the area of Daugavpils she entered Lithuania, where in April 1831 her unit is rumored to have seized the town of Zarasai, although the historians are not sure this event really occurred. She planned to take Daugavpils, but after a reconnaissance mission discovered that the city was defended by a strong garrison and was impregnable to attack by such a small force as her own unit, that plan was abandoned. She then returned to Samogitia and headed for Panevėžys, where on 30 April she joined forces with the unit commanded by Karol Załuski. On May 4, she fought at the battle of Prastavoniai; shortly afterwards, with Konstanty Parczewski, she fought at Maišiagala. On 5 May, she witnessed General Dezydery Chłapowski entering the area with a large force and taking command over all units fighting in the former Grand Duchy.
Chłapowski advised Plater to stand down and return home. She allegedly replied that she had no intention of taking off her uniform until her fatherland was fully liberated. Her decision was accepted and she was made a commanding officer of the 1st company of the Polish–Lithuanian 25th Infantry Regiment. She was promoted to the rank of captain, the highest rank awarded to a woman at that time. She spent some time in Kaunas, before the insurgents were forced to retreat in late June.
After the Polish units were defeated by the Russians at Šiauliai, Gen. Chłapowski decided to cross the border into Prussia and become interned there. Plater vocally criticized that decision, refused to follow orders and instead decided to try to break through to Warsaw and continue the struggle. However, soon after separating from the main force, accompanied by only two others, including her cousin (or uncle, sources vary), Cezary Plater, she became seriously ill. She never recovered, and she died in a manor of the Abłamowicz family in Justinavas on 23 December 1831. She was buried in the small village of Kapčiamiestis near Lazdijai. After the defeat of the uprising, her estate was confiscated by the Russian authorities.
Stefan Kieniewicz, in a more critical treatment in the Polish Biographical Dictionary, notes that a lot of her exploits are poorly documented, and it is not always possible to separate legend from facts. He notes it is not certain she ever commanded any unit, and that her role as the commander of the 25th Regiment was more honorary than real; he also notes that she is known to have fainted on the battlefield, distracting her comrades, and in at least one instance (at the battle of Šiauliai), she was purposefully held behind front lines, as her comrades tried to ensure she would not endanger herself.
Her death was widely publicised shortly afterwards by the Polish press, which contributed to her growing fame. Plater became one of the symbols of the uprising. The symbol of the fighting girl became quite widespread both in Poland, Lithuania and abroad. Mickiewicz immortalized her in his poem, Śmierć pułkownika (Death of a Colonel), although the description of her death is a pure poetical fiction and was only loosely based on her real life. Mickiewicz has also idealized her personality and skills, portraying her as the ideal commander, worshiped by her soldiers. That poem has entered the elementary curriculum in the independent Poland.
Other literary works based on her life were published, mostly abroad, both by Polish emigres and by foreigners. Among them were Georg Büchner, Konstanty Gaszyński, Wacław Gąsiorowski, Tadeusz Korczyński, Antoni Edward Odyniec and Władysław Buchner. Józef Straszewicz published three successive versions of her biography in French.
She also became the theme of paintings by several artists of the epoch, among them Hyppolyte Bellange, Achille Deveria, Philipp Veit, Francois de Villain and Wojciech Kossak. In 1842, J. K. Salomoński published a short biography of Plater in New York, under the title of Emily Plater, The Polish Heroine; Life of the Countess Emily Plater. A lithograph by F. De Villaine, based on Deveria's work, became one of the most recognizable portraits of her, popularizing her image as a delicate and noble female warrior.
She was depicted on the Second Polish Republic's 20 złoty note. During World War II, a Polish female support unit, Emilia Plater 1st Independent Women's Battalion (1 Samodzielny Battalion Kobiecy im. Emilii Plater), a part of the Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division was named in her honor; its former members founded a village of Platerówka in Lower Silesia. Several streets in Poland are named after her, including one in Warsaw. In 1959, the MS Emilia Plater, a Polish Merchant Navy bulk carrier, was named after her.
Her life has also been a subject to studies from a feminist perspective, by scholars to point out the significance of her participation in the military conflict as a female going against the stereotype that only males can fight. | <urn:uuid:6d10d635-c33a-427a-8970-1cdfbdd416f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Emilia-Plater | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00028.warc.gz | en | 0.983708 | 1,879 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.207913264632... | 1 | Though she did not participate in any major engagement, her story became widely publicized and inspired a number of works of art and literature. She is a national heroine in Poland and Lithuania, all formerly parts of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. She has been venerated by Polish artists and by the nation at large as a symbol of women fighting for the national cause.
Emilia Plater was born in Vilnius into a noble Polish–Lithuanian Plater family. Her family, of the Plater coat of arms, traced its roots to Westphalia, but was thoroughly Polonized. Much of the family relocated to Livonia during the 15th century and later to Lithuania, of which Vilnius is the capital. She is described as either Polish, Polish-Lithuanian or Lithuanian.
Her parents, Franciszek Ksawery Plater and Anna von der Mohl (Anna z Mohlów), divorced when she was nine years old, in 1815. She was brought up by distant relatives, Michał Plater-Zyberk and Izabela Helena Syberg zu Wischling, in their family's manor Līksna near Daugavpils (Dźwina), then Inflanty (now Latvia). Well-educated, Plater was brought up to appreciate the efforts of Tadeusz Kościuszko and the Prince Józef Poniatowski. She was fascinated by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller, who she could read in the original German language. She was raised in an environment that valued the history of Poland, and her literary heroes included Princess Wanda and Adam Mickiewicz's Grażyna. She also admired Bouboulina, a woman who became one of the icons of the Greek uprising against the Ottomans, a Polish fighter Anna Dorota Chrzanowska, as well as Joan of Arc. These pursuits were accompanied by an early interest in equestrianism and marksmanship, quite uncommon for early 19th-century girls from aristocratic families. She was also deeply interested in Ruthenian and Belarusian folk culture. She had contacts and friends in the Filaret Association.
In 1823, one of her cousins was forcibly conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army as a punishment for celebrating the Constitution of 3 May; this incident is said to be one of the key events in her life, and one that galvanized her pro-Polish and anti-Russian attitude. In 1829, Plater began a grand tour throughout the historical Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, visiting Warsaw and Kraków, and the battlefield of Raszyn. Her mother died a year later; her father remarried and refused to even meet his daughter. After the outbreak of the November Uprising against Imperial Russia, she became a vocal supporter of the anti-Tsarist sentiments in the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania. She became one of a dozen or so females to join the Uprising, and the most famous of them all.
A document from 25 March contains her note that joining the uprising was her sole idea, and that she had hoped that such a moment would come her entire life. She cut her hair, prepared a uniform for herself and organized and equipped a group of volunteers, speaking passionately after a mass on 29 March. On 4 April she signed a declaratory document marking her access to the local uprising forces. Her unit was composed of roughly 280 infantry, 60 cavalry and several hundred peasants armed with war scythes.
From the area of Daugavpils she entered Lithuania, where in April 1831 her unit is rumored to have seized the town of Zarasai, although the historians are not sure this event really occurred. She planned to take Daugavpils, but after a reconnaissance mission discovered that the city was defended by a strong garrison and was impregnable to attack by such a small force as her own unit, that plan was abandoned. She then returned to Samogitia and headed for Panevėžys, where on 30 April she joined forces with the unit commanded by Karol Załuski. On May 4, she fought at the battle of Prastavoniai; shortly afterwards, with Konstanty Parczewski, she fought at Maišiagala. On 5 May, she witnessed General Dezydery Chłapowski entering the area with a large force and taking command over all units fighting in the former Grand Duchy.
Chłapowski advised Plater to stand down and return home. She allegedly replied that she had no intention of taking off her uniform until her fatherland was fully liberated. Her decision was accepted and she was made a commanding officer of the 1st company of the Polish–Lithuanian 25th Infantry Regiment. She was promoted to the rank of captain, the highest rank awarded to a woman at that time. She spent some time in Kaunas, before the insurgents were forced to retreat in late June.
After the Polish units were defeated by the Russians at Šiauliai, Gen. Chłapowski decided to cross the border into Prussia and become interned there. Plater vocally criticized that decision, refused to follow orders and instead decided to try to break through to Warsaw and continue the struggle. However, soon after separating from the main force, accompanied by only two others, including her cousin (or uncle, sources vary), Cezary Plater, she became seriously ill. She never recovered, and she died in a manor of the Abłamowicz family in Justinavas on 23 December 1831. She was buried in the small village of Kapčiamiestis near Lazdijai. After the defeat of the uprising, her estate was confiscated by the Russian authorities.
Stefan Kieniewicz, in a more critical treatment in the Polish Biographical Dictionary, notes that a lot of her exploits are poorly documented, and it is not always possible to separate legend from facts. He notes it is not certain she ever commanded any unit, and that her role as the commander of the 25th Regiment was more honorary than real; he also notes that she is known to have fainted on the battlefield, distracting her comrades, and in at least one instance (at the battle of Šiauliai), she was purposefully held behind front lines, as her comrades tried to ensure she would not endanger herself.
Her death was widely publicised shortly afterwards by the Polish press, which contributed to her growing fame. Plater became one of the symbols of the uprising. The symbol of the fighting girl became quite widespread both in Poland, Lithuania and abroad. Mickiewicz immortalized her in his poem, Śmierć pułkownika (Death of a Colonel), although the description of her death is a pure poetical fiction and was only loosely based on her real life. Mickiewicz has also idealized her personality and skills, portraying her as the ideal commander, worshiped by her soldiers. That poem has entered the elementary curriculum in the independent Poland.
Other literary works based on her life were published, mostly abroad, both by Polish emigres and by foreigners. Among them were Georg Büchner, Konstanty Gaszyński, Wacław Gąsiorowski, Tadeusz Korczyński, Antoni Edward Odyniec and Władysław Buchner. Józef Straszewicz published three successive versions of her biography in French.
She also became the theme of paintings by several artists of the epoch, among them Hyppolyte Bellange, Achille Deveria, Philipp Veit, Francois de Villain and Wojciech Kossak. In 1842, J. K. Salomoński published a short biography of Plater in New York, under the title of Emily Plater, The Polish Heroine; Life of the Countess Emily Plater. A lithograph by F. De Villaine, based on Deveria's work, became one of the most recognizable portraits of her, popularizing her image as a delicate and noble female warrior.
She was depicted on the Second Polish Republic's 20 złoty note. During World War II, a Polish female support unit, Emilia Plater 1st Independent Women's Battalion (1 Samodzielny Battalion Kobiecy im. Emilii Plater), a part of the Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division was named in her honor; its former members founded a village of Platerówka in Lower Silesia. Several streets in Poland are named after her, including one in Warsaw. In 1959, the MS Emilia Plater, a Polish Merchant Navy bulk carrier, was named after her.
Her life has also been a subject to studies from a feminist perspective, by scholars to point out the significance of her participation in the military conflict as a female going against the stereotype that only males can fight. | 1,882 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Looking at “The Yellow Wallpaper” From a Feminist Point of View.
Women were slaves in the early twentieth century, slaves to social conventions and a male dominated business world. Very few women were able to escape the specific roles assigned to them by their gender and social status. Charlotte Perkins Gilman in “The Yellow Wallpaper” wrote specifically about the female problem from the perspective of what happens when a woman finds herself unable to conform to the norms set by her society. By examining how she wrote about the theme of female subjugation behind a male-dominated conception, Charlotte Perkins Gilman demonstrated how the non-conforming female character has no choice but to fail.
The woman protagonist, who never provides her name, is instructed to remain isolated in an upper room of a remote country house, which she does although reluctantly. As she confides to the reader, she actually felt that another room might be better for her, but this idea was overruled by her solicitous and educated husband and doctor as he continues to put his own desires first. “I wanted one downstairs that opened on the piazza and had roses all over the window, and such pretty old-fashioned chintz hangings! but John would not hear of it. He said there was only one window and not room for two beds, and no near room for him if he took another.” The room she is placed in is thought to have originally been a nursery, with bars on the windows and old faded yellow wallpaper attached to the walls. This association only serves to highlight her helpless position within the house, particularly as she mentions, even very early in the story, “He [John] is very careful and loving, and hardly lets me stir without special direction. I have a schedule prescription for each hour in the day; he takes all care from me.” Through the course of the story, the woman transforms from an individual who adores the outside and green growing things expressing thoughts and feelings of her own to the horrifying and creeping artificial creation of man as he has shaped her.
The yellow wallpaper itself also plays a large role in the progression of the woman’s degeneration into a mindless creeping thing as she begins to see women creeping around inside the pattern. She understands that these ghosts of women are trying to escape the oppression they, too, have experienced. “Sometimes I think there are a great many women behind. And she is all the time trying to climb through. But nobody could climb through that pattern – it strangles so; I think that is why it has so many heads.” Because she, too, cannot escape from the confining room in which she has been housed, the woman becomes completely insane, peeling the wallpaper off as high as she can reach in an effort to set the women, and herself free, and then creeping around the walls herself when she discovers that the oppressing, strangling pattern is not the pattern of the wallpaper, but the pattern of male oppression that has held sway for so long.
The story stands as a statement against the male oppression of women experienced throughout much of history, but particularly as it was still experienced in the late 19th century when this story was written. Regardless of what the female protagonist knows of herself instinctively, her opinion has absolutely no bearing upon what will happen to her as the men in her life determine what she will do and where she will stay. As she says herself, she is hardly allowed to move without having first gained special permission to do so from her husband. Because this thinking woman, fond of beauty and the natural world, is forced into such an unnatural, mindless and grotesque position, she becomes exactly what the men have made of her, a shifting, creeping, colorless and dusty creature shuffling in mindless activity around the perimeters of her confinement space.
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. (1899). The Yellow Wallpaper. Boston: Small & Maynard. | <urn:uuid:4df1f0b1-027a-4606-acdc-d5a4ea373c37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/the-yellow-wallpaper/looking-at-the-yellow-wallpaper-from-a-feminist-point-of-view/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.9816 | 805 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.23666611313819885... | 9 | Looking at “The Yellow Wallpaper” From a Feminist Point of View.
Women were slaves in the early twentieth century, slaves to social conventions and a male dominated business world. Very few women were able to escape the specific roles assigned to them by their gender and social status. Charlotte Perkins Gilman in “The Yellow Wallpaper” wrote specifically about the female problem from the perspective of what happens when a woman finds herself unable to conform to the norms set by her society. By examining how she wrote about the theme of female subjugation behind a male-dominated conception, Charlotte Perkins Gilman demonstrated how the non-conforming female character has no choice but to fail.
The woman protagonist, who never provides her name, is instructed to remain isolated in an upper room of a remote country house, which she does although reluctantly. As she confides to the reader, she actually felt that another room might be better for her, but this idea was overruled by her solicitous and educated husband and doctor as he continues to put his own desires first. “I wanted one downstairs that opened on the piazza and had roses all over the window, and such pretty old-fashioned chintz hangings! but John would not hear of it. He said there was only one window and not room for two beds, and no near room for him if he took another.” The room she is placed in is thought to have originally been a nursery, with bars on the windows and old faded yellow wallpaper attached to the walls. This association only serves to highlight her helpless position within the house, particularly as she mentions, even very early in the story, “He [John] is very careful and loving, and hardly lets me stir without special direction. I have a schedule prescription for each hour in the day; he takes all care from me.” Through the course of the story, the woman transforms from an individual who adores the outside and green growing things expressing thoughts and feelings of her own to the horrifying and creeping artificial creation of man as he has shaped her.
The yellow wallpaper itself also plays a large role in the progression of the woman’s degeneration into a mindless creeping thing as she begins to see women creeping around inside the pattern. She understands that these ghosts of women are trying to escape the oppression they, too, have experienced. “Sometimes I think there are a great many women behind. And she is all the time trying to climb through. But nobody could climb through that pattern – it strangles so; I think that is why it has so many heads.” Because she, too, cannot escape from the confining room in which she has been housed, the woman becomes completely insane, peeling the wallpaper off as high as she can reach in an effort to set the women, and herself free, and then creeping around the walls herself when she discovers that the oppressing, strangling pattern is not the pattern of the wallpaper, but the pattern of male oppression that has held sway for so long.
The story stands as a statement against the male oppression of women experienced throughout much of history, but particularly as it was still experienced in the late 19th century when this story was written. Regardless of what the female protagonist knows of herself instinctively, her opinion has absolutely no bearing upon what will happen to her as the men in her life determine what she will do and where she will stay. As she says herself, she is hardly allowed to move without having first gained special permission to do so from her husband. Because this thinking woman, fond of beauty and the natural world, is forced into such an unnatural, mindless and grotesque position, she becomes exactly what the men have made of her, a shifting, creeping, colorless and dusty creature shuffling in mindless activity around the perimeters of her confinement space.
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. (1899). The Yellow Wallpaper. Boston: Small & Maynard. | 790 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Roosevelt was voted in for his first term in office in 1932. Roosevelt displayed smiling confidence throughout the campaign. He campaigned throughout the country, outlining in general terms his program for recovery and reform he intended to make, this became known as the new deal. Roosevelt received 22,822,00 votes compared to Hoover’s 15,762,000, the electoral vote was 472 to 59. Roosevelt took office on 4th March 1933. I am first going to look at the factors of Roosevelt’s election victory that he was directly responsible for. Roosevelt’s personality appealed to a wide range of people from many different walks of life.
His most appealing personality trait was that he always looked for the best in people and wanted to get the best for them. He was also not arrogant and had empathy for the suffering of the poor in the depression. This empathy may have stemmed from his illness. This gave him a physical problem, whereas the public had an economic problem, but the despair was he same. This made people feel closer to him and would have helped him gain votes. Roosevelt also understood the problems and hardships of people in both rural and industrial areas as he had experiences of both from earlier in his life.
Because of this knowledge he aimed his policies at both types of life style. This is something that other politicians did not do, this allowed him to get votes from both areas and not having to rely on getting votes from just one. From 1928-32 Roosevelt was the governor of New York City. Being New York Cities governor allowed him to see more of the problems for city dwelling Americans especially immigrants. As many immigrants lived in New York City (about 1 million), he instigated many social policies while he was governor. He concentrated on a program to give tax relief to farmers and to provide cheaper public utilities for consumers.
These policies made him very popular in New York and led to his re-election as governor in 1930. This popularity would have carried through into his presidential election campaign. Being New York City governor was also a great stepping stone to the presidency and this combination would have helped him greatly. Although Roosevelt’s election campaign organizers organized his speeches and places to visit, he set them up in the first place. Roosevelt’s knowledge from previous campaign organization would have helped him pick the right people to help him.
On Roosevelt’s election campaign he used the car extensively and was the first president to do so. This gave him extensive mobility and allowed him to undertake vast campaigning tours. This would have added to his popularity, as he would have spoken to a lot of the electorates that other candidates had not bothered to do. Roosevelt was also a great orator and his speeches were very popular. And obviously if his speeches were popular then his votes were obviously going to be high. In his speeches Roosevelt promised vast work schemes to provide work for all Americans.
This is something that Hoover did not do. Because of this Hoover did not have a lot of support from the unemployed. This would have lowered his popularity as at the time America was in depression and unemployment was very high (at least 13,000,000. ) In his speeches Roosevelt criticized Hoover personally but not the Republican Party or it’s general policies. This allowed Roosevelt not to alienate the Republican public from his campaign. Because he didn’t say that the Republicans on the whole were wrong they were willing to listen to what he said and this would have increased his vote.
This is also linked into the support Roosevelt had in congress from the Republicans. They believed in his ideas and had trust in Theodore Roosevelt 9Republican and ex-President) who also supported him. President Clinton has praised Roosevelt’s election victory when he said, ‘He was a master politician and a great commander-in-chief. ‘ This shows that another person who became president at a later date believed that Roosevelt knew what he was doing to get elected. It emphasis Roosevelt’s political skill and knowledge of the election process.
All the points I have stated for why Roosevelt was responsible for his 1932 presidential election victory, show that he knew that he was doing and how to do it. All these points show his good knowledge and how he appealed to nearly all Americans. I am now going to analyze the reasons why Roosevelt was not responsible for his 1932 election victory. Roosevelt’s main opponent was the current president Herbert Hoover. He was the president at the beginning of the depression and he was blamed for the major effect it had on people. As the depression worsened people were forced out of the towns and cities and into shantytowns on the out skirts.
These became nicknamed ‘Hoovervilles’ after President Hoover. This became an impossible tag to remove and severely damaged his election campaign. Hoover also damaged his reputation when he had to put down a revolt. Soldiers from the First World War joined together and formed the ‘bonus army. ‘ They called them selves this because they wanted money as payment for fighting in the war. They began to riot as they realized that their demands would not be met. Hoover decided to put down the revolt by tear gassing the soldiers. This gave him a really bad image and he lost the support of the soldiers and ex-soldiers.
These unpopular mistakes badly hurt his election campaign and so people voted for Roosevelt, as he was the best alternative. Because of the depression everyone was unhappy and life was miserable for ordinary Americans. This is an extract from a man’s diary at the line. ‘It was sheer HELL! It was seemed every lighting bolt from hell came right at us! The only heaven we ever knew was in the hereafter. ‘ Because everyone was so unhappy they blamed the government and wanted a change in power. Because many people had these feelings, it was inevitable that the government would change.
This meant democrats, like Roosevelt, had a more than likely chance of getting into power. People wanted a new angle in policy and Hoover did not offer this so in a way he had shot himself in the foot allowing Roosevelt a way in. Roosevelt seemed like a caring and compassionate candidate but this may only have been compared to Hoover. Hoover was a rugged individualist. This meant he believed people should look after themselves. This was not a good attitude to have when the country wanted the government to help them. Hoover had aided his opponent by following this line of policy and so helped Roosevelt.
Roosevelt’s wife was a great believer in helping the poor. Her family had a tradition of giving aid to them. She was a very popular woman and as many Americans were poor at the time by helping them she gained their support. With many of the poor supporting her it is not unlikely that they would vote for her husband in the election. They believed that if he got into power he would listen to her and the poor would be greatly helped. This gave Roosevelt a lot of the votes without having to do a lot of work and as the poor was a large part of the population he gained a lot of votes.
All capitalist economies go through a set cycle that is continuous, the only things that change are the extremes of the falls and climbs. See fig. 1 for a graph of how the economy fluctuates. The extremes of the economy are Boom and Bust. A Boom means prices are low and wages are high. People earn a lot of money and spend a lot. A bust means that prices are high and wages are low. People save money and do not spend. Normally an economy does not reach these extremes because the government changes tax rates to make people spend or save more.
The wall street crash was a major bust. The government could have stopped it from happening if it had controlled the economy properly but it did not which helped Roosevelt. Also if you look at fig. 1 you will see that after a time the economy will recover naturally. So even if Hoover had stayed in charge things would have got better any way. Roosevelt was not responsible for people’s ignorance that life was never going to get better. He was just lucky that the depression happened and he knew how to manipulate the circumstances to get into power.
All the points I have stated for why Roosevelt was not responsible for his election victory in 1932 show that he was perfectly set up to take the job of president without trying. His main rival made mistakes and the circumstances were perfect for a change in power. Overall I think that Roosevelt was given the perfect opportunity to take the presidency but if he had not been such a good and cleaver politician he would not have made it. I think Roosevelt was responsible for his election victory but in any other circumstances he may not have made it. | <urn:uuid:df823e7a-1673-48e4-8877-1c434d3d08d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thenewstandardgallery.com/how-roosevelt-won-the-election-roosevelt-was-voted-in-for-his-first-term-in-office-in-1932/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.993559 | 1,772 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.287511557340... | 2 | Roosevelt was voted in for his first term in office in 1932. Roosevelt displayed smiling confidence throughout the campaign. He campaigned throughout the country, outlining in general terms his program for recovery and reform he intended to make, this became known as the new deal. Roosevelt received 22,822,00 votes compared to Hoover’s 15,762,000, the electoral vote was 472 to 59. Roosevelt took office on 4th March 1933. I am first going to look at the factors of Roosevelt’s election victory that he was directly responsible for. Roosevelt’s personality appealed to a wide range of people from many different walks of life.
His most appealing personality trait was that he always looked for the best in people and wanted to get the best for them. He was also not arrogant and had empathy for the suffering of the poor in the depression. This empathy may have stemmed from his illness. This gave him a physical problem, whereas the public had an economic problem, but the despair was he same. This made people feel closer to him and would have helped him gain votes. Roosevelt also understood the problems and hardships of people in both rural and industrial areas as he had experiences of both from earlier in his life.
Because of this knowledge he aimed his policies at both types of life style. This is something that other politicians did not do, this allowed him to get votes from both areas and not having to rely on getting votes from just one. From 1928-32 Roosevelt was the governor of New York City. Being New York Cities governor allowed him to see more of the problems for city dwelling Americans especially immigrants. As many immigrants lived in New York City (about 1 million), he instigated many social policies while he was governor. He concentrated on a program to give tax relief to farmers and to provide cheaper public utilities for consumers.
These policies made him very popular in New York and led to his re-election as governor in 1930. This popularity would have carried through into his presidential election campaign. Being New York City governor was also a great stepping stone to the presidency and this combination would have helped him greatly. Although Roosevelt’s election campaign organizers organized his speeches and places to visit, he set them up in the first place. Roosevelt’s knowledge from previous campaign organization would have helped him pick the right people to help him.
On Roosevelt’s election campaign he used the car extensively and was the first president to do so. This gave him extensive mobility and allowed him to undertake vast campaigning tours. This would have added to his popularity, as he would have spoken to a lot of the electorates that other candidates had not bothered to do. Roosevelt was also a great orator and his speeches were very popular. And obviously if his speeches were popular then his votes were obviously going to be high. In his speeches Roosevelt promised vast work schemes to provide work for all Americans.
This is something that Hoover did not do. Because of this Hoover did not have a lot of support from the unemployed. This would have lowered his popularity as at the time America was in depression and unemployment was very high (at least 13,000,000. ) In his speeches Roosevelt criticized Hoover personally but not the Republican Party or it’s general policies. This allowed Roosevelt not to alienate the Republican public from his campaign. Because he didn’t say that the Republicans on the whole were wrong they were willing to listen to what he said and this would have increased his vote.
This is also linked into the support Roosevelt had in congress from the Republicans. They believed in his ideas and had trust in Theodore Roosevelt 9Republican and ex-President) who also supported him. President Clinton has praised Roosevelt’s election victory when he said, ‘He was a master politician and a great commander-in-chief. ‘ This shows that another person who became president at a later date believed that Roosevelt knew what he was doing to get elected. It emphasis Roosevelt’s political skill and knowledge of the election process.
All the points I have stated for why Roosevelt was responsible for his 1932 presidential election victory, show that he knew that he was doing and how to do it. All these points show his good knowledge and how he appealed to nearly all Americans. I am now going to analyze the reasons why Roosevelt was not responsible for his 1932 election victory. Roosevelt’s main opponent was the current president Herbert Hoover. He was the president at the beginning of the depression and he was blamed for the major effect it had on people. As the depression worsened people were forced out of the towns and cities and into shantytowns on the out skirts.
These became nicknamed ‘Hoovervilles’ after President Hoover. This became an impossible tag to remove and severely damaged his election campaign. Hoover also damaged his reputation when he had to put down a revolt. Soldiers from the First World War joined together and formed the ‘bonus army. ‘ They called them selves this because they wanted money as payment for fighting in the war. They began to riot as they realized that their demands would not be met. Hoover decided to put down the revolt by tear gassing the soldiers. This gave him a really bad image and he lost the support of the soldiers and ex-soldiers.
These unpopular mistakes badly hurt his election campaign and so people voted for Roosevelt, as he was the best alternative. Because of the depression everyone was unhappy and life was miserable for ordinary Americans. This is an extract from a man’s diary at the line. ‘It was sheer HELL! It was seemed every lighting bolt from hell came right at us! The only heaven we ever knew was in the hereafter. ‘ Because everyone was so unhappy they blamed the government and wanted a change in power. Because many people had these feelings, it was inevitable that the government would change.
This meant democrats, like Roosevelt, had a more than likely chance of getting into power. People wanted a new angle in policy and Hoover did not offer this so in a way he had shot himself in the foot allowing Roosevelt a way in. Roosevelt seemed like a caring and compassionate candidate but this may only have been compared to Hoover. Hoover was a rugged individualist. This meant he believed people should look after themselves. This was not a good attitude to have when the country wanted the government to help them. Hoover had aided his opponent by following this line of policy and so helped Roosevelt.
Roosevelt’s wife was a great believer in helping the poor. Her family had a tradition of giving aid to them. She was a very popular woman and as many Americans were poor at the time by helping them she gained their support. With many of the poor supporting her it is not unlikely that they would vote for her husband in the election. They believed that if he got into power he would listen to her and the poor would be greatly helped. This gave Roosevelt a lot of the votes without having to do a lot of work and as the poor was a large part of the population he gained a lot of votes.
All capitalist economies go through a set cycle that is continuous, the only things that change are the extremes of the falls and climbs. See fig. 1 for a graph of how the economy fluctuates. The extremes of the economy are Boom and Bust. A Boom means prices are low and wages are high. People earn a lot of money and spend a lot. A bust means that prices are high and wages are low. People save money and do not spend. Normally an economy does not reach these extremes because the government changes tax rates to make people spend or save more.
The wall street crash was a major bust. The government could have stopped it from happening if it had controlled the economy properly but it did not which helped Roosevelt. Also if you look at fig. 1 you will see that after a time the economy will recover naturally. So even if Hoover had stayed in charge things would have got better any way. Roosevelt was not responsible for people’s ignorance that life was never going to get better. He was just lucky that the depression happened and he knew how to manipulate the circumstances to get into power.
All the points I have stated for why Roosevelt was not responsible for his election victory in 1932 show that he was perfectly set up to take the job of president without trying. His main rival made mistakes and the circumstances were perfect for a change in power. Overall I think that Roosevelt was given the perfect opportunity to take the presidency but if he had not been such a good and cleaver politician he would not have made it. I think Roosevelt was responsible for his election victory but in any other circumstances he may not have made it. | 1,774 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A compound sentence is one having two or more co-ordinate clauses. Hence, it can be formed only with the help of coordinating conjunctions, which is known as joining sentence.
- We were watching the game. Somebody pushed us from behind.
→While we were watching the game, somebody pushed us from behind.
- I lost my pen. I was very sad.
→When I lost my pen, I was very sad.
- I knew that I had T.B. I consulted the doctor.
→When I knew that I had TB after consulted the doctor.
- The plane began to move along the road. The pilot told us to fasten our belt.
→Before the plane began to move along the road, the pilot told us to fasten our belt.
- Wait for me. I will come back.
→Wait for me until I come back.
- We reached there. Train had already left.
→When we reached there the train had already left.
Reason Connectives (as, because, since, because of)
They are used to join statements and reasons and before reason they have to be joined.
- He was absent because of his sickness.
- Because of his absence, he was sick.
- He was intelligent. He passed the exam.
→ As he was intelligent, he passed the exam.
→ Because he was intelligent, he passed the exam.
→ He passed the exam as he was intelligent.
→ He passed the exam because of his intelligence.
Since is used if the reason is negative.
- He failed the exam. He did not study hard.
→ He failed the exam since he didn't study hard.
Purpose Connectives (to, in order to, so that, for)
They are used to join action and purpose
to/ in order to:
- He teaches the students on the public holidays. He wants to help the students.
→ He teaches on public holidays to help the students.
→ He teaches on public holidays in order to help the students.
'So that' is used to join action and purpose but towards purpose they must be 'can', could, may, might, would, and moral verb.
- He went to school. He wanted to get education.
→ He went to school so that he could get education.
for + NP + to infinitive
- I opened the door. Hari wanted to come in.
→I opened the door for Hari to come in.
Joining Unexpected Result Connectives (though, although, in spite of)
They help to join situation and unexpected result but it is needed to use before situation.
- He was intelligent. He failed the exam.
→ Though he was intelligent, he failed the exam.
→ Although he was intelligent, he failed the exam.
→ Even though he was intelligent, he failed the exam.
→ In spite of his intelligence, he failed the exam
In Spite of:
It is used to join unexpected result and situation and while joining it is before situation. But after 'in spite of', noun phrase must be there.
- He was strong. He could not fight back.
→ In spite of his strength, he couldn't fight back.
Joining the sentences with therefore and however
However is used when there is opposite result but when we use therefore and however both sides comma is used.
- I have very little money. You can borrow what you need.
→ I have very little money, however, you can borrow what you need.
- He studied hard. He passes the exam.
→ He studied hard, therefore, he passed the exam.
Joining with not only...but also
To join above connective use the formulae:
Common = not only = uncommon = but also.
- He was hungry. He was tired.
→ He was not only hungry but also tired.
Joining with so...that
If there is very, extremely, to then they should be replaced by so and formulae is used: so + adj/ adv + that......
- It was very cold. We had to stop working.
→It was so cold that we had to stop working.
Joining with either...or
It helps to join affirmative sentence. It is used before uncommon words.
- Hari is a doctor. Hari is a teacher.
→ Hari is either a doctor or a teacher.
Joining with neither...nor
It is used to join negative sentence. To join with neither........nor it is needed to remove, not, did not, should not, does not, do not.
→ He is neither a teacher nor a doctor. | <urn:uuid:941821d3-188f-4a9d-8d8b-c1f103b852fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/note-detail/2427 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.986025 | 988 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.544819712638855,
0.2924774289131... | 2 | A compound sentence is one having two or more co-ordinate clauses. Hence, it can be formed only with the help of coordinating conjunctions, which is known as joining sentence.
- We were watching the game. Somebody pushed us from behind.
→While we were watching the game, somebody pushed us from behind.
- I lost my pen. I was very sad.
→When I lost my pen, I was very sad.
- I knew that I had T.B. I consulted the doctor.
→When I knew that I had TB after consulted the doctor.
- The plane began to move along the road. The pilot told us to fasten our belt.
→Before the plane began to move along the road, the pilot told us to fasten our belt.
- Wait for me. I will come back.
→Wait for me until I come back.
- We reached there. Train had already left.
→When we reached there the train had already left.
Reason Connectives (as, because, since, because of)
They are used to join statements and reasons and before reason they have to be joined.
- He was absent because of his sickness.
- Because of his absence, he was sick.
- He was intelligent. He passed the exam.
→ As he was intelligent, he passed the exam.
→ Because he was intelligent, he passed the exam.
→ He passed the exam as he was intelligent.
→ He passed the exam because of his intelligence.
Since is used if the reason is negative.
- He failed the exam. He did not study hard.
→ He failed the exam since he didn't study hard.
Purpose Connectives (to, in order to, so that, for)
They are used to join action and purpose
to/ in order to:
- He teaches the students on the public holidays. He wants to help the students.
→ He teaches on public holidays to help the students.
→ He teaches on public holidays in order to help the students.
'So that' is used to join action and purpose but towards purpose they must be 'can', could, may, might, would, and moral verb.
- He went to school. He wanted to get education.
→ He went to school so that he could get education.
for + NP + to infinitive
- I opened the door. Hari wanted to come in.
→I opened the door for Hari to come in.
Joining Unexpected Result Connectives (though, although, in spite of)
They help to join situation and unexpected result but it is needed to use before situation.
- He was intelligent. He failed the exam.
→ Though he was intelligent, he failed the exam.
→ Although he was intelligent, he failed the exam.
→ Even though he was intelligent, he failed the exam.
→ In spite of his intelligence, he failed the exam
In Spite of:
It is used to join unexpected result and situation and while joining it is before situation. But after 'in spite of', noun phrase must be there.
- He was strong. He could not fight back.
→ In spite of his strength, he couldn't fight back.
Joining the sentences with therefore and however
However is used when there is opposite result but when we use therefore and however both sides comma is used.
- I have very little money. You can borrow what you need.
→ I have very little money, however, you can borrow what you need.
- He studied hard. He passes the exam.
→ He studied hard, therefore, he passed the exam.
Joining with not only...but also
To join above connective use the formulae:
Common = not only = uncommon = but also.
- He was hungry. He was tired.
→ He was not only hungry but also tired.
Joining with so...that
If there is very, extremely, to then they should be replaced by so and formulae is used: so + adj/ adv + that......
- It was very cold. We had to stop working.
→It was so cold that we had to stop working.
Joining with either...or
It helps to join affirmative sentence. It is used before uncommon words.
- Hari is a doctor. Hari is a teacher.
→ Hari is either a doctor or a teacher.
Joining with neither...nor
It is used to join negative sentence. To join with neither........nor it is needed to remove, not, did not, should not, does not, do not.
→ He is neither a teacher nor a doctor. | 917 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A story which is part of the history of Mazandaran They celebrate “13 Tir-Mah Sho” to pass patriotism to future generation
As a land of legends, stories, customs, tradition and rituals, Mazandaran history dates back to thousands of years ago. Some of these stories, which during the centuries, have handed down from generation to generation, narrate the unwritten history of this ancient land.
“13 Tir-Mah Sho” is one of the stories which narrates the efforts, heroism and sacrifice of Iranian in a war that happened more than 3000 years ago; a war between Iran and Turan (an area in Central Asia).
What is Tir-Mah? What happened in 13 Tir-Mah?
Tir is the fourth month of the Mazandaran ancient calendar, which is known as “Tabari Calendar”. The 13th day of Tir is equivalent to November 4.
It is said that more than 3000 years ago, a war ignited between Iran and Turan. During the war, the Iranian king and soldiers had been surrounded in the mountains of Mazandaran for days. There was a shortage of food and water. So, people, who lived in the mountain villages of Mazandaran, had decided to help Iran troop. Some youth had covered their faces to keep their identities hidden from enemies, went from house to house during the nights, gathered food and equipment and sent them to Iran troop
Finally, the war came to an end and for setting the border between the two countries, a strange decision had made. An archer must shoot an arrow, wherever the arrow landed, it would be the border of the two countries. Arash, a famous Iranian archer, had been chosen for this crucial mission. He had climbed a mountain and shoot the arrow. It is said that the arrow landed in Marv (in Turkmenistan). After that, no one had seen Arash. Some said that he died after shooting the arrow and sacrificed his life for his country. Arash is still a well-known Hero in Iran.
Shooting the arrow by Arash and setting Iran border had happened in 13 Tir-Mah (November 4).
13 Tir-Mah sho Ceremony in Mazandaran
Generation after generation, people of Mazandaran have celebrated the occasion which happened on November 4 of more than 3000 years ago. Because they wanted their descendants to know what their fathers and mothers had done for their country.
This ceremony is still held in some mountain villages of Mazandaran. On the night of November 4, some young men gather together. One of them covers his face. They go to people’s houses. The youth, who has covered his face, carries a piece of wood (as the reminder of Arash’s arrow) and hits people lightly with the wood. People believe this wood is the symbol of blessing and happiness. If someone is sick, the youth hits them with the wood. Not only people, but animals and trees would also be hit by wood if they are sick or do not give fruit. For appreciation, the house owner gives food or fruit to the youth. At the end of the ceremony, the food and fruit would be distributed to the poor.
This ceremony has been recorded as an intangible cultural heritage seven years ago. | <urn:uuid:2dae822f-3ac7-43fa-8094-b2a1fabd2611> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://eservice.saricity.ir/En/HomeEn/ShowDetailsDocument?DocId=15049 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.981617 | 680 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3299100399017... | 2 | A story which is part of the history of Mazandaran They celebrate “13 Tir-Mah Sho” to pass patriotism to future generation
As a land of legends, stories, customs, tradition and rituals, Mazandaran history dates back to thousands of years ago. Some of these stories, which during the centuries, have handed down from generation to generation, narrate the unwritten history of this ancient land.
“13 Tir-Mah Sho” is one of the stories which narrates the efforts, heroism and sacrifice of Iranian in a war that happened more than 3000 years ago; a war between Iran and Turan (an area in Central Asia).
What is Tir-Mah? What happened in 13 Tir-Mah?
Tir is the fourth month of the Mazandaran ancient calendar, which is known as “Tabari Calendar”. The 13th day of Tir is equivalent to November 4.
It is said that more than 3000 years ago, a war ignited between Iran and Turan. During the war, the Iranian king and soldiers had been surrounded in the mountains of Mazandaran for days. There was a shortage of food and water. So, people, who lived in the mountain villages of Mazandaran, had decided to help Iran troop. Some youth had covered their faces to keep their identities hidden from enemies, went from house to house during the nights, gathered food and equipment and sent them to Iran troop
Finally, the war came to an end and for setting the border between the two countries, a strange decision had made. An archer must shoot an arrow, wherever the arrow landed, it would be the border of the two countries. Arash, a famous Iranian archer, had been chosen for this crucial mission. He had climbed a mountain and shoot the arrow. It is said that the arrow landed in Marv (in Turkmenistan). After that, no one had seen Arash. Some said that he died after shooting the arrow and sacrificed his life for his country. Arash is still a well-known Hero in Iran.
Shooting the arrow by Arash and setting Iran border had happened in 13 Tir-Mah (November 4).
13 Tir-Mah sho Ceremony in Mazandaran
Generation after generation, people of Mazandaran have celebrated the occasion which happened on November 4 of more than 3000 years ago. Because they wanted their descendants to know what their fathers and mothers had done for their country.
This ceremony is still held in some mountain villages of Mazandaran. On the night of November 4, some young men gather together. One of them covers his face. They go to people’s houses. The youth, who has covered his face, carries a piece of wood (as the reminder of Arash’s arrow) and hits people lightly with the wood. People believe this wood is the symbol of blessing and happiness. If someone is sick, the youth hits them with the wood. Not only people, but animals and trees would also be hit by wood if they are sick or do not give fruit. For appreciation, the house owner gives food or fruit to the youth. At the end of the ceremony, the food and fruit would be distributed to the poor.
This ceremony has been recorded as an intangible cultural heritage seven years ago. | 685 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Moses - The Deliverer
Moses was born about 1350 BC to Amram and Jochebed who were both of the tribe of Levi. His birthplace was Egypt in a time when Pharoah had ordered that every Hebrew son born should be cast into the Nile River. His mother hid him three months, and when she couldn't hide him any longer she put him in an ark of papyrus she had deftly woven and pitched with bitumen within and without to seal it so it would not sink. She placed the ark among the reeds at the river's edge and her daughter stayed with it to see what happened. It was probably Moses' sister Miriam who stayed with him.
Pharoah's daughter found the baby in the reeds of the river. The child was exceedingly fair, and she was childless and drawn to him and named him Moses which means “drawn out.” His Egyptian name was Mes and was joined to Ra the Egyptian sun god. In court he was probably referred to as Ramoses. Pharoah's daughter decided to raise the baby as her own which was easily accepted because the Egyptians believed that the princesses were given children by the gods.
Miriam seized the opportunity to approach the princess and arrange for the baby's mother to
nurse him. So Moses' real mother nursed him. During this time she probably prayed over him
and sang songs to him of her faith and spoke words to him about God, even though he could not understand them at the time. After three years he was returned to Pharoah's daughter. Moses
was then raised in Pharoah's household with all the advantages and education available amidst the vast luxury of the Pharoah's palace and the schools of education available to him.
At the age of 40 Moses went out and watched his Hebrew brethren with their burdens, and slew an Egyptian who he caught beating them. When he knew that he had been seen killing the Egyptian he fled into the desert. From the luxury of the palace he was now forced to deal with the burning heat of the desert. He traveled to Midian, an area thought to extend from Elanitic Gulf to Moab and Mt. Sinai, or according to others, Sinaitic Peninsula to the Euphrates River.
In Midian Moses helped some women at a well who were being harassed by some shepherds while watering their father's flocks of sheep. He was welcomed into the home of the women and eventually married one whose name was Zipporah, and she bore him two sons, Gershom and Eliezer. He settled in Midian for the next 40 years and kept his father-in-law's flock.
One day he was leading the flock at Mt. Horeb and he heard God speaking to him from a burning bush. God told him to take off his shoes because he was standing on holy ground. Then God commanded Moses to return to Egypt to lead the Hebrew nation out of it. Moses began to make excuses as to why he couldn't go but God convinced him in several ways. First of all God turned Moses shepherd's staff into a snake and back again. Then God made his arm leprous and healed it, and finally God told him to take Aaron with him to speak to Pharoah to let his people go. After consulting with his father-in-law, he went to Egypt and convinced the elders of his calling from
God through showing them signs.
The next step was to confront Pharaoh with God's demand to “Let my people go!” Pharaoh refused again and again to let Israel leave Egypt and release them from bondage. Instead he increased their burdens and made them angry against Moses. God then sent plagues upon the land of Egypt. The interesting thing about the plagues was that each plague God sent was an open challenge to one of their gods.
Below is a list of the gods of Egypt connected with the plagues.
1. The Nile water turned into blood – Hapi the god of the Nile
Finally God prepared the people of Israel for the tenth plague with instructions through Moses to the people which instituted the Feast of the Passover later in the lives of the Hebrew nation. An interesting note concerning this preparation was that the people were to put blood on the doorposts and the lintel over the door. This was, in all probability indicative of the cross of Christ. (Envision the blood on both sides and a line running from the lintel over the door to the ground
and you will see the inference to the cross of Christ and the blood shed so he could “pass over” our sins and deliver us from eternal death).
Two things to consider at this point are that neither natural or supernatural elements can be excluded during God's dealings with the Egyptians. The passover lamb was to be without spot
or blemish as was Jesus our passover lamb. The other interesting thing is contained in the paragraph above concerning the placing of the blood on the doorposts and lintel of the houses. We can only stand in awe as God's plan unfolds to us in every place and in all circumstances shown in scripture.
The death of every firstborn son and baby, human and animal in Egypt including the son of Pharoah finally was enough to convince Pharoah to let the Hebrews go. He no longer resisted God and the Hebrews were freed from bondage, and even were given all the wealth they wanted and supplies for the journey. It was a complete victory for God's people. Shortly after leaving
Egypt the nation of Hebrews came to the Red Sea and could go no further. Pharoah came after them and they were caught between the Red Sea and Pharoah's army and began to be terrified and complained against Moses for leading them out of Egypt. God put a cloud of fire between the Hebrews and the Egyptian army and then opened up the Sea and they crossed over to safety while the sea stood up on both sides. After they were across the Lord left the pillar of fire die, and Pharoah's army followed them into the sea. When every Hebrew was safe on the other side God caused the water of the sea to fall upon Pharoah's army and destroy them completely. There are skeptics who say that the water the Hebrews went into was only knee deep so they could walk through it. The best answer I ever heard to that idea was that it was an even greater miracle then because God drowned the Egyptian army in knee deep water. We know of course that it was
deep and wide as it is today. There have also been some chariot wheels and other artifacts recovered since then proving the story.
The Hebrews then began their wilderness trek which was marked by many miracles done on their behalf and their continued complaining against God, Moses and Aaron. God took away sickness from their midst, preserved their clothing, changed the bitter waters of Marah, gave them manna and quail, gave them water from a rock and brought them finally into the land of Caanan. During this time God also came and dwelt among them in a tabernacle that the told them how to build.
He also gave them victory over the Amalekites. Numerous instances could be expounded upon such as Miriam's leprosy, rebellion of the priests and their subsequent death, the various plagues on the Hebrews during their rebellion, the budding rod, the giving of the Ten Commandments, and so much more that happened during this epic journey. Just considering the host of people, estimated at over two and a half million is overwhelming evidence of God power and ability to provide. His care and protection of them for the 40 years in the wildreness is amazing! But then in comparison to his sustaining the entire universe I guess only two and a half million people wasn't
a very big task for God anyway.
Eventually Moses led the people to Caanan but because of his own disobedience he was not allowed to go in with them to the promised land. God had Moses appoint Joshua to this task. Moses rehearsed the travels and the laws, placed Joshua over all the people, and climbed Mount Nebo to look out over the promised land. At the age of 120 years he died in the mountains and nobody knows his burying place although it is possible that he may have been buried in Moab. There is no definite scriptural indication of a burial let alone a burial place.
Moses' character is briefly outlined in scripture. He was a prophet whom the Lord knew face to face, meek above all men on the face of the earth, interceded for his people and was jealous for God's glory. He had weaknesses as all men do but had a deep and enduring faith. He was indeed God's man for eighty years of his life.
C R Lord © 1980
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Select the button below | <urn:uuid:b35f6c5e-7d1c-4b7e-83fe-bfefaa388fc0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.crlord.com/moses.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.984728 | 1,865 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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Moses was born about 1350 BC to Amram and Jochebed who were both of the tribe of Levi. His birthplace was Egypt in a time when Pharoah had ordered that every Hebrew son born should be cast into the Nile River. His mother hid him three months, and when she couldn't hide him any longer she put him in an ark of papyrus she had deftly woven and pitched with bitumen within and without to seal it so it would not sink. She placed the ark among the reeds at the river's edge and her daughter stayed with it to see what happened. It was probably Moses' sister Miriam who stayed with him.
Pharoah's daughter found the baby in the reeds of the river. The child was exceedingly fair, and she was childless and drawn to him and named him Moses which means “drawn out.” His Egyptian name was Mes and was joined to Ra the Egyptian sun god. In court he was probably referred to as Ramoses. Pharoah's daughter decided to raise the baby as her own which was easily accepted because the Egyptians believed that the princesses were given children by the gods.
Miriam seized the opportunity to approach the princess and arrange for the baby's mother to
nurse him. So Moses' real mother nursed him. During this time she probably prayed over him
and sang songs to him of her faith and spoke words to him about God, even though he could not understand them at the time. After three years he was returned to Pharoah's daughter. Moses
was then raised in Pharoah's household with all the advantages and education available amidst the vast luxury of the Pharoah's palace and the schools of education available to him.
At the age of 40 Moses went out and watched his Hebrew brethren with their burdens, and slew an Egyptian who he caught beating them. When he knew that he had been seen killing the Egyptian he fled into the desert. From the luxury of the palace he was now forced to deal with the burning heat of the desert. He traveled to Midian, an area thought to extend from Elanitic Gulf to Moab and Mt. Sinai, or according to others, Sinaitic Peninsula to the Euphrates River.
In Midian Moses helped some women at a well who were being harassed by some shepherds while watering their father's flocks of sheep. He was welcomed into the home of the women and eventually married one whose name was Zipporah, and she bore him two sons, Gershom and Eliezer. He settled in Midian for the next 40 years and kept his father-in-law's flock.
One day he was leading the flock at Mt. Horeb and he heard God speaking to him from a burning bush. God told him to take off his shoes because he was standing on holy ground. Then God commanded Moses to return to Egypt to lead the Hebrew nation out of it. Moses began to make excuses as to why he couldn't go but God convinced him in several ways. First of all God turned Moses shepherd's staff into a snake and back again. Then God made his arm leprous and healed it, and finally God told him to take Aaron with him to speak to Pharoah to let his people go. After consulting with his father-in-law, he went to Egypt and convinced the elders of his calling from
God through showing them signs.
The next step was to confront Pharaoh with God's demand to “Let my people go!” Pharaoh refused again and again to let Israel leave Egypt and release them from bondage. Instead he increased their burdens and made them angry against Moses. God then sent plagues upon the land of Egypt. The interesting thing about the plagues was that each plague God sent was an open challenge to one of their gods.
Below is a list of the gods of Egypt connected with the plagues.
1. The Nile water turned into blood – Hapi the god of the Nile
Finally God prepared the people of Israel for the tenth plague with instructions through Moses to the people which instituted the Feast of the Passover later in the lives of the Hebrew nation. An interesting note concerning this preparation was that the people were to put blood on the doorposts and the lintel over the door. This was, in all probability indicative of the cross of Christ. (Envision the blood on both sides and a line running from the lintel over the door to the ground
and you will see the inference to the cross of Christ and the blood shed so he could “pass over” our sins and deliver us from eternal death).
Two things to consider at this point are that neither natural or supernatural elements can be excluded during God's dealings with the Egyptians. The passover lamb was to be without spot
or blemish as was Jesus our passover lamb. The other interesting thing is contained in the paragraph above concerning the placing of the blood on the doorposts and lintel of the houses. We can only stand in awe as God's plan unfolds to us in every place and in all circumstances shown in scripture.
The death of every firstborn son and baby, human and animal in Egypt including the son of Pharoah finally was enough to convince Pharoah to let the Hebrews go. He no longer resisted God and the Hebrews were freed from bondage, and even were given all the wealth they wanted and supplies for the journey. It was a complete victory for God's people. Shortly after leaving
Egypt the nation of Hebrews came to the Red Sea and could go no further. Pharoah came after them and they were caught between the Red Sea and Pharoah's army and began to be terrified and complained against Moses for leading them out of Egypt. God put a cloud of fire between the Hebrews and the Egyptian army and then opened up the Sea and they crossed over to safety while the sea stood up on both sides. After they were across the Lord left the pillar of fire die, and Pharoah's army followed them into the sea. When every Hebrew was safe on the other side God caused the water of the sea to fall upon Pharoah's army and destroy them completely. There are skeptics who say that the water the Hebrews went into was only knee deep so they could walk through it. The best answer I ever heard to that idea was that it was an even greater miracle then because God drowned the Egyptian army in knee deep water. We know of course that it was
deep and wide as it is today. There have also been some chariot wheels and other artifacts recovered since then proving the story.
The Hebrews then began their wilderness trek which was marked by many miracles done on their behalf and their continued complaining against God, Moses and Aaron. God took away sickness from their midst, preserved their clothing, changed the bitter waters of Marah, gave them manna and quail, gave them water from a rock and brought them finally into the land of Caanan. During this time God also came and dwelt among them in a tabernacle that the told them how to build.
He also gave them victory over the Amalekites. Numerous instances could be expounded upon such as Miriam's leprosy, rebellion of the priests and their subsequent death, the various plagues on the Hebrews during their rebellion, the budding rod, the giving of the Ten Commandments, and so much more that happened during this epic journey. Just considering the host of people, estimated at over two and a half million is overwhelming evidence of God power and ability to provide. His care and protection of them for the 40 years in the wildreness is amazing! But then in comparison to his sustaining the entire universe I guess only two and a half million people wasn't
a very big task for God anyway.
Eventually Moses led the people to Caanan but because of his own disobedience he was not allowed to go in with them to the promised land. God had Moses appoint Joshua to this task. Moses rehearsed the travels and the laws, placed Joshua over all the people, and climbed Mount Nebo to look out over the promised land. At the age of 120 years he died in the mountains and nobody knows his burying place although it is possible that he may have been buried in Moab. There is no definite scriptural indication of a burial let alone a burial place.
Moses' character is briefly outlined in scripture. He was a prophet whom the Lord knew face to face, meek above all men on the face of the earth, interceded for his people and was jealous for God's glory. He had weaknesses as all men do but had a deep and enduring faith. He was indeed God's man for eighty years of his life.
C R Lord © 1980
The button below is meant
for those who've been blessed
by visiting this ministry site.
Sample of Site Pages
What's In A Verse
My College Notes
A Little Of Everything
Religion And Religions
Select the button below | 1,862 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Quincy Adams was born on July 11, 1767, to Abigail and John Adams in Braintree, Massachusetts. John Quincy was largely raised by his mother because his father was heavily involved in the American Revolution. The older Adams would participate in the First Continental Congress, help draft the Declaration of Independence, and oversee the Revolutionary War, keeping him from playing a major role in his son's life. Early on in the Revolutionary War, John Quincy Adams feared his family would be kidnapped or killed because his father signed the Declaration of Independence. John Quincy witnessed the war firsthand as his hometown was so close to the center of Revolutionary action. Soldiers often marched right through his yard. From the ages of ten to seventeen, John Quincy accompanied his father on a special convoy to Europe, where he spent seven years traveling to Prussia, the Netherlands, England, and even Paris, where he went to school with the grandsons of Benjamin Franklin. John Quincy spent many years in Europe with and without his father, and was even asked to serve as a translator for an American emissary in St. Petersburg, Russia. John Quincy returned to the United States in 1785 and enrolled in Harvard as an advanced student, graduating in just two years with a law degree. After graduation, John Quincy opened his own law firm in Massachusetts but quickly eschewed law for a career in politics.
Involved in Domestic and International Politics
John Quincy admired Thomas Jefferson, the writer of the Declaration of Independence, and was a major supporter of the George Washington administration after his father was selected as vice president. Washington appreciated the support of John Quincy so much that he chose him to travel to the Netherlands to negotiate the repayment of Dutch loans to America. After John Quincy's father was elected president in 1796, he sent John Quincy to be the minister to Prussia. When Adams lost his bid for reelection to Thomas Jefferson in 1800, Jefferson recalled John Quincy, bringing him back to the United States. After he came back to the States, John Quincy began practicing law again in Boston in 1801, but the next year he was elected to the Massachusetts State Senate and then the US Senate. While in the Senate, John Quincy was turned off by the partisan politics of the time. He was ostracized by the Federalist Party for his anti-Federalist voting, prompting him to resign from the Senate and return to Harvard, where he became a professor.
Architect of the Monroe Doctrine
When James Monroe became president in 1817, he appointed John Ambassador to the Russian Court. His stint as ambassador to Russia was temporary as he was called to Belgium to negotiate the Treaty of Ghent, which was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812. John Quincy was then named Secretary of State in the Monroe cabinet and was the architect behind the Monroe Doctrine, which aimed to prevent European colonization in Latin America by affirming that the United States would provide protection over the entire Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine was America's first articulation of foreign policy. Together with James Monroe and other American politicians of the time, Adams helped to usher in a period of American history known as the Era of Good Feeling.
John Quincy Adams as Secretary of State
The Sixth President and the Corrupt Bargain
In 1824, John Quincy Adams won one of the most controversial presidential elections in American history, becoming the nation's sixth president. In the election, neither Adams nor Andrew Jackson received the majority of electoral votes, leaving it to Congress to determine the victor. In what came to be known as the "corrupt bargain," it is believed that John Quincy offered Senator Henry Clay the Secretary of State position if he convinced Congress to elect him president instead of his opponent, Andrew Jackson. The corrupt bargain angered many Jackson supporters and even caused Jackson to resign from the Senate.
The Ups and Downs of the Presidency
John Quincy's term as president was marred by controversy created by his political enemies (Jackson supporters), who aimed to block any new legislation he supported. During his presidency, industrialization intensified in the Northern United States, highlighted by construction of the Erie Canal. Adams was also successful in paying off much of the national debt.
In 1828, John Quincy ran for reelection against Andrew Jackson but was defeated, becoming only the second president to fail in a reelection bid (the first was his father). After the loss to Jackson, John Quincy returned home to Massachusetts, where he served in the House fighting for the abolition of slavery. John Quincy Adams died in 1848. | <urn:uuid:339f7b9b-36c3-4d84-ad22-798d9bb19d5a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/president-6-john-quincy-adams-presidents-series | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.984846 | 912 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.2541303038597107,... | 3 | John Quincy Adams was born on July 11, 1767, to Abigail and John Adams in Braintree, Massachusetts. John Quincy was largely raised by his mother because his father was heavily involved in the American Revolution. The older Adams would participate in the First Continental Congress, help draft the Declaration of Independence, and oversee the Revolutionary War, keeping him from playing a major role in his son's life. Early on in the Revolutionary War, John Quincy Adams feared his family would be kidnapped or killed because his father signed the Declaration of Independence. John Quincy witnessed the war firsthand as his hometown was so close to the center of Revolutionary action. Soldiers often marched right through his yard. From the ages of ten to seventeen, John Quincy accompanied his father on a special convoy to Europe, where he spent seven years traveling to Prussia, the Netherlands, England, and even Paris, where he went to school with the grandsons of Benjamin Franklin. John Quincy spent many years in Europe with and without his father, and was even asked to serve as a translator for an American emissary in St. Petersburg, Russia. John Quincy returned to the United States in 1785 and enrolled in Harvard as an advanced student, graduating in just two years with a law degree. After graduation, John Quincy opened his own law firm in Massachusetts but quickly eschewed law for a career in politics.
Involved in Domestic and International Politics
John Quincy admired Thomas Jefferson, the writer of the Declaration of Independence, and was a major supporter of the George Washington administration after his father was selected as vice president. Washington appreciated the support of John Quincy so much that he chose him to travel to the Netherlands to negotiate the repayment of Dutch loans to America. After John Quincy's father was elected president in 1796, he sent John Quincy to be the minister to Prussia. When Adams lost his bid for reelection to Thomas Jefferson in 1800, Jefferson recalled John Quincy, bringing him back to the United States. After he came back to the States, John Quincy began practicing law again in Boston in 1801, but the next year he was elected to the Massachusetts State Senate and then the US Senate. While in the Senate, John Quincy was turned off by the partisan politics of the time. He was ostracized by the Federalist Party for his anti-Federalist voting, prompting him to resign from the Senate and return to Harvard, where he became a professor.
Architect of the Monroe Doctrine
When James Monroe became president in 1817, he appointed John Ambassador to the Russian Court. His stint as ambassador to Russia was temporary as he was called to Belgium to negotiate the Treaty of Ghent, which was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812. John Quincy was then named Secretary of State in the Monroe cabinet and was the architect behind the Monroe Doctrine, which aimed to prevent European colonization in Latin America by affirming that the United States would provide protection over the entire Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine was America's first articulation of foreign policy. Together with James Monroe and other American politicians of the time, Adams helped to usher in a period of American history known as the Era of Good Feeling.
John Quincy Adams as Secretary of State
The Sixth President and the Corrupt Bargain
In 1824, John Quincy Adams won one of the most controversial presidential elections in American history, becoming the nation's sixth president. In the election, neither Adams nor Andrew Jackson received the majority of electoral votes, leaving it to Congress to determine the victor. In what came to be known as the "corrupt bargain," it is believed that John Quincy offered Senator Henry Clay the Secretary of State position if he convinced Congress to elect him president instead of his opponent, Andrew Jackson. The corrupt bargain angered many Jackson supporters and even caused Jackson to resign from the Senate.
The Ups and Downs of the Presidency
John Quincy's term as president was marred by controversy created by his political enemies (Jackson supporters), who aimed to block any new legislation he supported. During his presidency, industrialization intensified in the Northern United States, highlighted by construction of the Erie Canal. Adams was also successful in paying off much of the national debt.
In 1828, John Quincy ran for reelection against Andrew Jackson but was defeated, becoming only the second president to fail in a reelection bid (the first was his father). After the loss to Jackson, John Quincy returned home to Massachusetts, where he served in the House fighting for the abolition of slavery. John Quincy Adams died in 1848. | 937 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How many seats are there on the Swiss government, known as Federal Council? The answer is seven. But how does Switzerland do the maths to reach that figure? Is it 2+2+2+1, or 3+2+2? And why does it matter?
When modern Switzerland was founded in 1848, the Swiss executive branch consisted entirely of members from one party. A second party wasn’t represented within the government until 1891. It would take another 50 years before another two were given seats. In 1959, these four largest parties agreed that government posts should from then on be distributed among them according to a ratio that reflects their strengths in parliament.
This so-called ‘magic formula’ is part of Switzerland’s consensus democracy and is based on the belief that decisions are only lasting if they are supported by the minority as well as the majority.
For many years, the Federal Council’s power-sharing set up remained the same. It was only in 2003 when the party with just one cabinet seat, the Swiss People’s Party, became the largest that the magic formula was called into question. | <urn:uuid:d5a35fb1-9f71-4866-b9e9-f41ca8c54b1c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/magic-formula_how-are-swiss-federal-councillors-elected-/44593530 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.985652 | 233 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.1668025404214... | 2 | How many seats are there on the Swiss government, known as Federal Council? The answer is seven. But how does Switzerland do the maths to reach that figure? Is it 2+2+2+1, or 3+2+2? And why does it matter?
When modern Switzerland was founded in 1848, the Swiss executive branch consisted entirely of members from one party. A second party wasn’t represented within the government until 1891. It would take another 50 years before another two were given seats. In 1959, these four largest parties agreed that government posts should from then on be distributed among them according to a ratio that reflects their strengths in parliament.
This so-called ‘magic formula’ is part of Switzerland’s consensus democracy and is based on the belief that decisions are only lasting if they are supported by the minority as well as the majority.
For many years, the Federal Council’s power-sharing set up remained the same. It was only in 2003 when the party with just one cabinet seat, the Swiss People’s Party, became the largest that the magic formula was called into question. | 236 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The great depression is known as the worst and longest economic crisis to have ever hit the western economies (Rothbard, 2000). During the 1930s, almost the entire plains of the US were experiencing drought. A lot of crops were damaged due to the high temperatures, insufficiency in rainfall, high winds and the infestation by insects on the crops. It is argued that this depression in the agricultural sector played a high role in bringing about the great depression. The depression began in the United States immediately after the crash of the New York stock market in 1929. The crisis lasted till 1939. It is identified that by the year 1932, the values of stock had fallen very fast to around 20% from their original value, and in 1933, around 11,000 out of the 25,000 banks and financial institutions in the united states had collapsed due to a number of reasons that included a decline in the value of property, lack of customers due to the panic that arose and loan defaults (Bernstein, 2004). Apart from these factors, other factors that were related to the issue of monetary policy made the situation worse especially those that were associated to adhering to the gold standards.
Buy The Economic Impact of the Great Depression essay paper online
As indicated above, this was the period when the highest unemployment rates and low incomes were experienced; business was also low especially keeping in mind that these were modern times. The depression led to factories, banks and major business entities collapsing leaving thousands of citizens both jobless and with no money to put food on the table. Hebert Hoover was the United States president when the great depression picked and when Franklin Roosevelt took office in 1932 (Micheal, 1992), he came up with new reforms that empowered the government with powers and authorities that helped ease the crisis.
There was a sharp fall in the world market as all the countries tried to increase their taxes as a way of trying to salvage their domestic industries that had heavily been impacted on by the crisis. According to Brasch, (2009), the effect o the crisis led to a number of states and countries changing their leaders and government as a way of trying to respond and come up with ways of tackling the problem. The crash in the stock market was faced in 1925-1929 and during this time, the price doubled in the New York stock exchange market for the common stocks. The rise in stock price means that investors were attracted into investing in the stocks with an anticipation of making high returns due to the rise in the same stocks' price in future. Instead of thee rise of prices as most of them anticipated, there was a drop in the prices.
The drop in the stocks that took place in the 24th of October 1929 was termed to as the Black Thursday (Rothbard, 2000). The two days following the black Thursday saw a maintenance of steady prices of the stocks and on Monday, there a was another decline in the prices. This continuous decline in the stock prices caused a lot of panic among the traders leading to majority of them selling their stocks on the next day, Tuesday the 29th. A record of 16,410,030 shares of stock was sold on that day. Bernstein, (2004) asserts that the depression led to millions of American citizens falling victims of malnutrition due to unbalanced diets, millions of others were thrown out of their homes due to their incapability of paying their mortgages and it is approximated that about 25,000 families had lost their homes and were roaming the streets in search of food, shelter and cloths with an addition of 200,000 people in search of the same. The great depression came with it a number of changes in the United States, it led to the formulation of new laws. These laws ensured that a lot of powers were given to the government meaning that it controlled more powers than it had done in any other time. At the same time, a new outlook in terms of life was given to the Americans in general.
The great depression was not in itself unprecedented. Past periods had been considered as slumps that may have triggered failures by banks and over speculations that led to a number of years that experienced a fall in production, employment and total hardships (Brasch, 2009). The first and second world wars had a great impact on the economies of the Europe. It is assumed that after these wars, what followed were rock years on these economies till the 1920s. The war is known to have ked to inflation which particularly hit Germany so hard especially as the prices of commodities and services soared each single day leading to higher quantities of currencies being required to do any ordinary purchasing. What helped it was the forceful action that the government took. Despite countries like Italy and France being less hit by the depression, in 1931, these countries were seen drowning into the vortex (Micheal, 1992).
The economic crisis that ensued in American economy as a result of the collapse of the Mortgage market left enormous effects on the economy. The financial crisis has affected virtually every sector of the economy and thus affecting the livelihood of the people in those countries. All over the world financial institution are collapsing; stock markets are experiencing a down turn as people are not ready to invest in the stocks of the companies. The financial crisis has also caused the government to come up with the programs that are meant to bail the companies out and minimizing the effects in the economy for instance jobs loss. The effects of the financial crisis include;
Collapsing financial institutions
Financial melt down has led to the collapsing of the largest financial institutions in the world. Other financial institutions are being bought at a loss by their competitors thus leading to capital loss to the investors. Financial institutions are very important to any economy as they help to advance credit to the citizens and thus help to increase the investment in the country. Collapsing of the financial institutions thus means that the customers are not in position to access credits and thus investments in the country are curtailed. For any economy of the world to develop, there must be people who invest in the economy and thus create employment opportunities to the citizens of the country. Investments would also be sources of revenue to the government as the government imposes corporate taxes to those businesses. The collapsing of the financial institutions in the country would mean that the deposits that the customers had kept with them would also go with the bank (Ovanhouser, 2008).
The deposits kept with the financial institutions involve the money that hard working citizens have worked for and saved to be used later for investments. Due to the effects of the collapsing of the financial institutions and thus affect the common person in the society, the government intervened with coming with the programs that were meant to bail the financial institutions out and thus minimize the effects of their collapsing to the common person. The United States government for instance, spent a total of $ 2.8 trillion to bail out the financial institution. The critics were against the government bailing out the financial institutions that were at the brink of collapsing because they believed that they were the cause of the problem and thus they should be left to create the problems that they themselves had created. Another reason as to why people against the bailing of the financial institution from collapsing by the government was that the government would use the tax payers' money and thus it would mean that the government would raise taxes so as to be in position to meet other financial obligations in the economy (Collyns, Kincaid & International Monetary Fund, 2003).
Loss of Jobs
Another effect of the financial crisis in the United States is the loss of jobs. Due to the collapsing of many companies in United States as result of the decrease of the demand of the goods and services they were offering due to the reduction of purchasing power of the customers necessitated companies to cut operations to reduce cost and avert making losses further. For the companies to reduce costs of operations, they had to lay off staffs and reduce the salaries and other benefits of those who were retained. Loss of jobs in the economy as the companies reduces their operations led to the evil of the rapid unemployment. The government had to intervene and bail out the crucial companies in the economy from collapsing and thus reducing the rate of unemployment in the country. The reduction of the wages and other benefits by the companies resulted to the reduction of the purchasing power of the customers and thus increasing further the problem of lack of demand of goods produced in the economy and thus accelerating economic crisis (Smith, Horisaka & Nishijima, 2007).
Virtually very person in the society felt the effect of the financial crisis in the economy. Some of the parties that were mostly affected by the financial melt down include the government, the individuals and the companies. It is the sole responsibility of the government to see that their citizens are protected from unwanted occurrence in the economy. Thus the government had the duty to see into it that her citizens are not severely affected by the financial crisis hence the importance of the bail out programs that were adopted by the government. The individual were also affected by the financial melt down as the wealth and jobs were lost as a result. The companies were also affected by the financial melt down as the demand of good and services were reduced and thus resulted to other collapsing while other reduced their operations (Nanto, 2010).
In conclusion, the financial crisis in the United States markets resulted to various effects that include people loosing their wealth, rampant unemployment due to collapse of the companies, companies shutting down while other reducing their operations and people paying more taxes so as the government to bail out crucial companies in the economy from collapsing. The policy makers should come with the policy that are geared toward prevention of the financial melt down in future and in case it happens, it effects to the economy is reduced.
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- Economic Policy and the Global Environment
- Automotive Industry
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0.458259105682... | 1 | The great depression is known as the worst and longest economic crisis to have ever hit the western economies (Rothbard, 2000). During the 1930s, almost the entire plains of the US were experiencing drought. A lot of crops were damaged due to the high temperatures, insufficiency in rainfall, high winds and the infestation by insects on the crops. It is argued that this depression in the agricultural sector played a high role in bringing about the great depression. The depression began in the United States immediately after the crash of the New York stock market in 1929. The crisis lasted till 1939. It is identified that by the year 1932, the values of stock had fallen very fast to around 20% from their original value, and in 1933, around 11,000 out of the 25,000 banks and financial institutions in the united states had collapsed due to a number of reasons that included a decline in the value of property, lack of customers due to the panic that arose and loan defaults (Bernstein, 2004). Apart from these factors, other factors that were related to the issue of monetary policy made the situation worse especially those that were associated to adhering to the gold standards.
Buy The Economic Impact of the Great Depression essay paper online
As indicated above, this was the period when the highest unemployment rates and low incomes were experienced; business was also low especially keeping in mind that these were modern times. The depression led to factories, banks and major business entities collapsing leaving thousands of citizens both jobless and with no money to put food on the table. Hebert Hoover was the United States president when the great depression picked and when Franklin Roosevelt took office in 1932 (Micheal, 1992), he came up with new reforms that empowered the government with powers and authorities that helped ease the crisis.
There was a sharp fall in the world market as all the countries tried to increase their taxes as a way of trying to salvage their domestic industries that had heavily been impacted on by the crisis. According to Brasch, (2009), the effect o the crisis led to a number of states and countries changing their leaders and government as a way of trying to respond and come up with ways of tackling the problem. The crash in the stock market was faced in 1925-1929 and during this time, the price doubled in the New York stock exchange market for the common stocks. The rise in stock price means that investors were attracted into investing in the stocks with an anticipation of making high returns due to the rise in the same stocks' price in future. Instead of thee rise of prices as most of them anticipated, there was a drop in the prices.
The drop in the stocks that took place in the 24th of October 1929 was termed to as the Black Thursday (Rothbard, 2000). The two days following the black Thursday saw a maintenance of steady prices of the stocks and on Monday, there a was another decline in the prices. This continuous decline in the stock prices caused a lot of panic among the traders leading to majority of them selling their stocks on the next day, Tuesday the 29th. A record of 16,410,030 shares of stock was sold on that day. Bernstein, (2004) asserts that the depression led to millions of American citizens falling victims of malnutrition due to unbalanced diets, millions of others were thrown out of their homes due to their incapability of paying their mortgages and it is approximated that about 25,000 families had lost their homes and were roaming the streets in search of food, shelter and cloths with an addition of 200,000 people in search of the same. The great depression came with it a number of changes in the United States, it led to the formulation of new laws. These laws ensured that a lot of powers were given to the government meaning that it controlled more powers than it had done in any other time. At the same time, a new outlook in terms of life was given to the Americans in general.
The great depression was not in itself unprecedented. Past periods had been considered as slumps that may have triggered failures by banks and over speculations that led to a number of years that experienced a fall in production, employment and total hardships (Brasch, 2009). The first and second world wars had a great impact on the economies of the Europe. It is assumed that after these wars, what followed were rock years on these economies till the 1920s. The war is known to have ked to inflation which particularly hit Germany so hard especially as the prices of commodities and services soared each single day leading to higher quantities of currencies being required to do any ordinary purchasing. What helped it was the forceful action that the government took. Despite countries like Italy and France being less hit by the depression, in 1931, these countries were seen drowning into the vortex (Micheal, 1992).
The economic crisis that ensued in American economy as a result of the collapse of the Mortgage market left enormous effects on the economy. The financial crisis has affected virtually every sector of the economy and thus affecting the livelihood of the people in those countries. All over the world financial institution are collapsing; stock markets are experiencing a down turn as people are not ready to invest in the stocks of the companies. The financial crisis has also caused the government to come up with the programs that are meant to bail the companies out and minimizing the effects in the economy for instance jobs loss. The effects of the financial crisis include;
Collapsing financial institutions
Financial melt down has led to the collapsing of the largest financial institutions in the world. Other financial institutions are being bought at a loss by their competitors thus leading to capital loss to the investors. Financial institutions are very important to any economy as they help to advance credit to the citizens and thus help to increase the investment in the country. Collapsing of the financial institutions thus means that the customers are not in position to access credits and thus investments in the country are curtailed. For any economy of the world to develop, there must be people who invest in the economy and thus create employment opportunities to the citizens of the country. Investments would also be sources of revenue to the government as the government imposes corporate taxes to those businesses. The collapsing of the financial institutions in the country would mean that the deposits that the customers had kept with them would also go with the bank (Ovanhouser, 2008).
The deposits kept with the financial institutions involve the money that hard working citizens have worked for and saved to be used later for investments. Due to the effects of the collapsing of the financial institutions and thus affect the common person in the society, the government intervened with coming with the programs that were meant to bail the financial institutions out and thus minimize the effects of their collapsing to the common person. The United States government for instance, spent a total of $ 2.8 trillion to bail out the financial institution. The critics were against the government bailing out the financial institutions that were at the brink of collapsing because they believed that they were the cause of the problem and thus they should be left to create the problems that they themselves had created. Another reason as to why people against the bailing of the financial institution from collapsing by the government was that the government would use the tax payers' money and thus it would mean that the government would raise taxes so as to be in position to meet other financial obligations in the economy (Collyns, Kincaid & International Monetary Fund, 2003).
Loss of Jobs
Another effect of the financial crisis in the United States is the loss of jobs. Due to the collapsing of many companies in United States as result of the decrease of the demand of the goods and services they were offering due to the reduction of purchasing power of the customers necessitated companies to cut operations to reduce cost and avert making losses further. For the companies to reduce costs of operations, they had to lay off staffs and reduce the salaries and other benefits of those who were retained. Loss of jobs in the economy as the companies reduces their operations led to the evil of the rapid unemployment. The government had to intervene and bail out the crucial companies in the economy from collapsing and thus reducing the rate of unemployment in the country. The reduction of the wages and other benefits by the companies resulted to the reduction of the purchasing power of the customers and thus increasing further the problem of lack of demand of goods produced in the economy and thus accelerating economic crisis (Smith, Horisaka & Nishijima, 2007).
Virtually very person in the society felt the effect of the financial crisis in the economy. Some of the parties that were mostly affected by the financial melt down include the government, the individuals and the companies. It is the sole responsibility of the government to see that their citizens are protected from unwanted occurrence in the economy. Thus the government had the duty to see into it that her citizens are not severely affected by the financial crisis hence the importance of the bail out programs that were adopted by the government. The individual were also affected by the financial melt down as the wealth and jobs were lost as a result. The companies were also affected by the financial melt down as the demand of good and services were reduced and thus resulted to other collapsing while other reduced their operations (Nanto, 2010).
In conclusion, the financial crisis in the United States markets resulted to various effects that include people loosing their wealth, rampant unemployment due to collapse of the companies, companies shutting down while other reducing their operations and people paying more taxes so as the government to bail out crucial companies in the economy from collapsing. The policy makers should come with the policy that are geared toward prevention of the financial melt down in future and in case it happens, it effects to the economy is reduced.
Related Free Economics Essays
- Unemployment in the UK
- Price Elasticity of Demand
- Objectives of Export-Oriented Industrialization
- Theories of the Competitive Process
- The financial planning Process
- Economic Policy and the Global Environment
- Automotive Industry
- Azerbaijans role in European Energy Security
- International trade
- Perfect Competition vs. Monopolistic Competition
Most popular orders | 2,153 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A shocking discovery in Year 4!
What could have caused such destruction in Year 4?
On Monday morning, the 2nd December, Year 4 were shocked to find that somebody had entered the year 4 corridor and classrooms. They found tables and chairs upturned and bite marks in walls, cupboards, doors and furniture. Using the clues they found scattered around the year 4 area they realised that it must have been the Iron Man looking for metal to eat. Year 4 then decided to create a trap as they didn't want it to happen again. The children had a fantastic time thinking of ideas in their groups and using their imagination to create a trap out of natural materials and other materials within the classroom. It was a lovely day and the children enjoyed themselves and are very excited to write an explanation about 'How to trap The Iron Man'. | <urn:uuid:ea89a0fa-ec32-4e7a-8dbe-521b2e377597> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sandfieldclose.leicester.sch.uk/news/?pid=3&nid=1&storyid=1132 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.980156 | 168 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.0626740828156... | 11 | A shocking discovery in Year 4!
What could have caused such destruction in Year 4?
On Monday morning, the 2nd December, Year 4 were shocked to find that somebody had entered the year 4 corridor and classrooms. They found tables and chairs upturned and bite marks in walls, cupboards, doors and furniture. Using the clues they found scattered around the year 4 area they realised that it must have been the Iron Man looking for metal to eat. Year 4 then decided to create a trap as they didn't want it to happen again. The children had a fantastic time thinking of ideas in their groups and using their imagination to create a trap out of natural materials and other materials within the classroom. It was a lovely day and the children enjoyed themselves and are very excited to write an explanation about 'How to trap The Iron Man'. | 173 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1899 Henry Ford resigned his position as the chief engineer at the Edison Illuminating Company. He worked at the main plant for Edison, and decided that the electric field was not actually for him. He wanted more time to concentrate on his true passion and the thing that would make him famous: creating and perfecting automobiles.
Henry Ford sought out to become great from an early age. And everyone knows what legacy he left. The Ford Motor Company still exists today and it’s not a stretch to say that most of you reading this article have owned or currently own one of his cars right now.
He left his family’s farm in Dearborn, Michigan, at age 16. Due to financial constraints he had to work in the machine shops of Detroit in order to help support his family. In 1888 he married Clara Bryant. Their son Edsel was born in 1893. Ford was made chief engineer at Edison Illuminating Company that same year as his smarts and ingenuity were rewarded. He was in charge of keeping the city’s electricity flowing. Ford was on call 24 hours a day and had no regular working hours. His position sounds a lot like positions at modern start-up companies today. There is no boundary between work and life.
Ford liked this deal because he had a lot of freedom, and when not working could tinker away at his real goal of building a gasoline-powered vehicle. He completed his first functioning gasoline engine at the end of 1893. He worked on vehicular engineering in his spare time and created his first horseless carriage, called the Quadricycle in 1896.
Ford was awarded his first patent in the summer of 1898. He filed under the name of his investor William C. Maybury who was serving as the mayor of Detroit at the time. The patent secured ideas and intellectual property for the carburetor he built the previous year.
Ford had produced his third car by the next summer and it was a much more advanced model than his two previous efforts. The car was truly innovative it had a water tank and brakes, among other new features that had been previously unexplored. With the mayor of Detroit on his side Ford was able to go with his instincts and assemble a group of investors who went on to contribute $150,000 to establish the Detroit Automobile Company in early August of 1899. Ford ended up leaving Edison on August 15th to devote all of his time to creating the car of his dream.
He turned down a considerable salary offer of $1,900 per year, which adjusted for inflation would amount to six figures today.
The Detroit Automobile Company was won of around 60 different companies trying to break into the auto industry. It wasn’t until 1903 that Ford broke away and created his own company and of course the legendary Model T, one of the first pseudo-modern automobiles. It’s no secret that this deal gave birth to the Ford Motor Company, one of the most incredible companies and car manufacturers in the world.
Contributor & Chief Coffee Maker | <urn:uuid:ce7dcca1-52ba-4b36-b4de-f28da72a0298> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://historianinsight.com/henry-ford-abandons-edison-8-15-1899 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.992441 | 615 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2760966122... | 1 | In 1899 Henry Ford resigned his position as the chief engineer at the Edison Illuminating Company. He worked at the main plant for Edison, and decided that the electric field was not actually for him. He wanted more time to concentrate on his true passion and the thing that would make him famous: creating and perfecting automobiles.
Henry Ford sought out to become great from an early age. And everyone knows what legacy he left. The Ford Motor Company still exists today and it’s not a stretch to say that most of you reading this article have owned or currently own one of his cars right now.
He left his family’s farm in Dearborn, Michigan, at age 16. Due to financial constraints he had to work in the machine shops of Detroit in order to help support his family. In 1888 he married Clara Bryant. Their son Edsel was born in 1893. Ford was made chief engineer at Edison Illuminating Company that same year as his smarts and ingenuity were rewarded. He was in charge of keeping the city’s electricity flowing. Ford was on call 24 hours a day and had no regular working hours. His position sounds a lot like positions at modern start-up companies today. There is no boundary between work and life.
Ford liked this deal because he had a lot of freedom, and when not working could tinker away at his real goal of building a gasoline-powered vehicle. He completed his first functioning gasoline engine at the end of 1893. He worked on vehicular engineering in his spare time and created his first horseless carriage, called the Quadricycle in 1896.
Ford was awarded his first patent in the summer of 1898. He filed under the name of his investor William C. Maybury who was serving as the mayor of Detroit at the time. The patent secured ideas and intellectual property for the carburetor he built the previous year.
Ford had produced his third car by the next summer and it was a much more advanced model than his two previous efforts. The car was truly innovative it had a water tank and brakes, among other new features that had been previously unexplored. With the mayor of Detroit on his side Ford was able to go with his instincts and assemble a group of investors who went on to contribute $150,000 to establish the Detroit Automobile Company in early August of 1899. Ford ended up leaving Edison on August 15th to devote all of his time to creating the car of his dream.
He turned down a considerable salary offer of $1,900 per year, which adjusted for inflation would amount to six figures today.
The Detroit Automobile Company was won of around 60 different companies trying to break into the auto industry. It wasn’t until 1903 that Ford broke away and created his own company and of course the legendary Model T, one of the first pseudo-modern automobiles. It’s no secret that this deal gave birth to the Ford Motor Company, one of the most incredible companies and car manufacturers in the world.
Contributor & Chief Coffee Maker | 641 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was considered by philosophers to have been one of the greatest thinkers of all time. Kant lived in remote province where he was born for his entire life. He was the fourth of nine children but the oldest surviving child to obtain an education. His parents were devoted followers of Pietistic branch of the Lutheran church, which taught that religion belongs to the inner life expressed in simplicity and obedience to moral law. From the age of eight to sixteen, Kant entered the Pietist school where his pastor directed. The influencer of the pastor made it possible for Kant to obtain an education. Similarly, like his mother, Kant throughout his life became highly respectful of the inner peace Pietists. (Verkamp, 2009) In 1740, at the age of sixteen, he enrolled in the University of Konigsberg’s school of theology as a theological student. Although, Kant attended courses in theology, and even preach on a few occasions, he spent his time devoted most of his early years studying science, mathematics and physics. The death of Kant father had a significant impact on his life. The failure to obtain the post of undertutor in one of the schools attached to the university compelled him to withdraw and seek a means of supporting himself It was during that time that he decided to pursue an academic career. (Verkamp, 2009).
Immanuel Kant was considered one of the Enlightenment’s greatest philosopher. The Enlightenment began in Europe and was a part of the changes associated with the renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Protestant Reformation, all taking place between 1450 and 1750. The 1700s were sometime referred to as the “Age of Enlightenment”, because philosophical and political ideas were begun to seriously question the assumptions of absolute governments. The Enlightenment invited people to use their reason (Szalay, 2016). For instance, people can figure things out, and they can come up with better governments and societies.
At the end of the period, philosophers began to consider exactly what they meant by the term “enlightenment.” Immanuel Kant offered his definition in his essay” What is Enlightenment?” He responded by saying “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-imposed nonage”. Nonage is the inability to use one’s own understanding without another’s guidance. Many interpret nonage as “immaturity” (Szalay, 2016). According to Kant’s theory, “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity.” He believed that immaturity is the hindrance in the way of a human life towards enlightenment. According to Kant’s theory man can overcome his immaturity. Other philosophers such as John Locke, Voltaire and Jean- Jacques Rousseau were part of the enlightenment. John Locke wrote that a ruler’s authority is based on the will of the people. He also spoke of a social contract that give subjects the right to overthrow the ruler if he ruled badly. On the other hand, Voltaire and Jean- Jacques Rousseau spread the new ideas to France, where they began uproar in a land that epitomized absolutism (New Political Ideas and Revolution, n.d.).
Kant’s was known for his notable works of “Critique of Practical Reason”, Critique of Judgment, Critique of Pure Reason”. Kant’s opinions on science changed and evolved over a period with both current scientific developments and his own philosophical development. His writings began with “Critique of Pure Reason” which addressed philosophical issues rather than science. Kant’s early writings addressed scientific questions directly. For instance, his “Universal History and Theory of the Heavens” set forth the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system, which was later known as the Kant-Laplace hypothesis. In addition, his Latin “Physical Monadology” set forth an atomistic matter theory he later renounced in favor of the idea that matter was infinitely divisible and filled space. Kant also taught many scientific subjects, including physics (Burns, 2003).
In the 18th century, Immanuel Kant developed the Kantian ethics which had an impact on Christian theology. Kant taught that natural theology was an illusion, but that the voice of conscience would establish truth where reason could not. He felt that a sense of duty assures one that the idea of freedom is real, and since God is requires to establish justice and freedom, there must be another world in which he can redress the balance (McLeish, 1993).
Kantian ethics are based on three fundamental ideas:
• Moral principles are priori knowledge- one is not taught the difference between right and wrong. One knows instinct what is right. How one does what is right, the application of moral principles, may depend on experience and observation. For instance, in Kantian ethics it is wrong to lie, as conscience declares it is, then it is always wrong to lie even if someone will be injured if the truth is known.
• Kant stated, “Act to treat humanity both in your own person and that of every other man always as an end and never only as a means.” The high value set on every individual treating fellow human beings as ends in themselves meant no slavery, exploitation and the denial of human rights.
• The idea of the will of every rational being as universally legislating will- This is the pinnacle of the Protestant principle that each individual is responsible for making his or her own ethical decisions in the light of their conscience, and is little more than the restatement of the principle of universalism (McLeish, 1993).
Kant’s educational background may have had profound effect on his life. However, how much influence his Pietistic education had on Kant’s intellectual development is still debatable. Throughout his life he would remain highly respectful of the inner peace Pietists. The experience at the Collegium Fridericianum only served to trigger the resistance he would show for the rest of his life to any kind of servile, emotional form of religious practice. Although Kant wrote about the existence of God and personal immortality in his writings, there is reason to doubt how much credence he himself any longer put in such religious ideas. For he consistently declined participating in any kind of public prayer or worship service. Kant was confident to the end that he had fulfilled his duty and to that account he could only hope that any God that existed would still be with him. He had expressed no fear of dying (Verkamp, 2009).
Kant’s thought on religion was rationalists were wrong in thinking that reason alone can deliver innate knowledge of God’s existence and nature. He claimed that dogmatic empiricists were wrong in claiming that reality consists of nothing more than sensible phenomena (Verkamp, 2009). Kant’s claimed that we are by nature obliged to obey the categorical imperative of acting always as one would want everyone else to act and treating all one’s fellow human beings as ends in themselves, is to imply that we are free. He stated since the highest good is not, and cannot, ever be achieved in this life, we have good reason to hope that as humans we are immortal, and that there is holy, omniscient, and just God who will reward those who do their duty and punish those who do not (Verkamp, 2009). Kant asserted that religion was no more than the recognition of all our duties as divine commands. The moral law had no purpose beyond itself. He felt that there was no need of a personal savior, and a moral person had no need of prayer (McLeish, 1993).
Kant’s view on politics was posted as the first definitive article of an eternal peace that the “the civic constitution in every state should be republican, by which he meant a representative one. He believed that a state was not a dynastic patrimony, but a society of human beings, over whom only themselves had the right to order or dispose of. Kant also believed that citizens should have the right to make decisions on war, given the effect it would have upon citizens. Furthermore, Kant believed that the international law should have been best established in a federation of free states in which he believed would have been broaden out eventually (Mansergh, 2004). That would of involve loss of a lawless freedom or sovereignty, which would have been necessary to prevent war. He also believed that rulers should not be expected to be philosophers, as power would have inevitably polluted the free exercise of reason. He concluded by saying that rulers should not silence or object the class of philosophers, but to allowed them to speak openly. In addition, Kant recognized politically that while human wanted peace, nature wanted disagreement to make human beings work to resolve conflict (Mansergh, 2004).
Kant’s was one of the most challenge philosopher to understand. The complexity of his prose made it difficult for many to understand. The philosopher idea was central around religion and Science. Kant attacked natural theology and the idea that God’s existence was demonstrable from science. His philosophy is often seen as clearly distinguishing between science and religion without subordinating either to the other. Kant’s views as a philosopher may have be seen as radical as many critics find his work very hard to understand. His critics regarding Issacs Newton and Leibniz dealt with the conflict between Newtonian absolute space and time and Leibnizian relational space and time.
Kant tried to reconcile by transcending both space and time, rather than compromising between the two. He did this by identifying both space and time as mental categories. Kant believed that there can only be one priori knowledge of the properties of space. That was the spatial properties of the world must be contributed by the knowing subject. Kant felt that the world as it is was not made up of objects arranged in space. He believed that world as it appeared to us was spatial and that was because space was nothing more that our way of representing the world to ourselves (Baggini & Stangroom, 2004). Kant’s own terminology was space and time was nothing more than a form of intuition or perception. He referred to space and time as features of the phenomenal world. That is the world as it appears to us only. The noumenal world was the world of things as they had appeared in themselves was a spatial and temporal (Baggini & Stangroom, 2004). While Kant believed that we had no theoretical knowledge of such things, he maintained that we can have a practical knowledge of them which he had considered to be free will. Although Kant may not have believed in the existence of things in themselves. He never denied the possibility existed, except he believed we have no means of knowing them as we perceived everything from a different angle.
Kant was one of the greatest thinkers of all time. Some may have found his theory very complexed and difficult to understand, while others may have found his theory very intriguing. Kant’s idea can be viewed differently from different perspective depending upon how we each see the world. Some of us have been grounded on a foundation of our belief such as religion and the nature of our faith. Some may tend to belief in a higher power, others may belief in scientific theory and the nature of its existence, while others may base their foundation on ethical principles that may guide us as we believe to be right or wrong. Since none of us know exactly what we should considered to be right or wrong, everyone deserves a chance to be heard. With that said, Kant’s theory or philosophical ideas may have been connected to us in some way or the other whether it’s for religion purposes, politics, scientific or teaching purposes. One of the things that was intriguing with Kant was the way he based his reasons.
To fully understand Kant philosophical teaching, one must first understand the problems he and other philosophers faces at that time. The meaning the philosopher idea may have upon us is that one must be willing to open our mind to different reasoning. For instance, Kant’s view on utilitarianism was that it judges actions by our consequences. He noted that if our action makes people happy, then it should be good but if it does the reverse then it should be bad. We would all think that to be common sense, but if consequences are all that matter, then a millionaire who donates one million dollars to charity just to impress his girlfriend should be better over the man that donates a day pay just because he wants to help the needy. So, a lot can be learned from Kant’s teaching such as having a moral obligation or a sense of duty or good will. In every case, one might encounter a situation in which good is not good after all. For instance, a person can be corrupted by wealth that this may cause them to abuse others or take advantages. | <urn:uuid:9cf9b843-0fbc-45a3-baad-84d75ac06d78> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tooly.io/immanuel-kant-the-greatest-thinker/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.981517 | 2,680 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.14824755489... | 1 | Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was considered by philosophers to have been one of the greatest thinkers of all time. Kant lived in remote province where he was born for his entire life. He was the fourth of nine children but the oldest surviving child to obtain an education. His parents were devoted followers of Pietistic branch of the Lutheran church, which taught that religion belongs to the inner life expressed in simplicity and obedience to moral law. From the age of eight to sixteen, Kant entered the Pietist school where his pastor directed. The influencer of the pastor made it possible for Kant to obtain an education. Similarly, like his mother, Kant throughout his life became highly respectful of the inner peace Pietists. (Verkamp, 2009) In 1740, at the age of sixteen, he enrolled in the University of Konigsberg’s school of theology as a theological student. Although, Kant attended courses in theology, and even preach on a few occasions, he spent his time devoted most of his early years studying science, mathematics and physics. The death of Kant father had a significant impact on his life. The failure to obtain the post of undertutor in one of the schools attached to the university compelled him to withdraw and seek a means of supporting himself It was during that time that he decided to pursue an academic career. (Verkamp, 2009).
Immanuel Kant was considered one of the Enlightenment’s greatest philosopher. The Enlightenment began in Europe and was a part of the changes associated with the renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Protestant Reformation, all taking place between 1450 and 1750. The 1700s were sometime referred to as the “Age of Enlightenment”, because philosophical and political ideas were begun to seriously question the assumptions of absolute governments. The Enlightenment invited people to use their reason (Szalay, 2016). For instance, people can figure things out, and they can come up with better governments and societies.
At the end of the period, philosophers began to consider exactly what they meant by the term “enlightenment.” Immanuel Kant offered his definition in his essay” What is Enlightenment?” He responded by saying “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-imposed nonage”. Nonage is the inability to use one’s own understanding without another’s guidance. Many interpret nonage as “immaturity” (Szalay, 2016). According to Kant’s theory, “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity.” He believed that immaturity is the hindrance in the way of a human life towards enlightenment. According to Kant’s theory man can overcome his immaturity. Other philosophers such as John Locke, Voltaire and Jean- Jacques Rousseau were part of the enlightenment. John Locke wrote that a ruler’s authority is based on the will of the people. He also spoke of a social contract that give subjects the right to overthrow the ruler if he ruled badly. On the other hand, Voltaire and Jean- Jacques Rousseau spread the new ideas to France, where they began uproar in a land that epitomized absolutism (New Political Ideas and Revolution, n.d.).
Kant’s was known for his notable works of “Critique of Practical Reason”, Critique of Judgment, Critique of Pure Reason”. Kant’s opinions on science changed and evolved over a period with both current scientific developments and his own philosophical development. His writings began with “Critique of Pure Reason” which addressed philosophical issues rather than science. Kant’s early writings addressed scientific questions directly. For instance, his “Universal History and Theory of the Heavens” set forth the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system, which was later known as the Kant-Laplace hypothesis. In addition, his Latin “Physical Monadology” set forth an atomistic matter theory he later renounced in favor of the idea that matter was infinitely divisible and filled space. Kant also taught many scientific subjects, including physics (Burns, 2003).
In the 18th century, Immanuel Kant developed the Kantian ethics which had an impact on Christian theology. Kant taught that natural theology was an illusion, but that the voice of conscience would establish truth where reason could not. He felt that a sense of duty assures one that the idea of freedom is real, and since God is requires to establish justice and freedom, there must be another world in which he can redress the balance (McLeish, 1993).
Kantian ethics are based on three fundamental ideas:
• Moral principles are priori knowledge- one is not taught the difference between right and wrong. One knows instinct what is right. How one does what is right, the application of moral principles, may depend on experience and observation. For instance, in Kantian ethics it is wrong to lie, as conscience declares it is, then it is always wrong to lie even if someone will be injured if the truth is known.
• Kant stated, “Act to treat humanity both in your own person and that of every other man always as an end and never only as a means.” The high value set on every individual treating fellow human beings as ends in themselves meant no slavery, exploitation and the denial of human rights.
• The idea of the will of every rational being as universally legislating will- This is the pinnacle of the Protestant principle that each individual is responsible for making his or her own ethical decisions in the light of their conscience, and is little more than the restatement of the principle of universalism (McLeish, 1993).
Kant’s educational background may have had profound effect on his life. However, how much influence his Pietistic education had on Kant’s intellectual development is still debatable. Throughout his life he would remain highly respectful of the inner peace Pietists. The experience at the Collegium Fridericianum only served to trigger the resistance he would show for the rest of his life to any kind of servile, emotional form of religious practice. Although Kant wrote about the existence of God and personal immortality in his writings, there is reason to doubt how much credence he himself any longer put in such religious ideas. For he consistently declined participating in any kind of public prayer or worship service. Kant was confident to the end that he had fulfilled his duty and to that account he could only hope that any God that existed would still be with him. He had expressed no fear of dying (Verkamp, 2009).
Kant’s thought on religion was rationalists were wrong in thinking that reason alone can deliver innate knowledge of God’s existence and nature. He claimed that dogmatic empiricists were wrong in claiming that reality consists of nothing more than sensible phenomena (Verkamp, 2009). Kant’s claimed that we are by nature obliged to obey the categorical imperative of acting always as one would want everyone else to act and treating all one’s fellow human beings as ends in themselves, is to imply that we are free. He stated since the highest good is not, and cannot, ever be achieved in this life, we have good reason to hope that as humans we are immortal, and that there is holy, omniscient, and just God who will reward those who do their duty and punish those who do not (Verkamp, 2009). Kant asserted that religion was no more than the recognition of all our duties as divine commands. The moral law had no purpose beyond itself. He felt that there was no need of a personal savior, and a moral person had no need of prayer (McLeish, 1993).
Kant’s view on politics was posted as the first definitive article of an eternal peace that the “the civic constitution in every state should be republican, by which he meant a representative one. He believed that a state was not a dynastic patrimony, but a society of human beings, over whom only themselves had the right to order or dispose of. Kant also believed that citizens should have the right to make decisions on war, given the effect it would have upon citizens. Furthermore, Kant believed that the international law should have been best established in a federation of free states in which he believed would have been broaden out eventually (Mansergh, 2004). That would of involve loss of a lawless freedom or sovereignty, which would have been necessary to prevent war. He also believed that rulers should not be expected to be philosophers, as power would have inevitably polluted the free exercise of reason. He concluded by saying that rulers should not silence or object the class of philosophers, but to allowed them to speak openly. In addition, Kant recognized politically that while human wanted peace, nature wanted disagreement to make human beings work to resolve conflict (Mansergh, 2004).
Kant’s was one of the most challenge philosopher to understand. The complexity of his prose made it difficult for many to understand. The philosopher idea was central around religion and Science. Kant attacked natural theology and the idea that God’s existence was demonstrable from science. His philosophy is often seen as clearly distinguishing between science and religion without subordinating either to the other. Kant’s views as a philosopher may have be seen as radical as many critics find his work very hard to understand. His critics regarding Issacs Newton and Leibniz dealt with the conflict between Newtonian absolute space and time and Leibnizian relational space and time.
Kant tried to reconcile by transcending both space and time, rather than compromising between the two. He did this by identifying both space and time as mental categories. Kant believed that there can only be one priori knowledge of the properties of space. That was the spatial properties of the world must be contributed by the knowing subject. Kant felt that the world as it is was not made up of objects arranged in space. He believed that world as it appeared to us was spatial and that was because space was nothing more that our way of representing the world to ourselves (Baggini & Stangroom, 2004). Kant’s own terminology was space and time was nothing more than a form of intuition or perception. He referred to space and time as features of the phenomenal world. That is the world as it appears to us only. The noumenal world was the world of things as they had appeared in themselves was a spatial and temporal (Baggini & Stangroom, 2004). While Kant believed that we had no theoretical knowledge of such things, he maintained that we can have a practical knowledge of them which he had considered to be free will. Although Kant may not have believed in the existence of things in themselves. He never denied the possibility existed, except he believed we have no means of knowing them as we perceived everything from a different angle.
Kant was one of the greatest thinkers of all time. Some may have found his theory very complexed and difficult to understand, while others may have found his theory very intriguing. Kant’s idea can be viewed differently from different perspective depending upon how we each see the world. Some of us have been grounded on a foundation of our belief such as religion and the nature of our faith. Some may tend to belief in a higher power, others may belief in scientific theory and the nature of its existence, while others may base their foundation on ethical principles that may guide us as we believe to be right or wrong. Since none of us know exactly what we should considered to be right or wrong, everyone deserves a chance to be heard. With that said, Kant’s theory or philosophical ideas may have been connected to us in some way or the other whether it’s for religion purposes, politics, scientific or teaching purposes. One of the things that was intriguing with Kant was the way he based his reasons.
To fully understand Kant philosophical teaching, one must first understand the problems he and other philosophers faces at that time. The meaning the philosopher idea may have upon us is that one must be willing to open our mind to different reasoning. For instance, Kant’s view on utilitarianism was that it judges actions by our consequences. He noted that if our action makes people happy, then it should be good but if it does the reverse then it should be bad. We would all think that to be common sense, but if consequences are all that matter, then a millionaire who donates one million dollars to charity just to impress his girlfriend should be better over the man that donates a day pay just because he wants to help the needy. So, a lot can be learned from Kant’s teaching such as having a moral obligation or a sense of duty or good will. In every case, one might encounter a situation in which good is not good after all. For instance, a person can be corrupted by wealth that this may cause them to abuse others or take advantages. | 2,648 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Introduction Above in mishnah one we learned that Yohanan the son of Pinchas was responsible for the seals and that Ahiyah was responsible for the libations. In today’s mishnah and in tomorrow’s we will learn what their responsibilities are. The libations refers to grain offerings which include flour mixed with oil and a libation of wine. These grain offerings accompany certain animal sacrifices: an offering of well-being, a burnt offering and the sin and guilt offerings of a leper. The amount of grain, oil and wine would vary depending upon the animal used in the sacrifice. The following chart should be helpful: Flour Oil Wine Sheep or goat (one year old) 1/10 of a measure 1/4 hin 1/4 hin Ram (two years old) 2/10 1/3 hin 1/3 hin Cow or calf 3/10 1/2 hin 1/2 hin Someone who needed to bring a libation (a grain offering) with his/her sacrifice could buy the exact amount of flour, oil and wine directly from the Temple. This would ensure that the offering was pure. He would pay the money to Yochanan ben Pinchas who would give him a note with a stamp on it. He would then take the note to Ahiyah who would give him the correct amount of flour, oil and wine.
There were four seals in the Temple, and on them was inscribed [respectively]: ‘calf’, ‘ram’, ‘kid’, ‘sinner’. According to the first opinion there were four seals, one for each of the three types of animals described above in the chart and one inscribed with the word “sinner”, for the leper who brings three offerings, a guilt offering, a sin offering and a burnt offering, each of which come from various types of sheep (see Leviticus 14). Since the leper brings three sheep he therefore brings three times the amount of flour, oil and water that is brought for one sheep (see the chart). In addition he brings one extra log (a small measure=1/12 of a hin) of oil which was placed on his right earlobe, right thumb and right big toe (Leviticus 14:15-18). Each seal would signify that he has paid for that amount of libation flour, oil and wine.
Ben Azzai says: there were five and on them was inscribed in Aramaic [respectively]” ‘calf’, ‘ram’, ‘kid’, ‘poor sinner’, and ‘rich sinner’. Ben Azzai has two disagreements with the previous opinion. First of all, he holds that the inscriptions were in Aramaic and not in Hebrew, since Aramaic was the language with which most people were more familiar. Secondly, he says that there were two types of inscriptions for the leper, one for the poor sinner who only brings one sheep and its libations (Lev. 14:21-31), and the one extra log of oil described above. The other for the rich sinner who brings three sheep, as described above. The opinion in section one according to which there was only one inscription for the leper holds that the poor leper, who brings one sheep, buys the libations of a sheep and brings the extra log of oil from his home.
[The seal inscribed] ‘calf’ served for the libations of cattle, both large and small, male and female. The mishnah now explains what each seal is for. “Calf” is for all cattle, meaning cows and bulls, whether they are male which are used as whole burnt offerings or females used as offerings of wellbeing.
[The seal inscribed] ‘kid’ served for the libations of flock animals, both large and small, male and female, with the exception of rams. The seal of the kid was used to buy libations for all flock offerings (sheep and goats) as long as they were a year or less old. From thirteen months and older the sheep is considered to be a ram.
[The one inscribed] ‘ram’ served for the libations of rams alone. The seal of the ram was used to buy libations for the ram only.
[The one inscribed] ‘sinner’ served for the libations of the three animals [offered] by lepers. The seal upon which was inscribed the word “sinner” was used to buy the libations for the three animals that a leper brings, plus the additional log as we described in section one. | <urn:uuid:ede3ae29-7a20-4f18-87ff-c0da988fed28> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sefaria.org/English_Explanation_of_Mishnah_Shekalim.5.3.1?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00451.warc.gz | en | 0.980043 | 987 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.3714242... | 3 | Introduction Above in mishnah one we learned that Yohanan the son of Pinchas was responsible for the seals and that Ahiyah was responsible for the libations. In today’s mishnah and in tomorrow’s we will learn what their responsibilities are. The libations refers to grain offerings which include flour mixed with oil and a libation of wine. These grain offerings accompany certain animal sacrifices: an offering of well-being, a burnt offering and the sin and guilt offerings of a leper. The amount of grain, oil and wine would vary depending upon the animal used in the sacrifice. The following chart should be helpful: Flour Oil Wine Sheep or goat (one year old) 1/10 of a measure 1/4 hin 1/4 hin Ram (two years old) 2/10 1/3 hin 1/3 hin Cow or calf 3/10 1/2 hin 1/2 hin Someone who needed to bring a libation (a grain offering) with his/her sacrifice could buy the exact amount of flour, oil and wine directly from the Temple. This would ensure that the offering was pure. He would pay the money to Yochanan ben Pinchas who would give him a note with a stamp on it. He would then take the note to Ahiyah who would give him the correct amount of flour, oil and wine.
There were four seals in the Temple, and on them was inscribed [respectively]: ‘calf’, ‘ram’, ‘kid’, ‘sinner’. According to the first opinion there were four seals, one for each of the three types of animals described above in the chart and one inscribed with the word “sinner”, for the leper who brings three offerings, a guilt offering, a sin offering and a burnt offering, each of which come from various types of sheep (see Leviticus 14). Since the leper brings three sheep he therefore brings three times the amount of flour, oil and water that is brought for one sheep (see the chart). In addition he brings one extra log (a small measure=1/12 of a hin) of oil which was placed on his right earlobe, right thumb and right big toe (Leviticus 14:15-18). Each seal would signify that he has paid for that amount of libation flour, oil and wine.
Ben Azzai says: there were five and on them was inscribed in Aramaic [respectively]” ‘calf’, ‘ram’, ‘kid’, ‘poor sinner’, and ‘rich sinner’. Ben Azzai has two disagreements with the previous opinion. First of all, he holds that the inscriptions were in Aramaic and not in Hebrew, since Aramaic was the language with which most people were more familiar. Secondly, he says that there were two types of inscriptions for the leper, one for the poor sinner who only brings one sheep and its libations (Lev. 14:21-31), and the one extra log of oil described above. The other for the rich sinner who brings three sheep, as described above. The opinion in section one according to which there was only one inscription for the leper holds that the poor leper, who brings one sheep, buys the libations of a sheep and brings the extra log of oil from his home.
[The seal inscribed] ‘calf’ served for the libations of cattle, both large and small, male and female. The mishnah now explains what each seal is for. “Calf” is for all cattle, meaning cows and bulls, whether they are male which are used as whole burnt offerings or females used as offerings of wellbeing.
[The seal inscribed] ‘kid’ served for the libations of flock animals, both large and small, male and female, with the exception of rams. The seal of the kid was used to buy libations for all flock offerings (sheep and goats) as long as they were a year or less old. From thirteen months and older the sheep is considered to be a ram.
[The one inscribed] ‘ram’ served for the libations of rams alone. The seal of the ram was used to buy libations for the ram only.
[The one inscribed] ‘sinner’ served for the libations of the three animals [offered] by lepers. The seal upon which was inscribed the word “sinner” was used to buy the libations for the three animals that a leper brings, plus the additional log as we described in section one. | 958 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Use of Irony in “The Gift of Magi”
Imagine having only pennies to but being one of the richest persons in the world! This is the case in O. Henry’s The Gift of Magi. In his wonderful short story, the author, O. Henry, writes of a struggling couple living in New York City around the turn of the 19th century. Although poor almost destitute and struggling, the couple love one another deeply, and sacrifice the thing that is most important to each other to make the other happy. The reader is drawn into the world of this young wife and husband as they sacrifice what one would think is most important to them, for the happiness of the other. In The Gift of Magi, O. Henry’s use of irony throughout the story makes the surprising ending even more poignant, as we realize the couple’s true wealth lies in their love and sacrifice for each other, beyond the value of any Christmas gift.
Irony occurs repeatedly in this short story, and O. Henry uses it to accentuate the intense love and devotion the couple have for each other. Literary irony is defined as “an outcome of events contrary to what was, or may have been, expected” (Webster). The author begins in his description of both characters to set up an ironic juxtaposition of them and the one thing they possess that is of true wealth to them. To Della, the wife, her hair is her prize possession. “Had the Queen of Sheba lived in the flat across the airshaft, Della would have let her hair hang out the window some day to dry just to depreciate Her Majesty’s jewels and gifts” (Henry). Although she has but $1.87 to her name, although her husband makes little money, and they live a grey life, O. Henry uses her beautiful long hair as the one thing she has which is of value to her. There is little else of material wealth in the story which seems to matter to her, other than her hair.
Della’s husband, Jim, a hard-working man, earns barely enough to cover his rent and food, and also has no money saved. He does possess one thing that is of “value,” though, his watch. O. Henry describes the watch thusly: “Had King Solomon been the janitor, with all his treasures piled up in the basement, Jim would have pulled out his watch every time he passed, just to see him pluck at his beard from envy” (Henry). Again, the reader is led to believe that this wonderful watch was Jim’s prize possession in the world. We are given little information as to what Jim and Della’s relationship is like, beyond their shared poverty and their desire to buy each other a Christmas present this year.
Della decides to cut her hair and sell it to raise enough money to buy a watch fob for Jim, and at great personal sacrifice, she does so. As Jim comes home and sees his wife without her locks, it matters not, as he shows her his Christmas presents for her– a beautiful set of combs for his Della. Ironically, she cannot use them, since she had just cut off her hair! And finally, ironies of ironies, Jim opens her present for him, only to see a watch fob which he cannot use, since he sold his watch to pay for the comb set he bought Della for her Christmas gift.
But perhaps the greatest irony in the story, and one which permeates its title, characters, plot, is how wealthy the couple actually are, in the face of such poverty. O. Henry ends the tale with his summation of the couple: “But in a last word to the wise of these days let it be said that of all who give gifts these two were the wisest. Of all who give and receive gifts, such as they are wisest. Everywhere they are wisest. They are the magi” (Henry). The couple seem poor and destitute, but they are rich in love and giving. They seem like they are materialistic, as they sell thing valuable to them to buy objects for their spouse, but in fact they are concerned only for each other. They are willing to give up the one thing in life that others see as of value, but in the end, they were of little value to them when compared to the value of the love and caring they have for each other. It is in this spirit that the Magi gave their gifts to the baby Jesus, gifts that are of value, but pale in comparison to the sacrifices the kings made by traveling to see the baby and to show their respect and love in their hearts they had for him. It is this love and respect that O. Henry wished to capture in his little tale of a little family in a New York City flat. Miracles can happen in Bethlehem in a manger, as well as in the everyday lives of everyday people who love each other. We finally see their wealth goes much beyond $1.87, a comb set, and flowing brown hair. Wealthy and wise, indeed!
Henry, O. The Gift of Magi. .
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0.211603879... | 12 | The Use of Irony in “The Gift of Magi”
Imagine having only pennies to but being one of the richest persons in the world! This is the case in O. Henry’s The Gift of Magi. In his wonderful short story, the author, O. Henry, writes of a struggling couple living in New York City around the turn of the 19th century. Although poor almost destitute and struggling, the couple love one another deeply, and sacrifice the thing that is most important to each other to make the other happy. The reader is drawn into the world of this young wife and husband as they sacrifice what one would think is most important to them, for the happiness of the other. In The Gift of Magi, O. Henry’s use of irony throughout the story makes the surprising ending even more poignant, as we realize the couple’s true wealth lies in their love and sacrifice for each other, beyond the value of any Christmas gift.
Irony occurs repeatedly in this short story, and O. Henry uses it to accentuate the intense love and devotion the couple have for each other. Literary irony is defined as “an outcome of events contrary to what was, or may have been, expected” (Webster). The author begins in his description of both characters to set up an ironic juxtaposition of them and the one thing they possess that is of true wealth to them. To Della, the wife, her hair is her prize possession. “Had the Queen of Sheba lived in the flat across the airshaft, Della would have let her hair hang out the window some day to dry just to depreciate Her Majesty’s jewels and gifts” (Henry). Although she has but $1.87 to her name, although her husband makes little money, and they live a grey life, O. Henry uses her beautiful long hair as the one thing she has which is of value to her. There is little else of material wealth in the story which seems to matter to her, other than her hair.
Della’s husband, Jim, a hard-working man, earns barely enough to cover his rent and food, and also has no money saved. He does possess one thing that is of “value,” though, his watch. O. Henry describes the watch thusly: “Had King Solomon been the janitor, with all his treasures piled up in the basement, Jim would have pulled out his watch every time he passed, just to see him pluck at his beard from envy” (Henry). Again, the reader is led to believe that this wonderful watch was Jim’s prize possession in the world. We are given little information as to what Jim and Della’s relationship is like, beyond their shared poverty and their desire to buy each other a Christmas present this year.
Della decides to cut her hair and sell it to raise enough money to buy a watch fob for Jim, and at great personal sacrifice, she does so. As Jim comes home and sees his wife without her locks, it matters not, as he shows her his Christmas presents for her– a beautiful set of combs for his Della. Ironically, she cannot use them, since she had just cut off her hair! And finally, ironies of ironies, Jim opens her present for him, only to see a watch fob which he cannot use, since he sold his watch to pay for the comb set he bought Della for her Christmas gift.
But perhaps the greatest irony in the story, and one which permeates its title, characters, plot, is how wealthy the couple actually are, in the face of such poverty. O. Henry ends the tale with his summation of the couple: “But in a last word to the wise of these days let it be said that of all who give gifts these two were the wisest. Of all who give and receive gifts, such as they are wisest. Everywhere they are wisest. They are the magi” (Henry). The couple seem poor and destitute, but they are rich in love and giving. They seem like they are materialistic, as they sell thing valuable to them to buy objects for their spouse, but in fact they are concerned only for each other. They are willing to give up the one thing in life that others see as of value, but in the end, they were of little value to them when compared to the value of the love and caring they have for each other. It is in this spirit that the Magi gave their gifts to the baby Jesus, gifts that are of value, but pale in comparison to the sacrifices the kings made by traveling to see the baby and to show their respect and love in their hearts they had for him. It is this love and respect that O. Henry wished to capture in his little tale of a little family in a New York City flat. Miracles can happen in Bethlehem in a manger, as well as in the everyday lives of everyday people who love each other. We finally see their wealth goes much beyond $1.87, a comb set, and flowing brown hair. Wealthy and wise, indeed!
Henry, O. The Gift of Magi. .
Webster. “Mirriam-Webster’s Dictionary Online. “ 22 October 2011. . | 1,083 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A friend from Germany wrote to me that a town in her area almost fell into the Soviet's hands, but they "re-drew" the border line.
It makes me curious... how were the borders of the occupation zones drawn? I've read a couple of Wikipedia articles, particularly this one about the East-West border, which is of course the most interesting.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_t...
The articles give an overview of how the border was drawn, saying that it broadly followed the old pre-1871 borders:It envisaged a line of control along the borders of the old states or provinces of Mecklenburg, Saxony, Anhalt and Thuringia, which had ceased to exist as separate entities when the Prussians unified Germany in 1871; minor adjustments were made for practical reasons.
I'm particularly interested in the last part, about the adjustments that were made for practical reasons. How was that process accomplished? Was there a border commission? Were there disagreements about the specific route of the border in local areas?
The border probably had no special significance from 1871 through 1945, so there were probably lots of local areas (towns, buildings, and facilities) which had been developed straddling the old border. Were the inter-zonal borders redrawn to accommodate these areas?
In fact, even in 1945 the inter-zonal borders were envisioned as temporary, so there probably was not much reason to accommodate these particularities (although of course the East-West border later became much more significant). So why were the adjustments needed? | <urn:uuid:fb5242ad-4a85-473e-bd47-b295e61c6528> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dict.leo.org/forum/viewGeneraldiscussion.php?idThread=1210806&idForum=18&lp=ende&lang=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.984207 | 332 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.4083277881145477... | 1 | A friend from Germany wrote to me that a town in her area almost fell into the Soviet's hands, but they "re-drew" the border line.
It makes me curious... how were the borders of the occupation zones drawn? I've read a couple of Wikipedia articles, particularly this one about the East-West border, which is of course the most interesting.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_t...
The articles give an overview of how the border was drawn, saying that it broadly followed the old pre-1871 borders:It envisaged a line of control along the borders of the old states or provinces of Mecklenburg, Saxony, Anhalt and Thuringia, which had ceased to exist as separate entities when the Prussians unified Germany in 1871; minor adjustments were made for practical reasons.
I'm particularly interested in the last part, about the adjustments that were made for practical reasons. How was that process accomplished? Was there a border commission? Were there disagreements about the specific route of the border in local areas?
The border probably had no special significance from 1871 through 1945, so there were probably lots of local areas (towns, buildings, and facilities) which had been developed straddling the old border. Were the inter-zonal borders redrawn to accommodate these areas?
In fact, even in 1945 the inter-zonal borders were envisioned as temporary, so there probably was not much reason to accommodate these particularities (although of course the East-West border later became much more significant). So why were the adjustments needed? | 331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Coronation of Edward III
At the age of fifteen, Edward had already been placed to the throne because of his father?s death. Edward was able to avenge his father by executing Roger Mortimer in 1330. Earlier, Mortimer had attempted to seize the throne in England and had fought in the Scottish wars. In 1323, he was imprisoned, but escaped to France to form an alliance with Queen Isabella, whom had deserted her husband Edward II. Then Mortimer and Queen Isabella raised an army, invaded England, and forced Edward II to put his son to the throne. In 1327, Edward II was cruelly murdered at Berkeley Castle, therefore making Edward III the king, along with a lot of anger towards Roger Mortimer.
After his father?s death, Mortimer was arrested at Nottingham and sentenced to death. He was executed in October of 1330 at Tyburn, in London. Edward III went on to win an important battle against the Scots on July 19,1333 at Halidon Hill. From there, he began a lifelong career of military aggression.
In 1338, after his mother?s brother Philip IV died, he declared himself the king of France, based on his mother?s claims, therefore beginning the Hundred Years? War. William I? s son John had lost Normandy in 1204, by divorcing his English wife and re-marrying Isabelle of Angouleme. That gave the French king an excuse to attack Normandy when John refused to appear before him. His ambition was to recover the territories that England had once held in France.
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0.1284641325473... | 2 | The Coronation of Edward III
At the age of fifteen, Edward had already been placed to the throne because of his father?s death. Edward was able to avenge his father by executing Roger Mortimer in 1330. Earlier, Mortimer had attempted to seize the throne in England and had fought in the Scottish wars. In 1323, he was imprisoned, but escaped to France to form an alliance with Queen Isabella, whom had deserted her husband Edward II. Then Mortimer and Queen Isabella raised an army, invaded England, and forced Edward II to put his son to the throne. In 1327, Edward II was cruelly murdered at Berkeley Castle, therefore making Edward III the king, along with a lot of anger towards Roger Mortimer.
After his father?s death, Mortimer was arrested at Nottingham and sentenced to death. He was executed in October of 1330 at Tyburn, in London. Edward III went on to win an important battle against the Scots on July 19,1333 at Halidon Hill. From there, he began a lifelong career of military aggression.
In 1338, after his mother?s brother Philip IV died, he declared himself the king of France, based on his mother?s claims, therefore beginning the Hundred Years? War. William I? s son John had lost Normandy in 1204, by divorcing his English wife and re-marrying Isabelle of Angouleme. That gave the French king an excuse to attack Normandy when John refused to appear before him. His ambition was to recover the territories that England had once held in France.
By: Jeremy Snyder | 348 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sunday, April 28, 2013
April 28 - Harper Lee
Author Nelle Harper Lee was born on April 28, 1926, in Monroeville, Alabama. Her first name is her grandmother's name spelled backward. Her father was a newspaper editor, state senator and lawyer. Before finishing studies at the University of Alabama, she went to New York in 1949 to pursue a literary career, struggling and working as an airline reservationist. When friends gave her a Christmas gift of a year’s wages, she was able to write her only published novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, which appeared in July 1960 after numerous rewrites. Set in Maycomb, Alabama, in the 1930s, the book follows lawyer Atticus Finch (narrated by his daughter, Scout), who defends a black man accused of raping a poor white girl. Several characters are drawn from life: Finch was the maiden name of Lee's mother, and the young boy Dill was based on her childhood friend, Truman Capote. The book, which has never been out of print, explores multiple themes of racial injustice, inequality, class, courage, gender roles and codes of conduct. | <urn:uuid:0463f6ec-cea1-4e50-ac32-e7e8ccb3d99c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://livingthedreamsicle.blogspot.com/2013/04/april-28-harper-lee.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00374.warc.gz | en | 0.981158 | 237 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.0423414111137... | 4 | Sunday, April 28, 2013
April 28 - Harper Lee
Author Nelle Harper Lee was born on April 28, 1926, in Monroeville, Alabama. Her first name is her grandmother's name spelled backward. Her father was a newspaper editor, state senator and lawyer. Before finishing studies at the University of Alabama, she went to New York in 1949 to pursue a literary career, struggling and working as an airline reservationist. When friends gave her a Christmas gift of a year’s wages, she was able to write her only published novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, which appeared in July 1960 after numerous rewrites. Set in Maycomb, Alabama, in the 1930s, the book follows lawyer Atticus Finch (narrated by his daughter, Scout), who defends a black man accused of raping a poor white girl. Several characters are drawn from life: Finch was the maiden name of Lee's mother, and the young boy Dill was based on her childhood friend, Truman Capote. The book, which has never been out of print, explores multiple themes of racial injustice, inequality, class, courage, gender roles and codes of conduct. | 261 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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GCSE: Russia, USSR 1905-1941
Currently browsing by:
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Meet our team of inspirational teachers
- Marked by Teachers essays 6
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What problem did Russia face after the1905 Revolution? How effective was Nicholas II in dealing with these problems?4 star(s)
Poor livelihood, no franchise of general Russians and the insult of Russo-Japanese War all these were reasons to cause the 1905 Revolution. The Bloody Sunday Incident was an immediately cause to lead the outbreak of 1905 Revo lution. After the 1905 Revolution, the Czar still had to face the above problems. IN order to prolong his rule, he was forced to reform Russia. At first, he agreed to set up parliament, Duma. It made Russia became a constitution country like Britain.
- Word count: 922
Bolshevik was not communist due to the Laws that were changed, and the way that the country changed. Because the of War Communism, people became pushed aside again. Grain requisitioning, this is when the Bolshevik were sending units of the Red guard into the country side to find grain for the hard-pressed cities. The banning of private, All private trade were banned, but the state trading was very chaotic and was not producing enough products, so the black market started in
- Word count: 487
They could get loans from the government. However most of the peasants had to pay these loans off over a long period of time. As a result most of the peasants got into heavy debt. This was made worse by the fact that after 1861 the landowners had large estates. Many of the peasants were forced to work on the estates of nobles so they could earn extra money. However more and more people were becoming peasants as the population of Russia increased by 50% between 1860 and 1897 with more and more peasants competing with each other for the little amount of land available making lots of the peasants dissatisfied with the government.
- Word count: 772
The Provisional Government was only a temporary government. Do you think it could have made decisions about the land and war issues facing Russia?
On the other hand, the Soviets were creating problems for the Provisional Government, as they wanted to take control. Firstly, there was the First World War. Russia was loosing badly and the public was demanding the government to pull out of the war. There were lack of resources in major cities, lack of workers and soldiers were dying by millions every week. Many people believe that the provisional government didn't have the power to pull Russia out of the war.
- Word count: 451
The people had got a parliament, but it wasn't going to improve their lives at all. This was a carrot, but a rotten one, as it seemed good, but wasn't all it was cut out to be. Stolypin changed a number of things. His first change was a stick, in the form of military courts. These courts could sentence and hang a person on the spot, no questions asked. And if the dead were found not guilty, the grieving family would get an apology, and if they were lucky, a small amount of compensation.
- Word count: 586
Economic Crises of Revolutionary Russia. Economic crises were the lone factor that created a revolutionary situation. To what extent do you agree?
In the October Manifesto, issued by Nicholas II on 17 October 1905, the establishment of a Duma was granted. The Duma was the Russian parliament which existed from 1906 to 1917 and was dismissed four times. The first Duma was active from April to July 1906 and the second, February to June 1907; these Dumas were dominated by radical deputies with demands which were considered too extreme. They demanded universal and free education, greater equality of all citizens before the law and major land reforms.
- Word count: 663
This petition asked for their selves and all other Russians in their situation to be granted basic human rights and given the right to elect their own leader to represent them politically. This march resulted in approximately 200 marchers' deaths and the wounding of 800 others.
- Word count: 468
Marx's idea was that there would be two revolutions. The first would be the middle-class taking control from the monarchy and aristocracy. The second revolution would be the proletariats taking control from the middle-class. Then a temporary government structure would oversee the Communism settle into society. There were other causes which led to the second Bolshevik revolution, Marxism was the final consequence of a rulers system riddled with faults. The Provisional Government in February 1917 promised elections which were to be held in December of the same year. To many starving Russians, 10 months isn't even a foreseeable future, let alone would they even have the care to think about the provisional government while they had to concentrate on surviving.
- Word count: 609
3. The Russian Empire contained many people, the Majority of them non-Russian e.g. 22 million Ukrainians in the south and 8 million Poles in the west. Many of these peoples disliked the Russian rule and wanted independence. B. The government of Russia 1. The head of the government was Tsar Nicholas II. He ruled as an autocrat, a ruler who does not have to share power. 2. The work of the government as done by a large and corrupt civil slaves.
- Word count: 511
Trotsky was later discredited for his work however as the Bolsheviks ganged up on after the death of Lenin, not wanting him to become the new party leader. Kerensky: On October 24th Kerensky attempted to put a stop to the forthcoming seize which he and the rest of the Provisional Government were said to of known was going to happen. He ordered the army to prepare for the Bolshevik attempt to seize power.
- Word count: 489
the October Manifesto, his not being willing to accept a more democratic and representative form of government after the scare of the 1905 Revolution and of course the decisions he made during the First World War all added significantly to the initially pressures eventually leading to his downfall.. The vastness of Russia, although perhaps an advantage if managed well, did not make matters easy for Nicholas II. His grandfather, Alexander II, was largely responsible for the implementation of the mostly unpopular policy of Russification, forcing non-indigenous citizens of the Empire to speak Russian, dress Russian, even adopt Russian customs.
- Word count: 913
Whilst this was happening, the Tsar wasn't even in the palace. This was called "Bloody Sunday" and it was all blamed on the Tsar, even though he didn't give the order to shoot those people. This made him look very sinister to all of Russia. Bloody Sunday wouldn't have happened if there weren't any problems with the workers. Russia was an 18th century country living in a 20th century world insinuating that they were behind in technology and people's rights. There were a lot of problems in Russia, for example, the population of Russia was rapidly increasing, therefore food supply was running short.
- Word count: 859
Another reason why Russia was unsuccessful in the war was because there weren't enough weapons, so soldiers fought with whatever they could find. For example, they would use a brick or a plank of wood if they were lucky. They were told to pick up there comrades rifle if he died. However, Russia's prime minister at this time was Stolypin and he could have made things better for Russia and the Tsar's reputation. He had the idea of creating a rich peasant which he called a "Kulak".
- Word count: 871
and progressed to the publicised show trials of high party officials in 1934. Stalin ordered these purges for a number of reasons, foremost was the need to remove his rivals from positions of power. One such rival was Kirov and it's entirely possible, though unproven, that Kirov's murder was actually ordered by Stalin himself. There were many 'old Bolsheviks' within the party who simply knew too much about him, the fact that he had very little to do with the actions of 1917 and also that they knew the truth about his relationship with Lenin, a relationship that was not as close as Stalin led people to believe, indeed in the photograph of
- Word count: 585
Why was the Kronstadt rising, March 1921, considered so important? When the communist revolution started in 1917, the sailors of the Kronstadt naval base had been between the most important supporters of this event, even firing artillery shells over Petrograd the night of the revolution. However, three years later, these strong supporters of communism now considered that 'life under the yoke of the Communists dictatorship has become more terrible than death'. In March 1921, the sailors of the Kronstadt naval base revolted against the communist government, because they had not received what they expected from the government they had put into power.
- Word count: 575
This, in Marx's eyes was Utopia. I'm going to look at the links between this theory and the Bolshevik Revolution. Lenin read this theory and did use this as a basis for the Bolshevik revolution but there were other factors that also led to the revolution; starvation, weak governments, poor decisions by Tsar Nicholas II, failures in WW1 and many other factors that contributed to the Bolshevik revolution. Tsar Nicholas was a bad leader and made a fatal decision in 1915 to take control of the Russian army after a quarter of their men had died in the first year; this meant any defeat he could be blamed for.
- Word count: 923
There are many different reasons why Stalin and not Trotsky became Lenins successor. When Lenin died he left no clear successor to lead the Communist Party, so it was assumed that Trotsky was going to be Lenins successor,
On the other hand Trotsky was highly educated and he was a thinker, this raised jealousy and suspicious among the communist party. Trotsky was so arrogant, people were afraid of Trotsky by most of the seniors in the Bolshevik party, because Trotsky offended most of them. Trotsky failed to realise that he needed them to support him when they voted for one of them for a new successor.
- Word count: 578
In 1940, even Trotsky was murdered in Mexico by one of Stalin's agents. After the show trials, Stalin turned his attention to the army, specifically its officers. It is believed about 25,000 officers were removed, about 1 in 5, including the commander of the army, Tukhachevsky, who was simply removed as Stalin saw him as one of the few remaining people with the power to oppose him. By 1937 an estimated 18 million people had been transported to gulags and nearly 10 million had died.
- Word count: 597
Bad weather also iced over the railway lines in 1916. This in turn made import of food into such cities as Petrograd extremely difficult. The slow import of food meant that food which was able to reach the cities, rose sky high in price. Unfortunately the workers weren't able to afford these amounts and so many starved through the cold months. Often queues formed for bread however, there was no bread to be bought. The weather also affected soldiers fighting in the war. This led the soldiers to side with the workers during strikes and with their help, the workers were able to overthrow the Tsar.
- Word count: 581
Firstly, Hitler chose to invade Russia on the date, 22nd of June because in Russia the winters can become extremely cold and the temperature of Russia will usually drop to below -30C. These temperatures are very bad for warfare and the German soldiers certainly wouldn't have been able to deal with them and still achieve a successful invasion of Russia. So Hitler chose the date of 22nd of June because the temperatures would have been more bearable for the German troops.
- Word count: 776
The following were all equally important reasons why the Bolsheviks won the Civil war of 1918-21: - Bolshevik Strengths - Foreign Intervention - White deficiencies Explain how far you agree with this statement.
They were committed and it paid off with them finally winning the civil war in 1917. Another Bolshevik strength was their very effective propaganda. Examples of this were the 8 hour (maximum) day and the free education for all, which were policies they never intended to stick to but just to increase their popularity. The Bolsheviks were very good at using propaganda and saw it as an opportunity to win over supporters and get more men fighting for them. There was also the decree to give equality to women, the nationalities and all religions. This was very successful propaganda as it targeted women, who were half the population and nationalities of which there were many in Russia for example Ukrainians and Estonians.
- Word count: 760
Stalin - Source E and Source F are completely different to one another. One is biased in favour of Stalin and one is highly critical of him.
The content is mythical and portrays a cult worship of Stalin. The writer starts by thanking Stalin for making him so happy and for the inspirational meeting with the great leader. It is over the top. What baby would utter Stalin as its first word! It was written in 1935 which was a year after the purges had begun. It is utterly one sided and does not tell us anything about the meeting with Stalin or what was going on at that time. Source F talks about how unhappy Stalin was and how narrow minded, malicious and dangerous he was.
- Word count: 507
How important a reason for the outbreak of revolution in 1917 was Russias involvement in the First World War?
The medium term causes included, the effects of World War 1 on Russia, also economic problems in Russia were to blame along with food shortages in Russia and political problems also affected Russia. The trigger factors which contributed to the 1917 revolution included the shortages of bread in the Russian capital and different forms of weather.
- Word count: 428
Photographs and history books were changed to eliminate even the memory of people who had been arrested. Propaganda and personality cult was used to show Stalin as the true heir to Lenin, and the only man capable of defending the USSR. Everybody had to praise Stalin, all the time. Newspapers credited him with every success. Poets thanked him for bringing the harvest. People leapt to their feet to applaud every time his name was mentioned. His picture was everywhere parents taught their children to love Stalin more than themselves. They dared not do anything else. Stalin did this to create unity, and certainly strong control was needed to modernise Russia. He was also at least homicidally paranoid.
- Word count: 725
In Russia both revolutions happened in the same year and this fact can only be understood through an analysis of Russian society in the early twentieth century. 2. The contrasts in Russian society: her need to develop the economy in order to be a Great Power; state capitalism and industrialisation; the contribution of Sergei Witte; conversely, the problem of the land and the peasantry - capitalist-run estates were the exception; rapid, but localised, industrial development was taking place in a society where the majority of the population were largely self-sufficient peasants.
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GCSE: Russia, USSR 1905-1941
Currently browsing by:
- Removefewer than 1000 words
Meet our team of inspirational teachers
- Marked by Teachers essays 6
- Peer Reviewed essays 1
What problem did Russia face after the1905 Revolution? How effective was Nicholas II in dealing with these problems?4 star(s)
Poor livelihood, no franchise of general Russians and the insult of Russo-Japanese War all these were reasons to cause the 1905 Revolution. The Bloody Sunday Incident was an immediately cause to lead the outbreak of 1905 Revo lution. After the 1905 Revolution, the Czar still had to face the above problems. IN order to prolong his rule, he was forced to reform Russia. At first, he agreed to set up parliament, Duma. It made Russia became a constitution country like Britain.
- Word count: 922
Bolshevik was not communist due to the Laws that were changed, and the way that the country changed. Because the of War Communism, people became pushed aside again. Grain requisitioning, this is when the Bolshevik were sending units of the Red guard into the country side to find grain for the hard-pressed cities. The banning of private, All private trade were banned, but the state trading was very chaotic and was not producing enough products, so the black market started in
- Word count: 487
They could get loans from the government. However most of the peasants had to pay these loans off over a long period of time. As a result most of the peasants got into heavy debt. This was made worse by the fact that after 1861 the landowners had large estates. Many of the peasants were forced to work on the estates of nobles so they could earn extra money. However more and more people were becoming peasants as the population of Russia increased by 50% between 1860 and 1897 with more and more peasants competing with each other for the little amount of land available making lots of the peasants dissatisfied with the government.
- Word count: 772
The Provisional Government was only a temporary government. Do you think it could have made decisions about the land and war issues facing Russia?
On the other hand, the Soviets were creating problems for the Provisional Government, as they wanted to take control. Firstly, there was the First World War. Russia was loosing badly and the public was demanding the government to pull out of the war. There were lack of resources in major cities, lack of workers and soldiers were dying by millions every week. Many people believe that the provisional government didn't have the power to pull Russia out of the war.
- Word count: 451
The people had got a parliament, but it wasn't going to improve their lives at all. This was a carrot, but a rotten one, as it seemed good, but wasn't all it was cut out to be. Stolypin changed a number of things. His first change was a stick, in the form of military courts. These courts could sentence and hang a person on the spot, no questions asked. And if the dead were found not guilty, the grieving family would get an apology, and if they were lucky, a small amount of compensation.
- Word count: 586
Economic Crises of Revolutionary Russia. Economic crises were the lone factor that created a revolutionary situation. To what extent do you agree?
In the October Manifesto, issued by Nicholas II on 17 October 1905, the establishment of a Duma was granted. The Duma was the Russian parliament which existed from 1906 to 1917 and was dismissed four times. The first Duma was active from April to July 1906 and the second, February to June 1907; these Dumas were dominated by radical deputies with demands which were considered too extreme. They demanded universal and free education, greater equality of all citizens before the law and major land reforms.
- Word count: 663
This petition asked for their selves and all other Russians in their situation to be granted basic human rights and given the right to elect their own leader to represent them politically. This march resulted in approximately 200 marchers' deaths and the wounding of 800 others.
- Word count: 468
Marx's idea was that there would be two revolutions. The first would be the middle-class taking control from the monarchy and aristocracy. The second revolution would be the proletariats taking control from the middle-class. Then a temporary government structure would oversee the Communism settle into society. There were other causes which led to the second Bolshevik revolution, Marxism was the final consequence of a rulers system riddled with faults. The Provisional Government in February 1917 promised elections which were to be held in December of the same year. To many starving Russians, 10 months isn't even a foreseeable future, let alone would they even have the care to think about the provisional government while they had to concentrate on surviving.
- Word count: 609
3. The Russian Empire contained many people, the Majority of them non-Russian e.g. 22 million Ukrainians in the south and 8 million Poles in the west. Many of these peoples disliked the Russian rule and wanted independence. B. The government of Russia 1. The head of the government was Tsar Nicholas II. He ruled as an autocrat, a ruler who does not have to share power. 2. The work of the government as done by a large and corrupt civil slaves.
- Word count: 511
Trotsky was later discredited for his work however as the Bolsheviks ganged up on after the death of Lenin, not wanting him to become the new party leader. Kerensky: On October 24th Kerensky attempted to put a stop to the forthcoming seize which he and the rest of the Provisional Government were said to of known was going to happen. He ordered the army to prepare for the Bolshevik attempt to seize power.
- Word count: 489
the October Manifesto, his not being willing to accept a more democratic and representative form of government after the scare of the 1905 Revolution and of course the decisions he made during the First World War all added significantly to the initially pressures eventually leading to his downfall.. The vastness of Russia, although perhaps an advantage if managed well, did not make matters easy for Nicholas II. His grandfather, Alexander II, was largely responsible for the implementation of the mostly unpopular policy of Russification, forcing non-indigenous citizens of the Empire to speak Russian, dress Russian, even adopt Russian customs.
- Word count: 913
Whilst this was happening, the Tsar wasn't even in the palace. This was called "Bloody Sunday" and it was all blamed on the Tsar, even though he didn't give the order to shoot those people. This made him look very sinister to all of Russia. Bloody Sunday wouldn't have happened if there weren't any problems with the workers. Russia was an 18th century country living in a 20th century world insinuating that they were behind in technology and people's rights. There were a lot of problems in Russia, for example, the population of Russia was rapidly increasing, therefore food supply was running short.
- Word count: 859
Another reason why Russia was unsuccessful in the war was because there weren't enough weapons, so soldiers fought with whatever they could find. For example, they would use a brick or a plank of wood if they were lucky. They were told to pick up there comrades rifle if he died. However, Russia's prime minister at this time was Stolypin and he could have made things better for Russia and the Tsar's reputation. He had the idea of creating a rich peasant which he called a "Kulak".
- Word count: 871
and progressed to the publicised show trials of high party officials in 1934. Stalin ordered these purges for a number of reasons, foremost was the need to remove his rivals from positions of power. One such rival was Kirov and it's entirely possible, though unproven, that Kirov's murder was actually ordered by Stalin himself. There were many 'old Bolsheviks' within the party who simply knew too much about him, the fact that he had very little to do with the actions of 1917 and also that they knew the truth about his relationship with Lenin, a relationship that was not as close as Stalin led people to believe, indeed in the photograph of
- Word count: 585
Why was the Kronstadt rising, March 1921, considered so important? When the communist revolution started in 1917, the sailors of the Kronstadt naval base had been between the most important supporters of this event, even firing artillery shells over Petrograd the night of the revolution. However, three years later, these strong supporters of communism now considered that 'life under the yoke of the Communists dictatorship has become more terrible than death'. In March 1921, the sailors of the Kronstadt naval base revolted against the communist government, because they had not received what they expected from the government they had put into power.
- Word count: 575
This, in Marx's eyes was Utopia. I'm going to look at the links between this theory and the Bolshevik Revolution. Lenin read this theory and did use this as a basis for the Bolshevik revolution but there were other factors that also led to the revolution; starvation, weak governments, poor decisions by Tsar Nicholas II, failures in WW1 and many other factors that contributed to the Bolshevik revolution. Tsar Nicholas was a bad leader and made a fatal decision in 1915 to take control of the Russian army after a quarter of their men had died in the first year; this meant any defeat he could be blamed for.
- Word count: 923
There are many different reasons why Stalin and not Trotsky became Lenins successor. When Lenin died he left no clear successor to lead the Communist Party, so it was assumed that Trotsky was going to be Lenins successor,
On the other hand Trotsky was highly educated and he was a thinker, this raised jealousy and suspicious among the communist party. Trotsky was so arrogant, people were afraid of Trotsky by most of the seniors in the Bolshevik party, because Trotsky offended most of them. Trotsky failed to realise that he needed them to support him when they voted for one of them for a new successor.
- Word count: 578
In 1940, even Trotsky was murdered in Mexico by one of Stalin's agents. After the show trials, Stalin turned his attention to the army, specifically its officers. It is believed about 25,000 officers were removed, about 1 in 5, including the commander of the army, Tukhachevsky, who was simply removed as Stalin saw him as one of the few remaining people with the power to oppose him. By 1937 an estimated 18 million people had been transported to gulags and nearly 10 million had died.
- Word count: 597
Bad weather also iced over the railway lines in 1916. This in turn made import of food into such cities as Petrograd extremely difficult. The slow import of food meant that food which was able to reach the cities, rose sky high in price. Unfortunately the workers weren't able to afford these amounts and so many starved through the cold months. Often queues formed for bread however, there was no bread to be bought. The weather also affected soldiers fighting in the war. This led the soldiers to side with the workers during strikes and with their help, the workers were able to overthrow the Tsar.
- Word count: 581
Firstly, Hitler chose to invade Russia on the date, 22nd of June because in Russia the winters can become extremely cold and the temperature of Russia will usually drop to below -30C. These temperatures are very bad for warfare and the German soldiers certainly wouldn't have been able to deal with them and still achieve a successful invasion of Russia. So Hitler chose the date of 22nd of June because the temperatures would have been more bearable for the German troops.
- Word count: 776
The following were all equally important reasons why the Bolsheviks won the Civil war of 1918-21: - Bolshevik Strengths - Foreign Intervention - White deficiencies Explain how far you agree with this statement.
They were committed and it paid off with them finally winning the civil war in 1917. Another Bolshevik strength was their very effective propaganda. Examples of this were the 8 hour (maximum) day and the free education for all, which were policies they never intended to stick to but just to increase their popularity. The Bolsheviks were very good at using propaganda and saw it as an opportunity to win over supporters and get more men fighting for them. There was also the decree to give equality to women, the nationalities and all religions. This was very successful propaganda as it targeted women, who were half the population and nationalities of which there were many in Russia for example Ukrainians and Estonians.
- Word count: 760
Stalin - Source E and Source F are completely different to one another. One is biased in favour of Stalin and one is highly critical of him.
The content is mythical and portrays a cult worship of Stalin. The writer starts by thanking Stalin for making him so happy and for the inspirational meeting with the great leader. It is over the top. What baby would utter Stalin as its first word! It was written in 1935 which was a year after the purges had begun. It is utterly one sided and does not tell us anything about the meeting with Stalin or what was going on at that time. Source F talks about how unhappy Stalin was and how narrow minded, malicious and dangerous he was.
- Word count: 507
How important a reason for the outbreak of revolution in 1917 was Russias involvement in the First World War?
The medium term causes included, the effects of World War 1 on Russia, also economic problems in Russia were to blame along with food shortages in Russia and political problems also affected Russia. The trigger factors which contributed to the 1917 revolution included the shortages of bread in the Russian capital and different forms of weather.
- Word count: 428
Photographs and history books were changed to eliminate even the memory of people who had been arrested. Propaganda and personality cult was used to show Stalin as the true heir to Lenin, and the only man capable of defending the USSR. Everybody had to praise Stalin, all the time. Newspapers credited him with every success. Poets thanked him for bringing the harvest. People leapt to their feet to applaud every time his name was mentioned. His picture was everywhere parents taught their children to love Stalin more than themselves. They dared not do anything else. Stalin did this to create unity, and certainly strong control was needed to modernise Russia. He was also at least homicidally paranoid.
- Word count: 725
In Russia both revolutions happened in the same year and this fact can only be understood through an analysis of Russian society in the early twentieth century. 2. The contrasts in Russian society: her need to develop the economy in order to be a Great Power; state capitalism and industrialisation; the contribution of Sergei Witte; conversely, the problem of the land and the peasantry - capitalist-run estates were the exception; rapid, but localised, industrial development was taking place in a society where the majority of the population were largely self-sufficient peasants.
- Word count: 614 | 3,365 | ENGLISH | 1 |
China and Korea share a land boarder while these two countries share a maritime boarder with japan. Despite these countries being very close to each other, they have had very divergent modern evolutional histories: all have very different cultures. China and Korea are close in proximity, culture and evolutionary story. However, these two countries differ with japan in culture and modern history and have had strained recent relations. Outwardly, the countries may seem to have a lot in common including close style of calligraphy, martial arts, architecture, cuisine, religion as well as mythical creatures. However, closely looking into their societies and especially since the recent history, more specifically in the course of industrial revolution, japan took a similar path with European powers becoming the first Asian country to industrialize. This country also maintained this lead in development and became the most industrialized nation in Asia and sometimes the entire world. On the other hand, China and Korea lost their lead in development centuries ago which made the two countries to be viewed as poor developing nations instead of world leaders and a global power as they had been. At some point during colonization, japan colonized and later occupied China and Korea which has strained the relationship between these countries. This paper will seek to find out if japan can have a normal relationship with China and Korea after centuries of strained relationships. The paper will also seek to show that these countries have had very different cultures for centuries which make the chances of reconciling their differences and having a normal relationship very complicated. It is also important to note that the word china in this paper refers to People’s Republic of China (PRC) as opposed to the Republic of China (ROC /Taiwan). The paper will begin with the history of their culture to a point in time where differences emerged causing uneasy relations. The paper will also look into factors that have made the relationship between Japan and China and Korea to be strained in the current time as well as talk about.
Historical facts about Japanese, Chinese and Korean Cultures
Throughout the ancient history, much of the northern China and Korea was one kingdom with very close cultural ties. However, Chinese and Japanese civilizations were very different although Japanese came from Chinese. Since the two civilizations were very close to each other, the dominant one influenced the less dominant. Chinese civilization was the most dominant in north East Asia.
While the Japanese civilization dates back to the first century Ad, the Chinese civilization dates back to 2070 BC. China is the oldest civilization thriving to date: it still has as written and well preserved records of its successes and pitfalls throughout most of ancient times. The earliest well preserved documents date back to 1500 BC. The cradle of northern Asian civilization that spread to all other neighboring countries was the yellow river in the present day China. Another recorded source of this civilization was the Yangtze River still in China. In these early days, the Chinese culture evolved which varied according to regions as it spread. The common feature of this culture was the mythical creature: the dragon that is seen in the Chinese, the Japanese and the Korean culture. Another aspect of the Chinese culture that spread throughout the region is the martial arts although they evolved differently in all regions to produce what is seen today.
The Chinese philosophy and literature originated in China between 1046 BC and 256 AD under the Zhou dynasty. When this dynasty collapsed, multiple warring states arose each of which was ruled by warlords. However, this had the overall influence of expanding the Chinese influence to the neighboring areas. Large parts of the present day China would unite under the Qin Shi Huang in 220 BC. The subsequent reigns developed a functional government bureaucracy that ruled China until 1912.
During the first century AD, marked interactions took place between the Chinese civilization and Japanese. When the two societies converged, the Chinese was more advanced with a developed form of writing. At this time, Japanese had not developed a form of writing so they borrowed the Chinese radiographs as they needed to communicate with Chinese. It is believed that they learned Chinese although the common language in two geographically separate populations evolved differently to produce separate languages. Around the same time, the Japanese did not have a dominant religion. Their encounter with Chinese transferred Buddhism and Confucianism to them. These two borrowed religions co-developed with the Japanese Shintoism such that there are significant Buddhist populations in japan today. The Japanese Shintoism also borrowed the art of building temples from the Chinese.
After the Chinese warring period, they developed an effective bureaucracy that unified and ruled the entire kingdom for many years. The Japanese borrowed many aspects of the Chinese form of bureaucracies including tittles as well as official functions. Additionally, the first Japanese constitution had many Chinese aspects among them the centralization and the organization of the government. Along with the government and various systems, the Japanese borrowed various aspects of Chinese city planning. Cities in the ancient China had angular buildings and straight streets which was important for efficient movement of goods and people. The Chinese also applied this concept in many other aspects of their lives including irrigation. This was taken up by Japan when the two civilizations begun interacting between the first and the 10th century. As Buddhism came to japan from China, the new converts begun adopting the Chinese ways of building reliquaries and temples: this was one way through which Chinese architecture passed to the Japanese. This influence of the ancient Chinese on japan can be seen in the old cities of Nara and Kyoto all of which have rectangular gardens and straight streets.
The earliest mentioning of the kingdoms of Korean peninsula in the history of north East Asia especially in Japan was between 600 and 900AD. In this period, Japan sent a number of students to China to study governance and help the Japanese to effectively govern their archipelago. It is in this process that they mentioned of a collection of kingdoms in the Korean peninsula. These scholars later mentioned that this confederation of kingdoms collapsed still in the reign of the Sui and the Tang dynasty in the mainland China. In this period, the Japanese took up the Chinese form of government and their law. However, this was short-lived as they reverted back to clan and family rivalry in the 10th century AD.
Between 600-1500 AD, the two civilization carried out large scale maritime trade with each other across the East China Sea. This happened as Japanese increased their navigation prowess. Some of the earliest ports that were utilized in this trade were the Hangzau in China and Ningbo in japan. The island of Rukyu (the modern day name is Okinawa) played an important part in this trade and absorbed both the Chinese and the Japanese cultures in the form of cuisine and martial arts among others. Over these centuries, the Korean developed their civilization from the Chinese like the Japanese had done before. As results Koreans became more and more culturally and politically different from the Chinese and the Japanese. Japanese emperor Hideyoshi had at one point tried to invade China but failed. Between the 10th and the 17th century, Japanese political landscape was characterized by civil wars that ravaged the country. Over this time, there was a rise in lawlessness and the rise of Japanese pirates (wokou) which complicated trade between China, Korea and Japan. These pirates did not only rob sea vessels but also the wealthy ports across the sea.
Since the beginning of the 17th century, three families aimed to unify japan. One of them was led by Hideyoshi who was successful. After this, the Japanese developed some sense of self confidence and wanted to conquer China. Hideyoshi lead the Japanese forces across the East China Sea but was refused access by Korea. As a result, he captured Korea and passed to the Ming dynasty and close to Manchuria. The Chinese and the Korean united to resist and repulse the Japanese invasion but this lead to a long war. The Japanese forces were driven south by the Chinese but the war was not won easily by either side but resulted to a stalemate. Chinese agreed to recognize Hideyoshi as the king of japan as a pre-condition for withdrawal and the war ended. This was the first time the Chinese and Koreans united against the Japanese. With the unification of japan seen earlier, this lead to increase in confidence among the Japanese and they arranged a second invasion across the East China Sea. However, China and the Korea had realized that japan was no longer friendly and had prepared for such an invasion. The Koreans with the help of Chinese repulsed and defeated the Japanese.
The deterioration of relations between modern Japan on one side and China/ Korea on the other side begun in 1856 when a war broke between China and British. China being an agrarian country and British, with the help of France being industrial powers, China lost the war. Japan felt that there was an urgent need to industrialize to avoid such losses in future, the turn of events in this time lead to shifting of total political control of entire japan under Emperor Meiji. Japan was forced to trade freely with the west and could not risk a war due to the indicative outcome of the first and the second opium wars. The control of Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan and the conflicts between China and japan led to the first and the second Sino-Japanese wars which threatened to fragment china into small territories of Russia, Britain and Japan. The United States forced all other states to avoid fragmenting china and insisted that any trade with a nation should occur through mutual benefits than war and force. Japan only took Ryukyu Island, but helped to overthrow the Qing dynasty and install a puppet government of the Republic of China. This was the beginning of the bad relations between the two countries in the modern history. Korea was insignificant at this time. The First World War led to occupation of some parts of China by Japanese after they defeated Germany. Russia on the other hand occupied China in the region north of Manchuria. Japanese occupation of China would be the reason for the greatest armed conflict in Asia during the Second World War.
After the First World War, japan wanted to have colonies like the western friends as well occupy regions that were rich in resources. Japan established a puppet state in Manchuria and named it Manchukuo. The Chinese tried to resist occupation but Japan used its bigger military might to silence the Chinese but failed to recognize that such was happening. Japan used its power to force agreements that benefited at the expense of China, his lead to second Sin-Japanese war in which China lost Shanghai to japan. Japanese forces began mass looting, killing and raping of Chinese: this became a full blown war. The Chinese retreated and pulled guerilla stances which stalled further Japanese advances. This has been among the worst point of the Sino- Japanese relations. By this time, japan had occupied Korea and much of south East Asia. Due to the bombing of the Pearl Harbor, the US and allies purposed to defeat japan.
Due to many wars that have been waged by Japan against China since the 15th century, China has learned to see Japan as an ambitious neighbor who always had expansionary desires. This view is held by Korea due to the above instances. Additionally, there are other instances in which the Japanese behaved in a manner not typical with the north Asian culture in which the Japanese society was degraded to an extent that bandits and pirates came from it. This seriously affected their neighbors. The ultimate events of the early part of the 20th century further strained the Chinese and Korean view of Japan. After japan industrialized to the levels of the western powers, its immediate moves were to attempt to occupy China and Korea. This was a big betrayal to the Chinese people who did not attempt to occupy japan in the years of Chinese prosperity.
After the involvement of the US and the allies in WW2, Japan had multiple battle fronts top take care of. As a result, the poorly equipped Chinese army defeated the Japanese invaders. Later on the US defeated and occupied japan in the post WW2 era. The success of China in driving out Japan meant that China and Korea could no longer trust their maritime neighbor; Japan. This was the height of the dissonance in relations between the two sides. In the post war period, China descended in to civil strife as there was a conflict between the preferred developmental paths. Some nationalist felt that the country could develop more as a communist while the government of the day favored capitalism. This lead to a serious war in which the capitalist Republic of China (ROC) government fled to Taiwan while the mainland developed a communist government, Peoples Republic of China (PRC)
The US who was seen was the ally of Japan used diplomacy to prevent the spread of the communist government into Taiwan and effectively caused division of what would have been one China. On the other hand, the tussle between the US and USSR occupation in the Korean peninsula led to the breakup of what had been throughout the centuries Korean people into two countries; the capitalist south and the communist north. Japan favored South Korea after the end of US occupation due to the shared capitalism. After the US occupation of japan, the relations between PRC and Japan normalized and the two countries were seen to enjoy cordial relationship in the 50s. However, China and Korea has always been very wary of japan. In the years of rapid Japanese industrialization, the country (Japan) looked down on its developing neighbors such as China and Korea.
In the cold war era, Japan had signed many military corporation agreements with the US. China felt that japan threatened its security. At the same time, serious diplomatic problems between China and the US arose and for many years, the US recognized the ROC and not the PRC as the legitimate state government of China. As a result, this made China to sign several defense and military assistant pacts with the USSR to dissuade the US or Japan from ever attempting to invade the PRC. Throughout the 20th century, the relations between japan and China and Korea on the other side have been mixed. The countries have tried very much to avoid any diplomatic or military confrontations; both their relationships have been characterized by marked distrust.
China on its side has held an annual event to commemorate the day it drove out Japanese invaders which Japanese have viewed as way of reminding them of their painful defeat by the US and allies in the WW2. In 2015, these commemorations were held in the red square where the Chinese president presented a speech that was filled with anti-Japanese rhetoric. The short speech referred to the Japanese as invaders, militarists and fascists. With the increase in Chinese influence in the entire region, japan has felt threated. The country has reacted by serious rearrangements in its defense policies. For a country that for many years did not produce or export arms, the country has now reviewed its laws to beggin arms production and export to friendly states. At the same time, the country has asked to have possession of its high enriched nuclear fissile materials from the US military. It is important to note that japan has not yet made nuclear weapons despite several of its large technology companies having nuclear capabilities. Japan does not seem to be okay with the current day Chinese ability in politics, economy and defense.
Korea and Japan on the other hand has had very different relations. Japan has completely dissociated itself with the poor and the internationally isolated North Korea but has maintained cordial relationship with the south. The two countries have signed many military treaties with the US which means that it is very unlikely that they may get involved in any armed conflict soon. The greatest modern day indicator of the cordial relations between Japan and South Korea was the cohosting of the 2002 fifa world cup. However, there lies dip suspicion between the two countries with the South Korea viewing japan as a skimmer always with negative motives.
Since the rise of the current Japanese Prime Minister (Shinzo Abe) to power, the relationship between Japan and China seems to improve with the two countries holding conferences of friendship. South Korea has always been seen to be friendlier to Japan. However, sentiments among the Japanese population as well as political elite have shown that they to hold derogatory views concerning China and Korea. Some of them have been seen to use derogative terms such as ‘third world nations’ to refer to China and Korea. Some Japanese are not ready to come to terms with the fact that China is the second richest country with the second largest economy in the world.
Due to pride among some Japanese people among other factors, they have been seen not to be happy with China’s and South Korea’s prosperity and have used terms that can strain relations between these countries. Due to the fact that some of these sentiments come from the political and the economic elite among the Japanese population, japan might not be able to have a normal relationship with China and Korea in the near future. On the other hand, Chinas annual military parade to celebrate the defeat of Japanese will always serve to remain the three countries of their past grudges between each other which will further strain the relations. | <urn:uuid:5deb4fce-be13-4a9c-a7bc-801413ee0e95> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://original-essays.org/essays/business/international-relations | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.980681 | 3,465 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.35993248224... | 8 | China and Korea share a land boarder while these two countries share a maritime boarder with japan. Despite these countries being very close to each other, they have had very divergent modern evolutional histories: all have very different cultures. China and Korea are close in proximity, culture and evolutionary story. However, these two countries differ with japan in culture and modern history and have had strained recent relations. Outwardly, the countries may seem to have a lot in common including close style of calligraphy, martial arts, architecture, cuisine, religion as well as mythical creatures. However, closely looking into their societies and especially since the recent history, more specifically in the course of industrial revolution, japan took a similar path with European powers becoming the first Asian country to industrialize. This country also maintained this lead in development and became the most industrialized nation in Asia and sometimes the entire world. On the other hand, China and Korea lost their lead in development centuries ago which made the two countries to be viewed as poor developing nations instead of world leaders and a global power as they had been. At some point during colonization, japan colonized and later occupied China and Korea which has strained the relationship between these countries. This paper will seek to find out if japan can have a normal relationship with China and Korea after centuries of strained relationships. The paper will also seek to show that these countries have had very different cultures for centuries which make the chances of reconciling their differences and having a normal relationship very complicated. It is also important to note that the word china in this paper refers to People’s Republic of China (PRC) as opposed to the Republic of China (ROC /Taiwan). The paper will begin with the history of their culture to a point in time where differences emerged causing uneasy relations. The paper will also look into factors that have made the relationship between Japan and China and Korea to be strained in the current time as well as talk about.
Historical facts about Japanese, Chinese and Korean Cultures
Throughout the ancient history, much of the northern China and Korea was one kingdom with very close cultural ties. However, Chinese and Japanese civilizations were very different although Japanese came from Chinese. Since the two civilizations were very close to each other, the dominant one influenced the less dominant. Chinese civilization was the most dominant in north East Asia.
While the Japanese civilization dates back to the first century Ad, the Chinese civilization dates back to 2070 BC. China is the oldest civilization thriving to date: it still has as written and well preserved records of its successes and pitfalls throughout most of ancient times. The earliest well preserved documents date back to 1500 BC. The cradle of northern Asian civilization that spread to all other neighboring countries was the yellow river in the present day China. Another recorded source of this civilization was the Yangtze River still in China. In these early days, the Chinese culture evolved which varied according to regions as it spread. The common feature of this culture was the mythical creature: the dragon that is seen in the Chinese, the Japanese and the Korean culture. Another aspect of the Chinese culture that spread throughout the region is the martial arts although they evolved differently in all regions to produce what is seen today.
The Chinese philosophy and literature originated in China between 1046 BC and 256 AD under the Zhou dynasty. When this dynasty collapsed, multiple warring states arose each of which was ruled by warlords. However, this had the overall influence of expanding the Chinese influence to the neighboring areas. Large parts of the present day China would unite under the Qin Shi Huang in 220 BC. The subsequent reigns developed a functional government bureaucracy that ruled China until 1912.
During the first century AD, marked interactions took place between the Chinese civilization and Japanese. When the two societies converged, the Chinese was more advanced with a developed form of writing. At this time, Japanese had not developed a form of writing so they borrowed the Chinese radiographs as they needed to communicate with Chinese. It is believed that they learned Chinese although the common language in two geographically separate populations evolved differently to produce separate languages. Around the same time, the Japanese did not have a dominant religion. Their encounter with Chinese transferred Buddhism and Confucianism to them. These two borrowed religions co-developed with the Japanese Shintoism such that there are significant Buddhist populations in japan today. The Japanese Shintoism also borrowed the art of building temples from the Chinese.
After the Chinese warring period, they developed an effective bureaucracy that unified and ruled the entire kingdom for many years. The Japanese borrowed many aspects of the Chinese form of bureaucracies including tittles as well as official functions. Additionally, the first Japanese constitution had many Chinese aspects among them the centralization and the organization of the government. Along with the government and various systems, the Japanese borrowed various aspects of Chinese city planning. Cities in the ancient China had angular buildings and straight streets which was important for efficient movement of goods and people. The Chinese also applied this concept in many other aspects of their lives including irrigation. This was taken up by Japan when the two civilizations begun interacting between the first and the 10th century. As Buddhism came to japan from China, the new converts begun adopting the Chinese ways of building reliquaries and temples: this was one way through which Chinese architecture passed to the Japanese. This influence of the ancient Chinese on japan can be seen in the old cities of Nara and Kyoto all of which have rectangular gardens and straight streets.
The earliest mentioning of the kingdoms of Korean peninsula in the history of north East Asia especially in Japan was between 600 and 900AD. In this period, Japan sent a number of students to China to study governance and help the Japanese to effectively govern their archipelago. It is in this process that they mentioned of a collection of kingdoms in the Korean peninsula. These scholars later mentioned that this confederation of kingdoms collapsed still in the reign of the Sui and the Tang dynasty in the mainland China. In this period, the Japanese took up the Chinese form of government and their law. However, this was short-lived as they reverted back to clan and family rivalry in the 10th century AD.
Between 600-1500 AD, the two civilization carried out large scale maritime trade with each other across the East China Sea. This happened as Japanese increased their navigation prowess. Some of the earliest ports that were utilized in this trade were the Hangzau in China and Ningbo in japan. The island of Rukyu (the modern day name is Okinawa) played an important part in this trade and absorbed both the Chinese and the Japanese cultures in the form of cuisine and martial arts among others. Over these centuries, the Korean developed their civilization from the Chinese like the Japanese had done before. As results Koreans became more and more culturally and politically different from the Chinese and the Japanese. Japanese emperor Hideyoshi had at one point tried to invade China but failed. Between the 10th and the 17th century, Japanese political landscape was characterized by civil wars that ravaged the country. Over this time, there was a rise in lawlessness and the rise of Japanese pirates (wokou) which complicated trade between China, Korea and Japan. These pirates did not only rob sea vessels but also the wealthy ports across the sea.
Since the beginning of the 17th century, three families aimed to unify japan. One of them was led by Hideyoshi who was successful. After this, the Japanese developed some sense of self confidence and wanted to conquer China. Hideyoshi lead the Japanese forces across the East China Sea but was refused access by Korea. As a result, he captured Korea and passed to the Ming dynasty and close to Manchuria. The Chinese and the Korean united to resist and repulse the Japanese invasion but this lead to a long war. The Japanese forces were driven south by the Chinese but the war was not won easily by either side but resulted to a stalemate. Chinese agreed to recognize Hideyoshi as the king of japan as a pre-condition for withdrawal and the war ended. This was the first time the Chinese and Koreans united against the Japanese. With the unification of japan seen earlier, this lead to increase in confidence among the Japanese and they arranged a second invasion across the East China Sea. However, China and the Korea had realized that japan was no longer friendly and had prepared for such an invasion. The Koreans with the help of Chinese repulsed and defeated the Japanese.
The deterioration of relations between modern Japan on one side and China/ Korea on the other side begun in 1856 when a war broke between China and British. China being an agrarian country and British, with the help of France being industrial powers, China lost the war. Japan felt that there was an urgent need to industrialize to avoid such losses in future, the turn of events in this time lead to shifting of total political control of entire japan under Emperor Meiji. Japan was forced to trade freely with the west and could not risk a war due to the indicative outcome of the first and the second opium wars. The control of Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan and the conflicts between China and japan led to the first and the second Sino-Japanese wars which threatened to fragment china into small territories of Russia, Britain and Japan. The United States forced all other states to avoid fragmenting china and insisted that any trade with a nation should occur through mutual benefits than war and force. Japan only took Ryukyu Island, but helped to overthrow the Qing dynasty and install a puppet government of the Republic of China. This was the beginning of the bad relations between the two countries in the modern history. Korea was insignificant at this time. The First World War led to occupation of some parts of China by Japanese after they defeated Germany. Russia on the other hand occupied China in the region north of Manchuria. Japanese occupation of China would be the reason for the greatest armed conflict in Asia during the Second World War.
After the First World War, japan wanted to have colonies like the western friends as well occupy regions that were rich in resources. Japan established a puppet state in Manchuria and named it Manchukuo. The Chinese tried to resist occupation but Japan used its bigger military might to silence the Chinese but failed to recognize that such was happening. Japan used its power to force agreements that benefited at the expense of China, his lead to second Sin-Japanese war in which China lost Shanghai to japan. Japanese forces began mass looting, killing and raping of Chinese: this became a full blown war. The Chinese retreated and pulled guerilla stances which stalled further Japanese advances. This has been among the worst point of the Sino- Japanese relations. By this time, japan had occupied Korea and much of south East Asia. Due to the bombing of the Pearl Harbor, the US and allies purposed to defeat japan.
Due to many wars that have been waged by Japan against China since the 15th century, China has learned to see Japan as an ambitious neighbor who always had expansionary desires. This view is held by Korea due to the above instances. Additionally, there are other instances in which the Japanese behaved in a manner not typical with the north Asian culture in which the Japanese society was degraded to an extent that bandits and pirates came from it. This seriously affected their neighbors. The ultimate events of the early part of the 20th century further strained the Chinese and Korean view of Japan. After japan industrialized to the levels of the western powers, its immediate moves were to attempt to occupy China and Korea. This was a big betrayal to the Chinese people who did not attempt to occupy japan in the years of Chinese prosperity.
After the involvement of the US and the allies in WW2, Japan had multiple battle fronts top take care of. As a result, the poorly equipped Chinese army defeated the Japanese invaders. Later on the US defeated and occupied japan in the post WW2 era. The success of China in driving out Japan meant that China and Korea could no longer trust their maritime neighbor; Japan. This was the height of the dissonance in relations between the two sides. In the post war period, China descended in to civil strife as there was a conflict between the preferred developmental paths. Some nationalist felt that the country could develop more as a communist while the government of the day favored capitalism. This lead to a serious war in which the capitalist Republic of China (ROC) government fled to Taiwan while the mainland developed a communist government, Peoples Republic of China (PRC)
The US who was seen was the ally of Japan used diplomacy to prevent the spread of the communist government into Taiwan and effectively caused division of what would have been one China. On the other hand, the tussle between the US and USSR occupation in the Korean peninsula led to the breakup of what had been throughout the centuries Korean people into two countries; the capitalist south and the communist north. Japan favored South Korea after the end of US occupation due to the shared capitalism. After the US occupation of japan, the relations between PRC and Japan normalized and the two countries were seen to enjoy cordial relationship in the 50s. However, China and Korea has always been very wary of japan. In the years of rapid Japanese industrialization, the country (Japan) looked down on its developing neighbors such as China and Korea.
In the cold war era, Japan had signed many military corporation agreements with the US. China felt that japan threatened its security. At the same time, serious diplomatic problems between China and the US arose and for many years, the US recognized the ROC and not the PRC as the legitimate state government of China. As a result, this made China to sign several defense and military assistant pacts with the USSR to dissuade the US or Japan from ever attempting to invade the PRC. Throughout the 20th century, the relations between japan and China and Korea on the other side have been mixed. The countries have tried very much to avoid any diplomatic or military confrontations; both their relationships have been characterized by marked distrust.
China on its side has held an annual event to commemorate the day it drove out Japanese invaders which Japanese have viewed as way of reminding them of their painful defeat by the US and allies in the WW2. In 2015, these commemorations were held in the red square where the Chinese president presented a speech that was filled with anti-Japanese rhetoric. The short speech referred to the Japanese as invaders, militarists and fascists. With the increase in Chinese influence in the entire region, japan has felt threated. The country has reacted by serious rearrangements in its defense policies. For a country that for many years did not produce or export arms, the country has now reviewed its laws to beggin arms production and export to friendly states. At the same time, the country has asked to have possession of its high enriched nuclear fissile materials from the US military. It is important to note that japan has not yet made nuclear weapons despite several of its large technology companies having nuclear capabilities. Japan does not seem to be okay with the current day Chinese ability in politics, economy and defense.
Korea and Japan on the other hand has had very different relations. Japan has completely dissociated itself with the poor and the internationally isolated North Korea but has maintained cordial relationship with the south. The two countries have signed many military treaties with the US which means that it is very unlikely that they may get involved in any armed conflict soon. The greatest modern day indicator of the cordial relations between Japan and South Korea was the cohosting of the 2002 fifa world cup. However, there lies dip suspicion between the two countries with the South Korea viewing japan as a skimmer always with negative motives.
Since the rise of the current Japanese Prime Minister (Shinzo Abe) to power, the relationship between Japan and China seems to improve with the two countries holding conferences of friendship. South Korea has always been seen to be friendlier to Japan. However, sentiments among the Japanese population as well as political elite have shown that they to hold derogatory views concerning China and Korea. Some of them have been seen to use derogative terms such as ‘third world nations’ to refer to China and Korea. Some Japanese are not ready to come to terms with the fact that China is the second richest country with the second largest economy in the world.
Due to pride among some Japanese people among other factors, they have been seen not to be happy with China’s and South Korea’s prosperity and have used terms that can strain relations between these countries. Due to the fact that some of these sentiments come from the political and the economic elite among the Japanese population, japan might not be able to have a normal relationship with China and Korea in the near future. On the other hand, Chinas annual military parade to celebrate the defeat of Japanese will always serve to remain the three countries of their past grudges between each other which will further strain the relations. | 3,476 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Homelessness is a huge problem for animals all over the world. There’s no way to exactly count how many stray dogs there are But the World Health Organization estimates that about 200 million around the globe do not have a home.
What’s more, there’s no real easy solution to this problem. As stray dogs continue to have babies, the world is simply unequipped to handle the sheer influx of them. Sadly, that means having a home and a family isn’t going to happen for the vast majority of pups.
Since the 19th century, Holland has had a huge dog population. Almost every family in the country had a dog as a pet because people viewed it as a symbol of social status. But a large number of dogs that lived there sparked an outbreak of rabies which soon became one of the leading causes of death. Out of fear, many owners began abandoning their pets, and since this action was considered legal, streets became filled with stray dogs of all kinds.
Holland wanted to change those unfortunate circumstances. They started to do this by organizing days in which sterilization and castration were mandatory. All were free of charge; the government covered all the expenses. With that, they were able to sterilize 70 percent of female dogs. Every dog also had medical examinations to verify which vaccines and medical services it needed.
To take more control and end the issue once and for all, the government passed a law that protected animals and approved another law related to animal health and welfare. The new legislation encouraged owners to provide pets with adequate treatment and to eliminate abuse. Unless owners followed them, they could be punished with up to three years in prison and a fine higher than $16,000.
People who choose to have a dog at home usually decide to adopt or buy breeding dogs because they consider them to be more healthy and beautiful. That’s why the Dutch government resolved to raise taxes on the purchase of dogs in stores. Consequently, that added expense forced dog owners to start considering other ways to get pets and increased the chance of stray dog adoption.
The state also started to run another campaign to raise awareness. This time people had the chance to take care of homeless puppies. People fell in love with them and more than a million stray dogs managed to find a family and a safe place to live. The operation had a massive impact on citizens and led 90 percent of the population to adopt a dog as a pet. | <urn:uuid:76ed39de-df90-4ebb-a2a0-224b08fe018d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://auxx.me/holland-now-has-no-street-dogs-becomes-the-first-country-to-achieve-it-by-hasanka/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.981404 | 503 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.19317059... | 9 | Homelessness is a huge problem for animals all over the world. There’s no way to exactly count how many stray dogs there are But the World Health Organization estimates that about 200 million around the globe do not have a home.
What’s more, there’s no real easy solution to this problem. As stray dogs continue to have babies, the world is simply unequipped to handle the sheer influx of them. Sadly, that means having a home and a family isn’t going to happen for the vast majority of pups.
Since the 19th century, Holland has had a huge dog population. Almost every family in the country had a dog as a pet because people viewed it as a symbol of social status. But a large number of dogs that lived there sparked an outbreak of rabies which soon became one of the leading causes of death. Out of fear, many owners began abandoning their pets, and since this action was considered legal, streets became filled with stray dogs of all kinds.
Holland wanted to change those unfortunate circumstances. They started to do this by organizing days in which sterilization and castration were mandatory. All were free of charge; the government covered all the expenses. With that, they were able to sterilize 70 percent of female dogs. Every dog also had medical examinations to verify which vaccines and medical services it needed.
To take more control and end the issue once and for all, the government passed a law that protected animals and approved another law related to animal health and welfare. The new legislation encouraged owners to provide pets with adequate treatment and to eliminate abuse. Unless owners followed them, they could be punished with up to three years in prison and a fine higher than $16,000.
People who choose to have a dog at home usually decide to adopt or buy breeding dogs because they consider them to be more healthy and beautiful. That’s why the Dutch government resolved to raise taxes on the purchase of dogs in stores. Consequently, that added expense forced dog owners to start considering other ways to get pets and increased the chance of stray dog adoption.
The state also started to run another campaign to raise awareness. This time people had the chance to take care of homeless puppies. People fell in love with them and more than a million stray dogs managed to find a family and a safe place to live. The operation had a massive impact on citizens and led 90 percent of the population to adopt a dog as a pet. | 497 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anne Frank Inspirational Story
Anne 12th June, 1929 in Frankfurt, Germany, a little girl by the name Annelies Marie Frank was born. She was a writer and a diarist who lived in the Dark Age of Germany and died in 1945 after her short lived life.
Her mother was Edith and farther was Otto Frank who was a businessman in Germany and Netherlands. She had a sister by the name Magrot. Her village was calm and a quiet place but it remained very short period like that. When Hitler became the leader of Germany, the Frank family was moved to Netherlands. She attended Montessori school in Amsterdam in 1934. She had friends of various nationalities Dutch, German, Jewish and more. But their happiness vanished when Nazi troops came to Poland in 1939. Dutch surrendered in 1940.
On 12th June, 1942, Anne was given a diary by her parents for her 13th birthday. She started writing diaries after that incident. She had imagined a friend called ‘kitty’ to address. As Margot received an official letter informing them to meet by Nazi work camp in Germany, Frank family went to live in Otto’s office room and they used it as a secret annex, they spent two years hiding in that dark place. Frank used to write diaries daily to get rid of loneliness. Writing diaries helped her keep sanity and spirits. She wrote another notebook with quotes of her favorite authors, true stories and started novel on her secret annex life. Writing developed her emotional depth, wisdom, tolerance and creativity.
By bad luck, some people betrayed them by giving out secret information of their where about; they were captured by German secret police on 4th August, 1944. They were first sent to a concentration camp, Westerbork in Netherland on 8th August, 1944 then they were later transferred to the Auschwitz death camp in Poland on 3rd September, 1944. Then Nazis separated Otto and females in the family. After working as hard labors for months, Anne and Margot were transferred to Bergen-Belsen camp in Germany without their mother. There were lesser food, many diseases, and very little sanitation. Both Sisters suffered from Typhus and died one after the other in two consecutive days in 1945. Anne was just 15 then.
After the capture of Nazis by the English soldiers, Otto came to find his daughters, but encountered bad news of their demise. Finally he found Anne’s diary in Amsterdam and surprisingly saw her maturity in feelings. The diary was published as a book on 25th June, 1947 and was in 67 languages afterwards. That diary was a mirror of Anne’s thinking, a story of love, hope and faith in front of cruel war. | <urn:uuid:20cfc577-57b6-409d-8366-b5935ded8989> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://uphindia.com/2020/01/13/anne-frank-inspirational-story-4/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00191.warc.gz | en | 0.991234 | 556 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.1410702466964... | 1 | Anne Frank Inspirational Story
Anne 12th June, 1929 in Frankfurt, Germany, a little girl by the name Annelies Marie Frank was born. She was a writer and a diarist who lived in the Dark Age of Germany and died in 1945 after her short lived life.
Her mother was Edith and farther was Otto Frank who was a businessman in Germany and Netherlands. She had a sister by the name Magrot. Her village was calm and a quiet place but it remained very short period like that. When Hitler became the leader of Germany, the Frank family was moved to Netherlands. She attended Montessori school in Amsterdam in 1934. She had friends of various nationalities Dutch, German, Jewish and more. But their happiness vanished when Nazi troops came to Poland in 1939. Dutch surrendered in 1940.
On 12th June, 1942, Anne was given a diary by her parents for her 13th birthday. She started writing diaries after that incident. She had imagined a friend called ‘kitty’ to address. As Margot received an official letter informing them to meet by Nazi work camp in Germany, Frank family went to live in Otto’s office room and they used it as a secret annex, they spent two years hiding in that dark place. Frank used to write diaries daily to get rid of loneliness. Writing diaries helped her keep sanity and spirits. She wrote another notebook with quotes of her favorite authors, true stories and started novel on her secret annex life. Writing developed her emotional depth, wisdom, tolerance and creativity.
By bad luck, some people betrayed them by giving out secret information of their where about; they were captured by German secret police on 4th August, 1944. They were first sent to a concentration camp, Westerbork in Netherland on 8th August, 1944 then they were later transferred to the Auschwitz death camp in Poland on 3rd September, 1944. Then Nazis separated Otto and females in the family. After working as hard labors for months, Anne and Margot were transferred to Bergen-Belsen camp in Germany without their mother. There were lesser food, many diseases, and very little sanitation. Both Sisters suffered from Typhus and died one after the other in two consecutive days in 1945. Anne was just 15 then.
After the capture of Nazis by the English soldiers, Otto came to find his daughters, but encountered bad news of their demise. Finally he found Anne’s diary in Amsterdam and surprisingly saw her maturity in feelings. The diary was published as a book on 25th June, 1947 and was in 67 languages afterwards. That diary was a mirror of Anne’s thinking, a story of love, hope and faith in front of cruel war. | 603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sixth-grade students at Four Peaks Elementary School, 1785 N. Idaho Road in Apache Junction, combined science, history and social studies when they learned about trade routes of the Silk Road and created mini catapults.
The students studied the travels of Marco Polo for a day, which included the importance of The Silk Road and its impact on trade and travel.
The next stage of learning became more hands-on when students were put in teams and experienced a Silk Road simulation to discover and identify items that were traded at the time.
“In ancient history, as today, trade opened up the sharing of ideas, inventions, language, and influenced culture,” said Kerri Mortenson, a sixth-grade teacher at FPES. “The trade along The Silk Road was important as it generated a robust economy for the kingdoms and empires of the time. Studying the trade routes teaches the students how interconnected the ancient cultures really became by the trading along The Silk Road. This lesson also applies to modern-day history as the trade routes have expanded since that time.”
During the third day of instruction students were again put into teams and tasked with designing and assembling a catapult. However, there was a catch. Each team was missing an item (cotton balls which were used as cannon balls) so in order to complete their mission they had to travel the simulated Silk Road to negotiate the needed “trade."
The students enjoyed building catapults and launching their cotton ammunition; however the exercise provided a higher purpose. The curriculum-based lesson also involved using critical thinking skills and incorporated a Science Technology Engineering Mathematics component. The finale was when the teams competed to see which catapult launched the farthest.
Editor's note: Sally Marks is Apache Junction Unified School District's public information officer. | <urn:uuid:d9369319-b7ec-48de-9c38-e6dbec66b610> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.yourvalley.net/apache-junction-independent/stories/apache-junction-students-learning-about-silk-road-ancient-weapons,120338 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.980702 | 366 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.5177577137947... | 4 | Sixth-grade students at Four Peaks Elementary School, 1785 N. Idaho Road in Apache Junction, combined science, history and social studies when they learned about trade routes of the Silk Road and created mini catapults.
The students studied the travels of Marco Polo for a day, which included the importance of The Silk Road and its impact on trade and travel.
The next stage of learning became more hands-on when students were put in teams and experienced a Silk Road simulation to discover and identify items that were traded at the time.
“In ancient history, as today, trade opened up the sharing of ideas, inventions, language, and influenced culture,” said Kerri Mortenson, a sixth-grade teacher at FPES. “The trade along The Silk Road was important as it generated a robust economy for the kingdoms and empires of the time. Studying the trade routes teaches the students how interconnected the ancient cultures really became by the trading along The Silk Road. This lesson also applies to modern-day history as the trade routes have expanded since that time.”
During the third day of instruction students were again put into teams and tasked with designing and assembling a catapult. However, there was a catch. Each team was missing an item (cotton balls which were used as cannon balls) so in order to complete their mission they had to travel the simulated Silk Road to negotiate the needed “trade."
The students enjoyed building catapults and launching their cotton ammunition; however the exercise provided a higher purpose. The curriculum-based lesson also involved using critical thinking skills and incorporated a Science Technology Engineering Mathematics component. The finale was when the teams competed to see which catapult launched the farthest.
Editor's note: Sally Marks is Apache Junction Unified School District's public information officer. | 349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We often encountered Roman "road maps" as sections or copies belonging to the respective region in Roman museums, we had been able to connect the name Konrad Peutinger from the respected merchant family of the imperial city of Augsburg with these maps.
Peutinger's collections of ancient remains and his writings on the study of Roman antiquity in his home region of Augsburg were of immense importance for the extraordinarily progressive development of historical sciences. Parts of his collection of Roman stone monuments can still be seen today in his Augsburg home, so-called Peutingerhaus. His works Inscriptiones Romanae (Augsburg 1520) and the Tabula Peutingeriana named after him, a late antique road map of the Roman Empire, which later emerged as one of the most important sources from this period, are of outstanding importance. Various coincidences played a decisive role in this, since Peutinger had received the map in 1507 from Conrad Celtis from Vienna and then prepared a publication, which however only came about after his death.
Even in antiquity, scholars had numerous ideas to get a more precise picture of their then known world. What should apply to capturing the constellations was also a challenge on Earth. There were already surveyors who could make a very exact mapping of individual areas, remember the geographer Pomponius Pella (see picture further down) at this point, who had surveyed Lake Constance.
Tabula Peutingeriana - Roman road map for orientation
The exact measurement was also a basis for the advanced road construction of the Romans. It is no wonder that attempts were made to use this data for trade and transport too: in the form of a road map in which all the important trading locations were listed. The presumed original of this street map from the second half of the fourth century (approx. 375 AD) contained the graphic representation of the world known at that time, in which the streets were entered as connecting lines between individual stage locations. The author, who is still unknown, wanted to give a uniform representation of the terra habitabilis of the 4th century based on the model of ancient world maps; the Germanic areas to the right of the Rhine and Northern Europe are largely missing.
The late antique original can be traced back to various possible forerunners, including a wall map of the earth planned by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. After his death, this map was carved into the tombstone, which is located in the Porticus Vipsaniae, not far from the altar of peace, on Via Flaminia in Rome. Other precursors include the Itinerarium Antonini (a street directory of the third century in book form) and several revisions of an older street map of the Roman Empire.
The original map was apparently made after 330, since it already shows the city of Constantinople inaugurated this year. However, it was not up to date at the time, since the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis and Stabiae are also listed, which had been completely buried and not rebuilt after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. On the other hand, there are some places in the province of Germania inferior that were destroyed in the 5th century.
The original map has been considered in research since Franz Christoph von Scheyb's investigation in 1753 as a product of Roman cartography. Michael Rathmann, on the other hand, assumes that the map was produced in the Hellenistic period (possibly around 250 BC), as it goes far beyond the sphere of influence of the Roman empire and lists remote areas of Asia that were uninteresting for the imperial politics of the Romans , Furthermore, just the world known in the Hellenistic period is shown and other areas that were already known to the Romans, such as China or Germania, have not yet been recorded.
Medieval copy by family members
Unfortunately, the late Roman road map is only preserved in a medieval copy from the 12th century. The humanist Conrad Celtis (aka Konrad Bickel, 1459-1508) discovered the manuscript and handed it over to his friend Konrad Peutinger around 1507. It is not known how Celtis obtained this copy, nor where it was made. Worms, Speyer, Colmar, Tegernsee and Basel were mentioned as possible places of origin. After Peutinger's death, a copy was made on behalf of a family member, later Abraham Ortelius published a complete edition in Antwerp in 1598.
Afterwards, Peutinger's copy was considered to be lost. It was just found again in 1714 and in 1715 came into the possession of Prince Eugene of Savoy. After his death in 1736, Charles VI. owned the entire library and incorporated it into the Imperial Court Library (Codex Vindobonensis 324). In 1863 the tabula in the library was broken down into its individual segments for conservation reasons and was initially kept between glass plates, from 1977 acrylic plates.
After studying in Bologna and Padua, where he obtained his doctorate in both rights, Peutinger began his career as a lawyer. In doing so, he got to know the movement of Renaissance humanism more intensely, which should accompany him for life. In 1493 he was chosen to be a syndic in his hometown Augsburg. As a member of parliament, he attended several Reichstag, such as the Reichstag zu Worms (1521) and was appointed Imperial Councilor by Maximilian I. From 1497 to 1534, Peutinger was also the town clerk in Augsburg, where in 1515 he acquired an estate that has been preserved to this day, the so-called Peutingerhaus.
Please read as well: | <urn:uuid:ba4be81c-edc0-47a9-b464-80fd8d601b10> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.alaturka.info/en/history/middle-ages/4992-konrad-peutinger-tabula-peutingeriana-roman-road-map | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.980339 | 1,201 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.3008297681808... | 6 | We often encountered Roman "road maps" as sections or copies belonging to the respective region in Roman museums, we had been able to connect the name Konrad Peutinger from the respected merchant family of the imperial city of Augsburg with these maps.
Peutinger's collections of ancient remains and his writings on the study of Roman antiquity in his home region of Augsburg were of immense importance for the extraordinarily progressive development of historical sciences. Parts of his collection of Roman stone monuments can still be seen today in his Augsburg home, so-called Peutingerhaus. His works Inscriptiones Romanae (Augsburg 1520) and the Tabula Peutingeriana named after him, a late antique road map of the Roman Empire, which later emerged as one of the most important sources from this period, are of outstanding importance. Various coincidences played a decisive role in this, since Peutinger had received the map in 1507 from Conrad Celtis from Vienna and then prepared a publication, which however only came about after his death.
Even in antiquity, scholars had numerous ideas to get a more precise picture of their then known world. What should apply to capturing the constellations was also a challenge on Earth. There were already surveyors who could make a very exact mapping of individual areas, remember the geographer Pomponius Pella (see picture further down) at this point, who had surveyed Lake Constance.
Tabula Peutingeriana - Roman road map for orientation
The exact measurement was also a basis for the advanced road construction of the Romans. It is no wonder that attempts were made to use this data for trade and transport too: in the form of a road map in which all the important trading locations were listed. The presumed original of this street map from the second half of the fourth century (approx. 375 AD) contained the graphic representation of the world known at that time, in which the streets were entered as connecting lines between individual stage locations. The author, who is still unknown, wanted to give a uniform representation of the terra habitabilis of the 4th century based on the model of ancient world maps; the Germanic areas to the right of the Rhine and Northern Europe are largely missing.
The late antique original can be traced back to various possible forerunners, including a wall map of the earth planned by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. After his death, this map was carved into the tombstone, which is located in the Porticus Vipsaniae, not far from the altar of peace, on Via Flaminia in Rome. Other precursors include the Itinerarium Antonini (a street directory of the third century in book form) and several revisions of an older street map of the Roman Empire.
The original map was apparently made after 330, since it already shows the city of Constantinople inaugurated this year. However, it was not up to date at the time, since the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis and Stabiae are also listed, which had been completely buried and not rebuilt after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. On the other hand, there are some places in the province of Germania inferior that were destroyed in the 5th century.
The original map has been considered in research since Franz Christoph von Scheyb's investigation in 1753 as a product of Roman cartography. Michael Rathmann, on the other hand, assumes that the map was produced in the Hellenistic period (possibly around 250 BC), as it goes far beyond the sphere of influence of the Roman empire and lists remote areas of Asia that were uninteresting for the imperial politics of the Romans , Furthermore, just the world known in the Hellenistic period is shown and other areas that were already known to the Romans, such as China or Germania, have not yet been recorded.
Medieval copy by family members
Unfortunately, the late Roman road map is only preserved in a medieval copy from the 12th century. The humanist Conrad Celtis (aka Konrad Bickel, 1459-1508) discovered the manuscript and handed it over to his friend Konrad Peutinger around 1507. It is not known how Celtis obtained this copy, nor where it was made. Worms, Speyer, Colmar, Tegernsee and Basel were mentioned as possible places of origin. After Peutinger's death, a copy was made on behalf of a family member, later Abraham Ortelius published a complete edition in Antwerp in 1598.
Afterwards, Peutinger's copy was considered to be lost. It was just found again in 1714 and in 1715 came into the possession of Prince Eugene of Savoy. After his death in 1736, Charles VI. owned the entire library and incorporated it into the Imperial Court Library (Codex Vindobonensis 324). In 1863 the tabula in the library was broken down into its individual segments for conservation reasons and was initially kept between glass plates, from 1977 acrylic plates.
After studying in Bologna and Padua, where he obtained his doctorate in both rights, Peutinger began his career as a lawyer. In doing so, he got to know the movement of Renaissance humanism more intensely, which should accompany him for life. In 1493 he was chosen to be a syndic in his hometown Augsburg. As a member of parliament, he attended several Reichstag, such as the Reichstag zu Worms (1521) and was appointed Imperial Councilor by Maximilian I. From 1497 to 1534, Peutinger was also the town clerk in Augsburg, where in 1515 he acquired an estate that has been preserved to this day, the so-called Peutingerhaus.
Please read as well: | 1,253 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Battle of Lexington and ConcordIt signaled the start of the American Revolution war, and the Americans won the battle. Some of the tactics they used were spying, right firearm, etc.
This battle is important because it gave colonists a lot of confidence and belief to win more wars. It influenced them by giving them more confidence, the outcome is that they won and gain some independence.
Battle at Bunker HillBoston was being besieged by thousands of American militia, and the British were trying to keep control of the city and control its valuable seaport. The British won, the tactics they used were the right weapons like the muskets & bayonets.
It was important because it was a significant morale-builder for the inexperienced Americans. It influenced them because they won their first battle, They lost, influenced them by having a confident boost.
Battle of New YorkThe victory over the Americans, which gave the British control. The British forces won, they're tactics were that they were in the central position and made it harder.
This battle is important because it's the first major battle after the declaration was signed, it influenced other battles by how they had a victory. The influence was that they know it wasn't going to be an easy battle.
Battle of TrentonGeneral George Washington army crossed the icy Delaware on Christmas and crossed the course within 10 days. General George Washington army won, the tactics that were used was good men.
This battle is important, because the significant of the conflict between the Hessian army. It influence other battles because they won, it didn't because they lost.
Fight for PhiladelphiaThe British Army began an initiative to capture the colonial capitol of Philadelphia. The British won, they're tactics were the "flanking" strategy.
This battle is important because it gave the patriots confidence. It influenced other battles because they gain more confidence that they could win another war. The outcome of the Revolutionary War was that they got Burgoyne's surrender.
Battle at SaratogaWhat happened in Saratoga was that Burgoyne's army fell apart. The American won, their tactics were that they were too strong to go against.
This battle is important because they made Burgoyne's army fall down. It influenced other battle by knowing that they could make another army surrender. The outcome it gave on the Revolutionary War was that they won!
Winter at Valley ForgeWhat happened in this event was that their was soldiers freezing to death and that 2,000 men died. No one won because there was no battle.
This battle is important because this is where George Washington led his troops. It influenced other wars because they know they could live through crazy weather. The outcome was that a lot of men died which means that they have a smaller army.
British Losses in 1791What happened was that Washington ordered Greene for his troops to follow Cornwallis. Continental Army won, the tactics they used was to make Cornwallis to surrender.
This battle is important because they made Cornwallis surrender.It influenced other battles by knowing they are a strong army.The outcome on the Revolutionary war was that they could win!
British Surrender at YorktownWhat happened at Yorktown was that the British surrendered. The Americans won, their tactics were that they bombarded the British.
This battle is important because it's one of the battles that was the last in the American Revolution. It influenced other battles because they know that they could win in war. The outcome was that they won!
British Take SouthWhat happened was British captured Charles town. British won, the tactics they used were they changed their military statics.
This battle is important because they let African Americans fight. It influenced other battles by knowing they could win. The outcome was that the Americans won the American Revolutionary. | <urn:uuid:66e84962-89ab-441b-8040-8db67ccc7522> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/battles-of-the-american-revolution-3b754949-7d36-4ce6-968a-d891bc7c2945 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.989171 | 774 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.217872858047485... | 2 | Battle of Lexington and ConcordIt signaled the start of the American Revolution war, and the Americans won the battle. Some of the tactics they used were spying, right firearm, etc.
This battle is important because it gave colonists a lot of confidence and belief to win more wars. It influenced them by giving them more confidence, the outcome is that they won and gain some independence.
Battle at Bunker HillBoston was being besieged by thousands of American militia, and the British were trying to keep control of the city and control its valuable seaport. The British won, the tactics they used were the right weapons like the muskets & bayonets.
It was important because it was a significant morale-builder for the inexperienced Americans. It influenced them because they won their first battle, They lost, influenced them by having a confident boost.
Battle of New YorkThe victory over the Americans, which gave the British control. The British forces won, they're tactics were that they were in the central position and made it harder.
This battle is important because it's the first major battle after the declaration was signed, it influenced other battles by how they had a victory. The influence was that they know it wasn't going to be an easy battle.
Battle of TrentonGeneral George Washington army crossed the icy Delaware on Christmas and crossed the course within 10 days. General George Washington army won, the tactics that were used was good men.
This battle is important, because the significant of the conflict between the Hessian army. It influence other battles because they won, it didn't because they lost.
Fight for PhiladelphiaThe British Army began an initiative to capture the colonial capitol of Philadelphia. The British won, they're tactics were the "flanking" strategy.
This battle is important because it gave the patriots confidence. It influenced other battles because they gain more confidence that they could win another war. The outcome of the Revolutionary War was that they got Burgoyne's surrender.
Battle at SaratogaWhat happened in Saratoga was that Burgoyne's army fell apart. The American won, their tactics were that they were too strong to go against.
This battle is important because they made Burgoyne's army fall down. It influenced other battle by knowing that they could make another army surrender. The outcome it gave on the Revolutionary War was that they won!
Winter at Valley ForgeWhat happened in this event was that their was soldiers freezing to death and that 2,000 men died. No one won because there was no battle.
This battle is important because this is where George Washington led his troops. It influenced other wars because they know they could live through crazy weather. The outcome was that a lot of men died which means that they have a smaller army.
British Losses in 1791What happened was that Washington ordered Greene for his troops to follow Cornwallis. Continental Army won, the tactics they used was to make Cornwallis to surrender.
This battle is important because they made Cornwallis surrender.It influenced other battles by knowing they are a strong army.The outcome on the Revolutionary war was that they could win!
British Surrender at YorktownWhat happened at Yorktown was that the British surrendered. The Americans won, their tactics were that they bombarded the British.
This battle is important because it's one of the battles that was the last in the American Revolution. It influenced other battles because they know that they could win in war. The outcome was that they won!
British Take SouthWhat happened was British captured Charles town. British won, the tactics they used were they changed their military statics.
This battle is important because they let African Americans fight. It influenced other battles by knowing they could win. The outcome was that the Americans won the American Revolutionary. | 763 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Philosophy is a vast field. It examines and probes many different fields. Virtue, morality, immortality, death, and the difference between the psyche 1 (soul) and the soma (body) are just a few of the many different topics which can be covered under the umbrella of philosophy. Philosophers are supposed to be experts on all these subjects. The have well thought out opinions, and they are very learned people.
Among the most revered philosophers of all time was Socrates. Living around the 5th century B.C., Socrates was among the first philosophers who wasn’t a sophist, meaning that he never felt that he was wise for he was always in the pursuit of knowledge. Unfortunately, Socrates was put to death late in his life. One of his best students, Plato, however, recorded what had occurred on that last day of Socrates’ life. On that last day of his life, Socrates made a quite powerful claim. He claimed that philosophy was merely practiced for getting used to death and dying.
The most interesting and influential thinker in the fifth century was Socrates, whose dedication to careful reasoning transformed the entire enterprise. Since he sought genuine knowledge rather than mere victory over an opponent, He familiarized himself with the rhetoric and dialectics of the Sophists, the speculations of the Lonian philosophers, and the general culture of Periclean Athens. Socrates employed the same logical tricks developed by the Sophists to a new purpose, the pursuit of truth. Thus, his willingness to call everything into question and his determination to accept nothing less than an adequate account of the nature of things make him the first clear exponent of critical philosophy.
Although he was well known during his own time for his conversational skills and public teaching, Socrates wrote nothing, so we are dependent upon his students (especially Kenophon and Plato) for any detailed knowledge of his methods and results. The trouble is that Plato was himself a philosopher who often injected his own theories into the dialogues he presented to the world as discussions between Socrates and other famous figures of the day. · Nevertheless, it is usually assumed that at least the early dialogues of Plato. provide a (fairly) accurate representation of Socrates himself.
Socrates profoundly affected Western philosophy through his influence on Plato. Born in Athens, the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife, he received the regular elementary education in literature, music, and gymnastics. Initially, Socrates followed the craft of his father; according to a former tradition, he executed a statue group of the three Graces, which stood at the entrance to the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD. He asserts superiority of argument overwriting.
Socrates believed in the superiority of argument over writing and therefore spent the greater part of his mature life in the marketplace and public places of Athens, engaging in dialogue and argument with anyone who would listen or who would submit to interrogation. Socrates was reportedly unattractive in appearance and short of stature but was also extremely hardy and self controlled. He enjoyed life immensely and achieved social popularity because of his ready wit and a keen sense of humour that was completely devoid of satire or cynicism.
Socrates attitude toward politics was obedient, but generally steered clear of politics, restrained by what he believed to be divine warning. He believed that he had received a call to pursue philosophy and could serve his country best by devoting himself to teaching, and by persuading the Athenians to engage in self-examination and in tending to their souls. He didn’t write any books and established no regular school of philosophy. All that is known, with certainty about his personality and his way of thinking is derived from the works of two of his distinguished scholars: Plato and the historian Xenophon, a prosaic writer who probably failed to understand many of Socrates’ doctrines. Plato portrayed Socrates as hiding behind an ironical profession of ignorance, known as Socratic irony, and possessing a mental acuity and resourcefulness that enabled him to penetrate arguments with great facility.
Socrates’ contribution to philosophy was essentially ethical in character. Belief in a purely objective understanding of such concepts as justice, love, and virtue, and the self-knowledge that he inculcated, were the basis of his teachings. He believed that ali vice is the result of ignorance, and that no person is willingly bad; correspondingly, virtue is knowledge, and those who know the right will act rightly. His logic placed particular emphasis on rational argument and the quest for general definitions, as evidenced in the writings of his younger contemporary and pupil, Plato, and of Plato’s pupil, Aristotle.
Another thinker befriended and influenced by Socrates was Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynic school of philosophy. Socrates was also the teacher of Aristippus, who founded the Cyrenaic philosophy of experience and pleasure, from which developed the more lofty philosophy of Epicures. To such Stoics as the Greek philosopher Epictetus, the Roman philosopher Seneca the Elder, and the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, Socrates appeared as the very embodiment and guide of the higher life.
Although a patriot and a man of deep religious conviction, Socrates was nonetheless regarded with suspicion by many of his contemporaries who disliked his attitude toward the Athenian state and the established religion. He was charged in 399BC with neglecting the gods of the state and introducing new divinities, a reference to the daemon, or mystical inner voice, to which Socrates often referred. He was also charged with corrupting the morals of the young, leading them away from the principles of democracy; and he was wrongly identified with the Sophists, This was possibly because he had been ridiculed by the comic poet Aristophanes in his play The Clouds as the master of a “thinking-shop” where young men were taught to make the worse reason appear the better reason.
Plato’s Apology gives the substance of the defence made by Socrates at his trial; it was a bold vindication of his whole life. He was condemned to die even though only a small majority carried the vote. When, according to Athenian legal practice, Socrates made an ironic counter-proposition to the court’s death sentence, proposing only to pay a small fine because of his value to the state as a man with a philosophic mission, the jury was so angered by this offer that it voted by an increased majority for the death penalty.
Socrates’ friends planned his escape from prison, but he preferred to comply with the law and die for his cause. His last day was spent with his friends and admirers, and in the evening he calmly fulfilled his sentence by drinking a cup of hemlock according to a customary procedure of execution. Plato described the trial and death of Socrates in the Apology, the Crito, and the Phaedo.
Because of his political associations with an earlier regime, the Athenian democracy put Socrates on trial, charging him with undermining state religion and corrupting young people. The speech he offered in his own defence, as reported in Plato’s (Apology), provides us with many reminders of the central features of Socrates’ approach to philosophy and its relation to practical life.
Explaining his mission as a philosopher, Socrates reports an oracular message telling him “No one is wiser than you.” (Apology 21a) He then proceeds through a series of ironic descriptions of his efforts to disprove the oracle by conversing with notable Athenians who must surely be wiser. In each case, in each case, however, Socrates concludes that he has a kind of wisdom that each of them lacks, namely, open awareness of his own ignorance.
The goal of Socratic interrogation, then, is to help individuals to achieve genuine self-knowledge, even if it often turns out to be negative in character. As his cross-examination of Meletus shows, Socrates means to turn the methods of the Sophists inside out, using logical nitpicking to expose (rather than to create) illusions about reality. If the method rarely succeeds with interlocutors, it can nevertheless be effectively internalized as a dialectical mode of reasoning in an effort to understand everything.
Even after the jury has convicted him, Socrates declines to abandon his pursuit of the truth in all matters. Refusing to accept exile from Athens or a commitment to silence as his penalty, he maintains that public discussion of the great issues of life and virtue is a necessary part of any valuable human life. “The unexamined life is not worth living.” (Apology 38a) Socrates would rather die than give up philosophy, and the jury seems happy to grant him that wish.
Even when the jury has sentenced him to death, Socrates calmly delivers his final public words, a speculation about what the future holds. Disclaiming any certainty about the fate of a human being after death, he nevertheless expresses a continued confidence in the power of reason, which he has exhibited (while the jury has not). Who really wins will remain unclear.
Plato’s dramatic picture of a man willing to face death rather than abandoning his commitment to philosophical inquiry offers up So model for all future philosophers. Perhaps few of us are presented with the same stark choice between philosophy and death, but all of us are daily faced with opportunities to decide between convenient conventionality and our devotion to truth and reason. How we choose determines whether we, like Socrates, deserve to call our lives philosophical. | <urn:uuid:6a0324b5-32b6-4e9e-9caf-f2e92447a19e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecollegestudy.net/2019/02/the-life-thoughts-of-socrates.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00125.warc.gz | en | 0.982006 | 1,946 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.3367266654968261... | 5 | Philosophy is a vast field. It examines and probes many different fields. Virtue, morality, immortality, death, and the difference between the psyche 1 (soul) and the soma (body) are just a few of the many different topics which can be covered under the umbrella of philosophy. Philosophers are supposed to be experts on all these subjects. The have well thought out opinions, and they are very learned people.
Among the most revered philosophers of all time was Socrates. Living around the 5th century B.C., Socrates was among the first philosophers who wasn’t a sophist, meaning that he never felt that he was wise for he was always in the pursuit of knowledge. Unfortunately, Socrates was put to death late in his life. One of his best students, Plato, however, recorded what had occurred on that last day of Socrates’ life. On that last day of his life, Socrates made a quite powerful claim. He claimed that philosophy was merely practiced for getting used to death and dying.
The most interesting and influential thinker in the fifth century was Socrates, whose dedication to careful reasoning transformed the entire enterprise. Since he sought genuine knowledge rather than mere victory over an opponent, He familiarized himself with the rhetoric and dialectics of the Sophists, the speculations of the Lonian philosophers, and the general culture of Periclean Athens. Socrates employed the same logical tricks developed by the Sophists to a new purpose, the pursuit of truth. Thus, his willingness to call everything into question and his determination to accept nothing less than an adequate account of the nature of things make him the first clear exponent of critical philosophy.
Although he was well known during his own time for his conversational skills and public teaching, Socrates wrote nothing, so we are dependent upon his students (especially Kenophon and Plato) for any detailed knowledge of his methods and results. The trouble is that Plato was himself a philosopher who often injected his own theories into the dialogues he presented to the world as discussions between Socrates and other famous figures of the day. · Nevertheless, it is usually assumed that at least the early dialogues of Plato. provide a (fairly) accurate representation of Socrates himself.
Socrates profoundly affected Western philosophy through his influence on Plato. Born in Athens, the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife, he received the regular elementary education in literature, music, and gymnastics. Initially, Socrates followed the craft of his father; according to a former tradition, he executed a statue group of the three Graces, which stood at the entrance to the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD. He asserts superiority of argument overwriting.
Socrates believed in the superiority of argument over writing and therefore spent the greater part of his mature life in the marketplace and public places of Athens, engaging in dialogue and argument with anyone who would listen or who would submit to interrogation. Socrates was reportedly unattractive in appearance and short of stature but was also extremely hardy and self controlled. He enjoyed life immensely and achieved social popularity because of his ready wit and a keen sense of humour that was completely devoid of satire or cynicism.
Socrates attitude toward politics was obedient, but generally steered clear of politics, restrained by what he believed to be divine warning. He believed that he had received a call to pursue philosophy and could serve his country best by devoting himself to teaching, and by persuading the Athenians to engage in self-examination and in tending to their souls. He didn’t write any books and established no regular school of philosophy. All that is known, with certainty about his personality and his way of thinking is derived from the works of two of his distinguished scholars: Plato and the historian Xenophon, a prosaic writer who probably failed to understand many of Socrates’ doctrines. Plato portrayed Socrates as hiding behind an ironical profession of ignorance, known as Socratic irony, and possessing a mental acuity and resourcefulness that enabled him to penetrate arguments with great facility.
Socrates’ contribution to philosophy was essentially ethical in character. Belief in a purely objective understanding of such concepts as justice, love, and virtue, and the self-knowledge that he inculcated, were the basis of his teachings. He believed that ali vice is the result of ignorance, and that no person is willingly bad; correspondingly, virtue is knowledge, and those who know the right will act rightly. His logic placed particular emphasis on rational argument and the quest for general definitions, as evidenced in the writings of his younger contemporary and pupil, Plato, and of Plato’s pupil, Aristotle.
Another thinker befriended and influenced by Socrates was Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynic school of philosophy. Socrates was also the teacher of Aristippus, who founded the Cyrenaic philosophy of experience and pleasure, from which developed the more lofty philosophy of Epicures. To such Stoics as the Greek philosopher Epictetus, the Roman philosopher Seneca the Elder, and the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, Socrates appeared as the very embodiment and guide of the higher life.
Although a patriot and a man of deep religious conviction, Socrates was nonetheless regarded with suspicion by many of his contemporaries who disliked his attitude toward the Athenian state and the established religion. He was charged in 399BC with neglecting the gods of the state and introducing new divinities, a reference to the daemon, or mystical inner voice, to which Socrates often referred. He was also charged with corrupting the morals of the young, leading them away from the principles of democracy; and he was wrongly identified with the Sophists, This was possibly because he had been ridiculed by the comic poet Aristophanes in his play The Clouds as the master of a “thinking-shop” where young men were taught to make the worse reason appear the better reason.
Plato’s Apology gives the substance of the defence made by Socrates at his trial; it was a bold vindication of his whole life. He was condemned to die even though only a small majority carried the vote. When, according to Athenian legal practice, Socrates made an ironic counter-proposition to the court’s death sentence, proposing only to pay a small fine because of his value to the state as a man with a philosophic mission, the jury was so angered by this offer that it voted by an increased majority for the death penalty.
Socrates’ friends planned his escape from prison, but he preferred to comply with the law and die for his cause. His last day was spent with his friends and admirers, and in the evening he calmly fulfilled his sentence by drinking a cup of hemlock according to a customary procedure of execution. Plato described the trial and death of Socrates in the Apology, the Crito, and the Phaedo.
Because of his political associations with an earlier regime, the Athenian democracy put Socrates on trial, charging him with undermining state religion and corrupting young people. The speech he offered in his own defence, as reported in Plato’s (Apology), provides us with many reminders of the central features of Socrates’ approach to philosophy and its relation to practical life.
Explaining his mission as a philosopher, Socrates reports an oracular message telling him “No one is wiser than you.” (Apology 21a) He then proceeds through a series of ironic descriptions of his efforts to disprove the oracle by conversing with notable Athenians who must surely be wiser. In each case, in each case, however, Socrates concludes that he has a kind of wisdom that each of them lacks, namely, open awareness of his own ignorance.
The goal of Socratic interrogation, then, is to help individuals to achieve genuine self-knowledge, even if it often turns out to be negative in character. As his cross-examination of Meletus shows, Socrates means to turn the methods of the Sophists inside out, using logical nitpicking to expose (rather than to create) illusions about reality. If the method rarely succeeds with interlocutors, it can nevertheless be effectively internalized as a dialectical mode of reasoning in an effort to understand everything.
Even after the jury has convicted him, Socrates declines to abandon his pursuit of the truth in all matters. Refusing to accept exile from Athens or a commitment to silence as his penalty, he maintains that public discussion of the great issues of life and virtue is a necessary part of any valuable human life. “The unexamined life is not worth living.” (Apology 38a) Socrates would rather die than give up philosophy, and the jury seems happy to grant him that wish.
Even when the jury has sentenced him to death, Socrates calmly delivers his final public words, a speculation about what the future holds. Disclaiming any certainty about the fate of a human being after death, he nevertheless expresses a continued confidence in the power of reason, which he has exhibited (while the jury has not). Who really wins will remain unclear.
Plato’s dramatic picture of a man willing to face death rather than abandoning his commitment to philosophical inquiry offers up So model for all future philosophers. Perhaps few of us are presented with the same stark choice between philosophy and death, but all of us are daily faced with opportunities to decide between convenient conventionality and our devotion to truth and reason. How we choose determines whether we, like Socrates, deserve to call our lives philosophical. | 1,949 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As I discovered papercutting, I began to read into it’s history and realised that it is a long established art form that has been practiced in many cultures. In this post I’ve summarised some interesting facts I’ve come across about the history of papercutting, and hopefully sharing this contribute to giving paper artists from the past and future the respect they deserve within the canon of art.
Papercutting is a term that is applied to a variety of different ways of creating an image by cutting into paper. Often we think of 2D illustrative images, but papercutting is also used in paper sculpture, collage, installation, stencil making, shadow puppets and other arts. I think its wonderful how such a simple material can be used in so many ways.
It many different cultures papercutting and papercraft are used in symbolic ceremony or religious events. For example in parts of China papercuts are put up around the home to mark the Spring Festival and bring good luck, as well as for other festivals and celebrations. In Japanese culture it is known as Kirigami, the art of cut paper. Papel Picado is the Mexican folk art of papercutting, and literally translates as ‘punched’ paper. Tissue paper is cut with scissors or a chisel to create ephemeral banners that are hung at all major holidays, and well as celebrations such as weddings and funerals. In Indian art papercutting is called Sanjhi, and the paper is used as a stencil on the floor in which colours are placed to create Rangoli. In Jewish culture papercutting is a traditional folk art, with papercuts often created as symbolic artworks for religious ceremony, as well as using paper artwork to decorate windows. Papercutting also has a long history in Swedish, Swiss, Filipino and Eastern European culture where it is known as Wycinanki.
Papercutting has traveled with people to represent their daily lives and traditions. In Germany and Switzerland Scherenschnitte, which translates to English as ‘scissors cutting’, was a very popular folk art in the 16th century. These designs would sometimes involve folding the paper to create symmetrical patterns, but could also be cut directly into a single sheet of paper to create a pictorial image. Scherenschnitte traveled to America with German immigrants in the 18th century, and is particularly strong as an art form in Pennsylvania.
Papercutting has traditionally been seen as a ‘feminine craft’ but this is changing. For many centuries papercutting was considered a hobby craft for women to enjoy, and because of this the work of many brilliant female artists went without recognition, or their story was lost in history.
Joanna Koerton was born in 1650 in Amsterdam, where she lived until 1715. Creating papercut portraits of the rich and powerful, she experienced great success as an artist, and at the time one of her works sold for three times the amount of a Rembrant painting. Her technique of cutting extremely intricate detail into the paper created work that resembled engravings or an ink drawing, demonstrating the potential that papercutting had to hold it own against the more established ‘high’ art forms like painting.
This tension between the ‘crafts’ that women were encouraged to participate in and the ‘high’ arts of painting, sculpture and artchitecture is demonstrated by the stort of the opening of the Royal Academy of Art in 1768. Of the 34 founding members, only two were women. Originally the first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art in 1769 was an open call for all art froms, but within a year this was changed. On the 9th of April 1770 it was decreed that ‘No needlework, artifical flowers, cut paper, shell work or any such baubles shall be admitted into the exhibition.’ This was an instituational rejection of applied art and the art forms that were predominately practiced by women at the time, thereby excluding many women form being recognised as artists in their own right. You can learn more about this on the BBC Documentary The Story Of Women and Art.
Today of course papercutting is hugely popular and practised by people of all genders around the world. It’s really exciting to see it getting recognition as an art, and to see more people taking it up! I love teaching papercutting because it is so accessible, affordable and can offer people a form of mindfulness.
Sometimes I will visit the website of an illustrator whose work I like and I am always impressed if their biography says they always wanted to be an illustrator, they studied illustration and…then they became an illustrator! Oh to be that clear from early on what I wanted to do with myself! My journey to becoming a paper artist and illustrator has been long and winding, with detours and diversions all over the shop.
True, from a young age I had lots of ‘notions’ about being an artist. I also used to like playing ‘school’ and make my little brother sit down and do maths in the summer holidays while I was the ‘teacher’, which in retrospect was probably only fun for one of us but implies I had ambitions to teach. I also wanted to be a vet for a while until my inability to manage basic maths derailed that dream, and after watching ‘Space Camp’ A LOT I had fantasies about being an astronaut for some time. Being creative and drawing was less of a career aspiration and more of a long running thread throughout my life, and when I was a teenager it became a sort of therapy that I would turn to whenever life was too difficult, which let’s be honest, as a teenager is most of the time for a lot of us.
I focused on the arts and history pretty easily as my favourite subjects and has decided by my A Levels I wanted to go to art school. I did a year of Art Foundation (which I still think about as one of the best years of my education and should be more valued as a pathway now) and at some point during this I chose sculpture pathway. I think, primarily, this was because I perceived sculpture to be the ‘coolest’ choice as it involved wood, metal and plaster, sharp tools and wearing a boiler suit. If I were being kinder to my naive 18 year old self, perhaps what it also offered was the most experimentation with different mediums, and the opportunity to learn lots of new techniques. Because to me, choosing one medium meant closing the door on all the others and I really didn’t like that idea. This is an important point, which I’ll probably come back to at several points in this strange, extended essay about my life.
Somehow, presenting a bizarre collection comprising of a pile of art journals obsessively typed into interfacing on an ancient typewriter and then hand sewn into every page, some frankly creepy pencil drawings of people with animal ears, a photograph album of bits of broken doll parts cast in plaster and some miniature wedding dresses got me a place at Goldsmiths College in London. I had only applied to courses that didn’t have a specialism (see inability to choose anything as mentioned above) so I was excited to start and try all the different workshops, media and ideas. And try them I did. Being a bit of a Hermione Granger at heart I spent vast amounts of time in the library reading about every artist, art form or technique I could. In my three years at art college I made sculpture, installation, books, paintings, dolls houses, some really cringe worthy performance art (some performance art is amazing – mine was not), decided I wanted to be a glass artist and then graduated making film installations about the history of landscape and it’s relationship with communication technology.
As soon as I graduated I knew that I wasn’t a good fit for the London art world, and I was offered the opportunity to visit South Lakes in Cumbria where I decided to stay. I felt really confused about my relationship with my creativity at this time. My experience of art school had been both very challenging and fulfilling in some ways, but being taught to look at my work objectively had separated me from my passion for making things. I couldn’t engage with an artistic activity without constantly questioning ‘what it really meant’ and was it’s context was within the history of art. As a reaction to this I got a job in a shop and spent a lot of my time knitting, sewing and drawing which all brought me joy in small ways and helped me escape my own endless self-doubt.
I also began to volunteer on creative workshops for families, eventually running my own. Working with children and sharing in their powerful enthusiasm just to be creative was inspiring, and helped me to find my own love of art again. The fact that every class, group or project was new meant I was given permission learn absolutely every art form, and in fact this was seen as a strength! This led me to working for 7 years as a creative practitioner where I got to do some amazing projects from leading family activities in museums and galleries, to planting a sensory garden, to animation workshops and working on parades, carnivals and other celebratory arts events.
During this time I would say my specialism was in visual storytelling with 5 – 11 year olds. This included using illustration, animation and puppetry to explore with children how stories are created or re-told, and leading activities where they developed their own visual storytelling skills. In 2010 I began an MA in Art as Environment at Manchester School Of Art. I spent my time on my MA exploring how art and creativity could empower people, and completely immersed myself in learning everything I could about the art of puppetry and puppet making. I was lucky enough to work with some puppet theatres, celebratory arts companies and practitioner like Horse + Bamboo, Thingumajig Theatre, Handmade Parade and Ulverston Lantern Festival in this time. Yet again, I saw puppetry as the dream art form because it allowed me to do many things including draw, paint, sculpt, sew, animate and write stories.
As someone who loved to draw, I was especially interested in shadow puppetry and began to create my own shadow puppets, and to teach shadow puppet workshops and stop-motion animation. I read or bought every book I could find, and I have to say I don’t remember ever seeing a papercut mentioned…although I may not have been looking at this point! However, I liked my shadow puppets… I struggled seeing them getting bashed about, or being bound in a laminator to make them more hardy. So I began to cut pictures out of paper as well, and at some point I realised that the art of Rob Ryan which a friend had shown me wasn’t just screen prints, but were also an artform in it’s own right called papercutting!
I know this must seem funny now that paper arts have gained so much recognition, but papercutting just wasn’t talked about as much then as it is now, and up until 2010 there was no Instagram to easily show you the world of creative possibilities (also being somewhat un-hip I only joined Instagram in 2015). I had seen Scandinavian papercut collages in museums, and I’m sure I must have seen papercuts in the V&A, as well as traditional Victorian cut portraits. But it took me a while to realise that I could call myself a ‘papercutter’. Finding books like ‘Paper: Tear, Fold, Rip, Crease, Cut’ by Hatori Koshiro and Richard Sweeney showed me what it was possible to achieve with paper.
I spent my evenings googling paper art – trying to work out what the best tools were, which papers worked well and what adhesives to avoid. And I made many many mistakes…including using the same blunt scalpel for a month, trying to cut copy paper into an intricate papercut and getting a papercut I’d spent hours on stuck to brown paper after I coated it in cheap PVA. But eventually I began to use better tools and materials, and my technique began to improve too. It took me a while to work out what I wanted to represent as an artist. I began by making papercut borders for local business or for events posters for my community, all with a pretty whimsical, fairytale inspired feel.
But in 2014 I began working towards a solo show in a local cafe, and I decided to make a series of British birds with ornate patterns on their bodies, as I liked how this referenced Chinese and Scandinavian papercutting history without directly imitating these styles. And from there the world of representing nature in paper was opened up to me, and it’s been my focus ever since!
So, as I warned at the beginning of this post, my journey to making the artwork I do now was long and complicated! But I also feel glad I didn’t close too many doors too early, as this just doesn’t suit how my creativity works. I think the thing I love about paper art is how many different crafts that umbrella term can contain – from papercutting, sculpture, origami, book folding, papercut animation, quilling and more. It can involve drawing, cutting, construction, book making and paper engineering. There are just so many possibilities. And of course I want to do them….all!
But do I think I’ll be calling myself a paper artist for the rest of my life? In all honesty I doubt it. I’m sure over time my practice will evolve as my interests will change. But I do feel that at this point paper art is a key aspect of my work as an artist that excites me, and often brings me a lot of joy. And I hope that I can make a worthy contribution to this ancient way of producing art, and hopefully inspire other people to engage with their own creativity. For me, creativity is about the process not the final outcome, and being an artist is my way of life, not my ‘brand’. I have developed an approach where I focus more on certain aspects of my interests, and in order to make a living I communicate these in specific ways which I guess is branding. But I wanted to write this more for those, like me, who feel like they are never able to find their ‘thing’, and therefore they are somehow doing it wrong. I think having one clear practice is a way of being an artist, not neccessarily the way and it’s ok to try things, to experiment, to move on. After all isn’t that an inherent part of being creative and learning? | <urn:uuid:381b9cad-ad06-40c9-abc0-f9f66a40fb10> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://storiesinpaper.com/category/blog/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00244.warc.gz | en | 0.980939 | 3,063 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.307219296693801... | 3 | As I discovered papercutting, I began to read into it’s history and realised that it is a long established art form that has been practiced in many cultures. In this post I’ve summarised some interesting facts I’ve come across about the history of papercutting, and hopefully sharing this contribute to giving paper artists from the past and future the respect they deserve within the canon of art.
Papercutting is a term that is applied to a variety of different ways of creating an image by cutting into paper. Often we think of 2D illustrative images, but papercutting is also used in paper sculpture, collage, installation, stencil making, shadow puppets and other arts. I think its wonderful how such a simple material can be used in so many ways.
It many different cultures papercutting and papercraft are used in symbolic ceremony or religious events. For example in parts of China papercuts are put up around the home to mark the Spring Festival and bring good luck, as well as for other festivals and celebrations. In Japanese culture it is known as Kirigami, the art of cut paper. Papel Picado is the Mexican folk art of papercutting, and literally translates as ‘punched’ paper. Tissue paper is cut with scissors or a chisel to create ephemeral banners that are hung at all major holidays, and well as celebrations such as weddings and funerals. In Indian art papercutting is called Sanjhi, and the paper is used as a stencil on the floor in which colours are placed to create Rangoli. In Jewish culture papercutting is a traditional folk art, with papercuts often created as symbolic artworks for religious ceremony, as well as using paper artwork to decorate windows. Papercutting also has a long history in Swedish, Swiss, Filipino and Eastern European culture where it is known as Wycinanki.
Papercutting has traveled with people to represent their daily lives and traditions. In Germany and Switzerland Scherenschnitte, which translates to English as ‘scissors cutting’, was a very popular folk art in the 16th century. These designs would sometimes involve folding the paper to create symmetrical patterns, but could also be cut directly into a single sheet of paper to create a pictorial image. Scherenschnitte traveled to America with German immigrants in the 18th century, and is particularly strong as an art form in Pennsylvania.
Papercutting has traditionally been seen as a ‘feminine craft’ but this is changing. For many centuries papercutting was considered a hobby craft for women to enjoy, and because of this the work of many brilliant female artists went without recognition, or their story was lost in history.
Joanna Koerton was born in 1650 in Amsterdam, where she lived until 1715. Creating papercut portraits of the rich and powerful, she experienced great success as an artist, and at the time one of her works sold for three times the amount of a Rembrant painting. Her technique of cutting extremely intricate detail into the paper created work that resembled engravings or an ink drawing, demonstrating the potential that papercutting had to hold it own against the more established ‘high’ art forms like painting.
This tension between the ‘crafts’ that women were encouraged to participate in and the ‘high’ arts of painting, sculpture and artchitecture is demonstrated by the stort of the opening of the Royal Academy of Art in 1768. Of the 34 founding members, only two were women. Originally the first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art in 1769 was an open call for all art froms, but within a year this was changed. On the 9th of April 1770 it was decreed that ‘No needlework, artifical flowers, cut paper, shell work or any such baubles shall be admitted into the exhibition.’ This was an instituational rejection of applied art and the art forms that were predominately practiced by women at the time, thereby excluding many women form being recognised as artists in their own right. You can learn more about this on the BBC Documentary The Story Of Women and Art.
Today of course papercutting is hugely popular and practised by people of all genders around the world. It’s really exciting to see it getting recognition as an art, and to see more people taking it up! I love teaching papercutting because it is so accessible, affordable and can offer people a form of mindfulness.
Sometimes I will visit the website of an illustrator whose work I like and I am always impressed if their biography says they always wanted to be an illustrator, they studied illustration and…then they became an illustrator! Oh to be that clear from early on what I wanted to do with myself! My journey to becoming a paper artist and illustrator has been long and winding, with detours and diversions all over the shop.
True, from a young age I had lots of ‘notions’ about being an artist. I also used to like playing ‘school’ and make my little brother sit down and do maths in the summer holidays while I was the ‘teacher’, which in retrospect was probably only fun for one of us but implies I had ambitions to teach. I also wanted to be a vet for a while until my inability to manage basic maths derailed that dream, and after watching ‘Space Camp’ A LOT I had fantasies about being an astronaut for some time. Being creative and drawing was less of a career aspiration and more of a long running thread throughout my life, and when I was a teenager it became a sort of therapy that I would turn to whenever life was too difficult, which let’s be honest, as a teenager is most of the time for a lot of us.
I focused on the arts and history pretty easily as my favourite subjects and has decided by my A Levels I wanted to go to art school. I did a year of Art Foundation (which I still think about as one of the best years of my education and should be more valued as a pathway now) and at some point during this I chose sculpture pathway. I think, primarily, this was because I perceived sculpture to be the ‘coolest’ choice as it involved wood, metal and plaster, sharp tools and wearing a boiler suit. If I were being kinder to my naive 18 year old self, perhaps what it also offered was the most experimentation with different mediums, and the opportunity to learn lots of new techniques. Because to me, choosing one medium meant closing the door on all the others and I really didn’t like that idea. This is an important point, which I’ll probably come back to at several points in this strange, extended essay about my life.
Somehow, presenting a bizarre collection comprising of a pile of art journals obsessively typed into interfacing on an ancient typewriter and then hand sewn into every page, some frankly creepy pencil drawings of people with animal ears, a photograph album of bits of broken doll parts cast in plaster and some miniature wedding dresses got me a place at Goldsmiths College in London. I had only applied to courses that didn’t have a specialism (see inability to choose anything as mentioned above) so I was excited to start and try all the different workshops, media and ideas. And try them I did. Being a bit of a Hermione Granger at heart I spent vast amounts of time in the library reading about every artist, art form or technique I could. In my three years at art college I made sculpture, installation, books, paintings, dolls houses, some really cringe worthy performance art (some performance art is amazing – mine was not), decided I wanted to be a glass artist and then graduated making film installations about the history of landscape and it’s relationship with communication technology.
As soon as I graduated I knew that I wasn’t a good fit for the London art world, and I was offered the opportunity to visit South Lakes in Cumbria where I decided to stay. I felt really confused about my relationship with my creativity at this time. My experience of art school had been both very challenging and fulfilling in some ways, but being taught to look at my work objectively had separated me from my passion for making things. I couldn’t engage with an artistic activity without constantly questioning ‘what it really meant’ and was it’s context was within the history of art. As a reaction to this I got a job in a shop and spent a lot of my time knitting, sewing and drawing which all brought me joy in small ways and helped me escape my own endless self-doubt.
I also began to volunteer on creative workshops for families, eventually running my own. Working with children and sharing in their powerful enthusiasm just to be creative was inspiring, and helped me to find my own love of art again. The fact that every class, group or project was new meant I was given permission learn absolutely every art form, and in fact this was seen as a strength! This led me to working for 7 years as a creative practitioner where I got to do some amazing projects from leading family activities in museums and galleries, to planting a sensory garden, to animation workshops and working on parades, carnivals and other celebratory arts events.
During this time I would say my specialism was in visual storytelling with 5 – 11 year olds. This included using illustration, animation and puppetry to explore with children how stories are created or re-told, and leading activities where they developed their own visual storytelling skills. In 2010 I began an MA in Art as Environment at Manchester School Of Art. I spent my time on my MA exploring how art and creativity could empower people, and completely immersed myself in learning everything I could about the art of puppetry and puppet making. I was lucky enough to work with some puppet theatres, celebratory arts companies and practitioner like Horse + Bamboo, Thingumajig Theatre, Handmade Parade and Ulverston Lantern Festival in this time. Yet again, I saw puppetry as the dream art form because it allowed me to do many things including draw, paint, sculpt, sew, animate and write stories.
As someone who loved to draw, I was especially interested in shadow puppetry and began to create my own shadow puppets, and to teach shadow puppet workshops and stop-motion animation. I read or bought every book I could find, and I have to say I don’t remember ever seeing a papercut mentioned…although I may not have been looking at this point! However, I liked my shadow puppets… I struggled seeing them getting bashed about, or being bound in a laminator to make them more hardy. So I began to cut pictures out of paper as well, and at some point I realised that the art of Rob Ryan which a friend had shown me wasn’t just screen prints, but were also an artform in it’s own right called papercutting!
I know this must seem funny now that paper arts have gained so much recognition, but papercutting just wasn’t talked about as much then as it is now, and up until 2010 there was no Instagram to easily show you the world of creative possibilities (also being somewhat un-hip I only joined Instagram in 2015). I had seen Scandinavian papercut collages in museums, and I’m sure I must have seen papercuts in the V&A, as well as traditional Victorian cut portraits. But it took me a while to realise that I could call myself a ‘papercutter’. Finding books like ‘Paper: Tear, Fold, Rip, Crease, Cut’ by Hatori Koshiro and Richard Sweeney showed me what it was possible to achieve with paper.
I spent my evenings googling paper art – trying to work out what the best tools were, which papers worked well and what adhesives to avoid. And I made many many mistakes…including using the same blunt scalpel for a month, trying to cut copy paper into an intricate papercut and getting a papercut I’d spent hours on stuck to brown paper after I coated it in cheap PVA. But eventually I began to use better tools and materials, and my technique began to improve too. It took me a while to work out what I wanted to represent as an artist. I began by making papercut borders for local business or for events posters for my community, all with a pretty whimsical, fairytale inspired feel.
But in 2014 I began working towards a solo show in a local cafe, and I decided to make a series of British birds with ornate patterns on their bodies, as I liked how this referenced Chinese and Scandinavian papercutting history without directly imitating these styles. And from there the world of representing nature in paper was opened up to me, and it’s been my focus ever since!
So, as I warned at the beginning of this post, my journey to making the artwork I do now was long and complicated! But I also feel glad I didn’t close too many doors too early, as this just doesn’t suit how my creativity works. I think the thing I love about paper art is how many different crafts that umbrella term can contain – from papercutting, sculpture, origami, book folding, papercut animation, quilling and more. It can involve drawing, cutting, construction, book making and paper engineering. There are just so many possibilities. And of course I want to do them….all!
But do I think I’ll be calling myself a paper artist for the rest of my life? In all honesty I doubt it. I’m sure over time my practice will evolve as my interests will change. But I do feel that at this point paper art is a key aspect of my work as an artist that excites me, and often brings me a lot of joy. And I hope that I can make a worthy contribution to this ancient way of producing art, and hopefully inspire other people to engage with their own creativity. For me, creativity is about the process not the final outcome, and being an artist is my way of life, not my ‘brand’. I have developed an approach where I focus more on certain aspects of my interests, and in order to make a living I communicate these in specific ways which I guess is branding. But I wanted to write this more for those, like me, who feel like they are never able to find their ‘thing’, and therefore they are somehow doing it wrong. I think having one clear practice is a way of being an artist, not neccessarily the way and it’s ok to try things, to experiment, to move on. After all isn’t that an inherent part of being creative and learning? | 3,019 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Swing dance is an umbrella term used to describe several styles of dance originating from 20th century America.
First and foremost, swing dances are street dances, meaning they were created by everyday folks going to music and dance halls for a fun time. The origin is not one of ballrooms and highly trained professionals, but rather one of African American youth responding to the music of the era. The creation of swing dance was a direct reflection of the newly emerging jazz music of the 1920s. During this time, an early form of the dance called the charleston took the nation by storm. It became a national dance craze that people of all color, status, and locale danced. Right along with the charleston came a dance known as breakaway. These dance steps combined through the years, and adapted with the popular music as it gained a more heavy swing beat. Thus, lindy hop was born. Lindy hop is entirely the creation of African American youth in Harlem, New York, as a response to the new sounds of swing being invented by black musicians during the Harlem Renaissance.
As swing music made its way across the U.S., the dance spread and developed regional differences. Today, we know these styles and dances as LA swing, balboa, and bal-swing. Alongside these were solo dances and line dances made by choreographers to express both vernacular solo jazz and partner dancing. | <urn:uuid:ddb87e79-2950-4f51-9efa-e54f53deedb0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.riversidehop.org/resources/history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.981955 | 287 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.21445594727993... | 4 | Swing dance is an umbrella term used to describe several styles of dance originating from 20th century America.
First and foremost, swing dances are street dances, meaning they were created by everyday folks going to music and dance halls for a fun time. The origin is not one of ballrooms and highly trained professionals, but rather one of African American youth responding to the music of the era. The creation of swing dance was a direct reflection of the newly emerging jazz music of the 1920s. During this time, an early form of the dance called the charleston took the nation by storm. It became a national dance craze that people of all color, status, and locale danced. Right along with the charleston came a dance known as breakaway. These dance steps combined through the years, and adapted with the popular music as it gained a more heavy swing beat. Thus, lindy hop was born. Lindy hop is entirely the creation of African American youth in Harlem, New York, as a response to the new sounds of swing being invented by black musicians during the Harlem Renaissance.
As swing music made its way across the U.S., the dance spread and developed regional differences. Today, we know these styles and dances as LA swing, balboa, and bal-swing. Alongside these were solo dances and line dances made by choreographers to express both vernacular solo jazz and partner dancing. | 286 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women first organized and collectively fought for suffrage at the national level in July of 1848. Suffragists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott convened a meeting of over 300 people in Seneca Falls, New York. In the following decades, women marched, protested, lobbied, and even went to jail. By the 1870s, women pressured Congress to vote on an amendment that would recognize their suffrage rights. This amendment was sometimes known as the Susan B. Anthony amendment and became the 19th Amendment.
The amendment reads:
"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex."
After decades of arguments for and against women's suffrage, Congress finally passed the 19th Amendment in June 1919. After Congress approved the 19th Amendment, at least 36 states needed to vote in favor of the amendment for it to become law.
On February 12, 1920, Virginia voted against ratifying the 19th Amendment. But by August of 1920, 36 states approved the proposal and it became law all across the country – even in Virginia--that the right to vote could not be denied based on sex.
On February 21, 1952, Virginia showed its support for women’s suffrage by officially ratifying the 19th Amendment.
Virginia Places of Women's Suffrage: Three Hills
Three Hills was the home of author Mary Johnston. In addition to writing over 20 books, she was also active in the women’s suffrage movement. Many of her books focus on the theme of women’s rights. Three Hills is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Last updated: August 23, 2019 | <urn:uuid:4d75e4d0-bcb4-4664-a3ad-6a6902c7428f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nps.gov/articles/virginia-women-s-history.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00147.warc.gz | en | 0.980812 | 355 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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-0.0752732455730438... | 6 | Women first organized and collectively fought for suffrage at the national level in July of 1848. Suffragists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott convened a meeting of over 300 people in Seneca Falls, New York. In the following decades, women marched, protested, lobbied, and even went to jail. By the 1870s, women pressured Congress to vote on an amendment that would recognize their suffrage rights. This amendment was sometimes known as the Susan B. Anthony amendment and became the 19th Amendment.
The amendment reads:
"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex."
After decades of arguments for and against women's suffrage, Congress finally passed the 19th Amendment in June 1919. After Congress approved the 19th Amendment, at least 36 states needed to vote in favor of the amendment for it to become law.
On February 12, 1920, Virginia voted against ratifying the 19th Amendment. But by August of 1920, 36 states approved the proposal and it became law all across the country – even in Virginia--that the right to vote could not be denied based on sex.
On February 21, 1952, Virginia showed its support for women’s suffrage by officially ratifying the 19th Amendment.
Virginia Places of Women's Suffrage: Three Hills
Three Hills was the home of author Mary Johnston. In addition to writing over 20 books, she was also active in the women’s suffrage movement. Many of her books focus on the theme of women’s rights. Three Hills is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Last updated: August 23, 2019 | 394 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of Hitler's strength was his amazing memory. Hitler had the uncanny ability to commit precise details to memory, particularly historical information, technical facts, economic statistics, and past personal experiences. As a child he did not have the best education. To make up for this he read everything that was put in front of him and retained all the knowledge. His knowledge of guns, tanks, ships and their capabilities as weapons of war benefited Germany’s war fighting machine.
He also had the experience to be a leader. Being a former solider he saw the battle field from his men‘s perspective and understood how the common soldier felt fighting on the front lines. Field Marshal Erich von Milstein credits Hitler with a number of characteristics essential to military leadership such as a strong will, nerves of steel and undeniable intelligence. His men looked up to him knowing he had risked his own life for their country they felt more comfortable and confident marching into battle.
Hitler also possessed the ability to adjust his conversation to the mentality of his audience. He could discuss highly technical matters with industrialists, engage in political conversations with diplomats, or simplify complex problems to a level easily understood by the common working class. Hitler used this talent to build his self-confidence by not allowing himself to feel intimidated when surrounded by those of a higher educational or cultural background and could comfortably discuss such topics as art, music, or literature. Hitler also used this skill when he wanted to persuade someone to accept his point of view. He always knew why a person wanted to see him before they arrived and had his counter-arguments so well prepared that the individual would leave convinced that Hitler’s logic was sound and not unreasonable
His power over the people was partly due to his extraordinary talent as an orator. Hitler was a master at the use of the spoken word and a genius at the art of manipulating mass propaganda for his political ends. His uncanny ability to appeal to the subconscious and irrational needs of his audience and to solicit the desired response made him a formidable political figure. It was not uncommon for women to faint or for the crowd’s emotions to range from tears to an overwhelming frenzy to the point they were ready and willing to believe almost anything he told them.
Over all Hitler was a military and political genius. He was everything a leader should be and that is why he was able to control all of Germany and start World War 2. Hitler was able to do so many incredible things, such as end the great depression in Germany in little as three years, but all these actions are tainted by the hatred and insanity he was in during his final years. In 1938 Hitler was Time magazine’s man of the year. Just think what would have happened to the world if Hitler's intentions were focused on good instead of evil. | <urn:uuid:3071680c-0c57-490d-b6c5-ceb218c1c1ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Great-Leader-63803716.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.989762 | 566 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.55236577... | 1 | One of Hitler's strength was his amazing memory. Hitler had the uncanny ability to commit precise details to memory, particularly historical information, technical facts, economic statistics, and past personal experiences. As a child he did not have the best education. To make up for this he read everything that was put in front of him and retained all the knowledge. His knowledge of guns, tanks, ships and their capabilities as weapons of war benefited Germany’s war fighting machine.
He also had the experience to be a leader. Being a former solider he saw the battle field from his men‘s perspective and understood how the common soldier felt fighting on the front lines. Field Marshal Erich von Milstein credits Hitler with a number of characteristics essential to military leadership such as a strong will, nerves of steel and undeniable intelligence. His men looked up to him knowing he had risked his own life for their country they felt more comfortable and confident marching into battle.
Hitler also possessed the ability to adjust his conversation to the mentality of his audience. He could discuss highly technical matters with industrialists, engage in political conversations with diplomats, or simplify complex problems to a level easily understood by the common working class. Hitler used this talent to build his self-confidence by not allowing himself to feel intimidated when surrounded by those of a higher educational or cultural background and could comfortably discuss such topics as art, music, or literature. Hitler also used this skill when he wanted to persuade someone to accept his point of view. He always knew why a person wanted to see him before they arrived and had his counter-arguments so well prepared that the individual would leave convinced that Hitler’s logic was sound and not unreasonable
His power over the people was partly due to his extraordinary talent as an orator. Hitler was a master at the use of the spoken word and a genius at the art of manipulating mass propaganda for his political ends. His uncanny ability to appeal to the subconscious and irrational needs of his audience and to solicit the desired response made him a formidable political figure. It was not uncommon for women to faint or for the crowd’s emotions to range from tears to an overwhelming frenzy to the point they were ready and willing to believe almost anything he told them.
Over all Hitler was a military and political genius. He was everything a leader should be and that is why he was able to control all of Germany and start World War 2. Hitler was able to do so many incredible things, such as end the great depression in Germany in little as three years, but all these actions are tainted by the hatred and insanity he was in during his final years. In 1938 Hitler was Time magazine’s man of the year. Just think what would have happened to the world if Hitler's intentions were focused on good instead of evil. | 559 | ENGLISH | 1 |
British Restaurants were communal kitchens created in 1940 during the Second World War to help people who had been bombed out of their homes, had run out of ration coupons or otherwise needed help. In 1943, 2,160 British Restaurants served 600,000 very inexpensive meals a day. They were disbanded in 1947. There was a political dimension as well, as the Labour Party saw them as a permanent solution to equalising consumption across the class line and guaranteeing a nourishing diet to the poor.
Originally called 'Community Feeding Centres', the name British Restaurants was chosen by the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. They were set up by the Ministry of Food and run by local government or voluntary agencies on a non-profit basis. Meals were sold for a set maximum price of 9d (equivalent to just under 4p, about US$2 or £1 GBP in purchasing power 2008) or less. No-one could be served with a meal of more than one serving of meat, game, poultry, fish, eggs, or cheese. In one in ten restaurants the meals were prepared at central depots. Schools and churches were often used because they had dining halls and kitchens. In London, mobile canteens delivered meals to air raid shelters and on the street in the aftermath of air raids.
By contrast, ordinary private restaurants continued in operation and were not subject to rationing. They did have some restrictions: for instance, no meal could be more than three courses and the maximum price was five shillings.
By mid-1941, over two hundred British Restaurants operated in the London County Council area, although the Wartime Social Survey conducted in 1942-43 indicated they were more popular in London than in the rest of the country. In November 1942 there were 1,899 restaurants. By 1943, there were some 2,160 British Restaurants across the country, serving around 600,000 meals per day for around 9d a time. 546 authorities made profits and 203 made losses, though they were set up to be not-for-profit.
Some smaller places did not qualify for a British Restaurant, but, instead, had what was termed a "Cash and Carry Restaurant" with meals being delivered from a nearby British Restaurant.
The ministry's dieticians prepared food based upon regional preferences and health. For example, the food served in Scotland was very different from that served in London due to the taste preferences of the inhabitants. Health was also a concern for BRs, as they were supposed to provide diners with "one third of the day's energy needs". The dieticians were especially concerned with Vitamin C intake. Due to the war efforts and rationing, fruit intake was extremely limited. Vegetables such as cabbage, which has a high percentage of Vitamin C, were implemented as a staple vegetable in BRs, in order to provide diners with beneficial nutrients. There was concern that, with mass catering, vitamins such as Vitamin C would be destroyed in the food sources.
The food in British Restaurants was said to be filling and of good quality. For 9d, customers could get a three-course meal. Traditionally, customers wanted a meal of meat and two vegetables. Most BRs served choices of five meat dishes, five vegetables, and five desserts. BRs in more populated areas had even more options. Popular dishes included roasts and potatoes, which acted as a substitute for bread. The foods served in British Restaurants could be prepared in large quantities, which made them good options for feeding an abundance of people. The preparation of food in BRs was industrialised, which also helped with inexpensive, commercial food preparation. For example, volunteers sliced potatoes with machines, rather than by hand.
After 1947 some restaurants were converted, under the Civic Restaurants Act, into civic restaurants run by the local council. In 1949, 678 still existed throughout the United Kingdom. The restaurants moved beyond the privations of wartime and into the new world of a Labour government making many changes to the social fabric of the country. The Labour Minister of Food, John Strachey, noted that "private enterprise in the catering trade has, on the whole and by and large, catered for the middle class and not for the working class."
If a civic restaurant operated at a loss for three consecutive years the act provided that ministerial consent would be needed for it to continue to remain open. These restaurants existed at least into the mid-1950s.
Atkins, Peter J. (2011). "Communal Feeding in War-Time: British Restaurants, 1940-1947". In Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska; et al. (eds.). Food and War in Twentieth Century Europe. Routledge. ISBN 1409417700. | <urn:uuid:4be4a971-4d29-46ac-85b6-0356def47e81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=British_Restaurant | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.980695 | 976 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.2658504247665... | 1 | British Restaurants were communal kitchens created in 1940 during the Second World War to help people who had been bombed out of their homes, had run out of ration coupons or otherwise needed help. In 1943, 2,160 British Restaurants served 600,000 very inexpensive meals a day. They were disbanded in 1947. There was a political dimension as well, as the Labour Party saw them as a permanent solution to equalising consumption across the class line and guaranteeing a nourishing diet to the poor.
Originally called 'Community Feeding Centres', the name British Restaurants was chosen by the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. They were set up by the Ministry of Food and run by local government or voluntary agencies on a non-profit basis. Meals were sold for a set maximum price of 9d (equivalent to just under 4p, about US$2 or £1 GBP in purchasing power 2008) or less. No-one could be served with a meal of more than one serving of meat, game, poultry, fish, eggs, or cheese. In one in ten restaurants the meals were prepared at central depots. Schools and churches were often used because they had dining halls and kitchens. In London, mobile canteens delivered meals to air raid shelters and on the street in the aftermath of air raids.
By contrast, ordinary private restaurants continued in operation and were not subject to rationing. They did have some restrictions: for instance, no meal could be more than three courses and the maximum price was five shillings.
By mid-1941, over two hundred British Restaurants operated in the London County Council area, although the Wartime Social Survey conducted in 1942-43 indicated they were more popular in London than in the rest of the country. In November 1942 there were 1,899 restaurants. By 1943, there were some 2,160 British Restaurants across the country, serving around 600,000 meals per day for around 9d a time. 546 authorities made profits and 203 made losses, though they were set up to be not-for-profit.
Some smaller places did not qualify for a British Restaurant, but, instead, had what was termed a "Cash and Carry Restaurant" with meals being delivered from a nearby British Restaurant.
The ministry's dieticians prepared food based upon regional preferences and health. For example, the food served in Scotland was very different from that served in London due to the taste preferences of the inhabitants. Health was also a concern for BRs, as they were supposed to provide diners with "one third of the day's energy needs". The dieticians were especially concerned with Vitamin C intake. Due to the war efforts and rationing, fruit intake was extremely limited. Vegetables such as cabbage, which has a high percentage of Vitamin C, were implemented as a staple vegetable in BRs, in order to provide diners with beneficial nutrients. There was concern that, with mass catering, vitamins such as Vitamin C would be destroyed in the food sources.
The food in British Restaurants was said to be filling and of good quality. For 9d, customers could get a three-course meal. Traditionally, customers wanted a meal of meat and two vegetables. Most BRs served choices of five meat dishes, five vegetables, and five desserts. BRs in more populated areas had even more options. Popular dishes included roasts and potatoes, which acted as a substitute for bread. The foods served in British Restaurants could be prepared in large quantities, which made them good options for feeding an abundance of people. The preparation of food in BRs was industrialised, which also helped with inexpensive, commercial food preparation. For example, volunteers sliced potatoes with machines, rather than by hand.
After 1947 some restaurants were converted, under the Civic Restaurants Act, into civic restaurants run by the local council. In 1949, 678 still existed throughout the United Kingdom. The restaurants moved beyond the privations of wartime and into the new world of a Labour government making many changes to the social fabric of the country. The Labour Minister of Food, John Strachey, noted that "private enterprise in the catering trade has, on the whole and by and large, catered for the middle class and not for the working class."
If a civic restaurant operated at a loss for three consecutive years the act provided that ministerial consent would be needed for it to continue to remain open. These restaurants existed at least into the mid-1950s.
Atkins, Peter J. (2011). "Communal Feeding in War-Time: British Restaurants, 1940-1947". In Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska; et al. (eds.). Food and War in Twentieth Century Europe. Routledge. ISBN 1409417700. | 1,038 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most archaeologists regard the discovery of the Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamun's tomb as the most important. Unlike tombs belonging to other pharaohs that had been vandalized by grave robbers and private collectors, Tutankhamun's tomb was found to be mostly intact. Its discovery, therefore, provided valuable information on the religion, rituals, and culture of the ancient Egyptians. The development also sheds light on the elaborate mummy preservation process that included drying of the body, removal of the digestive tract and brain and embalming of the corpse.
King Tutankhamun ascended to the throne at the age of nine and ruled until 1324 BC when he died aged 19 years. He notably reversed religious reforms that had been enacted by Pharaoh Akhenaten, his father. Tutankhamun believed that his father's attempts to replace the old gods with one deity, Aten, had angered the gods who in turn ignored Egypt. To match the Kingdom's return to the old gods, the young king changed his name from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun. At the time of his death, Tutankhamun was likely tall but frail. Tests conducted on his mummy revealed that he had suffered multiple malarial infections and that he suffered from a crippling bone disease in his left foot. Archaeologists believe that he was involved in a chariot accident that resulted in a broken leg and a subsequent infection of the injury that lead to his death. Pharaohs that came after him ignored his reign due to his tainted connection to his father and in so doing unintentionally preserved his tomb from would-be robbers.
Discovery Of His Tomb
The tomb was discovered by Howard Carter, an archaeologist who had spent five years exploring the Valley of the Kings. Carter and his team found the entrance to the tomb in November 1922. Once they finally got inside, Carter was astounded by the treasures that he found inside. Over 5,000 items were found inside including chariots, gold jewelry, clothes, a gold coffin, a gold death mask, weapons, and a gold throne. The discovery sparked what some call Tut-mania in the western world. Artifacts from the tomb toured museums around the world and inspired numerous films and fashion.
Prior Attempts To Breach The Tombs
Archaeologists believed that there were at least two attempts to rob the tomb. Former workers possibly attempted the first robbery. It likely resulted in the outer chambers filling up with rubble. During the second attempt, robbers tunneled into the burial site but were also unsuccessful in breaching the inner burial chambers. Evidence collected indicates that efforts were made to tidy the burial chambers after the attempts. The tomb's walls were closed off, and it remained undisturbed for over 3000 years until its discovery in 1922.
Mysteries Behind The Walls Of Tutankhamun's Tomb
Tutankhamun's tomb was unusually small. Some archaeologists believe that the tomb's small size was likely because his death was unexpected. There is evidence to show that some of the objects found in the tomb were reused. On some of the artifacts, the name of Queen Nefertiti had been carefully removed, and that of Tutankhamun inserted. The golden death mask worn on his mummy is also thought to have initially been meant for Nefertiti. Some have argued that Tutankhamun's death prompted the walling of Nefertiti's tomb and the hurried construction of his own. Radar tests conducted in the tomb revealed possible open spaces behind some of the walls which could have belonged to Queen Nefertiti's tomb. Experts, however, caution that the findings could likely point to natural features as opposed to tombs.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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0.29372668266296387... | 2 | Most archaeologists regard the discovery of the Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamun's tomb as the most important. Unlike tombs belonging to other pharaohs that had been vandalized by grave robbers and private collectors, Tutankhamun's tomb was found to be mostly intact. Its discovery, therefore, provided valuable information on the religion, rituals, and culture of the ancient Egyptians. The development also sheds light on the elaborate mummy preservation process that included drying of the body, removal of the digestive tract and brain and embalming of the corpse.
King Tutankhamun ascended to the throne at the age of nine and ruled until 1324 BC when he died aged 19 years. He notably reversed religious reforms that had been enacted by Pharaoh Akhenaten, his father. Tutankhamun believed that his father's attempts to replace the old gods with one deity, Aten, had angered the gods who in turn ignored Egypt. To match the Kingdom's return to the old gods, the young king changed his name from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun. At the time of his death, Tutankhamun was likely tall but frail. Tests conducted on his mummy revealed that he had suffered multiple malarial infections and that he suffered from a crippling bone disease in his left foot. Archaeologists believe that he was involved in a chariot accident that resulted in a broken leg and a subsequent infection of the injury that lead to his death. Pharaohs that came after him ignored his reign due to his tainted connection to his father and in so doing unintentionally preserved his tomb from would-be robbers.
Discovery Of His Tomb
The tomb was discovered by Howard Carter, an archaeologist who had spent five years exploring the Valley of the Kings. Carter and his team found the entrance to the tomb in November 1922. Once they finally got inside, Carter was astounded by the treasures that he found inside. Over 5,000 items were found inside including chariots, gold jewelry, clothes, a gold coffin, a gold death mask, weapons, and a gold throne. The discovery sparked what some call Tut-mania in the western world. Artifacts from the tomb toured museums around the world and inspired numerous films and fashion.
Prior Attempts To Breach The Tombs
Archaeologists believed that there were at least two attempts to rob the tomb. Former workers possibly attempted the first robbery. It likely resulted in the outer chambers filling up with rubble. During the second attempt, robbers tunneled into the burial site but were also unsuccessful in breaching the inner burial chambers. Evidence collected indicates that efforts were made to tidy the burial chambers after the attempts. The tomb's walls were closed off, and it remained undisturbed for over 3000 years until its discovery in 1922.
Mysteries Behind The Walls Of Tutankhamun's Tomb
Tutankhamun's tomb was unusually small. Some archaeologists believe that the tomb's small size was likely because his death was unexpected. There is evidence to show that some of the objects found in the tomb were reused. On some of the artifacts, the name of Queen Nefertiti had been carefully removed, and that of Tutankhamun inserted. The golden death mask worn on his mummy is also thought to have initially been meant for Nefertiti. Some have argued that Tutankhamun's death prompted the walling of Nefertiti's tomb and the hurried construction of his own. Radar tests conducted in the tomb revealed possible open spaces behind some of the walls which could have belonged to Queen Nefertiti's tomb. Experts, however, caution that the findings could likely point to natural features as opposed to tombs.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 838 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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