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Support our content. Join our Dollar a Day campaign Before Jeff Bezos (current wealthiest man in the world), before Bill Gates and before Warren Buffett there was Mansa Musa (1280 – 1337). ‘Mansa’ meaning “Sultan” (king) or “emperor” is the title given to Musa Keita, the tenth king of the West African Islamic Mali Empire. He ruled Mali from 1312-1337. In this period the Mali kingdom was said to have the largest produce of gold in the world. This lead to Mansa Musa to be one of the richest people in history. He was known to have been enormously wealthy; reportedly as being inconceivably rich by contemporaries. A Devout Muslim, he would spend much time fostering the growth of Islam within his empire. He wanted Mali to become the central hub of knowledge for Islam in Africa so he wanted to attract as much attention to the Mali empire as possible. So he went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in the likes the world has never seen. Mansa Musa embarked on a 4000-mile journey to Mecca with a caravan that stretched as far as the eye can see. The number varies across different sources, with some reporting 60,000-strong caravan consisting of attendants, camels, slaves and etc. His caravan men were all wearing expensive brocade and Persian silk. They each carried with them gold staffs, had there own organised horses and handled bags. His slaves also carried gold with them. Mansa Musa provided all necessities feeding his entire company including the animals. Ibn Khaldun later interviewed one of the emperors travelling companions. The man claimed that the emperor would entertain them with rare foods and confectionery. Not only would he spend his wealth on his caravan and it’s attendants but he would also give away his gold to any poor person he would meet on his route to Mecca. It was said that he gave so much gold away and spent so much of his gold in Cairo in particular, the city underwent mass inflation which destabilised the economy and took years to recover. Tales of his wealth spread to Europe. Everywhere he went he would build mosques and universities so much so that It was said that he would build a mosque every Friday. 1375, Catalan Atlas depicts the African Muslim King He finally came back to his home country after a year with scholars and architects to build mosques and universities to spread the knowledge of Islam across his kingdom. He urbanised cities such as Timbuktu and built a legendary mosque called Djinguereber Mosque which still stands till this day. After his 25 years in power, Mansa Musa died in 1337 leaving behind a legacy that was legendary and put Mali on the world map. It also helps to erase any stereotypes that there were no successful African kingdoms and that civilisation stemmed from foreign invaders or traders. Betrayed By My Own Country – #OliverBridgeman Interviewed Why Don’t You Pray? \| Whispers Ep 1 The New Grand Mufti of Australia has just been announced … 5 Steps to Staying Positive During Menses in Ramadan Struggling to read the Quran Muslim Media - Islam Lectures, Videos & Information Our mission is to provide a world-class Islamic voice for Muslims and a platform to share the true message of Islam. OnePath Network Inc is a registered nonprofit organization. Donate or Volunteer Today!	<urn:uuid:fd2358c2-2022-4de5-bfe3-11cd8e8e375d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://onepathnetwork.com/the-life-of-mansa-musa/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00058.warc.gz	en	0.980851	714	3.6875	4	[ -0.019184522330760956, 0.6277734041213989, 0.2830132246017456, -0.16621741652488708, 0.05676374211907387, -0.09554963558912277, 0.28867000341415405, 0.13538925349712372, -0.16064098477363586, 0.036799103021621704, 0.3598674535751343, -0.5439223051071167, 0.1774480938911438, 0.0236892588436...	1	Support our content. Join our Dollar a Day campaign Before Jeff Bezos (current wealthiest man in the world), before Bill Gates and before Warren Buffett there was Mansa Musa (1280 – 1337). ‘Mansa’ meaning “Sultan” (king) or “emperor” is the title given to Musa Keita, the tenth king of the West African Islamic Mali Empire. He ruled Mali from 1312-1337. In this period the Mali kingdom was said to have the largest produce of gold in the world. This lead to Mansa Musa to be one of the richest people in history. He was known to have been enormously wealthy; reportedly as being inconceivably rich by contemporaries. A Devout Muslim, he would spend much time fostering the growth of Islam within his empire. He wanted Mali to become the central hub of knowledge for Islam in Africa so he wanted to attract as much attention to the Mali empire as possible. So he went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in the likes the world has never seen. Mansa Musa embarked on a 4000-mile journey to Mecca with a caravan that stretched as far as the eye can see. The number varies across different sources, with some reporting 60,000-strong caravan consisting of attendants, camels, slaves and etc. His caravan men were all wearing expensive brocade and Persian silk. They each carried with them gold staffs, had there own organised horses and handled bags. His slaves also carried gold with them. Mansa Musa provided all necessities feeding his entire company including the animals. Ibn Khaldun later interviewed one of the emperors travelling companions. The man claimed that the emperor would entertain them with rare foods and confectionery. Not only would he spend his wealth on his caravan and it’s attendants but he would also give away his gold to any poor person he would meet on his route to Mecca. It was said that he gave so much gold away and spent so much of his gold in Cairo in particular, the city underwent mass inflation which destabilised the economy and took years to recover. Tales of his wealth spread to Europe. Everywhere he went he would build mosques and universities so much so that It was said that he would build a mosque every Friday. 1375, Catalan Atlas depicts the African Muslim King He finally came back to his home country after a year with scholars and architects to build mosques and universities to spread the knowledge of Islam across his kingdom. He urbanised cities such as Timbuktu and built a legendary mosque called Djinguereber Mosque which still stands till this day. After his 25 years in power, Mansa Musa died in 1337 leaving behind a legacy that was legendary and put Mali on the world map. It also helps to erase any stereotypes that there were no successful African kingdoms and that civilisation stemmed from foreign invaders or traders. Betrayed By My Own Country – #OliverBridgeman Interviewed Why Don’t You Pray? \| Whispers Ep 1 The New Grand Mufti of Australia has just been announced … 5 Steps to Staying Positive During Menses in Ramadan Struggling to read the Quran Muslim Media - Islam Lectures, Videos & Information Our mission is to provide a world-class Islamic voice for Muslims and a platform to share the true message of Islam. OnePath Network Inc is a registered nonprofit organization. Donate or Volunteer Today!	724	ENGLISH	1
A psychoanalysis of 'A Christmas Carol' 'A Christmas Carol' by Charles Dickens very much contains themes of trauma, therapy, and the transformation of healing that can bring about changes. The story almost takes the same process of self-discovery that takes places in the therapeutic process, and it has a person-centred approach to it with the client being Ebenezer Scrooge. One could say that it is based on the person-centred belief that people are inherently good and creative. They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the valuing process. Carl Rogers (founder of person-centred approach) also believed that humans have one basic motive; that is the tendency to self-actualise, i.e. fulfil one’s potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we can. This could be said to be true if we take the transformation of a mean, greedy, unempathetic man who changes to be altruistic, generous, regretful, merry, and charitable for the rest of his life, and by doing so fulfilling his purpose in life and his potential as a human being. Although the Christmas spirit is temporary, the change within Scrooge goes beyond Christmas and is maintained throughout his remaining life. It’s the hope that change and transformation are possible but that it has to come from within. Nothing or nobody was able to change Scrooge but himself; his choice. It is often when the fear of things staying or being the same is greater than any fear that change will come about. Scrooge started to fear the life and consequences should he remain the same, and this propelled him to make a permanent change. It can be said that, just like a therapist, the role of the ghosts was to be the torch shining the light on the dark parts to enable self-awareness, rediscovery, and resolution. Therapy is about making changes, learning painful things, looking deep within ourselves, and to be true about aspects of ourselves we may not like or that are not serving us well. It's about having the courage to make the changes for healthier behaviours and to learn to become our authentic selves. In psychology, Carl Jung stated that our shadow is an unknown part of our personality (negative or positive). In this case, the ghosts are reflecting back to Scrooge the darker aspects of his personality, so that the damage he is causing to self and others through it is consciously brought to the surface where he must confront it. According to Jung, the shadow, in being instinctive and irrational, is prone to psychological projection, in which perceived personal inferiority is recognised as a perceived moral deficiency in someone else. We could say this is the case if we analyse how Scrooge hates the poor, with him stating "Are there no prisons or work-houses for the poor and homeless?". When the man who asked him for a donation says "Many can't go there; and many would rather die", Scrooge comments back "If they would rather die, they had better do it and decrease the surplus population". The past ghost works with memory and takes what seems like a psychodynamic approach that looks at our childhood stages of life; our unconscious wounds that may have been created and carried on in later adulthood as a result. We all know that childhood adversity can have a great impact on our psyche, especially if no support or secure attachment was to be found in difficult or traumatic events we may have experienced in childhood. This brings us to the attachment theory which explains how the parent-child relationship emerges and influences subsequent development. John Bowlby (psychoanalyst), who is known for the attachment theory, suggests that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others because this will help them to survive. When the ghost of the past brought Scrooge back to his childhood days, we learn that Scrooge had a lonely childhood with themes of abandonment and rejection felt. He was left at a boarding school, and it could be speculated that some form of abuse could have occurred, as many incur negative experiences such as bullying or severe punishments in boarding schools. Generally, they are not known for many happy times by those who have experienced them. The only secure attachment Scrooge seems to have is with his sister who he later loses in death. Scrooge has suppressed this additional trauma, as he says to the ghost "sometimes I forget Fred (nephew) is her son". We can see the unresolved pain that still lingers for Scrooge, as he is unable to look at his past for long. He states "Leave me! Take me back! Haunt me no longer!". Also, the book quotes "In the struggle… Scrooge observed that his light was burning high and bright; and dimply connecting that with its influence over him, he seized the extinguisher cap, and by a sudden action pressed it down upon its head". Scrooge could be said to be struggling with what he sees, just like clients can feel overwhelmed by the sudden rush of emotions that find them when it comes to feeling and seeing through emotional eyes; painful events that have long taken place that they may have repressed for a reason and which is still a raw wound when awakened. The person-centred approach can also be seen by the seven stages of Rogerian functioning. It could perhaps be said that like a client may move towards these (seven) stages, during the process with every ghost Scrooge too was taking this journey. We could suggest that with the ghost of the Christmas past, he was at stages one, two, and three. - Stage one - The client is very defensive and extremely resistant to change. - Stage two - The client becomes slightly less rigid and will talk about external events or other people. - Stage three - The client talks about themselves but as an object, and avoids discussion of present events. It is clear that at this stage, Scrooge is by no means looking for, aspiring to, or thinking about change or the possibility and concept of it. However, he connects to his younger self. He has just relived the events of his boyhood when he was left alone at school over Christmas because his father turned against him when his mother died and wanted nothing more to do with his son. He experiences the sad and lonely feelings he has long repressed, and we can speculate that this hurtful and traumatic event was the reason he may have later developed an antagonistic view of Christmas. He may have not yet come to peace with the event that must have felt like his enemy, bringing him further pain. This could have commenced the pivotal moment when Christmas ceased to represent anything to do with warmth, family, joy, or meeting needs, for his own childhood needs were not met and this could, as we have stated, affected the sentimental aspect of Christmas. Just as with trauma, we make associations to it. It was the Christmas day when all his peers returned home for reunions, gifts, and celebrations that Scrooge was abandoned for as if he was unimportant and had no value. It can be argued that Scrooge’s unresolved wounds led him to become a cruel, indifferent man. Pain can indeed change us. Throughout this point in his life, we see a younger Scrooge who still possesses the ability to love; a person who is still in touch with his fellow human beings. He wasn’t always the person he became, and he doesn’t have to continue to be the person he is now. It is clear that his hurt turned into bitterness, and his trauma created a fear that turned into an aspiration for money to avoid poverty. So great was the fear of poverty and the need for money that he neglected his fiancée, who left him for this very reason. One of Scrooge’s moments of connection is when he hears Belle (his former fiancée) describe the man he has become. We see Scrooge affected by this, and he asks the ghost to remove him from the house. Also, at this point, the narrator describes Scrooge’s regret as he sees the daughter of Belle, making him realise that he has missed out on having his own family. Generosity is a reminder for Scrooge when the ghost (past) takes him to a Christmas party held by his former and first boss - Mr Fezziwig. The event reminds Scrooge how much he loved working for Fezziwig. He describes what made Mr Fezziwig an excellent boss, and insists that money wasn’t the source of his employees' fulfilment. Mr Fezziwig showed generosity of manner in exercising his authority over his employees with kindness. The present ghost represents clarity and empathy. This is the stage when, in therapy, things are becoming clearer, due to greater self-awareness for the client, and self-compassion is developing and starting to be found. We can argue that perhaps it was the fear of poverty that negatively led Scrooge to take on the destructive qualities of greed and selfishness very much encouraged by the world around him. The childhood trauma that created this fear is almost symbolic in the representation of the two emancipated children (under the robe of the ghost), named ignorance and want (entitlement), which lead to the destruction of humanity and the world. The lesson here is that society should and must take care of the problems of ignorance and want, for the good of everyone. Scrooge connects to his humanity when the ghost tells him that Tiny Tim will die unless the course of events changes. The counselling skill of reflection is also used here by the ghost, who reflects back to Scrooge his own words regarding Tiny Tim - he "better do it (die) and decrease the surplus population". This powerful tool of reflection makes Scrooge see how heartless, inaccurate, ignorant, and abusive that statement was. Scrooge is now progressing to stages four and five. - Stage four - The client begins to talk about deep feelings and develops a relationship with the therapist. - Stage five - The client can express present emotions, is beginning to rely more on their decision-making abilities, and increasingly accepts more responsibility for their actions. Scrooge is in the process of slowly coming to an understanding that his actions will need to change, and is seeing the consequences of this not happening. He is more willing to talk to the ghost of Christmas present than he was with the ghost of Christmas past. The future ghost represents fears; the fears that are keeping us stuck but also the fear that leads to change, which is the fear of the death of self (emotionally and psychologically) or our death (physically) if we continue on the same path. It’s when the fear of this happening is greater than the fear of anything else that change can be prompted. It’s also the death of parts of us we held on too, such as surviving mechanisms that served us but no longer do. It’s a rebirth and transformation, just like the phoenix. This fear can be seen when Scrooge sees everyone rejoicing and showing no emotion for his death. He sobs at this point, pleading for change. He has come to fear the prospect of being the very person he became, the fact that he became the very person he hated. We could say that it speaks of the courage to acknowledge parts of ourselves that are painful to acknowledge; the part of us that we may be ashamed off or that is not pretty; the courage to change, as this can be scary, and the courage to make better choices and break generational trauma patterns. By the end of the process, we see stages six and seven starting to take place. - Stage six - The client shows rapid growth toward congruence and begins to develop unconditional positive regard for others. This stage signals the end for the need for formal therapy (Scrooge is no longer in need of the ghosts). - Stage seven - The client is a fully functioning, self-actualised individual who is empathic and shows unconditional positive regard for others. This individual can relate their previous therapy to present day real-life situations (Scrooge has self-actualised, reaching his full potential as a person and putting into place all that he has learned about himself and all that he has become aware off). To summarise, during the process, Scrooge was able to reconnect to not only his feelings that had been suppressed and repressed for many years but also to connect with an authentic self and others. Trauma causes disconnection, and it is through the healing process that we learn to reconnect. By resolving old wounds Scrooge has freed himself from his chains. This is symbolic of how we can become our own worst enemies and how those chains (inability to change) can hold us down. Jacob Marley’s ghost (Scrooge’s mean employer) warns Scrooge that this will be his fate if change doesn’t occur. It is also a lesson that we can learn from other mistakes to reach our full potential. Scrooge’s relationship with his father is one that reflects the author Charles Dickins' conflicting feelings towards his father in real life. The theme of the father is also carried out with the fact that Scrooge becomes a second father to Tiny Tim, and this is also almost symbolising the parenting to his inner child. Furthermore, Mr Fezziwig (Scrooge’s first employer) treated him as a father. The key element in the story is empathy; people are often ignorant of actual suffering, not trauma-informed, and are unable to comprehend the suffering of others unless they walk in their shoes or see life as the other person. To have empathy for others, we must also come to have empathy for our pain, as Scrooge did before he was able to give it to others. At the end of the story, Scrooge was fulfilled by changing his attitude and becoming a kind person. Also, he learned that making others happy is a reward in itself, beginning with the anonymous gesture of purchasing the largest turkey for the Cratchit family. To conclude, the story also highlights how Christmas can be a difficult and challenging time for those financially struggling, lonely, or suffering due to their pain, and calls out for us to consider this and make sure that we do not forget those less fortunate. In our world today, this is still very relevant. Let us remember the homeless, the elderly who are forgotten about without family, the orphaned children, those who have fled domestic violence, the ones who are in unloving and abusive homes with no way out, the ones fighting depression, the terminally ill celebrating what could be their last Christmas with loved ones, the soldiers unable to return back home, the immigrant trying to survive war and make it alive when crossing over borders, those that have lost loved ones, a pet or a child… The message for the need to help those who are in need is as strong as it was then. The message that we are still living in a traumatised world, with traumatised people, and that greed and ignorance are still some of the things leading to this. Counselling Directory is not responsible for the articles published by members. The views expressed are those of the member who wrote the article. About Antonella Zottola Antonella Zottola is a qualified integrative MBACP counsellor. Her private practise held in Sale is called Rising Phoenix. She also has a PGCE and teaches counselling; in addition she gave a presentation held by the BACP on domestic violence. Antonella is author of the Ebook; Shattering the myths: validating the pain; changing the culture.… Read more Located in Sale. To book an appointment, please get in contact:	<urn:uuid:f3efad75-0e0c-4baa-b1c1-0af2dc132804>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/memberarticles/a-psychoanalysis-of-a-christmas-carol	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00194.warc.gz	en	0.980518	3,287	3.296875	3	[ 0.0807235836982727, 0.2632654309272766, 0.3799596130847931, -0.09068983793258667, 0.11848191916942596, 0.06288617849349976, 0.526128888130188, 0.24446341395378113, 0.16717644035816193, -0.011973701417446136, 0.4751187562942505, 0.10672302544116974, -0.16299453377723694, 0.1389620304107666,...	1	A psychoanalysis of 'A Christmas Carol' 'A Christmas Carol' by Charles Dickens very much contains themes of trauma, therapy, and the transformation of healing that can bring about changes. The story almost takes the same process of self-discovery that takes places in the therapeutic process, and it has a person-centred approach to it with the client being Ebenezer Scrooge. One could say that it is based on the person-centred belief that people are inherently good and creative. They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the valuing process. Carl Rogers (founder of person-centred approach) also believed that humans have one basic motive; that is the tendency to self-actualise, i.e. fulfil one’s potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we can. This could be said to be true if we take the transformation of a mean, greedy, unempathetic man who changes to be altruistic, generous, regretful, merry, and charitable for the rest of his life, and by doing so fulfilling his purpose in life and his potential as a human being. Although the Christmas spirit is temporary, the change within Scrooge goes beyond Christmas and is maintained throughout his remaining life. It’s the hope that change and transformation are possible but that it has to come from within. Nothing or nobody was able to change Scrooge but himself; his choice. It is often when the fear of things staying or being the same is greater than any fear that change will come about. Scrooge started to fear the life and consequences should he remain the same, and this propelled him to make a permanent change. It can be said that, just like a therapist, the role of the ghosts was to be the torch shining the light on the dark parts to enable self-awareness, rediscovery, and resolution. Therapy is about making changes, learning painful things, looking deep within ourselves, and to be true about aspects of ourselves we may not like or that are not serving us well. It's about having the courage to make the changes for healthier behaviours and to learn to become our authentic selves. In psychology, Carl Jung stated that our shadow is an unknown part of our personality (negative or positive). In this case, the ghosts are reflecting back to Scrooge the darker aspects of his personality, so that the damage he is causing to self and others through it is consciously brought to the surface where he must confront it. According to Jung, the shadow, in being instinctive and irrational, is prone to psychological projection, in which perceived personal inferiority is recognised as a perceived moral deficiency in someone else. We could say this is the case if we analyse how Scrooge hates the poor, with him stating "Are there no prisons or work-houses for the poor and homeless?". When the man who asked him for a donation says "Many can't go there; and many would rather die", Scrooge comments back "If they would rather die, they had better do it and decrease the surplus population". The past ghost works with memory and takes what seems like a psychodynamic approach that looks at our childhood stages of life; our unconscious wounds that may have been created and carried on in later adulthood as a result. We all know that childhood adversity can have a great impact on our psyche, especially if no support or secure attachment was to be found in difficult or traumatic events we may have experienced in childhood. This brings us to the attachment theory which explains how the parent-child relationship emerges and influences subsequent development. John Bowlby (psychoanalyst), who is known for the attachment theory, suggests that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others because this will help them to survive. When the ghost of the past brought Scrooge back to his childhood days, we learn that Scrooge had a lonely childhood with themes of abandonment and rejection felt. He was left at a boarding school, and it could be speculated that some form of abuse could have occurred, as many incur negative experiences such as bullying or severe punishments in boarding schools. Generally, they are not known for many happy times by those who have experienced them. The only secure attachment Scrooge seems to have is with his sister who he later loses in death. Scrooge has suppressed this additional trauma, as he says to the ghost "sometimes I forget Fred (nephew) is her son". We can see the unresolved pain that still lingers for Scrooge, as he is unable to look at his past for long. He states "Leave me! Take me back! Haunt me no longer!". Also, the book quotes "In the struggle… Scrooge observed that his light was burning high and bright; and dimply connecting that with its influence over him, he seized the extinguisher cap, and by a sudden action pressed it down upon its head". Scrooge could be said to be struggling with what he sees, just like clients can feel overwhelmed by the sudden rush of emotions that find them when it comes to feeling and seeing through emotional eyes; painful events that have long taken place that they may have repressed for a reason and which is still a raw wound when awakened. The person-centred approach can also be seen by the seven stages of Rogerian functioning. It could perhaps be said that like a client may move towards these (seven) stages, during the process with every ghost Scrooge too was taking this journey. We could suggest that with the ghost of the Christmas past, he was at stages one, two, and three. - Stage one - The client is very defensive and extremely resistant to change. - Stage two - The client becomes slightly less rigid and will talk about external events or other people. - Stage three - The client talks about themselves but as an object, and avoids discussion of present events. It is clear that at this stage, Scrooge is by no means looking for, aspiring to, or thinking about change or the possibility and concept of it. However, he connects to his younger self. He has just relived the events of his boyhood when he was left alone at school over Christmas because his father turned against him when his mother died and wanted nothing more to do with his son. He experiences the sad and lonely feelings he has long repressed, and we can speculate that this hurtful and traumatic event was the reason he may have later developed an antagonistic view of Christmas. He may have not yet come to peace with the event that must have felt like his enemy, bringing him further pain. This could have commenced the pivotal moment when Christmas ceased to represent anything to do with warmth, family, joy, or meeting needs, for his own childhood needs were not met and this could, as we have stated, affected the sentimental aspect of Christmas. Just as with trauma, we make associations to it. It was the Christmas day when all his peers returned home for reunions, gifts, and celebrations that Scrooge was abandoned for as if he was unimportant and had no value. It can be argued that Scrooge’s unresolved wounds led him to become a cruel, indifferent man. Pain can indeed change us. Throughout this point in his life, we see a younger Scrooge who still possesses the ability to love; a person who is still in touch with his fellow human beings. He wasn’t always the person he became, and he doesn’t have to continue to be the person he is now. It is clear that his hurt turned into bitterness, and his trauma created a fear that turned into an aspiration for money to avoid poverty. So great was the fear of poverty and the need for money that he neglected his fiancée, who left him for this very reason. One of Scrooge’s moments of connection is when he hears Belle (his former fiancée) describe the man he has become. We see Scrooge affected by this, and he asks the ghost to remove him from the house. Also, at this point, the narrator describes Scrooge’s regret as he sees the daughter of Belle, making him realise that he has missed out on having his own family. Generosity is a reminder for Scrooge when the ghost (past) takes him to a Christmas party held by his former and first boss - Mr Fezziwig. The event reminds Scrooge how much he loved working for Fezziwig. He describes what made Mr Fezziwig an excellent boss, and insists that money wasn’t the source of his employees' fulfilment. Mr Fezziwig showed generosity of manner in exercising his authority over his employees with kindness. The present ghost represents clarity and empathy. This is the stage when, in therapy, things are becoming clearer, due to greater self-awareness for the client, and self-compassion is developing and starting to be found. We can argue that perhaps it was the fear of poverty that negatively led Scrooge to take on the destructive qualities of greed and selfishness very much encouraged by the world around him. The childhood trauma that created this fear is almost symbolic in the representation of the two emancipated children (under the robe of the ghost), named ignorance and want (entitlement), which lead to the destruction of humanity and the world. The lesson here is that society should and must take care of the problems of ignorance and want, for the good of everyone. Scrooge connects to his humanity when the ghost tells him that Tiny Tim will die unless the course of events changes. The counselling skill of reflection is also used here by the ghost, who reflects back to Scrooge his own words regarding Tiny Tim - he "better do it (die) and decrease the surplus population". This powerful tool of reflection makes Scrooge see how heartless, inaccurate, ignorant, and abusive that statement was. Scrooge is now progressing to stages four and five. - Stage four - The client begins to talk about deep feelings and develops a relationship with the therapist. - Stage five - The client can express present emotions, is beginning to rely more on their decision-making abilities, and increasingly accepts more responsibility for their actions. Scrooge is in the process of slowly coming to an understanding that his actions will need to change, and is seeing the consequences of this not happening. He is more willing to talk to the ghost of Christmas present than he was with the ghost of Christmas past. The future ghost represents fears; the fears that are keeping us stuck but also the fear that leads to change, which is the fear of the death of self (emotionally and psychologically) or our death (physically) if we continue on the same path. It’s when the fear of this happening is greater than the fear of anything else that change can be prompted. It’s also the death of parts of us we held on too, such as surviving mechanisms that served us but no longer do. It’s a rebirth and transformation, just like the phoenix. This fear can be seen when Scrooge sees everyone rejoicing and showing no emotion for his death. He sobs at this point, pleading for change. He has come to fear the prospect of being the very person he became, the fact that he became the very person he hated. We could say that it speaks of the courage to acknowledge parts of ourselves that are painful to acknowledge; the part of us that we may be ashamed off or that is not pretty; the courage to change, as this can be scary, and the courage to make better choices and break generational trauma patterns. By the end of the process, we see stages six and seven starting to take place. - Stage six - The client shows rapid growth toward congruence and begins to develop unconditional positive regard for others. This stage signals the end for the need for formal therapy (Scrooge is no longer in need of the ghosts). - Stage seven - The client is a fully functioning, self-actualised individual who is empathic and shows unconditional positive regard for others. This individual can relate their previous therapy to present day real-life situations (Scrooge has self-actualised, reaching his full potential as a person and putting into place all that he has learned about himself and all that he has become aware off). To summarise, during the process, Scrooge was able to reconnect to not only his feelings that had been suppressed and repressed for many years but also to connect with an authentic self and others. Trauma causes disconnection, and it is through the healing process that we learn to reconnect. By resolving old wounds Scrooge has freed himself from his chains. This is symbolic of how we can become our own worst enemies and how those chains (inability to change) can hold us down. Jacob Marley’s ghost (Scrooge’s mean employer) warns Scrooge that this will be his fate if change doesn’t occur. It is also a lesson that we can learn from other mistakes to reach our full potential. Scrooge’s relationship with his father is one that reflects the author Charles Dickins' conflicting feelings towards his father in real life. The theme of the father is also carried out with the fact that Scrooge becomes a second father to Tiny Tim, and this is also almost symbolising the parenting to his inner child. Furthermore, Mr Fezziwig (Scrooge’s first employer) treated him as a father. The key element in the story is empathy; people are often ignorant of actual suffering, not trauma-informed, and are unable to comprehend the suffering of others unless they walk in their shoes or see life as the other person. To have empathy for others, we must also come to have empathy for our pain, as Scrooge did before he was able to give it to others. At the end of the story, Scrooge was fulfilled by changing his attitude and becoming a kind person. Also, he learned that making others happy is a reward in itself, beginning with the anonymous gesture of purchasing the largest turkey for the Cratchit family. To conclude, the story also highlights how Christmas can be a difficult and challenging time for those financially struggling, lonely, or suffering due to their pain, and calls out for us to consider this and make sure that we do not forget those less fortunate. In our world today, this is still very relevant. Let us remember the homeless, the elderly who are forgotten about without family, the orphaned children, those who have fled domestic violence, the ones who are in unloving and abusive homes with no way out, the ones fighting depression, the terminally ill celebrating what could be their last Christmas with loved ones, the soldiers unable to return back home, the immigrant trying to survive war and make it alive when crossing over borders, those that have lost loved ones, a pet or a child… The message for the need to help those who are in need is as strong as it was then. The message that we are still living in a traumatised world, with traumatised people, and that greed and ignorance are still some of the things leading to this. Counselling Directory is not responsible for the articles published by members. The views expressed are those of the member who wrote the article. About Antonella Zottola Antonella Zottola is a qualified integrative MBACP counsellor. Her private practise held in Sale is called Rising Phoenix. She also has a PGCE and teaches counselling; in addition she gave a presentation held by the BACP on domestic violence. Antonella is author of the Ebook; Shattering the myths: validating the pain; changing the culture.… Read more Located in Sale. To book an appointment, please get in contact:	3,201	ENGLISH	1
The outcome of the Julius and Ethel Rosenberg trial for espionage in 1951 and their subsequent execution in 1953 was directly related to the political climate at that time. The governments evidence against the Rosenbergs was not overwhelming, but due to a combination of fear and political pressure, the guilty verdict was inevitable. Even though Julius did not deliver the secrets of the atomic bomb to Moscow, nor did they cause the Korean War, as Judge Kaufman claimed, the pair were sentenced to death. Their death confirmed their guilt because America would never kill innocent people. Their execution also reinforced the heinous nature of their crime and other soviet spys crimes as well. The fear of communism and the cold war sealed the fate for Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. The cold war was the general term for the post-1945 political, ideological, strategic and military conflict between the western allies led by the United States and the Soviet Union and other communist countries. 1 This global confrontation was fuel by mutual fear and distrust. Both camps defaulted on postwar agreements which, led to further alienation.2 The end of WWII saw Europe economically devastated and in political turmoil. 3 The defeat of Germany left the European continent vulnerable to outside influence. In addition to the economic strength shown by the western allies, the United States not only had nuclear capabilities, but also without hesitation used the power twice. 4 The Soviet Union, in an effort to contract the economic and military might of the United States and its allies, set about tightening its grasp on the east European countries it had occupied during WWII. 5 In the years between 1945 and 1948 the Soviet Union gained control of Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The Soviet Union hoped that by adding these separate governments and militaries, it could offset the United States nuclear capabilities and provide its western boarder with a buffer zone. 6 Though the Soviet Union was actively developing its own nuclear capabilities, the communist power realized that the U.S. had used its atomic bomb with devastating results. 7 Although the United States was putting much fear into the hearts of many Soviets, the post WWII conflict was affecting the United States in much the same way. The United States was worried about the leader of the Soviet Union and his power over many countries. 5 The United States would come to realize that this would not be an easy fight to win. The leader of the Soviet Union at that time was a man named Joseph Stalin. He had much control over peoples ideas and beliefs and he used that to his advantage. 8 The United States feared his leadership because of his power and his dishonesty. Stalin went back on his word to create a more democratic government inside the Soviet Union, and took total control of Poland when he said he would not at the Yalta conference in 1945. 5 Iran became the starting point of East-West confrontation. The United States and the Soviet Union had occupied parts of Iran during WWII in order to protect allied oil supplies. Both countries agreed to withdraw at wars end. But in 1945 the Soviet Union refused to withdraw its troops. The conflict ended in 1946 when the USSR pulled out its troops in return for oil rights in Iran. 9 Later in 1946, Stalin gave a speech declaring ideological war against the West. 10 To counter Stalins aggressive actions in 1947, the president proposed the Truman Doctrine. The Truman Doctrine was designed to give military aid to Greece in its battle against communist-backed rebel forces. 11 It also gave economic aid to Turkey, whose economy was being stressed by the need to maintain a large army in order to resist the USSR and its demand for a naval base within its boundaries. President Trumans pitch to Congress was meant to scare the American people into action. It succeeded in getting the Greek-Turkish aid bill passed and it also set the tone for the cold war. Less than a year later the United States pressured Iran to take back the previously granted oil rights to the USSR, thus creating more suspicion between the two superpowers. After seeing favorable results from the Truman Doctrine, the United States implemented the Marshall Plan. This $13 billion program was a second part of the overall containment policy. By restoring Europe’s economy, it would make communism less appealing and also give the United States strong trading partners. Angered by this program, Stalin extended his control over Eastern Europe. This in turn created possible threats for the West’s position in Germany, and forced Truman to create a military alliance in order restore confidence in the European countries that were allying with the United States. 12 In an effort to counter the integration of the Western zones of Germany into a Western block, the Soviets blockaded access to Berlin by the West. This blockade not only failed in its attempt to drive the United States, Britain and France from Berlin but it also strengthened the cooperation among western allies. This strengthened unity among western allies led to the formation of a military alliance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The fight against communism was not only occurring overseas, but in the United States itself. People started to view communism as the downfall of human civilization thanks in big part to a senator from Wisconsin named Joseph McCarthy. Joseph McCarthy made communism a household word and being communist a sin. By using convincing speeches, and intimidating and threatening accusations, he lit the spark that ignited a series of witch hunts and caused America to question its own loyalty. McCarthy made his debut on February 9, 1950, when he announced to a women’s Republican club in West Virginia that he had a list of the names of 205 communists in the State Department. 13 This was the birth of McCarthyism. 14 He continued to travel through out the West on his campaign for the Republican Party, but when asked about the list his specifics changed from state to state. 15 He began to change the number of names on his list when questioned by reporters, telling some it was 57 and then the next day somewhere else it was 81. 16 His allegations would come to evolve as well from full-fledged communist to loyalty risks or people with connections to the communist party. 17 Even though McCarthy was the most influential Senator to speak out about communism, he was not the first. 18 Many Republicans had spoken out in past years. 19 In fact, most of McCarthy’s accusations were made by previous Republicans. Even his speeches were not original. One reported time, one of McCarthy’s speeches contained several paragraphs taken almost word for word from a speech Nixon made a few days before. 20 Although many of his charges were false or had no evidence, McCarthyism changed the way a lot of people inside and outside of the government thought about communism. He made a lot of people scared with his redbaiting and blacklisting. The members of the Truman administration were constantly trying to defend themselves from the accusations from McCarthy that they were soft on communism and that they had communists working for their party. 21 These charges led to the governments loyalty and security programs that would show just how scared this country was of communism. Congress was putting pressure on the Truman administration to implement some type of security program to fight against treason in our government. Truman then implemented the Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty. This program was designed to evaluate a government employee’s feelings on communism. The Truman administration got mixed reactions to this program. Many civil rights activists felt that it was taking away peoples rights and throwing away due process. On the other hand, many Republicans thought that this program was still not enough and that more steps needed to be taken to rid the government of communists. 22 These types of loyalty oaths did not just affect jobs in the government, but others all over the United States. Many job applications had some type of loyalty oath that had to be signed. Because of these types of procedures many people were turned down for jobs and many others who had jobs lost them. 23 An example of this was the Hollywood Ten. The Hollywood Ten was a group of actors and writers in Hollywood who lost their job and were eventually jailed for their connections to communism. 24 Another way the government tried to control the subversive activity that was happening in the United States was the HUAC. The HUAC stood for the House Committee on Un-American Activities. The main job of the House was to investigate activity that could endanger American life. It was often criticized for using thoughtless and harmful tactics to arouse controversy and ideas of treason. Although the Committee did serve its purpose, it also caused many hardships for people caught up in this massive witch-hunt. Many people who had been blacklisted either lost their jobs, money, and respect and became homeless or they killed themselves. 27 A big break came for the HUAC when in 1948 the committee started to investigate Alger Hiss. Alger Hiss was former State Department official who was accused of giving top secret documents to the Soviet Union in the past. 26 Because he had committed these acts more than 20 years before, he could not be charged for spying, but was charged for lying under oath about his involvement with the Soviet Union. 27 Alger Hiss was the first of many spies who either confessed or were caught by the government in a domino effect that eventually led to the capture and final execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Twelve days after the Hiss conviction a physicist from England who worked first-hand with the Manhattan Project confessed to spying for the Soviet Union. 28 The physicist was Klaus Fuchs and the Manhattan project was America’s name for its nuclear experimenting project. 29 Klaus Fuchs was working for the British on a type of war-related project that he later found out to be atomic-bomb research. During his research with the British, Fuchs traveled many times to the United States to work with American scientists on the problem of the fission bomb. 30 During his travels to the U.S. he was instructed to meet with an American courier for whom he was supposed to give information about his work and the status of the United States nuclear power. 31 Only after about four meetings with the secret courier he knew only as Raymond, Fuchs was transferred to work on the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos. 32 He did not inform Raymond or his Soviet leaders of this change and left without a trace. 33 He started working on the Manhattan Project in 1944 and for a nearly a year he worked with other scientists and physicists on developing the atomic bomb, not once thinking of his previously assigned duties to the Soviet Union. Not until 1945, when Fuchs came to visit his sister in Massachusetts, did he talk to Raymond again. 34 When they met together, Fuchs outlined the new developments that were taking place and what information he had on the bomb. 35 He told Raymond as much as he could and that he would keep him informed. Later that year he reported on the test of the bomb and exact specifications and size of the bomb. 36 He gave the Soviets our most precious secret at that time to some of the most dangerous people in the world. Now that Fuchs was under arrest the FBI wanted to know the identity of the secret American courier known only as Raymond. Unfortunately Fuchs had no idea what Raymond’s real name was and could only provide a vague description. 37 Through various background checks, the FBI came up with the name Harry Gold. 38 Harry Gold was later questioned and soon after confessed to being Raymond. 39 He confessed to passing the information he received from Fuchs about the atomic bomb and other information concerning the activities that had taken place while Fuchs worked there. He confessed to giving it to the Soviet Union. 40 In one of his confessions he named David Greenglass as one of contacts. He confessed that he met with David Greenglass in Albuquerque, New Mexico. There he received information from David concerning the atomic bomb and other vital information. 41 David was then brought in for questioning not less than a week later. He was told that Gold had already confessed and that he should do the same. He said that he would as long as his wife was left out of it. He confessed to talking to Gold in New Mexico about his job. He confessed to having talked to Julius Rosenberg about his job at Los Alamos. They talked about the progress that was being made specific information on how that bomb worked and several drawings and sketches of the bomb itself. 42 Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were very active in the communist party. 43 They became members of the Young Communist League as teenagers and grew up in the party ever since. 44 They read the newspapers that were printed for the communist party and held meetings for their party’s branch in their own living room. 45 On July 17, 1950, Julius Rosenberg was arrested for conspiracy to commit espionage and 25 days later Ethel Rosenberg was also arrested for the same charge. They were brought to the attention of the FBI after David Greenglass accused Julius in his statement to the FBI. They were both taken down to jail and were placed at 100,000 dollars bail. There they waited for half a year before they got their day in court. Prior to the opening of the trial a jury had to be selected. The judge presiding over this case was Judge Irving R. Kaufman. He made it a point to decide who was on the jury and who was not. Judge Kaufman had a long list of requirements each person had to meet in order to stay on the jury. Some of his questions dealt with being familiar with any organizations on the attorney general’s list, having any personal contacts with the FBI or HUAC, and finally if they were against capital punishment. If any of the perspective jurors answered unsatisfactory to any of these questions they were dismissed. On March 6, 1951 Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and Morton Sobell were put on trial. Morton Sobell was a friend of Julius who was employed by the Navy’s Bureau of Ordinance. The opening statement by Saypol, the prosecuting attorney, was aimed at putting the Rosenbergs and Sobell’s loyalty toward the United States at question and communism on trial. Even though their participation in the communist party was not of concern in this trial, Saypol insisted that the fact that they were active in the communist party show motivation for what they were accused of. In order to charge a person with conspiracy to commit anything, very little hard evidence is needed. Hearsay and rumors constitute enough evidence for a conviction. Because the prosecuting team did not have enough hard evidence to convict the Rosenbergs of treason they decided to try for a conviction of conspiracy to commit espionage, something for which they could easily gather enough evidence, seeing as how they only needed one strong witness.	<urn:uuid:f53763cb-16c4-466c-91c2-298cf0f22210>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mypaynetapps.com/julius-and-ethel-rosenberg/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00553.warc.gz	en	0.987212	2,964	3.96875	4	[ -0.4551537334918976, 0.19790975749492645, -0.1275557279586792, 0.14084702730178833, 0.12623217701911926, 0.24659299850463867, 0.4286157488822937, 0.02917998656630516, 0.014789193868637085, -0.15213552117347717, 0.4790278673171997, 0.5464930534362793, 0.5931293964385986, 0.26972174644470215...	3	The outcome of the Julius and Ethel Rosenberg trial for espionage in 1951 and their subsequent execution in 1953 was directly related to the political climate at that time. The governments evidence against the Rosenbergs was not overwhelming, but due to a combination of fear and political pressure, the guilty verdict was inevitable. Even though Julius did not deliver the secrets of the atomic bomb to Moscow, nor did they cause the Korean War, as Judge Kaufman claimed, the pair were sentenced to death. Their death confirmed their guilt because America would never kill innocent people. Their execution also reinforced the heinous nature of their crime and other soviet spys crimes as well. The fear of communism and the cold war sealed the fate for Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. The cold war was the general term for the post-1945 political, ideological, strategic and military conflict between the western allies led by the United States and the Soviet Union and other communist countries. 1 This global confrontation was fuel by mutual fear and distrust. Both camps defaulted on postwar agreements which, led to further alienation.2 The end of WWII saw Europe economically devastated and in political turmoil. 3 The defeat of Germany left the European continent vulnerable to outside influence. In addition to the economic strength shown by the western allies, the United States not only had nuclear capabilities, but also without hesitation used the power twice. 4 The Soviet Union, in an effort to contract the economic and military might of the United States and its allies, set about tightening its grasp on the east European countries it had occupied during WWII. 5 In the years between 1945 and 1948 the Soviet Union gained control of Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The Soviet Union hoped that by adding these separate governments and militaries, it could offset the United States nuclear capabilities and provide its western boarder with a buffer zone. 6 Though the Soviet Union was actively developing its own nuclear capabilities, the communist power realized that the U.S. had used its atomic bomb with devastating results. 7 Although the United States was putting much fear into the hearts of many Soviets, the post WWII conflict was affecting the United States in much the same way. The United States was worried about the leader of the Soviet Union and his power over many countries. 5 The United States would come to realize that this would not be an easy fight to win. The leader of the Soviet Union at that time was a man named Joseph Stalin. He had much control over peoples ideas and beliefs and he used that to his advantage. 8 The United States feared his leadership because of his power and his dishonesty. Stalin went back on his word to create a more democratic government inside the Soviet Union, and took total control of Poland when he said he would not at the Yalta conference in 1945. 5 Iran became the starting point of East-West confrontation. The United States and the Soviet Union had occupied parts of Iran during WWII in order to protect allied oil supplies. Both countries agreed to withdraw at wars end. But in 1945 the Soviet Union refused to withdraw its troops. The conflict ended in 1946 when the USSR pulled out its troops in return for oil rights in Iran. 9 Later in 1946, Stalin gave a speech declaring ideological war against the West. 10 To counter Stalins aggressive actions in 1947, the president proposed the Truman Doctrine. The Truman Doctrine was designed to give military aid to Greece in its battle against communist-backed rebel forces. 11 It also gave economic aid to Turkey, whose economy was being stressed by the need to maintain a large army in order to resist the USSR and its demand for a naval base within its boundaries. President Trumans pitch to Congress was meant to scare the American people into action. It succeeded in getting the Greek-Turkish aid bill passed and it also set the tone for the cold war. Less than a year later the United States pressured Iran to take back the previously granted oil rights to the USSR, thus creating more suspicion between the two superpowers. After seeing favorable results from the Truman Doctrine, the United States implemented the Marshall Plan. This $13 billion program was a second part of the overall containment policy. By restoring Europe’s economy, it would make communism less appealing and also give the United States strong trading partners. Angered by this program, Stalin extended his control over Eastern Europe. This in turn created possible threats for the West’s position in Germany, and forced Truman to create a military alliance in order restore confidence in the European countries that were allying with the United States. 12 In an effort to counter the integration of the Western zones of Germany into a Western block, the Soviets blockaded access to Berlin by the West. This blockade not only failed in its attempt to drive the United States, Britain and France from Berlin but it also strengthened the cooperation among western allies. This strengthened unity among western allies led to the formation of a military alliance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The fight against communism was not only occurring overseas, but in the United States itself. People started to view communism as the downfall of human civilization thanks in big part to a senator from Wisconsin named Joseph McCarthy. Joseph McCarthy made communism a household word and being communist a sin. By using convincing speeches, and intimidating and threatening accusations, he lit the spark that ignited a series of witch hunts and caused America to question its own loyalty. McCarthy made his debut on February 9, 1950, when he announced to a women’s Republican club in West Virginia that he had a list of the names of 205 communists in the State Department. 13 This was the birth of McCarthyism. 14 He continued to travel through out the West on his campaign for the Republican Party, but when asked about the list his specifics changed from state to state. 15 He began to change the number of names on his list when questioned by reporters, telling some it was 57 and then the next day somewhere else it was 81. 16 His allegations would come to evolve as well from full-fledged communist to loyalty risks or people with connections to the communist party. 17 Even though McCarthy was the most influential Senator to speak out about communism, he was not the first. 18 Many Republicans had spoken out in past years. 19 In fact, most of McCarthy’s accusations were made by previous Republicans. Even his speeches were not original. One reported time, one of McCarthy’s speeches contained several paragraphs taken almost word for word from a speech Nixon made a few days before. 20 Although many of his charges were false or had no evidence, McCarthyism changed the way a lot of people inside and outside of the government thought about communism. He made a lot of people scared with his redbaiting and blacklisting. The members of the Truman administration were constantly trying to defend themselves from the accusations from McCarthy that they were soft on communism and that they had communists working for their party. 21 These charges led to the governments loyalty and security programs that would show just how scared this country was of communism. Congress was putting pressure on the Truman administration to implement some type of security program to fight against treason in our government. Truman then implemented the Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty. This program was designed to evaluate a government employee’s feelings on communism. The Truman administration got mixed reactions to this program. Many civil rights activists felt that it was taking away peoples rights and throwing away due process. On the other hand, many Republicans thought that this program was still not enough and that more steps needed to be taken to rid the government of communists. 22 These types of loyalty oaths did not just affect jobs in the government, but others all over the United States. Many job applications had some type of loyalty oath that had to be signed. Because of these types of procedures many people were turned down for jobs and many others who had jobs lost them. 23 An example of this was the Hollywood Ten. The Hollywood Ten was a group of actors and writers in Hollywood who lost their job and were eventually jailed for their connections to communism. 24 Another way the government tried to control the subversive activity that was happening in the United States was the HUAC. The HUAC stood for the House Committee on Un-American Activities. The main job of the House was to investigate activity that could endanger American life. It was often criticized for using thoughtless and harmful tactics to arouse controversy and ideas of treason. Although the Committee did serve its purpose, it also caused many hardships for people caught up in this massive witch-hunt. Many people who had been blacklisted either lost their jobs, money, and respect and became homeless or they killed themselves. 27 A big break came for the HUAC when in 1948 the committee started to investigate Alger Hiss. Alger Hiss was former State Department official who was accused of giving top secret documents to the Soviet Union in the past. 26 Because he had committed these acts more than 20 years before, he could not be charged for spying, but was charged for lying under oath about his involvement with the Soviet Union. 27 Alger Hiss was the first of many spies who either confessed or were caught by the government in a domino effect that eventually led to the capture and final execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Twelve days after the Hiss conviction a physicist from England who worked first-hand with the Manhattan Project confessed to spying for the Soviet Union. 28 The physicist was Klaus Fuchs and the Manhattan project was America’s name for its nuclear experimenting project. 29 Klaus Fuchs was working for the British on a type of war-related project that he later found out to be atomic-bomb research. During his research with the British, Fuchs traveled many times to the United States to work with American scientists on the problem of the fission bomb. 30 During his travels to the U.S. he was instructed to meet with an American courier for whom he was supposed to give information about his work and the status of the United States nuclear power. 31 Only after about four meetings with the secret courier he knew only as Raymond, Fuchs was transferred to work on the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos. 32 He did not inform Raymond or his Soviet leaders of this change and left without a trace. 33 He started working on the Manhattan Project in 1944 and for a nearly a year he worked with other scientists and physicists on developing the atomic bomb, not once thinking of his previously assigned duties to the Soviet Union. Not until 1945, when Fuchs came to visit his sister in Massachusetts, did he talk to Raymond again. 34 When they met together, Fuchs outlined the new developments that were taking place and what information he had on the bomb. 35 He told Raymond as much as he could and that he would keep him informed. Later that year he reported on the test of the bomb and exact specifications and size of the bomb. 36 He gave the Soviets our most precious secret at that time to some of the most dangerous people in the world. Now that Fuchs was under arrest the FBI wanted to know the identity of the secret American courier known only as Raymond. Unfortunately Fuchs had no idea what Raymond’s real name was and could only provide a vague description. 37 Through various background checks, the FBI came up with the name Harry Gold. 38 Harry Gold was later questioned and soon after confessed to being Raymond. 39 He confessed to passing the information he received from Fuchs about the atomic bomb and other information concerning the activities that had taken place while Fuchs worked there. He confessed to giving it to the Soviet Union. 40 In one of his confessions he named David Greenglass as one of contacts. He confessed that he met with David Greenglass in Albuquerque, New Mexico. There he received information from David concerning the atomic bomb and other vital information. 41 David was then brought in for questioning not less than a week later. He was told that Gold had already confessed and that he should do the same. He said that he would as long as his wife was left out of it. He confessed to talking to Gold in New Mexico about his job. He confessed to having talked to Julius Rosenberg about his job at Los Alamos. They talked about the progress that was being made specific information on how that bomb worked and several drawings and sketches of the bomb itself. 42 Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were very active in the communist party. 43 They became members of the Young Communist League as teenagers and grew up in the party ever since. 44 They read the newspapers that were printed for the communist party and held meetings for their party’s branch in their own living room. 45 On July 17, 1950, Julius Rosenberg was arrested for conspiracy to commit espionage and 25 days later Ethel Rosenberg was also arrested for the same charge. They were brought to the attention of the FBI after David Greenglass accused Julius in his statement to the FBI. They were both taken down to jail and were placed at 100,000 dollars bail. There they waited for half a year before they got their day in court. Prior to the opening of the trial a jury had to be selected. The judge presiding over this case was Judge Irving R. Kaufman. He made it a point to decide who was on the jury and who was not. Judge Kaufman had a long list of requirements each person had to meet in order to stay on the jury. Some of his questions dealt with being familiar with any organizations on the attorney general’s list, having any personal contacts with the FBI or HUAC, and finally if they were against capital punishment. If any of the perspective jurors answered unsatisfactory to any of these questions they were dismissed. On March 6, 1951 Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and Morton Sobell were put on trial. Morton Sobell was a friend of Julius who was employed by the Navy’s Bureau of Ordinance. The opening statement by Saypol, the prosecuting attorney, was aimed at putting the Rosenbergs and Sobell’s loyalty toward the United States at question and communism on trial. Even though their participation in the communist party was not of concern in this trial, Saypol insisted that the fact that they were active in the communist party show motivation for what they were accused of. In order to charge a person with conspiracy to commit anything, very little hard evidence is needed. Hearsay and rumors constitute enough evidence for a conviction. Because the prosecuting team did not have enough hard evidence to convict the Rosenbergs of treason they decided to try for a conviction of conspiracy to commit espionage, something for which they could easily gather enough evidence, seeing as how they only needed one strong witness.	3,108	ENGLISH	1
Washtenaw County Poor House \|Washtenaw County Poor House\| \|Building Style\|\|Single Building\| \|Location\|\|Ann Arbor, MI\| The County Farm Park, on the east side between Platt and Medford, is devoted to recreation such as jogging and gardening. But once it was the location of the County Poor House. Homeless people of both sexes and all ages lived there. The Poor House sheltered a diverse group of unfortunates: the insane, alcoholic, feeble, indolent, senile, retarded, handicapped, injured, sick, transient, or just down on their luck. Their common denominator was their poverty. Some stayed only for a short time, but others remained until they died. If no relative claimed the body, it was buried on the premises or given to the U-M medical school. Some human bones found in the 1960s when Washtenaw Avenue was being widened were at first believed to be Indian relics until someone figured out that the road extended over the area used for the poor house cemetery. Poor farms were the nineteenth century solution to poverty. Reformers such as Dorothea Dix, a pioneer in the movement for specialized treatment of the insane, believed that placing people on working farms could make them into contributing members of society and also relieve the public of paying for their care. Most of the people who lived in poor houses were not able to work, however, or if they could, were not very productive. Income from crops raised at the Washtenaw County Poor House helped defray costs, but except for a few years during the Civil War, it was never enough to cover all expenses. The land for the Washtenaw County Poor House was purchased by the county in 1836 from Revolutionary War veteran Claudius Britton, to comply with an 1830 Michigan law directing each county to build a poor house. The county hired a keeper, always a local person with a farming background, who lived on the premises with a wife who cooked for the residents (or "inmates," as they were called in the official reports). The farm included orchards of apples, peaches, and pears; livestock (pigs, cattle, sheep, and chickens); and gardens with vegetables and grains. George Campbell, who grew up on nearby Cobblestone Farm, recalled, "I would often see poor farm residents out in the fields pitching hay, always under supervision. The men worked the farm as long as it was done with horse power, but they couldn't manage farm machinery. The women residents helped in the kitchen, setting the tables or peeling potatoes. During the day they would sew." Campbell also remembered that Platt Road used to be known as "Pauper's Alley" and that "Poor House residents used to sneak away and, using a little money they might have gotten from relatives, buy some tobacco at McMillan's store on Packard, where the Sunoco station is now." Poor houses are usually depicted as bleak, terrible places, but Ann Arborites old enough to remember believe this one was not such a bad place. According to lifelong Ann Arbor resident Arthur Rieff, "it was a lot nicer than old age homes are today. Those who could work, did, and there was a nice visiting room. No one minded going there to live." Edith Staebler Kempf agrees it was a pleasant enough place, especially with all the home-grown food, but says there was enough of a social stigma in being there that she was taught in her childhood to refer to it not as the "poor farm" but as the "county home." She adds, "People of means were ostracized if they let their relatives live there." After the welfare system arose in the 1930s, the farm changed from a home for poor people to a place for people who needed continual medical care but could not afford it. The farm lands were rented to Ralph McCalla, who continued raising cattle and growing crops until 1960. According to McCalla, "Some of the Poor House residents still helped. They would come down to the barn and feed the livestock just to have something to do." The County Infirmary, as it was known after 1917, was closed in 1971 after county officials decided it would cost too much to modernize. It was torn down in 1979. For a time, St. Joseph's Mercy Hospital seriously considered building on the site, and doctors' offices were built on the eastern side of Platt in anticipation of this move. After St. Joe's decided to locate elsewhere, debate centered on whether the land should be used for new county buildings or for a park. After the county commissioners decided to keep the county courthouse in downtown Ann Arbor, the County Parks and Recreation Department went to work creating the County Farm Park. Today the 127-acre park includes a parcours (a jogging-exercise trail patterned after European fitness courses), a woodland trail, a perennial garden complete with native shrubs, Project Grow gardens, and an irrigation system powered by a windmill. All that remains of the poor farm is the barn now used to store maintenance equipment.	<urn:uuid:b40b477d-5add-4f59-95cc-e30d409a66a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://asylumprojects.org/index.php?title=Washtenaw_County_Poor_House&oldid=22279	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00103.warc.gz	en	0.984212	1,056	3.390625	3	[ -0.07599939405918121, -0.24531148374080658, 0.3291388750076294, 0.15394869446754456, 0.5464261174201965, -0.12184394896030426, -0.337740421295166, -0.2944048345088959, -0.025047775357961655, -0.17696836590766907, 0.46277686953544617, -0.12747201323509216, 0.129519522190094, 0.3878064155578...	4	Washtenaw County Poor House \|Washtenaw County Poor House\| \|Building Style\|\|Single Building\| \|Location\|\|Ann Arbor, MI\| The County Farm Park, on the east side between Platt and Medford, is devoted to recreation such as jogging and gardening. But once it was the location of the County Poor House. Homeless people of both sexes and all ages lived there. The Poor House sheltered a diverse group of unfortunates: the insane, alcoholic, feeble, indolent, senile, retarded, handicapped, injured, sick, transient, or just down on their luck. Their common denominator was their poverty. Some stayed only for a short time, but others remained until they died. If no relative claimed the body, it was buried on the premises or given to the U-M medical school. Some human bones found in the 1960s when Washtenaw Avenue was being widened were at first believed to be Indian relics until someone figured out that the road extended over the area used for the poor house cemetery. Poor farms were the nineteenth century solution to poverty. Reformers such as Dorothea Dix, a pioneer in the movement for specialized treatment of the insane, believed that placing people on working farms could make them into contributing members of society and also relieve the public of paying for their care. Most of the people who lived in poor houses were not able to work, however, or if they could, were not very productive. Income from crops raised at the Washtenaw County Poor House helped defray costs, but except for a few years during the Civil War, it was never enough to cover all expenses. The land for the Washtenaw County Poor House was purchased by the county in 1836 from Revolutionary War veteran Claudius Britton, to comply with an 1830 Michigan law directing each county to build a poor house. The county hired a keeper, always a local person with a farming background, who lived on the premises with a wife who cooked for the residents (or "inmates," as they were called in the official reports). The farm included orchards of apples, peaches, and pears; livestock (pigs, cattle, sheep, and chickens); and gardens with vegetables and grains. George Campbell, who grew up on nearby Cobblestone Farm, recalled, "I would often see poor farm residents out in the fields pitching hay, always under supervision. The men worked the farm as long as it was done with horse power, but they couldn't manage farm machinery. The women residents helped in the kitchen, setting the tables or peeling potatoes. During the day they would sew." Campbell also remembered that Platt Road used to be known as "Pauper's Alley" and that "Poor House residents used to sneak away and, using a little money they might have gotten from relatives, buy some tobacco at McMillan's store on Packard, where the Sunoco station is now." Poor houses are usually depicted as bleak, terrible places, but Ann Arborites old enough to remember believe this one was not such a bad place. According to lifelong Ann Arbor resident Arthur Rieff, "it was a lot nicer than old age homes are today. Those who could work, did, and there was a nice visiting room. No one minded going there to live." Edith Staebler Kempf agrees it was a pleasant enough place, especially with all the home-grown food, but says there was enough of a social stigma in being there that she was taught in her childhood to refer to it not as the "poor farm" but as the "county home." She adds, "People of means were ostracized if they let their relatives live there." After the welfare system arose in the 1930s, the farm changed from a home for poor people to a place for people who needed continual medical care but could not afford it. The farm lands were rented to Ralph McCalla, who continued raising cattle and growing crops until 1960. According to McCalla, "Some of the Poor House residents still helped. They would come down to the barn and feed the livestock just to have something to do." The County Infirmary, as it was known after 1917, was closed in 1971 after county officials decided it would cost too much to modernize. It was torn down in 1979. For a time, St. Joseph's Mercy Hospital seriously considered building on the site, and doctors' offices were built on the eastern side of Platt in anticipation of this move. After St. Joe's decided to locate elsewhere, debate centered on whether the land should be used for new county buildings or for a park. After the county commissioners decided to keep the county courthouse in downtown Ann Arbor, the County Parks and Recreation Department went to work creating the County Farm Park. Today the 127-acre park includes a parcours (a jogging-exercise trail patterned after European fitness courses), a woodland trail, a perennial garden complete with native shrubs, Project Grow gardens, and an irrigation system powered by a windmill. All that remains of the poor farm is the barn now used to store maintenance equipment.	1,077	ENGLISH	1
“Show trials” were political processes used in totalitarian states, aimed at discrediting the opposition by conducting a public trial based on trumped-up charges. They were also meant to intimidate society. During the pre-trial investigation, the defendants were subjected to widespread torture, as a result of which they often confessed to the acts they hadn't done. Two large show trials took place in Krakow. The biggest and the loudest one was so-called the Cracow trial against Franciszek Niepokólczycki, Stanisław Mierzwa, and their associates; sixteen people were put in the dock altogether. The course of the trial had been determined in detail beforehand. There were severe sentences: eight people were sentenced to death and the remaining eight were sentenced to long prison terms; one person was acquitted. Elaborated by Grzegorz Jeżowski (Historical Museum of the City of Kraków), © all rights reserved See court rostrum from St. Michael's prison in Kraków in the collection of Małopolska’s Virtual Museums.	<urn:uuid:f883d292-2338-4151-80ce-5d2dfa131e2f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://muzea.malopolska.pl/en/czy-wiesz-ze/-/a/10191/%E2%80%9Eprocesy-pokazowe%E2%80%9D	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00557.warc.gz	en	0.987956	238	3.515625	4	[ -0.30755478143692017, 0.5185138583183289, 0.1475476771593094, 0.273002564907074, 0.16098156571388245, 0.24026590585708618, 0.3645388185977936, 0.049693867564201355, 0.07689306885004044, -0.03914331644773483, 0.22717568278312683, 0.10560735315084457, -0.12467951327562332, 0.5451350212097168...	1	“Show trials” were political processes used in totalitarian states, aimed at discrediting the opposition by conducting a public trial based on trumped-up charges. They were also meant to intimidate society. During the pre-trial investigation, the defendants were subjected to widespread torture, as a result of which they often confessed to the acts they hadn't done. Two large show trials took place in Krakow. The biggest and the loudest one was so-called the Cracow trial against Franciszek Niepokólczycki, Stanisław Mierzwa, and their associates; sixteen people were put in the dock altogether. The course of the trial had been determined in detail beforehand. There were severe sentences: eight people were sentenced to death and the remaining eight were sentenced to long prison terms; one person was acquitted. Elaborated by Grzegorz Jeżowski (Historical Museum of the City of Kraków), © all rights reserved See court rostrum from St. Michael's prison in Kraków in the collection of Małopolska’s Virtual Museums.	220	ENGLISH	1
Article abstract: The prolific author of more than one hundred books of verse, fifty dramas, forty works of fiction, and fifteen books of essays, Nobel laureate Tagore is recognized as a pioneer in Bengali literature, particularly the short story, and is internationally acclaimed as one of the world’s finest lyric poets. The foundation for Tagore’s literary achievements is his vision of the universal man, based on his unique integration of Eastern and Western thought. Rabindranath Tagore was born on May 7, 1861, into a prosperous Bengali family in Calcutta, India. The fourteenth child and eighth son of Debendranath Tagore and Sarada Devi, he grew up surrounded by the artistic and intellectual pursuits of his elders. Agricultural landholdings in East Bengal supported the family’s leisurely lifestyle, and their Calcutta mansion was a center for Bengalis who, like the Tagores, sought to integrate Western influences in literature, philosophy, arts, and sciences into their own culture. Young Tagore was a sensitive and interested child who, like his siblings, lived in awe of his father, a pillar of the Hindu reform group Brahmo Samaj. Cared for mainly by servants because of his mother’s ill health, he lived a relatively confined existence, watching the life of crowded Calcutta from the windows and courtyards of his protected home. From an early age, Tagore’s literary talents were encouraged. Like the other Tagore children, he was thoroughly schooled in Bengali language and literature as a foundation for integrating culturally diverse influences, and, throughout his long career, Tagore composed most of his work in Bengali. In 1868, he was enrolled in the Oriental Seminary, where he quickly rebelled against formal education. Unhappy, transferring to different schools, Tagore nevertheless became appreciated as a budding poet during this time both in school and at home. In 1873, he was withdrawn from school to accompany his father on a tour of northern India and the Himalayas. This journey served as a rite of passage for the boy, who was deeply influenced by his father’s presence and by the grandeur of nature. It also provided his first opportunity to roam in open countryside. Returning to Calcutta, Tagore boycotted school and, from 1873 on, was educated at home by tutors and his brothers. In 1874, he began to recite publicly his poetry, and his first long poem was published in the monthly journal Bhārati. For the next four years, he gave recitations and published stories, essays, and experiments in drama. In 1878, Tagore went to England to prepare for a career in law at University College, London, but withdrew in 1880 and returned to India. Tagore’s stay in England was not a happy one, but during those fourteen months, his intellectual horizons broadened as he read English literature with Henry Morley and became acquainted with European music and drama. Returning to India, Tagore resumed his writing amid the intellectual family life in Calcutta, especially influenced by his talented elder brothers Jyotirindranath (writer, translator, playwright, and musician) and the scholarly Satyendranath. Tagore’s view of life at this time was melancholy; yet, with the metrical liberty of his poems in Sandhya Sangit (1882; evening songs), it became clear that he was already establishing new artistic and literary standards. Tagore then had a transcendental experience that abruptly changed his work. His gloomy introspection expanded in bliss and insight into the outer world, and Tagore once again perceived the innocent communion with nature that he had known as a child. This vision was reflected in Prabhat Sangit (1883; morning songs), and his new style was immediately popular. By his mid-twenties, Tagore had published devotional songs, poetry, drama, and literary criticism and was established as a lyric poet, primarily influenced by the early Vaishnava lyricists of Bengal and by... (The entire section is 2,969 words.)	<urn:uuid:28105030-be70-4436-a4c4-8f17adaa8a2b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/topics/rabindranath-tagore	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00209.warc.gz	en	0.98608	856	3.453125	3	[ 0.21862590312957764, 0.4126317501068115, 0.015496889129281044, 0.01676112413406372, -0.8267940282821655, -0.46417436003685, 0.15984728932380676, 0.0495561808347702, -0.015295391902327538, -0.23059308528900146, 0.08994521200656891, -0.32267218828201294, 0.19362524151802063, 0.65797334909439...	3	Article abstract: The prolific author of more than one hundred books of verse, fifty dramas, forty works of fiction, and fifteen books of essays, Nobel laureate Tagore is recognized as a pioneer in Bengali literature, particularly the short story, and is internationally acclaimed as one of the world’s finest lyric poets. The foundation for Tagore’s literary achievements is his vision of the universal man, based on his unique integration of Eastern and Western thought. Rabindranath Tagore was born on May 7, 1861, into a prosperous Bengali family in Calcutta, India. The fourteenth child and eighth son of Debendranath Tagore and Sarada Devi, he grew up surrounded by the artistic and intellectual pursuits of his elders. Agricultural landholdings in East Bengal supported the family’s leisurely lifestyle, and their Calcutta mansion was a center for Bengalis who, like the Tagores, sought to integrate Western influences in literature, philosophy, arts, and sciences into their own culture. Young Tagore was a sensitive and interested child who, like his siblings, lived in awe of his father, a pillar of the Hindu reform group Brahmo Samaj. Cared for mainly by servants because of his mother’s ill health, he lived a relatively confined existence, watching the life of crowded Calcutta from the windows and courtyards of his protected home. From an early age, Tagore’s literary talents were encouraged. Like the other Tagore children, he was thoroughly schooled in Bengali language and literature as a foundation for integrating culturally diverse influences, and, throughout his long career, Tagore composed most of his work in Bengali. In 1868, he was enrolled in the Oriental Seminary, where he quickly rebelled against formal education. Unhappy, transferring to different schools, Tagore nevertheless became appreciated as a budding poet during this time both in school and at home. In 1873, he was withdrawn from school to accompany his father on a tour of northern India and the Himalayas. This journey served as a rite of passage for the boy, who was deeply influenced by his father’s presence and by the grandeur of nature. It also provided his first opportunity to roam in open countryside. Returning to Calcutta, Tagore boycotted school and, from 1873 on, was educated at home by tutors and his brothers. In 1874, he began to recite publicly his poetry, and his first long poem was published in the monthly journal Bhārati. For the next four years, he gave recitations and published stories, essays, and experiments in drama. In 1878, Tagore went to England to prepare for a career in law at University College, London, but withdrew in 1880 and returned to India. Tagore’s stay in England was not a happy one, but during those fourteen months, his intellectual horizons broadened as he read English literature with Henry Morley and became acquainted with European music and drama. Returning to India, Tagore resumed his writing amid the intellectual family life in Calcutta, especially influenced by his talented elder brothers Jyotirindranath (writer, translator, playwright, and musician) and the scholarly Satyendranath. Tagore’s view of life at this time was melancholy; yet, with the metrical liberty of his poems in Sandhya Sangit (1882; evening songs), it became clear that he was already establishing new artistic and literary standards. Tagore then had a transcendental experience that abruptly changed his work. His gloomy introspection expanded in bliss and insight into the outer world, and Tagore once again perceived the innocent communion with nature that he had known as a child. This vision was reflected in Prabhat Sangit (1883; morning songs), and his new style was immediately popular. By his mid-twenties, Tagore had published devotional songs, poetry, drama, and literary criticism and was established as a lyric poet, primarily influenced by the early Vaishnava lyricists of Bengal and by... (The entire section is 2,969 words.)	864	ENGLISH	1
Visit Website Did you know? See Article History Alternative Titles: Captured a year afterward, Joan was burned to death by the English and their French collaborators as a heretic. She became the greatest national heroine of her compatriots, and her achievement was a decisive factor in the later awakening of French national consciousness. In her mission of expelling the English and their Burgundian allies from the Valois kingdom of France, she felt herself to be guided by the voices of St. Catherine of Alexandriaand St. Joan was endowed with remarkable mental and physical courage, as well as a robust common sense, and she possessed many attributes characteristic of the female visionaries who were a noted feature of her time. Reimsthe traditional place for the investiture of French kings, was well within the territory held by his enemies. As long as the Dauphin remained unconsecrated, the rightfulness of his claim to be king of France was open to challenge. The villagers had already had to abandon their homes before Burgundian threats. He did not take the year-old and her visions seriously, and Joan d arc biography returned home. Joan went to Vaucouleurs again in January This time her quiet firmness and piety gained her the respect of the people, and the captain, persuaded that she was neither a witch nor feebleminded, allowed her to go to the Dauphin at Chinon. Crossing territory held by the enemy, and traveling for 11 days, she reached Chinon. Joan went at once to the castle of the dauphin Charles, who was initially uncertain whether to receive her. His counselors gave him conflicting advice; but two days later he granted her an audience. As a test Charles hid himself among his courtiers, but Joan quickly detected him; she told him that she wished to go to battle against the English and that she would have him crowned at Reims. These examinations, the record of which has not survived, were occasioned by the ever-present fear of heresy following the end of the Western Schism in Joan of Arc answering the questions of the prelates. She had her standard painted with an image of Christ in Judgment and a banner made bearing the name of Jesus. When the question of a sword was brought up, she declared that it would be found in the church of Sainte-Catherine-de-Fierbois, and one was in fact discovered there. The city, besieged since October 12,was almost totally surrounded by a ring of English strongholds. When Joan and one of the French commanders, La Hire, entered with supplies on April 29, she was told that action must be deferred until further reinforcements could be brought in. On the evening of May 4, when Joan was resting, she suddenly sprang up, apparently inspired, and announced that she must go and attack the English. Arming herself, she hurried to an English fort east of the city, where she discovered an engagement was already taking place. Her arrival roused the French, and they took the fort. The next day Joan addressed another of her letters of defiance to the English. On the morning of May 6 she crossed to the south bank of the river and advanced toward another fort; the English immediately evacuated in order to defend a stronger position nearby, but Joan and La Hire attacked them and took it by storm. Very early on May 7 the French advanced against the fort of Les Tourelles.Joan of Arc Biography Joan of Arc () is a French heroine and Roman Catholic saint. Born in obscurity to a peasant family, she travelled to the uncrowned Dauphin of France, advising him to reclaim his French throne and defeat the English. Watch video · Early Years. Joan of Arc was born in , in Domremy, France. The daughter of poor tenant farmers Jacques d’ Arc and his wife, Isabelle, also . Saint Joan of Arc. Maid of Heaven is a complete biography about the life of Saint Joan of Arc and my hope is that anyone, after reading, will know as much about Saint Joan as I do. That said, I believe that no one's education is ever finished, as there is always more that can be learned about any subject. Joan of Arc is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War. Click for more facts or worksheets. Joan of Arc Biography. Joan of Arc () is a French heroine and Roman Catholic saint. Born in obscurity to a peasant family, she travelled to the uncrowned Dauphin of France, advising him to reclaim his French throne and defeat the English. Kids learn about the biography of Joan of Arc, French heroine who helped defeat the English, but was burned at the stake.	<urn:uuid:a49710b7-8d54-48de-8404-4f89d6b42df4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mujegyf.metin2sell.com/joan-d-arc-biography-49483uv.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00523.warc.gz	en	0.986478	995	3.53125	4	[ -0.5598012208938599, 0.6322847604751587, 0.3470458984375, -0.12651365995407104, -0.17211197316646576, 0.00802646018564701, 0.5469141006469727, 0.2833443284034729, 0.19208599627017975, -0.09445367008447647, -0.03008493408560753, -0.22166815400123596, 0.14364731311798096, -0.0308378487825393...	1	Visit Website Did you know? See Article History Alternative Titles: Captured a year afterward, Joan was burned to death by the English and their French collaborators as a heretic. She became the greatest national heroine of her compatriots, and her achievement was a decisive factor in the later awakening of French national consciousness. In her mission of expelling the English and their Burgundian allies from the Valois kingdom of France, she felt herself to be guided by the voices of St. Catherine of Alexandriaand St. Joan was endowed with remarkable mental and physical courage, as well as a robust common sense, and she possessed many attributes characteristic of the female visionaries who were a noted feature of her time. Reimsthe traditional place for the investiture of French kings, was well within the territory held by his enemies. As long as the Dauphin remained unconsecrated, the rightfulness of his claim to be king of France was open to challenge. The villagers had already had to abandon their homes before Burgundian threats. He did not take the year-old and her visions seriously, and Joan d arc biography returned home. Joan went to Vaucouleurs again in January This time her quiet firmness and piety gained her the respect of the people, and the captain, persuaded that she was neither a witch nor feebleminded, allowed her to go to the Dauphin at Chinon. Crossing territory held by the enemy, and traveling for 11 days, she reached Chinon. Joan went at once to the castle of the dauphin Charles, who was initially uncertain whether to receive her. His counselors gave him conflicting advice; but two days later he granted her an audience. As a test Charles hid himself among his courtiers, but Joan quickly detected him; she told him that she wished to go to battle against the English and that she would have him crowned at Reims. These examinations, the record of which has not survived, were occasioned by the ever-present fear of heresy following the end of the Western Schism in Joan of Arc answering the questions of the prelates. She had her standard painted with an image of Christ in Judgment and a banner made bearing the name of Jesus. When the question of a sword was brought up, she declared that it would be found in the church of Sainte-Catherine-de-Fierbois, and one was in fact discovered there. The city, besieged since October 12,was almost totally surrounded by a ring of English strongholds. When Joan and one of the French commanders, La Hire, entered with supplies on April 29, she was told that action must be deferred until further reinforcements could be brought in. On the evening of May 4, when Joan was resting, she suddenly sprang up, apparently inspired, and announced that she must go and attack the English. Arming herself, she hurried to an English fort east of the city, where she discovered an engagement was already taking place. Her arrival roused the French, and they took the fort. The next day Joan addressed another of her letters of defiance to the English. On the morning of May 6 she crossed to the south bank of the river and advanced toward another fort; the English immediately evacuated in order to defend a stronger position nearby, but Joan and La Hire attacked them and took it by storm. Very early on May 7 the French advanced against the fort of Les Tourelles.Joan of Arc Biography Joan of Arc () is a French heroine and Roman Catholic saint. Born in obscurity to a peasant family, she travelled to the uncrowned Dauphin of France, advising him to reclaim his French throne and defeat the English. Watch video · Early Years. Joan of Arc was born in , in Domremy, France. The daughter of poor tenant farmers Jacques d’ Arc and his wife, Isabelle, also . Saint Joan of Arc. Maid of Heaven is a complete biography about the life of Saint Joan of Arc and my hope is that anyone, after reading, will know as much about Saint Joan as I do. That said, I believe that no one's education is ever finished, as there is always more that can be learned about any subject. Joan of Arc is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War. Click for more facts or worksheets. Joan of Arc Biography. Joan of Arc () is a French heroine and Roman Catholic saint. Born in obscurity to a peasant family, she travelled to the uncrowned Dauphin of France, advising him to reclaim his French throne and defeat the English. Kids learn about the biography of Joan of Arc, French heroine who helped defeat the English, but was burned at the stake.	971	ENGLISH	1
Engaging kids is not something I've really struggled with over the course of my career. Generally, I love what I do and getting students to participate fully hasn't been a stretch. However, there are activities that are more or less engaging for students. Direct instruction still plays a roll in our classroom. While direct instruction has evolved, it still involves kids sitting and listening rather than kids doing. The major shift in direct instruction in our classroom is in who is doing the bulk of the talking. I am working so hard to talk less and listen more. In the end though, lessons that are direct instruction in nature, can result in disengagement if structures aren't in place to keep kids actively involved. Even though structures like "turn and talk" and asking kids to share their partners strategies or thinking help to maintain engagement, some students will be vulnerable. It is our job to stay tuned into all the learners in our class and to adjust our practice when needed. Over the course of the year, we grow a culture in our classroom where students become accustomed to thinking deeply about the math so that they can solve problems. Students practice arguing so that they can agree or disagree with their classmates based on what each is noticing about the math. This work is important to developing how kids think and support their thinking with proof. This work is reliant on their being a variety of view points in the room. Students have to practice listening to one another, thinking about what they've heard and integrating the new ideas with what the student already knows. Some of this work has to happen in the context of direct instruction. Today, students in our math class investigated the number of raisins in a typical 1 oz. box of raisins. Now, this lesson was engaging! Everyone was focused. There were NO off-task behaviors. There were no zoned-out expressions. Students were productive. First, students had to count the raisins in their boxes. I was so interested to see how students were counting their raisins. There is a real emphasis on using counting bags with students across elementary grades. I can see why. Students whose number sense is secure approached this task differently than students who struggle with number sense. The more confident students were very systematic about their approach. They organized their raisins into equal groups of five or ten and were able to count with efficiency and accuracy. The less able students counted one-by-one. They sometimes loss track and had to start again. When a final count was secured, there didn't seem to be a sense of confidence. The counting part of this activity was fascinating! Next, students posted their findings on the SmartBoard. The data was recorded in alphabetical order according to each child's last name. Making any generalizations was challenging. The students were sent off to analyze the data and present it in ways that made sense and were easy to make meaning of. The was a perfect hum in the classroom as the students attended to their task. I didn't pre-teach line plots or bar graphs. It would have been all too easy to announce that we were working with numerical data and therefore the data lent itself to the construction of line plots. How efficient. How boring. The students likely wouldn't have learned much. Kids have to figure out things for themselves. Students presented their representations beginning today. The students critiqued one another's work and noted the merits of each sort of representation. Learning should be meaningful. As the presentations unfolded, students were respectful and attentive to the student-led conversations that followed each presentation. The students were engaged. Our director of technology integration came in to deliver some professional development during our preparation period at our request. He shared an application that would allow our students to use multi-media and green screen technology to produce photos and videos. He gave us a mini lesson (think direct instruction) and then cut us loose with a tiny project. During the practice phase of our lesson, I took a photo of my colleague and tried to place her in a cafe in Paris. She was way too big! I intuitively used two fingers to shrink her and move her. I couldn't help it, I squealed with delight. There is no doubt about it. Technology can be very engaging, even for old bird school teachers like us. We were eager to jump in and work on our mini projects. My key take aways on the day:	<urn:uuid:9d85e65d-7e43-4f72-a075-7e5e0c313e0f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://theartofbeingcurious.weebly.com/the-art-of-being-curious/engagement	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00004.warc.gz	en	0.985511	897	3.421875	3	[ -0.04386601597070694, -0.5548830032348633, 0.1738124042749405, -0.7536455392837524, -0.7203183174133301, -0.04092580825090408, 0.041653815656900406, 0.3600938320159912, 0.17534011602401733, -0.1660354882478714, 0.40702593326568604, 0.12397588789463043, 0.12777870893478394, 0.22107282280921...	2	Engaging kids is not something I've really struggled with over the course of my career. Generally, I love what I do and getting students to participate fully hasn't been a stretch. However, there are activities that are more or less engaging for students. Direct instruction still plays a roll in our classroom. While direct instruction has evolved, it still involves kids sitting and listening rather than kids doing. The major shift in direct instruction in our classroom is in who is doing the bulk of the talking. I am working so hard to talk less and listen more. In the end though, lessons that are direct instruction in nature, can result in disengagement if structures aren't in place to keep kids actively involved. Even though structures like "turn and talk" and asking kids to share their partners strategies or thinking help to maintain engagement, some students will be vulnerable. It is our job to stay tuned into all the learners in our class and to adjust our practice when needed. Over the course of the year, we grow a culture in our classroom where students become accustomed to thinking deeply about the math so that they can solve problems. Students practice arguing so that they can agree or disagree with their classmates based on what each is noticing about the math. This work is important to developing how kids think and support their thinking with proof. This work is reliant on their being a variety of view points in the room. Students have to practice listening to one another, thinking about what they've heard and integrating the new ideas with what the student already knows. Some of this work has to happen in the context of direct instruction. Today, students in our math class investigated the number of raisins in a typical 1 oz. box of raisins. Now, this lesson was engaging! Everyone was focused. There were NO off-task behaviors. There were no zoned-out expressions. Students were productive. First, students had to count the raisins in their boxes. I was so interested to see how students were counting their raisins. There is a real emphasis on using counting bags with students across elementary grades. I can see why. Students whose number sense is secure approached this task differently than students who struggle with number sense. The more confident students were very systematic about their approach. They organized their raisins into equal groups of five or ten and were able to count with efficiency and accuracy. The less able students counted one-by-one. They sometimes loss track and had to start again. When a final count was secured, there didn't seem to be a sense of confidence. The counting part of this activity was fascinating! Next, students posted their findings on the SmartBoard. The data was recorded in alphabetical order according to each child's last name. Making any generalizations was challenging. The students were sent off to analyze the data and present it in ways that made sense and were easy to make meaning of. The was a perfect hum in the classroom as the students attended to their task. I didn't pre-teach line plots or bar graphs. It would have been all too easy to announce that we were working with numerical data and therefore the data lent itself to the construction of line plots. How efficient. How boring. The students likely wouldn't have learned much. Kids have to figure out things for themselves. Students presented their representations beginning today. The students critiqued one another's work and noted the merits of each sort of representation. Learning should be meaningful. As the presentations unfolded, students were respectful and attentive to the student-led conversations that followed each presentation. The students were engaged. Our director of technology integration came in to deliver some professional development during our preparation period at our request. He shared an application that would allow our students to use multi-media and green screen technology to produce photos and videos. He gave us a mini lesson (think direct instruction) and then cut us loose with a tiny project. During the practice phase of our lesson, I took a photo of my colleague and tried to place her in a cafe in Paris. She was way too big! I intuitively used two fingers to shrink her and move her. I couldn't help it, I squealed with delight. There is no doubt about it. Technology can be very engaging, even for old bird school teachers like us. We were eager to jump in and work on our mini projects. My key take aways on the day:	880	ENGLISH	1
The premier law in the United States of America is the Constitution. All the other laws are formed from the constitution. It suggests how the government should operate. It even forms the Presidency, the congress and the Supreme Court. Each of the States has a constitution but the constitution of the United States is superior. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! The constitution can be altered which is known as the amendment. Amongst the amendments is a list of the people rights. These are made unique after they are listed. The government cannot infringe those rights as it would be termed illegal. There have been 27 amendments up till now but not all include the rights. The Bill of Rights was the first ten amendments and they are very special. The United States Constitution is nearly 200 years old as it was written in 1787 by a group of men famously known as Framers. They discussed for nearly two months as to what should be written in the Constitution. At that time United States was a new country and the government at that time was not performing as expected. The Framers met to figure out a new way to run the country. This meeting is famously known as The Convention and some of the famous framers whom we know today are George Washington, James Madison and Benjamin Franklin. When the writing of the Constitution was finished, the Framers had an idea that what they have written is not perfect. They knew that as time goes by people may have better ideas for the Constitution. They did not want the changes to be too hard to make or too easy. The framers included the amendment process. With this process new governments can change the constitution or even add something new to it. Some eople were against the idea to alter the constitution. One main reason being the Bill of rights which were not included. The Bill of rights is the rights which people have. The government cannot break them. Some of these rights include the right to remain silent when you are being arrested, the right to practice religion and free speech. The original constitution did not include the bill of rights as many believed it is not needed but the promised by using the process of amendment. In 1791 out of the twelve changes sent to the states ten were agreed upon and added to the Constitution. These ten alternations are known as the Bill of Rights. (Packard, Ashley, 24) The last amendment was made in 1992 which was the 27th. A couple of important ones are discussed below. Most of the black people living in the United States were slaves when the constitution was being written. As time went by people began to realize that slavery is wrong. The northern states of the country wanted slavery to end while the southern part wanted to continue with slavery as they were afraid that they will loose business as slaves would pick crops and also they could sell them if the price was right. When Abraham Lincoln was elected as the President, many of the southern states broke away from the United States and called themselves the Confederate States of America as they knew Lincoln is against slavery and wants it to be abolished. This break away led to a brutal civil war which claimed many lives. When the war ended, something good happened as Slavery was abolished with the 13th Amendment. The next amendment in 1868 said that whoever is born in the United States will be called a full citizen no matter what the color of his skinn is. Then the Black people were allowed to vote when the 15th Amendment was made in 1870. The changes helped to protect freedom of the people. It did however take a long time for the perception of the people to change as many people did not like Black people for a long time. Currently almost all are able to accept each other no matter what the color of their skin is. For a long time men were allowed to shape the county not because women could not help it was just they did not want to help at that moment. The power positions were held by men. They were the members of congress and also the presidents; they were owners of the companies. There was not much for women to progress in life. Women were only allowed to take care of the homes but now they have a choice. At that time the women had no part to play either in politics or in the government. Most men did not want women to vote in election but that all changed with the passing of the 19th Amendment in 1920 which stated that women do have a right to vote. Now women are playing an active part in politics and in the government. Prior to this amendment the men did not care what women think because they had to voice which is why they could not play an active part in politics but that all changed with the capability to vote. Things became interested as many women ran for office. There has not been a women President as yet but you never know. The United States Constitution is well written and the proposed changes were helpful to the people. Some people may disagree with the constitution but I personally feel that the US constitution is for the good of the people. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:7ed39d2e-3828-45ed-b9f9-da93402be4fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/law/the-united-states-constitution.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00356.warc.gz	en	0.991426	1,069	3.78125	4	[ -0.7956463098526001, -0.30680859088897705, 0.11324426531791687, -0.5719901323318481, -0.29089027643203735, 0.5633962154388428, 0.08754797279834747, -0.027039257809519768, 0.043020185083150864, 0.5240679979324341, 0.07889443635940552, 0.5842259526252747, -0.21424657106399536, -0.13039912283...	1	The premier law in the United States of America is the Constitution. All the other laws are formed from the constitution. It suggests how the government should operate. It even forms the Presidency, the congress and the Supreme Court. Each of the States has a constitution but the constitution of the United States is superior. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! The constitution can be altered which is known as the amendment. Amongst the amendments is a list of the people rights. These are made unique after they are listed. The government cannot infringe those rights as it would be termed illegal. There have been 27 amendments up till now but not all include the rights. The Bill of Rights was the first ten amendments and they are very special. The United States Constitution is nearly 200 years old as it was written in 1787 by a group of men famously known as Framers. They discussed for nearly two months as to what should be written in the Constitution. At that time United States was a new country and the government at that time was not performing as expected. The Framers met to figure out a new way to run the country. This meeting is famously known as The Convention and some of the famous framers whom we know today are George Washington, James Madison and Benjamin Franklin. When the writing of the Constitution was finished, the Framers had an idea that what they have written is not perfect. They knew that as time goes by people may have better ideas for the Constitution. They did not want the changes to be too hard to make or too easy. The framers included the amendment process. With this process new governments can change the constitution or even add something new to it. Some eople were against the idea to alter the constitution. One main reason being the Bill of rights which were not included. The Bill of rights is the rights which people have. The government cannot break them. Some of these rights include the right to remain silent when you are being arrested, the right to practice religion and free speech. The original constitution did not include the bill of rights as many believed it is not needed but the promised by using the process of amendment. In 1791 out of the twelve changes sent to the states ten were agreed upon and added to the Constitution. These ten alternations are known as the Bill of Rights. (Packard, Ashley, 24) The last amendment was made in 1992 which was the 27th. A couple of important ones are discussed below. Most of the black people living in the United States were slaves when the constitution was being written. As time went by people began to realize that slavery is wrong. The northern states of the country wanted slavery to end while the southern part wanted to continue with slavery as they were afraid that they will loose business as slaves would pick crops and also they could sell them if the price was right. When Abraham Lincoln was elected as the President, many of the southern states broke away from the United States and called themselves the Confederate States of America as they knew Lincoln is against slavery and wants it to be abolished. This break away led to a brutal civil war which claimed many lives. When the war ended, something good happened as Slavery was abolished with the 13th Amendment. The next amendment in 1868 said that whoever is born in the United States will be called a full citizen no matter what the color of his skinn is. Then the Black people were allowed to vote when the 15th Amendment was made in 1870. The changes helped to protect freedom of the people. It did however take a long time for the perception of the people to change as many people did not like Black people for a long time. Currently almost all are able to accept each other no matter what the color of their skin is. For a long time men were allowed to shape the county not because women could not help it was just they did not want to help at that moment. The power positions were held by men. They were the members of congress and also the presidents; they were owners of the companies. There was not much for women to progress in life. Women were only allowed to take care of the homes but now they have a choice. At that time the women had no part to play either in politics or in the government. Most men did not want women to vote in election but that all changed with the passing of the 19th Amendment in 1920 which stated that women do have a right to vote. Now women are playing an active part in politics and in the government. Prior to this amendment the men did not care what women think because they had to voice which is why they could not play an active part in politics but that all changed with the capability to vote. Things became interested as many women ran for office. There has not been a women President as yet but you never know. The United States Constitution is well written and the proposed changes were helpful to the people. Some people may disagree with the constitution but I personally feel that the US constitution is for the good of the people. Most popular orders	1,089	ENGLISH	1
A British woman scientist last won a Nobel prize 55 years ago, in 1964: her name was Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, and she won the prize for chemistry. Before her, only two women had won the Chemistry prize: Marie Curie in 1911, and her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie in 1935. Just two more women have won it since: Ada Yonath in 2009, and Frances Arnold in 2018. All told, 20 women have won prizes in physics, chemistry or physiology/medicine since the prizes were first awarded in 1901. Dorothy Hodgkin is the only one from the UK. Hodgkin did her best work in the middle years of the 20th Century, when women made up a small minority of the scientific community, and when social pressures made it difficult for them to have careers at all. So what was it about her that gave her the chance to succeed against the odds? And are there any lessons from her life that might help ambitious young women to become the Nobelists of the future? As in most walks of life, it helps to have the right parents. Hodgkin was born in Cairo in 1910, the eldest of four daughters of John Crowfoot and his wife Grace (known as Molly). Crowfoot had read classics at Oxford, and worked for the education service of the British colonial administration in Egypt and Sudan. Without having any formal higher education, Molly pursued her own interests in botany and archaeology, publishing several books and articles. Ideas, questions, hard thinking: these were all part of Crowfoot family life, regardless of gender. Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1910–1994) © Getty Images The girls were sent back to England when the First World War broke out, and by the time she was 11 years old, Dorothy’s schooling had been a bit hit and miss. But she had spent a term learning to grow crystals, and chemistry ‘captured [her] for life’. At the Sir John Leman School, a mixed state secondary school in Beccles, Suffolk, she had to fight to be allowed to take chemistry, which was seen as a ‘boys’ subject’. But she did well, and in 1928 she entered Somerville College, Oxford University, to do a chemistry degree. At every stage her parents, particularly her mother, encouraged her ambitions. No one ever said to her, as they did to other clever girls at the time, that if she was too brainy she’d never get a husband. It was in a book her mother gave her that Dorothy learned about the technique of X-ray crystallography. ‘We can now “see” the individual atoms and molecules’, wrote the author, Sir William Bragg, who had won a Nobel prize for the discovery, and Dorothy immediately decided that was what she wanted to do. Dorothy and her friend Norah Pusey are just visible in the back row of the chemistry class at the Sir John Leman School © Elisabeth Crowfoot Choosing the right PhD supervisor, as well as the right research topic, is another critical step on the way to success in science. X-ray crystallography was still very new when Dorothy went to Cambridge to do a PhD with John Desmond Bernal, who had been one of Bragg’s research students. It involved growing a crystal from a very pure sample of a substance – Bragg had used simple chemicals such as salt and copper sulphate – placing the crystal in front of a beam of X-rays, and then capturing the scattered beams diffracted by the atoms in the crystal as spots on photographic film. The pattern of spots held the key to the way the atoms are arranged into three-dimensional molecules in the crystal. As with any object in the visible world, the 3-D structures underpin the way one molecule interacts with another. Read more about great women in science: Dorothy was very far-sighted in choosing this new area of research. Bernal was one of the first to use X-ray crystallography on the complex molecules that make up the living body. Working together, they were able to publish diffraction patterns from the digestive enzyme pepsin. Pepsin is a protein, one of the molecules that we now know is encoded by the DNA sequence in our genes, and which drive all the important processes of life. Bernal and Crowfoot’s paper in the journal Nature, published in 1934, established for the first time that proteins had some kind of regular structure that might one day be deciphered. So at the age of 24, and still a research student, Dorothy became internationally known as one of the founders of protein crystallography. Her subsequent rapid progress was largely down to her exceptional skill at the technique, but also to the considerable advantage of being in on the ground floor. With widespread bias against women, and little funding for jobs in science, she still might have struggled had it not been for the all-female Oxford college where she had studied. Somerville, which was poorly endowed and previously had no scientist among its fellows, offered her a job teaching its science students that would also leave her time to continue research. She returned to Oxford at the end of 1934, and spent the rest of her career there. She married the historian Thomas Hodgkin in 1937 and had three children by 1946 – again, Somerville made it possible for her to combine work and family by giving her paid maternity leave at a time when this was almost unheard of. The UK did not introduce maternity leave legislation until 1975. Dorothy and her husband Thomas at the Nobel ball in 1964 © The Hodgkin Family Thomas was often away from home, but Hodgkin was able to employ people to help with cooking and childcare even from her modest salary, and her parents and in-laws were often ready to step in. However, only her own phenomenal ability to work long hours and focus on whatever was the immediate priority enabled her to keep going, despite an attack of rheumatoid arthritis after the birth of her first child that recurred increasingly frequently in later life. Soon after she set up her own lab in Oxford, in the basement of the University Museum, the professor of organic chemistry gave her crystals of the hormone insulin, another protein. She knew very well that insulin had been used to treat diabetes since 1922, and that understanding its structure could lead to improvements in treatment. But although she was able to obtain diffraction images of the crystals – another first – it would be decades before she could complete the analysis of this complex molecule. Instead, with the Second World War under way and two small children to care for, she lent her skills to the Oxford team who were trying to understand how the newly-discovered antibiotic penicillin worked. By the middle of 1945 she had succeeded in solving the structure, definitively ending a disagreement among eminent organic chemists about what it might be. The structure of vitamin B12 It was 10 years later that she solved the much bigger structure of Vitamin B12, used to treat pernicious anaemia. Sir Lawrence Bragg (son of Sir William, who had shared the Nobel prize with his father) said this achievement was equivalent to ‘breaking the sound barrier’. There is plenty of evidence that women have not always received the credit for the work they have done, but this is really not true of Hodgkin. She was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, Britain’s select academy for scientists, when she was only 36 years old. In 1960 the Royal Society awarded her its Wolfson Research Professorship, which came with an excellent salary and plenty of funds for research assistants and equipment. And, as the Nobel Foundation’s nominations archive now reveals, she was nominated for a Nobel prize 8 times for physics and 24 times for chemistry between 1950 and 1964, when she finally received the chemistry prize. Dorothy and her three children on the day her fellowship of the Royal Society was announced in 1946 © Oxford and County Newspapers She never stopped working on insulin. Her team finally cracked it in 1969 – this year is the 50th anniversary of the solution – once they had access to high speed computers and had developed the mathematical programs necessary to decipher this complex molecule. She later said the two most exciting moments in her life were the evening in 1935 when she developed a photograph and saw the first faint spots from a crystal of insulin, and the Saturday afternoon in July 1969 when she realised they could actually solve the structure. By this time, with her Nobel laurels opening doors wherever she went, Hodgkin was also devoting a lot of her time to peace and international understanding, about which she cared passionately. She was a lifelong socialist, her views strongly held yet softly articulated, and was a frequent visitor to both the Soviet Union and China. Dorothy visited North Vietnam at the height of the war in 1971 © The Hodgkin Family She spoke out against the war in Vietnam and encouraged Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher (who had been her student at Somerville) to visit President Mikhail Gorbachev. Hodgkin gave away most of her Nobel prize money to causes such as funding international students to come and study in the UK, and setting up a crèche for students and staff at Somerville. She died at home, aged 84, in 1994. It’s easy to feel intimidated as much as inspired by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin’s example. Who has the stamina, the clear thinking, the passion, the deep learning and the capacity to focus to do what she did? But her story certainly gives pointers to the kind of environment we need to provide to girls and young women so that they can fulfil their potential as scientists. The next British female science Nobel prizewinner must be out there somewhere.	<urn:uuid:1bfccc56-3b28-4000-a1c8-b333656cf9a7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/dorothy-crowfoot-hodgkin-the-exceptional-professor-who-solved-the-structure-of-insulin/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00092.warc.gz	en	0.984012	2,020	3.3125	3	[ -0.33570003509521484, 0.27386611700057983, 0.3504575490951538, 0.05281911790370941, -0.2833249270915985, 0.20389816164970398, 0.5473459959030151, 0.1283353865146637, -0.44809669256210327, -0.19397768378257751, -0.1819620132446289, -0.64716637134552, 0.1652926504611969, 0.04059784114360809,...	4	A British woman scientist last won a Nobel prize 55 years ago, in 1964: her name was Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, and she won the prize for chemistry. Before her, only two women had won the Chemistry prize: Marie Curie in 1911, and her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie in 1935. Just two more women have won it since: Ada Yonath in 2009, and Frances Arnold in 2018. All told, 20 women have won prizes in physics, chemistry or physiology/medicine since the prizes were first awarded in 1901. Dorothy Hodgkin is the only one from the UK. Hodgkin did her best work in the middle years of the 20th Century, when women made up a small minority of the scientific community, and when social pressures made it difficult for them to have careers at all. So what was it about her that gave her the chance to succeed against the odds? And are there any lessons from her life that might help ambitious young women to become the Nobelists of the future? As in most walks of life, it helps to have the right parents. Hodgkin was born in Cairo in 1910, the eldest of four daughters of John Crowfoot and his wife Grace (known as Molly). Crowfoot had read classics at Oxford, and worked for the education service of the British colonial administration in Egypt and Sudan. Without having any formal higher education, Molly pursued her own interests in botany and archaeology, publishing several books and articles. Ideas, questions, hard thinking: these were all part of Crowfoot family life, regardless of gender. Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1910–1994) © Getty Images The girls were sent back to England when the First World War broke out, and by the time she was 11 years old, Dorothy’s schooling had been a bit hit and miss. But she had spent a term learning to grow crystals, and chemistry ‘captured [her] for life’. At the Sir John Leman School, a mixed state secondary school in Beccles, Suffolk, she had to fight to be allowed to take chemistry, which was seen as a ‘boys’ subject’. But she did well, and in 1928 she entered Somerville College, Oxford University, to do a chemistry degree. At every stage her parents, particularly her mother, encouraged her ambitions. No one ever said to her, as they did to other clever girls at the time, that if she was too brainy she’d never get a husband. It was in a book her mother gave her that Dorothy learned about the technique of X-ray crystallography. ‘We can now “see” the individual atoms and molecules’, wrote the author, Sir William Bragg, who had won a Nobel prize for the discovery, and Dorothy immediately decided that was what she wanted to do. Dorothy and her friend Norah Pusey are just visible in the back row of the chemistry class at the Sir John Leman School © Elisabeth Crowfoot Choosing the right PhD supervisor, as well as the right research topic, is another critical step on the way to success in science. X-ray crystallography was still very new when Dorothy went to Cambridge to do a PhD with John Desmond Bernal, who had been one of Bragg’s research students. It involved growing a crystal from a very pure sample of a substance – Bragg had used simple chemicals such as salt and copper sulphate – placing the crystal in front of a beam of X-rays, and then capturing the scattered beams diffracted by the atoms in the crystal as spots on photographic film. The pattern of spots held the key to the way the atoms are arranged into three-dimensional molecules in the crystal. As with any object in the visible world, the 3-D structures underpin the way one molecule interacts with another. Read more about great women in science: Dorothy was very far-sighted in choosing this new area of research. Bernal was one of the first to use X-ray crystallography on the complex molecules that make up the living body. Working together, they were able to publish diffraction patterns from the digestive enzyme pepsin. Pepsin is a protein, one of the molecules that we now know is encoded by the DNA sequence in our genes, and which drive all the important processes of life. Bernal and Crowfoot’s paper in the journal Nature, published in 1934, established for the first time that proteins had some kind of regular structure that might one day be deciphered. So at the age of 24, and still a research student, Dorothy became internationally known as one of the founders of protein crystallography. Her subsequent rapid progress was largely down to her exceptional skill at the technique, but also to the considerable advantage of being in on the ground floor. With widespread bias against women, and little funding for jobs in science, she still might have struggled had it not been for the all-female Oxford college where she had studied. Somerville, which was poorly endowed and previously had no scientist among its fellows, offered her a job teaching its science students that would also leave her time to continue research. She returned to Oxford at the end of 1934, and spent the rest of her career there. She married the historian Thomas Hodgkin in 1937 and had three children by 1946 – again, Somerville made it possible for her to combine work and family by giving her paid maternity leave at a time when this was almost unheard of. The UK did not introduce maternity leave legislation until 1975. Dorothy and her husband Thomas at the Nobel ball in 1964 © The Hodgkin Family Thomas was often away from home, but Hodgkin was able to employ people to help with cooking and childcare even from her modest salary, and her parents and in-laws were often ready to step in. However, only her own phenomenal ability to work long hours and focus on whatever was the immediate priority enabled her to keep going, despite an attack of rheumatoid arthritis after the birth of her first child that recurred increasingly frequently in later life. Soon after she set up her own lab in Oxford, in the basement of the University Museum, the professor of organic chemistry gave her crystals of the hormone insulin, another protein. She knew very well that insulin had been used to treat diabetes since 1922, and that understanding its structure could lead to improvements in treatment. But although she was able to obtain diffraction images of the crystals – another first – it would be decades before she could complete the analysis of this complex molecule. Instead, with the Second World War under way and two small children to care for, she lent her skills to the Oxford team who were trying to understand how the newly-discovered antibiotic penicillin worked. By the middle of 1945 she had succeeded in solving the structure, definitively ending a disagreement among eminent organic chemists about what it might be. The structure of vitamin B12 It was 10 years later that she solved the much bigger structure of Vitamin B12, used to treat pernicious anaemia. Sir Lawrence Bragg (son of Sir William, who had shared the Nobel prize with his father) said this achievement was equivalent to ‘breaking the sound barrier’. There is plenty of evidence that women have not always received the credit for the work they have done, but this is really not true of Hodgkin. She was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, Britain’s select academy for scientists, when she was only 36 years old. In 1960 the Royal Society awarded her its Wolfson Research Professorship, which came with an excellent salary and plenty of funds for research assistants and equipment. And, as the Nobel Foundation’s nominations archive now reveals, she was nominated for a Nobel prize 8 times for physics and 24 times for chemistry between 1950 and 1964, when she finally received the chemistry prize. Dorothy and her three children on the day her fellowship of the Royal Society was announced in 1946 © Oxford and County Newspapers She never stopped working on insulin. Her team finally cracked it in 1969 – this year is the 50th anniversary of the solution – once they had access to high speed computers and had developed the mathematical programs necessary to decipher this complex molecule. She later said the two most exciting moments in her life were the evening in 1935 when she developed a photograph and saw the first faint spots from a crystal of insulin, and the Saturday afternoon in July 1969 when she realised they could actually solve the structure. By this time, with her Nobel laurels opening doors wherever she went, Hodgkin was also devoting a lot of her time to peace and international understanding, about which she cared passionately. She was a lifelong socialist, her views strongly held yet softly articulated, and was a frequent visitor to both the Soviet Union and China. Dorothy visited North Vietnam at the height of the war in 1971 © The Hodgkin Family She spoke out against the war in Vietnam and encouraged Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher (who had been her student at Somerville) to visit President Mikhail Gorbachev. Hodgkin gave away most of her Nobel prize money to causes such as funding international students to come and study in the UK, and setting up a crèche for students and staff at Somerville. She died at home, aged 84, in 1994. It’s easy to feel intimidated as much as inspired by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin’s example. Who has the stamina, the clear thinking, the passion, the deep learning and the capacity to focus to do what she did? But her story certainly gives pointers to the kind of environment we need to provide to girls and young women so that they can fulfil their potential as scientists. The next British female science Nobel prizewinner must be out there somewhere.	2,097	ENGLISH	1
How did Ann Arbor get its name? Have you ever wondered how Ann Arbor got its name? Us too. Ann Arbor, now home to one of Michigan's largest populations (and largest employers), was founded back in 1824. But the theories behind how the name was decided is a highly debated topic. The romantic theory One of the more legendary stories of its name comes from the founders, John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey. The legend says, in part, that the wives of the two, Ann and Mary Ann, were fond of sitting under a wild grape arbor built by their husbands. A writer, Noah Wood Cheever, wrote in the local paper in 1902: "When their wives came here, Mr. Allen and Mr. Rumsey, aided by their wives, built an arbor out of small trees and bushes on the west side of where the Savings Bank block now stands, for a temporary home, and the men put a sign upon the front of the arbor, naming it 'Ann's Arbor', and the village when organized was given that name." The other theory This also comes from Cheever. A University of Michigan project found this recounting of this theory: Another popular story, also recounted by Cheever, states that the site of the new town was a "burr-oak opening, having the appearance of an arbor, so they all agreed to call the settlement 'Ann Arbor.'"2 That account fits with a story recorded in a historical chronology of Washtenaw County. An anonymous author, who claims the story was handed down to him verbally, tells of one Calvin Chipman being instrumental in how the city came to be named. However, in this version of the original naming, the direct credit belongs to Mary Ann Rumsey. She came up with the idea, playing off her husband's comment about the aesthetic quality of the area they were located in. The story follows: Mr. Rumsey occupied the present site of the Episcopal Church, and, as the story goes, his wife, whose name was Ann, said one day to her husband, in reply to his remark, "What a beautiful arbor we have!" "Mr. Rumsey, let's call it Ann's Arbor." Immediately after this exchange between husband and wife, Mr. Chipman put the matter to a vote. All who were present (the story does not supply names or a count of persons present at the time) voted, and thus, the name of Ann Arbor was secured. So, which one is right? The University of Michigan project cited above found some inconsistences in the romantic theory: Mary Ann Rumsey arrived in February 1824 with the her husband and John Allen, while Ann Allen did not arrive from Virginia until October of the same year. The name "Annarbour" was registered with the office of the Register of Deeds in Detroit on May 25th, 1824, three months before Ann Allen's arrival. These facts show that the two Anns could not have relaxed together in the shade of an arbor before the name was officially registered. However, it is possible that one Ann, namely Mary Ann Rumsey, could have been taking some shade under an arbor constructed by Allen and Rumsey and was noticed by the men, who then thought up the name. So, it's likely that "Ann" came from one of the founder's wives. As for "Arbor," it's likely that it was just referring to the landscape of the area at the time. Arbor is defined as: "a shady garden alcove with sides and a roof formed by trees or climbing plants trained over a wooden framework." The University of Michigan project notes: The truth of the matter may never be known since no historical evidence in the form of diaries or letters from the founding fathers or those directly connected with them has been found that simply states how the name came about. Copyright 2019 by WDIV ClickOnDetroit - All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:b392307e-4a46-490a-900c-feb5133ae854>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.clickondetroit.com/all-about-ann-arbor/2019/10/10/how-did-ann-arbor-get-its-name/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00531.warc.gz	en	0.980545	823	3.484375	3	[ -0.05418780446052551, 0.07406066358089447, 0.11587713658809662, 0.2947036027908325, 0.3729880154132843, -0.08722421526908875, 0.2904537320137024, -0.3034611940383911, 0.16228008270263672, 0.1097009927034378, 0.1864621788263321, 0.13950003683567047, -0.1800185739994049, -0.07213491201400757...	2	How did Ann Arbor get its name? Have you ever wondered how Ann Arbor got its name? Us too. Ann Arbor, now home to one of Michigan's largest populations (and largest employers), was founded back in 1824. But the theories behind how the name was decided is a highly debated topic. The romantic theory One of the more legendary stories of its name comes from the founders, John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey. The legend says, in part, that the wives of the two, Ann and Mary Ann, were fond of sitting under a wild grape arbor built by their husbands. A writer, Noah Wood Cheever, wrote in the local paper in 1902: "When their wives came here, Mr. Allen and Mr. Rumsey, aided by their wives, built an arbor out of small trees and bushes on the west side of where the Savings Bank block now stands, for a temporary home, and the men put a sign upon the front of the arbor, naming it 'Ann's Arbor', and the village when organized was given that name." The other theory This also comes from Cheever. A University of Michigan project found this recounting of this theory: Another popular story, also recounted by Cheever, states that the site of the new town was a "burr-oak opening, having the appearance of an arbor, so they all agreed to call the settlement 'Ann Arbor.'"2 That account fits with a story recorded in a historical chronology of Washtenaw County. An anonymous author, who claims the story was handed down to him verbally, tells of one Calvin Chipman being instrumental in how the city came to be named. However, in this version of the original naming, the direct credit belongs to Mary Ann Rumsey. She came up with the idea, playing off her husband's comment about the aesthetic quality of the area they were located in. The story follows: Mr. Rumsey occupied the present site of the Episcopal Church, and, as the story goes, his wife, whose name was Ann, said one day to her husband, in reply to his remark, "What a beautiful arbor we have!" "Mr. Rumsey, let's call it Ann's Arbor." Immediately after this exchange between husband and wife, Mr. Chipman put the matter to a vote. All who were present (the story does not supply names or a count of persons present at the time) voted, and thus, the name of Ann Arbor was secured. So, which one is right? The University of Michigan project cited above found some inconsistences in the romantic theory: Mary Ann Rumsey arrived in February 1824 with the her husband and John Allen, while Ann Allen did not arrive from Virginia until October of the same year. The name "Annarbour" was registered with the office of the Register of Deeds in Detroit on May 25th, 1824, three months before Ann Allen's arrival. These facts show that the two Anns could not have relaxed together in the shade of an arbor before the name was officially registered. However, it is possible that one Ann, namely Mary Ann Rumsey, could have been taking some shade under an arbor constructed by Allen and Rumsey and was noticed by the men, who then thought up the name. So, it's likely that "Ann" came from one of the founder's wives. As for "Arbor," it's likely that it was just referring to the landscape of the area at the time. Arbor is defined as: "a shady garden alcove with sides and a roof formed by trees or climbing plants trained over a wooden framework." The University of Michigan project notes: The truth of the matter may never be known since no historical evidence in the form of diaries or letters from the founding fathers or those directly connected with them has been found that simply states how the name came about. Copyright 2019 by WDIV ClickOnDetroit - All rights reserved.	824	ENGLISH	1
Why did Thomas Hardy write the novel Tess of The D'urbervilles? By the time Hardy wrote Tess of the D'Urbervilles, he was a successful novelist with an established reputation. Earlier in his career, under the advice of such mentors as Leslie Stephen, Virginia Woolf's father, he moderated his criticism of repressive Victorian social restrictions and Victorian hypocrisy. By the 1890s, however, he was secure enough as a literary figure to write a novel that expressed his true feelings about the double sexual standards applied to men and women in his society. It bothered him that men got a pass in his culture for being sexually promiscuous, while a woman who "strayed" in the slightest way, even if it was not her fault, was severely condemned and often had her life ruined. Hardy portrays the injustice of what happens to the innocent and pure-hearted Tess, whose life is ripped apart because she is raped and impregnated by a predatory man when she is only a teenager. Even after she "buries" her past by moving to the... (The entire section contains 2 answers and 502 words.) check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:0a0ecb29-2cef-4207-abf3-2eec123b4e0a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-did-thomas-hardy-write-the-novel-tess-of-the-42113?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00482.warc.gz	en	0.988017	242	3.46875	3	[ -0.18598923087120056, 0.2999449670314789, 0.27646979689598083, -0.14394617080688477, -0.16631896793842316, 0.20296449959278107, 0.013272241689264774, 0.46689385175704956, 0.09985729306936264, 0.008661815896630287, 0.2398434728384018, -0.03247307240962982, 0.45578980445861816, 0.09259816259...	4	Why did Thomas Hardy write the novel Tess of The D'urbervilles? By the time Hardy wrote Tess of the D'Urbervilles, he was a successful novelist with an established reputation. Earlier in his career, under the advice of such mentors as Leslie Stephen, Virginia Woolf's father, he moderated his criticism of repressive Victorian social restrictions and Victorian hypocrisy. By the 1890s, however, he was secure enough as a literary figure to write a novel that expressed his true feelings about the double sexual standards applied to men and women in his society. It bothered him that men got a pass in his culture for being sexually promiscuous, while a woman who "strayed" in the slightest way, even if it was not her fault, was severely condemned and often had her life ruined. Hardy portrays the injustice of what happens to the innocent and pure-hearted Tess, whose life is ripped apart because she is raped and impregnated by a predatory man when she is only a teenager. Even after she "buries" her past by moving to the... (The entire section contains 2 answers and 502 words.) check Approved by eNotes Editorial	241	ENGLISH	1
Henry Ford, founder of Ford Motor Company which sells automobiles and commercial vehicles. Ford was born on 30 July, 1863 in Greenland Township, Michigan. When he was young, he used to dismantle and reassemble his friends timepieces and watch, gifted by his father, which gave him reputation of a watch repairman. In 1876, Henry lost his mother and did not wanted to live and work on farm without his mother. In 1879, Ford at age of 16, left home against his father’s will to work as an apprentice machinist at a ship building firm in Detroit. Mr. Ford returned home in 1882 & started to work on family farm. He became an expert at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engines. Later, he was hired by Westinghouse to service their steam engines. Because of his technical skills and ability to grasp new things, he was hired as night engineer for Edison Electric Illuminating Company in 1891. Later he got promoted as chief engineer. While working , he started working on building automobiles side by side. Electricity was a new concept at that time and he loved his work. He build Quadricycle, a self propelled vehicle with help of his friends. In 1898, he met with Thomas Edison who approved his experimentation. Ford continued to work on his model of automobile and completed his second vehicle. Ford formed his own company named Detroit Automobile Company. But, he was forced to shut it down as the automobiles produced by company did not perform well in market. After failed efforts, he soon started working to improve the quality of his automobiles. In 1901, he successfully developed 26 – horsepower automobile. In 1901, he teamed up with stockholders of Detroit Company to form Henry Ford Company. Ford was sued by his stockholders and had to leave the company. The company was later renamed as Cadillac Automobile Company. The failure of two venture did not stop him living his dream and passion. He continued to work and build several racing cars including “999” racer car. Henry incorporated ‘Ford’ company in 1903. A race driver Barney Oldfield drove “999” around the country making the Ford brand well known in United States. In 1908, Ford company launched ‘Model T’ Vehicle which had steering wheel on the left side. The model was innovative, affordable, cheap to repair and simple to drive. Model T was a great success and was soon copied by other automobile companies. Because of Model T, there was higher demand and goodwill of brand in market. Ford introduced new assembly line techniques of mass production to meet increasing demand. Model T dominated the market for years till 1918. It was so cheap that majority of Americans used to buy it. The final total production reached 1,50,07,034, which stood for next 45 years. In 1918, the Presidency of Ford Motors was handed over to his son Edsel Ford. But the final decision was still taken by Henry Ford. Ford started another company named ‘Henry Ford and Son’ and showed the investors that he is taking his best employees with him in new company. The plan worked and investors sold their stakes to him and his son and the Ford family became the sole owner of the company. In 1926, due to declining sales of Model T, he introduced Ford Model A and it was successful a successful well. ‘The Ford Motor Company’ adopted annual model change system to compete in market. In 1928, Ford received the Franklin Institute’s Elliot Cresson Medal and Nazi Germany’s Grand Cross Medal of the German Eagle in 1938. Henry pioneered the Welfare Capitalism for social welfare of workers. He gave double wages to his worker than any other company resulted in increasing the market wage rate of workers. Ford also introduced 5 days 40 hours work per week method & other methods to utilise leisure time of employees to increase productivity. He revolutionized the automobile industry by introducing innovative and cheap automobiles and large scale management of work force. In 1947, the industrialist died at his home in, Fairlane, Dearborn at the age of 83. He provided us techniques to produce large number of cars at lowest cost possible. He wanted to put the world on wheels and he indeed made it possible.	<urn:uuid:e8fcfde1-5cad-4163-84fb-4db987668bf6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.motivationnyou.com/2018/04/motivational-story-of-henry-ford-from-a-watch-repairman-to-ford-motor-company/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00555.warc.gz	en	0.986414	879	3.390625	3	[ -0.04960007220506668, 0.22048336267471313, 0.19026261568069458, 0.47768324613571167, -0.43699535727500916, 0.09096601605415344, 0.36113250255584717, 0.5311247110366821, -0.303244024515152, -0.26601922512054443, 0.09147115796804428, -0.03594636917114258, -0.3320466876029968, 0.3912688493728...	9	Henry Ford, founder of Ford Motor Company which sells automobiles and commercial vehicles. Ford was born on 30 July, 1863 in Greenland Township, Michigan. When he was young, he used to dismantle and reassemble his friends timepieces and watch, gifted by his father, which gave him reputation of a watch repairman. In 1876, Henry lost his mother and did not wanted to live and work on farm without his mother. In 1879, Ford at age of 16, left home against his father’s will to work as an apprentice machinist at a ship building firm in Detroit. Mr. Ford returned home in 1882 & started to work on family farm. He became an expert at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engines. Later, he was hired by Westinghouse to service their steam engines. Because of his technical skills and ability to grasp new things, he was hired as night engineer for Edison Electric Illuminating Company in 1891. Later he got promoted as chief engineer. While working , he started working on building automobiles side by side. Electricity was a new concept at that time and he loved his work. He build Quadricycle, a self propelled vehicle with help of his friends. In 1898, he met with Thomas Edison who approved his experimentation. Ford continued to work on his model of automobile and completed his second vehicle. Ford formed his own company named Detroit Automobile Company. But, he was forced to shut it down as the automobiles produced by company did not perform well in market. After failed efforts, he soon started working to improve the quality of his automobiles. In 1901, he successfully developed 26 – horsepower automobile. In 1901, he teamed up with stockholders of Detroit Company to form Henry Ford Company. Ford was sued by his stockholders and had to leave the company. The company was later renamed as Cadillac Automobile Company. The failure of two venture did not stop him living his dream and passion. He continued to work and build several racing cars including “999” racer car. Henry incorporated ‘Ford’ company in 1903. A race driver Barney Oldfield drove “999” around the country making the Ford brand well known in United States. In 1908, Ford company launched ‘Model T’ Vehicle which had steering wheel on the left side. The model was innovative, affordable, cheap to repair and simple to drive. Model T was a great success and was soon copied by other automobile companies. Because of Model T, there was higher demand and goodwill of brand in market. Ford introduced new assembly line techniques of mass production to meet increasing demand. Model T dominated the market for years till 1918. It was so cheap that majority of Americans used to buy it. The final total production reached 1,50,07,034, which stood for next 45 years. In 1918, the Presidency of Ford Motors was handed over to his son Edsel Ford. But the final decision was still taken by Henry Ford. Ford started another company named ‘Henry Ford and Son’ and showed the investors that he is taking his best employees with him in new company. The plan worked and investors sold their stakes to him and his son and the Ford family became the sole owner of the company. In 1926, due to declining sales of Model T, he introduced Ford Model A and it was successful a successful well. ‘The Ford Motor Company’ adopted annual model change system to compete in market. In 1928, Ford received the Franklin Institute’s Elliot Cresson Medal and Nazi Germany’s Grand Cross Medal of the German Eagle in 1938. Henry pioneered the Welfare Capitalism for social welfare of workers. He gave double wages to his worker than any other company resulted in increasing the market wage rate of workers. Ford also introduced 5 days 40 hours work per week method & other methods to utilise leisure time of employees to increase productivity. He revolutionized the automobile industry by introducing innovative and cheap automobiles and large scale management of work force. In 1947, the industrialist died at his home in, Fairlane, Dearborn at the age of 83. He provided us techniques to produce large number of cars at lowest cost possible. He wanted to put the world on wheels and he indeed made it possible.	919	ENGLISH	1
It took place while she was still on earth, prior to her assumption into heaven, in 40 A.D, analyses Larry Peterson for the worldwide catholic network Aleteia. Only a few years after Jesus’ death and resurrection, in the year 40, the very first Marian apparition took place. The Blessed Virgin appeared to one of the apostles, St. James the Great, brother of St. John, in Spain. This apparition is known as Our Lady of the Pillar. During the very early days of Christianity, James had travelled to the pagan lands of the Roman province of Hispania, today known as Spain. His evangelization efforts encountered great difficulty and it is said that the apostle had fallen into despondency. One night, James was praying by the banks of the Ebro River near the city that is today known as Zaragoza. Suddenly a great light engulfed him. James knelt, staring into the light, and what he saw was beyond description. In the light was the Virgin Mary, surrounded by thousands of angels. She told James that he should persevere, assuring him that ultimately his work for Jesus would have great results and many would turn to the Faith. She asked that a church be built on the place where she appeared and left behind a pillar of jasper to mark the spot where she had been. The Virgin Mary also left a small statue of herself holding the infant Jesus in her arms. The statue was sitting atop the jasper pillar. Since the Blessed Virgin was still alive and living in Jerusalem — this was prior to her assumption into heaven — her appearance is considered an act of bilocation. James immediately gathered some of his new followers and began work on a chapel on the designated site. The chapel is the first church ever dedicated to Mary and today, after many renovations, is known as the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar. It is located in the exact place Our Lady appeared some 2,000 years ago. James participated in the dedication of the small church and returned to Jerusalem. Ironically, he was the first apostle to die for the faith. In the year 44, Herod Agrippa had James beheaded. The disciples of James took his body back to Spain for final burial. The statue and pillar left by Our Lady were taken under the protection of the people of Zaragoza. The many miracles surrounding the relic can attest to its heavenly origin. In 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, the left-leaning Republicans bombed the shrine, but the bombs that hit the church never exploded. No one is allowed to touch the statue except for the four priests assigned to its care and new-born infants, who can be lifted up to touch the image of their heavenly Mom. Popes from the earliest times have attested to the authenticity of Our lady’s appearance at the shrine. Pope Calixtus III in 1456 encouraged people to make pilgrimages to Our Lady of the Pillar. The miracle of the shrine’s foundation was even acknowledged. The most prominent miracle occurred in the 17th century. A beggar named Miguel Pellicer from the town of Calanda could not work due to having an amputated leg. He was constantly praying at the shrine for the Blessed Mother’s help and his leg was restored. Over the centuries many controversial stories arose concerning the authenticity of this shrine. Pope Innocent III, answering an appeal from Spain, had 12 cardinals investigate all the data available. On August 7, 1723, the Sacred Congregation of Rites affirmed the original. In 1730, Pope Clement XII allowed the feast of Our Lady of Pillar to be celebrated throughout the Spanish empire. Eventually she was declared Patroness of the Hispanic World. Our Lady of the Pillar’s feast day is October 12. One final thought. As a young seminarian, St. Josemaria Escriva, made daily visits to the shrine of Our Lady of the Pillar. He always prayed for guidance and eventually founded Opus Dei. The members honor her feast day each year. Our Lady of the Pillar, please pray for us.	<urn:uuid:f41fcb42-391c-48b7-9087-e67b16976d8d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.weeklytribunenews.com/index.php/2017/10/25/did-you-know-the-1st-apparition-of-the-blessed-mother-was-an-act-of-bilocation/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00355.warc.gz	en	0.981662	844	3.375	3	[ -0.15654708445072174, 0.23088793456554413, 0.4723394513130188, -0.0839986577630043, -0.22538074851036072, 0.06596969068050385, 0.021373853087425232, 0.2982252836227417, 0.7047231793403625, -0.17594614624977112, -0.1500382125377655, -0.10395658016204834, -0.2974832057952881, 0.2117274403572...	1	It took place while she was still on earth, prior to her assumption into heaven, in 40 A.D, analyses Larry Peterson for the worldwide catholic network Aleteia. Only a few years after Jesus’ death and resurrection, in the year 40, the very first Marian apparition took place. The Blessed Virgin appeared to one of the apostles, St. James the Great, brother of St. John, in Spain. This apparition is known as Our Lady of the Pillar. During the very early days of Christianity, James had travelled to the pagan lands of the Roman province of Hispania, today known as Spain. His evangelization efforts encountered great difficulty and it is said that the apostle had fallen into despondency. One night, James was praying by the banks of the Ebro River near the city that is today known as Zaragoza. Suddenly a great light engulfed him. James knelt, staring into the light, and what he saw was beyond description. In the light was the Virgin Mary, surrounded by thousands of angels. She told James that he should persevere, assuring him that ultimately his work for Jesus would have great results and many would turn to the Faith. She asked that a church be built on the place where she appeared and left behind a pillar of jasper to mark the spot where she had been. The Virgin Mary also left a small statue of herself holding the infant Jesus in her arms. The statue was sitting atop the jasper pillar. Since the Blessed Virgin was still alive and living in Jerusalem — this was prior to her assumption into heaven — her appearance is considered an act of bilocation. James immediately gathered some of his new followers and began work on a chapel on the designated site. The chapel is the first church ever dedicated to Mary and today, after many renovations, is known as the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar. It is located in the exact place Our Lady appeared some 2,000 years ago. James participated in the dedication of the small church and returned to Jerusalem. Ironically, he was the first apostle to die for the faith. In the year 44, Herod Agrippa had James beheaded. The disciples of James took his body back to Spain for final burial. The statue and pillar left by Our Lady were taken under the protection of the people of Zaragoza. The many miracles surrounding the relic can attest to its heavenly origin. In 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, the left-leaning Republicans bombed the shrine, but the bombs that hit the church never exploded. No one is allowed to touch the statue except for the four priests assigned to its care and new-born infants, who can be lifted up to touch the image of their heavenly Mom. Popes from the earliest times have attested to the authenticity of Our lady’s appearance at the shrine. Pope Calixtus III in 1456 encouraged people to make pilgrimages to Our Lady of the Pillar. The miracle of the shrine’s foundation was even acknowledged. The most prominent miracle occurred in the 17th century. A beggar named Miguel Pellicer from the town of Calanda could not work due to having an amputated leg. He was constantly praying at the shrine for the Blessed Mother’s help and his leg was restored. Over the centuries many controversial stories arose concerning the authenticity of this shrine. Pope Innocent III, answering an appeal from Spain, had 12 cardinals investigate all the data available. On August 7, 1723, the Sacred Congregation of Rites affirmed the original. In 1730, Pope Clement XII allowed the feast of Our Lady of Pillar to be celebrated throughout the Spanish empire. Eventually she was declared Patroness of the Hispanic World. Our Lady of the Pillar’s feast day is October 12. One final thought. As a young seminarian, St. Josemaria Escriva, made daily visits to the shrine of Our Lady of the Pillar. He always prayed for guidance and eventually founded Opus Dei. The members honor her feast day each year. Our Lady of the Pillar, please pray for us.	862	ENGLISH	1
King lear theme of blindness essay The play King Lear, written by William Shakespeare, the theme of blindness is clearly illustrated in the characters of King Lear and Gloucester. However, it is obviously not a fairy tale because of its tragic ending and its profound philosophies of life Regan and Goneril are cold, heartless and selfish, whereas Cordelia, the youngest is quite the contrary, honest, realistic and straightforward. Lear, too, is stripped down: stripped of his sovereignty, his train, and respect from his daughters. King Lear is in many ways about nothing. The play is set in a time where the King was equal to God himself, he was set apart from the common man as somewhat of a transcended being. Throughout the play, King Lear is shown to be the most blind of all. King lear themes Lear, too, is stripped down: stripped of his sovereignty, his train, and respect from his daughters. Albany was also blind to the fact that Goneril was cheating on him and that she was plotting to kill him. It throws up questions, which remain as perplexing now as they were to Shakespeare's earlier critics. Disorder engulfs the land once Lear transfers his power to his daughters, but as the great American writer, A. These various themes are continually illustrated throughout Shakespeare's King Lear. Fortunately, the consequences of Gloucester's blindness throughout the play was minimal, after all, he was the only one to die as a result of his tragic flaw. Both fathers are lacking in perceptiveness, so the stories of the two families run parallel to each other. It is not a physical flaw, but the inability of the characters to see a person for whom they truly are. These two characters refused to see the truth about the ones that are loyal to them. Any subject. Both characters exhibit a blindness to the world around them. Because Lear was the King, one would expect him to have superb reasoning skills, but his lack of insight kept him from making wise choices The theme of nothing, as well as the theme of blindness, echoes throughout the play. Kent was able to see Cordelia's true love for her father, and tried to protect her from her blind father's irrationality. Lear is not only metaphorically blind but is also blind toward nastiness and loyalty. This is not Lear. based on 72 review	<urn:uuid:2105482c-c114-4fe6-8e7b-5cb49dcefa55>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lisylafadiciwu.whatshanesaid.com/king-lear-theme-of-blindness-essay245782649mr.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00324.warc.gz	en	0.987832	482	3.53125	4	[ 0.13609470427036285, 0.0742291584610939, 0.2688826620578766, 0.43951842188835144, -0.22159019112586975, 0.07255515456199646, 0.16803774237632751, 0.2655320465564728, -0.28219762444496155, -0.231061652302742, 0.043996941298246384, 0.1264503300189972, 0.08206135779619217, 0.250339537858963, ...	1	King lear theme of blindness essay The play King Lear, written by William Shakespeare, the theme of blindness is clearly illustrated in the characters of King Lear and Gloucester. However, it is obviously not a fairy tale because of its tragic ending and its profound philosophies of life Regan and Goneril are cold, heartless and selfish, whereas Cordelia, the youngest is quite the contrary, honest, realistic and straightforward. Lear, too, is stripped down: stripped of his sovereignty, his train, and respect from his daughters. King Lear is in many ways about nothing. The play is set in a time where the King was equal to God himself, he was set apart from the common man as somewhat of a transcended being. Throughout the play, King Lear is shown to be the most blind of all. King lear themes Lear, too, is stripped down: stripped of his sovereignty, his train, and respect from his daughters. Albany was also blind to the fact that Goneril was cheating on him and that she was plotting to kill him. It throws up questions, which remain as perplexing now as they were to Shakespeare's earlier critics. Disorder engulfs the land once Lear transfers his power to his daughters, but as the great American writer, A. These various themes are continually illustrated throughout Shakespeare's King Lear. Fortunately, the consequences of Gloucester's blindness throughout the play was minimal, after all, he was the only one to die as a result of his tragic flaw. Both fathers are lacking in perceptiveness, so the stories of the two families run parallel to each other. It is not a physical flaw, but the inability of the characters to see a person for whom they truly are. These two characters refused to see the truth about the ones that are loyal to them. Any subject. Both characters exhibit a blindness to the world around them. Because Lear was the King, one would expect him to have superb reasoning skills, but his lack of insight kept him from making wise choices The theme of nothing, as well as the theme of blindness, echoes throughout the play. Kent was able to see Cordelia's true love for her father, and tried to protect her from her blind father's irrationality. Lear is not only metaphorically blind but is also blind toward nastiness and loyalty. This is not Lear. based on 72 review	481	ENGLISH	1
Earl Shoris, in his many scholarly works, developed an argument in support of his belief that education was a powerful tool used effectively by those who had an inbuilt urge to know and gain more. He did a lot of research and at some point depended on interviews to obtain more information. One of his interviewees was a lady prisoner by the name Viniece who was very instrumental in giving a different dimension to Shoris’ arguments. This study aims at analyzing Viniece’s argument that the only way to eradicate poverty is to focus on the younger generation by instilling down town morals in them. It also relates Viniece’s argument to those of other scholars. Buy To Eradicate Poverty, Down Town Morals Should Be Instilled On The Younger Generation essay paper online Down town morals, according to Viniece, constitute the thorough analysis of the concepts and concerns of any needy human being. Viniece’s believed that people had to be aware of the needs of others and help them meet their needs. From her experience as being unemployed to being a prisoner, she argued that it was not jobs and money that could elevate the poor in any society. People had to change their morals to be open-ended and accommodative. She believed that the poor in any society did not need anyone to pull them out of their state. Avenues, through which the poor could pull themselves, existed and all they needed was to reflect deeply on their concerns. She had learned to reflect herself and found out that it helped a lot. Either, she believed that the morals of any individual had a significant effect on their political opinion. Viniece’s argued that the poor had to first reflect on the concepts of human nature by studying humanities to evaluate their needs to understand better what they really wanted. This, she argued, would start by focusing on the younger generation. The down town morals were to be instilled in them through various teachings. They were to be taken to places like museums, theater halls and concerts. Lectures were to be organized for them to learn more as a means of instilling these morals. She also believed that the distinction that had existed between the rich and the poor was to be eliminated by any possible means. People had to co-exist peacefully and any form of segregation in terms of racism or other means was to be abolished. This was to provide a platform over which the morals would be open-ended and accommodative. Her views tend to lean towards those of Charles Murray who carried out extensive research on the existing disparities in the society. He acknowledged that there existed class differences which were majorly caused by differing values and behaviors in people. He argued that the differences in societal classes were not caused by economic factors but by erosion of the traditional bonds that connected people together irrespective of their social class. This, in a way, advances Viniece’s argument that moral teachings was the only way to eradicate poverty as both of them agreed that it was poor moral orientation that caused all these problems. Her argument, on the other hand, conflicted with that advanced by Timothy Noah and the general American practices of imperialism. Noah believed that the economic conditions of the day segregated people where by those of higher social class continued to gain more wages at the expense of the poor whose wages stagnated. He argued strongly that the American population was to practice democracy by electing political leaders with a bias for the Democrats whom he believed their policies had been favorable over a longer time period. It can be concluded, therefore, that Viniece’s arguments tend to lean more towards Murray’s arguments. Thus, to find a solution to any problem, is must be clearly defined and proper prescription in any attempt at finding out its solutions. Viniece’s argument that the only way to eradicate poverty is to focus on the younger generation by instilling down town morals in them holds ground and should be employed extensively. Related Free Proposal Essays - What Experiences and/or Skills Best Prepare you for Success in Business? - Capstone Proposal Summary - Issues That Need To Be Improved - Business proposal for Guess Jeans company - What needs to be improved in the United States? - Project Proposal Essay - Human Nature Proposal - Public School Teachers should be Paid More - Proposal: The New Woman - Prison Term Policy Recommendation Proposal Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:79743dd1-f484-4765-bb9b-8e94d78d709f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/proposal/to-eradicate-poverty-down-town-morals-should-be.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00082.warc.gz	en	0.982507	899	3.265625	3	[ -0.22739064693450928, 0.06224182993173599, -0.3466860055923462, -0.2364262044429779, 0.06808197498321533, 0.11460812389850616, 0.1192983090877533, 0.12347117811441422, -0.1277916580438614, -0.16807126998901367, 0.07288535684347153, -0.08705990016460419, 0.35844045877456665, 0.2293080389499...	1	Earl Shoris, in his many scholarly works, developed an argument in support of his belief that education was a powerful tool used effectively by those who had an inbuilt urge to know and gain more. He did a lot of research and at some point depended on interviews to obtain more information. One of his interviewees was a lady prisoner by the name Viniece who was very instrumental in giving a different dimension to Shoris’ arguments. This study aims at analyzing Viniece’s argument that the only way to eradicate poverty is to focus on the younger generation by instilling down town morals in them. It also relates Viniece’s argument to those of other scholars. Buy To Eradicate Poverty, Down Town Morals Should Be Instilled On The Younger Generation essay paper online Down town morals, according to Viniece, constitute the thorough analysis of the concepts and concerns of any needy human being. Viniece’s believed that people had to be aware of the needs of others and help them meet their needs. From her experience as being unemployed to being a prisoner, she argued that it was not jobs and money that could elevate the poor in any society. People had to change their morals to be open-ended and accommodative. She believed that the poor in any society did not need anyone to pull them out of their state. Avenues, through which the poor could pull themselves, existed and all they needed was to reflect deeply on their concerns. She had learned to reflect herself and found out that it helped a lot. Either, she believed that the morals of any individual had a significant effect on their political opinion. Viniece’s argued that the poor had to first reflect on the concepts of human nature by studying humanities to evaluate their needs to understand better what they really wanted. This, she argued, would start by focusing on the younger generation. The down town morals were to be instilled in them through various teachings. They were to be taken to places like museums, theater halls and concerts. Lectures were to be organized for them to learn more as a means of instilling these morals. She also believed that the distinction that had existed between the rich and the poor was to be eliminated by any possible means. People had to co-exist peacefully and any form of segregation in terms of racism or other means was to be abolished. This was to provide a platform over which the morals would be open-ended and accommodative. Her views tend to lean towards those of Charles Murray who carried out extensive research on the existing disparities in the society. He acknowledged that there existed class differences which were majorly caused by differing values and behaviors in people. He argued that the differences in societal classes were not caused by economic factors but by erosion of the traditional bonds that connected people together irrespective of their social class. This, in a way, advances Viniece’s argument that moral teachings was the only way to eradicate poverty as both of them agreed that it was poor moral orientation that caused all these problems. Her argument, on the other hand, conflicted with that advanced by Timothy Noah and the general American practices of imperialism. Noah believed that the economic conditions of the day segregated people where by those of higher social class continued to gain more wages at the expense of the poor whose wages stagnated. He argued strongly that the American population was to practice democracy by electing political leaders with a bias for the Democrats whom he believed their policies had been favorable over a longer time period. It can be concluded, therefore, that Viniece’s arguments tend to lean more towards Murray’s arguments. Thus, to find a solution to any problem, is must be clearly defined and proper prescription in any attempt at finding out its solutions. Viniece’s argument that the only way to eradicate poverty is to focus on the younger generation by instilling down town morals in them holds ground and should be employed extensively. Related Free Proposal Essays - What Experiences and/or Skills Best Prepare you for Success in Business? - Capstone Proposal Summary - Issues That Need To Be Improved - Business proposal for Guess Jeans company - What needs to be improved in the United States? - Project Proposal Essay - Human Nature Proposal - Public School Teachers should be Paid More - Proposal: The New Woman - Prison Term Policy Recommendation Proposal Most popular orders	863	ENGLISH	1
In the literature of early American writers there is one common trait among all the writings: religion. Among Anne Bradstreet and Jonathan Edwards all speak of their opinion of religion, god, heaven, and material things. Anne Bradstreet was a puritan wife, originally from England but then moved to America. Upon moving and settling into her home, her poems became full of emotion and spoke about concerns from her heart. She was religious and believed that men had superiority over women. A common concern in these religious writers was the unimportance of material things on Earth.In Bradstreet’s Upon the Burning of Our House July 10th, 1666, her house was burned to the ground. Nevertheless, she did not shed to many tears because she knew that “Thou hast an house on high erect,” meaning that her real home was in heaven. She found comfort in god and her belief in her made her strong and able to move on in her life. When she starts thinking about all her possessions that she had lost she would “Raise up thy thoughts above the sky . . . ” and remember these things do not matter, what matters is her “house on high.” Jonathan Edwards also found comfort in god, “leading me to sweet contemplations of my great and glorious God.” Jonathan was also a puritan from the early America, however, he was a preacher. Like Anne Bradstreet, he did not believe in material things. In his sermon entitle Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, he states “now they see that those things on which they depended for peace and safety were nothing but thin air and empty shadows.” This statement agrees with what Bradstreet believed in, that nothing (possessions) is important on Earth. If a person has depended on those things for all your life and then they are suddenly taken away from you, you will not know what to do. However, unlike Bradstreet, he portrays god as angry for all the sins of man and ready to punish them for their sins. He says “The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider, or some loathsome insect, over the fire, abhors you, and is dreadfully provoked; his wrath towards you burns like fire; he looks upon you as worthy of nothing else but to be cast into the fire; he is of purer eyes than to bear to have you in his sight; you are ten thousand times more abominable in his eyes than the most hateful venomous serpent is in our…” He makes people fear god, fearful of ever sinning, and afraid of burning in the fiery pits of hell. He states that “There is nothing between you and Hell but the air; it is only the power and mere pleasure of God that holds you up.” Religion has defiantly influenced Jonathan Edward’s writings. Anne Bradstreet and Jonathan Edwards were both early American writers who contained a common charecteristic in their writtings. Both of these puritan writers have strong thought about religion and did not hold back these thoughts in their writings.	<urn:uuid:9102db57-eae9-4fe8-83fc-e7bdb01096b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/early-american-writers-essay-69987/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00408.warc.gz	en	0.985828	658	3.375	3	[ -0.023921381682157516, 0.6338106393814087, -0.03672242909669876, -0.13753290474414825, 0.039079584181308746, 0.28256112337112427, 0.2660994529724121, 0.04160348325967789, 0.18198609352111816, 0.07960951328277588, -0.14870087802410126, 0.10384698957204819, -0.0608648955821991, 0.11101527512...	6	In the literature of early American writers there is one common trait among all the writings: religion. Among Anne Bradstreet and Jonathan Edwards all speak of their opinion of religion, god, heaven, and material things. Anne Bradstreet was a puritan wife, originally from England but then moved to America. Upon moving and settling into her home, her poems became full of emotion and spoke about concerns from her heart. She was religious and believed that men had superiority over women. A common concern in these religious writers was the unimportance of material things on Earth.In Bradstreet’s Upon the Burning of Our House July 10th, 1666, her house was burned to the ground. Nevertheless, she did not shed to many tears because she knew that “Thou hast an house on high erect,” meaning that her real home was in heaven. She found comfort in god and her belief in her made her strong and able to move on in her life. When she starts thinking about all her possessions that she had lost she would “Raise up thy thoughts above the sky . . . ” and remember these things do not matter, what matters is her “house on high.” Jonathan Edwards also found comfort in god, “leading me to sweet contemplations of my great and glorious God.” Jonathan was also a puritan from the early America, however, he was a preacher. Like Anne Bradstreet, he did not believe in material things. In his sermon entitle Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, he states “now they see that those things on which they depended for peace and safety were nothing but thin air and empty shadows.” This statement agrees with what Bradstreet believed in, that nothing (possessions) is important on Earth. If a person has depended on those things for all your life and then they are suddenly taken away from you, you will not know what to do. However, unlike Bradstreet, he portrays god as angry for all the sins of man and ready to punish them for their sins. He says “The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider, or some loathsome insect, over the fire, abhors you, and is dreadfully provoked; his wrath towards you burns like fire; he looks upon you as worthy of nothing else but to be cast into the fire; he is of purer eyes than to bear to have you in his sight; you are ten thousand times more abominable in his eyes than the most hateful venomous serpent is in our…” He makes people fear god, fearful of ever sinning, and afraid of burning in the fiery pits of hell. He states that “There is nothing between you and Hell but the air; it is only the power and mere pleasure of God that holds you up.” Religion has defiantly influenced Jonathan Edward’s writings. Anne Bradstreet and Jonathan Edwards were both early American writers who contained a common charecteristic in their writtings. Both of these puritan writers have strong thought about religion and did not hold back these thoughts in their writings.	628	ENGLISH	1
The observatory and its viewing deck provide the views of the mountain. The observatory was named after David Johnston, a volcanologist camped at the site who died in the 1980 eruption after radioing in “Vancouver, Vancouver, this is it!” Spirit Lake visible from the observatory, was a popular tourist destination, with several camps and a number of lodges, including Spirit Lake Lodge and Mt. St. Helens Lodge, for many years until 1980, when nearby Mount St. Helens erupted. Thousands of trees were torn from the surrounding hillside and the lake became toxic, bubbling from the volcanic gases seeping up from the lakebed. The logs that were deposited there still remain and cover a vast portion of the water surface. The lake also became 10 percent smaller and much shallower. Even though it was devastated by Mount St. Helens, Spirit Lake has rebounded significantly and is on the way to recovery. Pior to the 1980 eruption, the last major eruption of Mount St. Helens, was believed to have occurred about 1840, pumice cinders were thrown from the crater, covering the ground to a depth of 10 to 20 feet. Tree trunks, rotting away in this cemented substance, left what was known as “tree wells,” of which there were thousands on the south side of the lake. Many of the pebbles along the beach were of light pumice filled with air chambers. Some of them will float for five or more minutes before becoming saturated. Spirit Lake was so named because Native Americans of the region, believers in ghosts, interpreted many weird natural sounds of the place as the haunting voices of departed spirits. One legend relates that a Native American brave, seeking food for his starving tribe, trailed a giant bull elk to the lake, only to be led by the phantom to his death in the water; the Native Americans are said to have believed that each year both of them appeared over the lake on a certain night. According to another legend, the region was the home of fabulous Siatcoes, outcasts from other tribes, to whom were attributed ventriloqual and supernatural powers.	<urn:uuid:15fd73d8-0ada-4332-8d92-e85d08886d1d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://revisitwa.org/waypoint/johnston-ridge-observatory/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00146.warc.gz	en	0.985703	445	3.265625	3	[ 0.26287224888801575, 0.19112831354141235, 0.053218528628349304, 0.2250630110502243, 0.04416770488023758, 0.10801340639591217, -0.01384362019598484, 0.0056893606670200825, -0.19493360817432404, 0.4794699251651764, 0.316860556602478, -0.2877555191516876, 0.12106610834598541, 0.09087477624416...	2	The observatory and its viewing deck provide the views of the mountain. The observatory was named after David Johnston, a volcanologist camped at the site who died in the 1980 eruption after radioing in “Vancouver, Vancouver, this is it!” Spirit Lake visible from the observatory, was a popular tourist destination, with several camps and a number of lodges, including Spirit Lake Lodge and Mt. St. Helens Lodge, for many years until 1980, when nearby Mount St. Helens erupted. Thousands of trees were torn from the surrounding hillside and the lake became toxic, bubbling from the volcanic gases seeping up from the lakebed. The logs that were deposited there still remain and cover a vast portion of the water surface. The lake also became 10 percent smaller and much shallower. Even though it was devastated by Mount St. Helens, Spirit Lake has rebounded significantly and is on the way to recovery. Pior to the 1980 eruption, the last major eruption of Mount St. Helens, was believed to have occurred about 1840, pumice cinders were thrown from the crater, covering the ground to a depth of 10 to 20 feet. Tree trunks, rotting away in this cemented substance, left what was known as “tree wells,” of which there were thousands on the south side of the lake. Many of the pebbles along the beach were of light pumice filled with air chambers. Some of them will float for five or more minutes before becoming saturated. Spirit Lake was so named because Native Americans of the region, believers in ghosts, interpreted many weird natural sounds of the place as the haunting voices of departed spirits. One legend relates that a Native American brave, seeking food for his starving tribe, trailed a giant bull elk to the lake, only to be led by the phantom to his death in the water; the Native Americans are said to have believed that each year both of them appeared over the lake on a certain night. According to another legend, the region was the home of fabulous Siatcoes, outcasts from other tribes, to whom were attributed ventriloqual and supernatural powers.	458	ENGLISH	1
Religion in the Works of Shakespeare The purpose of this essay is to explore the religious nature of William Shakespeare's plays. This essay covers three topics surrounding Shakespeare's work: the religious climate of 16th Century England, Shakespeare's upbringing (school, parents, & Stratford itself), and a brief introduction into the impact his society and upbringing had upon his work. I. THE RELIGIOUS CLIMATE OF 16TH CENTURY ENGLAND In order to understand the religious content in Shakespeare's work it is helpful to first understand what the religious environment in England was like around the time Shakespeare wrote and lived. England, ever since it was ruled by the Romans, had been a Catholic nation. Before Shakespeare's lifetime, a strange and drastic change occurred that completely upended the existing Catholicism of the English people. During King Henry VIII's reign, the English people were, for the most part, content with Catholicism. Through a series of very complex political maneuvers, Henry eventually seized power of the English church. The benefits of this control were enormous for the state. First of all, Henry obtained his divorce from his first wife. Second, the state received the tithes and taxes from church property, thus making the break very lucrative for the state. Finally, with the closing of all of the monasteries, England gained large tracts of land to sell to land owners and tax heavily. The break with the Church of Rome, on the other hand, was not welcomed by the people. Through various laws and ordinances the monarchy effectively closed down the Catholic church in England, but they did not stop the people from being loyal to Catholicism in their hearts. This idea will be very important in the part about Shakespeare's parents later on in this essay. One of the effects of the break from Rome was the welcoming of an English translation of the Bible. If they were going to have an English form of Christianity, then they wanted to have a Bible that was theirs also. One of the first English translations of the Bible was written by William Tyndale. Known as Cranmer's Bible or the Great Bible, this Bible along with the Geneva Bible would have been the two translations used widely during Shakespeare's lifetime (Milward 85). With the advent of the printing press before this time, the Bible was becoming more and more commonly a household item. Certainly access to Scripture was at it highest point in human history to that time. The accessibility of the Bible had an impacted greatly the work of Shakespeare because he had such a resource at his disposal. Along with these two translations of Scripture already available to Shakespeare came a new translation authorized by King James I. Today this translation is known as the King James Authorized Version (Milward 86). At this point in time, the climate was right for Shakespeare to learn a great deal about Christianity directly from Scripture, even if...	<urn:uuid:fa9cfb52-1f38-4384-ba52-277e0c3fc048>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/essay-on-religion-in-the-works-of-william-shakespeare	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00358.warc.gz	en	0.981132	576	3.65625	4	[ 0.12052825093269348, 0.14085030555725098, 0.5328933000564575, -0.32951945066452026, -0.22605641186237335, -0.19961082935333252, 0.09087473154067993, -0.012574308551847935, 0.11248216032981873, -0.2734251022338867, -0.49289000034332275, -0.1404896378517151, -0.08692328631877899, 0.130598261...	1	Religion in the Works of Shakespeare The purpose of this essay is to explore the religious nature of William Shakespeare's plays. This essay covers three topics surrounding Shakespeare's work: the religious climate of 16th Century England, Shakespeare's upbringing (school, parents, & Stratford itself), and a brief introduction into the impact his society and upbringing had upon his work. I. THE RELIGIOUS CLIMATE OF 16TH CENTURY ENGLAND In order to understand the religious content in Shakespeare's work it is helpful to first understand what the religious environment in England was like around the time Shakespeare wrote and lived. England, ever since it was ruled by the Romans, had been a Catholic nation. Before Shakespeare's lifetime, a strange and drastic change occurred that completely upended the existing Catholicism of the English people. During King Henry VIII's reign, the English people were, for the most part, content with Catholicism. Through a series of very complex political maneuvers, Henry eventually seized power of the English church. The benefits of this control were enormous for the state. First of all, Henry obtained his divorce from his first wife. Second, the state received the tithes and taxes from church property, thus making the break very lucrative for the state. Finally, with the closing of all of the monasteries, England gained large tracts of land to sell to land owners and tax heavily. The break with the Church of Rome, on the other hand, was not welcomed by the people. Through various laws and ordinances the monarchy effectively closed down the Catholic church in England, but they did not stop the people from being loyal to Catholicism in their hearts. This idea will be very important in the part about Shakespeare's parents later on in this essay. One of the effects of the break from Rome was the welcoming of an English translation of the Bible. If they were going to have an English form of Christianity, then they wanted to have a Bible that was theirs also. One of the first English translations of the Bible was written by William Tyndale. Known as Cranmer's Bible or the Great Bible, this Bible along with the Geneva Bible would have been the two translations used widely during Shakespeare's lifetime (Milward 85). With the advent of the printing press before this time, the Bible was becoming more and more commonly a household item. Certainly access to Scripture was at it highest point in human history to that time. The accessibility of the Bible had an impacted greatly the work of Shakespeare because he had such a resource at his disposal. Along with these two translations of Scripture already available to Shakespeare came a new translation authorized by King James I. Today this translation is known as the King James Authorized Version (Milward 86). At this point in time, the climate was right for Shakespeare to learn a great deal about Christianity directly from Scripture, even if...	583	ENGLISH	1
This is about the Sino-Sikh War The Wikipedia article says He had extended his communication and supply line over 450 miles of inhospitable terrain by building small forts and pickets along the way. The fort Chi-T’ang was built near Taklakot, where Mehta Basti Ram was put in command of 500 men, with 8 or 9 cannon. With the onset of winter all the passes were blocked and roads snowed in. The supplies for the Dogra army over such a long distance failed despite Zorawar’s meticulous preparations. As the intense cold, coupled with the rain, snow and lightning continued for weeks upon weeks, many of the soldiers lost their fingers and toes to frostbite. Others starved to death, while some burnt the wooden stock of their muskets to warm themselves. The Tibetans and their Chinese allies regrouped and advanced to give battle, bypassing the Dogra fort of Chi-T’ang. Is there more knowledge, on how their supplies failed, even after preparing? Besides, Nepal was only 15 miles from Taklakot, and they had had friendly relations with Sikh Empire, then why were they not helped?	<urn:uuid:52d201ec-03ea-474d-995a-691394fd35b0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/19273/failure-of-the-sikh-campaign-in-tibet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00256.warc.gz	en	0.980692	248	3.265625	3	[ -0.3322504758834839, 0.3841857314109802, 0.23147493600845337, 0.3271200656890869, -0.08539323508739471, 0.0940065011382103, 0.3947831094264984, 0.03516567498445511, -0.3806252181529999, -0.1800057590007782, 0.16449429094791412, -0.8765207529067993, 0.23081283271312714, 0.4991455674171448, ...	4	This is about the Sino-Sikh War The Wikipedia article says He had extended his communication and supply line over 450 miles of inhospitable terrain by building small forts and pickets along the way. The fort Chi-T’ang was built near Taklakot, where Mehta Basti Ram was put in command of 500 men, with 8 or 9 cannon. With the onset of winter all the passes were blocked and roads snowed in. The supplies for the Dogra army over such a long distance failed despite Zorawar’s meticulous preparations. As the intense cold, coupled with the rain, snow and lightning continued for weeks upon weeks, many of the soldiers lost their fingers and toes to frostbite. Others starved to death, while some burnt the wooden stock of their muskets to warm themselves. The Tibetans and their Chinese allies regrouped and advanced to give battle, bypassing the Dogra fort of Chi-T’ang. Is there more knowledge, on how their supplies failed, even after preparing? Besides, Nepal was only 15 miles from Taklakot, and they had had friendly relations with Sikh Empire, then why were they not helped?	249	ENGLISH	1
Happy New Year, readers! This week, the Earth took another trip around the sun, and everyone seems to be making resolutions. While I decided on what I wanted as my own New Year’s resolutions, I was trying to find a fun way to bring this into my speech room. I was looking for activities and came across this one from Addie Williams. Teachers Pay Teachers is always full of great resources, but none as universally enjoyed as this one by Addie. With her permission, I am sharing how I completed her activity, as well as how to make it work for multiple speech-language targets. First, let me show you the page I completed as the example (please excuse my spelling errors). While my artistic skills are a work in progress, it really helped my students to see the final product before they took on completing the worksheet themselves. It was easily differentiated for each group. Instead of writing goals down, which would be great for older students, I decided to have my students get creative and really use the full extent of their imaginations. Target: Receptive Language I turned this into a following directions activity. I sequenced the events like this: - Read the question. - Share your response. - Choose a crayon. - Answer a question about a peer’s response. - Provide a follow up comment or question. This was repeated for each item. As students got a grasp on the routine the questions and comments about peer’s choices became more detailed. Target: Expressive Language This was similar to how I conducted it for receptive language with a few modifications. All responses had to be shared in complete, grammatically correct sentences. They could only use one crayon at a time so they had to ask peers for materials as needed. In addition to answering peers’ questions, they had to ask them as well as ask and answer questions of mine. They also included sentences with their drawings and/or had to read the prompt and fill in their response. For this, I asked my students to try and choose items for their resolutions that included their speech sounds. After sharing their answer initially and drawing them, they were asked to practice the words in their resolutions containing their speech sounds while I kept track of correct productions and errors. Target: Pragmatic Language As my students completed each item, I had them engage in conversation about each other’s goals. What made them choose a goal, why was it important to them, how did they want to work towards it, etc. I also had them ask each other if they could share advice on how to complete the goals the others were setting. This fostered some great conversations between my students. I absolutely adored this activity and my students loved this method of practicing their skills while thinking about the next year. in hearing their discussions, I learned a lot about my students. I learned that some wanted to imagine ways to change their grades, some to help the planet, some to design video games. I learned about my students favorite book series’, hobbies, and what they found interesting in school. In return, they learned about my interests and goals moving forward, providing me with suggestions on how to accomplish my resolutions. My challenge to my readers this week is to examine your own resolutions complexly, if you have them. What did you learn about yourself in this process? Bonus points if you took the extra step to engage with someone else about their goals. I can’t wait to hear what you have to say in comments. Keep playing with words and see what your message creates! –Stef the StageSLP	<urn:uuid:c87fdda4-04cf-44fd-aac2-290a67e6140d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://speechtostage.com/category/inclusion/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00329.warc.gz	en	0.985746	752	3.3125	3	[ -0.5203019976615906, -0.14878317713737488, 0.22112497687339783, -0.33677345514297485, -0.6042619943618774, -0.018928857520222664, 0.05707424879074097, 0.3456128239631653, 0.10224879533052444, 0.053056828677654266, 0.318115234375, 0.003886951133608818, 0.09776322543621063, 0.376890748739242...	10	Happy New Year, readers! This week, the Earth took another trip around the sun, and everyone seems to be making resolutions. While I decided on what I wanted as my own New Year’s resolutions, I was trying to find a fun way to bring this into my speech room. I was looking for activities and came across this one from Addie Williams. Teachers Pay Teachers is always full of great resources, but none as universally enjoyed as this one by Addie. With her permission, I am sharing how I completed her activity, as well as how to make it work for multiple speech-language targets. First, let me show you the page I completed as the example (please excuse my spelling errors). While my artistic skills are a work in progress, it really helped my students to see the final product before they took on completing the worksheet themselves. It was easily differentiated for each group. Instead of writing goals down, which would be great for older students, I decided to have my students get creative and really use the full extent of their imaginations. Target: Receptive Language I turned this into a following directions activity. I sequenced the events like this: - Read the question. - Share your response. - Choose a crayon. - Answer a question about a peer’s response. - Provide a follow up comment or question. This was repeated for each item. As students got a grasp on the routine the questions and comments about peer’s choices became more detailed. Target: Expressive Language This was similar to how I conducted it for receptive language with a few modifications. All responses had to be shared in complete, grammatically correct sentences. They could only use one crayon at a time so they had to ask peers for materials as needed. In addition to answering peers’ questions, they had to ask them as well as ask and answer questions of mine. They also included sentences with their drawings and/or had to read the prompt and fill in their response. For this, I asked my students to try and choose items for their resolutions that included their speech sounds. After sharing their answer initially and drawing them, they were asked to practice the words in their resolutions containing their speech sounds while I kept track of correct productions and errors. Target: Pragmatic Language As my students completed each item, I had them engage in conversation about each other’s goals. What made them choose a goal, why was it important to them, how did they want to work towards it, etc. I also had them ask each other if they could share advice on how to complete the goals the others were setting. This fostered some great conversations between my students. I absolutely adored this activity and my students loved this method of practicing their skills while thinking about the next year. in hearing their discussions, I learned a lot about my students. I learned that some wanted to imagine ways to change their grades, some to help the planet, some to design video games. I learned about my students favorite book series’, hobbies, and what they found interesting in school. In return, they learned about my interests and goals moving forward, providing me with suggestions on how to accomplish my resolutions. My challenge to my readers this week is to examine your own resolutions complexly, if you have them. What did you learn about yourself in this process? Bonus points if you took the extra step to engage with someone else about their goals. I can’t wait to hear what you have to say in comments. Keep playing with words and see what your message creates! –Stef the StageSLP	718	ENGLISH	1
Cats and the Black Plague The black plague, also known as the black death, is a disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. It enters the body through the skin and travels via the lymph system. The bacteria live in the digestive tracts of fleas. The fleas, of course, live off blood from a host, and when the fleas swallow the blood, it becomes infected with the bacteria. As the bacteria multiply inside the flea, an intestinal blockage forms, starving the parasite because nutrients cannot be absorbed. The flea vomits in an effort to clear the blockage, and since the flea is starving, it feeds voraciously. When the infected flea vomits the diseased blood into a bite site on a host animal or human, the host becomes infected with black plague. The disease was once devastating, and the resulting death was horrible. There were actually three forms of the black plague – the bubonic form, the pneumonic form, and the septicemic form. Victims of the bubonic plague suffered painful swollen lymph nodes in the neck and the underarms, called buboes. They were also wracked with high fever, vomiting, pounding headaches, and gangrene. Some were so weak that they barely had the energy to swallow. The pneumonic form was even more punishing. As the body tried to fight off the disease, large amounts of phlegm were produced. The victims had to constantly cough up sputum in an effort to breathe, and more than ninety-five percent of the time, the patient drowned in his own body fluids. The pneumonic form of the plague didn’t need rats or fleas to spread – it was an airborne bacterium spread by the coughs of infected individuals. Septicemic black plague was a form of blood poisoning and had a mortality rate of one hundred percent. With this type of plague, the individual suffered from high fever and purple blotches on the skin. Fortunately, this deadliest form was also the rarest. From the middle of the 1300s until the 1700s, the black plague terrorized much of Europe and parts of Asia. Most historians believe the plague was first brought to Europe on ships from Asia. The most likely culprit was the black rats that often foraged among the ships’ holds for food scraps. These were smaller relatives of the brown rats. The initial outbreak of the plague in fourteenth-century Europe was the most virulent. In fact, much of the populations of England and France were decimated. In some parts of England the death toll was 50%. Some parts of France suffered an astounding loss of ninety percent of their populations. Many modern readers assume that there was only one outbreak of the black plague, but there were actually several. In fact, it raged through Europe about once every generation until the beginning of the eighteenth century. One of the last major outbreaks occurred in England with the Great Plague of London, which took place in 1665-1666. Interestingly, the fate of mankind was curiously linked to that of the common house cat. When the cat populations rose, the pandemic ebbed, and when the cat population plummeted, the black plague made a resurgence. Why? Remember that the plague was spread by fleas that lived on rats. A viscious cycle kept the disease going. Infected fleas would bite a rat, and the rodent would become infected. Then other fleas biting the infected rat would become infected themselves. Once the host rat died of the plague, any fleas living on it would find themselves homeless and would go in search of a new host. Unfortunately, this often took the form of a human. When the sick infected fleas bit the human in order to feed, the human would become infected. So why didn’t the Europeans just keep plenty of cats around to kill the rats and thereby reduce the incidence of the plague? They had cats at the time. They were originally brought to Europe by the Romans, who had discovered the felines in Egypt. Keeping pet cats as mousers had become popular in Europe by the time of the first plague. To fully answer that question, you need to understand the belief system of medieval Europe. Based on historical accounts and medieval art, people during this period were prone to many superstitions. The Catholic Church was the most powerful entity in Europe at the time, and the masses were consumed with the presence of evil and eradicating it in any form it might be believed to take. Because of their secretive nature and their ability to survive extraordinary circumstances, the general population came to fear cats as consorts of Satan. The innocent cats began to be killed by the thousands. The cats ultimately got their revenge, of course. Since there were few felines left, the rat populations increased unchecked, and the plague grew even more widespread. You’d think that the humans would make the connection by this point, but instead, they made things even worse. They began to associate the plague’s new vigor with the cats and even with dogs. They believed that since both of these animals typically harbored fleas, they must be the cause of the plague. Subsequently, cats were outlawed in many parts of Europe, and huge numbers of cats and dogs were killed. In fact, at one point in the middle ages, there were barely any cats left in England at all. Even though cat ownership was illegal in some regions, a few people kept their felines. Other people finally noticed that these cat owners often seemed to be immune to the black plague. Word spread quickly, and more observations of this phenomenon were noticed. This resulted in research, crude as it was during the time. Eventually, it was decided that the rats, not the cats, were responsible for spreading the black plague. Then, of course, everyone wanted to own a cat or two. And since cats are prolific breeders, it didn’t take long for the demand to be satisfied. The laws which had been the cats’ death sentence were repealed. In many regions, a new law took its place – one that protected felines instead of banning them and almost causing their extinction in Europe. Questions & Answers How did cats help mitigate the plague if they both caught the plague and could carry fleas with the plague? Because they could have eradicated many, many rodents.Helpful 12 Did cats catch the Plague? Yes, cats caught the Black Plague.Helpful 16 In what year did people stop killing the cats? Was it prior to the 15th century? Depends on the geographical area.Helpful 6	<urn:uuid:72710a9b-de92-4db5-b030-aa8730438c02>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/humanities/Cats-and-the-Black-Plague	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00056.warc.gz	en	0.982557	1,359	3.84375	4	[ -0.010143943130970001, 0.08863954246044159, 0.07032965123653412, 0.3974692225456238, 0.3451813757419586, -0.5765058994293213, 0.5696707963943481, 0.49489063024520874, -0.02116338536143303, 0.08915559202432632, -0.26519548892974854, -0.5187785029411316, 0.08637212216854095, 0.23099747300148...	1	Cats and the Black Plague The black plague, also known as the black death, is a disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. It enters the body through the skin and travels via the lymph system. The bacteria live in the digestive tracts of fleas. The fleas, of course, live off blood from a host, and when the fleas swallow the blood, it becomes infected with the bacteria. As the bacteria multiply inside the flea, an intestinal blockage forms, starving the parasite because nutrients cannot be absorbed. The flea vomits in an effort to clear the blockage, and since the flea is starving, it feeds voraciously. When the infected flea vomits the diseased blood into a bite site on a host animal or human, the host becomes infected with black plague. The disease was once devastating, and the resulting death was horrible. There were actually three forms of the black plague – the bubonic form, the pneumonic form, and the septicemic form. Victims of the bubonic plague suffered painful swollen lymph nodes in the neck and the underarms, called buboes. They were also wracked with high fever, vomiting, pounding headaches, and gangrene. Some were so weak that they barely had the energy to swallow. The pneumonic form was even more punishing. As the body tried to fight off the disease, large amounts of phlegm were produced. The victims had to constantly cough up sputum in an effort to breathe, and more than ninety-five percent of the time, the patient drowned in his own body fluids. The pneumonic form of the plague didn’t need rats or fleas to spread – it was an airborne bacterium spread by the coughs of infected individuals. Septicemic black plague was a form of blood poisoning and had a mortality rate of one hundred percent. With this type of plague, the individual suffered from high fever and purple blotches on the skin. Fortunately, this deadliest form was also the rarest. From the middle of the 1300s until the 1700s, the black plague terrorized much of Europe and parts of Asia. Most historians believe the plague was first brought to Europe on ships from Asia. The most likely culprit was the black rats that often foraged among the ships’ holds for food scraps. These were smaller relatives of the brown rats. The initial outbreak of the plague in fourteenth-century Europe was the most virulent. In fact, much of the populations of England and France were decimated. In some parts of England the death toll was 50%. Some parts of France suffered an astounding loss of ninety percent of their populations. Many modern readers assume that there was only one outbreak of the black plague, but there were actually several. In fact, it raged through Europe about once every generation until the beginning of the eighteenth century. One of the last major outbreaks occurred in England with the Great Plague of London, which took place in 1665-1666. Interestingly, the fate of mankind was curiously linked to that of the common house cat. When the cat populations rose, the pandemic ebbed, and when the cat population plummeted, the black plague made a resurgence. Why? Remember that the plague was spread by fleas that lived on rats. A viscious cycle kept the disease going. Infected fleas would bite a rat, and the rodent would become infected. Then other fleas biting the infected rat would become infected themselves. Once the host rat died of the plague, any fleas living on it would find themselves homeless and would go in search of a new host. Unfortunately, this often took the form of a human. When the sick infected fleas bit the human in order to feed, the human would become infected. So why didn’t the Europeans just keep plenty of cats around to kill the rats and thereby reduce the incidence of the plague? They had cats at the time. They were originally brought to Europe by the Romans, who had discovered the felines in Egypt. Keeping pet cats as mousers had become popular in Europe by the time of the first plague. To fully answer that question, you need to understand the belief system of medieval Europe. Based on historical accounts and medieval art, people during this period were prone to many superstitions. The Catholic Church was the most powerful entity in Europe at the time, and the masses were consumed with the presence of evil and eradicating it in any form it might be believed to take. Because of their secretive nature and their ability to survive extraordinary circumstances, the general population came to fear cats as consorts of Satan. The innocent cats began to be killed by the thousands. The cats ultimately got their revenge, of course. Since there were few felines left, the rat populations increased unchecked, and the plague grew even more widespread. You’d think that the humans would make the connection by this point, but instead, they made things even worse. They began to associate the plague’s new vigor with the cats and even with dogs. They believed that since both of these animals typically harbored fleas, they must be the cause of the plague. Subsequently, cats were outlawed in many parts of Europe, and huge numbers of cats and dogs were killed. In fact, at one point in the middle ages, there were barely any cats left in England at all. Even though cat ownership was illegal in some regions, a few people kept their felines. Other people finally noticed that these cat owners often seemed to be immune to the black plague. Word spread quickly, and more observations of this phenomenon were noticed. This resulted in research, crude as it was during the time. Eventually, it was decided that the rats, not the cats, were responsible for spreading the black plague. Then, of course, everyone wanted to own a cat or two. And since cats are prolific breeders, it didn’t take long for the demand to be satisfied. The laws which had been the cats’ death sentence were repealed. In many regions, a new law took its place – one that protected felines instead of banning them and almost causing their extinction in Europe. Questions & Answers How did cats help mitigate the plague if they both caught the plague and could carry fleas with the plague? Because they could have eradicated many, many rodents.Helpful 12 Did cats catch the Plague? Yes, cats caught the Black Plague.Helpful 16 In what year did people stop killing the cats? Was it prior to the 15th century? Depends on the geographical area.Helpful 6	1,354	ENGLISH	1
Fought in the United States between 1861 to 1865, the American Civil War is described as one of the darkest times in United States history. Brother fought against brother over several reasons, although primarily over the controversy of slavery in the United States. The states that remained loyal to the United States were known as the Union with the southern states that succeeded calling themselves the Confederate States of America. The conflict is the bloodiest and most costly war ever fought on American soil, changing the trajectory of the United States forever. These photos salvaged from the Civil War show what that time was really like. Major General John Sedgewick Was Killed By A Sniper Here is an image of General John Sedgewick sitting while surrounded by some of his men. Sedgewick was regarded as one of the most experienced and respected commanders in the Union Army and was even referred to as Major General. Unfortunately, he was shot in the head by a sharpshooter, killing him. According to fellow general Ulysses S. Grant, losing him was “greater than the loss of a whole division of troops.” Supposedly, he claimed that the snipers “couldn’t hit an elephant at that distance” just moments before he was killed. The Biggest Gun In The War This massive piece of artillery could be found guarding Fort Wagner in Charleston Harbor. However, this wasn’t the only gun of its kind. There were 13 more in the surrounding area guarding other forts. The continuous shelling by the Union forced the Confederates to abandon the fort and the gun. In a battle, the 54 Regiment suffered major losses at Fort Wagner, which allowed for a group of black soldiers to take control of the fort. They stayed there for the remainder of the war. The Remains Of A Bombardment This is an image of Fort Sumter located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. It was the site where the first shots of the war were fired, resulting in a 34-hour battle. However, the Union was forced to surrender the fort on April 13th. After Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated into the presidency, he ordered three unarmed ships to restock supplies at Fort Sumter. This deeply angered the South because the fort was in their territory, resulting in the fighting. Luckily, nobody was killed during the bombardment. General Sheridan Gave Robert E. Lee A Lot Of Trouble General Sheridan was a controversial Union general, especially in the eyes of the Confederacy. Few were willing to forget the Burning Raid he led up the Shenandoah Valley in 1864. He was a highly skilled leader and gave the Confederacy quite a difficult time. It was even Sheridan who led the Confederates to surrender when he crossed the bridge over the James River. He is also known for capturing several of Robert E. Lee’s men, cutting off their retreat at Appomattox. This was the end of the line for the Confederacy. Custer As A Soldier Although it may be hard to tell at first glance, the soldier on the right in the photo is actually George Armstrong Custer. During the Civil War, Custer served as a United States Army officer and cavalry commander, known for his military prowess. Although he served bravely in the war, he is best known for leading his men to their deaths during the controversial Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876. The man on the left is Confederate officer John “Gimlet” W. Lea, a classmate of Custer’s at West Point. During the war, the two fought against each other at the Battle of Williamsburg. After Lea was injured, Custer carried him to a hospital where they later took this picture. While the Civil War started at Fort Sumter, it ended at Appomattox, Virginia, even though the Confederate capital was located in Richmond, Virginia. There was a lot of fighting occurring in the area, so a lot of ammunition was needed as well. Here is a picture of cannonballs both stacked on top of each other as well as those that had already been fired out of cannons. The amount of cannonballs provides a sense of how devastating the fighting really was. A Battle Stopped To Watch Two Men Fight Here is one of the many positions that were held around Fredericksburg, Virginia. This was one of the openings to Richmond, so it was the site of numerous bloody confrontations between the Union and Confederate forces. One of these engagements is known as the Battle of the Wilderness. During the battle, a Union soldier went to take cover in a gully. To his surprise, there was already a Confederate soldier in the trench. What started as an argument turned into a fistfight, with the surrounding soldiers stopping to watch. It wasn’t until the Confederate soldier started beating the Union man with his belt that the Union soldier surrendered. This is a photograph of all that remains of a Confederate ironclad ram called the Albemarle. The ship was named after Albemarle Sound, where it was built in 1863, and went on to terrorize Union vessels in the coming months. Although the Albemarle was a solid and fast ship, it wasn’t powerful enough to sink Union ships such as the Miami. One victory that the Albemarle did have however was the Captain of the vessel, Captain Fusser. An exploding cannonball ricocheted off Albemarle’s hull and landed back at the captain’s feet. A Plan That Went Awry This observation balloon, called Intrepid, was invented by Thadeus Lowe. These balloons had been around for years before the Civil War, but Lowe saw the potential for them to be used by the Union. To prove their effectiveness, he came up with a risky plan to fly to Washington D.C. and land on the White House lawn. Unsurprisingly, the plan didn’t go how Lowe had envisioned, with the wind blowing the balloon into enemy territory. He was then captured by the Confederates but managed to escape before being executed. Taken by Andrew Russell is a picture of what may look to be simple pieces of wood and scraps of steel. However, Confederate soldiers would see them as the materials used to make “Sherman’s Neckties,” named after General Tecumseh Sherman. Southern soldiers would use the wood as fuel, and heat the steel to the point that it was malleable. They would then twist the metal as much as they could so that the steel could no longer be used for railroad tracks. Needless to say, the Union found these to be very inconvenient. Enemies And Neighbors Former United States senator, Jefferson Davis, was elected as President of the Confederacy when the government formed. They chose Richmond, Virginia as the destination for their capital, just over 100 miles away from the Union’s capital of Washington DC. The Union made two attempts to take Virginia at the beginning of the war although both were unsuccessful. Being so close, the Union watched carefully as the southern armies grew weak and tired and waited for the right time to strike. It took the Union a whole three years to invade the south. Abraham Lincoln’s Height Was A Problem Known for already being the tallest president ever, Abraham Lincoln also wore a large top hat to make himself appear even taller than he already was. In a combat scenario, size can actually be a disadvantage, because the smaller you are, the smaller a target you are. In 1864, Abraham Lincoln’s height almost cost him his life. During a Union army attack on Fort Stevens, Lincoln paid a visit to the soldiers. While talking to the soldiers, Confederate rifle fire was getting extremely close, and Colonel Oliver Wendell Holmes forced Lincoln down before he was shot in the head. Experiencing War From A Different Perspective Pictured in the middle is Matthew Harrison Brady, the man considered to be the founder of photojournalism. He’s also credited with being the reason we have such a diverse collection of Civil War photos today. Supposedly, he spent $100,000 of his own money in order to share the war with the public in ways that had never been done before. During the war, people were intrigued and wanted to see his work. However, after the war, people wanted to move on and not be reminded about the horrors of war. So, Brady ended up selling his work to Congress for a small sum of money. It Changed Naval Warfare Here is an image of the crew of the USS Monitor, a ship that entered the war in just enough time to save the Union. The USS Monitor was different from any other ship and required 40 new patents and rose 18 inches above the waterline. The ship was built in response to the Confederacy’s CSS Virginia, and the two met each other in the Chesapeake Bay on March 9, 1862. This was one of the first armored ships introduced to the war which would drastically change naval warfare. The battle between the Monitor and the Merrimack ended in a draw as each of the ships were so well made. The Union Was Jealous Of The Confederate Navy At the beginning of the Civil War, the CSS Virginia was originally known as the USS Merrimack and was one of the most prized ships by the United States Navy. While the Union would have happily taken control of the ship, it fell into the hands of the confederacy. However, the Union soldiers eventually ended up sinking the ship while docked in the harbor. The Confederates attempted to salvage and rebuild the ship, however, the Union Navy put a stop to that. Ulysses S. Grant Created A Sea Blockade In order to put the Confederate Navy at a disadvantage, General Ulysses S. Grant built a sea blockade, which drastically affected the Confederate Navy throughout the war. The bridge was built on June 14, 1861, and although there’s not much going on, it was incredibly effective. It was not only the longest but also the most impressive bridges built during the Civil War. It crossed the James River which was 2,000-feet wide and 84-feet deep. It was crossed by infantry, wagons, cattle, and calvary in order to blindside the Confederates. Don’t Mess With “The Dictator” This piece of equipment is known as “the Dictator,” a 17,000-pound gun that is so large it could only be transported by railroad. Many of the buildings that were almost completely destroyed throughout the war were most likely the work of the dictator. The weapon was able to fire a 13-inch shell which weighed around 218 pounds and could fire accurately up to 2.5 miles. Of course, it was also incredibly dangerous to fire, as it was rumored to recoil up to 12 feet after every shot. The Confederacy Looked To Europe For Allies Although the Civil War was fought between Americans on American soil, that didn’t mean that Europe wasn’t looking to get involved. The Confederacy was even talking to the English and the French having them intervene in the war. However, both countries eventually backed out. This photo was taken in 1863 and shows the Union Secretary of States William Seaward spending time with ambassadors from England, France, Italy, Nicaragua, Russia, among others. President Lincoln’s goal was to make sure the United States was in good standing with other countries so they were less likely to side with the Confederacy. He succeeded in his goal. The Battle Of Gettysburg Was One Of The Most Decisive Moments Of The War For the most part, battles during the Civil War took place in the Southern states. So, eventually, General Robert E. Lee decided to take the fight to the Union. This resulted in the Battle of Gettysburg which took place in a small town in southern Pennsylvania. The two armies met in what is considered to be the biggest battle in North American history. Although there are some rumors about how the battle actually started, what really happened was that both sides were looking for a fight. The battle lasted a whole three days and is regarded as the deadliest battle in American history. The Remains Of Richmond In 1965, the Confederates were defending their capital of Richmond with all that they had. Yet, once the Union forces were upon them, both the citizens and the government knew they could no longer hold the city. On April 12, 185, the Union army laid into them while Confederate President Jefferson Davis fled the city, utilizing the last railroad line still in use. Seven days later, the Confederates still defending Richmond surrendered and Jefferson was still on the run. Even though Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, Jefferson was arrested by Union soldiers on May 10. Wounded Soldiers Being Tended In the Field This photo was taken on May 2, 1863, after the Battle of Chancellorsville, Virginia. It was a year after Jonathan Letterman reformed first aid on the battlefield to ensure that soldiers get proper treatment as quickly as possible. Before Letterman, nicknamed the “Father of Modern Battlefield Medicine,” stepped in to lead, it would typically take around a week for wounded soldiers to be removed from where the action took place. Here soldiers sit under a tree where they were brought to the makeshift field-dressing station. From there, the men were moved to the field hospital. The Ruins Of Charleston, South Carolina This image taken in 1861 shows three boys sitting on the edge of a pillar in what’s left of Charleston, South Carolina. Confederate president Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of Fort Sumter, which was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston. Major Anderson, Lincoln’s commander, sent a reply back to Davis, which he rejected, and ordered that General P.G.T. Beauregard attack the fort. The confederates destroyed the city. Afterward, Lincoln called on forces to recapture the fort. Living As Contraband This is a picture of contraband slaves at a farmhouse near Yorkville, Virginia taken in 1862. As the Civil War raged on African-Americans began to leave their masters to seek refuge behind Union lines. It was easier as Union troops moved deeper into Virginia and by 1863, around 10,000 former slaves came to Washington, which was seen as a symbol of Union and freedom. Because the Union didn’t have a policy as to what to do to help those seeking protection, commanders either put them to work in the troops or returned them to their plantation owners. Life Of A Union Officer This is a photo of some Union officers in Virginia taking a break as their African-American orderly serves them drinks. When it came to dealing with those who were seeking protection from slavery, most Union commanders felt that they were contraband of war and as a result, they unfortunately just became the property of the Union. Major General Benjamin Butler was known for treating escaped slaves as contraband and refused to send them back to the bonds of slavery. But in 1861 a policy was instituted that once they were found as contraband, they were declared free. Time For A Soldier’s Haircut In this photo taken in 1862, this man from the Army of the Potomac is getting a haircut from his fellow soldiers. The Army of the Potomac was the principal Union Army in the Civil War’s Eastern Theatre that was started in 1861 after the First Battle of Bull Run. The Army of the Potomac didn’t last too long and disbanded in 1865 after surrendering to the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in April of that year. Time To Eat With The Messmates After long days on the battlefield, a soldier is certainly bound to work up a hunger and well, someone’s got to do the cooking! These soldiers are preparing mess at a camp sometime around 1862. Both Union and Confederate soldiers had to prepare their own food and were given daily rations that were unprepared. When it was time to eat, they’d gather in groups called “messes” to cook their food together. Food was often cooked over an open fire in a cast skillet or kettle and often supplemented their rations with wild game or wild berries. Lincoln Chats With McClellan Here we see Abraham Lincoln having a chat with General George B. McClellan following the Battle of Antietam in Maryland in October 1862. The following month, Lincoln did what he had to do and ousted McClellan from his post as commander of the Army of the Potomac. McClellan may have built the Army but would later prove to be a sluggish and paranoid field commander who didn’t want to aggressively charge at Confederate General Robert E. Lee in North Virginia. Dog Days Of War Lieutenant George A. Custer is pictured relaxing here with his very serious pooch during the Peninsula Campaign in Virginia. Long before the famed Battle of Little Bighorn, Custer was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Civil War. He was assigned to the 2nd U.S. Cavalry Regiment and fought at the First Battle of Bull Run during the Manassas Campaign. Throughout the war, Custer worked his way up through the ranks and by 1865 had achieved the rank of Brevet major general with the U.S. Army. A Train Gets Derailed This train was derailed at Manassas, Virginia in the early 1860s. Trains were at great risk of being derailed in the midst of war. One of the greatest train wrecks to happen as a result of the war was the Shohola train wreck of 1864 along the Erie Railroad in Pennsylvania. There were 833 Confederate prisoners of war on the Shohola train and 128 Union guards who were taking them to Point Lookout, Maryland, where a prisoner camp was being built. The wreck occurred as a result of a collision with an oncoming train, killing a total of 65 people. A Telegraph Camp Waiting For News This was one of General Grant’s Field Telegraph stations that was ready to send out and receive breaking news. The telegraph, invented by Samuel Morse, changed the course of the Civil War. After the war broke out, the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps was formed in 1861. An office in Washington, D.C. was tasked with maintaining communications between the federal government and the commanding officers of the Union Army that were spread throughout the country. Serving in the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps was a demanding job, in which one had to be quick and intelligent. Capturing Fort Harrison Union Major General Godfrey Weitzel stood proud with his staff of XVII Corps Army of the James after they successfully captured Fort Harrison on October 5, 1864. Fort Harrison was one of the major Confederate defenses at Richmond and was named for Lieutenant William Harrison. Fort Harrison was the largest of fortifications that went from new Market Road to the James River, meant to protect the Chaffin’s Bluff on the James. It took 2,500 Union soldiers to overrun the fort and capture it in the Battle of Chaffin’s Farm. The USS Kearsarge Crew Ready For Action The crew of the USS Kearsarge poses on deck in this photo from 1864. The USS Kearsarge was a Mohican-class sloop-of-war, which was a warship with a single gun deck that could carry up to 18 guns. USS Kearsarge is best remembered for defeating Confederate commerce raider CSS Alabama at the Battle of Cherbourg. There, the Alabama was the first to fire but the Kearsarge didn’t respond until she was close enough. She was the only ship in the U.S. Navy to be named for New Hampshire’s Mount Kearsarge. Thaddeus Lowe And His Horse Thaddeus S. C. Lowe was hired by Abraham Lincoln to head the Union Army’s aeronautics division. His primary task was to investigate the use of hot air balloons for reconnaissance during the Civil War and as a result has been dubbed the father of military aerial reconnaissance in the U.S. Lowe’s work was general successful, but many members of the military didn’t have faith in it. He eventually resigned in 1863 and returned to the private sector to continue his exploration of hydrogen gas manufacturing. Relaxing By The Tent This is a photo of members of the 7th New York Militia posing by the opening of a tent posted at Camp Cameron. The 7th Regiment was nicknamed the “Silk Stocking” regiment and were also known as the “Blue-Bloods” since many of its members were a park of the New York City’s social elite. They were initially part of a pre-war New York Militia that were eventually enlisted into federal service at the onset of the Civil War. Resting With Their Swords Here are two Union soldiers taking a seat with their swords. They were a part of the 31st Pennsylvania Regiment that was posted near Washington, D.C. in 1862. Camp life for the 31st Pennsylvania Regiment wasn’t so bad, as many women followed their husbands out to the battlefield to serve as nurses or laundresses. While many women were accepted in these roles, those who were there but weren’t married were presumed to be women of the night and therefore were encouraged to stay away. Many Felt The Civil War Was About This Many people felt the Civil War was primarily motivated by one issue: slavery. But others felt that it was more so about preserving the Union, in which there were slave-holding states. Even President Abraham Lincoln himself said, “My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy slavery.” In 1860, four million slaves inhabited 15 states and territories. It was not acknowledged in the Southern states that there were 400,000 free African Americans, who did not have equal rights but were successful businessmen who sometimes held slaves themselves. Centerville Was At The Center Of War Centerville was an important location during the Civil War. Part of an unincorporated community in Fairfax County, Virginia, Centerville was a prime location for both the Union and the Confederacy because it was on elevated ground and close to Washington, D.C. It was also a site that had access to two important railroads and therefore served as a supply depot for both sides during the war. The First and Second Battles of Manassas were fought nearby. Siege of Yorktown This is what a Union Army battery looked like during the Peninsula Campaign of the Civil War in 1862. This particular battery was located at Yorktown, where the Siege of Yorktown was fought from April 5 to May 4 of that year. Union Major General George B. McClellan encountered Major General John B. Magruder’s small Confederate force at Yorktown. McClellan brought heavy siege guns and ended up having to battle the Confederate opposition for two weeks longer than he expected. The Confederate Army Prepares For Battle Here is what the Confederate Army’s fortifications looked like at Manassas, Virginia in 1862. They eventually fought in the First Battle of Manassas, which to the Union forces was known as the First Battle of Bull Run. It was the first major battle of the Civil War that ended in victory for the Confederacy. Part of this was attributed to the fact that Union forces took too long to position themselves, giving Confederate forces time to fortify and get reinforcements by rail, as you see here. Gearing Up At Fort Sumner The Union didn’t seem to be at a loss of artillery at Fort Sumner near Fair Oaks, Virginia. This photo was taken during the Battle of Seven Pines that was a part of the Peninsular Campaign through spring and summer of 1862. The Battle of Seven Pines was an interesting one in that both sides claimed victory. Confederate assaults were successful in driving back Union forces but reinforcements for both sides kept feeding into the action. By the time Union forces were able to stabilize, the Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston was injured. In the end, both sides made little headway.	<urn:uuid:e8e43b2d-3a0c-4367-b72d-d2ec3d1613ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.pastfactory.com/history/photos-what-the-american-civil-war-was-really-like/?view-all	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00498.warc.gz	en	0.984306	5,037	3.609375	4	[ -0.10224886238574982, 0.21346032619476318, 0.34206125140190125, -0.00007778598228469491, 0.16313356161117554, -0.000528502045199275, 0.20411133766174316, 0.15809348225593567, -0.31442368030548096, 0.28589725494384766, 0.13942235708236694, 0.0364147424697876, 0.3114120364189148, 0.597901463...	2	Fought in the United States between 1861 to 1865, the American Civil War is described as one of the darkest times in United States history. Brother fought against brother over several reasons, although primarily over the controversy of slavery in the United States. The states that remained loyal to the United States were known as the Union with the southern states that succeeded calling themselves the Confederate States of America. The conflict is the bloodiest and most costly war ever fought on American soil, changing the trajectory of the United States forever. These photos salvaged from the Civil War show what that time was really like. Major General John Sedgewick Was Killed By A Sniper Here is an image of General John Sedgewick sitting while surrounded by some of his men. Sedgewick was regarded as one of the most experienced and respected commanders in the Union Army and was even referred to as Major General. Unfortunately, he was shot in the head by a sharpshooter, killing him. According to fellow general Ulysses S. Grant, losing him was “greater than the loss of a whole division of troops.” Supposedly, he claimed that the snipers “couldn’t hit an elephant at that distance” just moments before he was killed. The Biggest Gun In The War This massive piece of artillery could be found guarding Fort Wagner in Charleston Harbor. However, this wasn’t the only gun of its kind. There were 13 more in the surrounding area guarding other forts. The continuous shelling by the Union forced the Confederates to abandon the fort and the gun. In a battle, the 54 Regiment suffered major losses at Fort Wagner, which allowed for a group of black soldiers to take control of the fort. They stayed there for the remainder of the war. The Remains Of A Bombardment This is an image of Fort Sumter located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. It was the site where the first shots of the war were fired, resulting in a 34-hour battle. However, the Union was forced to surrender the fort on April 13th. After Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated into the presidency, he ordered three unarmed ships to restock supplies at Fort Sumter. This deeply angered the South because the fort was in their territory, resulting in the fighting. Luckily, nobody was killed during the bombardment. General Sheridan Gave Robert E. Lee A Lot Of Trouble General Sheridan was a controversial Union general, especially in the eyes of the Confederacy. Few were willing to forget the Burning Raid he led up the Shenandoah Valley in 1864. He was a highly skilled leader and gave the Confederacy quite a difficult time. It was even Sheridan who led the Confederates to surrender when he crossed the bridge over the James River. He is also known for capturing several of Robert E. Lee’s men, cutting off their retreat at Appomattox. This was the end of the line for the Confederacy. Custer As A Soldier Although it may be hard to tell at first glance, the soldier on the right in the photo is actually George Armstrong Custer. During the Civil War, Custer served as a United States Army officer and cavalry commander, known for his military prowess. Although he served bravely in the war, he is best known for leading his men to their deaths during the controversial Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876. The man on the left is Confederate officer John “Gimlet” W. Lea, a classmate of Custer’s at West Point. During the war, the two fought against each other at the Battle of Williamsburg. After Lea was injured, Custer carried him to a hospital where they later took this picture. While the Civil War started at Fort Sumter, it ended at Appomattox, Virginia, even though the Confederate capital was located in Richmond, Virginia. There was a lot of fighting occurring in the area, so a lot of ammunition was needed as well. Here is a picture of cannonballs both stacked on top of each other as well as those that had already been fired out of cannons. The amount of cannonballs provides a sense of how devastating the fighting really was. A Battle Stopped To Watch Two Men Fight Here is one of the many positions that were held around Fredericksburg, Virginia. This was one of the openings to Richmond, so it was the site of numerous bloody confrontations between the Union and Confederate forces. One of these engagements is known as the Battle of the Wilderness. During the battle, a Union soldier went to take cover in a gully. To his surprise, there was already a Confederate soldier in the trench. What started as an argument turned into a fistfight, with the surrounding soldiers stopping to watch. It wasn’t until the Confederate soldier started beating the Union man with his belt that the Union soldier surrendered. This is a photograph of all that remains of a Confederate ironclad ram called the Albemarle. The ship was named after Albemarle Sound, where it was built in 1863, and went on to terrorize Union vessels in the coming months. Although the Albemarle was a solid and fast ship, it wasn’t powerful enough to sink Union ships such as the Miami. One victory that the Albemarle did have however was the Captain of the vessel, Captain Fusser. An exploding cannonball ricocheted off Albemarle’s hull and landed back at the captain’s feet. A Plan That Went Awry This observation balloon, called Intrepid, was invented by Thadeus Lowe. These balloons had been around for years before the Civil War, but Lowe saw the potential for them to be used by the Union. To prove their effectiveness, he came up with a risky plan to fly to Washington D.C. and land on the White House lawn. Unsurprisingly, the plan didn’t go how Lowe had envisioned, with the wind blowing the balloon into enemy territory. He was then captured by the Confederates but managed to escape before being executed. Taken by Andrew Russell is a picture of what may look to be simple pieces of wood and scraps of steel. However, Confederate soldiers would see them as the materials used to make “Sherman’s Neckties,” named after General Tecumseh Sherman. Southern soldiers would use the wood as fuel, and heat the steel to the point that it was malleable. They would then twist the metal as much as they could so that the steel could no longer be used for railroad tracks. Needless to say, the Union found these to be very inconvenient. Enemies And Neighbors Former United States senator, Jefferson Davis, was elected as President of the Confederacy when the government formed. They chose Richmond, Virginia as the destination for their capital, just over 100 miles away from the Union’s capital of Washington DC. The Union made two attempts to take Virginia at the beginning of the war although both were unsuccessful. Being so close, the Union watched carefully as the southern armies grew weak and tired and waited for the right time to strike. It took the Union a whole three years to invade the south. Abraham Lincoln’s Height Was A Problem Known for already being the tallest president ever, Abraham Lincoln also wore a large top hat to make himself appear even taller than he already was. In a combat scenario, size can actually be a disadvantage, because the smaller you are, the smaller a target you are. In 1864, Abraham Lincoln’s height almost cost him his life. During a Union army attack on Fort Stevens, Lincoln paid a visit to the soldiers. While talking to the soldiers, Confederate rifle fire was getting extremely close, and Colonel Oliver Wendell Holmes forced Lincoln down before he was shot in the head. Experiencing War From A Different Perspective Pictured in the middle is Matthew Harrison Brady, the man considered to be the founder of photojournalism. He’s also credited with being the reason we have such a diverse collection of Civil War photos today. Supposedly, he spent $100,000 of his own money in order to share the war with the public in ways that had never been done before. During the war, people were intrigued and wanted to see his work. However, after the war, people wanted to move on and not be reminded about the horrors of war. So, Brady ended up selling his work to Congress for a small sum of money. It Changed Naval Warfare Here is an image of the crew of the USS Monitor, a ship that entered the war in just enough time to save the Union. The USS Monitor was different from any other ship and required 40 new patents and rose 18 inches above the waterline. The ship was built in response to the Confederacy’s CSS Virginia, and the two met each other in the Chesapeake Bay on March 9, 1862. This was one of the first armored ships introduced to the war which would drastically change naval warfare. The battle between the Monitor and the Merrimack ended in a draw as each of the ships were so well made. The Union Was Jealous Of The Confederate Navy At the beginning of the Civil War, the CSS Virginia was originally known as the USS Merrimack and was one of the most prized ships by the United States Navy. While the Union would have happily taken control of the ship, it fell into the hands of the confederacy. However, the Union soldiers eventually ended up sinking the ship while docked in the harbor. The Confederates attempted to salvage and rebuild the ship, however, the Union Navy put a stop to that. Ulysses S. Grant Created A Sea Blockade In order to put the Confederate Navy at a disadvantage, General Ulysses S. Grant built a sea blockade, which drastically affected the Confederate Navy throughout the war. The bridge was built on June 14, 1861, and although there’s not much going on, it was incredibly effective. It was not only the longest but also the most impressive bridges built during the Civil War. It crossed the James River which was 2,000-feet wide and 84-feet deep. It was crossed by infantry, wagons, cattle, and calvary in order to blindside the Confederates. Don’t Mess With “The Dictator” This piece of equipment is known as “the Dictator,” a 17,000-pound gun that is so large it could only be transported by railroad. Many of the buildings that were almost completely destroyed throughout the war were most likely the work of the dictator. The weapon was able to fire a 13-inch shell which weighed around 218 pounds and could fire accurately up to 2.5 miles. Of course, it was also incredibly dangerous to fire, as it was rumored to recoil up to 12 feet after every shot. The Confederacy Looked To Europe For Allies Although the Civil War was fought between Americans on American soil, that didn’t mean that Europe wasn’t looking to get involved. The Confederacy was even talking to the English and the French having them intervene in the war. However, both countries eventually backed out. This photo was taken in 1863 and shows the Union Secretary of States William Seaward spending time with ambassadors from England, France, Italy, Nicaragua, Russia, among others. President Lincoln’s goal was to make sure the United States was in good standing with other countries so they were less likely to side with the Confederacy. He succeeded in his goal. The Battle Of Gettysburg Was One Of The Most Decisive Moments Of The War For the most part, battles during the Civil War took place in the Southern states. So, eventually, General Robert E. Lee decided to take the fight to the Union. This resulted in the Battle of Gettysburg which took place in a small town in southern Pennsylvania. The two armies met in what is considered to be the biggest battle in North American history. Although there are some rumors about how the battle actually started, what really happened was that both sides were looking for a fight. The battle lasted a whole three days and is regarded as the deadliest battle in American history. The Remains Of Richmond In 1965, the Confederates were defending their capital of Richmond with all that they had. Yet, once the Union forces were upon them, both the citizens and the government knew they could no longer hold the city. On April 12, 185, the Union army laid into them while Confederate President Jefferson Davis fled the city, utilizing the last railroad line still in use. Seven days later, the Confederates still defending Richmond surrendered and Jefferson was still on the run. Even though Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, Jefferson was arrested by Union soldiers on May 10. Wounded Soldiers Being Tended In the Field This photo was taken on May 2, 1863, after the Battle of Chancellorsville, Virginia. It was a year after Jonathan Letterman reformed first aid on the battlefield to ensure that soldiers get proper treatment as quickly as possible. Before Letterman, nicknamed the “Father of Modern Battlefield Medicine,” stepped in to lead, it would typically take around a week for wounded soldiers to be removed from where the action took place. Here soldiers sit under a tree where they were brought to the makeshift field-dressing station. From there, the men were moved to the field hospital. The Ruins Of Charleston, South Carolina This image taken in 1861 shows three boys sitting on the edge of a pillar in what’s left of Charleston, South Carolina. Confederate president Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of Fort Sumter, which was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston. Major Anderson, Lincoln’s commander, sent a reply back to Davis, which he rejected, and ordered that General P.G.T. Beauregard attack the fort. The confederates destroyed the city. Afterward, Lincoln called on forces to recapture the fort. Living As Contraband This is a picture of contraband slaves at a farmhouse near Yorkville, Virginia taken in 1862. As the Civil War raged on African-Americans began to leave their masters to seek refuge behind Union lines. It was easier as Union troops moved deeper into Virginia and by 1863, around 10,000 former slaves came to Washington, which was seen as a symbol of Union and freedom. Because the Union didn’t have a policy as to what to do to help those seeking protection, commanders either put them to work in the troops or returned them to their plantation owners. Life Of A Union Officer This is a photo of some Union officers in Virginia taking a break as their African-American orderly serves them drinks. When it came to dealing with those who were seeking protection from slavery, most Union commanders felt that they were contraband of war and as a result, they unfortunately just became the property of the Union. Major General Benjamin Butler was known for treating escaped slaves as contraband and refused to send them back to the bonds of slavery. But in 1861 a policy was instituted that once they were found as contraband, they were declared free. Time For A Soldier’s Haircut In this photo taken in 1862, this man from the Army of the Potomac is getting a haircut from his fellow soldiers. The Army of the Potomac was the principal Union Army in the Civil War’s Eastern Theatre that was started in 1861 after the First Battle of Bull Run. The Army of the Potomac didn’t last too long and disbanded in 1865 after surrendering to the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in April of that year. Time To Eat With The Messmates After long days on the battlefield, a soldier is certainly bound to work up a hunger and well, someone’s got to do the cooking! These soldiers are preparing mess at a camp sometime around 1862. Both Union and Confederate soldiers had to prepare their own food and were given daily rations that were unprepared. When it was time to eat, they’d gather in groups called “messes” to cook their food together. Food was often cooked over an open fire in a cast skillet or kettle and often supplemented their rations with wild game or wild berries. Lincoln Chats With McClellan Here we see Abraham Lincoln having a chat with General George B. McClellan following the Battle of Antietam in Maryland in October 1862. The following month, Lincoln did what he had to do and ousted McClellan from his post as commander of the Army of the Potomac. McClellan may have built the Army but would later prove to be a sluggish and paranoid field commander who didn’t want to aggressively charge at Confederate General Robert E. Lee in North Virginia. Dog Days Of War Lieutenant George A. Custer is pictured relaxing here with his very serious pooch during the Peninsula Campaign in Virginia. Long before the famed Battle of Little Bighorn, Custer was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Civil War. He was assigned to the 2nd U.S. Cavalry Regiment and fought at the First Battle of Bull Run during the Manassas Campaign. Throughout the war, Custer worked his way up through the ranks and by 1865 had achieved the rank of Brevet major general with the U.S. Army. A Train Gets Derailed This train was derailed at Manassas, Virginia in the early 1860s. Trains were at great risk of being derailed in the midst of war. One of the greatest train wrecks to happen as a result of the war was the Shohola train wreck of 1864 along the Erie Railroad in Pennsylvania. There were 833 Confederate prisoners of war on the Shohola train and 128 Union guards who were taking them to Point Lookout, Maryland, where a prisoner camp was being built. The wreck occurred as a result of a collision with an oncoming train, killing a total of 65 people. A Telegraph Camp Waiting For News This was one of General Grant’s Field Telegraph stations that was ready to send out and receive breaking news. The telegraph, invented by Samuel Morse, changed the course of the Civil War. After the war broke out, the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps was formed in 1861. An office in Washington, D.C. was tasked with maintaining communications between the federal government and the commanding officers of the Union Army that were spread throughout the country. Serving in the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps was a demanding job, in which one had to be quick and intelligent. Capturing Fort Harrison Union Major General Godfrey Weitzel stood proud with his staff of XVII Corps Army of the James after they successfully captured Fort Harrison on October 5, 1864. Fort Harrison was one of the major Confederate defenses at Richmond and was named for Lieutenant William Harrison. Fort Harrison was the largest of fortifications that went from new Market Road to the James River, meant to protect the Chaffin’s Bluff on the James. It took 2,500 Union soldiers to overrun the fort and capture it in the Battle of Chaffin’s Farm. The USS Kearsarge Crew Ready For Action The crew of the USS Kearsarge poses on deck in this photo from 1864. The USS Kearsarge was a Mohican-class sloop-of-war, which was a warship with a single gun deck that could carry up to 18 guns. USS Kearsarge is best remembered for defeating Confederate commerce raider CSS Alabama at the Battle of Cherbourg. There, the Alabama was the first to fire but the Kearsarge didn’t respond until she was close enough. She was the only ship in the U.S. Navy to be named for New Hampshire’s Mount Kearsarge. Thaddeus Lowe And His Horse Thaddeus S. C. Lowe was hired by Abraham Lincoln to head the Union Army’s aeronautics division. His primary task was to investigate the use of hot air balloons for reconnaissance during the Civil War and as a result has been dubbed the father of military aerial reconnaissance in the U.S. Lowe’s work was general successful, but many members of the military didn’t have faith in it. He eventually resigned in 1863 and returned to the private sector to continue his exploration of hydrogen gas manufacturing. Relaxing By The Tent This is a photo of members of the 7th New York Militia posing by the opening of a tent posted at Camp Cameron. The 7th Regiment was nicknamed the “Silk Stocking” regiment and were also known as the “Blue-Bloods” since many of its members were a park of the New York City’s social elite. They were initially part of a pre-war New York Militia that were eventually enlisted into federal service at the onset of the Civil War. Resting With Their Swords Here are two Union soldiers taking a seat with their swords. They were a part of the 31st Pennsylvania Regiment that was posted near Washington, D.C. in 1862. Camp life for the 31st Pennsylvania Regiment wasn’t so bad, as many women followed their husbands out to the battlefield to serve as nurses or laundresses. While many women were accepted in these roles, those who were there but weren’t married were presumed to be women of the night and therefore were encouraged to stay away. Many Felt The Civil War Was About This Many people felt the Civil War was primarily motivated by one issue: slavery. But others felt that it was more so about preserving the Union, in which there were slave-holding states. Even President Abraham Lincoln himself said, “My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy slavery.” In 1860, four million slaves inhabited 15 states and territories. It was not acknowledged in the Southern states that there were 400,000 free African Americans, who did not have equal rights but were successful businessmen who sometimes held slaves themselves. Centerville Was At The Center Of War Centerville was an important location during the Civil War. Part of an unincorporated community in Fairfax County, Virginia, Centerville was a prime location for both the Union and the Confederacy because it was on elevated ground and close to Washington, D.C. It was also a site that had access to two important railroads and therefore served as a supply depot for both sides during the war. The First and Second Battles of Manassas were fought nearby. Siege of Yorktown This is what a Union Army battery looked like during the Peninsula Campaign of the Civil War in 1862. This particular battery was located at Yorktown, where the Siege of Yorktown was fought from April 5 to May 4 of that year. Union Major General George B. McClellan encountered Major General John B. Magruder’s small Confederate force at Yorktown. McClellan brought heavy siege guns and ended up having to battle the Confederate opposition for two weeks longer than he expected. The Confederate Army Prepares For Battle Here is what the Confederate Army’s fortifications looked like at Manassas, Virginia in 1862. They eventually fought in the First Battle of Manassas, which to the Union forces was known as the First Battle of Bull Run. It was the first major battle of the Civil War that ended in victory for the Confederacy. Part of this was attributed to the fact that Union forces took too long to position themselves, giving Confederate forces time to fortify and get reinforcements by rail, as you see here. Gearing Up At Fort Sumner The Union didn’t seem to be at a loss of artillery at Fort Sumner near Fair Oaks, Virginia. This photo was taken during the Battle of Seven Pines that was a part of the Peninsular Campaign through spring and summer of 1862. The Battle of Seven Pines was an interesting one in that both sides claimed victory. Confederate assaults were successful in driving back Union forces but reinforcements for both sides kept feeding into the action. By the time Union forces were able to stabilize, the Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston was injured. In the end, both sides made little headway.	5,065	ENGLISH	1
Supreme court cases are rarely considered as only 80 cases will be heard a year with 7000 requests according to The Leadership Conference. One important case that is important due to changing history dramatically was the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case of the United States. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Case Of Brown vs Board of Education" essay for you Brown v. Board of Education was the first case to win race-based segregation as unconstitutional. This case began when Oliver Brown filed a claim after being denied admission to a white school. Brown’s main argument in this case was that that segregation was depriving important aspects of education to children, especially those of color. During this era, there was different schools under for those of color and whites that was not a violation of the separate but equal clause. Brown appealed to the United State Supreme Court by using case Plessy v. Ferguson as authority. Brown argued that this segregation violated the 14th amendment for those of color. The 14th amendment is simply equal protection of the laws to the citizens of the United States. This being mentioned, even people of color, are to be protected of their rights. The important question was if public school segregation deprive children from equal education? After review, the supreme court finalized their majority opinion that it was a violation of the 14th amendment. This case had officially abolished separate but equal slogan. The supreme court had decided in favor of Oliver Brown v The Board of Education. The law regarding this issue has been changing throughout time. For instance, before segregation, we had slavery. Slavery was in our history along other laws such as the natural born citizen law. The Naturalization Act of 1970 was that anyone born in the United States are natural born citizens of the United States. Along these lines, this law was not seen as unconstitutional because the law was including the slaved individuals. According to the law of theory, natural law, was not accounted for in the Naturalization Act of 1970. Moralistically speaking, is it correct to grant citizenship for the citizens while not giving them the equal rights as a human being? When the supreme court was taking this case into consideration, they used the theory natural law. Typically, in the past instances such as Plessy v. Ferguson, the theory of Legal Positivism was used by the courts when determining their majority opinion. As for the Brown v. Board of Education case, the court had used the principles of what is right and what is wrong. They took into account the equality of opportunities that individuals are to be deserving of. A child who is born in the color of a skin out of their control should not be punished or deprived of a public education that those of another skin color receive. The natural law includes that if a law or clause is preventing society from interacting or simply being able to work together, therefore it is unjust. In this case, not being able to receive an education together in a society is unjust. This leads to other factors such as differences of education that can later affect employment requirements. To begin with, having an education from an institution of colored only would not be sufficient for an employer with a requirement of more adequate education. In other words, this would affect the future employees from working together in a society which disrupts the Natural Law. When the supreme court was deciding, they ensured to encounter present and future implications that may have resulted from different education facilities or institutions. Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly? Our editors will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!	<urn:uuid:7b864fa9-6e21-41e2-9b25-ad14b08a4a97>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/a-case-of-brown-vs-board-of-education/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00445.warc.gz	en	0.980221	727	3.65625	4	[ -0.5844981670379639, -0.34441572427749634, -0.028935261070728302, -0.4393172860145569, -0.2904505729675293, 0.19125571846961975, 0.08590714633464813, -0.14001446962356567, 0.13615462183952332, 0.25165432691574097, 0.11917227506637573, -0.033328015357255936, -0.08709710091352463, -0.0050083...	1	Supreme court cases are rarely considered as only 80 cases will be heard a year with 7000 requests according to The Leadership Conference. One important case that is important due to changing history dramatically was the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case of the United States. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Case Of Brown vs Board of Education" essay for you Brown v. Board of Education was the first case to win race-based segregation as unconstitutional. This case began when Oliver Brown filed a claim after being denied admission to a white school. Brown’s main argument in this case was that that segregation was depriving important aspects of education to children, especially those of color. During this era, there was different schools under for those of color and whites that was not a violation of the separate but equal clause. Brown appealed to the United State Supreme Court by using case Plessy v. Ferguson as authority. Brown argued that this segregation violated the 14th amendment for those of color. The 14th amendment is simply equal protection of the laws to the citizens of the United States. This being mentioned, even people of color, are to be protected of their rights. The important question was if public school segregation deprive children from equal education? After review, the supreme court finalized their majority opinion that it was a violation of the 14th amendment. This case had officially abolished separate but equal slogan. The supreme court had decided in favor of Oliver Brown v The Board of Education. The law regarding this issue has been changing throughout time. For instance, before segregation, we had slavery. Slavery was in our history along other laws such as the natural born citizen law. The Naturalization Act of 1970 was that anyone born in the United States are natural born citizens of the United States. Along these lines, this law was not seen as unconstitutional because the law was including the slaved individuals. According to the law of theory, natural law, was not accounted for in the Naturalization Act of 1970. Moralistically speaking, is it correct to grant citizenship for the citizens while not giving them the equal rights as a human being? When the supreme court was taking this case into consideration, they used the theory natural law. Typically, in the past instances such as Plessy v. Ferguson, the theory of Legal Positivism was used by the courts when determining their majority opinion. As for the Brown v. Board of Education case, the court had used the principles of what is right and what is wrong. They took into account the equality of opportunities that individuals are to be deserving of. A child who is born in the color of a skin out of their control should not be punished or deprived of a public education that those of another skin color receive. The natural law includes that if a law or clause is preventing society from interacting or simply being able to work together, therefore it is unjust. In this case, not being able to receive an education together in a society is unjust. This leads to other factors such as differences of education that can later affect employment requirements. To begin with, having an education from an institution of colored only would not be sufficient for an employer with a requirement of more adequate education. In other words, this would affect the future employees from working together in a society which disrupts the Natural Law. When the supreme court was deciding, they ensured to encounter present and future implications that may have resulted from different education facilities or institutions. Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly? Our editors will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!	738	ENGLISH	1
The Rebel Flag, the Civil War and antebellum South has always had much misinformation. This is probably due to the fact that there is an article titled: "Truth about the Confederate History". \| Being a Short Digression on the History of the Confederate Flag This article looks at the misleading information and inaccuracies that have been said. However; because there is so much information, we will discuss it here in a much smaller amount. We will first have a look at many areas of the above article about "the Rebel Flag". This means that we will have to have a look at a little history of this particular flag. First Confederate national flag: “The Stars and Bars”. This flag represented a nation and government known as: "The Confederate States of America (CSA)". This first began on the 4th of March 1861. It was like this for the first couple of years. This flag was very similar to the national flag of the U.S. ("the Stars and Stripes"). There were a couple of big red horizontal stripes on this flag. These were located on top and underneath a big white stripe. A blue canton could be seen on the top left. This contained a pattern of white stars. The stars were the same amount of states that are in the Confederacy. (Similar to the U.S. flag, extra stars were included to the design as more states joined the Confederacy). This was the flag that was best known for: "Stars and Bars". It was also the CSA's national flag that lasted until 1st of May 1863. It was never know as the Confederate battle flag. However, this is the name that is now often used. The very first Confederate national flag contained seven stars. This was a representation for the first seven states that started in the U.S. These became known as the Confederate States of America. The names of these states were: Texas, Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Florida. On the 21st of May 1861 the flag was changed. These were for the new states of Arkansas and Virginia. On the 2nd of July in 1861, two more stars were placed on the flag. These were for North Carolina and Tennessee. Yet again; two more stars were added on 28th November 1861. These stars were for Missouri and Kentucky. (The last two states did not formally become a part of the U.S. They were also never under the control of a Confederate-aligned government. However; these two states were represented in the Confederacy Congress). Confederate battle flags Towards the end of 1861, the Northern Virginian Army created a square batter flag. It came from a design that was originally rejected for the first confederacy flag. This was different to the flag of the United States. It contained a red background with a white-bordered dark blue saltire. Again; this included stars that were the same number of the states in the Confederacy. This flag soon became known to be "The Southern Cross". Later on; this soon became a rectangle shape. It soon became known as the Army of Tennessee battle flag. This included a lighter blue saltire. It was also recognized as the Second Confederacy Navy Jack from the year 1863 and beyond. The Southern Flag has just more than what we think we know -Rebel Flag. If you want to read more about the Southern Flag, just visit the site here. Related Articles - Rebel Flag, Southern Flag,	<urn:uuid:d4aa05b7-b075-43c0-bbaa-65b823b81f2b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.amazines.com/article_detail.cfm/6186133?articleid=6186133&title=Rebel%2CFlag%2CSouthern%2CFlag	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00342.warc.gz	en	0.984763	714	3.484375	3	[ -0.24715667963027954, 0.051922738552093506, 0.09953834116458893, -0.23495757579803467, 0.18364876508712769, 0.42782294750213623, -0.11195604503154755, -0.01691019907593727, 0.18895962834358215, 0.05810078978538513, 0.3481684923171997, -0.11063402891159058, -0.1674576997756958, 0.0959556028...	1	The Rebel Flag, the Civil War and antebellum South has always had much misinformation. This is probably due to the fact that there is an article titled: "Truth about the Confederate History". \| Being a Short Digression on the History of the Confederate Flag This article looks at the misleading information and inaccuracies that have been said. However; because there is so much information, we will discuss it here in a much smaller amount. We will first have a look at many areas of the above article about "the Rebel Flag". This means that we will have to have a look at a little history of this particular flag. First Confederate national flag: “The Stars and Bars”. This flag represented a nation and government known as: "The Confederate States of America (CSA)". This first began on the 4th of March 1861. It was like this for the first couple of years. This flag was very similar to the national flag of the U.S. ("the Stars and Stripes"). There were a couple of big red horizontal stripes on this flag. These were located on top and underneath a big white stripe. A blue canton could be seen on the top left. This contained a pattern of white stars. The stars were the same amount of states that are in the Confederacy. (Similar to the U.S. flag, extra stars were included to the design as more states joined the Confederacy). This was the flag that was best known for: "Stars and Bars". It was also the CSA's national flag that lasted until 1st of May 1863. It was never know as the Confederate battle flag. However, this is the name that is now often used. The very first Confederate national flag contained seven stars. This was a representation for the first seven states that started in the U.S. These became known as the Confederate States of America. The names of these states were: Texas, Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Florida. On the 21st of May 1861 the flag was changed. These were for the new states of Arkansas and Virginia. On the 2nd of July in 1861, two more stars were placed on the flag. These were for North Carolina and Tennessee. Yet again; two more stars were added on 28th November 1861. These stars were for Missouri and Kentucky. (The last two states did not formally become a part of the U.S. They were also never under the control of a Confederate-aligned government. However; these two states were represented in the Confederacy Congress). Confederate battle flags Towards the end of 1861, the Northern Virginian Army created a square batter flag. It came from a design that was originally rejected for the first confederacy flag. This was different to the flag of the United States. It contained a red background with a white-bordered dark blue saltire. Again; this included stars that were the same number of the states in the Confederacy. This flag soon became known to be "The Southern Cross". Later on; this soon became a rectangle shape. It soon became known as the Army of Tennessee battle flag. This included a lighter blue saltire. It was also recognized as the Second Confederacy Navy Jack from the year 1863 and beyond. The Southern Flag has just more than what we think we know -Rebel Flag. If you want to read more about the Southern Flag, just visit the site here. Related Articles - Rebel Flag, Southern Flag,	734	ENGLISH	1
A tragic hero was defined by Aristotle as one who makes a error of judgement that eventually leads to their own destruction. Aristotle once had said that “A man doesn’t become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall.” In William Shakespeare’s Macbeth the protagonist Macbeth is a true example of a tragic hero as he had countless noble qualities coupled with several tragic flaws. He holds an importance to his society; in the beginning a fearless nationalist, fighting for his country and then eventually he became king. Macbeth did have some major character flaws such as, his great ambition and he had made many grave errors in judgement, one of them being the murder of the King of Scotland. For the duration of events in the plot Macbeth progressively become more and more miserable. There were outside forces which contributed to his corruption; the main force would be the three witches. A Shakespearean tragic hero contains all or most of the following qualities: providing a moral example to the audience, suffering public embarrassment, and meeting his doom with courage and dignity which Macbeth did all of. With it taken into consideration, Macbeth is most definitely a tragic hero. With Macbeth becoming more important in the plot is one of the crucial reasons to why he became a tragic hero in the end. Macbeth was a Scottish general, who was a fearless man and his performance in Scotland’s battle was celebrated greatly in the beginning of the play. Macbeth’s performance was described by the Captain as “Cannons overcharged with double cracks, so the doubly redoubled strokes upon the foe” (1.2.41-42) With Macbeth doing so well and receiving such positive feedback, King Duncan couldn’t help but be so overjoyed with Macbeth. With all of the valiant news Duncan’s only response was to upgrade Macbeth’s title from Thane of Glamis to Thane of Cawdor. “No more that Thane of Cawdor shall deceive our bosom interest. Go, pronounce his present death, and with his former title greet Macbeth” (1.2.73-76); “What he hath lost, noble Macbeth hath won.” (1.2.78). Many of Macbeth’s major character flaws were displayed along with his weaknesses and serious errors in judgement in the duration of the play. After he received all the recognition from his success in battle along with his title being upgraded, the ambition he had to become king couldn’t not rise. His ambition to become King was too heavy and they overtook his morals in the end after meeting the witches’ and hearing his prophecies. When his ambition was combined with the witches’ prophecies it was as if he no longer had morals since he was easily persuaded into what he’d like to hear. When Macbeth is thinking of murdering Duncan to become King his ambition takes control for a moment, but then his morality takes back over. “Why do I yield to that suggestion whose horrid image doth unfix my hair and make my seated heart knock at my ribs against the use of nature?” (1.3.147-150). When Macbeth recognizes that he is opening up to his temptation, he begins to question himself as of why. But, he begins to persuade himself into believing that the temptation of committing murder can’t be as daunting as he thinks it is, “Present fears are less than horrible imaginings” (1.3.150-151). In layman’s term his only fear is fear itself. Macbeth is portrayed as this brave man, whose wife manipulates him by insulting and accusing him of being cowardice, which he believes he has to prove to be false. His moral decision is completely overlooked by his growing ambition when he hears of Malcolm’s succession to the throne.	<urn:uuid:2bc0becf-c983-4ee9-8122-962ccf57d6fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://myssec.com/a-tragic-hero-was-defined-by-aristotle-as-one-who-makes-a-error-of-judgement-that-eventually-leads-to-their-own-destruction/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00505.warc.gz	en	0.988729	831	3.65625	4	[ -0.28616687655448914, 0.065904900431633, 0.2708919942378998, -0.019745612516999245, -0.6834582686424255, -0.4093514084815979, 0.7998713850975037, 0.3197363018989563, -0.10809829086065292, 0.04578671604394913, -0.05187056586146355, -0.4512189030647278, 0.19198977947235107, 0.306092917919158...	3	A tragic hero was defined by Aristotle as one who makes a error of judgement that eventually leads to their own destruction. Aristotle once had said that “A man doesn’t become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall.” In William Shakespeare’s Macbeth the protagonist Macbeth is a true example of a tragic hero as he had countless noble qualities coupled with several tragic flaws. He holds an importance to his society; in the beginning a fearless nationalist, fighting for his country and then eventually he became king. Macbeth did have some major character flaws such as, his great ambition and he had made many grave errors in judgement, one of them being the murder of the King of Scotland. For the duration of events in the plot Macbeth progressively become more and more miserable. There were outside forces which contributed to his corruption; the main force would be the three witches. A Shakespearean tragic hero contains all or most of the following qualities: providing a moral example to the audience, suffering public embarrassment, and meeting his doom with courage and dignity which Macbeth did all of. With it taken into consideration, Macbeth is most definitely a tragic hero. With Macbeth becoming more important in the plot is one of the crucial reasons to why he became a tragic hero in the end. Macbeth was a Scottish general, who was a fearless man and his performance in Scotland’s battle was celebrated greatly in the beginning of the play. Macbeth’s performance was described by the Captain as “Cannons overcharged with double cracks, so the doubly redoubled strokes upon the foe” (1.2.41-42) With Macbeth doing so well and receiving such positive feedback, King Duncan couldn’t help but be so overjoyed with Macbeth. With all of the valiant news Duncan’s only response was to upgrade Macbeth’s title from Thane of Glamis to Thane of Cawdor. “No more that Thane of Cawdor shall deceive our bosom interest. Go, pronounce his present death, and with his former title greet Macbeth” (1.2.73-76); “What he hath lost, noble Macbeth hath won.” (1.2.78). Many of Macbeth’s major character flaws were displayed along with his weaknesses and serious errors in judgement in the duration of the play. After he received all the recognition from his success in battle along with his title being upgraded, the ambition he had to become king couldn’t not rise. His ambition to become King was too heavy and they overtook his morals in the end after meeting the witches’ and hearing his prophecies. When his ambition was combined with the witches’ prophecies it was as if he no longer had morals since he was easily persuaded into what he’d like to hear. When Macbeth is thinking of murdering Duncan to become King his ambition takes control for a moment, but then his morality takes back over. “Why do I yield to that suggestion whose horrid image doth unfix my hair and make my seated heart knock at my ribs against the use of nature?” (1.3.147-150). When Macbeth recognizes that he is opening up to his temptation, he begins to question himself as of why. But, he begins to persuade himself into believing that the temptation of committing murder can’t be as daunting as he thinks it is, “Present fears are less than horrible imaginings” (1.3.150-151). In layman’s term his only fear is fear itself. Macbeth is portrayed as this brave man, whose wife manipulates him by insulting and accusing him of being cowardice, which he believes he has to prove to be false. His moral decision is completely overlooked by his growing ambition when he hears of Malcolm’s succession to the throne.	784	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (950 words) Sophocles presents us with two men in the Oedipus Cycle, Oedipus, and his uncle Creon. Both are rulers of Thebes and share in their similarities as kings, fathers, and deservers of their fate; yet their similarities are few, while their differences number. Although Oedipus and Creon share these similarities: political, familial and religious (that is to say their gods and fate) their lives are quite different. As kings, they both become rulers of Thebes by a twist of fate. Oedipus kills the sphinx and becomes king. After his exile, his sons kill each other, leaving Creon king. Both have sons that disrespect them. Oedipus’s sons turn a blind eye as he is banished from Thebes. “These were the two / who saw me in disgrace and banishment/ and never lifted a hand for me” (Oedipus Rex: 108). Haimon threatens Creon’s life and vows that Creon will never see him again. “And you will never see my face again. / Go on raving as long as you’ve a friend to endure / you” (Antigone: 223). He even goes so far as to call his father perverse. “If you were not my father, / I’d say you were perverse” (Antigone: 222). They both upset the gods when they act out of necessity. Oedipus has to kill Laios or be killed. Creon treats Polyneices like a traitor should by refusing him his right to be buried. Their differences, now, as kings, are that Oedipus rules the people of Thebes with love, as a father might his children, love. The Thebans love and respect him as well. “You see how all the ages of our people / Cling to you altar steps; … Yet we have come to you to make our prayer / As to the man surest in mortal ways / And wisest in the ways of God… Noblest of men, restore / Life to your city” (Oedipus Rex: 4-5)! Creon, however, does not have the love and respect of the Thebans. Haimon says as much: Your temper terrifies them – everyone Will tell you only what you like to hear… They say no woman has ever, so unreasonably, Died so shameful a death for a generous act: ‘She covered her brother’s body. Is this indecent? She kept him from dogs and vultures. Is this a Crime? Death? – She should have all the honor that we Can give her! ‘ This is the way they talk out there in the city. (Antigone: 218-219) Haimon tells his father that the people of Thebes disagree greatly with his edict and his punishment of Antigone. So much so that even the son of the king hears some of their whispering. As a father, Oedipus begets children by his own mother; thus, his children are his siblings as well. Creon’s son, Haimon, is just that, his son. He is not his father’s brother as well. Those of Oedipus children who were present when he died cried and lamented his death. “I wish that charnel Hell would take me / In one death with our father. / This is such desolation / I cannot go on living” (Oedipus at Colonus: 168). Creon’s son, toward the end, despises his father so much that he takes his own life. “But Haimon spat in his face. He said not a word, / Staring — / And suddenly drew his sword / And lunged. Creon shrank back, the blade missed; / and the boy, / Desperate against himself, drove it half its length / Into his own side, and fell” (Antigone: 241). , Rather than endure, again, what his father has thus far put him through, he dies with Antigone’s corpse in his arms. In their fate lies yet another difference. Oedipus kills his father because he stands to get run over by Laios. He marries his mother because, as the man who solves the riddle of the sphinx, he is the savior of Thebes and is given to the widowed queen, Iocasta, as a husband. He fathers children by her because it is his duty, as well as hers, to provide heirs to the kingdom. He does not know that the acts he commits are serious moral sins until the final scene of Oedipus Rex. Therefore, he does not deserve the fate to walk, as the man in the sphinx’s riddle, with a third leg, his cane. Creon knows the Greeks Thanatopsis or, view on death. He knows the ritual of burying the dead. That is why his sin, refusing to bury Polyneices, is so terrible. He knows this will doom Polyneices to never descend to the underworld and his final resting place. It is not until his exchange with Teiresias and the Choragus that he realizes his error, and by then it is to late. “Come with me to the tomb. I buried her, I / Will set her free. / Oh quickly! / My mind misgives — / The laws of the gods are mighty, and a man must / serve them / To the last day of his life” (Antigone: 236)! And therein lies the dynamic. Two men of the same bloodline, alike in their actions and intent, but differing in fate; as magnets of different poles are driven by the same force, so too are the decisions of Oedipus and Creon. Their goal is the same: the betterment of Thebes. And, as those two magnets are opposites, these men are opposites: in life and fate. “Fate, it seems, is not without a sense of Irony. ” (Morpheus to Neo in The Matrix) Two Guys, a Kingdom, and a Nasty Fate By: Dustin McCrory ENGL 1159 Sec. 159 Kay Murphy Paper # 3 March 18, 2001. Cite this page The Oedipus Cycle. (2017, Aug 16). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-oedipus-cycle-essay	<urn:uuid:3a409ded-e7e2-4a8f-a126-71270a3544b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/the-oedipus-cycle-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00442.warc.gz	en	0.982369	1,399	3.5625	4	[ -0.21190258860588074, 0.2854340672492981, -0.11491207778453827, -0.2694924473762512, -0.08840329945087433, -0.14098520576953888, 0.4896466135978699, 0.4951706826686859, -0.10094814002513885, -0.2787097692489624, -0.19064044952392578, -0.2507193684577942, 0.3338657021522522, -0.150922179222...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (950 words) Sophocles presents us with two men in the Oedipus Cycle, Oedipus, and his uncle Creon. Both are rulers of Thebes and share in their similarities as kings, fathers, and deservers of their fate; yet their similarities are few, while their differences number. Although Oedipus and Creon share these similarities: political, familial and religious (that is to say their gods and fate) their lives are quite different. As kings, they both become rulers of Thebes by a twist of fate. Oedipus kills the sphinx and becomes king. After his exile, his sons kill each other, leaving Creon king. Both have sons that disrespect them. Oedipus’s sons turn a blind eye as he is banished from Thebes. “These were the two / who saw me in disgrace and banishment/ and never lifted a hand for me” (Oedipus Rex: 108). Haimon threatens Creon’s life and vows that Creon will never see him again. “And you will never see my face again. / Go on raving as long as you’ve a friend to endure / you” (Antigone: 223). He even goes so far as to call his father perverse. “If you were not my father, / I’d say you were perverse” (Antigone: 222). They both upset the gods when they act out of necessity. Oedipus has to kill Laios or be killed. Creon treats Polyneices like a traitor should by refusing him his right to be buried. Their differences, now, as kings, are that Oedipus rules the people of Thebes with love, as a father might his children, love. The Thebans love and respect him as well. “You see how all the ages of our people / Cling to you altar steps; … Yet we have come to you to make our prayer / As to the man surest in mortal ways / And wisest in the ways of God… Noblest of men, restore / Life to your city” (Oedipus Rex: 4-5)! Creon, however, does not have the love and respect of the Thebans. Haimon says as much: Your temper terrifies them – everyone Will tell you only what you like to hear… They say no woman has ever, so unreasonably, Died so shameful a death for a generous act: ‘She covered her brother’s body. Is this indecent? She kept him from dogs and vultures. Is this a Crime? Death? – She should have all the honor that we Can give her! ‘ This is the way they talk out there in the city. (Antigone: 218-219) Haimon tells his father that the people of Thebes disagree greatly with his edict and his punishment of Antigone. So much so that even the son of the king hears some of their whispering. As a father, Oedipus begets children by his own mother; thus, his children are his siblings as well. Creon’s son, Haimon, is just that, his son. He is not his father’s brother as well. Those of Oedipus children who were present when he died cried and lamented his death. “I wish that charnel Hell would take me / In one death with our father. / This is such desolation / I cannot go on living” (Oedipus at Colonus: 168). Creon’s son, toward the end, despises his father so much that he takes his own life. “But Haimon spat in his face. He said not a word, / Staring — / And suddenly drew his sword / And lunged. Creon shrank back, the blade missed; / and the boy, / Desperate against himself, drove it half its length / Into his own side, and fell” (Antigone: 241). , Rather than endure, again, what his father has thus far put him through, he dies with Antigone’s corpse in his arms. In their fate lies yet another difference. Oedipus kills his father because he stands to get run over by Laios. He marries his mother because, as the man who solves the riddle of the sphinx, he is the savior of Thebes and is given to the widowed queen, Iocasta, as a husband. He fathers children by her because it is his duty, as well as hers, to provide heirs to the kingdom. He does not know that the acts he commits are serious moral sins until the final scene of Oedipus Rex. Therefore, he does not deserve the fate to walk, as the man in the sphinx’s riddle, with a third leg, his cane. Creon knows the Greeks Thanatopsis or, view on death. He knows the ritual of burying the dead. That is why his sin, refusing to bury Polyneices, is so terrible. He knows this will doom Polyneices to never descend to the underworld and his final resting place. It is not until his exchange with Teiresias and the Choragus that he realizes his error, and by then it is to late. “Come with me to the tomb. I buried her, I / Will set her free. / Oh quickly! / My mind misgives — / The laws of the gods are mighty, and a man must / serve them / To the last day of his life” (Antigone: 236)! And therein lies the dynamic. Two men of the same bloodline, alike in their actions and intent, but differing in fate; as magnets of different poles are driven by the same force, so too are the decisions of Oedipus and Creon. Their goal is the same: the betterment of Thebes. And, as those two magnets are opposites, these men are opposites: in life and fate. “Fate, it seems, is not without a sense of Irony. ” (Morpheus to Neo in The Matrix) Two Guys, a Kingdom, and a Nasty Fate By: Dustin McCrory ENGL 1159 Sec. 159 Kay Murphy Paper # 3 March 18, 2001. Cite this page The Oedipus Cycle. (2017, Aug 16). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-oedipus-cycle-essay	1,394	ENGLISH	1
Founding and the Sputnik crisis NASA was preceded by the "House[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]]" (NACA). NACA was a US federal agency founded on March 3, 1915 to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. On October 1, 1958 the agency was dissolved, and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NASA was founded to compete with the Soviet Union in the space race. In the 1950s and 1960s there was a space race between the US and the Soviet Union - now called Russia. The Soviets started first launching Sputnik 1, the first object made by people to go into orbit, in October 1957. The Americans were worried by this. It caused a crisis known as the Sputnik Crisis as the Americans feared the Russians might start building weapons in space. This all happened at a time called the Cold War when the USA and the Soviet Union were always very close to war.	<urn:uuid:fd6a06e5-6305-4392-ac0c-062664ba5f14>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wikiplanet.click/enciclopedia/simple/NASA	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00261.warc.gz	en	0.982599	207	3.375	3	[ -0.14806629717350006, 0.0976085364818573, 0.03034099191427231, 0.020991500467061996, -0.31665679812431335, 0.26768583059310913, -0.08164452761411667, 0.4673389196395874, -0.023800088092684746, -0.0171365849673748, 0.18636533617973328, -0.4185672104358673, 0.1399524211883545, 0.486392199993...	1	Founding and the Sputnik crisis NASA was preceded by the "House[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]]" (NACA). NACA was a US federal agency founded on March 3, 1915 to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. On October 1, 1958 the agency was dissolved, and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NASA was founded to compete with the Soviet Union in the space race. In the 1950s and 1960s there was a space race between the US and the Soviet Union - now called Russia. The Soviets started first launching Sputnik 1, the first object made by people to go into orbit, in October 1957. The Americans were worried by this. It caused a crisis known as the Sputnik Crisis as the Americans feared the Russians might start building weapons in space. This all happened at a time called the Cold War when the USA and the Soviet Union were always very close to war.	229	ENGLISH	1
STEP 1: LISTEN TO THE AUDIO STEP 2: STUDY VOCABULARY Our class took a field trip to the zoo last week. My mom was a chaperone. We rode the school bus. I sat with a friend on the bus. My mom sat with the teacher. Each student got a name tag. The zoo was crowded. There were other schools there. We saw many animals. I even saw an ostrich. I really wanted to see a tiger and an elephant. They are my favorite animals. I waited for the tiger, but it never came out. The zoo guide said it was asleep. I was so disappointed. I finally saw an elephant. It was huge. My mom took a picture of it. She took pictures of all the animals. I really enjoy learning about different animals. I think I want to be a veterinarian or a zookeeper one day. I have a desire to take care of them. We have a dog at home. I want to get a cat, but my mom is allergic to them. They make her sneeze. My mom printed all of the pictures for me. I made a scrapbook of all the animals. I labeled each picture. I want to keep it forever. Watch a slide show of all the vocabulary words in this lesson. If you would like more vocabulary practice, go to the vocabulary flashcard page and study each word separately. After studying the vocabulary, practice speaking in the next ESL study session.	<urn:uuid:d4210ffb-239a-4897-9fc1-0930bb70d9a9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://skesl.com/esl/lesson/visit-zoo	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00153.warc.gz	en	0.985832	306	3.46875	3	[ -0.2239258885383606, -0.07140889763832092, 0.29236525297164917, 0.08542470633983612, -0.38552621006965637, 0.12801307439804077, 0.4434812366962433, 0.14744409918785095, 0.03410971537232399, 0.0516098290681839, 0.07798062264919281, -0.41185638308525085, 0.06460941582918167, 0.39583665132522...	3	STEP 1: LISTEN TO THE AUDIO STEP 2: STUDY VOCABULARY Our class took a field trip to the zoo last week. My mom was a chaperone. We rode the school bus. I sat with a friend on the bus. My mom sat with the teacher. Each student got a name tag. The zoo was crowded. There were other schools there. We saw many animals. I even saw an ostrich. I really wanted to see a tiger and an elephant. They are my favorite animals. I waited for the tiger, but it never came out. The zoo guide said it was asleep. I was so disappointed. I finally saw an elephant. It was huge. My mom took a picture of it. She took pictures of all the animals. I really enjoy learning about different animals. I think I want to be a veterinarian or a zookeeper one day. I have a desire to take care of them. We have a dog at home. I want to get a cat, but my mom is allergic to them. They make her sneeze. My mom printed all of the pictures for me. I made a scrapbook of all the animals. I labeled each picture. I want to keep it forever. Watch a slide show of all the vocabulary words in this lesson. If you would like more vocabulary practice, go to the vocabulary flashcard page and study each word separately. After studying the vocabulary, practice speaking in the next ESL study session.	303	ENGLISH	1
Episodes & Studies Volume 1 The Italian Armistice The Italian Armistice PRISONERS of war in Italy waited with eager expectancy for the Allied armies to drive up the peninsula and set them free. An exceedingly sanguine view of the situation was general, and at the Armistice this optimism helped to prevent some getting away who afterwards were taken to Germany. One prisoner wrote ‘we had a grandstand view of the collapse of a nation. If ever a country got poetic justice I suppose Italy did.’ It was satisfactory enough at the fall of Mussolini to see the bombastic symbols of Fascism being publicly effaced. When the axe and rods were being wrenched off a small bridge, the Italians accorded a prisoner-of-war worker standing by the privilege of dropping the emblem into the water. But the overthrow of Fascism did not mean that Italy had yet changed sides. With the disintegration of Italian resistance the situation became more and more confused. Mussolini’s fall, celebrated so freely by the general population, left prisoners of war carrying on as usual and in some camps was the signal for new vigilance and intensive searches in which all surplus Red Cross food was confiscated. In some camps, to prevent the accumulation of supplies for escape, Red Cross parcels were no longer issued weekly but at the rate of one-seventh each day. At the news of the Armistice most camp commandants told their prisoners that they would release them in good time ‘if the Germans came’; alternatively, they and their men would defend the prisoners against the Germans. Practically none of them, whether from faint-heartedness, treachery, or sheer inefficiency, kept this bargain. In some cases these fulsome promises must have been deliberately intended to deceive prisoners and keep them inside the wire until the German troops arrived to collect them. As for the prisoners themselves, messages sent out by the War Office in code to the Senior British Officer in each camp had ordered that, should peace be declared, everyone was to remain in camp as a special organisation would arrive by plane to take over every camp. In spite of personal misgivings the Senior British Officers passed on these orders, though some afterwards released men from obeying them. This policy of the British authorities has been sharply criticised by former prisoners of war: ‘It had been a ghastly blunder …. Thousands of men had been cheated of the freedom they had so anxiously awaited for so long.’* But many never had the shadow of a choice. The circumstances at each camp at the Armistice varied considerably. Some were entirely deserted by their guards, who flung away their rifles, climbed into civilian clothes, and disappeared homewards. In these and other camps there were mass escapes. In one instance the prisoners took over their guards’ quarters and lived in them until the Germans rounded them up. In another camp, the prisoners were warned by civilians that the Germans were close and they were able to disperse into the countryside. In some camps the Carabinieri remained faithful to what they conceived to be their duty and kept their prisoners until they could hand them over to the Germans. In many camps a number of the prisoners left hurriedly when the Germans were within sight. The adventures of those who escaped at the Italian Armistice are told elsewhere. Nobody could have foreseen exactly how the events would shape themselves. Those who got away did not do so solely because they could think quickly; they also had good luck. In many camps escape was impossible, and their inmates, embittered and disappointed, had no choice but to go to Germany. * The Way Out, by Uys Krige (Collins), p. 181.	<urn:uuid:0ce53ca0-d077-4841-8076-121735c73543>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Epi-c12-WH2-1Epi-i.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00511.warc.gz	en	0.986207	765	3.265625	3	[ -0.32056480646133423, 0.49390068650245667, 0.15366458892822266, 0.0023966822773218155, -0.16549932956695557, 0.14735832810401917, 0.022481828927993774, -0.013855700381100178, 0.2745435833930969, -0.2572018802165985, -0.011840132996439934, -0.10418745875358582, 0.3021116256713867, 0.8660230...	5	Episodes & Studies Volume 1 The Italian Armistice The Italian Armistice PRISONERS of war in Italy waited with eager expectancy for the Allied armies to drive up the peninsula and set them free. An exceedingly sanguine view of the situation was general, and at the Armistice this optimism helped to prevent some getting away who afterwards were taken to Germany. One prisoner wrote ‘we had a grandstand view of the collapse of a nation. If ever a country got poetic justice I suppose Italy did.’ It was satisfactory enough at the fall of Mussolini to see the bombastic symbols of Fascism being publicly effaced. When the axe and rods were being wrenched off a small bridge, the Italians accorded a prisoner-of-war worker standing by the privilege of dropping the emblem into the water. But the overthrow of Fascism did not mean that Italy had yet changed sides. With the disintegration of Italian resistance the situation became more and more confused. Mussolini’s fall, celebrated so freely by the general population, left prisoners of war carrying on as usual and in some camps was the signal for new vigilance and intensive searches in which all surplus Red Cross food was confiscated. In some camps, to prevent the accumulation of supplies for escape, Red Cross parcels were no longer issued weekly but at the rate of one-seventh each day. At the news of the Armistice most camp commandants told their prisoners that they would release them in good time ‘if the Germans came’; alternatively, they and their men would defend the prisoners against the Germans. Practically none of them, whether from faint-heartedness, treachery, or sheer inefficiency, kept this bargain. In some cases these fulsome promises must have been deliberately intended to deceive prisoners and keep them inside the wire until the German troops arrived to collect them. As for the prisoners themselves, messages sent out by the War Office in code to the Senior British Officer in each camp had ordered that, should peace be declared, everyone was to remain in camp as a special organisation would arrive by plane to take over every camp. In spite of personal misgivings the Senior British Officers passed on these orders, though some afterwards released men from obeying them. This policy of the British authorities has been sharply criticised by former prisoners of war: ‘It had been a ghastly blunder …. Thousands of men had been cheated of the freedom they had so anxiously awaited for so long.’* But many never had the shadow of a choice. The circumstances at each camp at the Armistice varied considerably. Some were entirely deserted by their guards, who flung away their rifles, climbed into civilian clothes, and disappeared homewards. In these and other camps there were mass escapes. In one instance the prisoners took over their guards’ quarters and lived in them until the Germans rounded them up. In another camp, the prisoners were warned by civilians that the Germans were close and they were able to disperse into the countryside. In some camps the Carabinieri remained faithful to what they conceived to be their duty and kept their prisoners until they could hand them over to the Germans. In many camps a number of the prisoners left hurriedly when the Germans were within sight. The adventures of those who escaped at the Italian Armistice are told elsewhere. Nobody could have foreseen exactly how the events would shape themselves. Those who got away did not do so solely because they could think quickly; they also had good luck. In many camps escape was impossible, and their inmates, embittered and disappointed, had no choice but to go to Germany. * The Way Out, by Uys Krige (Collins), p. 181.	752	ENGLISH	1
Comparing Confucianism And Buddhism And Confucianism Essay example Two of the three major region in China are Buddhism and Confucianism. Confucianism and Buddhism have had a huge impact in China. They are not only a way of thinking, but they also are a way of life. Confucianism and Buddhism both have a yearning to reach an ultimate harmony, in which each individual can live ethically, however their method and focus to reach this harmony differs considerably. Confucius created Confucianism during the Warring States era. Confucius was born into a royal family of the Zhou Dynasty. Confucius‘s had a difficult early life; his father died when he was three years old, and he was raised by his mom in poverty. When he was 17 years old, his mom died. He worked in various government positions during his early 20’s, and he also got a job taking care of horses and sheep. When he was 23 years old, he started teaching in the countryside. He became a philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. He was also a Chinese teacher, editor, and politician. Confucius taught that a person’s well-being depended on order and morality. The main values of Confucianism is humane, honest, and remission. And the basic virtue is humane. People try to get all these character…	<urn:uuid:3f1b6329-28c2-413d-801d-28cf4032cbb6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/Comparing-Confucianism-And-Buddhism-And-Confucianism/PKRZMT9G644X	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00242.warc.gz	en	0.991024	294	3.265625	3	[ -0.37164074182510376, -0.05825598165392876, 0.18752826750278473, -0.29620590806007385, -0.2249051183462143, 0.35913023352622986, 0.24234768748283386, 0.07395710796117783, 0.04868549853563309, -0.3085523545742035, 0.19095192849636078, -0.26756811141967773, 0.4984695017337799, 0.270192980766...	1	Comparing Confucianism And Buddhism And Confucianism Essay example Two of the three major region in China are Buddhism and Confucianism. Confucianism and Buddhism have had a huge impact in China. They are not only a way of thinking, but they also are a way of life. Confucianism and Buddhism both have a yearning to reach an ultimate harmony, in which each individual can live ethically, however their method and focus to reach this harmony differs considerably. Confucius created Confucianism during the Warring States era. Confucius was born into a royal family of the Zhou Dynasty. Confucius‘s had a difficult early life; his father died when he was three years old, and he was raised by his mom in poverty. When he was 17 years old, his mom died. He worked in various government positions during his early 20’s, and he also got a job taking care of horses and sheep. When he was 23 years old, he started teaching in the countryside. He became a philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. He was also a Chinese teacher, editor, and politician. Confucius taught that a person’s well-being depended on order and morality. The main values of Confucianism is humane, honest, and remission. And the basic virtue is humane. People try to get all these character…	291	ENGLISH	1
Hittites and Egyptians made the first written peace treaty in the history on that landscape. Pharaoh Ramses II and Hittite King Muvattali had a war in Khades city so this war ended with this treaty in BC 1274. The most outstanding event was that Hattusili III signed this treaty because Hittite king Muvattali was killed in an uprising during Khades war. Also Hittite queen signed it. This is the first peace treaty that was documented. It was printed on silver tablet,too.Real texts of the treaty are missing. One of the replicas was found in Hattusa ancient site that was the capital of Hittites. It is exhibited in Istanbul Archaeological Museum. The other replica is on the wall of Egyptian temple and the third replica was hung on the wall of UN building today. If it had been possible to witness this event, it would have been great experience. Did they think that it could be so valuable?	<urn:uuid:d0c41f6b-b000-4cdb-b62a-6a8104165ac9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://amateurtourismvolunteer.com/2019/03/14/silver-treaty-the-first-written-peace-treaty-in-the-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00235.warc.gz	en	0.984147	200	4.15625	4	[ -0.5096421837806702, 0.6110227704048157, 0.585748016834259, -0.07838820666074753, -0.5756485462188721, -0.3596670627593994, 0.35377731919288635, 0.08409382402896881, -0.1483374685049057, 0.14015473425388336, -0.25709643959999084, -0.6925962567329407, 0.09579102694988251, 0.3289248347282409...	5	Hittites and Egyptians made the first written peace treaty in the history on that landscape. Pharaoh Ramses II and Hittite King Muvattali had a war in Khades city so this war ended with this treaty in BC 1274. The most outstanding event was that Hattusili III signed this treaty because Hittite king Muvattali was killed in an uprising during Khades war. Also Hittite queen signed it. This is the first peace treaty that was documented. It was printed on silver tablet,too.Real texts of the treaty are missing. One of the replicas was found in Hattusa ancient site that was the capital of Hittites. It is exhibited in Istanbul Archaeological Museum. The other replica is on the wall of Egyptian temple and the third replica was hung on the wall of UN building today. If it had been possible to witness this event, it would have been great experience. Did they think that it could be so valuable?	202	ENGLISH	1
Elie is by Elie Wiesel, and is called Elie Wiesel’ Night/Auschwitz Presentation The book that I choose to read for our WWII project is by Elie Wiesel, and is called Night. Night is a true story about Elie and his family being sent to a concentration camp called Auschwitz where Elie is forced to suffer with hundreds of thousands of Jews for simply being Jewish. Night is an account of Elie’s life in Auschwitz. It tells you the horrific truth that it is difficult to find online. My diorama is a scene at Auschwitz minutes after the train ride. Females were sent one direction males the other. No exceptions. If you tried to go to the other gender’s side to stay with your family, you would be shot. Families were torn apart. People were sent either to the male camp, or the female camp, and if you didn’t comply, you would be dead in mere seconds.I choose to research Auschwitz-Birkenau because in Night, Elie is sent to Auschwitz after a train ride, and must leave his sisters and mother. Auschwitz was a terrible place that never should have existed. Auschwitz’s construction began in April of 1940 and opened in May of 1940, so it only took them one month from the time that they started building to the time that people began arriving. The first people that were sent to Auschwitz were people that were political prisoners, which means people that used to be people with power like our president, and were against the Nazis, but later during WWII Adolf Hitler decided isolating the Jews in ghettos was not enough. He decided that he must go with the “Final Solution” which was making the race of Jews go completely extinct by sending them to concentration camps like Auschwitz. One of the main reasons that Auschwitz became the most feared concentration camp is because it was a center of the road and railroad in Poland so the Nazis were able to easily make it a concentration camp and be able to send millions of Jews there. Only 1,050 of the 7,000 people who worked at Auschwitz were later convicted for war crimes, and out of the 1,050 only those that were running Auschwitz were later convicted of war crimes. Only 135,000 out of the 1,095,000 people sent to Auschwitz survived. People didn’t fight back when going into the gas chambers because they were told that they were simply going to have a disinfecting shower. Most of the remaining prisoners in 1945 were killed in the death march where everyone that wasn’t currently dying in the hospital was forced to run for 39 miles in a row without stopping because the Nazis wanted to kill them before the Soviet Union arrived. Auschwitz was a very powerful and moving topic to research, as well as Night a book to read.	<urn:uuid:ad8bab8b-5014-4e8e-8a22-3634a72aaff1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://weatherbird.net/elie-is-by-elie-wiesel-and-is-called/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00459.warc.gz	en	0.991174	577	3.4375	3	[ -0.20887714624404907, 0.6466087698936462, 0.07663451135158539, 0.21505126357078552, 0.000957541516982019, 0.24193865060806274, 0.23215605318546295, 0.20764508843421936, 0.004780241288244724, -0.11193947494029999, 0.2787070870399475, -0.053458280861377716, -0.421487957239151, 0.278468698263...	1	Elie is by Elie Wiesel, and is called Elie Wiesel’ Night/Auschwitz Presentation The book that I choose to read for our WWII project is by Elie Wiesel, and is called Night. Night is a true story about Elie and his family being sent to a concentration camp called Auschwitz where Elie is forced to suffer with hundreds of thousands of Jews for simply being Jewish. Night is an account of Elie’s life in Auschwitz. It tells you the horrific truth that it is difficult to find online. My diorama is a scene at Auschwitz minutes after the train ride. Females were sent one direction males the other. No exceptions. If you tried to go to the other gender’s side to stay with your family, you would be shot. Families were torn apart. People were sent either to the male camp, or the female camp, and if you didn’t comply, you would be dead in mere seconds.I choose to research Auschwitz-Birkenau because in Night, Elie is sent to Auschwitz after a train ride, and must leave his sisters and mother. Auschwitz was a terrible place that never should have existed. Auschwitz’s construction began in April of 1940 and opened in May of 1940, so it only took them one month from the time that they started building to the time that people began arriving. The first people that were sent to Auschwitz were people that were political prisoners, which means people that used to be people with power like our president, and were against the Nazis, but later during WWII Adolf Hitler decided isolating the Jews in ghettos was not enough. He decided that he must go with the “Final Solution” which was making the race of Jews go completely extinct by sending them to concentration camps like Auschwitz. One of the main reasons that Auschwitz became the most feared concentration camp is because it was a center of the road and railroad in Poland so the Nazis were able to easily make it a concentration camp and be able to send millions of Jews there. Only 1,050 of the 7,000 people who worked at Auschwitz were later convicted for war crimes, and out of the 1,050 only those that were running Auschwitz were later convicted of war crimes. Only 135,000 out of the 1,095,000 people sent to Auschwitz survived. People didn’t fight back when going into the gas chambers because they were told that they were simply going to have a disinfecting shower. Most of the remaining prisoners in 1945 were killed in the death march where everyone that wasn’t currently dying in the hospital was forced to run for 39 miles in a row without stopping because the Nazis wanted to kill them before the Soviet Union arrived. Auschwitz was a very powerful and moving topic to research, as well as Night a book to read.	593	ENGLISH	1
Isis was the Egyptian goddess of childbirth and motherhood. She represented motherly virtues. Common people related to her, but she was also associated with royalty (her name means “throne”). Isis was one of the oldest and most important of ancient Egypt’s gods and goddesses. Her popularity reached as far as Europe during the time of the Roman Empire, and she is still worshiped by pagans today. Her name appears for the first time in the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2498 – c. 2345 BC) in the sun temple of King Niuserre. The first temple dedicated specifically to her was built in the Thirtieth Dynasty (380 – 343 BC) by King Nectanebo II. What makes Isis so important is that, as a member of the Heliopolitan Ennead, she was closely associated with other prominent ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses. She was the daughter of Neb (earth) and Nut (sky), sister and wife of Osiris, sister of Set-Nephtys, and sister and wife of Horus. As the wife of Horus, the god of kings, Isis was represented as the deceased pharaoh’s wife during the Old Kingdom. Her name appears in the Pyramid Texts more than eighty times. One of the best known images of Isis is as the mother of Horus. She was often depicted with Horus the Child on her lap, supposedly nursing him. These images are said, by some, to have influenced early Christian artwork of the Virgin Mary and the baby Jesus. Some of the earliest art works of Isis show her wearing a long sheath dress with a throne headdress. In other depictions, she has the cow’s horns and sun disk of Hathor on her head. While Isis was mostly depicted as a woman with either a throne or cow’s horns and sun disc on her head, she was occasionally also presented as a winged goddess, sow, a bird, a cobra, or a scorpion. Sometimes she was even depicted as a kite hovering over the body of Osiris. Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, is associated with Isis. Its appearance signaled the coming of a new year, with Isis likewise symbolizing rebirth. Powers & Duties Isis’s principal aspect was that of magician. Her magical prowess was far stronger than that of any other god or goddess. Isis’s priestesses and priests were midwives and healers. They were rumored to have magical powers. It was believed that they controlled the weather by braiding or not combing their hair. (Ancient Egyptians believed that knots had magical powers). After Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, Isis became known as the Queen of Heaven and was equated with Greek goddesses such as Aphrodite, Demeter, and Astarte. The myth of Isis is one of the most popular in ancient Egyptian mythology. In it, Isis was a good queen to Osiris and an example to the women of Egypt. Set became jealous and killed Osiris by trapping him in a lead coated chest and throwing him into the Nile. Isis found Osiris after a long search, but Set hacked the body into pieces and scattered it all over Egypt. With the help of Nephtys, Isis put her husband’s body back together, except for his penis that remained missing. However, she became pregnant using her magical powers and gave birth to Horus nine months later. Facts About Isis - It was believed that the annual flooding of the Nile was a result of the tears wept by Isis after Osiris was killed by Set; - Isis was at one stage represented as the Four Sons of Horus. They were the four gods responsible for protecting the late pharaoh’s internal organs. Her role as protector grew over time to include not only the dead, but also living noblemen and the general population; - The Book of the Dead describes Isis as “she who gives birth to heaven and earth, knows the orphan, knows the widow, seeks justice for the poor, and shelter for the weak”; - Due to her association with Horus, Isis also became the eye of Ra when the two gods merged as Ra-Horakhty; - The worship of Isis spread throughout the Roman Empire during the first centuries of Christianity. This was evident in wall paintings and objects found at Pompeii, among other places; Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Isis: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	<urn:uuid:04397b74-7897-49b3-b63f-9dd4d9ac56aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com/egyptian/isis/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00125.warc.gz	en	0.983414	981	3.5625	4	[ 0.07136479020118713, 0.7009931206703186, -0.12210040539503098, -0.028392644599080086, -0.5720065832138062, 0.19541382789611816, 0.27518463134765625, 0.17240595817565918, 0.38257846236228943, 0.047361768782138824, -0.25579726696014404, -0.5201879739761353, -0.2317368984222412, 0.16806751489...	1	Isis was the Egyptian goddess of childbirth and motherhood. She represented motherly virtues. Common people related to her, but she was also associated with royalty (her name means “throne”). Isis was one of the oldest and most important of ancient Egypt’s gods and goddesses. Her popularity reached as far as Europe during the time of the Roman Empire, and she is still worshiped by pagans today. Her name appears for the first time in the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2498 – c. 2345 BC) in the sun temple of King Niuserre. The first temple dedicated specifically to her was built in the Thirtieth Dynasty (380 – 343 BC) by King Nectanebo II. What makes Isis so important is that, as a member of the Heliopolitan Ennead, she was closely associated with other prominent ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses. She was the daughter of Neb (earth) and Nut (sky), sister and wife of Osiris, sister of Set-Nephtys, and sister and wife of Horus. As the wife of Horus, the god of kings, Isis was represented as the deceased pharaoh’s wife during the Old Kingdom. Her name appears in the Pyramid Texts more than eighty times. One of the best known images of Isis is as the mother of Horus. She was often depicted with Horus the Child on her lap, supposedly nursing him. These images are said, by some, to have influenced early Christian artwork of the Virgin Mary and the baby Jesus. Some of the earliest art works of Isis show her wearing a long sheath dress with a throne headdress. In other depictions, she has the cow’s horns and sun disk of Hathor on her head. While Isis was mostly depicted as a woman with either a throne or cow’s horns and sun disc on her head, she was occasionally also presented as a winged goddess, sow, a bird, a cobra, or a scorpion. Sometimes she was even depicted as a kite hovering over the body of Osiris. Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, is associated with Isis. Its appearance signaled the coming of a new year, with Isis likewise symbolizing rebirth. Powers & Duties Isis’s principal aspect was that of magician. Her magical prowess was far stronger than that of any other god or goddess. Isis’s priestesses and priests were midwives and healers. They were rumored to have magical powers. It was believed that they controlled the weather by braiding or not combing their hair. (Ancient Egyptians believed that knots had magical powers). After Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, Isis became known as the Queen of Heaven and was equated with Greek goddesses such as Aphrodite, Demeter, and Astarte. The myth of Isis is one of the most popular in ancient Egyptian mythology. In it, Isis was a good queen to Osiris and an example to the women of Egypt. Set became jealous and killed Osiris by trapping him in a lead coated chest and throwing him into the Nile. Isis found Osiris after a long search, but Set hacked the body into pieces and scattered it all over Egypt. With the help of Nephtys, Isis put her husband’s body back together, except for his penis that remained missing. However, she became pregnant using her magical powers and gave birth to Horus nine months later. Facts About Isis - It was believed that the annual flooding of the Nile was a result of the tears wept by Isis after Osiris was killed by Set; - Isis was at one stage represented as the Four Sons of Horus. They were the four gods responsible for protecting the late pharaoh’s internal organs. Her role as protector grew over time to include not only the dead, but also living noblemen and the general population; - The Book of the Dead describes Isis as “she who gives birth to heaven and earth, knows the orphan, knows the widow, seeks justice for the poor, and shelter for the weak”; - Due to her association with Horus, Isis also became the eye of Ra when the two gods merged as Ra-Horakhty; - The worship of Isis spread throughout the Roman Empire during the first centuries of Christianity. This was evident in wall paintings and objects found at Pompeii, among other places; Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Isis: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	969	ENGLISH	1
disha wrote:JohneeG/Neshant., please answer my question. To your carbon recycling - what happens when forests are destroyed? And their wood burnt? What happens to your CO2 cycle then? Will not CO2 accumulate? If forests are cut for firewood, then it would effect the nature in two ways: CO2 would increase due to burning wood and less plants to recycle the CO2 back into oxygen. So, cutting forests for firewood leads to increase in CO2. But, if fossil fuels are used, then Forests are cut less. Forests used to be cut more for firewood when fossil fuels were used less. This is particularly true in countries other than India or China where the populations are much less. So, using fossil fuels is better than firewood to reduce CO2. As for your question: I thought Gus saar answered your question. The theory that Gus saar said was actually Kelvin's theory. He was also the guy who came up with Absolute Zero Temperature. There was another theory called Uniformism which believed that the world existed as it is. Initially, both these theories were opposed to each other and contradicted each other. Before, these two theories, there was already Ice age theory. Then, there is also continental drift theory which was proposed later and it was not accepted for a long time(until the lifetime of the proposer). I think today geologists mostly believe in all these theories. So, some kind of syncretic theory seems to have been evolved at some point by mixing together all these theories. So, earth was once hot enough to be melted according to Kelvin. Then, earth became cold and this is ice age. Then, the ice age came to an end and earth became warm enough for the life to thrive.(You see warming is not a bad thing according to this theory). And during all this period the continents were shifting all over the place according to continental drift theory. So, according to mainstream geology, climate has been warming and cooling naturally without human intervention. There are many theories about such long past. And different theories say different things about the actual conditions. And future may bring more theories.. I think it shows that past is as much a mystery as future. As for the Ice cores: CO2 is soluble in water. Even the coldest ice cores have some water which can and does absorb CO2 and so, they can't be used as a metric for past atmospheric CO2.	<urn:uuid:afa75c99-646c-49a4-90d4-6593f44014f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://forums.bharat-rakshak.com/viewtopic.php?f=2&t=7122&start=320	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00273.warc.gz	en	0.980268	507	3.359375	3	[ -0.47071972489356995, 0.2623837888240814, 0.2902166247367859, 0.0076826573349535465, 0.5928864479064941, -0.13914358615875244, -0.11112800985574722, 0.05308809503912926, -0.19696056842803955, -0.05782581493258476, 0.2392612099647522, -0.5517658591270447, -0.12216265499591827, 0.50164294242...	2	disha wrote:JohneeG/Neshant., please answer my question. To your carbon recycling - what happens when forests are destroyed? And their wood burnt? What happens to your CO2 cycle then? Will not CO2 accumulate? If forests are cut for firewood, then it would effect the nature in two ways: CO2 would increase due to burning wood and less plants to recycle the CO2 back into oxygen. So, cutting forests for firewood leads to increase in CO2. But, if fossil fuels are used, then Forests are cut less. Forests used to be cut more for firewood when fossil fuels were used less. This is particularly true in countries other than India or China where the populations are much less. So, using fossil fuels is better than firewood to reduce CO2. As for your question: I thought Gus saar answered your question. The theory that Gus saar said was actually Kelvin's theory. He was also the guy who came up with Absolute Zero Temperature. There was another theory called Uniformism which believed that the world existed as it is. Initially, both these theories were opposed to each other and contradicted each other. Before, these two theories, there was already Ice age theory. Then, there is also continental drift theory which was proposed later and it was not accepted for a long time(until the lifetime of the proposer). I think today geologists mostly believe in all these theories. So, some kind of syncretic theory seems to have been evolved at some point by mixing together all these theories. So, earth was once hot enough to be melted according to Kelvin. Then, earth became cold and this is ice age. Then, the ice age came to an end and earth became warm enough for the life to thrive.(You see warming is not a bad thing according to this theory). And during all this period the continents were shifting all over the place according to continental drift theory. So, according to mainstream geology, climate has been warming and cooling naturally without human intervention. There are many theories about such long past. And different theories say different things about the actual conditions. And future may bring more theories.. I think it shows that past is as much a mystery as future. As for the Ice cores: CO2 is soluble in water. Even the coldest ice cores have some water which can and does absorb CO2 and so, they can't be used as a metric for past atmospheric CO2.	501	ENGLISH	1
Missing Works Cited Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious teaching built up by Confucius on the ancient Chinese traditions, and still is the state religion down to the present day. Confucianism aims at making not just a man of virtue, but the man of learning and good manners. The perfect man must combine the qualities of a saint, a scholar, and gentleman. Confucianism is a religion without positive revelation with a minimum of dogmatic teachings. Confucius was born in 551 BC, in what was then the fudal state of Lu, now included in the modern providence of Shang-tsung. His parents were not wealthy but still belonged to the “superior” class because his father was a warrior. Confucius was still a boy when his father died. From childhood the showed a great aptitude for study. In order to support himself and his mother, he had to labor in his early years as a hired servant for a noble family. His ability and faithful service earned him a promotion to the office of minister of justice. Under his administration the state attained to a degree of prosperity and moral order the people haven’t seen before. After he resigned he was accompanied by faithful disciples and went about from one state to another seeking a ruler who would agree to put his political doctrine into practice. Throughout the years his confidence to find a ruler never left him. At the age of sixty-eight he finally returned to Lu where he spent his last five years of his life encouraging other to study and practice the virtues. One morning Confucius felt the approach of death. He walked about the courtyard, humming the words: “The great mountain must collapse, the mighty beam must break and the wise man wither like a plant.” When an alarmed pupil said: “No wise ruler arises, and no one in the Empire wishes to make me his teacher. The hour of my death has come.” He lay down and eight days later he died (Jaspers 6). Confucius possessed a noble, commanding personality. It is shown by his recorded traits of character, by his lofty moral teachings, and by the men he trained to continue his life work. They declared him the greatest of men, “the sage without flaw”, and the perfect man. He is described in “Analects”, VII, 18, as one “who in the eager pursuit of knowledge, forgot his food, and in the joy of attaining to it forgot his sorrow (Jaspers 10).” He was a man of affectionate nature, sympathetic, and very considerate towards others. He loved his disciples dearly, and in turn got their undying devotion. He was fond of vocal and instrumental music, and often sang. Confucius said that music is a primary factor in education. He says that the spirit of community is formed by the music it hears. In music he says that the individual finds the themes that order his life. Confucius is often held up as a virtuous man without religion. His teachings were chiefly ethical. Confucianism is humanism, a philosophy or attitude that is...	<urn:uuid:18b266ba-85e6-4030-bcc4-ec56a87f90f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/confucianism-16	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00310.warc.gz	en	0.988433	669	4	4	[ -0.28342702984809875, 0.164648175239563, 0.12760305404663086, -0.258634477853775, -0.18623951077461243, -0.03677114099264145, 0.4168655276298523, 0.2264145016670227, 0.0873233750462532, -0.08547715842723846, 0.06712011992931366, -0.4974899888038635, 0.5825794339179993, 0.23341107368469238,...	1	Missing Works Cited Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious teaching built up by Confucius on the ancient Chinese traditions, and still is the state religion down to the present day. Confucianism aims at making not just a man of virtue, but the man of learning and good manners. The perfect man must combine the qualities of a saint, a scholar, and gentleman. Confucianism is a religion without positive revelation with a minimum of dogmatic teachings. Confucius was born in 551 BC, in what was then the fudal state of Lu, now included in the modern providence of Shang-tsung. His parents were not wealthy but still belonged to the “superior” class because his father was a warrior. Confucius was still a boy when his father died. From childhood the showed a great aptitude for study. In order to support himself and his mother, he had to labor in his early years as a hired servant for a noble family. His ability and faithful service earned him a promotion to the office of minister of justice. Under his administration the state attained to a degree of prosperity and moral order the people haven’t seen before. After he resigned he was accompanied by faithful disciples and went about from one state to another seeking a ruler who would agree to put his political doctrine into practice. Throughout the years his confidence to find a ruler never left him. At the age of sixty-eight he finally returned to Lu where he spent his last five years of his life encouraging other to study and practice the virtues. One morning Confucius felt the approach of death. He walked about the courtyard, humming the words: “The great mountain must collapse, the mighty beam must break and the wise man wither like a plant.” When an alarmed pupil said: “No wise ruler arises, and no one in the Empire wishes to make me his teacher. The hour of my death has come.” He lay down and eight days later he died (Jaspers 6). Confucius possessed a noble, commanding personality. It is shown by his recorded traits of character, by his lofty moral teachings, and by the men he trained to continue his life work. They declared him the greatest of men, “the sage without flaw”, and the perfect man. He is described in “Analects”, VII, 18, as one “who in the eager pursuit of knowledge, forgot his food, and in the joy of attaining to it forgot his sorrow (Jaspers 10).” He was a man of affectionate nature, sympathetic, and very considerate towards others. He loved his disciples dearly, and in turn got their undying devotion. He was fond of vocal and instrumental music, and often sang. Confucius said that music is a primary factor in education. He says that the spirit of community is formed by the music it hears. In music he says that the individual finds the themes that order his life. Confucius is often held up as a virtuous man without religion. His teachings were chiefly ethical. Confucianism is humanism, a philosophy or attitude that is...	650	ENGLISH	1
Try to imagine if people were playing tug-of-war with you and then the rope finally snaps and only one side is left happy. This is how the African Americans felt during the Reconstruction Era. Reconstruction went on for a long time then failed and only the Democrats were happy with the result. After the Civil War, African Americans had nowhere to go and were surrounded in a world of controversy. Many plans were made to help dig them out of their current hole but it all caved in and did not work; one plan was the Ten-Percent plan which only allowed states that seceded back into the United States if ten percent of their voters pledged an allegiance to the Union. Another plan was to give every African American family forty acres and a mule, but that plan never actually took place. Reconstruction took 12 entire years, and even over 12 years it failed. Reconstruction failed to gain equal rights for African Americans for a variety of reasons, Democratic strength, unequal citizenship and just racism against African Americans in general. Over the time of the Reconstruction era, the Democrats gained massive strength within the government, which is one reason why reconstruction failed to have equal rights for the African Americans. One reason Reconstruction failed is that the north was too easy on the south and let them back into the government too easily via the Amnesty Act, which gave the Confederate states a bigger say in the government (doc 3). Since most Democrats were from the Confederate states they want slavery to continue so Reconstruction failed because they were a big influence against African Americans gaining equal rights to the whites. Another reason that reconstruction failed is how the Democrats dominated the Republicans, these headlines prove it, “Democratic Victory or The Republican Defeat.” (doc 5). Also once they were in the government they controlled it and most things went their way. With the Democrats in power the Republicans couldn’t help the freedman just like what unequal citizenship did to them. Reconstruction also failed to gain equal rights within the United States because of the unequal citizenship that even came from African Americans themselves. The African Americans were so stressed by the economic pressure that they had to focus on themselves and their families not the government; Dr. W.E.B. DuBois says, “Negroes who wanted to work must not dabble in politics” (doc 6). This evidence helps to show how reconstruction failed for the Freedmen gaining equal rights because they explain how it looked and how hard it was from a freedmen’s point of view they had to focus on taking care of themselves, not working for equal rights. They also didn’t know what else to do besides being a slave because that was how they were born and taught how to live. A freedman named John McCoy was told by his former owner that he could go because he was free or he could stay and he would feed and shelter him; this is almost exactly like slavery just not as harsh (doc 7). This evidence explains how freedman were confused and were not used to doing anything besides what their masters say, so they are used to not having to do much thinking. Since they didn’t have to do much thinking they are used to not making decisions so it was hard for them to vote, make money and just be respected by most Confederate whites from day to day. Although these reasons about unequal citizenship between Whites and Blacks are how it looked from the surface, under the evident surface, there was still racism from a couple of different people and groups. Racism was another way of showing how Reconstruction failed to gain equal rights because it kept the freedmen from voting and fighting for their rights. One person who was racist against African Americans was a man named Benjamin Boyer and he stated, “……	<urn:uuid:4a58a6c6-4ba7-41e7-96dd-d1cb17b21405>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Reconstruction-Era-619458.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00029.warc.gz	en	0.988864	756	4.0625	4	[ -0.6550794243812561, 0.25311025977134705, -0.06167411059141159, 0.03206852450966835, -0.14550267159938812, 0.12015574425458908, -0.18964140117168427, -0.1388918161392212, -0.27681466937065125, 0.3588310778141022, 0.5602154731750488, -0.05604870617389679, 0.005014888476580381, 0.22440640628...	1	Try to imagine if people were playing tug-of-war with you and then the rope finally snaps and only one side is left happy. This is how the African Americans felt during the Reconstruction Era. Reconstruction went on for a long time then failed and only the Democrats were happy with the result. After the Civil War, African Americans had nowhere to go and were surrounded in a world of controversy. Many plans were made to help dig them out of their current hole but it all caved in and did not work; one plan was the Ten-Percent plan which only allowed states that seceded back into the United States if ten percent of their voters pledged an allegiance to the Union. Another plan was to give every African American family forty acres and a mule, but that plan never actually took place. Reconstruction took 12 entire years, and even over 12 years it failed. Reconstruction failed to gain equal rights for African Americans for a variety of reasons, Democratic strength, unequal citizenship and just racism against African Americans in general. Over the time of the Reconstruction era, the Democrats gained massive strength within the government, which is one reason why reconstruction failed to have equal rights for the African Americans. One reason Reconstruction failed is that the north was too easy on the south and let them back into the government too easily via the Amnesty Act, which gave the Confederate states a bigger say in the government (doc 3). Since most Democrats were from the Confederate states they want slavery to continue so Reconstruction failed because they were a big influence against African Americans gaining equal rights to the whites. Another reason that reconstruction failed is how the Democrats dominated the Republicans, these headlines prove it, “Democratic Victory or The Republican Defeat.” (doc 5). Also once they were in the government they controlled it and most things went their way. With the Democrats in power the Republicans couldn’t help the freedman just like what unequal citizenship did to them. Reconstruction also failed to gain equal rights within the United States because of the unequal citizenship that even came from African Americans themselves. The African Americans were so stressed by the economic pressure that they had to focus on themselves and their families not the government; Dr. W.E.B. DuBois says, “Negroes who wanted to work must not dabble in politics” (doc 6). This evidence helps to show how reconstruction failed for the Freedmen gaining equal rights because they explain how it looked and how hard it was from a freedmen’s point of view they had to focus on taking care of themselves, not working for equal rights. They also didn’t know what else to do besides being a slave because that was how they were born and taught how to live. A freedman named John McCoy was told by his former owner that he could go because he was free or he could stay and he would feed and shelter him; this is almost exactly like slavery just not as harsh (doc 7). This evidence explains how freedman were confused and were not used to doing anything besides what their masters say, so they are used to not having to do much thinking. Since they didn’t have to do much thinking they are used to not making decisions so it was hard for them to vote, make money and just be respected by most Confederate whites from day to day. Although these reasons about unequal citizenship between Whites and Blacks are how it looked from the surface, under the evident surface, there was still racism from a couple of different people and groups. Racism was another way of showing how Reconstruction failed to gain equal rights because it kept the freedmen from voting and fighting for their rights. One person who was racist against African Americans was a man named Benjamin Boyer and he stated, “……	746	ENGLISH	1
The Great Northern Railway Class A1 Pacifics were the largest express locomotives to be seen in Britain during the 1920s. They were big, they were successful and they were noticed. The third engine of this class, No 1472, was selected to be displayed at a major exhibition at Wembley in 1924, and for this it was given a name that helped in making it one of the most famous steam locomotives of all time: the Flying Scotsman. Today, the name means different things to different people. Some talk of the train service and some of the locomotive that worked on this service, but if you ask someone to name a steam locomotive the Flying Scotsman is usually the one they will plump for. It has been in service for over 70 years, travelling as far afield as America and Australia and achieving unrivalled fame by appearing in the Thomas the Tank Engine books1, and is known by name and appearance to millions of people. Before embarking on this journey, it is necessary to distinguish between a train, an engine and a locomotive. A train is a collection of rolling stock, coaches or wagons, hauled by one or more vehicles that move under their own power. These vehicles are the locomotives and can be steam-powered, diesel-powered or electric. The appearance of steam locomotives, while differing significantly from that of either diesel or electric locomotives, is still familiar to many, despite the fact that few remain in regular service. The term steam engine on the other hand, while widely taken to mean a steam locomotive, originally referred to a stationary, steam-powered engine normally used as a pumping engine or other mechanical device in old-fashioned factories. Few steam engines are still in regular use today, though there are probably some that have been preserved for historical reasons. The modern usage of the term 'steam engine' is generally taken to mean the same as 'steam locomotive.' As well as the above terminology, it is also important to explain the term 'Pacific'. Steam locomotives are classed by their manufacturers - Flying Scotsman's class being A1 and subsequently A3 - but locomotives are additionally classified by their wheel arrangements. Flying Scotsman is a Pacific because its wheel arrangement is 4-6-2, sometimes written 'ooOOOo'2. This represents the arrangement of driving wheels and non-driving wheels on the main body of the locomovite, in other word not including the tender3. The first four, or 'oo', means that there is a front 'bogey' ahead of the driving wheels that contains four leading wheels, two on each side. Then the six, or 'OOO', means that there are six driving wheels, three on each side. These transfer power from the pistons to the track. The final 2, or 'o', means there is a 'trailing bogey' beneath the firebox, containing two wheels, and normally it is this bogey that the tender is connected to. Tank engines also use this classification, but to avoid confusion, tank engines normally have a 'T' after the number, such as 0-6-0T. A 'bogey' is a fixture which enables wheels to be connected to railway locomotives or rolling stock to allow wheels to turn in relation to the main body of the vehicle, helping larger vehicles go around corners. This is mainly seen on coaches, but express steam engines, and almost all modern electric and diesel locomotives, have bogeys too. It wouldn't be right to have an entry about such a locomotive without a section on the man who made it possible, and that man was Sir Nigel Gresley. Throughout a remarkable career as an engineer he pioneered new railway technologies and pushed the limits of what was widely regarded as either foolish or impossible. His love for flowing designs and simple elegance, not something normally associated with hulking great railway locomotives, can be seen in the exquisite examples of his A1 and subsequent A3 and A4 designs. One of the A4s was even christened Sir Nigel Gresley in his honour. Born on 19 June, 1876 as the fifth child of the rector of Nethersale, Derbyshire, the Reverend Nigel Gresley, he was schooled at Marlborough College before becoming an apprentice at Crewe Works. After his apprenticeship, Gresley spent a year working as an improver in the fitting and erecting shops at Crewe to improve his practical knowledge, and in 1898 he moved to the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (L&YR) to acquire some design and drawing experience. By 1904, he had become the assistant superintendent for the L&YR Carriage and Wagon Department and in 1905, at the age of 29, he resigned this position before taking up an almost identical one with the Great Northern Railway (GNR) at Doncaster, where he remained for the rest of his working life. Around 1911, Gresley's ingenuity began to show through in his designs, and indeed in this year he was made the Chief Mechanical Engineer (CME) of the GNR. His first three-cylinder A1 Pacific Great Northern was built in 1922. By this time, though, the GNR had become part of the London & North Eastern Railway (LNER), being absorbed when the independent companies were grouped together into the 'Big Four'4. John G Robinson was the LNER's first choice as CME, but Robinson was close to retirement and recommended Gresley in his place, meaning the A1s, which at this point numbered only about three, could continue to be produced. As well as his design triumphs, Gresley was active in the engineering institutions, served on government committees, and undertook government consultancy work. By the early 1930s he was at the top of his profession, while his renown amongst enthusiasts had become iconic, and in 1936 he received a knighthood for his services to engineering. He died in office on 5 April, 1941. The big question was: Were Gresley's A1 Pacifics any good? The answer came as both a 'yes' and a 'no'. The 'yes' came when the A1 was tested against the A2, a design by Sir Vincent Raven of the NER, both of which were in service on the LNER. Both designs were good but Gresley's were considered better, so while the Raven design only ever totalled five engines the Gresley design stayed in production and eventually totalled 79 engines. The 'no' came when the A1 was tested against the Castle class of rival company GWR. When Flying Scotsman appeared at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley in 1924, it appeared next to the GWR's 4-6-0 No 4073 Caerphilly Castle, which was described by GWR publicists as Britain's most powerful express engine, so naturally there had to be a face-off between the two. The comparative tests took place on both LNER and GWR routes since both areas were different and these differences would reflect on the design of the engine. Rather surprisingly the Castle won this contest, particularly in terms of economy, although even the power output of the Castle slightly surpassed that of the Pacific. Gresley took these lessons on board and began rejigging his designs for the A1. He incorporated the use of long-lap piston valves, increased the boiler pressure from 190 to 220psi, increased the amount of superheating and slightly reduced the cylinder diameter, resulting in a new class of engines that were called 'super-Pacifics' and officially classified as the A3. All later engines were built to these new specifications and eventually all but one of the A1s were rebuilt as A3s. After juggling around with the idea of streamlining, Gresley and his team eventually produced an even more extensively modified version of the A3, the A4. This streamlined and powerful beast came after inspiration from a German diesel service, but the LNER A4s were a vast improvement on these designs and were able to haul seven or eight coach trains at record speeds, whereas the German diesel could only safely manage two or three. In fact, these locomotives were so fast that even today the world speed record for a steam locomotive stands at 126mph and was achieved by probably the most famous A4 of them all, the Mallard. The Flying Scotsman was the third of the Gresley A1 Pacifics to be produced and was designated No 1472. This great locomotive was ready for her first public appearance on 22 February 1923, and had cost £7944. It wasn't until the following year, however, that her big break came, as it was selected to be displayed at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley in 1924, and for this she was given the name Flying Scotsman. So successful was the exhibition that she also made an appearance in 1925. In 1924, as well as the Wembley exhibition, the locomotives of LNER were renumbered, and the renowned '4472' was given to Flying Scotsman. On 1 May, 1928 she made her first historical landmark, completing the first non-stop long distance journey from London King's Cross to Edinburgh Waverley, some 392 miles in just over eight hours. On 30 November, 1934 she again made history when she achieved the first authenticated 100mph for steam traction while travelling between Leeds and London5. Between these high points of her service, the Flying Scotsman continued her normal duties and was eventually upgraded to A3 class, although the prestigious express routes were gradually being taken over by Gresley's new A4 class locomotives. In 1948, the four regional rail companies were nationalised to become British Rail and the Flying Scotsman was renumbered once again to '60103' and repainted in dark green BR livery. She continued in full service until 1963 when she was finally withdrawn, having completed some 2,076,000 miles. Rescued from the scrapyard, she was purchased on 16 April, 1963 by enthusiast Alan Pegler, who continued to run her in mainline service for short excursions6. By 1969, the Flying Scotsman was the only steam locomotive running on the main line, and it was becoming increasingly difficult to maintain a regular schedule as the infrastructure for steam services was fast disappearing. In September of that same year she was shipped to Boston, following an offer to embark on a US tour. This proved disastrous for both the locomotive and her owner, as a change in the UK political climate resulted in many of the tour's sponsors pulling out, leaving her owner broke and the Flying Scotsman stranded at a US army base. Her saviour came in the form of Sir William MacAlpine, who, in February 1973, purchased her jointly with Pete Waterman and arranged her safe return to England. Continuing to offer mainline excursions, the Flying Scotsman also concentrated on touring the local preserved railways, where she was always guaranteed to be a crowd puller. In 1988, she embarked on a highly successful Australian tour, completing a world record non-stop run by steam of 422 miles. She was withdrawn from service for a second time on 28 April, 1995, having suffered a cracked firebox. On 23 February, 1996 Flying Scotsman was purchased by Dr Tony Marchington, who proceeded to finance a major restoration, and on 4 July ,1999 the beautifully restored Flying Scotsman made her inaugural run from King's Cross to York. In early 2004, things were to change again when Flying Scotsman Plc, unable to secure an opportunity for a visitor centre in Edinburgh, put the locomotive up for sale. Fearing an overseas sale, a campaign was launched to save the Flying Scotsman for the nation. Donations poured in from young and old alike and, along with financial help from the Heritage Lottery Fund and Sir Richard Branson's Virgin Group, the Flying Scotsman finally arrived at her new home at the National Railway Museum on 29 May, 2004. The locomotive was in public ownership once more after 41 years in private hands. Most recently - in fact at the time of writing - the Flying Scotsman is undergoing its major ten-year overhaul at the National Railway Museum Workshop in York, which it's hoped will be completed by late 2007. This overhaul, though, is not being hidden away from the public. Visitors to the NRM now have access to a viewing gallery above the workshops so they will be able to see the progress being made on the locomotive first hand. This gallery is part of The Flying Scotsman Story Exhibition, which is one of the NRM's newest attractions and illustrates the story of the Flying Scotsman route, train service and locomotive. The 'Flying Scotsman' was originally the name of the premier Anglo-Scottish express train between King's Cross and Edinburgh. This train dates back to Great Northern Railway days in 1864, when it was the fastest on the East Coast route7. By 1910, the entire King's Cross to Edinburgh route only took eight hours and 45 minutes, and during the summer, a 9.50am relief train ran non-stop to Doncaster, then non-stop to Newcastle, with a North Eastern Railway engine. The train was informally known as the 'Special Scotch Express', and then 'The Flying Scotchman'. This is sometimes said to originate from the famous ship The Flying Dutchman, but another explanation is that the express stage coaches that were used were often referred to as 'Flying'. Officially, the GNR always referred to the train as 'the 10 o'clock'. During the LNER days the train continued running and the new Gresley A1 Pacifics were an ideal choice of locomotive. In 1927, the relief train started running non-stop from King's Cross to Newcastle with A1 Pacific No 4475 Flying Fox at the head. This engine launched what was to be one of the longest regular non-stop workings by a steam engine. By this time the 'Flying Scotchman' had become known as the 'Flying Scotsman', a name which appeared on all official timetables and headboards from 1927 onwards. It was on 1 May, 1928 that the LNER began running their 'Flying Scotsman' Service non-stop from King's Cross to Edinburgh, and the first engine to haul the northbound train was No 4472 Flying Scotsman itself. This was the first time a train had regularly travelled such a distance8 and one of the things that made it at all possible for the engine crews was the corridor tender, allowing crew changes en route, that was fitted to some Pacifics, including Flying Scotsman. Although the Flying Scotsman locomotive was withdrawn from service in 1963, the 'Flying Scotsman' train service continued to run practically uninterrupted, while other named trains on the route came and went. Other, faster trains appeared in both the steam and diesel ages, some of these running non-stop to Edinburgh, but they were all short lived by comparison. The 10am 'Flying Scotsman' survived them all until 1982, when its departure time was changed to 10.35am.	<urn:uuid:623a2da8-c472-4609-8ad1-107a9b11718d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A13857609	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00332.warc.gz	en	0.983938	3,132	3.390625	3	[ 0.07067254185676575, -0.14741623401641846, 0.35009831190109253, 0.01552242785692215, 0.14708103239536285, -0.10854607075452805, 0.12833362817764282, -0.04921388998627663, -0.21211731433868408, 0.15455090999603271, 0.12339363247156143, -0.4189460873603821, -0.05576948821544647, -0.033596832...	5	The Great Northern Railway Class A1 Pacifics were the largest express locomotives to be seen in Britain during the 1920s. They were big, they were successful and they were noticed. The third engine of this class, No 1472, was selected to be displayed at a major exhibition at Wembley in 1924, and for this it was given a name that helped in making it one of the most famous steam locomotives of all time: the Flying Scotsman. Today, the name means different things to different people. Some talk of the train service and some of the locomotive that worked on this service, but if you ask someone to name a steam locomotive the Flying Scotsman is usually the one they will plump for. It has been in service for over 70 years, travelling as far afield as America and Australia and achieving unrivalled fame by appearing in the Thomas the Tank Engine books1, and is known by name and appearance to millions of people. Before embarking on this journey, it is necessary to distinguish between a train, an engine and a locomotive. A train is a collection of rolling stock, coaches or wagons, hauled by one or more vehicles that move under their own power. These vehicles are the locomotives and can be steam-powered, diesel-powered or electric. The appearance of steam locomotives, while differing significantly from that of either diesel or electric locomotives, is still familiar to many, despite the fact that few remain in regular service. The term steam engine on the other hand, while widely taken to mean a steam locomotive, originally referred to a stationary, steam-powered engine normally used as a pumping engine or other mechanical device in old-fashioned factories. Few steam engines are still in regular use today, though there are probably some that have been preserved for historical reasons. The modern usage of the term 'steam engine' is generally taken to mean the same as 'steam locomotive.' As well as the above terminology, it is also important to explain the term 'Pacific'. Steam locomotives are classed by their manufacturers - Flying Scotsman's class being A1 and subsequently A3 - but locomotives are additionally classified by their wheel arrangements. Flying Scotsman is a Pacific because its wheel arrangement is 4-6-2, sometimes written 'ooOOOo'2. This represents the arrangement of driving wheels and non-driving wheels on the main body of the locomovite, in other word not including the tender3. The first four, or 'oo', means that there is a front 'bogey' ahead of the driving wheels that contains four leading wheels, two on each side. Then the six, or 'OOO', means that there are six driving wheels, three on each side. These transfer power from the pistons to the track. The final 2, or 'o', means there is a 'trailing bogey' beneath the firebox, containing two wheels, and normally it is this bogey that the tender is connected to. Tank engines also use this classification, but to avoid confusion, tank engines normally have a 'T' after the number, such as 0-6-0T. A 'bogey' is a fixture which enables wheels to be connected to railway locomotives or rolling stock to allow wheels to turn in relation to the main body of the vehicle, helping larger vehicles go around corners. This is mainly seen on coaches, but express steam engines, and almost all modern electric and diesel locomotives, have bogeys too. It wouldn't be right to have an entry about such a locomotive without a section on the man who made it possible, and that man was Sir Nigel Gresley. Throughout a remarkable career as an engineer he pioneered new railway technologies and pushed the limits of what was widely regarded as either foolish or impossible. His love for flowing designs and simple elegance, not something normally associated with hulking great railway locomotives, can be seen in the exquisite examples of his A1 and subsequent A3 and A4 designs. One of the A4s was even christened Sir Nigel Gresley in his honour. Born on 19 June, 1876 as the fifth child of the rector of Nethersale, Derbyshire, the Reverend Nigel Gresley, he was schooled at Marlborough College before becoming an apprentice at Crewe Works. After his apprenticeship, Gresley spent a year working as an improver in the fitting and erecting shops at Crewe to improve his practical knowledge, and in 1898 he moved to the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (L&YR) to acquire some design and drawing experience. By 1904, he had become the assistant superintendent for the L&YR Carriage and Wagon Department and in 1905, at the age of 29, he resigned this position before taking up an almost identical one with the Great Northern Railway (GNR) at Doncaster, where he remained for the rest of his working life. Around 1911, Gresley's ingenuity began to show through in his designs, and indeed in this year he was made the Chief Mechanical Engineer (CME) of the GNR. His first three-cylinder A1 Pacific Great Northern was built in 1922. By this time, though, the GNR had become part of the London & North Eastern Railway (LNER), being absorbed when the independent companies were grouped together into the 'Big Four'4. John G Robinson was the LNER's first choice as CME, but Robinson was close to retirement and recommended Gresley in his place, meaning the A1s, which at this point numbered only about three, could continue to be produced. As well as his design triumphs, Gresley was active in the engineering institutions, served on government committees, and undertook government consultancy work. By the early 1930s he was at the top of his profession, while his renown amongst enthusiasts had become iconic, and in 1936 he received a knighthood for his services to engineering. He died in office on 5 April, 1941. The big question was: Were Gresley's A1 Pacifics any good? The answer came as both a 'yes' and a 'no'. The 'yes' came when the A1 was tested against the A2, a design by Sir Vincent Raven of the NER, both of which were in service on the LNER. Both designs were good but Gresley's were considered better, so while the Raven design only ever totalled five engines the Gresley design stayed in production and eventually totalled 79 engines. The 'no' came when the A1 was tested against the Castle class of rival company GWR. When Flying Scotsman appeared at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley in 1924, it appeared next to the GWR's 4-6-0 No 4073 Caerphilly Castle, which was described by GWR publicists as Britain's most powerful express engine, so naturally there had to be a face-off between the two. The comparative tests took place on both LNER and GWR routes since both areas were different and these differences would reflect on the design of the engine. Rather surprisingly the Castle won this contest, particularly in terms of economy, although even the power output of the Castle slightly surpassed that of the Pacific. Gresley took these lessons on board and began rejigging his designs for the A1. He incorporated the use of long-lap piston valves, increased the boiler pressure from 190 to 220psi, increased the amount of superheating and slightly reduced the cylinder diameter, resulting in a new class of engines that were called 'super-Pacifics' and officially classified as the A3. All later engines were built to these new specifications and eventually all but one of the A1s were rebuilt as A3s. After juggling around with the idea of streamlining, Gresley and his team eventually produced an even more extensively modified version of the A3, the A4. This streamlined and powerful beast came after inspiration from a German diesel service, but the LNER A4s were a vast improvement on these designs and were able to haul seven or eight coach trains at record speeds, whereas the German diesel could only safely manage two or three. In fact, these locomotives were so fast that even today the world speed record for a steam locomotive stands at 126mph and was achieved by probably the most famous A4 of them all, the Mallard. The Flying Scotsman was the third of the Gresley A1 Pacifics to be produced and was designated No 1472. This great locomotive was ready for her first public appearance on 22 February 1923, and had cost £7944. It wasn't until the following year, however, that her big break came, as it was selected to be displayed at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley in 1924, and for this she was given the name Flying Scotsman. So successful was the exhibition that she also made an appearance in 1925. In 1924, as well as the Wembley exhibition, the locomotives of LNER were renumbered, and the renowned '4472' was given to Flying Scotsman. On 1 May, 1928 she made her first historical landmark, completing the first non-stop long distance journey from London King's Cross to Edinburgh Waverley, some 392 miles in just over eight hours. On 30 November, 1934 she again made history when she achieved the first authenticated 100mph for steam traction while travelling between Leeds and London5. Between these high points of her service, the Flying Scotsman continued her normal duties and was eventually upgraded to A3 class, although the prestigious express routes were gradually being taken over by Gresley's new A4 class locomotives. In 1948, the four regional rail companies were nationalised to become British Rail and the Flying Scotsman was renumbered once again to '60103' and repainted in dark green BR livery. She continued in full service until 1963 when she was finally withdrawn, having completed some 2,076,000 miles. Rescued from the scrapyard, she was purchased on 16 April, 1963 by enthusiast Alan Pegler, who continued to run her in mainline service for short excursions6. By 1969, the Flying Scotsman was the only steam locomotive running on the main line, and it was becoming increasingly difficult to maintain a regular schedule as the infrastructure for steam services was fast disappearing. In September of that same year she was shipped to Boston, following an offer to embark on a US tour. This proved disastrous for both the locomotive and her owner, as a change in the UK political climate resulted in many of the tour's sponsors pulling out, leaving her owner broke and the Flying Scotsman stranded at a US army base. Her saviour came in the form of Sir William MacAlpine, who, in February 1973, purchased her jointly with Pete Waterman and arranged her safe return to England. Continuing to offer mainline excursions, the Flying Scotsman also concentrated on touring the local preserved railways, where she was always guaranteed to be a crowd puller. In 1988, she embarked on a highly successful Australian tour, completing a world record non-stop run by steam of 422 miles. She was withdrawn from service for a second time on 28 April, 1995, having suffered a cracked firebox. On 23 February, 1996 Flying Scotsman was purchased by Dr Tony Marchington, who proceeded to finance a major restoration, and on 4 July ,1999 the beautifully restored Flying Scotsman made her inaugural run from King's Cross to York. In early 2004, things were to change again when Flying Scotsman Plc, unable to secure an opportunity for a visitor centre in Edinburgh, put the locomotive up for sale. Fearing an overseas sale, a campaign was launched to save the Flying Scotsman for the nation. Donations poured in from young and old alike and, along with financial help from the Heritage Lottery Fund and Sir Richard Branson's Virgin Group, the Flying Scotsman finally arrived at her new home at the National Railway Museum on 29 May, 2004. The locomotive was in public ownership once more after 41 years in private hands. Most recently - in fact at the time of writing - the Flying Scotsman is undergoing its major ten-year overhaul at the National Railway Museum Workshop in York, which it's hoped will be completed by late 2007. This overhaul, though, is not being hidden away from the public. Visitors to the NRM now have access to a viewing gallery above the workshops so they will be able to see the progress being made on the locomotive first hand. This gallery is part of The Flying Scotsman Story Exhibition, which is one of the NRM's newest attractions and illustrates the story of the Flying Scotsman route, train service and locomotive. The 'Flying Scotsman' was originally the name of the premier Anglo-Scottish express train between King's Cross and Edinburgh. This train dates back to Great Northern Railway days in 1864, when it was the fastest on the East Coast route7. By 1910, the entire King's Cross to Edinburgh route only took eight hours and 45 minutes, and during the summer, a 9.50am relief train ran non-stop to Doncaster, then non-stop to Newcastle, with a North Eastern Railway engine. The train was informally known as the 'Special Scotch Express', and then 'The Flying Scotchman'. This is sometimes said to originate from the famous ship The Flying Dutchman, but another explanation is that the express stage coaches that were used were often referred to as 'Flying'. Officially, the GNR always referred to the train as 'the 10 o'clock'. During the LNER days the train continued running and the new Gresley A1 Pacifics were an ideal choice of locomotive. In 1927, the relief train started running non-stop from King's Cross to Newcastle with A1 Pacific No 4475 Flying Fox at the head. This engine launched what was to be one of the longest regular non-stop workings by a steam engine. By this time the 'Flying Scotchman' had become known as the 'Flying Scotsman', a name which appeared on all official timetables and headboards from 1927 onwards. It was on 1 May, 1928 that the LNER began running their 'Flying Scotsman' Service non-stop from King's Cross to Edinburgh, and the first engine to haul the northbound train was No 4472 Flying Scotsman itself. This was the first time a train had regularly travelled such a distance8 and one of the things that made it at all possible for the engine crews was the corridor tender, allowing crew changes en route, that was fitted to some Pacifics, including Flying Scotsman. Although the Flying Scotsman locomotive was withdrawn from service in 1963, the 'Flying Scotsman' train service continued to run practically uninterrupted, while other named trains on the route came and went. Other, faster trains appeared in both the steam and diesel ages, some of these running non-stop to Edinburgh, but they were all short lived by comparison. The 10am 'Flying Scotsman' survived them all until 1982, when its departure time was changed to 10.35am.	3,333	ENGLISH	1
The right of women to vote in public elections is referred to as women's suffrage. Previously excluded by law from voting, women's organizations formed movements in the early 20th century to fight for their right to vote. Members of such women's organizations were referred to as suffragettes. While the term was first associated with members of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) that was based in the United Kingdom, other notable suffragettes fought for the right to vote in Ireland and the United States (US). Examples of notable suffragettes are listed below. Emmeline Pankhurst lived from July 15, 1858 until June 14, 1928. She was born in Manchester, England, to politically active parents and introduced to women’s suffrage by her mother’s subscription to the Women’s Suffrage Journal. In 1889, Pankhurst and her husband, Richard, founded the Women’s Franchise League (WFL ). Richard, who was a lawyer and significantly older than Emmeline, had advocated for women’s suffrage for years before they met. The group lasted for one year. In 1903, Pankhurst founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), which was better known for its actions, such as physical confrontations, than its words. Pankhurst was first arrested in 1908, although her daughters were arrested in 1905 and 1906. She would be arrested six more times before women’s suffrage was approved, first in 1918 (to all women over 30) and then in 1928 (to all women over the age of 21). Pankhurst also played an active role in efforts protesting the threat of Germany during World War I. This stance was highly controversial as it involved WSPU working directly with the British government. Her daughters Adela, Sylvia, and Christabel were also active in the women’s suffrage movement. Sylvia Pankhurst was born Estelle Sylvia Pankhurst on May 5, 1882 and died on September 27, 1960. Sylvia trained as an artist and won a scholarship to the Royal College of Art in 1900. Her artistic skills were later utilized when she began to work full time for the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), creating its logo and designing leaflets, banners, and posters. Sylvia was 24 when she was first arrested for her work in the suffrage movement, and was arrested eight more times between February 1913 and July 1914. Sylvia was one of the more vocal protestors of the WSPU’s involvement in the war campaign against Germany during World War I. Sylvia and her mother, notable suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst, became estranged in 1927 when Sylvia gave birth to a son but refused to become married. Sylvia remained active in movements that were anti-fascist and anti-colonial. In her later life, she moved to Ethiopia, and upon her death she was given a full state funeral by the Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie. Christabel Pankhurst lived from September 22, 1880 to February 13, 1958 and was named after a Samuel Coleridge poem. As a child, Christabel learned to read at home, and later completed a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B) at the University of Manchester. However, because she was a woman, she was unable to practice law. Christabel moved to Geneva, Switzerland, but returned home following the death of her father in 1898. She co-founded the WSPU with her mother, Emmeline, in 1903, and was the first of the Pankhurst women to be arrested. In 1905, she interrupted a Liberal Party meeting, and chose to go to prison rather than pay a fine. Christabel was jailed several times after this, and had to live in Paris between 1913 and 1914 in order to escape further imprisonment. Christabel felt that the WSPU should focus solely on recruiting upper and middle class women, which drove a wedge between her and her sister Sylvia. In 1918, after women won the right to vote, Christabel ran for Parliament but lost by a narrow margin. Eventually, Christabel moved to the United States, and died in her home in California at the age of 77. Emily Davison was an English suffragette who belonged to the WSPU. She was born on October 11, 1872, to a middle class family in London and died June 8, 1913, after being hit by King George V’s horse at the 1913 Derby while walking onto the track during a race. Davison joined the WSPU in 1906 and was considered one of the organization's most daring members. She was arrested nine times, went on seven hunger strikes, and was force fed forty-nine times. Davison set fire to postboxes outside parliament and wrote several letters that were published in over 50 newspapers. While in prison, Davison attempted suicide by throwing herself over a prison balcony, resulting in two cracked vertebrate that caused pain for the rest of her life. Her death was related to her militant work for the suffrage movement, as she was holding suffragette flags when she stepped in front of the horses during the derby. Davison's death, which was the result of fracture of the base of her skul, was ruled as a case of "misadventure." Dame Millicent Fawcett Dame Millicent Fawcett led the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) from 1897 until 1919. She was born June 11, 1847, the eighth of ten children. Fawcett’s elder sister, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, was Britain’s first female doctor, and Millicent was simply following in her sister’s footsteps. She married Henry Fawcett, a Parliamentarian, in 1867, and gave birth to her only child in 1868. Millicent also joined the London Suffrage Committee in 1868. After her husband’s death in 1884, Millicent became more active politically, leading the NUWSS, which was Britain’s primary suffragist organization. Fawcett was also active in education, co-founding Newnham College for Women in Cambridge. In 1925, she was appointed Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire. She died in 1929 at her home in London. Charlotte Despard (née French) was born in Kent, England, on June 15, 1844, and died in Belfast, Northern Ireland, on November 10, 1939. Despard was a published author who wrote ten novels, seven of which were published. She and her husband had no children, and following his death at sea, Despard became active in charitable work. This led to her involvement in the NUWSS, and later the WSPU. Despard left the WSPU due to disagreements over how Pankehurst ran the organizaiton. Together with Teresa Billington-Greig and Edith How-Martyn, Despard co-founded the Women’s Freedom League, which focused on pacifism and passive resistance. Despard met Gandhi in 1909 and was influenced by his ideas of passive resistance. She remained politically active well into her 90s. Elizabeth Cady Stanton Elizabeth Cady Stanton is best known for her Declaration of Sentiments, which she presented at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. Born in Johnston, New York, on November 15, 1815, Stanton lived until October 26, 1902, and therefore died before woman's suffrage was achieved. Prior to her involvement in women’s rights, Stanton was an abolitionist with her husband, who she met while involved in the abolition movement. She and her husband disagreed about women’s suffrage, as Stanton's focus on women’s rights extended beyond the vote, and included additional issues including parental rights, custody rights, birth control, and property rights. Following the American Civil War, Stanton distanced herself from her abolitionist views, lobbying against the ratification of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, which granted African-American men the right to vote. Eventually, her rhetoric took on racial tones and caused divides between herself and many other civil rights leaders of the time, including Frederick Douglass, as well as others in the women’s rights movement, such as Lucy Stone and Elizabeth Blackwell. Stanton was widely published, both in periodicals and in books, and was a widely renowned speaker and orator. She died at home in New York City, 18 years before women were granted the right to vote in the United States. Alice Paul was born in Mount Laurel, New Jersey, on January 11, 1885, and died on July 9, 1977. Although Paul was an American, she spent time in Britain from 1907 until 1910. During this time she was active in the WSPU and was arrested and force fed, like many other members of the organizaiton. Paul was initially drawn to the WSPU after hearing Christabel Pankhurst speak at the University of Birmingham. In January 1910, Paul returned to the United States, intent on bringing the her suffrage work back home. She participated in National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) rallies and focused on pressuring Woodrow Wilson the day before his inauguration. After her tactics were considered too aggressive by the NAWSA, she broke from the organization, forming first the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage, and later the National Woman’s Party. Paul continued to work toward suffrage, which was achieved in the United States in 1920, and then the Equal Rights Amendment. Throughout the rest of her life, she remained engaged in women’s rights work and in equality for women. Ida B. Wells Ida B. Wells lived from July 16, 1862 to March 25, 1931. While the thrust of her work was tied to the civil rights movement, Wells was also a prominent African-American suffragist. She believed that enfranchisement was an opportunity for African-American women to use their power to elect African Americans. Given her positions on racism and lynching, Wells came into some conflict with leaders of some of the primarily-white suffrage organizations. Wells also worked on state laws that would allow for partial women’s suffrage. In the state of Illinois, due in part to her work, a bill was passed in 1913 that afforded women the right to vote for some positions, primarily in presidential and local elections, but not others, including positions at the state level. Illinois was the first state east of the Mississippi River to give women these rights. Wells cofounded the Alpha Suffrage Club in Chicago, Illinois, which attempted to help African-American women learn how to engage in civic roles. Mary Church Terrell Mary Church Terrell was born in Memphis, Tennessee, on September 23, 1863, to parents who belonged to the city's African-American elite. Terrell began to work in education, and after living in Europe for several years, she became engaged in social activism and politics upon her return. In 1892, she co-founded the Colored Women’s League in Washington, D.C., which promoted the interests of the African American community. The organization later merged with the Federation of Afro-American Women (in Boston) to become the National Association of Colored Women. As a result of her involvement in the NAWSA and her association with Susan B. Anthony, Terrell became engaged in voting rights for African-American women. She spoke out to at an NAWSA event in 1898, stressing the need for the concerns of African-American to be included in the discussion. Terrell fought actively for the right to vote for all women. She died in Annapolis, Maryland, on July 24, 1954, at the age of 90. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:79fd238e-f53a-43c3-ad4d-8e3d1ee9b2b0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/10-famous-suffragettes.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00018.warc.gz	en	0.986935	2,484	4.15625	4	[ -0.09384559839963913, 0.08437798917293549, -0.01745063252747059, 0.21968227624893188, -0.3537209928035736, 0.8195037245750427, -0.013638517819344997, 0.15095767378807068, 0.012429552152752876, 0.26563167572021484, -0.3778412342071533, -0.2553897500038147, -0.13603729009628296, -0.169720530...	2	The right of women to vote in public elections is referred to as women's suffrage. Previously excluded by law from voting, women's organizations formed movements in the early 20th century to fight for their right to vote. Members of such women's organizations were referred to as suffragettes. While the term was first associated with members of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) that was based in the United Kingdom, other notable suffragettes fought for the right to vote in Ireland and the United States (US). Examples of notable suffragettes are listed below. Emmeline Pankhurst lived from July 15, 1858 until June 14, 1928. She was born in Manchester, England, to politically active parents and introduced to women’s suffrage by her mother’s subscription to the Women’s Suffrage Journal. In 1889, Pankhurst and her husband, Richard, founded the Women’s Franchise League (WFL ). Richard, who was a lawyer and significantly older than Emmeline, had advocated for women’s suffrage for years before they met. The group lasted for one year. In 1903, Pankhurst founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), which was better known for its actions, such as physical confrontations, than its words. Pankhurst was first arrested in 1908, although her daughters were arrested in 1905 and 1906. She would be arrested six more times before women’s suffrage was approved, first in 1918 (to all women over 30) and then in 1928 (to all women over the age of 21). Pankhurst also played an active role in efforts protesting the threat of Germany during World War I. This stance was highly controversial as it involved WSPU working directly with the British government. Her daughters Adela, Sylvia, and Christabel were also active in the women’s suffrage movement. Sylvia Pankhurst was born Estelle Sylvia Pankhurst on May 5, 1882 and died on September 27, 1960. Sylvia trained as an artist and won a scholarship to the Royal College of Art in 1900. Her artistic skills were later utilized when she began to work full time for the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), creating its logo and designing leaflets, banners, and posters. Sylvia was 24 when she was first arrested for her work in the suffrage movement, and was arrested eight more times between February 1913 and July 1914. Sylvia was one of the more vocal protestors of the WSPU’s involvement in the war campaign against Germany during World War I. Sylvia and her mother, notable suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst, became estranged in 1927 when Sylvia gave birth to a son but refused to become married. Sylvia remained active in movements that were anti-fascist and anti-colonial. In her later life, she moved to Ethiopia, and upon her death she was given a full state funeral by the Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie. Christabel Pankhurst lived from September 22, 1880 to February 13, 1958 and was named after a Samuel Coleridge poem. As a child, Christabel learned to read at home, and later completed a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B) at the University of Manchester. However, because she was a woman, she was unable to practice law. Christabel moved to Geneva, Switzerland, but returned home following the death of her father in 1898. She co-founded the WSPU with her mother, Emmeline, in 1903, and was the first of the Pankhurst women to be arrested. In 1905, she interrupted a Liberal Party meeting, and chose to go to prison rather than pay a fine. Christabel was jailed several times after this, and had to live in Paris between 1913 and 1914 in order to escape further imprisonment. Christabel felt that the WSPU should focus solely on recruiting upper and middle class women, which drove a wedge between her and her sister Sylvia. In 1918, after women won the right to vote, Christabel ran for Parliament but lost by a narrow margin. Eventually, Christabel moved to the United States, and died in her home in California at the age of 77. Emily Davison was an English suffragette who belonged to the WSPU. She was born on October 11, 1872, to a middle class family in London and died June 8, 1913, after being hit by King George V’s horse at the 1913 Derby while walking onto the track during a race. Davison joined the WSPU in 1906 and was considered one of the organization's most daring members. She was arrested nine times, went on seven hunger strikes, and was force fed forty-nine times. Davison set fire to postboxes outside parliament and wrote several letters that were published in over 50 newspapers. While in prison, Davison attempted suicide by throwing herself over a prison balcony, resulting in two cracked vertebrate that caused pain for the rest of her life. Her death was related to her militant work for the suffrage movement, as she was holding suffragette flags when she stepped in front of the horses during the derby. Davison's death, which was the result of fracture of the base of her skul, was ruled as a case of "misadventure." Dame Millicent Fawcett Dame Millicent Fawcett led the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) from 1897 until 1919. She was born June 11, 1847, the eighth of ten children. Fawcett’s elder sister, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, was Britain’s first female doctor, and Millicent was simply following in her sister’s footsteps. She married Henry Fawcett, a Parliamentarian, in 1867, and gave birth to her only child in 1868. Millicent also joined the London Suffrage Committee in 1868. After her husband’s death in 1884, Millicent became more active politically, leading the NUWSS, which was Britain’s primary suffragist organization. Fawcett was also active in education, co-founding Newnham College for Women in Cambridge. In 1925, she was appointed Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire. She died in 1929 at her home in London. Charlotte Despard (née French) was born in Kent, England, on June 15, 1844, and died in Belfast, Northern Ireland, on November 10, 1939. Despard was a published author who wrote ten novels, seven of which were published. She and her husband had no children, and following his death at sea, Despard became active in charitable work. This led to her involvement in the NUWSS, and later the WSPU. Despard left the WSPU due to disagreements over how Pankehurst ran the organizaiton. Together with Teresa Billington-Greig and Edith How-Martyn, Despard co-founded the Women’s Freedom League, which focused on pacifism and passive resistance. Despard met Gandhi in 1909 and was influenced by his ideas of passive resistance. She remained politically active well into her 90s. Elizabeth Cady Stanton Elizabeth Cady Stanton is best known for her Declaration of Sentiments, which she presented at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. Born in Johnston, New York, on November 15, 1815, Stanton lived until October 26, 1902, and therefore died before woman's suffrage was achieved. Prior to her involvement in women’s rights, Stanton was an abolitionist with her husband, who she met while involved in the abolition movement. She and her husband disagreed about women’s suffrage, as Stanton's focus on women’s rights extended beyond the vote, and included additional issues including parental rights, custody rights, birth control, and property rights. Following the American Civil War, Stanton distanced herself from her abolitionist views, lobbying against the ratification of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, which granted African-American men the right to vote. Eventually, her rhetoric took on racial tones and caused divides between herself and many other civil rights leaders of the time, including Frederick Douglass, as well as others in the women’s rights movement, such as Lucy Stone and Elizabeth Blackwell. Stanton was widely published, both in periodicals and in books, and was a widely renowned speaker and orator. She died at home in New York City, 18 years before women were granted the right to vote in the United States. Alice Paul was born in Mount Laurel, New Jersey, on January 11, 1885, and died on July 9, 1977. Although Paul was an American, she spent time in Britain from 1907 until 1910. During this time she was active in the WSPU and was arrested and force fed, like many other members of the organizaiton. Paul was initially drawn to the WSPU after hearing Christabel Pankhurst speak at the University of Birmingham. In January 1910, Paul returned to the United States, intent on bringing the her suffrage work back home. She participated in National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) rallies and focused on pressuring Woodrow Wilson the day before his inauguration. After her tactics were considered too aggressive by the NAWSA, she broke from the organization, forming first the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage, and later the National Woman’s Party. Paul continued to work toward suffrage, which was achieved in the United States in 1920, and then the Equal Rights Amendment. Throughout the rest of her life, she remained engaged in women’s rights work and in equality for women. Ida B. Wells Ida B. Wells lived from July 16, 1862 to March 25, 1931. While the thrust of her work was tied to the civil rights movement, Wells was also a prominent African-American suffragist. She believed that enfranchisement was an opportunity for African-American women to use their power to elect African Americans. Given her positions on racism and lynching, Wells came into some conflict with leaders of some of the primarily-white suffrage organizations. Wells also worked on state laws that would allow for partial women’s suffrage. In the state of Illinois, due in part to her work, a bill was passed in 1913 that afforded women the right to vote for some positions, primarily in presidential and local elections, but not others, including positions at the state level. Illinois was the first state east of the Mississippi River to give women these rights. Wells cofounded the Alpha Suffrage Club in Chicago, Illinois, which attempted to help African-American women learn how to engage in civic roles. Mary Church Terrell Mary Church Terrell was born in Memphis, Tennessee, on September 23, 1863, to parents who belonged to the city's African-American elite. Terrell began to work in education, and after living in Europe for several years, she became engaged in social activism and politics upon her return. In 1892, she co-founded the Colored Women’s League in Washington, D.C., which promoted the interests of the African American community. The organization later merged with the Federation of Afro-American Women (in Boston) to become the National Association of Colored Women. As a result of her involvement in the NAWSA and her association with Susan B. Anthony, Terrell became engaged in voting rights for African-American women. She spoke out to at an NAWSA event in 1898, stressing the need for the concerns of African-American to be included in the discussion. Terrell fought actively for the right to vote for all women. She died in Annapolis, Maryland, on July 24, 1954, at the age of 90. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	2,661	ENGLISH	1
There are many important events that happened during the Harlem Renaissance. As with the Renaissance in Europe centuries before it, there was a ‘rebirth’ of literature, art, and a way to view the world, from the African-American perspective. Many advances were made in the black community, like education, politics, religion, music, and literature. Now more than ever before, blacks could get an education, no matter how impoverished the school was, they made the most out of it. Religion changed during this time, people went to church, worshiping fervently, through approaches that were cult/sect-like with bigger churches. Marcus Garvey was a prime example of revolutionizing the way the black community viewed themselves as a people. Music changed as well, the creation of the blues, and gospel (blues) became very popular in the black community. Leading jazz artists were Duke Ellington, Billie Holiday, and Louis Armstrong. It was even more popular in Europe, since prejudice still existed in America. Since most black people could read, they wrote plays, essays, and poetry, some about freedom and some about being left out because they were black. Authors in this time included Langston Hughes, Helene Johnson, and Zora Neale Hurston. Music can be used to reach many different types of people in the same way. No matter what language you speak, and what you're beliefs are, we can all relate to each other and understand through music. Many musicians during this time evolved a sophisticated style of music combined with poetry, and writing (lyrics). This music was used to reach out to the African American community and show their true talents that were overlooked. Ragtime, blues, gospel, jazz, swing: these are all types of music styles. They were started at different times, yet still preserved the same purpose of African American performers. Often, this type of music explained the struggles that their people faced throughout their (and their ancestors) lives. • Ragtime: created in 1910, it was based upon marches and had a steady rhythm (like all music). The king of ragtime was Scott Joplin. • Blues: the first recorded blues music was in 1920 by Mamie Smith. blues can go from sad to happy and joyful. blues is similar, and is sometimes compared to gospel. • Gospel: similar to blues, has a religious purpose. • Jazz: New Orleans was believed to be the birthplace of jazz. By 1920, musicians from New Orleans decided to move on to cities such as Chicago and St. Louis. Jazz moved to different cities as well, such as New York. Jazz was really born in Harlem. A new type of music was brewing, and people liked it. It had vibrancy, life, and feeling. Thomas "Fats" Domino was one of the top artists of the time. • Swing: was popular in the 1930's and 40's. swing music can be related to any type of music that involves swing dancing. It's uptempo, fun, and the perfect music to dance to. Philosophy was molded by the experience of the Harlem Renaissance, and many important philosophers emerged. And with them, knowledge and emotion did as well. Alain Leroy Locke was one of the most influential philosophers of the Harlem Renaissance. As an educator and philosopher, he played an important part. "In 1944, [he wrote] under the title "Moral Imperatives for World Order.” In this article, Locke strongly proclaimed his belief that “Realism and idealism should be combined in striking for a world order.” Indeed, he stated “Skeletal ideals of universal human brotherhood have been in the world a long time and we are further from tribal savagery and its tribalism because of these ideals. But they are but partial expressions of what we hope to make them mean and what today's world crisis demands.” Thus, he argued, “The moral imperatives of a new world order are an internationally limited idea of national sovereignty, a non-monopolistic and…	<urn:uuid:167795ce-09d5-4ebb-bac9-92c2ccc6631b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Harlem-Renaissance-549590.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00009.warc.gz	en	0.982519	840	3.859375	4	[ 0.009211448021233082, -0.022214267402887344, 0.00044519687071442604, -0.28083258867263794, -0.34160202741622925, 0.49953150749206543, -0.22693586349487305, -0.0631638839840889, 0.0016336964908987284, -0.026909902691841125, 0.2400187849998474, 0.3434782028198242, -0.31299662590026855, -0.02...	1	There are many important events that happened during the Harlem Renaissance. As with the Renaissance in Europe centuries before it, there was a ‘rebirth’ of literature, art, and a way to view the world, from the African-American perspective. Many advances were made in the black community, like education, politics, religion, music, and literature. Now more than ever before, blacks could get an education, no matter how impoverished the school was, they made the most out of it. Religion changed during this time, people went to church, worshiping fervently, through approaches that were cult/sect-like with bigger churches. Marcus Garvey was a prime example of revolutionizing the way the black community viewed themselves as a people. Music changed as well, the creation of the blues, and gospel (blues) became very popular in the black community. Leading jazz artists were Duke Ellington, Billie Holiday, and Louis Armstrong. It was even more popular in Europe, since prejudice still existed in America. Since most black people could read, they wrote plays, essays, and poetry, some about freedom and some about being left out because they were black. Authors in this time included Langston Hughes, Helene Johnson, and Zora Neale Hurston. Music can be used to reach many different types of people in the same way. No matter what language you speak, and what you're beliefs are, we can all relate to each other and understand through music. Many musicians during this time evolved a sophisticated style of music combined with poetry, and writing (lyrics). This music was used to reach out to the African American community and show their true talents that were overlooked. Ragtime, blues, gospel, jazz, swing: these are all types of music styles. They were started at different times, yet still preserved the same purpose of African American performers. Often, this type of music explained the struggles that their people faced throughout their (and their ancestors) lives. • Ragtime: created in 1910, it was based upon marches and had a steady rhythm (like all music). The king of ragtime was Scott Joplin. • Blues: the first recorded blues music was in 1920 by Mamie Smith. blues can go from sad to happy and joyful. blues is similar, and is sometimes compared to gospel. • Gospel: similar to blues, has a religious purpose. • Jazz: New Orleans was believed to be the birthplace of jazz. By 1920, musicians from New Orleans decided to move on to cities such as Chicago and St. Louis. Jazz moved to different cities as well, such as New York. Jazz was really born in Harlem. A new type of music was brewing, and people liked it. It had vibrancy, life, and feeling. Thomas "Fats" Domino was one of the top artists of the time. • Swing: was popular in the 1930's and 40's. swing music can be related to any type of music that involves swing dancing. It's uptempo, fun, and the perfect music to dance to. Philosophy was molded by the experience of the Harlem Renaissance, and many important philosophers emerged. And with them, knowledge and emotion did as well. Alain Leroy Locke was one of the most influential philosophers of the Harlem Renaissance. As an educator and philosopher, he played an important part. "In 1944, [he wrote] under the title "Moral Imperatives for World Order.” In this article, Locke strongly proclaimed his belief that “Realism and idealism should be combined in striking for a world order.” Indeed, he stated “Skeletal ideals of universal human brotherhood have been in the world a long time and we are further from tribal savagery and its tribalism because of these ideals. But they are but partial expressions of what we hope to make them mean and what today's world crisis demands.” Thus, he argued, “The moral imperatives of a new world order are an internationally limited idea of national sovereignty, a non-monopolistic and…	836	ENGLISH	1
Immanuel Kant was born, lived and passed away in his home town of Konigsberg. He lived from 1724 to 1804. He studied at the local university and later returned to tutor and lecture students. It wasn’t until he met an English merchant by the name of Joseph Green that Kant learned of David Hume and began to develop his ideas of morals and values. Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (1781) is believed by many to be his greatest work. Kant’s was known mainly, however, for his moral code The Categorical Imperative. Immanuel Kant was a follower of Deontology, or duty ethics. This means that for an act to be moral it must be performed out of duty. If you are concerned for the end product of your actions it is not a moral act. Only when your action is done in such a way that your only concern is the action itself is it a moral act. For example if a child runs into the street in front of a car and you grab that child you have performed a moral act. You are not worried about the outcome; your only concern is the act of grabbing the child. If, however, it is your child then your only concern is that your child is safe regardless the consequences of your actions. This then would not be considered a moral act. Kant states that your duty to act comes from your good will. He describes the good will as the process by which we make our decisions. It is, as its name states, inherently good. It is something we have from the moment we are born. In his Categorical Imperative Immanuel Kant explains what it means to act in accordance with universal law through his correlation of good will, reason, and duty. He says, “I should never act except in such a way that I can will that my maxim should become a universal law.” This means that when one is faced with a moral decision they are forced to observe a maxim. A maxim is an intention or a plan that we are to apply to the categorical imperative. The maxim provides us with a sound test see if our actions are moral our immoral. When deciding about our actions we are to ask ourselves the question of whether you would will that everyone did the same thing that you are about to do at the same time in the same circumstances. You are to universalize your decision so that you would wish everyone would do the same. John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill was born in London. Mill lived from 1806 to 1873. He had a very structured upbringing. His father made certain he excelled scholastically. At the age of 21 he had a nervous breakdown due to his rigorous studying habits. In 1863 Mill wrote Utilitarianism. This was written as a response to Kantianism.	<urn:uuid:bba4b418-0c01-436d-848e-b2628e6af654>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/kant-vs-mill-essay-2-75918/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00520.warc.gz	en	0.984932	579	3.71875	4	[ -0.2890978157520294, -0.02753380499780178, -0.24745556712150574, -0.4839109182357788, -0.3082524836063385, 0.07729576528072357, 0.8010480403900146, 0.25413474440574646, -0.09914399683475494, 0.35110509395599365, 0.11242954432964325, -0.32323214411735535, -0.08417247235774994, 0.50589835643...	1	Immanuel Kant was born, lived and passed away in his home town of Konigsberg. He lived from 1724 to 1804. He studied at the local university and later returned to tutor and lecture students. It wasn’t until he met an English merchant by the name of Joseph Green that Kant learned of David Hume and began to develop his ideas of morals and values. Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (1781) is believed by many to be his greatest work. Kant’s was known mainly, however, for his moral code The Categorical Imperative. Immanuel Kant was a follower of Deontology, or duty ethics. This means that for an act to be moral it must be performed out of duty. If you are concerned for the end product of your actions it is not a moral act. Only when your action is done in such a way that your only concern is the action itself is it a moral act. For example if a child runs into the street in front of a car and you grab that child you have performed a moral act. You are not worried about the outcome; your only concern is the act of grabbing the child. If, however, it is your child then your only concern is that your child is safe regardless the consequences of your actions. This then would not be considered a moral act. Kant states that your duty to act comes from your good will. He describes the good will as the process by which we make our decisions. It is, as its name states, inherently good. It is something we have from the moment we are born. In his Categorical Imperative Immanuel Kant explains what it means to act in accordance with universal law through his correlation of good will, reason, and duty. He says, “I should never act except in such a way that I can will that my maxim should become a universal law.” This means that when one is faced with a moral decision they are forced to observe a maxim. A maxim is an intention or a plan that we are to apply to the categorical imperative. The maxim provides us with a sound test see if our actions are moral our immoral. When deciding about our actions we are to ask ourselves the question of whether you would will that everyone did the same thing that you are about to do at the same time in the same circumstances. You are to universalize your decision so that you would wish everyone would do the same. John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill was born in London. Mill lived from 1806 to 1873. He had a very structured upbringing. His father made certain he excelled scholastically. At the age of 21 he had a nervous breakdown due to his rigorous studying habits. In 1863 Mill wrote Utilitarianism. This was written as a response to Kantianism.	583	ENGLISH	1
After 1945: Forced Laborers as "Forgotten Victims" After the war the forced laborers became the "forgotten victims" of National Socialism. Foreign victims had no voice in Germany; forced labor was not recognized as a specific Nazi crime. After 1945, many of those who were abducted stayed in camps on German soil as displaced persons. At home, especially in the Soviet Union, those who returned were often suspected of collaboration with the Germans. Some were taken to Stalinist camps; others were discriminated against in choosing a career. Some people did not even tell their family about their experiences of forced labor. Most of the survivors suffered from the psychological and physical consequences of forced labor; particularly in Eastern Europe, they often live on the verge of the existence minimum.	<urn:uuid:8e365e87-3965-4a25-a3c8-7cfd284b9aef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.zwangsarbeit-archiv.de/en/zwangsarbeit/nach1945/index.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00365.warc.gz	en	0.991577	154	3.734375	4	[ -0.13531166315078735, 0.5978769063949585, -0.0032913649920374155, 0.12016250193119049, 0.420534610748291, 0.13889387249946594, 0.02572661079466343, -0.2231513112783432, -0.15025296807289124, -0.3031207025051117, 0.5046171545982361, 0.07796239852905273, 0.032020844519138336, 0.6582826972007...	6	After 1945: Forced Laborers as "Forgotten Victims" After the war the forced laborers became the "forgotten victims" of National Socialism. Foreign victims had no voice in Germany; forced labor was not recognized as a specific Nazi crime. After 1945, many of those who were abducted stayed in camps on German soil as displaced persons. At home, especially in the Soviet Union, those who returned were often suspected of collaboration with the Germans. Some were taken to Stalinist camps; others were discriminated against in choosing a career. Some people did not even tell their family about their experiences of forced labor. Most of the survivors suffered from the psychological and physical consequences of forced labor; particularly in Eastern Europe, they often live on the verge of the existence minimum.	162	ENGLISH	1
The strategic location of the Columbia River, which has the largest deep-water estuary between San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound, long has been recognized by those who sought to colonize it. Employees of New York merchant John Jacob Astor founded Astoria as a hub in a fur trade that Astor hoped to establish from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast to China. Canadian fur trader David Thompson also recognized the mouth of the Columbia as an important station for the fur trade, as did Robert Gray and members of his crew, and Lewis and Clark. President James Monroe, in his last address to Congress in 1824, said a military post at the mouth of the Columbia “would afford protection to every interest, and have a tendency to conciliate the tribes of the Northwest with whom our trade is extensive.” President John Quincy Adams, in his first message to Congress in December 1825, said “the River of the West, first fully discovered and navigated by a countryman of our own, still bears the name of the ship in which he ascended its waters, and claims the protection of our armed national flag at its mouth.” The lower Columbia was an important commercial center for exports of lumber and canned salmon through the middle and late 1800s, and the importance of the river grew over time as cities as far inland as Vancouver, Washington, 100 miles from the ocean, developed deepwater sea ports. The river also long has had military importance, as well. If an enemy decided to attack by sea, the river provided a logical entrance to an important part of the West Coast. For that reason, three military posts were built in the estuary in the 1800s — one on either side of the mouth of the river and the other about a dozen miles inland on the Washington shore. The two at the river mouth are the oldest, their construction dating to the Civil War and before. The site of Fort Stevens, located at Point Adams on the southern, or Oregon, shore of the river mouth was established by executive order of President Millard Fillmore in 1850. Construction of the fort began in 1863 and was completed in 1865. It was named in honor of General Isaac I. Stevens, the first territorial governor Washington, who died in Virginia at the Battle of Chantilly in 1862. Coastal defense was important during the Civil War, as the Confederate ship Alabama prowled the north Pacific firing on whaling vessels and sinking many of them. On the north, or Washington, shore, a lighthouse was constructed at Cape Disappointment in 1856. It remains the oldest functioning lighthouse on the West Coast. In 1862, cannons were installed at the lighthouse. The site was expanded in 1875 and named Fort Canby after General Edward Canby, who was killed in the Modoc Indian War in southern Oregon and northern California in 1872-73. The fort continued to be improved until the end of World War II. Gun batteries remain at the park. A line of guns was constructed at Fort Stevens in the mid-1890s. The fort was updated to include modern six-inch guns during World War II. On June 20, 1942, a Japanese submarine fired several shells at the fort, making it the first military post in the lower 48 states to be attacked by an enemy since 1814. Fort Stevens closed as a military post in 1947; the buildings were sold to private owners. In the 1950s, the state of Oregon acquired the remainder of the property and established Fort Stevens State Park. Access to the park and its campground and historical area is from Hammond, Oregon, west of Astoria. Directly across the mouth of the Columbia from Fort Stevens was Fort Canby at Cape Disappointment, Washington. Fort Canby was completed in 1863 and eventually named for General Edward R.S. Canby, who was killed in a battle with Modoc Indians in northern California in 1873. Batteries from the old fort remain, but the guns have been removed. It was at Cape Disappointment in 1805 that William Clark, his slave York and 10 other members of the expedition first saw the Pacific Ocean. Clark commented in his journal that the “men appear much satisfied with their trip beholding with astonishment the high waves dashing against the rock and this ‘emence Ocian’.” Like Fort Stevens, Fort Canby was closed in 1947 and today is a state park. It includes two boat ramps, a camping area and hiking trails. Fort Columbia is the newest of the Columbia River coastal defense forts. It was constructed between 1896 and 1904 to protect the estuary and harbor. Like the others, it was closed in 1947 and today is a state park. The fort is constructed on a promontory called Chinook Point, which is a short distance east of the Astoria/Megler Bridge, and has an unobstructed view of the river. Twelve historic buildings still stand on the site, which includes picnic areas and trails. In addition to the guns at the forts, which could fire 10 miles or farther, other defense works were installed at the mouth of the Columbia, as well. Bright lights were installed at Cape Disappointment to illuminate the mouth of the river, if necessary, and during World War II the entrance to the river was mined. The mines, four feet in diameter, were anchored to the bottom of the river and wired together so they could be detonated electronically or by trip wire. Friendly vessels were advised by radio how to find the safe, mine-free channel. The mines never were used. Some were removed after the war and others simply silted over as the river bottom shifted. The Army assumes the mines were saturated with water over time and rendered harmless.	<urn:uuid:1f368186-f175-49e4-8d07-58751535c9f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nwcouncil.org/reports/columbia-river-history/CoastalDefense	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00206.warc.gz	en	0.984137	1,167	3.9375	4	[ -0.08779967576265335, -0.029633596539497375, 0.2078079730272293, -0.09445776045322418, -0.20281511545181274, -0.08040767908096313, 0.13505831360816956, -0.011508076451718807, -0.39457231760025024, -0.09270866215229034, 0.48822253942489624, -0.400534451007843, -0.09198462218046188, 0.138900...	3	The strategic location of the Columbia River, which has the largest deep-water estuary between San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound, long has been recognized by those who sought to colonize it. Employees of New York merchant John Jacob Astor founded Astoria as a hub in a fur trade that Astor hoped to establish from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast to China. Canadian fur trader David Thompson also recognized the mouth of the Columbia as an important station for the fur trade, as did Robert Gray and members of his crew, and Lewis and Clark. President James Monroe, in his last address to Congress in 1824, said a military post at the mouth of the Columbia “would afford protection to every interest, and have a tendency to conciliate the tribes of the Northwest with whom our trade is extensive.” President John Quincy Adams, in his first message to Congress in December 1825, said “the River of the West, first fully discovered and navigated by a countryman of our own, still bears the name of the ship in which he ascended its waters, and claims the protection of our armed national flag at its mouth.” The lower Columbia was an important commercial center for exports of lumber and canned salmon through the middle and late 1800s, and the importance of the river grew over time as cities as far inland as Vancouver, Washington, 100 miles from the ocean, developed deepwater sea ports. The river also long has had military importance, as well. If an enemy decided to attack by sea, the river provided a logical entrance to an important part of the West Coast. For that reason, three military posts were built in the estuary in the 1800s — one on either side of the mouth of the river and the other about a dozen miles inland on the Washington shore. The two at the river mouth are the oldest, their construction dating to the Civil War and before. The site of Fort Stevens, located at Point Adams on the southern, or Oregon, shore of the river mouth was established by executive order of President Millard Fillmore in 1850. Construction of the fort began in 1863 and was completed in 1865. It was named in honor of General Isaac I. Stevens, the first territorial governor Washington, who died in Virginia at the Battle of Chantilly in 1862. Coastal defense was important during the Civil War, as the Confederate ship Alabama prowled the north Pacific firing on whaling vessels and sinking many of them. On the north, or Washington, shore, a lighthouse was constructed at Cape Disappointment in 1856. It remains the oldest functioning lighthouse on the West Coast. In 1862, cannons were installed at the lighthouse. The site was expanded in 1875 and named Fort Canby after General Edward Canby, who was killed in the Modoc Indian War in southern Oregon and northern California in 1872-73. The fort continued to be improved until the end of World War II. Gun batteries remain at the park. A line of guns was constructed at Fort Stevens in the mid-1890s. The fort was updated to include modern six-inch guns during World War II. On June 20, 1942, a Japanese submarine fired several shells at the fort, making it the first military post in the lower 48 states to be attacked by an enemy since 1814. Fort Stevens closed as a military post in 1947; the buildings were sold to private owners. In the 1950s, the state of Oregon acquired the remainder of the property and established Fort Stevens State Park. Access to the park and its campground and historical area is from Hammond, Oregon, west of Astoria. Directly across the mouth of the Columbia from Fort Stevens was Fort Canby at Cape Disappointment, Washington. Fort Canby was completed in 1863 and eventually named for General Edward R.S. Canby, who was killed in a battle with Modoc Indians in northern California in 1873. Batteries from the old fort remain, but the guns have been removed. It was at Cape Disappointment in 1805 that William Clark, his slave York and 10 other members of the expedition first saw the Pacific Ocean. Clark commented in his journal that the “men appear much satisfied with their trip beholding with astonishment the high waves dashing against the rock and this ‘emence Ocian’.” Like Fort Stevens, Fort Canby was closed in 1947 and today is a state park. It includes two boat ramps, a camping area and hiking trails. Fort Columbia is the newest of the Columbia River coastal defense forts. It was constructed between 1896 and 1904 to protect the estuary and harbor. Like the others, it was closed in 1947 and today is a state park. The fort is constructed on a promontory called Chinook Point, which is a short distance east of the Astoria/Megler Bridge, and has an unobstructed view of the river. Twelve historic buildings still stand on the site, which includes picnic areas and trails. In addition to the guns at the forts, which could fire 10 miles or farther, other defense works were installed at the mouth of the Columbia, as well. Bright lights were installed at Cape Disappointment to illuminate the mouth of the river, if necessary, and during World War II the entrance to the river was mined. The mines, four feet in diameter, were anchored to the bottom of the river and wired together so they could be detonated electronically or by trip wire. Friendly vessels were advised by radio how to find the safe, mine-free channel. The mines never were used. Some were removed after the war and others simply silted over as the river bottom shifted. The Army assumes the mines were saturated with water over time and rendered harmless.	1,244	ENGLISH	1
II. Natural, Common, and Civil Law. The law of nature is that law which nature teaches to all animals. For this law does not belong exclusively to the human race, but belongs to all animals, whether of the earth, the air, or the water. Hence comes the union of the male and female, which we term matrimony; hence the procreation and bringing up of children. We see, indeed, that all the other animals besides men are considered as having knowledge of this law. 1. Civil law is thus distinguished from the law of nations. Every community governed by laws and customs uses partly its own law, partly laws common to all mankind. The law which a people makes for its own government belongs exclusively to that state and is called the civil law, as being the law of the particular state. But the law which natural reason appoints for all mankind obtains equally among all nations, because all nations make use of it. The people of Rome, then, are governed partly by their own laws, and partly by the laws which are common to all mankind. We will take notice of this distinction as occasion may arise. 2. Civil law takes its name from the state which it governs, as, for instance, from Athens; for it would be very proper to speak of the laws of Solon or Draco as the civil law of Athens. And thus the law which the Roman people make use of is called the civil law of the Romans, or that of the Quirites; for the Romans are called Quirites from Quirinum. But whenever we speak of civil law, without adding the name of any state, we mean our own law; just as the Greeks, when “the poet” is spoken of without any name being expressed, mean the great Homer, and we Romans mean Virgil. The law of the nations is common to all mankind, for nations have established certain laws, as occasion and the necessities of human life required. Wars arose, and in their train followed captivity and then slavery, which is contrary to the law of nature; for by that law all men are originally born free. Further, by the law of nations almost all contracts were at first introduced, as, for instance, buying and selling, letting and hiring, partnership, deposits, loans returnable in kind, and very many others. 3. Our law is written and unwritten, just as among the Greeks some of their laws were written and others were not written. The written part consists of leges (lex), plebiscita, senatusconsulta, constitutiones of emperors, edicta of magistrates, and responsa of jurisprudents [i.e., jurists]. 4. A lex is that which was enacted by the Roman people on its being proposed by a senatorian magistrate, as a consul. A plebiscitum is that which was enacted by the plebs on its being proposed by a plebeian magistrate, as a tribune. The plebs differ from the people as a species from its genus, for all the citizens, including patricians and senators, are comprehended in the populi (people); but the plebs only included citizens [who were] not patricians or senators. Plebiscita, after the Hortensian law had been passed, began to have the same force as leges. 5. A senatusconsultum is that which the senate commands or appoints: for, when the Roman people was so increased that it was difficult to assemble it together to pass laws, it seemed right that the senate should be consulted in place of the people. 6. That which seems good to the emperor has also the force of law; for the people, by the Lex Regia, which is passed to confer on him his power, make over to him their whole power and authority. Therefore whatever the emperor ordains by rescript, or decides in adjudging a cause, or lays down by edict, is unquestionably law; and it is these enactments of the emperor that are called constitutiones. Of these, some are personal, and are not to be drawn into precedent, such not being the intention of the emperor. Supposing the emperor has granted a favor to any man on account of his merit, or inflicted some punishment, or granted some extraordinary relief, the application of these acts does not extend beyond the particular individual. But the other constitutiones, being general, are undoubtedly binding on all. 7. The edicts of the praetors are also of great authority. These edicts are called the ius honorarium, because those who bear honors [i.e., offices] in the state, that is, the magistrates, have given them their sanction. The curule aediles also used to publish an edict relative to certain subjects, which edict also became a part of the ius honorarium. 8. The answers of the jurisprudenti are the decisions and opinions of persons who were authorized to determine the law. For anciently it was provided that there should be persons to interpret publicly the law, who were permitted by the emperor to give answers on questions of law. They were called jurisconsulti; and the authority of their decision and opinions, when they were all unanimous, was such, that the judge could not, according to the constitutiones, refuse to be guided by their answers. 9. The unwritten law is that which usage has established; for ancient customs, being sanctioned by the consent of those who adopt them, are like laws. 10. The civil law is not improperly divided into two kinds, for the division seems to have had its origin in the customs of the two states, Athens and Lacedaemon. For in these states it used to be the case, that the Lacedaemonians rather committed to memory what they observed as law, while the Athenians rather observed as law what they had consigned to writing, and included in the body of their laws. 11. The laws of nature, which all nations observe alike, being established by a divine providence, remain ever fixed and immutable. But the laws which every state has enacted, undergo frequent changes, either by the tacit consent of the people, or by a new law being subsequently passed.	<urn:uuid:15ff82c6-577f-4da8-a290-5cbcc4a9bda0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://advocatetanmoy.com/2019/11/25/natural-common-and-civil-law-institutes-of-justinian/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00463.warc.gz	en	0.984388	1,304	3.3125	3	[ -0.34412044286727905, -0.18134620785713196, 0.013218733482062817, 0.008650947362184525, -0.09104800969362259, -0.32508033514022827, 0.6279503107070923, -0.2258550375699997, 0.2421371042728424, 0.29787328839302063, -0.3600216507911682, -0.5475232601165771, 0.12052710354328156, 0.17083069682...	3	II. Natural, Common, and Civil Law. The law of nature is that law which nature teaches to all animals. For this law does not belong exclusively to the human race, but belongs to all animals, whether of the earth, the air, or the water. Hence comes the union of the male and female, which we term matrimony; hence the procreation and bringing up of children. We see, indeed, that all the other animals besides men are considered as having knowledge of this law. 1. Civil law is thus distinguished from the law of nations. Every community governed by laws and customs uses partly its own law, partly laws common to all mankind. The law which a people makes for its own government belongs exclusively to that state and is called the civil law, as being the law of the particular state. But the law which natural reason appoints for all mankind obtains equally among all nations, because all nations make use of it. The people of Rome, then, are governed partly by their own laws, and partly by the laws which are common to all mankind. We will take notice of this distinction as occasion may arise. 2. Civil law takes its name from the state which it governs, as, for instance, from Athens; for it would be very proper to speak of the laws of Solon or Draco as the civil law of Athens. And thus the law which the Roman people make use of is called the civil law of the Romans, or that of the Quirites; for the Romans are called Quirites from Quirinum. But whenever we speak of civil law, without adding the name of any state, we mean our own law; just as the Greeks, when “the poet” is spoken of without any name being expressed, mean the great Homer, and we Romans mean Virgil. The law of the nations is common to all mankind, for nations have established certain laws, as occasion and the necessities of human life required. Wars arose, and in their train followed captivity and then slavery, which is contrary to the law of nature; for by that law all men are originally born free. Further, by the law of nations almost all contracts were at first introduced, as, for instance, buying and selling, letting and hiring, partnership, deposits, loans returnable in kind, and very many others. 3. Our law is written and unwritten, just as among the Greeks some of their laws were written and others were not written. The written part consists of leges (lex), plebiscita, senatusconsulta, constitutiones of emperors, edicta of magistrates, and responsa of jurisprudents [i.e., jurists]. 4. A lex is that which was enacted by the Roman people on its being proposed by a senatorian magistrate, as a consul. A plebiscitum is that which was enacted by the plebs on its being proposed by a plebeian magistrate, as a tribune. The plebs differ from the people as a species from its genus, for all the citizens, including patricians and senators, are comprehended in the populi (people); but the plebs only included citizens [who were] not patricians or senators. Plebiscita, after the Hortensian law had been passed, began to have the same force as leges. 5. A senatusconsultum is that which the senate commands or appoints: for, when the Roman people was so increased that it was difficult to assemble it together to pass laws, it seemed right that the senate should be consulted in place of the people. 6. That which seems good to the emperor has also the force of law; for the people, by the Lex Regia, which is passed to confer on him his power, make over to him their whole power and authority. Therefore whatever the emperor ordains by rescript, or decides in adjudging a cause, or lays down by edict, is unquestionably law; and it is these enactments of the emperor that are called constitutiones. Of these, some are personal, and are not to be drawn into precedent, such not being the intention of the emperor. Supposing the emperor has granted a favor to any man on account of his merit, or inflicted some punishment, or granted some extraordinary relief, the application of these acts does not extend beyond the particular individual. But the other constitutiones, being general, are undoubtedly binding on all. 7. The edicts of the praetors are also of great authority. These edicts are called the ius honorarium, because those who bear honors [i.e., offices] in the state, that is, the magistrates, have given them their sanction. The curule aediles also used to publish an edict relative to certain subjects, which edict also became a part of the ius honorarium. 8. The answers of the jurisprudenti are the decisions and opinions of persons who were authorized to determine the law. For anciently it was provided that there should be persons to interpret publicly the law, who were permitted by the emperor to give answers on questions of law. They were called jurisconsulti; and the authority of their decision and opinions, when they were all unanimous, was such, that the judge could not, according to the constitutiones, refuse to be guided by their answers. 9. The unwritten law is that which usage has established; for ancient customs, being sanctioned by the consent of those who adopt them, are like laws. 10. The civil law is not improperly divided into two kinds, for the division seems to have had its origin in the customs of the two states, Athens and Lacedaemon. For in these states it used to be the case, that the Lacedaemonians rather committed to memory what they observed as law, while the Athenians rather observed as law what they had consigned to writing, and included in the body of their laws. 11. The laws of nature, which all nations observe alike, being established by a divine providence, remain ever fixed and immutable. But the laws which every state has enacted, undergo frequent changes, either by the tacit consent of the people, or by a new law being subsequently passed.	1,282	ENGLISH	1
Gandhi’s Historical Impact During the 19th and 20th centuries, there were many people who rose to power and demonstrated themselves as leaders with strong influences over their followers. This time period consisted of a few historically significant leaders such as Lenin, Hitler, Mussolini, and Mao Zedong. The main objective of these leaders was to spread their version of totalitarian ideas. Yet, another leader was prominent during the same time period, but unlike Hitler, Lenin, and Zedong, his goal was the spreading of democracy using nonviolent tactics throughout his nation as well as across the world; this leader as Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi was a rebel, who successfully gained a large following and much support without formulating any violent war plans, or issuing violent attacks on the opposition. According to many of his writings, nonviolence and morality are the keys to achieving unity. Various peoples, such as Muslims and Jews, have encountered various situations throughout history where Gandhi felt as if using tactics other than war would be considerably effective and beneficial to the overall goal of unity and liberty as long as a strong following aided in the process. Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writing focuses on the different values that Gandhi practiced, as well as preached. Much of these values were critical during a time period when many nations were experiencing turmoil, and many people were not sure how and who to trust. The writings cast Gandhi as more than a spiritual leader, but also a political leader. Through his writings, it is evident that Gandhi had a negative view in regards to the way in which communism was being spread. This communism focused on economic inequality among the varying classes, and Gandhi sought to have this eliminated. Gandhi’s teachings were very important to his period and generation, due to the fact that the leaders attempting to spread communism at the time focused a lot on nationalism and segregation. When this separation of classes, lifestyles, races, cultures, and religions took place, it allowed for much of the violent attacks and killings that we know to have occurred at the time. Hitler, Lenin, and Zedong were notorious political leaders who had a reputation for killing anyone who was deemed as a threat to their over goal communistic goals. “The socialists and communists say, they can do nothing to bring about economic equality today. They will Just carry on propaganda in its favor and to that end they believe in generating and accentuating hatred. “l Gandhi’s era took place during a time in India where there was much religious extremism present at that point in history. This has been a significant part of India’s history and culture, and usually history had shown us that religious conflicts usually brought about bloodshed and battle. Gandhi wanted to use religion as way tool to help end conflicts between Hindus and Muslims in India, rather than allowing it to be a contributing factor to the hostility between the two roups. If approaches to different religious conflicts are observed throughout history such as the Nazi’s treatment of Jews, one can truly appreciate how unique and out of the ordinary Gandhi’s methods truly was. His primary focus in these writings dealt witn achieving and maintaining his method ot nonviolent power, known as “satyagraha. “2 Gandhi’s strong political influence was a result of using the mind and philosophical teachings rather than brute force, lies, corruption, and dishonesty as a way to persuade a large following and to help gain India’s independence from the British. Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writing takes place during a time period where India was seeking to gain its independence from the British during the 1930s and 1940s. This is a momentous piece of history due to the fact Gandhi’s political influence helped India become the world’s largest democracy at the time. Gandhi’s era also occurred during a point in history where World War I and World War II had taken place and many nations seemed to have a distorted interpretation of the implication of morality. Many of Gandhi’s lessons addressed in these books occurred uring the 1930s; therefore it is natural that he would also relay much of his attention to the crises occurring in Europe as a result of Hitler’s force and brutality used to control Germany. He is quoted as having said that Hitler’s tactics are “naked, ruthless force reduced to an exact science and worked with scientific precision”3 Gandhi had many Jewish friends and knew that his teachings could be used to assist Jews experiencing the horrific immoral acts by the Nazis in Germany. Although Gandhi advocated Jews not to use hostility in their political campaigns against Hitler, e felt that war and violence in attempt to stop Hitler and the Nazis from murdering an entire race would be warranted. In Rediscovering Gandhi: Volume 2 Gandhi clearly stated his view of the Nazi situation with “If there could ever be a Justifiable war in the name of and for humanity, a war against Germany, to prevent the wanton persecution of a whole race, would be completely Justified. 4 He then hypothetically stated that if he were a Jew facing that situation his peaceful method would be to face the Nazis and give them the option of shooting him or locking him in a dungeon o that more Jews would choose this option with hopes of the Nazis accepting that they would not take the discrimination any longer, thus ending the attempted genocide. This issue of morality is addressed in An American Looks at Gandhi: Essays in Satyagraha, Civil Rights, and Peace by James D. Hunt. He stated “While thinking of morality, all we need to see is that the act is good and is done with a good intention. 5 Here, Gandhi’s writings expresses that the purpose behind living ethically is to better our character and he expresses that a key part in being moral is to never act on compulsion. It is understandable why his focus on the issue of morality is so important to him, because selfishness and compulsion are what contributed to the horrors other political leaders at the time put their nations people through as a result of communism and extreme nationalism. This is seen from leaders such as Hitler and Mussolini, who tended to rely on power in their political settings and agendas rather than Justice and equality. Egalitarianism amongst all classes and religions in India was a key problem during Gandhi’s era. It was a problem that he felt practicing morality could resolve. Gandhi recognized that in rder for India to successfully gain its independence from the British, equal opportunity and unity between Hindus, Muslims, and the Untouchables in India would need to take place. His messages focusing on liberty and freedom were spread through his use of nonviolence, by declaring hunger strikes in protest to the corruption present in India. An example of this is found in Spiritual leaders and thinkers: Mohandas Gandhi by Anne n w c the British were attempting to sway the elections by having the Untouchables vote with the Hindus in an attempt to separate them from the Muslim population in India. Gandhi was appalled at this plan… and did not want to see them separated from the rest of the people. “6 In this situation, rather than persuading his followers to attack and fght with the British, Gandhi turned to fasting while in prison. His ‘satyagraha’ method lead to the Yeravda Pact, which eradicated the separate elections for the Untouchable class in India, thus ending Gandhi’s fast. This was also an important piece of Gandhi’s historical contributions to India, because the lives of the Untouchable class began to improve as “… hundreds of Hindu temples began to open their doors for the first time to Harijans. 7 All the cited sources address Mahatma Gandhi’s notions on morality, liberty, nonviolence, and compassion as tools to successfully accomplish various political campaigns. This allows Mahatma Gandhi to stand alone as a leader who was significantly different from others at his time. He was a successful leader whose leadership qualities go beyond the basic ‘do as I say techniques which had been demonstrated worldwide for ages. He was also a leader who taught everyone, and did not Just aim his teaching at Indians alone. He taught to everyone who needed guidance and who seeked an alternative to a vehement and chaotic approach to chieving egalitarianism and being treated humanely. Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings demonstrates to us about studying world history that although Gandhi’s nonviolent approach to hostile situations is a goal most people would like see achieved, certain circumstances leave warfare and retaliation as the only possible method to protecting and securing the lives of the innocent, as Gandhi realized with Nazi Germany. Yet, we can learn to utilize Gandhi’s peaceful methods in certain scenarios, such as an unfair political election which he battled with his hunger strike, which then lead to the Yeravda Pact. Gandhi gives history a positive political figure that had tactics and strategies to achieve certain goals that were outside of the normal war and treaty methods. References Anne M. Todd, Martin E. Marty, Spiritual leaders and thinkers: Mohandas Gandhi (Infobase Publishing, 2004). Gandhi (Mahatma), Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings (Hackett Publishing, 1996). James D. Hunt, An American Looks at Gandhi: Essays in Satyagraha, Civil Rights, and Peace (Bibliophile south ASta, 2005). Jonathan K. Crane, Rediscovering Gandhi, Volume 2 (Concept Publishing Company, 2007).	<urn:uuid:0abbf972-bffa-41bf-914e-1ec6b91591e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://indybedbugpros.com/gandhi-265/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00369.warc.gz	en	0.98138	1,947	4.21875	4	[ -0.14473140239715576, 0.8724014163017273, 0.15523457527160645, -0.06801150739192963, -0.2896241247653961, 0.06458341330289841, 0.27866506576538086, 0.15381929278373718, -0.00612917635589838, -0.050892919301986694, 0.1253311038017273, 0.36241641640663147, 0.28064072132110596, 0.365057587623...	1	Gandhi’s Historical Impact During the 19th and 20th centuries, there were many people who rose to power and demonstrated themselves as leaders with strong influences over their followers. This time period consisted of a few historically significant leaders such as Lenin, Hitler, Mussolini, and Mao Zedong. The main objective of these leaders was to spread their version of totalitarian ideas. Yet, another leader was prominent during the same time period, but unlike Hitler, Lenin, and Zedong, his goal was the spreading of democracy using nonviolent tactics throughout his nation as well as across the world; this leader as Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi was a rebel, who successfully gained a large following and much support without formulating any violent war plans, or issuing violent attacks on the opposition. According to many of his writings, nonviolence and morality are the keys to achieving unity. Various peoples, such as Muslims and Jews, have encountered various situations throughout history where Gandhi felt as if using tactics other than war would be considerably effective and beneficial to the overall goal of unity and liberty as long as a strong following aided in the process. Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writing focuses on the different values that Gandhi practiced, as well as preached. Much of these values were critical during a time period when many nations were experiencing turmoil, and many people were not sure how and who to trust. The writings cast Gandhi as more than a spiritual leader, but also a political leader. Through his writings, it is evident that Gandhi had a negative view in regards to the way in which communism was being spread. This communism focused on economic inequality among the varying classes, and Gandhi sought to have this eliminated. Gandhi’s teachings were very important to his period and generation, due to the fact that the leaders attempting to spread communism at the time focused a lot on nationalism and segregation. When this separation of classes, lifestyles, races, cultures, and religions took place, it allowed for much of the violent attacks and killings that we know to have occurred at the time. Hitler, Lenin, and Zedong were notorious political leaders who had a reputation for killing anyone who was deemed as a threat to their over goal communistic goals. “The socialists and communists say, they can do nothing to bring about economic equality today. They will Just carry on propaganda in its favor and to that end they believe in generating and accentuating hatred. “l Gandhi’s era took place during a time in India where there was much religious extremism present at that point in history. This has been a significant part of India’s history and culture, and usually history had shown us that religious conflicts usually brought about bloodshed and battle. Gandhi wanted to use religion as way tool to help end conflicts between Hindus and Muslims in India, rather than allowing it to be a contributing factor to the hostility between the two roups. If approaches to different religious conflicts are observed throughout history such as the Nazi’s treatment of Jews, one can truly appreciate how unique and out of the ordinary Gandhi’s methods truly was. His primary focus in these writings dealt witn achieving and maintaining his method ot nonviolent power, known as “satyagraha. “2 Gandhi’s strong political influence was a result of using the mind and philosophical teachings rather than brute force, lies, corruption, and dishonesty as a way to persuade a large following and to help gain India’s independence from the British. Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writing takes place during a time period where India was seeking to gain its independence from the British during the 1930s and 1940s. This is a momentous piece of history due to the fact Gandhi’s political influence helped India become the world’s largest democracy at the time. Gandhi’s era also occurred during a point in history where World War I and World War II had taken place and many nations seemed to have a distorted interpretation of the implication of morality. Many of Gandhi’s lessons addressed in these books occurred uring the 1930s; therefore it is natural that he would also relay much of his attention to the crises occurring in Europe as a result of Hitler’s force and brutality used to control Germany. He is quoted as having said that Hitler’s tactics are “naked, ruthless force reduced to an exact science and worked with scientific precision”3 Gandhi had many Jewish friends and knew that his teachings could be used to assist Jews experiencing the horrific immoral acts by the Nazis in Germany. Although Gandhi advocated Jews not to use hostility in their political campaigns against Hitler, e felt that war and violence in attempt to stop Hitler and the Nazis from murdering an entire race would be warranted. In Rediscovering Gandhi: Volume 2 Gandhi clearly stated his view of the Nazi situation with “If there could ever be a Justifiable war in the name of and for humanity, a war against Germany, to prevent the wanton persecution of a whole race, would be completely Justified. 4 He then hypothetically stated that if he were a Jew facing that situation his peaceful method would be to face the Nazis and give them the option of shooting him or locking him in a dungeon o that more Jews would choose this option with hopes of the Nazis accepting that they would not take the discrimination any longer, thus ending the attempted genocide. This issue of morality is addressed in An American Looks at Gandhi: Essays in Satyagraha, Civil Rights, and Peace by James D. Hunt. He stated “While thinking of morality, all we need to see is that the act is good and is done with a good intention. 5 Here, Gandhi’s writings expresses that the purpose behind living ethically is to better our character and he expresses that a key part in being moral is to never act on compulsion. It is understandable why his focus on the issue of morality is so important to him, because selfishness and compulsion are what contributed to the horrors other political leaders at the time put their nations people through as a result of communism and extreme nationalism. This is seen from leaders such as Hitler and Mussolini, who tended to rely on power in their political settings and agendas rather than Justice and equality. Egalitarianism amongst all classes and religions in India was a key problem during Gandhi’s era. It was a problem that he felt practicing morality could resolve. Gandhi recognized that in rder for India to successfully gain its independence from the British, equal opportunity and unity between Hindus, Muslims, and the Untouchables in India would need to take place. His messages focusing on liberty and freedom were spread through his use of nonviolence, by declaring hunger strikes in protest to the corruption present in India. An example of this is found in Spiritual leaders and thinkers: Mohandas Gandhi by Anne n w c the British were attempting to sway the elections by having the Untouchables vote with the Hindus in an attempt to separate them from the Muslim population in India. Gandhi was appalled at this plan… and did not want to see them separated from the rest of the people. “6 In this situation, rather than persuading his followers to attack and fght with the British, Gandhi turned to fasting while in prison. His ‘satyagraha’ method lead to the Yeravda Pact, which eradicated the separate elections for the Untouchable class in India, thus ending Gandhi’s fast. This was also an important piece of Gandhi’s historical contributions to India, because the lives of the Untouchable class began to improve as “… hundreds of Hindu temples began to open their doors for the first time to Harijans. 7 All the cited sources address Mahatma Gandhi’s notions on morality, liberty, nonviolence, and compassion as tools to successfully accomplish various political campaigns. This allows Mahatma Gandhi to stand alone as a leader who was significantly different from others at his time. He was a successful leader whose leadership qualities go beyond the basic ‘do as I say techniques which had been demonstrated worldwide for ages. He was also a leader who taught everyone, and did not Just aim his teaching at Indians alone. He taught to everyone who needed guidance and who seeked an alternative to a vehement and chaotic approach to chieving egalitarianism and being treated humanely. Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings demonstrates to us about studying world history that although Gandhi’s nonviolent approach to hostile situations is a goal most people would like see achieved, certain circumstances leave warfare and retaliation as the only possible method to protecting and securing the lives of the innocent, as Gandhi realized with Nazi Germany. Yet, we can learn to utilize Gandhi’s peaceful methods in certain scenarios, such as an unfair political election which he battled with his hunger strike, which then lead to the Yeravda Pact. Gandhi gives history a positive political figure that had tactics and strategies to achieve certain goals that were outside of the normal war and treaty methods. References Anne M. Todd, Martin E. Marty, Spiritual leaders and thinkers: Mohandas Gandhi (Infobase Publishing, 2004). Gandhi (Mahatma), Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings (Hackett Publishing, 1996). James D. Hunt, An American Looks at Gandhi: Essays in Satyagraha, Civil Rights, and Peace (Bibliophile south ASta, 2005). Jonathan K. Crane, Rediscovering Gandhi, Volume 2 (Concept Publishing Company, 2007).	1,928	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Greek mythology gives us a complete and multilateral understanding of the world - about its creation and the way it was ordered, about the formation of important and sustainable values, about the ability to develop and improve. An inseparable part of Ancient Greek mythology are the Greek Muses. These are the 9 goddesses who embody the arts and inspire creativity with their grace through song, acting, literary gifts, music and dance. It was believed that they controlled the past, present and future and that they had prophetic abilities. Here's who they were and the domains they ruled over. Calliope is the Muse of science and more specifically of epic poetry. She is thought to be the oldest and wisest among all of the other Muses. Calliope is also the mother of the Thracian singer Orpheus. Often she is depicted with a stylus and wax writing tablet. Polyhymnia is the Muse of hymnal poetry, originally the Muse of dance, later of pantomime as well. She is depicted veiled without any attributes. She brings acclaim to the writers whose works have achieved immortal fame. Polyhymnia is also known as the Muse of geometry, pantomime, contemplation and agriculture. Urania rules over the domain of astronomy and astrology. She is depicted with a globe and pointer in hand. According to some Apollonian myths, she is the mother of the musician Linus. Clio in Ancient Greek mythology is the Muse of history and epic poetry. She is the mother of Hyacinth. She is depicted with a scroll of parchment. Her name comes from the Greek word meaning to recount or to make famous. Thalia, besides being a wife of Apollo, is the Muse of comedy and light poetry. In the myths she is often presented as the nymph Etna, who gave birth to twin demonic creatures from Zeus the Thunderer. Melpomene reigns over tragedy. She is the daughter of Zeus and Mnemosyne. Often she is portrayed with a vine wreath, holding a tragic mask in one hand and a sword in the other. Euterpe is the Muse of dance and lyrical poetry, which is why she is portrayed as a young woman with a flute. According to some writers, it was Euterpe who invented the double flute. Erato in Ancient Greek mythology is the Muse of lyrics and love poetry, song and hymns. She is depicted with a lyre or kithara in hand. Let's also not forget the Muse of dance and chorus, Terpsichore. According to some myths she gave birth to the sirens from the river god Achelous.See more	<urn:uuid:5adccfbc-cdaa-4b12-a5d9-e6093d9ab7ad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mysteries24.com/n4-69133-The_Muses_in_Greek_Mythology	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00296.warc.gz	en	0.980897	557	3.34375	3	[ 0.22931364178657532, -0.07388266175985336, 0.3896970748901367, 0.04290372133255005, -0.6470721364021301, -0.11207830160856247, 0.04212639108300209, 0.3840293288230896, 0.10986839234828949, -0.24642732739448547, -0.4930054247379303, -0.11960507929325104, 0.030353419482707977, 0.210560888051...	2	Ancient Greek mythology gives us a complete and multilateral understanding of the world - about its creation and the way it was ordered, about the formation of important and sustainable values, about the ability to develop and improve. An inseparable part of Ancient Greek mythology are the Greek Muses. These are the 9 goddesses who embody the arts and inspire creativity with their grace through song, acting, literary gifts, music and dance. It was believed that they controlled the past, present and future and that they had prophetic abilities. Here's who they were and the domains they ruled over. Calliope is the Muse of science and more specifically of epic poetry. She is thought to be the oldest and wisest among all of the other Muses. Calliope is also the mother of the Thracian singer Orpheus. Often she is depicted with a stylus and wax writing tablet. Polyhymnia is the Muse of hymnal poetry, originally the Muse of dance, later of pantomime as well. She is depicted veiled without any attributes. She brings acclaim to the writers whose works have achieved immortal fame. Polyhymnia is also known as the Muse of geometry, pantomime, contemplation and agriculture. Urania rules over the domain of astronomy and astrology. She is depicted with a globe and pointer in hand. According to some Apollonian myths, she is the mother of the musician Linus. Clio in Ancient Greek mythology is the Muse of history and epic poetry. She is the mother of Hyacinth. She is depicted with a scroll of parchment. Her name comes from the Greek word meaning to recount or to make famous. Thalia, besides being a wife of Apollo, is the Muse of comedy and light poetry. In the myths she is often presented as the nymph Etna, who gave birth to twin demonic creatures from Zeus the Thunderer. Melpomene reigns over tragedy. She is the daughter of Zeus and Mnemosyne. Often she is portrayed with a vine wreath, holding a tragic mask in one hand and a sword in the other. Euterpe is the Muse of dance and lyrical poetry, which is why she is portrayed as a young woman with a flute. According to some writers, it was Euterpe who invented the double flute. Erato in Ancient Greek mythology is the Muse of lyrics and love poetry, song and hymns. She is depicted with a lyre or kithara in hand. Let's also not forget the Muse of dance and chorus, Terpsichore. According to some myths she gave birth to the sirens from the river god Achelous.See more	545	ENGLISH	1
From the late 1800’s to the early 1900’s America went through a major immigration boom. People came from all over Europe to create a better life for themselves as well as their family. With this immigration boom came, an idea known as the American Dream. The American Dream can be defined as the ideal that every US citizen should have an equal opportunity to achieve success and prosperity through hard work, determination, and initiative. This ideal is a prominent theme in the novel The Great Gatsby. The novel began in the year 1922, which was a period in which the economy thrived and people were materialistic. In addition, this time period followed World War and to fill their sorrows many people partied, consumed alcohol and spent large amounts of money to fill the void in their life. In The Great Gatsby, power is associated with money. Those who have money have a sense of power in the novel. Tom comes from “old money” and uses structural power to control others and get out of his mishaps. Unlike Tom, Gatsby uses his individual power to accomplish his dream, which is to win back Daisy. Lastly, Myrtle uses individual power to get with Tom so that she is closer to living the rich life she had always dreamt of. Each character in the novel has a dream, Myrtle has the desire to live the perfect luxurious life and be apart of the elite social class. Most people would argue that Tom had already achieved the American Dream, he is rich, married and has a kid. However, Tom is not satisfied with the life he is living. He resorts to having affairs with lower class women to feel free. Gatsby posses both the uncorrupted as well as the corrupted American Dream. Gatsby came from nothing and worked his way up. On the contrary, Gatsby used illegal tactics to achieve his version of the American Dream which shows us how the dream can lead to corruption. The amount of money and power one possesses does not influence their chances of achieving the American Dream, money and power ultimately crushes the dream itself. Throughout the novel Gatsby embodies the American Dream and what it truly means in society. Gatsby grew up in a poor family from North Dakota. QUOTE. Starting at a young age Gatsby had the vision of money in his head. When he met Daisy he was poor soldier awaiting his departure for the war and vowed he would return a wealthy man. Gatsby believed he needed to be rich in order to win over Daisy because she is apart of the elite social class. Daisy too was infatuated with money and thus left Gatsby and married Tom Buchanan, a wealthy man from “east egg.” This pushed Gatsby dream farther away from his reach. Empowered by his American Dream, Gatsby joined forces with Wolfsheim and took part in illegal activities to acquire the wealth needed to win back Daisy. Gatsby represents the true version of the American Dream as well as the corrupted dream because he was determined to reconnect with Daisy. However, he took part in illegal activities in order to become wealthy. Gatsby bought a big house and threw lavish parties in hopes of Daisy attending so that he could win her back. Fitzgerald used symbolism throughout the novel to demonstrate the American Dream, the green light in the novel represents Gatsby’s hopes and dreams for the future. He associates the light with Daisy and reaches out to it and uses it as a guiding light to direct him to his dream. As shown in the novel, “He stretched out his arms toward the dark water in a curious way, and, far as I was from him, I could have sworn he was trembling. Involuntarily I glanced seaward and distinguished nothing except a single green light, minute and far away, that might have been the end of a dock.” Some people might claim that Gatsby was able to achieve his dream because he succeeded in becoming a wealthy man in West Egg. However, this is only partially true, for Gatsby’s genuine American Dream was to win over Daisy Buchanan. Gatsby’s dream was centered around the idea of wealth, therefore the power to achieve his dream and other things in life is through money. Gatsby believed that he needed to be wealthy in order to achieve his dream which is false. His death at the end of the novel represents how one cannot achieve the American Dream by cheating it and taking part in illegal activities in order to gain wealth and later power, which is what Gatsby had done. In the end Gatsby could not fully achieve his dream, which shows how power does not influence one’s ability to achieve the American Dream. Myrtle represents the failure of the American Dream. Like most during this time period, Myrtle was infatuated with money. She was born into the lower class but believed she belonged as one of the elite. Her husband was unable to provide for her materialistic needs and turned to Tom, a member of the elite class to fill that void in which her husband could not. Myrtle believed that Tom was the picture perfect image that represented the American Dream. The affair with Tom allowed Myrtle to inch her way closer to “old money” and the life she desired. Myrtle’s death represents how destructive the American Dream can be. Fitzgerald used irony, as he had Daisy kill her. In the novel Myrtle does not have any power, she comes from rags and hopes to become apart of the riches. It is evident throughout the novel that her lack of power did not limit her ability to work at achieving her dream. However, she fell short and her ironic death led to destruction and shows how power and ultimately leads to stress, jealousy, and corruption.Tom Buchanan represents the false hope of the American Dream. Tom has always been apart of the elite class and uses his wealth to do whatever he wants in life. The American Dream is thought of as the journey of coming out of poverty and making a name for yourself through hard work and determination. Tom does not portray the qualities associated with the dream and therefore creates a sense of false hope for those that look up to him. The worst qualities associated with the American Dream are portrayed by both Tom and Daisy Buchanan, both lived without a purpose in life. In the novel Nick described them as “Careless people, Tom and Daisy- They smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money or their vast carelessness, or whatever it was that kept them together, and let other people clean up the mess they had made…” (Fitzgerald, ). This represents the power they uphold, no matter their actions they retreat back to their money to get them out of the situation. Tom represents the false hope of the American Dream because he doesn’t work to get what he wants in life and the American Dream is built on the foundation of hard work. When people look at him they see the vision of the American Dream but he only represents an evil, greedy man. Which has caused the old version of the American Dream to be terminated and now focusing on materialism. Tom acquired a great deal of power but, the amount of money does not provide him with happiness and his dream. Some people believe that the American Dream is having a nice car, house or family. According to the article, “The Psychology of the American Dream” the dream is in our imagination, everyone can have their own version of the dream they want to accomplish. It can be as simple as getting a job or having a family. In the article, it stated that to most, the dream is a factor of motivation that keeps them living their life day to day. This connects to the novel The Great Gatsby as Gatsby used his version of the American Dream as motivation to keep on working to win over Daisy. However, in a way it gave him false hope because he was never able to reach her fully. In the article it states that people are starting to lose hope in the dream because they are unable to see the results it is giving them. The fall of both Gatsby and Myrtle represent the old American Dream dying. It represents the loss of the American values and their replacements, money, greed, and materialism. In the end, no matter how much money or power the characters in the novel possessed they were all unable to achieve the American Dream furthers the idea that power does not influence one’s ability to achieve the American Dream.	<urn:uuid:1617aa64-46df-46b9-853d-c73fcd637aab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://taxteaparty.com/from-money-and-uses-structural-power-to-control/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00194.warc.gz	en	0.987092	1,746	3.46875	3	[ -0.0409756600856781, 0.3866065740585327, -0.06332647800445557, 0.09630638360977173, 0.02011341042816639, 0.25803422927856445, 0.04801930487155914, -0.13070258498191833, 0.1874699592590332, -0.06766337156295776, 0.4288395047187805, 0.40142494440078735, 0.31157439947128296, -0.12306784093379...	2	From the late 1800’s to the early 1900’s America went through a major immigration boom. People came from all over Europe to create a better life for themselves as well as their family. With this immigration boom came, an idea known as the American Dream. The American Dream can be defined as the ideal that every US citizen should have an equal opportunity to achieve success and prosperity through hard work, determination, and initiative. This ideal is a prominent theme in the novel The Great Gatsby. The novel began in the year 1922, which was a period in which the economy thrived and people were materialistic. In addition, this time period followed World War and to fill their sorrows many people partied, consumed alcohol and spent large amounts of money to fill the void in their life. In The Great Gatsby, power is associated with money. Those who have money have a sense of power in the novel. Tom comes from “old money” and uses structural power to control others and get out of his mishaps. Unlike Tom, Gatsby uses his individual power to accomplish his dream, which is to win back Daisy. Lastly, Myrtle uses individual power to get with Tom so that she is closer to living the rich life she had always dreamt of. Each character in the novel has a dream, Myrtle has the desire to live the perfect luxurious life and be apart of the elite social class. Most people would argue that Tom had already achieved the American Dream, he is rich, married and has a kid. However, Tom is not satisfied with the life he is living. He resorts to having affairs with lower class women to feel free. Gatsby posses both the uncorrupted as well as the corrupted American Dream. Gatsby came from nothing and worked his way up. On the contrary, Gatsby used illegal tactics to achieve his version of the American Dream which shows us how the dream can lead to corruption. The amount of money and power one possesses does not influence their chances of achieving the American Dream, money and power ultimately crushes the dream itself. Throughout the novel Gatsby embodies the American Dream and what it truly means in society. Gatsby grew up in a poor family from North Dakota. QUOTE. Starting at a young age Gatsby had the vision of money in his head. When he met Daisy he was poor soldier awaiting his departure for the war and vowed he would return a wealthy man. Gatsby believed he needed to be rich in order to win over Daisy because she is apart of the elite social class. Daisy too was infatuated with money and thus left Gatsby and married Tom Buchanan, a wealthy man from “east egg.” This pushed Gatsby dream farther away from his reach. Empowered by his American Dream, Gatsby joined forces with Wolfsheim and took part in illegal activities to acquire the wealth needed to win back Daisy. Gatsby represents the true version of the American Dream as well as the corrupted dream because he was determined to reconnect with Daisy. However, he took part in illegal activities in order to become wealthy. Gatsby bought a big house and threw lavish parties in hopes of Daisy attending so that he could win her back. Fitzgerald used symbolism throughout the novel to demonstrate the American Dream, the green light in the novel represents Gatsby’s hopes and dreams for the future. He associates the light with Daisy and reaches out to it and uses it as a guiding light to direct him to his dream. As shown in the novel, “He stretched out his arms toward the dark water in a curious way, and, far as I was from him, I could have sworn he was trembling. Involuntarily I glanced seaward and distinguished nothing except a single green light, minute and far away, that might have been the end of a dock.” Some people might claim that Gatsby was able to achieve his dream because he succeeded in becoming a wealthy man in West Egg. However, this is only partially true, for Gatsby’s genuine American Dream was to win over Daisy Buchanan. Gatsby’s dream was centered around the idea of wealth, therefore the power to achieve his dream and other things in life is through money. Gatsby believed that he needed to be wealthy in order to achieve his dream which is false. His death at the end of the novel represents how one cannot achieve the American Dream by cheating it and taking part in illegal activities in order to gain wealth and later power, which is what Gatsby had done. In the end Gatsby could not fully achieve his dream, which shows how power does not influence one’s ability to achieve the American Dream. Myrtle represents the failure of the American Dream. Like most during this time period, Myrtle was infatuated with money. She was born into the lower class but believed she belonged as one of the elite. Her husband was unable to provide for her materialistic needs and turned to Tom, a member of the elite class to fill that void in which her husband could not. Myrtle believed that Tom was the picture perfect image that represented the American Dream. The affair with Tom allowed Myrtle to inch her way closer to “old money” and the life she desired. Myrtle’s death represents how destructive the American Dream can be. Fitzgerald used irony, as he had Daisy kill her. In the novel Myrtle does not have any power, she comes from rags and hopes to become apart of the riches. It is evident throughout the novel that her lack of power did not limit her ability to work at achieving her dream. However, she fell short and her ironic death led to destruction and shows how power and ultimately leads to stress, jealousy, and corruption.Tom Buchanan represents the false hope of the American Dream. Tom has always been apart of the elite class and uses his wealth to do whatever he wants in life. The American Dream is thought of as the journey of coming out of poverty and making a name for yourself through hard work and determination. Tom does not portray the qualities associated with the dream and therefore creates a sense of false hope for those that look up to him. The worst qualities associated with the American Dream are portrayed by both Tom and Daisy Buchanan, both lived without a purpose in life. In the novel Nick described them as “Careless people, Tom and Daisy- They smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money or their vast carelessness, or whatever it was that kept them together, and let other people clean up the mess they had made…” (Fitzgerald, ). This represents the power they uphold, no matter their actions they retreat back to their money to get them out of the situation. Tom represents the false hope of the American Dream because he doesn’t work to get what he wants in life and the American Dream is built on the foundation of hard work. When people look at him they see the vision of the American Dream but he only represents an evil, greedy man. Which has caused the old version of the American Dream to be terminated and now focusing on materialism. Tom acquired a great deal of power but, the amount of money does not provide him with happiness and his dream. Some people believe that the American Dream is having a nice car, house or family. According to the article, “The Psychology of the American Dream” the dream is in our imagination, everyone can have their own version of the dream they want to accomplish. It can be as simple as getting a job or having a family. In the article, it stated that to most, the dream is a factor of motivation that keeps them living their life day to day. This connects to the novel The Great Gatsby as Gatsby used his version of the American Dream as motivation to keep on working to win over Daisy. However, in a way it gave him false hope because he was never able to reach her fully. In the article it states that people are starting to lose hope in the dream because they are unable to see the results it is giving them. The fall of both Gatsby and Myrtle represent the old American Dream dying. It represents the loss of the American values and their replacements, money, greed, and materialism. In the end, no matter how much money or power the characters in the novel possessed they were all unable to achieve the American Dream furthers the idea that power does not influence one’s ability to achieve the American Dream.	1,701	ENGLISH	1
Macbeth Term Paper Macbeth is a account that shows profound difference in human figure in times when a strong belief becomes the focal point or reason for living. In serious cases, such as the story of Macbeth, this individual becomes so in configured in his beliefs that he went through impressive changes both equally mentally and spiritually. Macbeth is a personality who sets himself within a life or perhaps death situation and out of this a whole new persona comes out of him. Macbeth is a prime example of a guy that opts to will certainly his way to electric power in the the majority of daring and deceiving ways possible with no regard to get his activities. Under dyer needs it really is within being human to adapt to surrounding is to do what ever is needed to continue on living. Throughout the story Macbeth adapted a brand new personality due to his being thirsty for the thrown, his undeniable disregard for others' well being, as well as the immense pressure bestowed upon him by the people close to him. " Whether it were carried out when 'tis done, after that 'twere well. It had been done quickly. If th'assassination, could trammel up the effect, and get with his surcease success: that but this blow may be the be-all and the end-all, here, Although here after this traditional bank and shoal of time, There was jump the life span to comeвЂќ (act 1, scene 7). This estimate demonstrates Macbeth and his struggle with his fresh personality characteristic: greed. Macbeth's greed starts to take over his train of thought in early stages, after his visit with the witches. Following visiting with all the withes he finds that he is likely to be called King if he goes through with various works. Instantly his worldview improvements and he begins to go through changes. Macbeth begins to loath the idea of undertaking anything aside from capturing the thrown. This kind of scene shows how Macbeth is thinking of the take action of eradicating Dunkin (King of Scotland). As he points out in this quote, he understands there are great consequences if he ought to be caught and he as well believes the benefits in the mind are very worthy too, should this individual succeed in killing the king. This is a monumental difference in his frame of mind or persona because before he was just a noble man, who were legitimately respected. Undoubtedly Macbeth would never have considered killing Ruler Dunkin before he noticed visions of himself since king. This is especially true due to the fact that Macbeth and Full Dunkin include a respectful and well-known relationship because cousins (Bates, Alfred). Hardly any evidence might show Macbeth as a careless and murderous man. Greed and passion on the other hand lead him to think about murder. " Yields to that suggestion, In whose horrid photo doth unfix my locks, And make my seated heart topple at my ribs" (Act one particular, scene 3, 133-135). Undeniably, at this point inside the story, Macbeth is rapped up in greed and the electricity he desires to grasp. This can be the tipping level for Macbeth. He knows that he will certainly not be precisely the same person should certainly he proceed through with the take action of killing King Dunkin however his urge to put himself within a better placement is eating away by his notion (Bates, Alfred). This is a good sort of how Macbeth cannot control his wishes when he identifies his " heart knocking at his ribsвЂќ. He could be indirectly holding his lifestyle above others as his conscience is definitely telling him to take electric power over the chucked, in any way possible. This kind of shows that not only the persona trait of greed is taking over, but also the traits of becoming egocentric and self-centered will be coming out of Macbeth. There is not an occasion in this component to Macbeth in which he describes reasons for taking electric power other than the sheer prospects that come with staying king. Basically, Macbeth by no means states that he can do better as king than Full Dunkin experienced done, alternatively he just wants to become the most powerful gentleman in Ireland. Macbeth with the middle of developing a self-centered personality attribute because his thoughts usually do not consider any individual other than him self when he contemplates murder as a way to become ruler. Before Macbeth even thought of taking control...	<urn:uuid:c0ce7e38-58af-4f1a-8e3f-cbbfdf4f7826>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://preservationeastern.com/macbeth-term-paper/52853-macbeth-term-paper.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00554.warc.gz	en	0.98288	930	3.46875	3	[ -0.38656187057495117, 0.14601081609725952, 0.386371910572052, 0.08789832890033722, -0.26856815814971924, 0.016562411561608315, 0.9254136681556702, 0.39472928643226624, -0.04963327571749687, -0.09392237663269043, 0.20962056517601013, -0.17960064113140106, -0.30145132541656494, 0.00946149788...	1	Macbeth Term Paper Macbeth is a account that shows profound difference in human figure in times when a strong belief becomes the focal point or reason for living. In serious cases, such as the story of Macbeth, this individual becomes so in configured in his beliefs that he went through impressive changes both equally mentally and spiritually. Macbeth is a personality who sets himself within a life or perhaps death situation and out of this a whole new persona comes out of him. Macbeth is a prime example of a guy that opts to will certainly his way to electric power in the the majority of daring and deceiving ways possible with no regard to get his activities. Under dyer needs it really is within being human to adapt to surrounding is to do what ever is needed to continue on living. Throughout the story Macbeth adapted a brand new personality due to his being thirsty for the thrown, his undeniable disregard for others' well being, as well as the immense pressure bestowed upon him by the people close to him. " Whether it were carried out when 'tis done, after that 'twere well. It had been done quickly. If th'assassination, could trammel up the effect, and get with his surcease success: that but this blow may be the be-all and the end-all, here, Although here after this traditional bank and shoal of time, There was jump the life span to comeвЂќ (act 1, scene 7). This estimate demonstrates Macbeth and his struggle with his fresh personality characteristic: greed. Macbeth's greed starts to take over his train of thought in early stages, after his visit with the witches. Following visiting with all the withes he finds that he is likely to be called King if he goes through with various works. Instantly his worldview improvements and he begins to go through changes. Macbeth begins to loath the idea of undertaking anything aside from capturing the thrown. This kind of scene shows how Macbeth is thinking of the take action of eradicating Dunkin (King of Scotland). As he points out in this quote, he understands there are great consequences if he ought to be caught and he as well believes the benefits in the mind are very worthy too, should this individual succeed in killing the king. This is a monumental difference in his frame of mind or persona because before he was just a noble man, who were legitimately respected. Undoubtedly Macbeth would never have considered killing Ruler Dunkin before he noticed visions of himself since king. This is especially true due to the fact that Macbeth and Full Dunkin include a respectful and well-known relationship because cousins (Bates, Alfred). Hardly any evidence might show Macbeth as a careless and murderous man. Greed and passion on the other hand lead him to think about murder. " Yields to that suggestion, In whose horrid photo doth unfix my locks, And make my seated heart topple at my ribs" (Act one particular, scene 3, 133-135). Undeniably, at this point inside the story, Macbeth is rapped up in greed and the electricity he desires to grasp. This can be the tipping level for Macbeth. He knows that he will certainly not be precisely the same person should certainly he proceed through with the take action of killing King Dunkin however his urge to put himself within a better placement is eating away by his notion (Bates, Alfred). This is a good sort of how Macbeth cannot control his wishes when he identifies his " heart knocking at his ribsвЂќ. He could be indirectly holding his lifestyle above others as his conscience is definitely telling him to take electric power over the chucked, in any way possible. This kind of shows that not only the persona trait of greed is taking over, but also the traits of becoming egocentric and self-centered will be coming out of Macbeth. There is not an occasion in this component to Macbeth in which he describes reasons for taking electric power other than the sheer prospects that come with staying king. Basically, Macbeth by no means states that he can do better as king than Full Dunkin experienced done, alternatively he just wants to become the most powerful gentleman in Ireland. Macbeth with the middle of developing a self-centered personality attribute because his thoughts usually do not consider any individual other than him self when he contemplates murder as a way to become ruler. Before Macbeth even thought of taking control...	907	ENGLISH	1
How Our Government Works by Lt. Gen. Clarence E. McKnight, Jr. Our first government under the Articles of Confederation was scarcely a government at all. It was actually a little more than a social gathering among representatives of the sovereign states. It could not impose taxes, but only request financial support from the states which was never enough to keep the Revolutionary Army fed and clothed. It soon became clear that our government was a government in name only. So a few inspired gentlemen that we now revere as the Founding Fathers convened a Constitutional Convention to draw up a new framework for a central government that would have the power to govern. This was highly controversial because there were many citizens who believed strongly that an impotent government was exactly what the country needed. A powerful government would be able to suppress individual liberties just as the British had done. More than a few of the critics were veterans of the original tea party that dumped crates of tea into Boston Harbor in 1773 to protest the British tax on tea. The tea party then, like its namesake today, was comprised of tough minded people who felt strongly that government should be small and ineffectual to preclude tyranny. But there were a few extraordinary individuals at large who realized that the ineffectual government they had created was a recipe for anarchy. If a government is to govern, it must have power - to collect taxes, set foreign policy, maintain an army and navy and generally attend to the public interests. Among those who felt this way were James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and, of course, George Washington. There was a long-running debate between these people and other like-minded leaders and the small government advocates who perceived a devious plot underway. Madison, Hamilton and Jay co-authored a series of publications called The Federalist Papers that laid out their rationale for advocating a strong central government - still worth a read. Eventually, the Federalists prevailed in large measure because they counted George Washington among their number. Washington did not talk a lot. He was not as articulate, erudite and well educated as some of his contemporaries. But he understood the principles at stake and his force of character was sufficient to determine the outcome. Even so, the concerns about tyranny were reflected in the Constitution -- a government with divided powers to prevent any group or individual from becoming tyrannical. The conservatives who are today so determined to impose their vision on our government might do well to pause and consider the context of what they are attempting to do. To make the changes they want to make, it isn't enough to have working majorities in both Houses of Congress. The original tea party people saw to that. To make the changes they want, the conservatives need the White House too, and to win the Presidency they must demonstrate their ability to govern sensibly. Shutting down the government now would not serve their cause. Lt. Gen. Clarence E. "Mac" McKnight, Jr., (USA-Ret) is the author of "From Pigeons to Tweets: A General Who Led Dramatic Change in Military Communications," published by The History Publishing Company.	<urn:uuid:5c691839-ef34-49f2-af6f-de23aec0554a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.huffpost.com/entry/checks-and-balances_1_b_8367942	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00347.warc.gz	en	0.985126	633	3.46875	3	[ -0.2955889403820038, 0.01345754973590374, 0.16737741231918335, -0.28757795691490173, -0.1408388912677765, 0.5081355571746826, 0.42873579263687134, 0.18939895927906036, -0.29929882287979126, 0.27624019980430603, -0.004988654516637325, 0.3421814441680908, -0.09859520196914673, 0.296081423759...	1	How Our Government Works by Lt. Gen. Clarence E. McKnight, Jr. Our first government under the Articles of Confederation was scarcely a government at all. It was actually a little more than a social gathering among representatives of the sovereign states. It could not impose taxes, but only request financial support from the states which was never enough to keep the Revolutionary Army fed and clothed. It soon became clear that our government was a government in name only. So a few inspired gentlemen that we now revere as the Founding Fathers convened a Constitutional Convention to draw up a new framework for a central government that would have the power to govern. This was highly controversial because there were many citizens who believed strongly that an impotent government was exactly what the country needed. A powerful government would be able to suppress individual liberties just as the British had done. More than a few of the critics were veterans of the original tea party that dumped crates of tea into Boston Harbor in 1773 to protest the British tax on tea. The tea party then, like its namesake today, was comprised of tough minded people who felt strongly that government should be small and ineffectual to preclude tyranny. But there were a few extraordinary individuals at large who realized that the ineffectual government they had created was a recipe for anarchy. If a government is to govern, it must have power - to collect taxes, set foreign policy, maintain an army and navy and generally attend to the public interests. Among those who felt this way were James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and, of course, George Washington. There was a long-running debate between these people and other like-minded leaders and the small government advocates who perceived a devious plot underway. Madison, Hamilton and Jay co-authored a series of publications called The Federalist Papers that laid out their rationale for advocating a strong central government - still worth a read. Eventually, the Federalists prevailed in large measure because they counted George Washington among their number. Washington did not talk a lot. He was not as articulate, erudite and well educated as some of his contemporaries. But he understood the principles at stake and his force of character was sufficient to determine the outcome. Even so, the concerns about tyranny were reflected in the Constitution -- a government with divided powers to prevent any group or individual from becoming tyrannical. The conservatives who are today so determined to impose their vision on our government might do well to pause and consider the context of what they are attempting to do. To make the changes they want to make, it isn't enough to have working majorities in both Houses of Congress. The original tea party people saw to that. To make the changes they want, the conservatives need the White House too, and to win the Presidency they must demonstrate their ability to govern sensibly. Shutting down the government now would not serve their cause. Lt. Gen. Clarence E. "Mac" McKnight, Jr., (USA-Ret) is the author of "From Pigeons to Tweets: A General Who Led Dramatic Change in Military Communications," published by The History Publishing Company.	633	ENGLISH	1
"We don't know when we are leaving. They are constantly telling us to prepare for a long journey." These words were written by Albert Kabili in his last letter from Gorna Dzumaja to his brother Nissim, a prisoner at the Belitsa labor camp. Yaacov-Jacko and Doodoo Kabili lived in the city of Kavala, Greece, with their children: Israel, Rachel, Daniel, Albert and Nissim. Yaacov owned a grocery store, as well as a number of residences in the city. On 6 April 1941, the Germans invaded Greece. Within a few days, the area of Kavala was occupied. The town and five adjacent cities were part of the territory annexed by Bulgaria until the end of the war, and its Jewish residents were subjected to racial laws. They were forbidden from traveling along the main streets, and were no longer permitted to earn a living in trade. Their houses and businesses were marked as Jewish. In 1942, the anti-Jewish measures worsened: Jews were forced to wear a yellow star on their clothing, and to carry a special ID card. Their property was looted, and young Jewish men were seized for forced labor. In January 1943, 40 young men, among them Nissim Kabili, were taken from Kavala to forced labor camps in Bulgaria. That March, the Jews of northern Greece, including Kavala, were rounded up and taken to the Bulgarian city of Gorna Dzumaja, pending their deportation to Poland. The deportees included the remaining members of the Kabili family. The deportation trains passed close to the Belitsa labor camp, and rumors about them reached Nissim and his friends. They succeeded in locating the trains, climbed aboard and met with their families. Unaware of their final destination, their parents instructed their sons to return to Belitsa, Yaacov Kabili included. The Bulgarian policemen accompanying the transport alighted the train and forcibly removed Nissim and his friends. They never saw their families again. Albert Kabili managed to send a letter to his brother Nissim at Belitsa in Bulgaria. It was to be his last letter. On 18-19 March, after some 20 days in Gorna Dzumaja, the Jews were transported by train to the port city of Lom on the banks of the Danube River. At Lom, the prisoners were handed over to the Germans. The Germans deposited the Jews on four ships, which took them along the Danube to Vienna, a journey of five to eight days. The prisoners were deported from Vienna to Treblinka, where they were all murdered upon arrival. Nissim survived the war and moved to Sofia after liberation. He immigrated to Eretz Israel (Mandatory Palestine) in 1945, and lived together with survivors from Thessaloniki in south Tel Aviv, where they worked at Tel Aviv's port. Shem Tov Levy, an Auschwitz survivor and friend of Nissim's, introduced Nissim to his sister-in-law, Jerusalemite Simcha Cohen, and they got married in 1953. They had two sons and a daughter, and settled in Holon. In 1999, Nissim Kabili, the sole survivor of his family, submitted Pages of Testimony in memory of his father Yaacov, his mother Doodoo his sister Rachel, and his brothers Israel, Daniel and Albert. After Nissim's death, his sons found the last letter his brother had sent him. In 2011, Yaacov Ramot Kabili, Nissim's son who was named after his grandfather, donated the original letter to Yad Vashem for posterity. Gorna Dzumaja, 17 March 1943 To our dear brother Nissim, Nissim, we want you to know that we are all in good shape, health wise. We wish the same for you. I came here from [Perin], and met everyone in Gorna Dzumaja. We didn't write to you quicker [earlier], because we don't know when we are leaving. They are constantly telling us to prepare for a long journey. Nissim, you should know that they are transferring us to concentration camps without bread, without anything, and we are suffering greatly for want of bread and other things. They give us just 300 grams of bread per day and Czorba [a kind of soup]. They don't let us buy anything. If you come to meet us, equip yourself with bread and other things. Buy food with the money that you have. If you are with Jack, son of Leah, tell him that we are with his family members and that he should do as you do. I have nothing else to write. We send hugs and kisses to you all. Nissim, it would be best if you didn't get up [move] from the place where you are now. Send regards to Samuel Levy and tell him that everyone is well, and that he shouldn't worry about them.	<urn:uuid:945e8bca-0151-4352-884b-cc0d73355a12>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/last-letters/1943/kabili.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00324.warc.gz	en	0.988828	1,055	3.59375	4	[ -0.07672645151615143, 0.23143921792507172, 0.0069388351403176785, 0.20134739577770233, 0.19993142783641815, -0.2297486960887909, 0.04139765724539757, 0.3020302653312683, -0.14890287816524506, -0.012655100785195827, 0.029843058437108994, -0.30709415674209595, -0.17622122168540955, 0.2471138...	5	"We don't know when we are leaving. They are constantly telling us to prepare for a long journey." These words were written by Albert Kabili in his last letter from Gorna Dzumaja to his brother Nissim, a prisoner at the Belitsa labor camp. Yaacov-Jacko and Doodoo Kabili lived in the city of Kavala, Greece, with their children: Israel, Rachel, Daniel, Albert and Nissim. Yaacov owned a grocery store, as well as a number of residences in the city. On 6 April 1941, the Germans invaded Greece. Within a few days, the area of Kavala was occupied. The town and five adjacent cities were part of the territory annexed by Bulgaria until the end of the war, and its Jewish residents were subjected to racial laws. They were forbidden from traveling along the main streets, and were no longer permitted to earn a living in trade. Their houses and businesses were marked as Jewish. In 1942, the anti-Jewish measures worsened: Jews were forced to wear a yellow star on their clothing, and to carry a special ID card. Their property was looted, and young Jewish men were seized for forced labor. In January 1943, 40 young men, among them Nissim Kabili, were taken from Kavala to forced labor camps in Bulgaria. That March, the Jews of northern Greece, including Kavala, were rounded up and taken to the Bulgarian city of Gorna Dzumaja, pending their deportation to Poland. The deportees included the remaining members of the Kabili family. The deportation trains passed close to the Belitsa labor camp, and rumors about them reached Nissim and his friends. They succeeded in locating the trains, climbed aboard and met with their families. Unaware of their final destination, their parents instructed their sons to return to Belitsa, Yaacov Kabili included. The Bulgarian policemen accompanying the transport alighted the train and forcibly removed Nissim and his friends. They never saw their families again. Albert Kabili managed to send a letter to his brother Nissim at Belitsa in Bulgaria. It was to be his last letter. On 18-19 March, after some 20 days in Gorna Dzumaja, the Jews were transported by train to the port city of Lom on the banks of the Danube River. At Lom, the prisoners were handed over to the Germans. The Germans deposited the Jews on four ships, which took them along the Danube to Vienna, a journey of five to eight days. The prisoners were deported from Vienna to Treblinka, where they were all murdered upon arrival. Nissim survived the war and moved to Sofia after liberation. He immigrated to Eretz Israel (Mandatory Palestine) in 1945, and lived together with survivors from Thessaloniki in south Tel Aviv, where they worked at Tel Aviv's port. Shem Tov Levy, an Auschwitz survivor and friend of Nissim's, introduced Nissim to his sister-in-law, Jerusalemite Simcha Cohen, and they got married in 1953. They had two sons and a daughter, and settled in Holon. In 1999, Nissim Kabili, the sole survivor of his family, submitted Pages of Testimony in memory of his father Yaacov, his mother Doodoo his sister Rachel, and his brothers Israel, Daniel and Albert. After Nissim's death, his sons found the last letter his brother had sent him. In 2011, Yaacov Ramot Kabili, Nissim's son who was named after his grandfather, donated the original letter to Yad Vashem for posterity. Gorna Dzumaja, 17 March 1943 To our dear brother Nissim, Nissim, we want you to know that we are all in good shape, health wise. We wish the same for you. I came here from [Perin], and met everyone in Gorna Dzumaja. We didn't write to you quicker [earlier], because we don't know when we are leaving. They are constantly telling us to prepare for a long journey. Nissim, you should know that they are transferring us to concentration camps without bread, without anything, and we are suffering greatly for want of bread and other things. They give us just 300 grams of bread per day and Czorba [a kind of soup]. They don't let us buy anything. If you come to meet us, equip yourself with bread and other things. Buy food with the money that you have. If you are with Jack, son of Leah, tell him that we are with his family members and that he should do as you do. I have nothing else to write. We send hugs and kisses to you all. Nissim, it would be best if you didn't get up [move] from the place where you are now. Send regards to Samuel Levy and tell him that everyone is well, and that he shouldn't worry about them.	1,078	ENGLISH	1
Two 250,000-year-old teeth from two Neanderthal children revealed that both of them were exposed to lead twice during their short lifetimes, the first known case of lead exposure in Neanderthals. An international team of researchers studied the two teeth, as well as one from a modern human child who lived 5,000 years ago. All of them are from the same archaeological site in southeast France. The results of their analysis were published Wednesday in the journal Science Advances. "Traditionally, people thought lead exposure occurred in populations only after industrialization, but these results show it happened prehistorically, before lead had been widely released into the environment," said Christine Austin, study co-author and assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. "Our team plans to analyze more teeth from our ancestors and investigate how lead exposures may have affected their health and how that may relate to how our bodies respond to lead today." And as with tree rings, researchers used the teeth to determine key events in the children's lives. During childhood, new teeth layers are formed each day, capturing chemical signatures that can be traced. "Teeth record environmental variation based on the climate, even where you're growing up," said Tanya Smith, lead author of the study and associate professor at Griffith University. "That's possible because when you're growing, your teeth you actually lock in a record of the chemistry of the water and the food that you're eating and drinking. Because teeth have these tiny timelines, we can relate the chemistry to the growth to calculate ancient climate records. We can't do that with any other element of the body." They were able to determine that one of the Neanderthal children was born in the spring and that both children were more likely to be sick during the colder winter seasons. They lived through more extreme seasons with a greater variation in temperature than the modern human child who was also studied. The intact teeth had growth rings, which the researchers used to measure barium, lead and oxygen. Lasers targeted tiny spots in the teeth to map their chemistry and reconstruct ancient climate records. This reconstruction was able to map a weekly scale of variation, showing when the summer and winter seasons happened and how long they lasted. The researchers related this back to the individual's growth. "This study reports a major breakthrough in the reconstruction of ancient climates, a significant factor in human evolution, as temperature and precipitation cycles influenced the landscapes and food resources our ancestors relied on," Smith said. The growth rings also provided evidence of nursing. "We were able to identify milk intake through breastfeeding in one individual based on a trace element called barium," Smith said. "We were able to time that to the season." That individual nursed for 2½ years, which is similar to modern human children who lived in hunter-gatherer environments. "This is something we may share in common with Neanderthals," Smith said. Unfortunately, although the Neanderthal child survived infancy, it did not reach adulthood. The ages of the children were not included in the study. The researchers believe that the children were exposed to lead environmentally, either inhaling or ingesting it. "That must have come from natural deposits in the area, whether they were going into an underground environment or they were eating contaminated food that was incorporated into their growing bones and teeth," Smith said. Smith believes that this research emphasizes the different levels of information that can be taken from teeth. "We've now got the ability to integrate ancient climate data with health history, nursing history and illness," she said. "To be able to get all that information from a single sample 250,000 years ago is a unique opportunity." But this doesn't just apply to studying those who lived before us. "Dietary patterns in our early life have far-reaching consequences for our health, and by understanding how breastfeeding evolved, we can help guide the current population on what is good breastfeeding practice," said Manish Arora, study co-author and vice chairman of the Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health at the Icahn School of Medicine. "Our research team is working on applying these techniques in contemporary populations to study how breastfeeding alters health trajectories including those of neurodevelopment, cardiac health and other high-priority health outcomes."	<urn:uuid:bbcefbea-6c4c-4428-ad57-e41c4d6e36b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wxyz.com/news/national/earliest-discovery-of-lead-exposure-found-in-neanderthal-children	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00421.warc.gz	en	0.981886	887	4.03125	4	[ -0.3006952404975891, 0.08111273497343063, 0.37053367495536804, 0.17600879073143005, -0.008325518108904362, -0.3360530138015747, 0.050284694880247116, 0.2305086851119995, -0.39024004340171814, -0.05831819772720337, 0.12407085299491882, -0.5038856863975525, 0.195977121591568, 0.3558657169342...	18	Two 250,000-year-old teeth from two Neanderthal children revealed that both of them were exposed to lead twice during their short lifetimes, the first known case of lead exposure in Neanderthals. An international team of researchers studied the two teeth, as well as one from a modern human child who lived 5,000 years ago. All of them are from the same archaeological site in southeast France. The results of their analysis were published Wednesday in the journal Science Advances. "Traditionally, people thought lead exposure occurred in populations only after industrialization, but these results show it happened prehistorically, before lead had been widely released into the environment," said Christine Austin, study co-author and assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. "Our team plans to analyze more teeth from our ancestors and investigate how lead exposures may have affected their health and how that may relate to how our bodies respond to lead today." And as with tree rings, researchers used the teeth to determine key events in the children's lives. During childhood, new teeth layers are formed each day, capturing chemical signatures that can be traced. "Teeth record environmental variation based on the climate, even where you're growing up," said Tanya Smith, lead author of the study and associate professor at Griffith University. "That's possible because when you're growing, your teeth you actually lock in a record of the chemistry of the water and the food that you're eating and drinking. Because teeth have these tiny timelines, we can relate the chemistry to the growth to calculate ancient climate records. We can't do that with any other element of the body." They were able to determine that one of the Neanderthal children was born in the spring and that both children were more likely to be sick during the colder winter seasons. They lived through more extreme seasons with a greater variation in temperature than the modern human child who was also studied. The intact teeth had growth rings, which the researchers used to measure barium, lead and oxygen. Lasers targeted tiny spots in the teeth to map their chemistry and reconstruct ancient climate records. This reconstruction was able to map a weekly scale of variation, showing when the summer and winter seasons happened and how long they lasted. The researchers related this back to the individual's growth. "This study reports a major breakthrough in the reconstruction of ancient climates, a significant factor in human evolution, as temperature and precipitation cycles influenced the landscapes and food resources our ancestors relied on," Smith said. The growth rings also provided evidence of nursing. "We were able to identify milk intake through breastfeeding in one individual based on a trace element called barium," Smith said. "We were able to time that to the season." That individual nursed for 2½ years, which is similar to modern human children who lived in hunter-gatherer environments. "This is something we may share in common with Neanderthals," Smith said. Unfortunately, although the Neanderthal child survived infancy, it did not reach adulthood. The ages of the children were not included in the study. The researchers believe that the children were exposed to lead environmentally, either inhaling or ingesting it. "That must have come from natural deposits in the area, whether they were going into an underground environment or they were eating contaminated food that was incorporated into their growing bones and teeth," Smith said. Smith believes that this research emphasizes the different levels of information that can be taken from teeth. "We've now got the ability to integrate ancient climate data with health history, nursing history and illness," she said. "To be able to get all that information from a single sample 250,000 years ago is a unique opportunity." But this doesn't just apply to studying those who lived before us. "Dietary patterns in our early life have far-reaching consequences for our health, and by understanding how breastfeeding evolved, we can help guide the current population on what is good breastfeeding practice," said Manish Arora, study co-author and vice chairman of the Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health at the Icahn School of Medicine. "Our research team is working on applying these techniques in contemporary populations to study how breastfeeding alters health trajectories including those of neurodevelopment, cardiac health and other high-priority health outcomes."	879	ENGLISH	1
The Background: Barron V. Baltimore Mr. John Barron was a resident of Baltimore, Maryland. He sued his home city because his business, which was located in Baltimore harbor, was damaged. The city of Baltimore passed an adjustment of water flow law which ended up cutting-off water to Mr. Barron’s property. Because of the law, Mr. Barron’s boats were not able to properly dock in the harbor. The lack of water and the inability to dock resulted in his boats getting damaged. Barron sued Baltimore and was ultimately rewarded money to compensate for his damaged boats. However, the city appealed the ruling and brought the case to the United States Supreme Court. The case of Barron V. Baltimore deals with eminent domain. This means that the government can repossess property owned by citizens in the event that the property taken is necessary for public use. The problem was, “public use” was not defined when this case was tried—Barron v. Baltimore took place in 1833! The Case: Barron V. Baltimore Mr. John Barron in Barron v. Baltimore said that the government’s use of eminent domain was a direct violation of the 5th Amendment to the United States Constitution. The 5th amendment states that the government must respect, maintain and uphold the legal rights of all American citizens and that the government must retain a person’s liberties and human rights. Mr. Barron thought that is was unfair and illegal for the government to mess with his personal property. He thought that he should be repaid for the damages caused to his boats. The city of Baltimore thought that they were in their rights to restrict water supply. They thought that they were allowed to do this because it ultimately helped out the community. The Verdict: Barron V. Baltimore The United States Supreme Court ruled in favor of Baltimore, stating that the 5th Amendment to the United States Constitution was limited and only should be followed by the Federal government. The 5th Amendment does not state that it must be followed by all state and city governments in the United States. Because of the ruling in Barron V. Baltimore, the United States Supreme Court established that a individual citizen’s property was not susceptible to the regulation of the 5th Amendment.	<urn:uuid:6e1cb400-55fe-4aa8-9bc8-ee3d90066855>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.laws.com/category/Kids/page/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00466.warc.gz	en	0.98619	458	3.515625	4	[ -0.3608364760875702, 0.1960904449224472, 0.25147920846939087, -0.7557199001312256, 0.1902071237564087, -0.02227947674691677, 0.5588245987892151, -0.35635778307914734, -0.09137631952762604, -0.07403584569692612, -0.6091147661209106, 0.3547246754169464, 0.09678258001804352, -0.03115825168788...	4	The Background: Barron V. Baltimore Mr. John Barron was a resident of Baltimore, Maryland. He sued his home city because his business, which was located in Baltimore harbor, was damaged. The city of Baltimore passed an adjustment of water flow law which ended up cutting-off water to Mr. Barron’s property. Because of the law, Mr. Barron’s boats were not able to properly dock in the harbor. The lack of water and the inability to dock resulted in his boats getting damaged. Barron sued Baltimore and was ultimately rewarded money to compensate for his damaged boats. However, the city appealed the ruling and brought the case to the United States Supreme Court. The case of Barron V. Baltimore deals with eminent domain. This means that the government can repossess property owned by citizens in the event that the property taken is necessary for public use. The problem was, “public use” was not defined when this case was tried—Barron v. Baltimore took place in 1833! The Case: Barron V. Baltimore Mr. John Barron in Barron v. Baltimore said that the government’s use of eminent domain was a direct violation of the 5th Amendment to the United States Constitution. The 5th amendment states that the government must respect, maintain and uphold the legal rights of all American citizens and that the government must retain a person’s liberties and human rights. Mr. Barron thought that is was unfair and illegal for the government to mess with his personal property. He thought that he should be repaid for the damages caused to his boats. The city of Baltimore thought that they were in their rights to restrict water supply. They thought that they were allowed to do this because it ultimately helped out the community. The Verdict: Barron V. Baltimore The United States Supreme Court ruled in favor of Baltimore, stating that the 5th Amendment to the United States Constitution was limited and only should be followed by the Federal government. The 5th Amendment does not state that it must be followed by all state and city governments in the United States. Because of the ruling in Barron V. Baltimore, the United States Supreme Court established that a individual citizen’s property was not susceptible to the regulation of the 5th Amendment.	464	ENGLISH	1
Every cargo ship has a marking on the side of the hull called the Plimsoll Line. The more cargo you load onto a ship the lower it sits in the water. If the Plimsoll Line is underwater, it means the ship is overloaded and therefore unsafe for the open ocean. In 19th century Britain, there was no Plimsoll Line on ships. Shipowners would try and put as much cargo onto their ships as possible. The more cargo on the ship the more money they would make. These overloaded ships, sitting low in the watFer would leave the calm harbour and encounter a storm or rough weather in the open ocean. The waves would crash over the sides of the ship, filling it with water. And down to the bottom went the ship, the sailors and the cargo. Many ship owners weren’t terribly worried about losing a ship and the cargo. As they were insured. They made their money either way. Of course, the sailors could spot an overloaded ship in the harbour. These ships were known as “coffin ships”. The sailors would refuse to sail on them. The problem was, the law stated it was illegal for a sailor to refuse to sail on a ship. If they did refuse, they were thrown in jail for desertion. In 1871 there were 1628 sailors in prison for refusing to sail on coffin ships. That same year 856 ships sunk off the coast of Britain and nearly 2000 sailors drowned. In one case, an entire crew was marched to jail for refusing to sail. But the Victorian ship owners simply found teenage boys to crew the ship. Not surprisingly, they all went to the bottom of the sea. Shipowners were getting rich while sailors were dying. Samuel Plimsoll was having none of this. He decided he was going to do something about it. Plimsoll’s coal business had failed and he became, what they called “destitute” in those days. During this time he lived among the poor and he resolved to make their lives better. In 1867 he was elected to parliament and he began his fight to save sailor’s lives. We fought to have a law passed that required all ships to have a safe loading line painted on the hull. But many of the parliamentarians were also ship owners and they weren’t going to vote for lower profits. Time and again his bill was voted down. Plimsoll outraged parliament with his speeches. “I charge the government that they are playing into the hands of murderers inside this house who continue the murderous system of sending men and rotten ships to sea.” Ten years later the Merchant Shipping Act was amended to include the Plimsoll Line. He had finally succeeded. He won a majority in the following general election in the seat of Derby. But he gave up the seat to a William Harcourt who was the Home Secretary. He felt Willam could do more for sailors rights than he could. Plimsoll went on to campaign against live animal shipping. He obviously wasn’t successful in that fight as it’s still in place today. Tony Benn was talking about Samuel Plimsoll when he wrote. “My experience is that when people come along with a good idea, in the beginning, it is completely ignored. If they go on about it they are considered mad and possibly even dangerous. Then, when it is eventually recognised as a good idea, nobody can be found who does not claim to have thought of it in the first place.” That’s true of all original ideas. When we look through history we see people like Samuel Plimsoll everywhere. We don’t get change without persistence.	<urn:uuid:673f5471-fe98-4920-805c-d25e7b44dde1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://happycowmilk.co.nz/the-plimsoll-line-and-live-animal-exports-we-wont-get-change-without-persistence/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00218.warc.gz	en	0.988406	786	3.734375	4	[ -0.1485096663236618, -0.2600211501121521, 0.26641568541526794, -0.5321645736694336, 0.09634152054786682, -0.13564595580101013, 0.19500356912612915, 0.2133510261774063, -0.00511653907597065, -0.10103748738765717, 0.3473523259162903, -0.30636465549468994, -0.11348158121109009, 0.232750982046...	5	Every cargo ship has a marking on the side of the hull called the Plimsoll Line. The more cargo you load onto a ship the lower it sits in the water. If the Plimsoll Line is underwater, it means the ship is overloaded and therefore unsafe for the open ocean. In 19th century Britain, there was no Plimsoll Line on ships. Shipowners would try and put as much cargo onto their ships as possible. The more cargo on the ship the more money they would make. These overloaded ships, sitting low in the watFer would leave the calm harbour and encounter a storm or rough weather in the open ocean. The waves would crash over the sides of the ship, filling it with water. And down to the bottom went the ship, the sailors and the cargo. Many ship owners weren’t terribly worried about losing a ship and the cargo. As they were insured. They made their money either way. Of course, the sailors could spot an overloaded ship in the harbour. These ships were known as “coffin ships”. The sailors would refuse to sail on them. The problem was, the law stated it was illegal for a sailor to refuse to sail on a ship. If they did refuse, they were thrown in jail for desertion. In 1871 there were 1628 sailors in prison for refusing to sail on coffin ships. That same year 856 ships sunk off the coast of Britain and nearly 2000 sailors drowned. In one case, an entire crew was marched to jail for refusing to sail. But the Victorian ship owners simply found teenage boys to crew the ship. Not surprisingly, they all went to the bottom of the sea. Shipowners were getting rich while sailors were dying. Samuel Plimsoll was having none of this. He decided he was going to do something about it. Plimsoll’s coal business had failed and he became, what they called “destitute” in those days. During this time he lived among the poor and he resolved to make their lives better. In 1867 he was elected to parliament and he began his fight to save sailor’s lives. We fought to have a law passed that required all ships to have a safe loading line painted on the hull. But many of the parliamentarians were also ship owners and they weren’t going to vote for lower profits. Time and again his bill was voted down. Plimsoll outraged parliament with his speeches. “I charge the government that they are playing into the hands of murderers inside this house who continue the murderous system of sending men and rotten ships to sea.” Ten years later the Merchant Shipping Act was amended to include the Plimsoll Line. He had finally succeeded. He won a majority in the following general election in the seat of Derby. But he gave up the seat to a William Harcourt who was the Home Secretary. He felt Willam could do more for sailors rights than he could. Plimsoll went on to campaign against live animal shipping. He obviously wasn’t successful in that fight as it’s still in place today. Tony Benn was talking about Samuel Plimsoll when he wrote. “My experience is that when people come along with a good idea, in the beginning, it is completely ignored. If they go on about it they are considered mad and possibly even dangerous. Then, when it is eventually recognised as a good idea, nobody can be found who does not claim to have thought of it in the first place.” That’s true of all original ideas. When we look through history we see people like Samuel Plimsoll everywhere. We don’t get change without persistence.	744	ENGLISH	1
When Union Army general William Tecumseh Sherman famously said “War is hell,” he was referring to war in general, but he could have been describing trench warfare, a military tactic that’s been traced to the Civil War. Trenches—long, deep ditches dug as protective defenses—are most often associated with World War I, and the results of trench warfare in that conflict were hellish indeed. Trenches were common throughout the Western Front. Trench warfare in World War I was employed primarily on the Western Front, an area of northern France and Belgium that saw combat between German troops and Allied forces from France, Great Britain and, later, the United States. Although trenches were hardly new to combat: Prior to the advent of firearms and artillery, they were used as defenses against attack, such as moats surrounding castles. But they became a fundamental part of strategy with the influx of modern weapons of war. Long, narrow trenches dug into the ground at the front, usually by the infantry soldiers who would occupy them for weeks at a time, were designed to protect World War I troops from machine-gun fire and artillery attack from the air. As the “Great War” also saw the wide use of chemical warfare and poison gas, the trenches were thought to offer some degree of protection against exposure. (While significant exposure to militarized chemicals such as mustard gas would result in almost certain death, many of the gases used in World War I were still relatively weak.) Thus, trenches may have afforded some protection by allowing soldiers more time to take other defensive steps, such as putting on gas masks. Trench warfare caused enormous numbers of casualties. At least initially in World War I, forces mounted attacks from the trenches, with bayonets fixed to their rifles, by climbing over the top edge into what was known as “no man’s land,” the area between opposing forces, usually in a single, straight line and under a barrage of gunfire. Not surprisingly, this approach was rarely effective, and often led to mass casualties. Later in the war, forces began mounting attacks from the trenches at night, usually with support of covering artillery fire. The Germans soon became known for effectively mounting nighttime incursions behind enemy lines, by sending highly trained soldiers to attack the trenches of opposing forces at what they perceived as weak points. If successful, these soldiers would breach enemy lines and circle around to attack their opponents from the rear, while their comrades would mount a traditional offensive at the front. The brutality of trench warfare is perhaps best typified by the 1916 Battle of the Somme in France. British troops suffered 60,000 casualties on the first day of fighting alone READ MORE: Why Was the Battle of the Somme So Deadly? Disease and ‘shell shock’ were rampant in the trenches. With soldiers fighting in close proximity in the trenches, usually in unsanitary conditions, infectious diseases such as dysentery, cholera and typhoid fever were common and spread rapidly. Constant exposure to wetness caused trench foot, a painful condition in which dead tissue spread across one or both feet, sometimes requiring amputation. Trench mouth, a type of gum infection, was also problematic and is thought to be associated with the stress of nonstop bombardment. As they were often effectively trapped in the trenches for long periods of time, under nearly constant bombardment, many soldiers suffered from “shell shock,” the debilitating mental illness known today as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It’s likely all of these factors, which stemmed from the widespread use of trench warfare, made World War I the deadliest conflict in global history to that point. It’s believed that as many as one in 10 of all fighting forces in the conflict were killed. It was also the first conflict in world history to have more deaths caused from combat, rather than from disease spread during fighting.	<urn:uuid:f89fca79-f91c-4e5c-9700-b846ee1e5a5a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history.com/news/life-in-the-trenches-of-world-war-i?cmpid=email-hist-inside-history-2020-0108_ANIMAL_ENCOUNTERS-01082020&om_rid=ad671dc4fcfa3cb44eb90ab912d952f41484146d8a2d21c11059718101af348c&om_mid=871689905&kx_EmailCampaignID=40930&kx_EmailCampaignName=email-hist-inside-history-2020-0108_ANIMAL_ENCOUNTERS-01082020&kx_EmailRecipientID=ad671dc4fcfa3cb44eb90ab912d952f41484146d8a2d21c11059718101af348c	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00176.warc.gz	en	0.983487	816	3.875	4	[ -0.19951830804347992, 0.451943039894104, 0.2604498267173767, 0.19280874729156494, 0.03241974115371704, 0.1374448537826538, 0.2328634411096573, 0.1735234260559082, -0.18937481939792633, -0.2611650228500366, -0.21339333057403564, -0.39488059282302856, 0.21545222401618958, 0.583380401134491, ...	10	When Union Army general William Tecumseh Sherman famously said “War is hell,” he was referring to war in general, but he could have been describing trench warfare, a military tactic that’s been traced to the Civil War. Trenches—long, deep ditches dug as protective defenses—are most often associated with World War I, and the results of trench warfare in that conflict were hellish indeed. Trenches were common throughout the Western Front. Trench warfare in World War I was employed primarily on the Western Front, an area of northern France and Belgium that saw combat between German troops and Allied forces from France, Great Britain and, later, the United States. Although trenches were hardly new to combat: Prior to the advent of firearms and artillery, they were used as defenses against attack, such as moats surrounding castles. But they became a fundamental part of strategy with the influx of modern weapons of war. Long, narrow trenches dug into the ground at the front, usually by the infantry soldiers who would occupy them for weeks at a time, were designed to protect World War I troops from machine-gun fire and artillery attack from the air. As the “Great War” also saw the wide use of chemical warfare and poison gas, the trenches were thought to offer some degree of protection against exposure. (While significant exposure to militarized chemicals such as mustard gas would result in almost certain death, many of the gases used in World War I were still relatively weak.) Thus, trenches may have afforded some protection by allowing soldiers more time to take other defensive steps, such as putting on gas masks. Trench warfare caused enormous numbers of casualties. At least initially in World War I, forces mounted attacks from the trenches, with bayonets fixed to their rifles, by climbing over the top edge into what was known as “no man’s land,” the area between opposing forces, usually in a single, straight line and under a barrage of gunfire. Not surprisingly, this approach was rarely effective, and often led to mass casualties. Later in the war, forces began mounting attacks from the trenches at night, usually with support of covering artillery fire. The Germans soon became known for effectively mounting nighttime incursions behind enemy lines, by sending highly trained soldiers to attack the trenches of opposing forces at what they perceived as weak points. If successful, these soldiers would breach enemy lines and circle around to attack their opponents from the rear, while their comrades would mount a traditional offensive at the front. The brutality of trench warfare is perhaps best typified by the 1916 Battle of the Somme in France. British troops suffered 60,000 casualties on the first day of fighting alone READ MORE: Why Was the Battle of the Somme So Deadly? Disease and ‘shell shock’ were rampant in the trenches. With soldiers fighting in close proximity in the trenches, usually in unsanitary conditions, infectious diseases such as dysentery, cholera and typhoid fever were common and spread rapidly. Constant exposure to wetness caused trench foot, a painful condition in which dead tissue spread across one or both feet, sometimes requiring amputation. Trench mouth, a type of gum infection, was also problematic and is thought to be associated with the stress of nonstop bombardment. As they were often effectively trapped in the trenches for long periods of time, under nearly constant bombardment, many soldiers suffered from “shell shock,” the debilitating mental illness known today as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It’s likely all of these factors, which stemmed from the widespread use of trench warfare, made World War I the deadliest conflict in global history to that point. It’s believed that as many as one in 10 of all fighting forces in the conflict were killed. It was also the first conflict in world history to have more deaths caused from combat, rather than from disease spread during fighting.	787	ENGLISH	1
The world has changed dramatically since Marx's day, but his ideas could not be more relevant, writes Dragan Plavsic Karl Marx was born 200 years ago on 5 May 1818 in a provincial town in the Kingdom of Prussia, now in Germany. Who was he and why do his ideas remain relevant today? Marx was the third of nine children born to middle class German and Dutch parents. At the time of his birth, a law barring Jews from the legal profession forced his lawyer father to convert to Lutheran Protestantism. The rest of the family followed suit in the 1820s when the six year old Marx was baptised. Brought up in a liberal household (his father was an enthusiast for Enlightenment ideas), Marx received a classical liberal education. But at university he began to outgrow his upbringing and turned instead to radically re-interpreting the ideas of the great German philosopher, Hegel. Hegel had argued that the moving spirit of history found expression in the struggle between opposing ideas. But Marx thought Hegel had got things the wrong way round. Instead he argued that the motor force of history was the struggle between opposing social classes – between those who owned the wealth and those who laboured to create it – and opposing ideas were ultimately a reflection of this real life struggle. This materialist way of thinking set Marx on the road to revolutionary conclusions. As he was developing his ideas in the 1840s, capitalism was feverishly beginning to manufacture enormous wealth, the like of which had never before been seen. For the first time in human history, it became feasible to think - rather than merely to dream - of eradicating want and poverty once and for all. And yet, simultaneously, a class of wage workers - a proletariat - was emerging whose atrocious life conditions were the very opposite of this wealth. Their struggles to improve these conditions made a deep impression on the young Marx. It was this proletariat - impoverished, exploited, dehumanised but unbowed - that Marx came to see as the one social force potentially willing and able to struggle for a new and genuinely human society. As he once famously put it, capitalism was giving birth to its own gravedigger. Marx developed these ideas while becoming increasingly active in revolutionary politics. The Communist Manifesto, the pamphlet penned in 1847 with his great friend Frederick Engels, was commissioned by the Communist League, of which Marx and Engels were members. In it, they issued the famous clarion call, 'Workers of all countries, unite!' A year later, in 1848, as multiple revolutions erupted across Europe, Marx threw himself into the struggle. He became editor of a revolutionary newspaper and a leading advocate of radical democratic measures, including the freedom of oppressed nations from reactionary empires. But these revolutions were only partly successful or they were defeated, and the proletariat where it rose up was bloodily repressed. Marx went into exile, eventually settling in London where he spent the rest of his life. There, in the British Library, he worked to give his ideas a theoretically rigorous or ‘scientific’ grounding. One of the key questions he wanted to answer was what made capitalism tick, what its ‘laws of motion’ were. In particular, he wanted to explain where capitalist profits came from. Marx’s answer was as simple as it was eye-opening. In his great work, Capital, published in 1867, he showed that capitalists exploited workers by making sure workers worked for more hours than they were paid to. These unpaid hours of work were the source of all profits. Marx went on to demonstrate that competition for these profits was the root cause of economic crises. At the same time in 1864 Marx helped to found the First International in order to unite a variety of left-wing groups committed to working class struggle. He was also a strong supporter of the Irish struggle for independence from the British Empire and of the Polish struggle for freedom from the Russian Empire. But most importantly of all, Marx was one of the staunchest defenders of the Paris Commune of 1871, a working class uprising that in a few brief weeks before being brutally crushed gave the world a glimpse of what socialism might look like. For the first time workers seized power and elected their own delegates to run things on the basis of need not profit. Of course the world has changed since Marx’s day. But his ideas remain relevant because our world remains plagued by many of the same problems. Classes still scar society. Profit still comes before need. Disastrous economic crises like the 2008 recession still happen. Empires like the US still use bloody violence to get their way. And nations like the Palestinians still have to struggle for freedom. But above all, we still have capitalism. Marx’s genius was to show that we cannot rid the world of its problems unless we also rid the world of capitalism. To read more about the relevance of Marxís work for the 21st century, you can find a brief introduction in our book Marx for Today. Dragan Plavšić is a member of Counterfire in London and of Marks21 in Serbia. He jointly edited The Balkan Socialist Tradition and the Balkan Federation 1871-1915 (2003). More articles from this author - Hillsborough: ‘the greatest miscarriage of justice of our times’ - Why tactical voting is a bad idea - The Hong Kong protests: where next? - What really happened in the Supreme Court and why - What’s been going on in the Supreme Court? - What did Engels say about revolution? - Mythologies of State and Monopoly Power - book review	<urn:uuid:270d0568-e816-4745-8bd2-4d8f8cad4a56>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.counterfire.org/articles/opinion/19682-who-was-karl-marx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00510.warc.gz	en	0.980819	1,153	3.765625	4	[ -0.06801903247833252, 0.49921196699142456, -0.09658783674240112, 0.22878649830818176, -0.11554384231567383, -0.01449373085051775, -0.19067350029945374, 0.3799663782119751, -0.06058335304260254, -0.25191134214401245, 0.16247642040252686, 0.03024444542825222, 0.2993001937866211, 0.1302884519...	1	The world has changed dramatically since Marx's day, but his ideas could not be more relevant, writes Dragan Plavsic Karl Marx was born 200 years ago on 5 May 1818 in a provincial town in the Kingdom of Prussia, now in Germany. Who was he and why do his ideas remain relevant today? Marx was the third of nine children born to middle class German and Dutch parents. At the time of his birth, a law barring Jews from the legal profession forced his lawyer father to convert to Lutheran Protestantism. The rest of the family followed suit in the 1820s when the six year old Marx was baptised. Brought up in a liberal household (his father was an enthusiast for Enlightenment ideas), Marx received a classical liberal education. But at university he began to outgrow his upbringing and turned instead to radically re-interpreting the ideas of the great German philosopher, Hegel. Hegel had argued that the moving spirit of history found expression in the struggle between opposing ideas. But Marx thought Hegel had got things the wrong way round. Instead he argued that the motor force of history was the struggle between opposing social classes – between those who owned the wealth and those who laboured to create it – and opposing ideas were ultimately a reflection of this real life struggle. This materialist way of thinking set Marx on the road to revolutionary conclusions. As he was developing his ideas in the 1840s, capitalism was feverishly beginning to manufacture enormous wealth, the like of which had never before been seen. For the first time in human history, it became feasible to think - rather than merely to dream - of eradicating want and poverty once and for all. And yet, simultaneously, a class of wage workers - a proletariat - was emerging whose atrocious life conditions were the very opposite of this wealth. Their struggles to improve these conditions made a deep impression on the young Marx. It was this proletariat - impoverished, exploited, dehumanised but unbowed - that Marx came to see as the one social force potentially willing and able to struggle for a new and genuinely human society. As he once famously put it, capitalism was giving birth to its own gravedigger. Marx developed these ideas while becoming increasingly active in revolutionary politics. The Communist Manifesto, the pamphlet penned in 1847 with his great friend Frederick Engels, was commissioned by the Communist League, of which Marx and Engels were members. In it, they issued the famous clarion call, 'Workers of all countries, unite!' A year later, in 1848, as multiple revolutions erupted across Europe, Marx threw himself into the struggle. He became editor of a revolutionary newspaper and a leading advocate of radical democratic measures, including the freedom of oppressed nations from reactionary empires. But these revolutions were only partly successful or they were defeated, and the proletariat where it rose up was bloodily repressed. Marx went into exile, eventually settling in London where he spent the rest of his life. There, in the British Library, he worked to give his ideas a theoretically rigorous or ‘scientific’ grounding. One of the key questions he wanted to answer was what made capitalism tick, what its ‘laws of motion’ were. In particular, he wanted to explain where capitalist profits came from. Marx’s answer was as simple as it was eye-opening. In his great work, Capital, published in 1867, he showed that capitalists exploited workers by making sure workers worked for more hours than they were paid to. These unpaid hours of work were the source of all profits. Marx went on to demonstrate that competition for these profits was the root cause of economic crises. At the same time in 1864 Marx helped to found the First International in order to unite a variety of left-wing groups committed to working class struggle. He was also a strong supporter of the Irish struggle for independence from the British Empire and of the Polish struggle for freedom from the Russian Empire. But most importantly of all, Marx was one of the staunchest defenders of the Paris Commune of 1871, a working class uprising that in a few brief weeks before being brutally crushed gave the world a glimpse of what socialism might look like. For the first time workers seized power and elected their own delegates to run things on the basis of need not profit. Of course the world has changed since Marx’s day. But his ideas remain relevant because our world remains plagued by many of the same problems. Classes still scar society. Profit still comes before need. Disastrous economic crises like the 2008 recession still happen. Empires like the US still use bloody violence to get their way. And nations like the Palestinians still have to struggle for freedom. But above all, we still have capitalism. Marx’s genius was to show that we cannot rid the world of its problems unless we also rid the world of capitalism. To read more about the relevance of Marxís work for the 21st century, you can find a brief introduction in our book Marx for Today. Dragan Plavšić is a member of Counterfire in London and of Marks21 in Serbia. He jointly edited The Balkan Socialist Tradition and the Balkan Federation 1871-1915 (2003). More articles from this author - Hillsborough: ‘the greatest miscarriage of justice of our times’ - Why tactical voting is a bad idea - The Hong Kong protests: where next? - What really happened in the Supreme Court and why - What’s been going on in the Supreme Court? - What did Engels say about revolution? - Mythologies of State and Monopoly Power - book review	1,174	ENGLISH	1
The '''Battle of Thermopylae''' was a famous [[battle]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars]], fought in northwestern [[Greece]]. It is known for the fact that 300 [[Sparta]]n soldiers and 3700 other [[Ancient Greece\|Greek]] soldiers (most notably the Thespians) held off an army of several hundred thousand [[Persia]]n soldiers (led by [[Xerxes]]) for three days, therefore giving the rest of Greece time to group and prepare to the south. It was considered to be a defining moment in the war. There was a king of Persia named Darius. He conquered many places in his time as king. He had a very strong army because he was one of the monarchs of the Achaemenid empire. That is the empire which Cyrus the great had started. He always helped to improve his empire. He started many construction projects and enhanced the economy of his empire. Many of his actions and life and reign as king were documented on the Bisitun rock. These inscriptions detailed king Darius’s life and included many facts about his past and his lineage. He rose to power by taking the throne away from the false king Gaumata. This is the beginning of the battle. He sent many heralds and ambassadors to Greece. He asked them to give their authority to the king. The nationalists and patriots of Greek were disgusted. They wanted to keep the power in their own lands. So they took those people and threw them into wells and other places. Then he died and his son ( king Xerxes) took over. He wanted to finish his father’s original plan and take over the land of Greece. And he sent more heralds to the Greeks. They refused again to give power over. And the battle was planned and started. The battle of Thermoplaye was a very important time in human history. It was a very decisive battle between the Greek and Persian army. The Greek army at the time was much smaller than the Persian army. Thermoplyae is a mountain pass which is located at a mountain pass. This place is the site where many battles took place. Though the battle between the Greeks and Persians is arguably the most important battle of all. There were 300 Spartan soldiers and about 1500 allied soldiers. They all wanted to take a stand against the Persians. The number of Persian soldiers is unclear and is disputed by many historians. The king who lead this battle against the Persians was King Leonidas. He was the king of Sparta (Lacedaemon) at the time. The king who ordered the Persians was named Xerxes 1. Even though the Greeks were only few in number, they managed to hold off his army for 3 days. Eventually the far superior army of the Persians took their toll on the Greeks and they were thought to be defeated. But some of the army stayed back to fight. This included king Leonidas. Eventually these few people were also defeated and this is where Leonidas met his demise. This story became a legend to future Greeks. == Greek/Persian ==	<urn:uuid:5af83c12-5b63-4196-a107-88b5a837821d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.conservapedia.com/Special:MobileDiff/1428444	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00137.warc.gz	en	0.992377	644	3.734375	4	[ -0.28870078921318054, 0.5746076107025146, 0.6471037864685059, -0.22338780760765076, -0.6544058322906494, -0.7227925062179565, 0.27017879486083984, 0.5537030696868896, -0.3653552532196045, -0.2483873963356018, -0.21225745975971222, -0.4511187672615051, -0.10185782611370087, 0.55975568294525...	1	The '''Battle of Thermopylae''' was a famous [[battle]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars]], fought in northwestern [[Greece]]. It is known for the fact that 300 [[Sparta]]n soldiers and 3700 other [[Ancient Greece\|Greek]] soldiers (most notably the Thespians) held off an army of several hundred thousand [[Persia]]n soldiers (led by [[Xerxes]]) for three days, therefore giving the rest of Greece time to group and prepare to the south. It was considered to be a defining moment in the war. There was a king of Persia named Darius. He conquered many places in his time as king. He had a very strong army because he was one of the monarchs of the Achaemenid empire. That is the empire which Cyrus the great had started. He always helped to improve his empire. He started many construction projects and enhanced the economy of his empire. Many of his actions and life and reign as king were documented on the Bisitun rock. These inscriptions detailed king Darius’s life and included many facts about his past and his lineage. He rose to power by taking the throne away from the false king Gaumata. This is the beginning of the battle. He sent many heralds and ambassadors to Greece. He asked them to give their authority to the king. The nationalists and patriots of Greek were disgusted. They wanted to keep the power in their own lands. So they took those people and threw them into wells and other places. Then he died and his son ( king Xerxes) took over. He wanted to finish his father’s original plan and take over the land of Greece. And he sent more heralds to the Greeks. They refused again to give power over. And the battle was planned and started. The battle of Thermoplaye was a very important time in human history. It was a very decisive battle between the Greek and Persian army. The Greek army at the time was much smaller than the Persian army. Thermoplyae is a mountain pass which is located at a mountain pass. This place is the site where many battles took place. Though the battle between the Greeks and Persians is arguably the most important battle of all. There were 300 Spartan soldiers and about 1500 allied soldiers. They all wanted to take a stand against the Persians. The number of Persian soldiers is unclear and is disputed by many historians. The king who lead this battle against the Persians was King Leonidas. He was the king of Sparta (Lacedaemon) at the time. The king who ordered the Persians was named Xerxes 1. Even though the Greeks were only few in number, they managed to hold off his army for 3 days. Eventually the far superior army of the Persians took their toll on the Greeks and they were thought to be defeated. But some of the army stayed back to fight. This included king Leonidas. Eventually these few people were also defeated and this is where Leonidas met his demise. This story became a legend to future Greeks. == Greek/Persian ==	652	ENGLISH	1
The Development of Steam Power By the eighteenth century, Britain was experiencing a severe shortage of energy. Because of the growth of population, most of the great forests of medieval Britain had long ago been replaced by fields of grain and hay. Wood was in ever-shorter supply, yet it remained tremendously important. It served as the primary source of heat for all homes and industries and as a basic raw material. Processed wood (charcoal) was the fuel that was mixed with iron ore in the blast furnace to produce pig iron (raw iron). The iron industry's appetite for wood was enormous, and by 1740 the British iron industry was stagnating. Vast forests enabled Russia to become the world's leading producer of iron, much of which was exported to Britain. But Russia's potential for growth was limited too, and in a few decades Russia would reach the barrier of inadequate energy that was already holding England back. As this early energy crisis grew worse, Britain looked toward its abundant and widely scattered reserves of coal as an alternative to its vanishing wood. Coal was first used in Britain in the late Middle Ages as a source of heat. By 1640 most homes in London were heated with it, and it also provided heat for making beer, glass, soap, and other products. Coal was not used, however, to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. It was there that coal's potential was enormous. As more coal was produced, mines were dug deeper and deeper and were constantly filling with water. Mechanical pumps, usually powered by hundreds of horses walking in circles at the surface, had to be installed. Such power was expensive and bothersome. In an attempt to overcome these disadvantages, Thomas Savery in 1698 and Thomas Newcomen in 1705 invented the first primitive steam engines. Both engines were extremely inefficient. Both burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump. However, by the early 1770s, many of the Savery engines and hundreds of the Newcomen engines were operating successfully, though inefficiently, in English and Scottish mines. In the early 1760s, a gifted young Scot named James Watt was drawn to a critical study of the steam engine. Watt was employed at the time by the University of Glasgow as a skilled crafts worker making scientific instruments. In 1763, Watt was called on to repair a Newcomen engine being used in a physics course. After a series of observations, Watt saw that the Newcomen's waste of energy could be reduced by adding a separate condenser. This splendid invention, patented in 1769, greatly increased the efficiency of the steam engine. The steam engine of Watt and his followers was the technological advance that gave people, at least for a while, unlimited power and allowed the invention and use of all kinds of power equipment. The steam engine was quickly put to use in several industries in Britain. It drained mines and made possible the production of ever more coal to feed steam engines elsewhere. The steam power plant began to replace waterpower in the cotton-spinning mills as well as other industries during the 1780s, contributing to a phenomenal rise in industrialization. The British iron industry was radically transformed. The use of powerful, steam-driven bellows in blast furnaces helped iron makers switch over rapidly from limited charcoal to unlimited coke (which is made from coal) in the smelting of pig iron (the process of refining impure iron) after 1770. In the 1780s, Henry Cort developed the puddling furnace, which allowed pig iron to be refined in turn with coke. Cort also developed heavy-duty, steam-powered rolling mills, which were capable of producing finished iron in every shape and form. The economic consequence of these technical innovations in steam power was a great boom in the British iron industry. In 1740 annual British iron production was only 17,000 tons, but by 1844, with the spread of coke smelting and the impact of Cort's inventions, it had increased to 3,000,000 tons. This was a truly amazing expansion. Once scarce and expensive, iron became cheap, basic, and indispensable to the economy.	<urn:uuid:751ed8ba-29c3-4729-a12a-e8e1f04c5454>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://toefl.kmf.com/reading/exercise/51epwj/158023389421856279/51epwj	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00203.warc.gz	en	0.985248	850	3.671875	4	[ -0.10034693777561188, 0.22541262209415436, 0.5532366037368774, -0.018620161339640617, 0.06539049744606018, -0.1258489042520523, -0.5697816610336304, -0.21064497530460358, -0.1835198998451233, 0.052179500460624695, -0.26888641715049744, -0.4955233931541443, -0.008485767990350723, -0.0091700...	3	The Development of Steam Power By the eighteenth century, Britain was experiencing a severe shortage of energy. Because of the growth of population, most of the great forests of medieval Britain had long ago been replaced by fields of grain and hay. Wood was in ever-shorter supply, yet it remained tremendously important. It served as the primary source of heat for all homes and industries and as a basic raw material. Processed wood (charcoal) was the fuel that was mixed with iron ore in the blast furnace to produce pig iron (raw iron). The iron industry's appetite for wood was enormous, and by 1740 the British iron industry was stagnating. Vast forests enabled Russia to become the world's leading producer of iron, much of which was exported to Britain. But Russia's potential for growth was limited too, and in a few decades Russia would reach the barrier of inadequate energy that was already holding England back. As this early energy crisis grew worse, Britain looked toward its abundant and widely scattered reserves of coal as an alternative to its vanishing wood. Coal was first used in Britain in the late Middle Ages as a source of heat. By 1640 most homes in London were heated with it, and it also provided heat for making beer, glass, soap, and other products. Coal was not used, however, to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. It was there that coal's potential was enormous. As more coal was produced, mines were dug deeper and deeper and were constantly filling with water. Mechanical pumps, usually powered by hundreds of horses walking in circles at the surface, had to be installed. Such power was expensive and bothersome. In an attempt to overcome these disadvantages, Thomas Savery in 1698 and Thomas Newcomen in 1705 invented the first primitive steam engines. Both engines were extremely inefficient. Both burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump. However, by the early 1770s, many of the Savery engines and hundreds of the Newcomen engines were operating successfully, though inefficiently, in English and Scottish mines. In the early 1760s, a gifted young Scot named James Watt was drawn to a critical study of the steam engine. Watt was employed at the time by the University of Glasgow as a skilled crafts worker making scientific instruments. In 1763, Watt was called on to repair a Newcomen engine being used in a physics course. After a series of observations, Watt saw that the Newcomen's waste of energy could be reduced by adding a separate condenser. This splendid invention, patented in 1769, greatly increased the efficiency of the steam engine. The steam engine of Watt and his followers was the technological advance that gave people, at least for a while, unlimited power and allowed the invention and use of all kinds of power equipment. The steam engine was quickly put to use in several industries in Britain. It drained mines and made possible the production of ever more coal to feed steam engines elsewhere. The steam power plant began to replace waterpower in the cotton-spinning mills as well as other industries during the 1780s, contributing to a phenomenal rise in industrialization. The British iron industry was radically transformed. The use of powerful, steam-driven bellows in blast furnaces helped iron makers switch over rapidly from limited charcoal to unlimited coke (which is made from coal) in the smelting of pig iron (the process of refining impure iron) after 1770. In the 1780s, Henry Cort developed the puddling furnace, which allowed pig iron to be refined in turn with coke. Cort also developed heavy-duty, steam-powered rolling mills, which were capable of producing finished iron in every shape and form. The economic consequence of these technical innovations in steam power was a great boom in the British iron industry. In 1740 annual British iron production was only 17,000 tons, but by 1844, with the spread of coke smelting and the impact of Cort's inventions, it had increased to 3,000,000 tons. This was a truly amazing expansion. Once scarce and expensive, iron became cheap, basic, and indispensable to the economy.	886	ENGLISH	1
Lowe said they were, ‘… a socially secure family that could trace its ancestry back through English and Dutch patricians of New York. ‘ Although born at a time when New York provided a stifling environment, Wharton grew up refusing to conform to the society to which she belonged. Lowe said: ‘Edith Wharton in many ways was a rebel, even an outcast, and her many novels and tales passionately endorse the struggle to forge one’s identity outside accepted social boundaries. ‘ World War One came to an end in November 1918 and, almost as soon as the guns fell silent, Wharton began to draft The Age of Innocence. Janet Beer said: ‘Wharton writes to commemorate a past which has been superseded by the cataclysmic social upheavals of the war years. ‘ Many presume Wharton’s ‘war novel’ was a salutation to the new age that beckoned and a memorial to the age departed. It epitomizes one’s struggle to forge an individual identity. The Age of Innocence is a classical piece of literature that is loved by critics and readers alike. However, it is not the flamboyant language or the highly stylised structure that engages the reader but the underlying subtext. In The Age of Innocence the unsaid is much more significant that what is said: ‘As he entered the box his eyes met Miss May Welland’s, and he saw that she had instantly understood his motive, though the family dignity which both considered so high a virtue would not permit her to tell him so. The persons of their world lived in an atmosphere of faint implications and pale delicacies, and the fact that he and she understood each other without a word seemed to the young man to bring them nearer than any explanation would have done'(chapter 2 pg 14) However, the lack of communication did not in any way lessen the degree to which the standards of New York were adhered to, and, thereby, upheld as if they were carved in the same stone as the Ten Commandments. New York Society did not have much need for religion, other than for rites of passage; the rules of society were to them like rules of a religion. As a woman who was raised in this society, Edith Wharton was able to illustrate with great clarity the influence that the unsaid had when it came to knowing how one should behave if society was to look on them favourably. The way in which Wharton writes The Age of Innocence is known as social realism which is writing that realistically depicts a certain segment of society. Her closest ally among the social realists was Henry James; in philosophy and literary style there were many similarities between the two. There is also a famous story about James giving Wharton significant and sound literary advice. When he read her novel, The Valley of Indecision, he wrote to her his praise of it, but also suggested that she should confine herself in her subject matter to New York. James wrote, “Do New York! The first-hand account is precious. Although Edith Wharton describes a society that had disappeared in order to make way for the progress of a later age, she both criticizes and applauds the unrecoverable culture that helped to define New York City in the 1870s. Throughout The Age of Innocence, she uses the social interactions and attitudes of Newland Archer and his acquaintances as a means of weighing society itself. New land is the protagonist of the novel and his point of view governs the novels narration. From the beginning of the novel Archer is presented as both an insider ans an outsider of his social world. He is completely aware of the social codes of New York and follows them unquestioningly but he also smiles at them and regards them with a certain amount of tolerant irony. Newland realizes the shallowness and stupidity of New Yorks social behaviours yet participates in them, ‘… unquestioned law of the musical world required that the German text of French operas sung by Swedish artists should be translated into Italian for the clearer understanding for English- speaking audiences. This seemed as natural to Newland Archer as all the other conventions in which his life was moulded. In the first chapters of the play Newlands contentment in his life is emphasized. He is perfectly happy with his choice for a wife. According to society May is perfect, she is beautiful, innocent, adores Archer and lets him lead her intellectually. In acquiring May as a wife Newland feels she can be compared to an exquisite piece of art that will show off his good taste, ‘… he contemp;ated hre absorbed young face with a thrill of possessorship in which pride in his own masculine initiation was mingled with a tender reverence for her abysmal purity. ‘ However Newland’s views change drastically after meeting Ellen Olenska and experiencing the freshness of her unconventional behaviour. Newland realizes the dullness of his social equals and dreads his inevitable fate of becoming just like them but most importantly he realizes the cruelty of their social condemnations and restrictions. Both Ellen and Newlands families think nothing of sacrificing her life for the purpose of maintaining their scandal-free existence. In witnessing how society treats one of its members Newland begins to see it for is flaws. Newland sacrifices the love of his life to do the right thing which could give cause to class him a dinosaur just like the rest of his peers he abides by the social codes unwilling to risk being outcast from society. However his action is a truly heroic one which ultimately oly hurts himself saving his friends and family from shame and scandal. Years after the novel’s primary events, Wharton has Newland reflect upon the good of the lost elite, and despite obvious problems, “there was good in the old ways”. At the end of the story, he has the opportunity to once again meet his former love, Ellen Olenska, but the fact that he would rather preserve untainted the memories of his youth shows how much he values the irreclaimable past. While Wharton frequently derides New York’s aristocracy, its reluctance to abandon the social standards and moral conventions of the period truly does make it a good society in Newland’s perception, and the author supports his conclusion through her depiction of the interaction between the New York elite. Janet Beer said: ‘The tribal structure of old New York is both exposed and validated by the age of innocence’ The activities of New York’s elite society create an atmosphere where the preservation of standards and conventions is of greatest importance for its participants, and communication or lack thereof plays a significant role in protecting the social norms. Wharton establishes the conflict that will unavoidably occur between the old and the new people of New York in chapter 1. The dinosaurs, that is the old New Yorkers, cherish the old opera house owing to its small size and inconvenience but ultimately for keeping out, ‘the new people whom New York was beginning to dread and yet be drawn to’. chapter 1 pg 3) We are introduced to the Van Der Luyden’s in chapter 7. They epitomize the Old New Yorkers who find the thought of their codes and conventions being overlooked utterly daunting. Mrs Van Der Luyden, ‘Struck Newland Archer as having been rather gruesomely preserved in the airless atmosphere of a perfectly irreproachable existence as bodies caught in glaciers keep for years a rosy life in death. ‘ They only uncover their chandeliers and furniture to show off; they feel they have to preserve the rest of the time. However, the subtext Wharton wishes us to understand the fact that although the Van Der Luydens can preserve it is inevitable that in time the furniture will disintegrate just like the social codes they live by. Every style, action or conversation has a purpose beyond its explicit meaning, and this form of expression permits the conservation of order and virtue in society. Through the events surrounding his marriage to May Welland, Newland experiences this communication first hand. For example, he decides to declare his engagement to May earlier than anticipated in order to support her family when Ellen arrives from Europe. This action does not simply create an alliance between his family and May’s, but it helps to avert any disgrace that may have come upon the Mingott clan due to Ellen’s separation from her husband. This fact is never overtly stated, but it is the primary motive for his hurried pronouncement, and May and her mother understand without questioning Newland’s decision. The customs of aristocratic New York in the 1870s calls for the use of representative behaviour rather than simple openness or forthrightness, and Newland understands his position within this system. While Newland is a product of the system that discourages disgrace through surreptitious action, Ellen presents another model to follow since she has adapted to the openness of European culture. Ellen brings an important perspective to the New York world. She arrives unaware of the rigid confines of behaviour in a society that tolerates no divergence from its strict rules of etiuette and social distance. Ellen finds New York society both charmingly safe and provincially rigid. She undergoes her own change. Before Ellen met Archer she lived her life in Europe according to European norms. She married a fabulously rich Polish count and lived the life of exquisite pleasures. There, life was bohemian and free. Each person lived for their own pleasure regardless of the consequences.. However her husband abused her cruelly to suit his own selfish ourposes Ellen, much like her grandmother Mrs Manson Mingott, is attracted to the unconventions of society. Ellen’s dark hair and red clothing are often contrasted against May’s blonde hair and white dress; she refuses to abide by the strict codes of society. Ellen could be compared to the character of Daisy Miller, a book written by Wharton’s friend and fellow writer, Henry James. Daisy, like Ellen, did not abide by the social rules of the society in which she lived; she had an uncultivated manner and was direct and honest in her language. When Winterborne accuses Daisy of being a flirt at Mrs Walker’s party, she agrees with him. This would be a label that the majority of women at the time would have been completely embarrassed at receiving. However, like Ellen, Daisy does not pretend and it is her refusal to keep up any sort of pretence that in the end causes her death. The frankness that Ellen exhibits in the presence of everyone is appealing to Archer, and the conventions to which he is accustomed does not enchant him like the Countess does. Ellen represents a way of life he wishes he could lead but owing to society’s codes and conventions, he is forbidden to. She penetrates the facade of New York society and questions the need for the standards with which Newland is familiar, and during his time spent with her, he becomes increasingly dissatisfied with his society’s way of life: “They like you and admire you—they want to help you. ” [… ]”Oh, I know—I know! But on condition that they don’t hear anything unpleasant. [… ] Does no one want to know the truth here, Mr. Archer? The real loneliness is living among all these kind people who only ask one to pretend! ” In this conversation between Ellen and Newland, the two modes of life come into direct conflict with each other. According to Newland, the people around Ellen only “want to help,” but she comprehends that in doing so, they simply desire for her to “pretend” like they do. Compared with the society in which Ellen has lived for so long, his culture is artificial, and it makes her lonely when no one outwardly pursues the truth. To her, they are concerned with preserving appearance rather than examining the foundation of a problem, and their unwillingness to authorise Ellen’s divorce is an example of this behaviour. It is extremely ironic that the ‘high priest of form’ Lawrence Lefferts is the character who obviously has no concept of fidelity and, therefore, makes us question why a society that is so concerned with propriety is so corrupt at its base and the people who do attempt to live by the truth are punished. In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby there is further evidence of the characters who rebel against society being punished. Set in 1920’s New York fifty years after the setting of The Age of Innocence it seems this irrevocable change that appeared on the horizon in The Age of Innocence has not yet occurred. The old New Yorkers still despised the new wealth represented by Gatsby who lived in the West Egg district of Long Island, New York, and to the dinosaurs of New York, people like Gatsby lacked established social connections and vulgarly flaunted their wealth. Gatsby moved to New York to pursue his love interest Daisy Buchanan and ends up having an affair. However, after Daisy finds out that Gatsby made his fortune immorally, she returns to her husband. Gatsby’s eventful murder was set in train by Tom Buchanan, Daisy’s husband. Gatsby died, Daisy Miller died and Ellen returned to a lonely life in Europe. The fate of these unconventional characters seems doomed from the start and shows that change in society might not come as easily as people think. In The Age of innocence Archer is tempted by Ellen’s mode of living. He must choose between his own society and the possibilities presented by Countess Olenska but, in order to select the latter option and yield to his love, he would have to abandon the standards that his culture had created for him: Wharton’s tragic heroes and heroines… are passionate or imaginative spirits, hungry for emotional and intellectual experience, who find themselves locked into a small closed system, and either destroy themselves by beating their heads against their prism or suffer a living death in resigning themselves to it. ‘(Lowe) Newland’s choice between Ellen Olenska and his New York upbringing is a choice between open communication which means the rejection of customs and hidden meanings and adherence to conventions. When he resolves to depart with Ellen so that he may love her openly, he decides to break the bond he has with his own values and standards. At the farewell dinner for Ellen, May achieves the victory that permits social convention to be upheld, and it passes without the problem of her husband’s devotion to the Countess even being explicitly stated: “It was the old New York way of taking life without effusion of blood: the way of people who dreaded scandal more than disease, who placed decency above courage, and who considered that nothing was more ill-bred than “scenes,” except the behaviour of those who gave rise to them”. Everyone present at the meal knows of Newland’s feelings and understands May’s need to prevent his plans, but they never have to speak a word about either situation: ‘In reality they all lived in a kind of hieroglyphic world, where the real thing was never said or done or even thought, but only represented by a set of arbitrary signs. ‘(Janet Beer) The complex system of communication allows the truth to appear without any disgrace that may come with its outward revelation. The elite culture discourages scandals and “scenes” that would disturb “decency” and virtue, and therefore it attempts to control Newland’s conduct by means that cause the least amount of shame for everyone involved. While it may seem that the avoidance of scandal is the primary motivation for society to act as it does, it comes with consequent benefits, and much of the goodness of Newland’s culture is that it allows him to continue to devote himself to previous obligations. When Newland himself cannot be a faithful husband, the social conventions of the time force him to be, and everyone can appreciate the outcome. Without a word being spoken, a situation that would breed shame if it were to be exposed by Ellen’s system of openness, like her own separation from Count Olenski, do not result in scandal or disgrace. Everyone knows, but no one expresses the fact that they know, and therefore everyone participating succeeds in the end. Society avoids the stigma of an elopement involving two of its most prominent families, May retains her spouse, and even Newland remains faithful without ever having to tell his wife of his potential infidelity. Newland also emerges with the belief that this last accomplishment was his own doing, but only decades later when his son Dallas reveals May’s contributions to the affair does he realize the full extent of the situation. His children, his marriage, and his later life as a model citizen would not have existed without the intervention of his society’s social standards, and “it did not so much matter if marriage was a dull duty, as long as it kept the dignity of a duty”. In his youth, his preference is for Ellen, but when she departs, he still has the responsibility to support May in marriage. Life with May might have been “dull” at times, but overall, staying with her allowed him to keep his dignity as a husband and father. As a result of his recognition that his culture had actually saved him from a scandal that would not have allowed the happiness of his later years, and that it was not from his own doing, he can truly say that there was good in the old ways. Newland sees that the old ways provided the means for his own personal scandal to be minimized at any cost, and he is grateful for the conventions that his society had in place. For a time, he thinks that he can avoid the effects of an illicit love, but, ultimately, it is his culture that allows his marriage to survive and the happiness of his family to remain. He can proclaim the good of the former way of life because he knows how it prepared him to live a life of honesty and purity. Although Newland discovers that it is necessary to perform sacrifices, even to relinquish “the thing he most wanted”, to ensure this innocence, he ultimately benefits from the standard set for him and the circumstances that force him to follow it. Wharton allows the reader to see the goodness of the lost past through the outcome of Newland’s life, and the fact that he was able to remain faithful shows the undeniable success of society’s ability to maintain its standards. Wharton through colourful language and a highly stylised structure reflects the ornate, conventional and conservative nature of the time but in doing this Wharton also ridicules society drawing our attention to the underlying corruption that is forever present in the lives of the dinosaurs of New York. However, could it be this corruption along with the refusal to change traditional ways that saves people in the end? Newland’s life, to an extent, was corrupt owing to his lust for Ellen but his refusal to change his traditional ways meant that he had great happiness in his later years and even learned to love May. Could it be that the dinosaurs of New York who fear and rebuff change are saving society from a chaotic world of blatant promiscuity and scandal?	<urn:uuid:28b35239-fa0b-47db-9f3a-dc9a77c7b45f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thenewstandardgallery.com/a-compact-realm-called-old-new-york/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00423.warc.gz	en	0.980866	4,026	3.515625	4	[ 0.19304922223091125, 0.2885432243347168, 0.028546631336212158, -0.06577425450086594, 0.1810826063156128, 0.0812605619430542, 0.03139396384358406, -0.023002341389656067, -0.010850196704268456, -0.16059860587120056, 0.2604200541973114, 0.07624156773090363, 0.019635528326034546, 0.22823068499...	2	Lowe said they were, ‘… a socially secure family that could trace its ancestry back through English and Dutch patricians of New York. ‘ Although born at a time when New York provided a stifling environment, Wharton grew up refusing to conform to the society to which she belonged. Lowe said: ‘Edith Wharton in many ways was a rebel, even an outcast, and her many novels and tales passionately endorse the struggle to forge one’s identity outside accepted social boundaries. ‘ World War One came to an end in November 1918 and, almost as soon as the guns fell silent, Wharton began to draft The Age of Innocence. Janet Beer said: ‘Wharton writes to commemorate a past which has been superseded by the cataclysmic social upheavals of the war years. ‘ Many presume Wharton’s ‘war novel’ was a salutation to the new age that beckoned and a memorial to the age departed. It epitomizes one’s struggle to forge an individual identity. The Age of Innocence is a classical piece of literature that is loved by critics and readers alike. However, it is not the flamboyant language or the highly stylised structure that engages the reader but the underlying subtext. In The Age of Innocence the unsaid is much more significant that what is said: ‘As he entered the box his eyes met Miss May Welland’s, and he saw that she had instantly understood his motive, though the family dignity which both considered so high a virtue would not permit her to tell him so. The persons of their world lived in an atmosphere of faint implications and pale delicacies, and the fact that he and she understood each other without a word seemed to the young man to bring them nearer than any explanation would have done'(chapter 2 pg 14) However, the lack of communication did not in any way lessen the degree to which the standards of New York were adhered to, and, thereby, upheld as if they were carved in the same stone as the Ten Commandments. New York Society did not have much need for religion, other than for rites of passage; the rules of society were to them like rules of a religion. As a woman who was raised in this society, Edith Wharton was able to illustrate with great clarity the influence that the unsaid had when it came to knowing how one should behave if society was to look on them favourably. The way in which Wharton writes The Age of Innocence is known as social realism which is writing that realistically depicts a certain segment of society. Her closest ally among the social realists was Henry James; in philosophy and literary style there were many similarities between the two. There is also a famous story about James giving Wharton significant and sound literary advice. When he read her novel, The Valley of Indecision, he wrote to her his praise of it, but also suggested that she should confine herself in her subject matter to New York. James wrote, “Do New York! The first-hand account is precious. Although Edith Wharton describes a society that had disappeared in order to make way for the progress of a later age, she both criticizes and applauds the unrecoverable culture that helped to define New York City in the 1870s. Throughout The Age of Innocence, she uses the social interactions and attitudes of Newland Archer and his acquaintances as a means of weighing society itself. New land is the protagonist of the novel and his point of view governs the novels narration. From the beginning of the novel Archer is presented as both an insider ans an outsider of his social world. He is completely aware of the social codes of New York and follows them unquestioningly but he also smiles at them and regards them with a certain amount of tolerant irony. Newland realizes the shallowness and stupidity of New Yorks social behaviours yet participates in them, ‘… unquestioned law of the musical world required that the German text of French operas sung by Swedish artists should be translated into Italian for the clearer understanding for English- speaking audiences. This seemed as natural to Newland Archer as all the other conventions in which his life was moulded. In the first chapters of the play Newlands contentment in his life is emphasized. He is perfectly happy with his choice for a wife. According to society May is perfect, she is beautiful, innocent, adores Archer and lets him lead her intellectually. In acquiring May as a wife Newland feels she can be compared to an exquisite piece of art that will show off his good taste, ‘… he contemp;ated hre absorbed young face with a thrill of possessorship in which pride in his own masculine initiation was mingled with a tender reverence for her abysmal purity. ‘ However Newland’s views change drastically after meeting Ellen Olenska and experiencing the freshness of her unconventional behaviour. Newland realizes the dullness of his social equals and dreads his inevitable fate of becoming just like them but most importantly he realizes the cruelty of their social condemnations and restrictions. Both Ellen and Newlands families think nothing of sacrificing her life for the purpose of maintaining their scandal-free existence. In witnessing how society treats one of its members Newland begins to see it for is flaws. Newland sacrifices the love of his life to do the right thing which could give cause to class him a dinosaur just like the rest of his peers he abides by the social codes unwilling to risk being outcast from society. However his action is a truly heroic one which ultimately oly hurts himself saving his friends and family from shame and scandal. Years after the novel’s primary events, Wharton has Newland reflect upon the good of the lost elite, and despite obvious problems, “there was good in the old ways”. At the end of the story, he has the opportunity to once again meet his former love, Ellen Olenska, but the fact that he would rather preserve untainted the memories of his youth shows how much he values the irreclaimable past. While Wharton frequently derides New York’s aristocracy, its reluctance to abandon the social standards and moral conventions of the period truly does make it a good society in Newland’s perception, and the author supports his conclusion through her depiction of the interaction between the New York elite. Janet Beer said: ‘The tribal structure of old New York is both exposed and validated by the age of innocence’ The activities of New York’s elite society create an atmosphere where the preservation of standards and conventions is of greatest importance for its participants, and communication or lack thereof plays a significant role in protecting the social norms. Wharton establishes the conflict that will unavoidably occur between the old and the new people of New York in chapter 1. The dinosaurs, that is the old New Yorkers, cherish the old opera house owing to its small size and inconvenience but ultimately for keeping out, ‘the new people whom New York was beginning to dread and yet be drawn to’. chapter 1 pg 3) We are introduced to the Van Der Luyden’s in chapter 7. They epitomize the Old New Yorkers who find the thought of their codes and conventions being overlooked utterly daunting. Mrs Van Der Luyden, ‘Struck Newland Archer as having been rather gruesomely preserved in the airless atmosphere of a perfectly irreproachable existence as bodies caught in glaciers keep for years a rosy life in death. ‘ They only uncover their chandeliers and furniture to show off; they feel they have to preserve the rest of the time. However, the subtext Wharton wishes us to understand the fact that although the Van Der Luydens can preserve it is inevitable that in time the furniture will disintegrate just like the social codes they live by. Every style, action or conversation has a purpose beyond its explicit meaning, and this form of expression permits the conservation of order and virtue in society. Through the events surrounding his marriage to May Welland, Newland experiences this communication first hand. For example, he decides to declare his engagement to May earlier than anticipated in order to support her family when Ellen arrives from Europe. This action does not simply create an alliance between his family and May’s, but it helps to avert any disgrace that may have come upon the Mingott clan due to Ellen’s separation from her husband. This fact is never overtly stated, but it is the primary motive for his hurried pronouncement, and May and her mother understand without questioning Newland’s decision. The customs of aristocratic New York in the 1870s calls for the use of representative behaviour rather than simple openness or forthrightness, and Newland understands his position within this system. While Newland is a product of the system that discourages disgrace through surreptitious action, Ellen presents another model to follow since she has adapted to the openness of European culture. Ellen brings an important perspective to the New York world. She arrives unaware of the rigid confines of behaviour in a society that tolerates no divergence from its strict rules of etiuette and social distance. Ellen finds New York society both charmingly safe and provincially rigid. She undergoes her own change. Before Ellen met Archer she lived her life in Europe according to European norms. She married a fabulously rich Polish count and lived the life of exquisite pleasures. There, life was bohemian and free. Each person lived for their own pleasure regardless of the consequences.. However her husband abused her cruelly to suit his own selfish ourposes Ellen, much like her grandmother Mrs Manson Mingott, is attracted to the unconventions of society. Ellen’s dark hair and red clothing are often contrasted against May’s blonde hair and white dress; she refuses to abide by the strict codes of society. Ellen could be compared to the character of Daisy Miller, a book written by Wharton’s friend and fellow writer, Henry James. Daisy, like Ellen, did not abide by the social rules of the society in which she lived; she had an uncultivated manner and was direct and honest in her language. When Winterborne accuses Daisy of being a flirt at Mrs Walker’s party, she agrees with him. This would be a label that the majority of women at the time would have been completely embarrassed at receiving. However, like Ellen, Daisy does not pretend and it is her refusal to keep up any sort of pretence that in the end causes her death. The frankness that Ellen exhibits in the presence of everyone is appealing to Archer, and the conventions to which he is accustomed does not enchant him like the Countess does. Ellen represents a way of life he wishes he could lead but owing to society’s codes and conventions, he is forbidden to. She penetrates the facade of New York society and questions the need for the standards with which Newland is familiar, and during his time spent with her, he becomes increasingly dissatisfied with his society’s way of life: “They like you and admire you—they want to help you. ” [… ]”Oh, I know—I know! But on condition that they don’t hear anything unpleasant. [… ] Does no one want to know the truth here, Mr. Archer? The real loneliness is living among all these kind people who only ask one to pretend! ” In this conversation between Ellen and Newland, the two modes of life come into direct conflict with each other. According to Newland, the people around Ellen only “want to help,” but she comprehends that in doing so, they simply desire for her to “pretend” like they do. Compared with the society in which Ellen has lived for so long, his culture is artificial, and it makes her lonely when no one outwardly pursues the truth. To her, they are concerned with preserving appearance rather than examining the foundation of a problem, and their unwillingness to authorise Ellen’s divorce is an example of this behaviour. It is extremely ironic that the ‘high priest of form’ Lawrence Lefferts is the character who obviously has no concept of fidelity and, therefore, makes us question why a society that is so concerned with propriety is so corrupt at its base and the people who do attempt to live by the truth are punished. In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby there is further evidence of the characters who rebel against society being punished. Set in 1920’s New York fifty years after the setting of The Age of Innocence it seems this irrevocable change that appeared on the horizon in The Age of Innocence has not yet occurred. The old New Yorkers still despised the new wealth represented by Gatsby who lived in the West Egg district of Long Island, New York, and to the dinosaurs of New York, people like Gatsby lacked established social connections and vulgarly flaunted their wealth. Gatsby moved to New York to pursue his love interest Daisy Buchanan and ends up having an affair. However, after Daisy finds out that Gatsby made his fortune immorally, she returns to her husband. Gatsby’s eventful murder was set in train by Tom Buchanan, Daisy’s husband. Gatsby died, Daisy Miller died and Ellen returned to a lonely life in Europe. The fate of these unconventional characters seems doomed from the start and shows that change in society might not come as easily as people think. In The Age of innocence Archer is tempted by Ellen’s mode of living. He must choose between his own society and the possibilities presented by Countess Olenska but, in order to select the latter option and yield to his love, he would have to abandon the standards that his culture had created for him: Wharton’s tragic heroes and heroines… are passionate or imaginative spirits, hungry for emotional and intellectual experience, who find themselves locked into a small closed system, and either destroy themselves by beating their heads against their prism or suffer a living death in resigning themselves to it. ‘(Lowe) Newland’s choice between Ellen Olenska and his New York upbringing is a choice between open communication which means the rejection of customs and hidden meanings and adherence to conventions. When he resolves to depart with Ellen so that he may love her openly, he decides to break the bond he has with his own values and standards. At the farewell dinner for Ellen, May achieves the victory that permits social convention to be upheld, and it passes without the problem of her husband’s devotion to the Countess even being explicitly stated: “It was the old New York way of taking life without effusion of blood: the way of people who dreaded scandal more than disease, who placed decency above courage, and who considered that nothing was more ill-bred than “scenes,” except the behaviour of those who gave rise to them”. Everyone present at the meal knows of Newland’s feelings and understands May’s need to prevent his plans, but they never have to speak a word about either situation: ‘In reality they all lived in a kind of hieroglyphic world, where the real thing was never said or done or even thought, but only represented by a set of arbitrary signs. ‘(Janet Beer) The complex system of communication allows the truth to appear without any disgrace that may come with its outward revelation. The elite culture discourages scandals and “scenes” that would disturb “decency” and virtue, and therefore it attempts to control Newland’s conduct by means that cause the least amount of shame for everyone involved. While it may seem that the avoidance of scandal is the primary motivation for society to act as it does, it comes with consequent benefits, and much of the goodness of Newland’s culture is that it allows him to continue to devote himself to previous obligations. When Newland himself cannot be a faithful husband, the social conventions of the time force him to be, and everyone can appreciate the outcome. Without a word being spoken, a situation that would breed shame if it were to be exposed by Ellen’s system of openness, like her own separation from Count Olenski, do not result in scandal or disgrace. Everyone knows, but no one expresses the fact that they know, and therefore everyone participating succeeds in the end. Society avoids the stigma of an elopement involving two of its most prominent families, May retains her spouse, and even Newland remains faithful without ever having to tell his wife of his potential infidelity. Newland also emerges with the belief that this last accomplishment was his own doing, but only decades later when his son Dallas reveals May’s contributions to the affair does he realize the full extent of the situation. His children, his marriage, and his later life as a model citizen would not have existed without the intervention of his society’s social standards, and “it did not so much matter if marriage was a dull duty, as long as it kept the dignity of a duty”. In his youth, his preference is for Ellen, but when she departs, he still has the responsibility to support May in marriage. Life with May might have been “dull” at times, but overall, staying with her allowed him to keep his dignity as a husband and father. As a result of his recognition that his culture had actually saved him from a scandal that would not have allowed the happiness of his later years, and that it was not from his own doing, he can truly say that there was good in the old ways. Newland sees that the old ways provided the means for his own personal scandal to be minimized at any cost, and he is grateful for the conventions that his society had in place. For a time, he thinks that he can avoid the effects of an illicit love, but, ultimately, it is his culture that allows his marriage to survive and the happiness of his family to remain. He can proclaim the good of the former way of life because he knows how it prepared him to live a life of honesty and purity. Although Newland discovers that it is necessary to perform sacrifices, even to relinquish “the thing he most wanted”, to ensure this innocence, he ultimately benefits from the standard set for him and the circumstances that force him to follow it. Wharton allows the reader to see the goodness of the lost past through the outcome of Newland’s life, and the fact that he was able to remain faithful shows the undeniable success of society’s ability to maintain its standards. Wharton through colourful language and a highly stylised structure reflects the ornate, conventional and conservative nature of the time but in doing this Wharton also ridicules society drawing our attention to the underlying corruption that is forever present in the lives of the dinosaurs of New York. However, could it be this corruption along with the refusal to change traditional ways that saves people in the end? Newland’s life, to an extent, was corrupt owing to his lust for Ellen but his refusal to change his traditional ways meant that he had great happiness in his later years and even learned to love May. Could it be that the dinosaurs of New York who fear and rebuff change are saving society from a chaotic world of blatant promiscuity and scandal?	3,872	ENGLISH	1
On 9 July 1940, the two navies met in the central Mediterranean, as two Italian battleships faced off against three of their British counterparts. Christened the Battle of Calabria, the action allowed the ships to play to their strengths, engaging in a long-range gunnery duel, the very thing they had been designed for. Though both sides shot well, the only hit was scored by Warspite on the Italian battleship Giulio Cesare. The Italians were forced to withdraw, and the action ended up being indecisive, but it was the largest fleet action fought in the Mediterranean during the war. As well as this battle, there were other occasions during the war when both British and Italian battleships were present and influential, but during which they never engaged each other directly – the Battle of Spartivento on 27 November 1940, and the Battle of Cape Matapan on 28–29 March 1941. Packed with full-colour artwork, carefully selected archive photographs and expert analysis, this title explores in detail the role played by British and Italian battleships in these encounters, and their influence in the Mediterranean theatre of World War II. - OverDrive Read - Adobe EPUB eBook 15.4 MB Mark Stille (Author) Mark E. Stille (Commander, United States Navy, retired) received his BA in History from the University of Maryland and also holds an MA from the Naval War College. He has worked in the intelligence community for 35 years including tours on the fac...	<urn:uuid:415973b3-bfb4-46ff-82b2-fe10212ed273>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.overdrive.com/media/5066216/british-battleship-vs-italian-battleship	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00525.warc.gz	en	0.983051	306	3.4375	3	[ -0.22946687042713165, 0.6127087473869324, -0.01598729006946087, -0.18238840997219086, -0.4793631136417389, 0.03145619481801987, -0.022549932822585106, 0.37626710534095764, -0.10291203111410141, -0.4567854106426239, -0.050214990973472595, -0.2291346788406372, 0.2691287696361542, 0.781496584...	1	On 9 July 1940, the two navies met in the central Mediterranean, as two Italian battleships faced off against three of their British counterparts. Christened the Battle of Calabria, the action allowed the ships to play to their strengths, engaging in a long-range gunnery duel, the very thing they had been designed for. Though both sides shot well, the only hit was scored by Warspite on the Italian battleship Giulio Cesare. The Italians were forced to withdraw, and the action ended up being indecisive, but it was the largest fleet action fought in the Mediterranean during the war. As well as this battle, there were other occasions during the war when both British and Italian battleships were present and influential, but during which they never engaged each other directly – the Battle of Spartivento on 27 November 1940, and the Battle of Cape Matapan on 28–29 March 1941. Packed with full-colour artwork, carefully selected archive photographs and expert analysis, this title explores in detail the role played by British and Italian battleships in these encounters, and their influence in the Mediterranean theatre of World War II. - OverDrive Read - Adobe EPUB eBook 15.4 MB Mark Stille (Author) Mark E. Stille (Commander, United States Navy, retired) received his BA in History from the University of Maryland and also holds an MA from the Naval War College. He has worked in the intelligence community for 35 years including tours on the fac...	325	ENGLISH	1
Key Men and Women of Renaissance Florence An Antipodean travel company serving world travellers since 1983 Five Key Figures of Renaissance Florence \| Small Group Tours Regarded as the ‘birthplace of the Renaissance’, Florence from 1400 to 1600 was in a religious, cultural and political ferment that was crucial to shaping the modern world. The power of its leading family, the Medicis, spread across Europe and the city became home to the intellectual development of humanism and the artistic innovations of Donatello, Botticelli and other artists. In this article, we attempt to bring to life the diversity of Renaissance Florence through a focus on five key men and women – some of whom will be known to you and others who have been forgotten by history. For more fascinating figures from the Renaissance, make sure to read our earlier article on women of the Renaissance and our article on the Medici. 1.The Stateswoman: Lucrezia Tornabuoni (1425-1484) Though less remembered than her male relations in the Medici dynasty, during her lifetime, Lucrezia Tornabuoni de’ Medici could have made a claim to having been the most powerful woman in Italy. The wife of Piero and the mother of Lorenzo the Magnificent, Lucrezia was also an influential stateswoman, philanthropist, and writer in her own right. Born in Florence in 1427, her childhood coincided with one of the city’s most glorious periods. Under the sure hand of Cosimo de’ Medici, the small but powerful city was growing to international prominence. This was coupled with the new ideas of humanist philosophy, which promoted critical thinking in challenge to the superstition of the medieval era, and emphasised the value and agency of human beings. Tornabuoni lived her life at the centre of Florentine culture and politics. At the age of 17, she entered an arranged (though apparently loving) marriage with Piero de’ Medici, the son and heir of Cosimo. The marriage was a shrewd move on Cosimo’s part. The Medici, a banking and mercantile family, had only come into prominence in the previous generation. By marrying his son to Lucrezia, who was of noble heritage, Cosimo was able to legitimate Medici power. Lucrezia’s husband, Piero, assumed power following Cosimo’s death in 1464. While Piero was introverted and lacked social skills, Lucrezia was became widely known for her grace and warmth. Piero (who was nicknamed ‘the gouty’) was often bedridden, so Lucrezia took on considerable responsibility, including diplomatic missions. In 1467, for instance, he sent her to Rome to discuss Venetian aggression against Florence with the Pope. When Piero died in 1469, their 20-year-old son Lorenzo became the de facto leader of Florence. Like his father and grandfather before him, Lorenzo sought out Lucrezia’s advice. Though she had no formal training in humanism, she was well educated and had long experience dealing in Florentine and international politics. Beyond her role as political advisor, Lucrezia was well-known and beloved in Florence for her charity. Destitute girls asked her for dowry funds so that they could marry, families asked her to mediate long-lasting feuds and prisoners asked her for clemency. They addressed her as the ‘Most Illustrious Mother’, and praised her compassion and mercy. She was also a landowner and businesswoman, something relatively unheard of for the time. Lucrezia own multiple properties that she collected rent on and even purchased a defunct thermal bath that she transformed into a profitable business. However, Lucrezia’s public activities also attracted criticism. In the early Renaissance, women’s lives were restricted to the private realm. The archbishop of Florence preached that women should leave home only for mass, and to further limit opportunities for sin, restrict those ventures only to feast days. Representing her husband at the papal court shamed Pietro, according to critics of the Medici, and degraded Florence. AS wel Perhaps because of this, Lucrezia’s writing remained private, intended only for family and friends. Her work usually brought to life biblical stories. Possibly commenting on her public role, she chose to focus on women who transgressed the social boundaries of their time. In her elegant retelling of the Book of Esther, Queen Esther defies custom by entering the king’s court without permission in order to expose a plot against the Jews. She used her writings to justify her own life, claiming that the good of the people sometimes required women to cross over into what were considered to be men’s spaces. Today, Lucrezia is recognised as a figure of the Renaissance who exercised a striking influence over the politics and culture around her, despite living in a time where women were relegated to the public sphere. She is significant not just because of who the men in her life were, but because of her writings, diplomacy and entrepreneurial spirit. 2. The Artist: Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) Though recognised today as one of the greatest painters of the Florentine Renaissance, Sandro Botticelli has long been seen as an ‘outsider’ within the tradition of Renaissance Italian painting. Unlike his contemporaries Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, he was not concerned with human anatomy or classical art, and, apart from a brief period of time in Rome, he spent his entire life in Florence. The seventh of eight children to a tanner and his wife, Botticelli began training as a goldsmith but preferred painting. Around 1460, he was apprenticed to Fra Filippo Lippi, a highly regarded artist whose patrons included the Medici family. He became a master artist in the 1460s and established his own workshop around 1470. Absorbed in his art, he never married and continued to live with his parents for his entire life. In the 1470s, Botticelli began his long association with the Medici family. Particularly notable from this period is his Adoration of the Magi, a glorification of the Medici men: Cosimo kneels before the Virgin as his sons Piero and Giovanni and grandsons Lorenzo and Giuliano look on. On the far right is a self-portrait of the artist, portrayed as a fair-haired, young man. The Adoration of the Magi drew the attention of Pope Sixtus IV, and Botticelli moved to Rome to contribute to the painting of the Sistine Chapel. After completing the frescoes, Botticelli returned to Florence in 1482, where he did a good business with upper class families seeking fashionable art for their homes. This period also saw the completion of his best-known works, Primavera and The Birth of Venus, both commissioned by the Medici family. They follow the Neoplatonic fashion of the day, with its fixation on ancient mythology. Yet, though Botticelli was aware of the principles of perspective, he chose to reject it in favour of a flatter, more stylised approach that was all his own. By the last decade of his life, Botticelli’s work began to seem dated in comparison with the innovations spearheaded by Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. His popularity waned after his death and for centuries he was largely forgotten. In the 19th century, however, Botticelli’s work was championed by art critics such as John Ruskin, and influenced the Pre-Raphaelites. Today he is cited by many as one of the most important Italian painters of all time and a symbol of the Early Renaissance. The splendour of his works and the almost-mythological scenery they depict are valued much more now than they previously were and the Uffizi Gallery houses many of his masterpieces. 3. The Priest: Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) The fire-and-brimstone preacher Girolamo Savonarola has long been one of the most divisive figures of the Renaissance, simultaneously held up as a predecessor of Protestantism and an advocate of democracy and condemned as a religious fanatic. Whatever your take, it’s hard to deny that he’s one of the most fascinating figures of the period. Savonarola was born to a well-off family in Ferrara, a city in Northern Italy. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from the local university and his family expected that he would follow his father’s footsteps into medicine. In contrast to the typical fun-loving men of his generation, the young and rather joyless Girolamo preferred to spend his days writing moody poetry about the impending ‘Ruin of the World’ due to sin and avarice. Humanity, he lamented, is ‘so pulled down by every vice/that it will never stand again.’ In 1475, disappointing his family, he ran away to join a monastery in Bologna. In the spring of 1485, Savonarola received a job in Florence, teaching logic at the Dominican convent of San Marco. His unpolished delivery and strange northern accent repelled listeners, however, and he was sent back to Bologna to improve his public speaking skills. He returned in 1490, much more confident than before. Florence’s long success as a political and cultural mecca had created a large upper class with a taste for luxury goods. In lengthy sermons filled with apocalyptic imagery, he castigated this upper class for its tepid piety, greed, and love of sensual pleasures and called on the people to abolish the oligarchic government of Florence. Savonarola developed a large base of followers, dubbed by opponents ‘the wailers’ for their habits of weeping during the friar’s sermons. Children were enlisted to report on their neighbours and relatives’ immoral actions, and during Carnival they were dressed in white to disrupt the traditional festive debauchery. Any objects that seemed sinful – playing cards, mirrors, pagan-themed art, erotic books, and even wigs – were piled in the main government square to be burned in what became known as the ‘Bonfires of the Vanities’. When the French king reached Florence during his invasion of Italy in 1494, Savonarola publicly thanked the confused monarch, believing that Florence had justly received God’s wrath. During this time, Savonarola became a leading rebel and helped Florence reach an agreement with France that resulted in peaceful occupation and when the army left eventually, he was hailed as a hero. However, Savonarola’s denouncing of luxury and laxity gave him some powerful enemies, one of them being Pope Alexander. Pope Alexander summoned Savonarola to Rome in 1495. Correctly surmising that this was a trap, Savonarola refused to go, and for three years ignored commands to cease preaching. In 1497, Pope Alexander finally excommunicated him. In Florence, Franciscans challenged the Dominican followers of Savonarola to a trial by fire. The townspeople gathered to see the drama, but a sudden storm halted the contest, and the people stormed the cathedral of San Marco. Savonarola was taken prisoner, and soon after was hanged and burned in the public square where he had once led the townspeople to burn their goods. Today, Savonarola’s reputation has endured thanks passionate supporters of his who believe he should be made a saint due to his Catholic belief and martyrdom. who remain, five hundred years later, convinced of his Catholic belief and martyrdom, and wish for him to be a saint. Although he is infamous for his distaste of modern life, and pleasures, he was also staunchly opposed to clerical corruption, despotic rule and the exploitation of the poor. 4. The Political Theorist: Niccolò Machiavelli (1469 – 1527) Given the ubiquity of the word Machiavellian to describe political deviousness, scheming, and unscrupulous behaviour, it may be surprising that the real Machiavelli was a rather quiet bureaucrat, who caused trouble for his hotheadedness rather than cunning. Born into genteel poverty, Machiavelli’s family were unable to afford the Greek lessons that were standard amongst Florence’s humanist elite. He was nonetheless trained in Latin and developed a deep fascination for Ancient Rome. Perhaps owing to his relative lack of status, he embraced the literature of Republican Rome, with its adages that a man’s true worth was determined by participation in public affairs. These ideas – perhaps for obvious reasons – were unfashionable under the Medici. Machiavelli got his first job as a secretary for the city where he drafted government documents. When the Medici were ousted in 1494, Machiavelli, at only 29 years old, was put in charge of home security and foreign correspondence. Often blunt and impulsive in his dealings, he nonetheless recognised the similarities between his own experiences and those he had read in Cicero and Livy. One of his main projects during this time was overseeing the recruitment and training of an official militia but his army would turn out to be no match for the Medici family who returned in 1512, supported by Rome’s papal milita. When the Medici retook Florence, Machiavelli was suspected of conspiracy and subsequently arrested, tortured, and then banished to his farm just south of Florence. It was during this period that he turned his hobby into his life’s work. He set about composing essays that became the modern discipline of political science, including The Prince. Contrary to its notorious reputation, the book was more descriptive than prescriptive in its claims that a prince had to operate free of all moral restraints. What concerned Machiavelli was whether or it it was possible to be both a good politician and a good person at the same time and what made someone an effective and accomplished leader. After some time, Machiavelli’s friends persuaded Florence’s ruler, the Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici, to partially forgive him. He was commissioned to write a History of Florence. Machiavelli died in 1527 and The Prince was published five years after his death. The Catholic Church ultimately banned his works for 200 years because he argued that a good Christian could not be a good leader. Today, Machiavelli’s influence is indisputable. While a persistent view of Machiavelli is one of an immoral cynic, his contribution to modern political thinking and disciplines such as International Relations and International Security is unparalleled. 5.The Poet: Laura Battiferri Ammannati (1523-1589) The poet Laura Battifierri was born at a time of transition, as the older, mercantile, republican and humanist culture that had dominated Florence (and northern Italy) faded away in favour of a court society that stressed hierarchy over merit and innovation. The illegitimate daughter of a cleric and nobleman, Giovanni Antonio Battiferri, and a concubine, Maddelena Coccapani of Capri, from Urbino, Battiferri lacked ties to the elite. Unlike earlier artists such as Botticelli, Laura and her husband, the sculptor Bartolomeo Ammannati, were totally reliant on the support of noble sponsors. She had one thing in her favour, however: she was rich. Her father, powerful within the church, favoured her over his two sons, and Laura personally received a classical education from him. She also inherited most of his fortune. Her first marriage to Vittorio Sereni, an organist in the service of the Duke of Urbino, appeared to have been happy. Nonetheless, she remarried to Ammannati only a year after his death. Bartolomeo and Laura appeared to have a loving relationship and a creative partnership. Bartolomeo received the patronage of Pope Julius III, and the couple moved to Rome, which Laura wrote warmly about in a series of poems. In 1555, Julius died, and with him went the couple’s patronage. They moved to Florence, attaching themselves to the court of Duke Cosimo de’ Medici. Laura was devastated. She considered Florence to be uncultured, and wrote in her poems of ‘living in horrible darkness/and buried alive on the Arno’ [which ran through Florence]. She soon found her place in Florence, however, and received the patronage of Duchess Eleanor of Toledo, the Duke’s wife. Her poems were acclaimed around Europe, and she became famous as far afield as Prague and Madrid. In her later life, Laura became deeply religious. She abandoned secular poetry, and she and her husband became sponsors of the new Jesuit order. Withdrawing from the public world which had only recently opened up to women, she spent most of her days meditating or in prayer. For more information on the history of the Renaissance more broadly, we recommend Robert C. Davis and Beth Lindsmith’s Renaissance People: Lives that Shaped the Modern Age, which was used as a basis for this article. Odyssey Traveller also runs a summer school, located in beautiful Hobart, with two in-depth courses on the Renaissance: Medieval Renaissance Women and Italian Renaissance Summer School. Odyssey also offers the chance to walk the same streets as these men and women. For a focus on Florence during the Renaissance, think about one of these tours:	<urn:uuid:b3566222-a072-455a-b5b4-1e245f936119>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.odysseytraveller.com/articles/five-men-women-renaissance-florence/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00515.warc.gz	en	0.981487	3,714	3.375	3	[ -0.12901172041893005, 0.16782867908477783, 0.12118642032146454, 0.505151629447937, -0.7764537930488586, 0.07666736841201782, 0.3884418308734894, 0.2589726150035858, -0.3153443932533264, -0.13842248916625977, -0.15095624327659607, -0.22718724608421326, 0.48885872960090637, -0.01796219870448...	4	Key Men and Women of Renaissance Florence An Antipodean travel company serving world travellers since 1983 Five Key Figures of Renaissance Florence \| Small Group Tours Regarded as the ‘birthplace of the Renaissance’, Florence from 1400 to 1600 was in a religious, cultural and political ferment that was crucial to shaping the modern world. The power of its leading family, the Medicis, spread across Europe and the city became home to the intellectual development of humanism and the artistic innovations of Donatello, Botticelli and other artists. In this article, we attempt to bring to life the diversity of Renaissance Florence through a focus on five key men and women – some of whom will be known to you and others who have been forgotten by history. For more fascinating figures from the Renaissance, make sure to read our earlier article on women of the Renaissance and our article on the Medici. 1.The Stateswoman: Lucrezia Tornabuoni (1425-1484) Though less remembered than her male relations in the Medici dynasty, during her lifetime, Lucrezia Tornabuoni de’ Medici could have made a claim to having been the most powerful woman in Italy. The wife of Piero and the mother of Lorenzo the Magnificent, Lucrezia was also an influential stateswoman, philanthropist, and writer in her own right. Born in Florence in 1427, her childhood coincided with one of the city’s most glorious periods. Under the sure hand of Cosimo de’ Medici, the small but powerful city was growing to international prominence. This was coupled with the new ideas of humanist philosophy, which promoted critical thinking in challenge to the superstition of the medieval era, and emphasised the value and agency of human beings. Tornabuoni lived her life at the centre of Florentine culture and politics. At the age of 17, she entered an arranged (though apparently loving) marriage with Piero de’ Medici, the son and heir of Cosimo. The marriage was a shrewd move on Cosimo’s part. The Medici, a banking and mercantile family, had only come into prominence in the previous generation. By marrying his son to Lucrezia, who was of noble heritage, Cosimo was able to legitimate Medici power. Lucrezia’s husband, Piero, assumed power following Cosimo’s death in 1464. While Piero was introverted and lacked social skills, Lucrezia was became widely known for her grace and warmth. Piero (who was nicknamed ‘the gouty’) was often bedridden, so Lucrezia took on considerable responsibility, including diplomatic missions. In 1467, for instance, he sent her to Rome to discuss Venetian aggression against Florence with the Pope. When Piero died in 1469, their 20-year-old son Lorenzo became the de facto leader of Florence. Like his father and grandfather before him, Lorenzo sought out Lucrezia’s advice. Though she had no formal training in humanism, she was well educated and had long experience dealing in Florentine and international politics. Beyond her role as political advisor, Lucrezia was well-known and beloved in Florence for her charity. Destitute girls asked her for dowry funds so that they could marry, families asked her to mediate long-lasting feuds and prisoners asked her for clemency. They addressed her as the ‘Most Illustrious Mother’, and praised her compassion and mercy. She was also a landowner and businesswoman, something relatively unheard of for the time. Lucrezia own multiple properties that she collected rent on and even purchased a defunct thermal bath that she transformed into a profitable business. However, Lucrezia’s public activities also attracted criticism. In the early Renaissance, women’s lives were restricted to the private realm. The archbishop of Florence preached that women should leave home only for mass, and to further limit opportunities for sin, restrict those ventures only to feast days. Representing her husband at the papal court shamed Pietro, according to critics of the Medici, and degraded Florence. AS wel Perhaps because of this, Lucrezia’s writing remained private, intended only for family and friends. Her work usually brought to life biblical stories. Possibly commenting on her public role, she chose to focus on women who transgressed the social boundaries of their time. In her elegant retelling of the Book of Esther, Queen Esther defies custom by entering the king’s court without permission in order to expose a plot against the Jews. She used her writings to justify her own life, claiming that the good of the people sometimes required women to cross over into what were considered to be men’s spaces. Today, Lucrezia is recognised as a figure of the Renaissance who exercised a striking influence over the politics and culture around her, despite living in a time where women were relegated to the public sphere. She is significant not just because of who the men in her life were, but because of her writings, diplomacy and entrepreneurial spirit. 2. The Artist: Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) Though recognised today as one of the greatest painters of the Florentine Renaissance, Sandro Botticelli has long been seen as an ‘outsider’ within the tradition of Renaissance Italian painting. Unlike his contemporaries Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, he was not concerned with human anatomy or classical art, and, apart from a brief period of time in Rome, he spent his entire life in Florence. The seventh of eight children to a tanner and his wife, Botticelli began training as a goldsmith but preferred painting. Around 1460, he was apprenticed to Fra Filippo Lippi, a highly regarded artist whose patrons included the Medici family. He became a master artist in the 1460s and established his own workshop around 1470. Absorbed in his art, he never married and continued to live with his parents for his entire life. In the 1470s, Botticelli began his long association with the Medici family. Particularly notable from this period is his Adoration of the Magi, a glorification of the Medici men: Cosimo kneels before the Virgin as his sons Piero and Giovanni and grandsons Lorenzo and Giuliano look on. On the far right is a self-portrait of the artist, portrayed as a fair-haired, young man. The Adoration of the Magi drew the attention of Pope Sixtus IV, and Botticelli moved to Rome to contribute to the painting of the Sistine Chapel. After completing the frescoes, Botticelli returned to Florence in 1482, where he did a good business with upper class families seeking fashionable art for their homes. This period also saw the completion of his best-known works, Primavera and The Birth of Venus, both commissioned by the Medici family. They follow the Neoplatonic fashion of the day, with its fixation on ancient mythology. Yet, though Botticelli was aware of the principles of perspective, he chose to reject it in favour of a flatter, more stylised approach that was all his own. By the last decade of his life, Botticelli’s work began to seem dated in comparison with the innovations spearheaded by Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. His popularity waned after his death and for centuries he was largely forgotten. In the 19th century, however, Botticelli’s work was championed by art critics such as John Ruskin, and influenced the Pre-Raphaelites. Today he is cited by many as one of the most important Italian painters of all time and a symbol of the Early Renaissance. The splendour of his works and the almost-mythological scenery they depict are valued much more now than they previously were and the Uffizi Gallery houses many of his masterpieces. 3. The Priest: Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) The fire-and-brimstone preacher Girolamo Savonarola has long been one of the most divisive figures of the Renaissance, simultaneously held up as a predecessor of Protestantism and an advocate of democracy and condemned as a religious fanatic. Whatever your take, it’s hard to deny that he’s one of the most fascinating figures of the period. Savonarola was born to a well-off family in Ferrara, a city in Northern Italy. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from the local university and his family expected that he would follow his father’s footsteps into medicine. In contrast to the typical fun-loving men of his generation, the young and rather joyless Girolamo preferred to spend his days writing moody poetry about the impending ‘Ruin of the World’ due to sin and avarice. Humanity, he lamented, is ‘so pulled down by every vice/that it will never stand again.’ In 1475, disappointing his family, he ran away to join a monastery in Bologna. In the spring of 1485, Savonarola received a job in Florence, teaching logic at the Dominican convent of San Marco. His unpolished delivery and strange northern accent repelled listeners, however, and he was sent back to Bologna to improve his public speaking skills. He returned in 1490, much more confident than before. Florence’s long success as a political and cultural mecca had created a large upper class with a taste for luxury goods. In lengthy sermons filled with apocalyptic imagery, he castigated this upper class for its tepid piety, greed, and love of sensual pleasures and called on the people to abolish the oligarchic government of Florence. Savonarola developed a large base of followers, dubbed by opponents ‘the wailers’ for their habits of weeping during the friar’s sermons. Children were enlisted to report on their neighbours and relatives’ immoral actions, and during Carnival they were dressed in white to disrupt the traditional festive debauchery. Any objects that seemed sinful – playing cards, mirrors, pagan-themed art, erotic books, and even wigs – were piled in the main government square to be burned in what became known as the ‘Bonfires of the Vanities’. When the French king reached Florence during his invasion of Italy in 1494, Savonarola publicly thanked the confused monarch, believing that Florence had justly received God’s wrath. During this time, Savonarola became a leading rebel and helped Florence reach an agreement with France that resulted in peaceful occupation and when the army left eventually, he was hailed as a hero. However, Savonarola’s denouncing of luxury and laxity gave him some powerful enemies, one of them being Pope Alexander. Pope Alexander summoned Savonarola to Rome in 1495. Correctly surmising that this was a trap, Savonarola refused to go, and for three years ignored commands to cease preaching. In 1497, Pope Alexander finally excommunicated him. In Florence, Franciscans challenged the Dominican followers of Savonarola to a trial by fire. The townspeople gathered to see the drama, but a sudden storm halted the contest, and the people stormed the cathedral of San Marco. Savonarola was taken prisoner, and soon after was hanged and burned in the public square where he had once led the townspeople to burn their goods. Today, Savonarola’s reputation has endured thanks passionate supporters of his who believe he should be made a saint due to his Catholic belief and martyrdom. who remain, five hundred years later, convinced of his Catholic belief and martyrdom, and wish for him to be a saint. Although he is infamous for his distaste of modern life, and pleasures, he was also staunchly opposed to clerical corruption, despotic rule and the exploitation of the poor. 4. The Political Theorist: Niccolò Machiavelli (1469 – 1527) Given the ubiquity of the word Machiavellian to describe political deviousness, scheming, and unscrupulous behaviour, it may be surprising that the real Machiavelli was a rather quiet bureaucrat, who caused trouble for his hotheadedness rather than cunning. Born into genteel poverty, Machiavelli’s family were unable to afford the Greek lessons that were standard amongst Florence’s humanist elite. He was nonetheless trained in Latin and developed a deep fascination for Ancient Rome. Perhaps owing to his relative lack of status, he embraced the literature of Republican Rome, with its adages that a man’s true worth was determined by participation in public affairs. These ideas – perhaps for obvious reasons – were unfashionable under the Medici. Machiavelli got his first job as a secretary for the city where he drafted government documents. When the Medici were ousted in 1494, Machiavelli, at only 29 years old, was put in charge of home security and foreign correspondence. Often blunt and impulsive in his dealings, he nonetheless recognised the similarities between his own experiences and those he had read in Cicero and Livy. One of his main projects during this time was overseeing the recruitment and training of an official militia but his army would turn out to be no match for the Medici family who returned in 1512, supported by Rome’s papal milita. When the Medici retook Florence, Machiavelli was suspected of conspiracy and subsequently arrested, tortured, and then banished to his farm just south of Florence. It was during this period that he turned his hobby into his life’s work. He set about composing essays that became the modern discipline of political science, including The Prince. Contrary to its notorious reputation, the book was more descriptive than prescriptive in its claims that a prince had to operate free of all moral restraints. What concerned Machiavelli was whether or it it was possible to be both a good politician and a good person at the same time and what made someone an effective and accomplished leader. After some time, Machiavelli’s friends persuaded Florence’s ruler, the Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici, to partially forgive him. He was commissioned to write a History of Florence. Machiavelli died in 1527 and The Prince was published five years after his death. The Catholic Church ultimately banned his works for 200 years because he argued that a good Christian could not be a good leader. Today, Machiavelli’s influence is indisputable. While a persistent view of Machiavelli is one of an immoral cynic, his contribution to modern political thinking and disciplines such as International Relations and International Security is unparalleled. 5.The Poet: Laura Battiferri Ammannati (1523-1589) The poet Laura Battifierri was born at a time of transition, as the older, mercantile, republican and humanist culture that had dominated Florence (and northern Italy) faded away in favour of a court society that stressed hierarchy over merit and innovation. The illegitimate daughter of a cleric and nobleman, Giovanni Antonio Battiferri, and a concubine, Maddelena Coccapani of Capri, from Urbino, Battiferri lacked ties to the elite. Unlike earlier artists such as Botticelli, Laura and her husband, the sculptor Bartolomeo Ammannati, were totally reliant on the support of noble sponsors. She had one thing in her favour, however: she was rich. Her father, powerful within the church, favoured her over his two sons, and Laura personally received a classical education from him. She also inherited most of his fortune. Her first marriage to Vittorio Sereni, an organist in the service of the Duke of Urbino, appeared to have been happy. Nonetheless, she remarried to Ammannati only a year after his death. Bartolomeo and Laura appeared to have a loving relationship and a creative partnership. Bartolomeo received the patronage of Pope Julius III, and the couple moved to Rome, which Laura wrote warmly about in a series of poems. In 1555, Julius died, and with him went the couple’s patronage. They moved to Florence, attaching themselves to the court of Duke Cosimo de’ Medici. Laura was devastated. She considered Florence to be uncultured, and wrote in her poems of ‘living in horrible darkness/and buried alive on the Arno’ [which ran through Florence]. She soon found her place in Florence, however, and received the patronage of Duchess Eleanor of Toledo, the Duke’s wife. Her poems were acclaimed around Europe, and she became famous as far afield as Prague and Madrid. In her later life, Laura became deeply religious. She abandoned secular poetry, and she and her husband became sponsors of the new Jesuit order. Withdrawing from the public world which had only recently opened up to women, she spent most of her days meditating or in prayer. For more information on the history of the Renaissance more broadly, we recommend Robert C. Davis and Beth Lindsmith’s Renaissance People: Lives that Shaped the Modern Age, which was used as a basis for this article. Odyssey Traveller also runs a summer school, located in beautiful Hobart, with two in-depth courses on the Renaissance: Medieval Renaissance Women and Italian Renaissance Summer School. Odyssey also offers the chance to walk the same streets as these men and women. For a focus on Florence during the Renaissance, think about one of these tours:	3,669	ENGLISH	1
America’s Founders are often painted as selfish, hypocritical and evil because, while men like Thomas Jefferson and George Washington spoke out against slavery, they both owned slaves. It’s forgotten that these men from the 18th century are being judged by 21st century sensibilities. Additionally, slavery was instituted and engrained in colonial society by the British. The Founders were simply recipients of a system that had been in place for well over a century. It was the British who stopped the original abolition movement in America. In 1773 and 1774, states like Rhode Island and Connecticut and Massachusetts and Pennsylvania passed anti-slavery laws. But in 1774, King George III vetoed every anti-slavery law in America. That’s what caused Thomas Jefferson to write a clause in the Declaration which favored ending slavery (three southern states demanded it be removed). When America separated from Great Britain in 1776, those states were the first ones to end slavery. Once America was free from the British empire, the ending of slavery began. By 1800, every northern colony had abolished slavery in America. George Washington and the other Founders who favored abolition knew they could not immediately end slavery in the United States and still have a United States. They would have instantly lost all of the Southern colonies, weakened the union and wound up without a nation. That’s why Washington favored a gradual or, shall we say, “progressive” end to slavery. Despite having inherited his first ten slaves when he was 11 years old, Washington grew to despise the practice. Upon his marriage to Martha Custis, Washington took possession of many more slaves. Martha was a widow when she married her second husband, George, and she brought to the marriage close to 100 dowry slaves. Washington argued and fought from the very beginning to end slavery, with no success in the legislature. When his and Martha’s slaves began marrying and forming families, his hands were further tied, as he refused to sell slaves and break up families. He waited until his death and Martha’s to free his slaves saying, “You can’t free the slaves till after I die and till after she dies. Because once we’re both dead, then you can keep the families together.” Historian David Barton further explains: He could have made a ton of money if he could have sold his slaves, because he says it takes me twice as much to feed them as I make off the land. But he said, “I refuse to sell slaves. I refuse to participate in that practice of selling slaves. It’s wrong.” So he goes broke, rather than practice something that goes against his conscience, which is selling slaves. And he would not free his slaves because that would separate families. And Virginia law, of course, did not recognize slave families or slave marriages, but he did. And that’s why he took those families. He paid them for what they raised. He paid them for what they did. He did not treat them like slaves. He treated them like family, which is why, after he released them, the blacks for so long came back and took care of Mount Vernon, took care of his grave, took care of Martha’s grave, because they so loved him. He was like a father figure to them. Phyllis Wheatley, a 22-year-old slave and poet was so impressed with the respect and kindness Washington had shown her that she wrote a poem — His Excellency General Washington — to honor the man she so greatly admired when he was made commander in the Continental Army in 1775. Washington responded by inviting Ms. Wheatley to his headquarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he received her as if she were a visiting dignitary. In a time when the world was just emerging from languishing in the Dark Ages for over 1,000 years, dozens of enlightened men, certainly not perfect men, but definitely brilliant, inspired and enlightened, laid the foundation for what would become the greatest hope ever offered to mankind. And they dealt with the complicated nightmare of slavery as best they could. There were barriers put in place that had to be chipped away, piece by piece. It was President George Washington who set the tone and example, leading the way to end slavery.	<urn:uuid:c78cf4a0-d789-40a3-9e8f-26a1e898f7eb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.glennbeck.com/content/audio/slavery-and-the-founders-part-ii-george-washington/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00229.warc.gz	en	0.986832	889	3.703125	4	[ -0.2643139660358429, 0.4731174111366272, 0.31246936321258545, -0.2574739456176758, -0.3516315817832947, 0.2799244225025177, -0.0014954335056245327, -0.2033214569091797, 0.2300093173980713, 0.013899515382945538, 0.2832145392894745, 0.16745775938034058, -0.13481605052947998, 0.05348170921206...	4	America’s Founders are often painted as selfish, hypocritical and evil because, while men like Thomas Jefferson and George Washington spoke out against slavery, they both owned slaves. It’s forgotten that these men from the 18th century are being judged by 21st century sensibilities. Additionally, slavery was instituted and engrained in colonial society by the British. The Founders were simply recipients of a system that had been in place for well over a century. It was the British who stopped the original abolition movement in America. In 1773 and 1774, states like Rhode Island and Connecticut and Massachusetts and Pennsylvania passed anti-slavery laws. But in 1774, King George III vetoed every anti-slavery law in America. That’s what caused Thomas Jefferson to write a clause in the Declaration which favored ending slavery (three southern states demanded it be removed). When America separated from Great Britain in 1776, those states were the first ones to end slavery. Once America was free from the British empire, the ending of slavery began. By 1800, every northern colony had abolished slavery in America. George Washington and the other Founders who favored abolition knew they could not immediately end slavery in the United States and still have a United States. They would have instantly lost all of the Southern colonies, weakened the union and wound up without a nation. That’s why Washington favored a gradual or, shall we say, “progressive” end to slavery. Despite having inherited his first ten slaves when he was 11 years old, Washington grew to despise the practice. Upon his marriage to Martha Custis, Washington took possession of many more slaves. Martha was a widow when she married her second husband, George, and she brought to the marriage close to 100 dowry slaves. Washington argued and fought from the very beginning to end slavery, with no success in the legislature. When his and Martha’s slaves began marrying and forming families, his hands were further tied, as he refused to sell slaves and break up families. He waited until his death and Martha’s to free his slaves saying, “You can’t free the slaves till after I die and till after she dies. Because once we’re both dead, then you can keep the families together.” Historian David Barton further explains: He could have made a ton of money if he could have sold his slaves, because he says it takes me twice as much to feed them as I make off the land. But he said, “I refuse to sell slaves. I refuse to participate in that practice of selling slaves. It’s wrong.” So he goes broke, rather than practice something that goes against his conscience, which is selling slaves. And he would not free his slaves because that would separate families. And Virginia law, of course, did not recognize slave families or slave marriages, but he did. And that’s why he took those families. He paid them for what they raised. He paid them for what they did. He did not treat them like slaves. He treated them like family, which is why, after he released them, the blacks for so long came back and took care of Mount Vernon, took care of his grave, took care of Martha’s grave, because they so loved him. He was like a father figure to them. Phyllis Wheatley, a 22-year-old slave and poet was so impressed with the respect and kindness Washington had shown her that she wrote a poem — His Excellency General Washington — to honor the man she so greatly admired when he was made commander in the Continental Army in 1775. Washington responded by inviting Ms. Wheatley to his headquarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he received her as if she were a visiting dignitary. In a time when the world was just emerging from languishing in the Dark Ages for over 1,000 years, dozens of enlightened men, certainly not perfect men, but definitely brilliant, inspired and enlightened, laid the foundation for what would become the greatest hope ever offered to mankind. And they dealt with the complicated nightmare of slavery as best they could. There were barriers put in place that had to be chipped away, piece by piece. It was President George Washington who set the tone and example, leading the way to end slavery.	883	ENGLISH	1
The middle ages was a time of severe punishment and harsh torture for crimes that today would seem trivial. People were beheaded and limbs cut off, vagabonds were often whipped and chained in stocks. People lived in a state of fear thinking they would be the next victim. Even the Catholic Church used torture and imprisonment to obtain confessions from people regardless of whether they were guilty. Torture and punishment has existed for thousands of years. Roman and Greek law stated that only slaves were allowed to be tortured, eventually the laws changed and free men were tortured and imprisoned for committing crimes. People often had their right hand cut of for stealing, people were beaten, burned alive, stretched on a rack and women committing adultery were drowned. Suffocating people in water was a common practice. People were boiled in oil, eyes were burned out with pincher's and fingers torn off. Mutilation and branding's were common place. During Tudor times English laws was practically geared toward torture. Vagrancy was considered a crime and people were put in stocks so towns people could beat them. It was the poorer classes that were discriminated against. Lords and high official's were exempt. Courts and judges did exist, but were bias and often judgements were known before the case was even heard, if a person did not turn up to court they were considered an outlaw and their property was seized and became the kings. Outlaws banded together roaming the countryside and committing crime the most famous of these is of cause Robin Hood. The harsher the crime the more horrendous the punishment, If a man committed Rape, Manslaughter or Robbery they would be hung up in a cage so people could see their slow death. On some occasions they were taken down just before their death and quartered (cut into four pieces) so that the pain would kill them, a most cruel way to die. Public displays of torture were common. Hangings and Public torture would be announced by the kings men, people would come from far and wide often bring children with them, this was encouraged by rulers thinking it was a deterrent from committing crime, bringing fear to the towns people. Medieval towns people had a very close understanding of how punishment happened, as they were often present during punishment. Although murderers were often executed, the majority of lesser medieval offences were punished by shaming the criminal publicly. By today's standards people may think this was harsh however crime was not as widespread as in today's society. People also took pity on those in jail and prisoners were often let out to beg for food. Medieval officials lacked the resources or money to build suitable jails and people often died from illness before there trial. In today's society we do not use torture as a means of punishment, as history progressed torture became less prolific, it was only 100 years or so ago that this was considered a barbaric practice. In many modern countries the killing of murders and rapist's is not permitted. In some cultures the practice of cutting off limbs for stealing is still condoned although not widely practised, people are still executed in some societies.	<urn:uuid:8d295d87-c025-4c7d-8401-27dcd843b24f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefinertimes.com/Ancient-History/crime-and-punishment-in-the-middle-ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00508.warc.gz	en	0.995467	632	4.09375	4	[ -0.2689136862754822, 0.3382362723350525, 0.2085990160703659, 0.09375613182783127, 0.3122568130493164, -0.14425060153007507, 0.15502306818962097, -0.14794769883155823, 0.22269269824028015, 0.0816802829504013, 0.2703949213027954, 0.15641193091869354, 0.14091406762599945, 0.22354447841644287,...	1	The middle ages was a time of severe punishment and harsh torture for crimes that today would seem trivial. People were beheaded and limbs cut off, vagabonds were often whipped and chained in stocks. People lived in a state of fear thinking they would be the next victim. Even the Catholic Church used torture and imprisonment to obtain confessions from people regardless of whether they were guilty. Torture and punishment has existed for thousands of years. Roman and Greek law stated that only slaves were allowed to be tortured, eventually the laws changed and free men were tortured and imprisoned for committing crimes. People often had their right hand cut of for stealing, people were beaten, burned alive, stretched on a rack and women committing adultery were drowned. Suffocating people in water was a common practice. People were boiled in oil, eyes were burned out with pincher's and fingers torn off. Mutilation and branding's were common place. During Tudor times English laws was practically geared toward torture. Vagrancy was considered a crime and people were put in stocks so towns people could beat them. It was the poorer classes that were discriminated against. Lords and high official's were exempt. Courts and judges did exist, but were bias and often judgements were known before the case was even heard, if a person did not turn up to court they were considered an outlaw and their property was seized and became the kings. Outlaws banded together roaming the countryside and committing crime the most famous of these is of cause Robin Hood. The harsher the crime the more horrendous the punishment, If a man committed Rape, Manslaughter or Robbery they would be hung up in a cage so people could see their slow death. On some occasions they were taken down just before their death and quartered (cut into four pieces) so that the pain would kill them, a most cruel way to die. Public displays of torture were common. Hangings and Public torture would be announced by the kings men, people would come from far and wide often bring children with them, this was encouraged by rulers thinking it was a deterrent from committing crime, bringing fear to the towns people. Medieval towns people had a very close understanding of how punishment happened, as they were often present during punishment. Although murderers were often executed, the majority of lesser medieval offences were punished by shaming the criminal publicly. By today's standards people may think this was harsh however crime was not as widespread as in today's society. People also took pity on those in jail and prisoners were often let out to beg for food. Medieval officials lacked the resources or money to build suitable jails and people often died from illness before there trial. In today's society we do not use torture as a means of punishment, as history progressed torture became less prolific, it was only 100 years or so ago that this was considered a barbaric practice. In many modern countries the killing of murders and rapist's is not permitted. In some cultures the practice of cutting off limbs for stealing is still condoned although not widely practised, people are still executed in some societies.	627	ENGLISH	1
Ulysses S. Grant: 18th President: Celebrated General General-in-Chief of the Union Army, Ulysses S. Grant in 1865 April 27, 1822 - Ohio Democratic; National Union; Republican United States Army Union Army Mexican–American War and American Civil War Age at Beginning of Presidency 47 years old Term of Office March 4, 1869 - March 3, 1877 How Long President Schuyler Colfax (1869–1873) Henry Wilson (1873–1875) None (1875–1877) Age and Year of Death July 23, 1885 (aged 63) Cause of Death General Grant's Early Years Ulysses Simpson Grant was born on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio, as Hiram Ulysses Grant. At the beginning of the Civil War, he worked as a store clerk, but by the end of the war, he became one of the most celebrated generals of American history. It was this noteworthy accomplishment that earned him his position as the 18th President of the United States, where he served two terms from 1869-1877. Although he grew up in a family of farmers and tanners, he disliked both careers and knew he did not want the same for himself. His only real joy was riding horses. He did not have consistent schooling, although his parents did send him to West Point, the United States Military Academy. He graduated in the middle of his class, possibly because he did not desire to be there. Official White House Portrait Ulysses Grant: A War Hero During the Mexican War, Grant fought under General Zachary Taylor. Because of his bravery during battle, he was promoted to captain. Unfortunately, he did not make enough money to support his wife and family; therefore, he resigned from the Army. He tried farming, although he soon attempted to sell real estate. When neither worked out, he went to work for a family member in a leather shop in Galena, Illinois. Once the Civil War broke out, he rejoined the Army as a commanding general, where he led Union Armies against the Confederacy. For the first part of the war, he was in charge of a rowdy volunteer regiment fighting in the West, where he had great success. Then in September 1861, he became a brigadier general of volunteers. Unfortunately, the Union was losing many battles in the eastern states. In February 1862, Grant pursued gaining control over the Mississippi Valley, in which he won Fort Henry, then attacked Fort Donelson. While there, the Confederate commander asked for terms. His reply was, "No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted." The Confederates eventually did surrender, which caused President Abraham Lincoln to promote him again, this time to major general of volunteers. In April of the same year, Grant fought one of the bloodiest battles in the West at Shiloh. It was not a significant success, and some requested him to be removed as general. Lincoln defended him, saying, "I can't spare this man--he fights." He continued to prove the loyalty of the president, as he won the critical city, Vicksburg, on the Mississippi, which cut the Confederacy into two, which was a massive success for the Union. His next big victory was soon after when he gained Chattanooga, which the Confederates had previously held. Because of his great success as General, in March of 1864, he was put in charge of all Union troops as General-in-Chief. Lincoln appointed Grant to this new position was a turning point for the Union. Grant's immediate action was to direct General Sherman towards the South, while he and the Army of the Potomac pursued General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered at the Appomattox Court House. Grant wanted to prevent treason trials and keep peace within the country; therefore, he wrote out very generous terms of surrender. He took mercy on the now ex-Confederates. Since it was springtime when the Southern soldiers surrendered, Grant allowed them to keep their horses, so that way they could plow their fields. Late into President Andrew Johnson's administration, he was nominated by the Radical Republicans to run for President, because of his great success as a war hero, which was in part because Grant had disagreed openly with Johnson's politics. Should Presidents hire friends into White House positions His Presidency and Misaligned Trust `As President, he employed some of his Army staff within the White House. He oversaw the Government just as he had the Army. He sought to implement Congressional Reconstruction as well as remove any traces of slavery. The American people had high hopes for his administration and felt he was the answer to end the tumultuous times. Unfortunately, Grant did not provide the reform people were looking for. Partially due to his errors in judgment when placing his friends in high political positions. These men cheated, stole, and took bribes. Unfortunately, Grant got blamed for their corrupt behavior. He was very honest, but having been associated with such men, tarnished his reputation. He was even criticized for accepting generous presents from his admirers. His association with Jay Gould and James Fisk was the most detrimental relationship he had during his presidency. He didn't realize this until it was too late. They had schemed to gain through the market in gold. Once he realized their plan, he authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to ruin their scheme by selling enough gold. Unfortunately, the damage had already been done towards businesses. Despite his tarnished reputation, he did become re-elected in 1872. His greatest cynics were the Liberal Republican reformers. He had little respect for these men and called them "narrow-headed men," stating that their eyes were so close together that "they can look out of the same gimlet hole without winking." After retiring from the presidency, Grant used his life savings and became a partner in a financial firm. His partner was crooked, the firm went bankrupt, and Grant lost his entire life savings. Soon after the firm went bankrupt, Grant learned he had throat cancer. He wanted to make sure his wife had money after he had passed away, which was a hard feat since he was broke and just learned he was going to die. Grant decided to write his memoirs, in hopes that the proceeds from it would take care of his wife after he was gone. In 1885, four days after finishing the last word, he died. The book ended up making his family $450,000, more than fulfilling his hopes of taking care of his wife after he was gone. Excerpt from the History Channel - Received a $20.00 speeding ticket for riding his horse and buggy too fast in Washington, D.C. - Ulysses S. Grant's real name was Hiram Ulysses Grant. When he was a general, the Ohio Congressman Thomas Hamer, accidentally wrote his name as Ulysses S. Grant. Though he did try to correct the error, he eventually accepted the moniker, and it stuck, although some rumors state that Grant changed it because he did not want the initials H.U.G. when he attended West Point. - He struggled with alcoholism and was forced to resign from the army in the 1850s. Though he did swear it off for almost a decade, during the Civil War, some say he sometimes went into battle drunk. Though Abraham Lincoln, the president at the time, was not concerned as he hoped others of his generals were as good at their jobs as he was. - He was invited to go to the theater with Abraham Lincoln, the night Lincoln was assassinated. He and his wife declined the offer to spend time with their children in New Jersey. Presidents of the United States 1. George Washington 16. Abraham Lincoln 31. Herbert Hoover 2. John Adams 17. Andrew Johnson 32. Franklin D. Roosevelt 3. Thomas Jefferson 18. Ulysses S. Grant 33. Harry S. Truman 4. James Madison 19. Rutherford B. Hayes 34. Dwight D. Eisenhower 5. James Monroe 20. James Garfield 35. John F. Kennedy 6. John Quincy Adams 21. Chester A. Arthur 36. Lyndon B. Johnson 7. Andrew Jackson 22. Grover Cleveland 37. Richard M. Nixon 8. Martin Van Buren 23. Benjamin Harrison 38. Gerald R. Ford 9. William Henry Harrison 24. Grover Cleveland 39. James Carter 10. John Tyler 25. William McKinley 40. Ronald Reagan 11. James K. Polk 26. Theodore Roosevelt 41. George H. W. Bush 12. Zachary Taylor 27. William Howard Taft 42. William J. Clinton 13. Millard Fillmore 28. Woodrow Wilson 43. George W. Bush 14. Franklin Pierce 29. Warren G. Harding 44. Barack Obama - Andrews, Evan. "10 Things You May Not Know About Ulysses S. Grant." History.com. July 23, 2015. Accessed December 22, 2016. http://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-ulysses-s-grant. - Freidel, F., & Sidey, H. (2009). Ulysses S. Grant. Retrieved April 22, 2016, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/ulyssessgrant - Sullivan, George. Mr. President: A Book of U.S. Presidents. New York: Scholastic, 2001. Print. - U.S. Presidential Fun Facts. (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2016, from http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/history/presidential-fun-facts/#geo-washington.jpg Questions & Answers © 2017 Angela Michelle Schultz	<urn:uuid:97c98aec-9491-4ce4-b1e6-7c6ae95015d7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/humanities/Ulysses-S-Grant-18th-President	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00048.warc.gz	en	0.980092	2,092	3.484375	3	[ -0.21216118335723877, 0.4502643644809723, 0.6087421774864197, 0.19577880203723907, -0.13771331310272217, -0.2160768359899521, 0.016658861190080643, -0.01958354003727436, -0.22276169061660767, 0.1671227514743805, -0.02982252836227417, -0.00029176101088523865, 0.32836973667144775, 0.57391166...	2	Ulysses S. Grant: 18th President: Celebrated General General-in-Chief of the Union Army, Ulysses S. Grant in 1865 April 27, 1822 - Ohio Democratic; National Union; Republican United States Army Union Army Mexican–American War and American Civil War Age at Beginning of Presidency 47 years old Term of Office March 4, 1869 - March 3, 1877 How Long President Schuyler Colfax (1869–1873) Henry Wilson (1873–1875) None (1875–1877) Age and Year of Death July 23, 1885 (aged 63) Cause of Death General Grant's Early Years Ulysses Simpson Grant was born on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio, as Hiram Ulysses Grant. At the beginning of the Civil War, he worked as a store clerk, but by the end of the war, he became one of the most celebrated generals of American history. It was this noteworthy accomplishment that earned him his position as the 18th President of the United States, where he served two terms from 1869-1877. Although he grew up in a family of farmers and tanners, he disliked both careers and knew he did not want the same for himself. His only real joy was riding horses. He did not have consistent schooling, although his parents did send him to West Point, the United States Military Academy. He graduated in the middle of his class, possibly because he did not desire to be there. Official White House Portrait Ulysses Grant: A War Hero During the Mexican War, Grant fought under General Zachary Taylor. Because of his bravery during battle, he was promoted to captain. Unfortunately, he did not make enough money to support his wife and family; therefore, he resigned from the Army. He tried farming, although he soon attempted to sell real estate. When neither worked out, he went to work for a family member in a leather shop in Galena, Illinois. Once the Civil War broke out, he rejoined the Army as a commanding general, where he led Union Armies against the Confederacy. For the first part of the war, he was in charge of a rowdy volunteer regiment fighting in the West, where he had great success. Then in September 1861, he became a brigadier general of volunteers. Unfortunately, the Union was losing many battles in the eastern states. In February 1862, Grant pursued gaining control over the Mississippi Valley, in which he won Fort Henry, then attacked Fort Donelson. While there, the Confederate commander asked for terms. His reply was, "No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted." The Confederates eventually did surrender, which caused President Abraham Lincoln to promote him again, this time to major general of volunteers. In April of the same year, Grant fought one of the bloodiest battles in the West at Shiloh. It was not a significant success, and some requested him to be removed as general. Lincoln defended him, saying, "I can't spare this man--he fights." He continued to prove the loyalty of the president, as he won the critical city, Vicksburg, on the Mississippi, which cut the Confederacy into two, which was a massive success for the Union. His next big victory was soon after when he gained Chattanooga, which the Confederates had previously held. Because of his great success as General, in March of 1864, he was put in charge of all Union troops as General-in-Chief. Lincoln appointed Grant to this new position was a turning point for the Union. Grant's immediate action was to direct General Sherman towards the South, while he and the Army of the Potomac pursued General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered at the Appomattox Court House. Grant wanted to prevent treason trials and keep peace within the country; therefore, he wrote out very generous terms of surrender. He took mercy on the now ex-Confederates. Since it was springtime when the Southern soldiers surrendered, Grant allowed them to keep their horses, so that way they could plow their fields. Late into President Andrew Johnson's administration, he was nominated by the Radical Republicans to run for President, because of his great success as a war hero, which was in part because Grant had disagreed openly with Johnson's politics. Should Presidents hire friends into White House positions His Presidency and Misaligned Trust `As President, he employed some of his Army staff within the White House. He oversaw the Government just as he had the Army. He sought to implement Congressional Reconstruction as well as remove any traces of slavery. The American people had high hopes for his administration and felt he was the answer to end the tumultuous times. Unfortunately, Grant did not provide the reform people were looking for. Partially due to his errors in judgment when placing his friends in high political positions. These men cheated, stole, and took bribes. Unfortunately, Grant got blamed for their corrupt behavior. He was very honest, but having been associated with such men, tarnished his reputation. He was even criticized for accepting generous presents from his admirers. His association with Jay Gould and James Fisk was the most detrimental relationship he had during his presidency. He didn't realize this until it was too late. They had schemed to gain through the market in gold. Once he realized their plan, he authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to ruin their scheme by selling enough gold. Unfortunately, the damage had already been done towards businesses. Despite his tarnished reputation, he did become re-elected in 1872. His greatest cynics were the Liberal Republican reformers. He had little respect for these men and called them "narrow-headed men," stating that their eyes were so close together that "they can look out of the same gimlet hole without winking." After retiring from the presidency, Grant used his life savings and became a partner in a financial firm. His partner was crooked, the firm went bankrupt, and Grant lost his entire life savings. Soon after the firm went bankrupt, Grant learned he had throat cancer. He wanted to make sure his wife had money after he had passed away, which was a hard feat since he was broke and just learned he was going to die. Grant decided to write his memoirs, in hopes that the proceeds from it would take care of his wife after he was gone. In 1885, four days after finishing the last word, he died. The book ended up making his family $450,000, more than fulfilling his hopes of taking care of his wife after he was gone. Excerpt from the History Channel - Received a $20.00 speeding ticket for riding his horse and buggy too fast in Washington, D.C. - Ulysses S. Grant's real name was Hiram Ulysses Grant. When he was a general, the Ohio Congressman Thomas Hamer, accidentally wrote his name as Ulysses S. Grant. Though he did try to correct the error, he eventually accepted the moniker, and it stuck, although some rumors state that Grant changed it because he did not want the initials H.U.G. when he attended West Point. - He struggled with alcoholism and was forced to resign from the army in the 1850s. Though he did swear it off for almost a decade, during the Civil War, some say he sometimes went into battle drunk. Though Abraham Lincoln, the president at the time, was not concerned as he hoped others of his generals were as good at their jobs as he was. - He was invited to go to the theater with Abraham Lincoln, the night Lincoln was assassinated. He and his wife declined the offer to spend time with their children in New Jersey. Presidents of the United States 1. George Washington 16. Abraham Lincoln 31. Herbert Hoover 2. John Adams 17. Andrew Johnson 32. Franklin D. Roosevelt 3. Thomas Jefferson 18. Ulysses S. Grant 33. Harry S. Truman 4. James Madison 19. Rutherford B. Hayes 34. Dwight D. Eisenhower 5. James Monroe 20. James Garfield 35. John F. Kennedy 6. John Quincy Adams 21. Chester A. Arthur 36. Lyndon B. Johnson 7. Andrew Jackson 22. Grover Cleveland 37. Richard M. Nixon 8. Martin Van Buren 23. Benjamin Harrison 38. Gerald R. Ford 9. William Henry Harrison 24. Grover Cleveland 39. James Carter 10. John Tyler 25. William McKinley 40. Ronald Reagan 11. James K. Polk 26. Theodore Roosevelt 41. George H. W. Bush 12. Zachary Taylor 27. William Howard Taft 42. William J. Clinton 13. Millard Fillmore 28. Woodrow Wilson 43. George W. Bush 14. Franklin Pierce 29. Warren G. Harding 44. Barack Obama - Andrews, Evan. "10 Things You May Not Know About Ulysses S. Grant." History.com. July 23, 2015. Accessed December 22, 2016. http://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-ulysses-s-grant. - Freidel, F., & Sidey, H. (2009). Ulysses S. Grant. Retrieved April 22, 2016, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/ulyssessgrant - Sullivan, George. Mr. President: A Book of U.S. Presidents. New York: Scholastic, 2001. Print. - U.S. Presidential Fun Facts. (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2016, from http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/history/presidential-fun-facts/#geo-washington.jpg Questions & Answers © 2017 Angela Michelle Schultz	2,214	ENGLISH	1
The Biblical Twelve Tribes of Israel were descended from the twelve sons of Jacob, who came to be known by the name of Israel. These sons were Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Levi, Issachar, Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Asher, Gad, and Joseph. Joseph's sons Ephraim and Manasseh would be given land constituting their own respective tribes, while the priestly tribe of Levi would not have a de facto tribal area of their own. These twelve multiplied to form the Israelite people who have a religious and historical significance. The Israelites are a unique people in that they have a heavenly selection of God’s people. The Israelites in Egypt The Israelites moved to Egypt after a period of drought in Canaan. During this time, Joseph was residing in Egypt and worked in the Pharaoh's government as a governor over all Egypt. Due to his favor with the Pharaoh, his relatives were given a territory to settle. The Israelites multiplied into a great nation and the Pharaoh, who did not know of Joseph, subjected them to slavery as he feared they would overpower the Egyptians because of their growth rate. In the Wilderness During their captivity in Egypt, God heard their cries and called Moses to rescue his fellow Israelites from their plight. Along their escape from Egypt they stopped at Mount Sinai, where God gave them the Ten Commandments which are still followed by Jews and Christians today. The Israelites crossed the Red Sea and were guided by God through the wilderness where they wandered for forty years due to disobedience and unbelief. During these forty years, God still provided for them with manna which rained from heaven. After the forty years, they were led into the Promised Land by Joshua. Moses died in the wilderness along with other adults except for Caleb and Joshua. In the Promised Land The Israelites entered the Promised Land and conquered the previous inhabitants of Canaan. The land was allocated to the people according to their tribes. The tribe of Levi was given priestly duties as well as taking care of the Ark of the Covenant. During this time, the Israelites did not have a defined system of government, and their cases were heard by judges who were guided by God. The Israelites were not happy with this form of leadership and opted for a monarchical government. The first king was Saul from the tribe of Benjamin. King David took over leadership after the death of Saul and is referred to as the founder of Israel for his exemplary leadership and military skills. King Solomon inherited the kingdom from his father David and was notable for his wisdom and the building of the temple. He introduced forced labor in Israel exempting the tribes of Judah and Benjamin thus leading to the splitting of the kingdom into the Northern and Southern kingdoms after his death. The Divided Kingdom After the division of the kingdom into Judah in the south and Israel in the north, the divided Israelites led separate lives, with intermittent bloody wars being waged between them. However, they maintained their religious heritage in observance of their traditions. The two kingdoms were disobedient to God through worship of idols, and they were conquered by other gentile nations. Judah was conquered by the Babylonians while Israel was conquered by the Assyrians. The tribes of Israel were scattered to various parts of the world as punishment for their disobedience. The Significance of the Israelite Tribes Today The story of the Israelites is significant both to the Jewish and Christian religious traditions, as well as to history as a whole. Most of the promises made in the Bible are given to them, and the adoption of the Gentiles into the Christian faith is said to be as a result of their dispersal. Currently, following the establishment of the nation of Israel after World War II, the Israelites are regathering into their ancestral homeland, and are in the process of rebuilding it, seen by many as a modern fulfillment of God’s promises to them. What Were The Twelve Tribes Of Israel? The Hebrew Bible mentions that the 12 Tribes of Israel descended from patriarch Jacob’s 12 sons, two wives, and two concubines. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:853b7e13-31e6-4ba5-aa38-3699fd56c9bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-were-the-twelve-tribes-of-israel.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00348.warc.gz	en	0.981268	916	3.921875	4	[ -0.14913785457611084, 0.5403544902801514, -0.05604209750890732, -0.24755746126174927, -0.6558228731155396, -0.2779301106929779, 0.2770853638648987, 0.09312377125024796, -0.19395223259925842, 0.37625813484191895, 0.056251414120197296, -0.2931002974510193, 0.2680415213108063, 0.0501484833657...	2	The Biblical Twelve Tribes of Israel were descended from the twelve sons of Jacob, who came to be known by the name of Israel. These sons were Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Levi, Issachar, Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Asher, Gad, and Joseph. Joseph's sons Ephraim and Manasseh would be given land constituting their own respective tribes, while the priestly tribe of Levi would not have a de facto tribal area of their own. These twelve multiplied to form the Israelite people who have a religious and historical significance. The Israelites are a unique people in that they have a heavenly selection of God’s people. The Israelites in Egypt The Israelites moved to Egypt after a period of drought in Canaan. During this time, Joseph was residing in Egypt and worked in the Pharaoh's government as a governor over all Egypt. Due to his favor with the Pharaoh, his relatives were given a territory to settle. The Israelites multiplied into a great nation and the Pharaoh, who did not know of Joseph, subjected them to slavery as he feared they would overpower the Egyptians because of their growth rate. In the Wilderness During their captivity in Egypt, God heard their cries and called Moses to rescue his fellow Israelites from their plight. Along their escape from Egypt they stopped at Mount Sinai, where God gave them the Ten Commandments which are still followed by Jews and Christians today. The Israelites crossed the Red Sea and were guided by God through the wilderness where they wandered for forty years due to disobedience and unbelief. During these forty years, God still provided for them with manna which rained from heaven. After the forty years, they were led into the Promised Land by Joshua. Moses died in the wilderness along with other adults except for Caleb and Joshua. In the Promised Land The Israelites entered the Promised Land and conquered the previous inhabitants of Canaan. The land was allocated to the people according to their tribes. The tribe of Levi was given priestly duties as well as taking care of the Ark of the Covenant. During this time, the Israelites did not have a defined system of government, and their cases were heard by judges who were guided by God. The Israelites were not happy with this form of leadership and opted for a monarchical government. The first king was Saul from the tribe of Benjamin. King David took over leadership after the death of Saul and is referred to as the founder of Israel for his exemplary leadership and military skills. King Solomon inherited the kingdom from his father David and was notable for his wisdom and the building of the temple. He introduced forced labor in Israel exempting the tribes of Judah and Benjamin thus leading to the splitting of the kingdom into the Northern and Southern kingdoms after his death. The Divided Kingdom After the division of the kingdom into Judah in the south and Israel in the north, the divided Israelites led separate lives, with intermittent bloody wars being waged between them. However, they maintained their religious heritage in observance of their traditions. The two kingdoms were disobedient to God through worship of idols, and they were conquered by other gentile nations. Judah was conquered by the Babylonians while Israel was conquered by the Assyrians. The tribes of Israel were scattered to various parts of the world as punishment for their disobedience. The Significance of the Israelite Tribes Today The story of the Israelites is significant both to the Jewish and Christian religious traditions, as well as to history as a whole. Most of the promises made in the Bible are given to them, and the adoption of the Gentiles into the Christian faith is said to be as a result of their dispersal. Currently, following the establishment of the nation of Israel after World War II, the Israelites are regathering into their ancestral homeland, and are in the process of rebuilding it, seen by many as a modern fulfillment of God’s promises to them. What Were The Twelve Tribes Of Israel? The Hebrew Bible mentions that the 12 Tribes of Israel descended from patriarch Jacob’s 12 sons, two wives, and two concubines. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	912	ENGLISH	1
The Mayor of Casterbridge displays the influence of Hardy’s upbringing, rural background, and architectural studies. His characters are primitive and exhibit all the passions, hates, loves and jealousies that rustic life seems to inspire. Yet these characters are at all times real because they are based on people he had grown up with, people he had heart about in legends and ballads, people whose tragic histories he had unearthed during his early architectural apprenticeship. In this novel Hardy dramatizes human condition as a struggle between man and man, and between man and his fate. Usually it is fate that wins. Yet the victim of fate, Henchard, is also the greatest offender against morality, which would indicate purpose in the suffering he endures. The novel ends on a note of hope because of Henchard’s strength of will and his determination to undergo suffering and deprivation in order to expiate his sins.	<urn:uuid:59f5d87d-d656-41d6-834d-c97fa9c655b2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://oldbookdepot.in/product/the-mayor-of-casterbridge/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00181.warc.gz	en	0.983128	185	3.359375	3	[ -0.1250443309545517, 0.35870856046676636, 0.23082169890403748, -0.16417381167411804, -0.2773105800151825, 0.18389657139778137, 0.621436595916748, -0.09003429114818573, 0.0039859432727098465, -0.10679556429386139, -0.22344182431697845, -0.18569569289684296, 0.3331698179244995, 0.20170812308...	2	The Mayor of Casterbridge displays the influence of Hardy’s upbringing, rural background, and architectural studies. His characters are primitive and exhibit all the passions, hates, loves and jealousies that rustic life seems to inspire. Yet these characters are at all times real because they are based on people he had grown up with, people he had heart about in legends and ballads, people whose tragic histories he had unearthed during his early architectural apprenticeship. In this novel Hardy dramatizes human condition as a struggle between man and man, and between man and his fate. Usually it is fate that wins. Yet the victim of fate, Henchard, is also the greatest offender against morality, which would indicate purpose in the suffering he endures. The novel ends on a note of hope because of Henchard’s strength of will and his determination to undergo suffering and deprivation in order to expiate his sins.	183	ENGLISH	1
Syphax or Sophax: king of the Masaeisylians in Numidia (last quarter of the third century BCE). When Syphax was born, Numidia (the north of modern Algeria) was a country on the edge of the urbanized world of the Mediterranean. Although many people were living in large villages that would eventually develop into cities, another part of the Numidian population was still roaming over the plains. There were two rival tribal federations, both in the process of becoming full-blown kingdoms. In the east lived the Massylians, ruled by king Gala (or Gaïa), and the fertile west was inhabited by the Masaeisylians, who were probably ruled by ancestors of Syphax. (They are already confused in ancient sources.) The eastern kingdom, close to Carthage, was sympathetic to this city, and it is possible that the Carthaginians had actively encouraged the rise of a pro-Carthaginian dynasty that would be a buffer against the western Numidians. In 218, war broke out between Carthage and Rome. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal was able to invade Italy, where he defeated several Roman armies. But the Romans were not defeated. They decided to attack their enemy's base, Hispania, which was defended by Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal. Their commanders Publius and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio were successful. Syphax sympathized with them, and in 214, Hasdrubal had been sent out against him. Syphax's kingdom had suffered from this invasion, but he had not been defeated decisively. In 213, he concluded an alliance with the Romans. If the eastern kingdom of Numidia was pro-Carthage, its western rival inevitably supported the main opponent of Carthage. Roman military advisers helped Syphax to train his troops. He was to attack the eastern Numidians of Gala; at the same time, their prince Massinissa supported the Carthaginian army in Hispania. When Gala died in 206, his sons Massinissa and Oezalces quarreled about the inheritance, and Syphax was able to conquer considerable parts of the eastern kingdom. Meanwhile, Massinissa had concluded that Rome would win the war against Carthage. By now, it had conquered all of Hispania. Therefore, Massinissa decided to switch sides: he would support a Roman invasion in Africa if the Romans would help him beat Syphax. The king of the Masaeisylians now allied himself to Carthage and married Sophonisba, the daughter of a nobleman named Hasdrubal, son of Gesco, who made her husband even more pro-Carthaginian. After this renversement des alliances, it looked as if Carthage and Syphax dominated Africa, but it turned out that Rome and Massinissa, who had lost almost everything, were stronger. Although Massinissa's power was reduced to 200 cavalry, his knowledge of the terrain enabled the Roman forces to strike where it hurt most. In 204, Syphax and the Carthaginians were still able to force the Roman commander Publius Cornelius Scipio (the son of the man with the same name mentioned above) to raise the siege of Utica, but in 203, the Roman general and his West-Numidian ally defeated the Carthaginians and Syphax at the Great Plains. Syphax now fled to Cirta, where he and Sophoniba were taken captive by the Roman commander Laelius. Sophoniba married Massinissa but was poisoned, and Syphax was sent to Italy. In 202 Scipio defeated the Carthaginians decisively near Zama, and a peace treaty was concluded. The two Numidian kingdoms were united by Massinissa, and Syphax was shown in the triumph of Scipio as a symbol of his conquests. His life was spared, but he was kept in detention. He died in Tibur, modern Tivoli.	<urn:uuid:0e9d80c7-42ff-4857-a689-22f014f204a9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.livius.org/articles/person/syphax/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00030.warc.gz	en	0.987067	839	3.875	4	[ -0.17843055725097656, 0.4974811375141144, 0.4020925760269165, -0.3607088327407837, -0.06790948659181595, -0.27126067876815796, -0.19440269470214844, 0.2569383382797241, -0.05881113559007645, -0.41530510783195496, -0.3426903486251831, -0.871826171875, 0.28736305236816406, -0.135420948266983...	6	Syphax or Sophax: king of the Masaeisylians in Numidia (last quarter of the third century BCE). When Syphax was born, Numidia (the north of modern Algeria) was a country on the edge of the urbanized world of the Mediterranean. Although many people were living in large villages that would eventually develop into cities, another part of the Numidian population was still roaming over the plains. There were two rival tribal federations, both in the process of becoming full-blown kingdoms. In the east lived the Massylians, ruled by king Gala (or Gaïa), and the fertile west was inhabited by the Masaeisylians, who were probably ruled by ancestors of Syphax. (They are already confused in ancient sources.) The eastern kingdom, close to Carthage, was sympathetic to this city, and it is possible that the Carthaginians had actively encouraged the rise of a pro-Carthaginian dynasty that would be a buffer against the western Numidians. In 218, war broke out between Carthage and Rome. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal was able to invade Italy, where he defeated several Roman armies. But the Romans were not defeated. They decided to attack their enemy's base, Hispania, which was defended by Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal. Their commanders Publius and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio were successful. Syphax sympathized with them, and in 214, Hasdrubal had been sent out against him. Syphax's kingdom had suffered from this invasion, but he had not been defeated decisively. In 213, he concluded an alliance with the Romans. If the eastern kingdom of Numidia was pro-Carthage, its western rival inevitably supported the main opponent of Carthage. Roman military advisers helped Syphax to train his troops. He was to attack the eastern Numidians of Gala; at the same time, their prince Massinissa supported the Carthaginian army in Hispania. When Gala died in 206, his sons Massinissa and Oezalces quarreled about the inheritance, and Syphax was able to conquer considerable parts of the eastern kingdom. Meanwhile, Massinissa had concluded that Rome would win the war against Carthage. By now, it had conquered all of Hispania. Therefore, Massinissa decided to switch sides: he would support a Roman invasion in Africa if the Romans would help him beat Syphax. The king of the Masaeisylians now allied himself to Carthage and married Sophonisba, the daughter of a nobleman named Hasdrubal, son of Gesco, who made her husband even more pro-Carthaginian. After this renversement des alliances, it looked as if Carthage and Syphax dominated Africa, but it turned out that Rome and Massinissa, who had lost almost everything, were stronger. Although Massinissa's power was reduced to 200 cavalry, his knowledge of the terrain enabled the Roman forces to strike where it hurt most. In 204, Syphax and the Carthaginians were still able to force the Roman commander Publius Cornelius Scipio (the son of the man with the same name mentioned above) to raise the siege of Utica, but in 203, the Roman general and his West-Numidian ally defeated the Carthaginians and Syphax at the Great Plains. Syphax now fled to Cirta, where he and Sophoniba were taken captive by the Roman commander Laelius. Sophoniba married Massinissa but was poisoned, and Syphax was sent to Italy. In 202 Scipio defeated the Carthaginians decisively near Zama, and a peace treaty was concluded. The two Numidian kingdoms were united by Massinissa, and Syphax was shown in the triumph of Scipio as a symbol of his conquests. His life was spared, but he was kept in detention. He died in Tibur, modern Tivoli.	865	ENGLISH	1
With William of Normandy’s victory over King Harold in 1066, the whole country would eventually come under Norman Rule. From his first established base in the south-east, King William set about imposing Norman Rule, first in the South, then the Midlands and the Welsh Marches, where castles were being built to defend his territory. However, as the Norman armies rode north, they came up against more and more opposition. Uprising of the North Edgar the Atheling, a young boy, was still the rightful Saxon claimant to the English throne, being the last male heir of the Royal House of Wessex, a grandson of King Edmund Ironside. Harold Godwinson (King Harold), who had the confidence of the Witan (the powerful noblemen), had seized the throne from Edgar on the death of King Edward (the Confessor). So now, with Harold’s defeat and death at Hastings, Edgar was proclaimed King by the Witan, who recognised Edgar Atheling’s claim over the claim of the Norman invader. However, eventually the Witan turned Edgar over to William the Conqueror, who kept him in custody and took him to Normandy. From Normandy Edwin escaped and fled to Scotland with his mother and sisters and took refuge with Malcolm III of the Scots. In Scotland, Edwin’s followers linked up with the northern rebels and Danes, led by King Swein II of Denmark. Together these forces met and overwhelmed the Normans at York. For three years the northern English violently rebelled against the invaders, murdering the Normans and their collaborators, burning towns and destroying cathedrals. As William the Conqueror gradually gained supremacy, his armies undertook a ruthless campaign known today as the Harrying (or Harrowing) of the North. The Harrying of the North The Harrying (or Harrowing) of the North was a series of “scorched earth” campaigns waged by William the Conqueror in the winter of 1069–1070 to subjugate northern England in punishment for their rebellion against him. His armies laid waste Yorkshire and the north-east of England. Yorkshire, at the time, was a land of many free farmers and people of Saxon and Viking descent. The objective of the harrying was to destroy the settlements of the northern shires and eliminate the possibility of further revolts. Men, women and children were massacred by William’s soldiers; the stored crops, the ploughs and carts were burned, farms and homes were destroyed and the livestock was killed. Tens of thousands died at the hands of William’s soldiers and many more tens of thousands died in the wake of the famine and disease that followed, as William’s men salted the ground so that nothing would grow. Throughout the winter they slaughtered the people – it was horrible to observe in houses, streets and roads human corpses rotting, for no one survived to cover them with earth, all having perished by the sword and starvation, or left the land of their fathers because of hunger.Simeon of Durham In 1069, the chronicler Orderic Vitalis, had written: Nowhere else had William shown so much cruelty. Shamefully he succumbed to this vice, for he made no effort to restrain his fury and punished the innocent with the guilty. In his anger he commanded that all crops and herds, chattels and food of every kind should be brought together and burned to ashes with consuming fire, so that the whole region north of the Humber might be stripped of all means of sustenance. In consequence, so serious a scarcity was felt in England, and so terrible a famine fell upon the humble and defenceless populace, that more than 100,000 Christian folk of both sexes, young and old alike, perished of hunger. The survivors were reduced to cannibalism, with one report stating that the skulls of the dead were cracked open so that the brains could be eaten. Bodies were left to rot as there was no-one left to bury them and this eventually lead to a plague.Orderic Vitalis in Ossett.net Afterwards, there were no longer enough healthy men to tend the land. The total death toll from slaughter, disease and hunger is now believed to be more than 150,000. There had been death and destruction across the whole of the north east from the Humber northwards, but in no other county had the devastation been as great as in Yorkshire. William’s army gradually regained control, paying off the Vikings to return home and forcing Malcolm III to sign the Treaty of Abernethy, in 1072, and to swear fealty to William. Feudalism had existed for several hundred years in Europe. Even before the Norman Conquest, peasants in England had worked the land for their lords. After William gained control over the whole country, he needed a way to govern the country and he also had lands in Normandy to govern and feudalism was the most effective way. William now completed his replacement of Anglo-Saxon leaders with Norman ones in the North. The families who had previously held land were either deprived of their holdings altogether, or demoted to sub-tenants. He divided England into large areas or parcels of land, which were redistributed to those noblemen who had fought bravely for him in battle. They had to swear an oath of loyalty to the king and had to collect taxes in their area and they had to provide the king with soldiers if they were told to do so. Everybody had to pay their tax to the king. This meant that no lord or other nobleman could build up enough money to raise a private army to challenge the King’s authority. The men who acquired these parcels of land would have been barons, earls and dukes and became known as the tenants-in-chief. These barons divided up the land further and gave the plots to Norman knights who had served the King in battle. These knights had the duty to maintain law and order in their districts and keep the people under the control of the Normans. Soon, many new motte and bailey castles were built to enable the new overlords to rule over their territories, like the one at Mirfield, the mound of which can still be seen behind the parish church. However, many of the Norman overlords ruled from a distance and did not settle in Yorkshire. This allowed some Anglo-Saxon culture to survive alongside Norman rule; in spite of the complete Norman take-over of the land, the common folk retained their own language, whilst the Normans spoke French. Twenty years after the conquest of England by the Normans, King William ordered a great survey of his realm. The book would record who owed him taxes and once it was recorded, the decision would be final. While spending the Christmas time of 1085 in Gloucester, William had deep speech with his counsellors and sent men all over England to each shire to find out what or how much each landholder had in land and livestock, and what it was worth.Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The survey took less than a year and is a remarkable record of England in the late 11th Century. It is called the Domesday Book. The questions asked in each hamlet, village or town were: - How many ploughs are there in the manor ? - How many mills and fishponds ? - How many freemen, villagers and slaves are there in the manor ? - How much woodland, pasture, meadow ? - What does each freeman owe in the manor ? - How much is the manor worth now (1086)? - How much it was worth before the invasion of 1066, under King Edward? - How much it was worth now under King William? …so very thoroughly did William have the enquiry carried out, that there was not a single piece of land, not even an ox, cow or pig which escaped the notice of the survey.Anglo-Saxon Chronicle What the King’s men found in Yorkshire was that the county had been decimated and the population had not recovered since the harrying 17 years before. Many villages, which had existed in 1066, were still totally deserted and the land gone to waste, with no men to work the land. In those villages that were still inhabited, the number of people was greatly depleted and the value of the area to the crown was a fraction of what it had been in 1066 under King Edward. In villages near Wakefield, Ossett had 3.5 carucates of arable land, four villeins and three bordars, a total of seven men along with their families. Along with Horbury and Crigglestone, the three villages had a total of 8 carucates of arable land and four ploughs and a total of fifteen men. In the whole adjacent area, which included (Earls)heaton, Horbury, Stanley, West Bretton, Shitlington, Emley, Cartworth, Kirkburton, Shepley, Shelley, Upper Cumberworth and North Crosland, all these villages had been totally laid waste and all the inhabitants killed, fled or dead from disease or starvation. The townships of Almondbury, Bradford, Bramley, Elland, Flockton, Huddersfield, Kirkheaton, Morley, Pudsey, Tong, Shipley and Southowram were also all described as ‘waste’. - Total population: 1.7 household (very small). - Total tax assessed: 3.4 geld units (medium). - Taxable units: Taxable value 92.4 geld units. - Value: Value to lord (King Edward) in 1066 £60. - Value to lord (King William) in 1086 £15. - Households: 9 villagers. 22 smallholders. 11 freemen. 3 priests. - Ploughland: 51 ploughlands (can plough). 13 men’s plough teams. - Other resources: Woodland 3 * 3 furlongs & 6 * 4 leagues mixed measures. 2 churches Dewsbury was slightly larger in population but its taxable value was less than Wakefield’s: - Total population: 9 households (still quite small). - Total tax assessed: 3 geld units (medium). - Taxable units: Taxable value 3 geld units. - Value: Value to lord (King Edward) in 1066: 10 shillings (£0.50). - Value to lord in 1086 (King William): 10 shillings (£0.50). - Households: 6 villagers. 2 smallholders. 1 priest. - Ploughland: 2 ploughlands. 4 men’s plough teams - Total population: 9 households (quite small). - Total tax assessed: 6 geld units (quite large). - Taxable units: Taxable value 6 geld units. - Value: Value to lord in 1066 = £3. - Value to lord in 1086 = 10 shillings (£0.50) - Households: 6 villagers. 3 smallholders. - Ploughland: 3 ploughlands (ploughs possible). 2 lord’s plough teams. 2 men’s plough teams. - Other resources: Woodland 0.5 -1 leagues. It seems that the wasting of the north played heavily on William’s conscience, as he is reported to have confessed, on his deathbed: I caused the death of thousands by starvation and war, especially in Yorkshire. In a mad fury I descended on the English of the North like a raging lion, and ordered that their homes and crops and all their equipment and furnishings should be burnt at once and their great flocks and herds of sheep and cattle slaughtered everywhere. So I chastised a great multitude of men and women with the lash of starvation and, alas! was the cruel murderer of many thousands, both young and old.King William I By William I’s death in 1087, the vast majority of pre-conquest landowners had been replaced by Norman overlords and their property absorbed within the new larger complexes of land, controlled by a vast network of barons, knights and castles. Recovery and Life of the Peasants The recovery of the population of West Yorkshire was very slow at first, but gradually it began to grow again; new towns were founded, including Leeds, Barnsley, Doncaster and Pontefract. However, the plight of the peasants remained largely unchanged, as the elite and the commoners had dramatically different rights and freedoms and the peasants, at the bottom of the hierarchy, had no means to change their circumstances…born a peasant, you died a peasant and just feeding the family was a perennial struggle. The peasants ate mostly black rye bread and vegetables, with a little meat when it could be got. Bees would provide honey as a sweetener. In season, nuts and berries could be gathered. The women and girls would rise at dawn to milk the animals, look after vegetable plots, spin and weave to provide rough cloth for the family’s needs. Work also began at dawn for men and boys…ploughing, sowing or harvesting with the seasons, chopping wood for the fire and looking after the animals until work finished at dusk. A poor harvest meant the risk of starvation over the winter. If they were lucky, the peasants could stay out of the battles fought by their masters and there were plenty battles in the tumultuous years of medieval England. Stephen and Matilda The beginning of the 12th Century was dominated by “the Anarchy”, a Royal struggle for power between King Stephen of Blois, a grandson of William I by William’s daughter…and the Empress Matilda, grand-daughter of King William I by his 4th son, King Henry I and Matilda of Scotland. Most of the battles were fought in the south but King David I of Scotland invaded the north to defend his niece’s claim to the throne. Stephen’s army, along with soldiers from Yorkshire, defeated the more numerous Scots at Northallerton. Plantagenet (Angevin) Kings The middle years of the 12th Century were occupied by the reign of the Plantagenet King Henry II, son of the Empress Matilda. During this time, the basics of English Common Law were introduced. In the later years of the century, Henry’s second son, Richard became king but was often absent from England at the Crusades. His youngest brother, John, became king after Richard’s death. Although John’s reputation is almost uniformly bad, he was the first King of England since 1066 to speak English and his reign brought better administration of justice, taxation and military organisation. He also introduced chartered privileges to towns e.g. in trade and the establishment of guilds. Among the wealthy, English now took the place of Norman French as the dominant language. Population, Health and Societal Change Throughout those years of turmoil, the peasantry toiled on in the same old way, but somehow more survived than died as, during the 12th and 13th Centuries, the population of England more than doubled, perhaps helped by warmer temperatures and certainly by good harvests. In Yorkshire’s West Riding, the wool trade began to grow and commerce developed. In 1185, Temple Newsam, just outside the town of Leeds, had the first fulling mill in England. Domestic woollen production was revolutionised by the spinning wheel at the end of the 1200s and the cottage industry was born. In spite of the increase in population, life expectancy was still only 30-35 years. One in five children died before their first birthday and death of the mother in childbirth was common. Almshouses and hospitals were founded, to take care of the sick and the poor. However, there was little knowledge about what caused disease…so it was easy to put the blame on God, luck, sin, bad smells, witches or the Jews. In spite of this lack of basic understanding, some treatments had been found to be efficacious. The application of wine was found to help the healing of wounds, opium could ease pain, bones could be splinted and some surgery existed, including amputation of limbs and trepanning the skull for madness (see article on madness). Blood-letting, to fight illness, was a practice that existed for two millennia until the 19th Century. At the end of the 13th century, harvests began to fail and a great famine took hold in the early 14th century. The Great Famine 1315-17 Famine and starvation were regular occurrences, as were diseases related to malnutrition. The country had already suffered a famine during the early years of the 14th century, which had reduced the population by between 10% and 15% but the years 1315 -17 brought a natural disaster greater than before. The conditions for farming in the early 1300’s were often desperate and perhaps this was one of the reasons for the changes and for prosecutions and fines of the earlier 14th Century. The Great Famine of 1315 – 1317, struck the whole of Europe and was the worst of several such famines to strike during the 14th century. It began with poor weather conditions in spring 1315 and continued for more than two years with devastating effect. Not surprisingly, because the harvests had been largely decimated, there was little to eat and starvation on a massive scale with life expectancy dropping to an even lower level than its norm. Between 1301 and 1325 people were fortunate to reach the age of thirty.In the History of Sowood Farm, by Alan Howe: downloadable from ossett.net It gives a fascinating and detailed history of an Ossett manor and farm throughout the centuries. Johannes de Trokelowe wrote his Annales, including the period 1259 to 1296 and also an account of the reign of the Plantagenet King Edward II, from 1307 to 1323. He wrote: In the year of our Lord 1315, apart from the other hardships with which England was afflicted, hunger grew in the land…. Meat and eggs began to run out, capons and fowl could hardly be found, animals died of pest, swine could not be fed because of the excessive price of fodder. A quarter of wheat or beans or peas sold for twenty shillings [In 1313 a quarter of wheat sold for five shillings.], barley for a mark, oats for ten shillings. A quarter of salt was commonly sold for thirty-five shillings, which in former times was quite unheard of. The land was so oppressed with want that when the king came to St. Albans on the feast of St. Laurence [August 10] it was hardly possible to find bread on sale to supply his immediate household…. The dearth began in the month of May and lasted until the feast of the nativity of the Virgin [September 8]. The summer rains were so heavy that grain could not ripen. It could hardly be gathered and used to bake bread down to the said feast day unless it was first put in vessels to dry. Around the end of autumn the dearth was mitigated in part, but toward Christmas it became as bad as before. Bread did not have its usual nourishing power and strength because the grain was not nourished by the warmth of summer sunshine. Hence those who ate it, even in large quantities, were hungry again after a little while. There can be no doubt that the poor wasted away when even the rich were constantly hungry…. …Four pennies worth of coarse bread was not enough to feed a common man for one day. The usual kinds of meat, suitable for eating, were too scarce; horse meat was precious; plump dogs were stolen. And, according to many reports, men and women in many places secretly ate their own children…. In the year of our Lord 1315, apart from the other hardships with which England was afflicted, hunger grew in the land. Meat and eggs began to run out, capons and fowl could hardly be found, animals died of pest, swine could not be fed because of the excessive price of fodder. A quarter of wheat or beans or peas sold for twenty shillings (in 1313 a quarter of wheat sold for 5 shillings), barley for a mark, oats for ten shillings. A quarter of salt was commonly sold for thirty-five shillings, which in former times was unheard of.Father Johannes de Trokelowe “Annals” It has been estimated that 25% of the population died from the effects of famine between 1315 and 1317. The harvest failed again in 1321, just as families were beginning to recover from the effects of the great famine…and the tax returns for 1334 indicate the relative poverty of the West Riding compared to the North and East. The Great Pestilence or Black Death The Black Death swept across Europe was responsible for the death of more than a third of the whole population. The plague entered England in 1348. Spreading rapidly across counties, it reached the West Riding in 1349 where it would kill up to half of the population, bringing numbers down again to not much more than existed at the time of the Domesday Book. This period is described in more detail in my article on the Plague here. The Poll Tax The poll tax was a tax per head, rather than on goods. It was levied just three times, in 1377, 1379 and 1381. Each time the basis was slightly different. In 1377, everyone over the age of 14 and not exempt had to pay a groat (2p) to the Crown. By 1379 that had been graded by social class, with the lower limit raised to 16, (and 15 two years later). Exemption of the poor means that about 40% of inhabitants of any village or town were not counted. Because they were poor, they would not be recorded as making wills either. Perhaps Manor Court records might pick up a few errant poor people, but on the whole, unless a family had a certain level of means, they do not appear in records from this period. The Peasants’ Revolt The Poll Tax of 1381 was the final straw for many peasants. Richard II’s government imposed a poll tax where everyone over the age of 15 had to pay one shilling, regardless of rank or wealth, to help pay for the war with France (the Hundred Years’ War). Meanwhile wage rises were severely limited. The better off had no problem paying a shilling, but the poor peasants, tied to working on the land, were unable to raise the tax. If they couldn’t pay in money, they could pay in goods or implements, such as seeds, tools etc., but these were vital to the survival of a farmer and his family for the coming year. Non-payment invoked harsh punishment and eventually the peasants were driven to revolt. Uprisings began in the south and spread all over the country, soon spreading to cities like York. The peasants destroyed tax records and registers, and removed the heads from several tax officials, along with burning buildings and targeting priests and lawyers, whom they blamed for their plight. Revolting peasants were led by Wat Tyler and his Kentish rebels. At a tense meeting in London between peasants and King, just outside London’s city walls, the King is reputed to have cried “I am your King…I will be your leader. Follow me into the fields”…he promised that the estates of the church would be confiscated, all lordships except the King’s would be abolished, and all the rebels would be pardoned. With this, Richard persuaded the mob to break up. However, the leaders were rounded up and most were eventually executed, including Wat Tyler whose “head was removed, just above the shoulders” and displayed on London Bridge. Afterwards the King declined to keep the promises made, arguing that they were not valid as they had been extracted under duress. However, the Poll Tax was withdrawn and life returned to normal. The Peasants’ Revolt may not have immediately liberated the people of West Riding towns, but it was, in some respects, a defining moment, the beginning of the end of the Feudal System. During the 15th Century, as a result of the decline in the population, more land had become available for those who were able to take it on and farm it. Consequently, there was a rise in the number of wealthy farming families with sub-tenants and the economic situation of the rural population generally improved. Population change in Yorkshire Taxation and other records provide a “best estimate” of the population of Yorkshire at a given year. The population of Yorkshire’s West Riding: 1290 : 127,371 1377 : 87,049 ( 1347 Black death ) 1600 : 197,498 (Rise of the Wool Trade) In contrast, the East Riding’s population almost halved between 1290-1600 and the North Riding shrunk by a third. © Christine Widdall. Updated Jan 2020.	<urn:uuid:eb3d1737-d42a-4413-9465-61f60338a531>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kirkleescousins.co.uk/medieval-yorkshire/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00380.warc.gz	en	0.98018	5,285	3.96875	4	[ -0.2709973156452179, 0.7914063334465027, 0.09209534525871277, -0.1883273720741272, -0.011631645262241364, -0.0899507999420166, 0.00210743211209774, 0.03069326840341091, -0.03329608961939812, -0.02760261669754982, -0.1157032772898674, -0.41613852977752686, 0.2986796498298645, 0.132856026291...	1	With William of Normandy’s victory over King Harold in 1066, the whole country would eventually come under Norman Rule. From his first established base in the south-east, King William set about imposing Norman Rule, first in the South, then the Midlands and the Welsh Marches, where castles were being built to defend his territory. However, as the Norman armies rode north, they came up against more and more opposition. Uprising of the North Edgar the Atheling, a young boy, was still the rightful Saxon claimant to the English throne, being the last male heir of the Royal House of Wessex, a grandson of King Edmund Ironside. Harold Godwinson (King Harold), who had the confidence of the Witan (the powerful noblemen), had seized the throne from Edgar on the death of King Edward (the Confessor). So now, with Harold’s defeat and death at Hastings, Edgar was proclaimed King by the Witan, who recognised Edgar Atheling’s claim over the claim of the Norman invader. However, eventually the Witan turned Edgar over to William the Conqueror, who kept him in custody and took him to Normandy. From Normandy Edwin escaped and fled to Scotland with his mother and sisters and took refuge with Malcolm III of the Scots. In Scotland, Edwin’s followers linked up with the northern rebels and Danes, led by King Swein II of Denmark. Together these forces met and overwhelmed the Normans at York. For three years the northern English violently rebelled against the invaders, murdering the Normans and their collaborators, burning towns and destroying cathedrals. As William the Conqueror gradually gained supremacy, his armies undertook a ruthless campaign known today as the Harrying (or Harrowing) of the North. The Harrying of the North The Harrying (or Harrowing) of the North was a series of “scorched earth” campaigns waged by William the Conqueror in the winter of 1069–1070 to subjugate northern England in punishment for their rebellion against him. His armies laid waste Yorkshire and the north-east of England. Yorkshire, at the time, was a land of many free farmers and people of Saxon and Viking descent. The objective of the harrying was to destroy the settlements of the northern shires and eliminate the possibility of further revolts. Men, women and children were massacred by William’s soldiers; the stored crops, the ploughs and carts were burned, farms and homes were destroyed and the livestock was killed. Tens of thousands died at the hands of William’s soldiers and many more tens of thousands died in the wake of the famine and disease that followed, as William’s men salted the ground so that nothing would grow. Throughout the winter they slaughtered the people – it was horrible to observe in houses, streets and roads human corpses rotting, for no one survived to cover them with earth, all having perished by the sword and starvation, or left the land of their fathers because of hunger.Simeon of Durham In 1069, the chronicler Orderic Vitalis, had written: Nowhere else had William shown so much cruelty. Shamefully he succumbed to this vice, for he made no effort to restrain his fury and punished the innocent with the guilty. In his anger he commanded that all crops and herds, chattels and food of every kind should be brought together and burned to ashes with consuming fire, so that the whole region north of the Humber might be stripped of all means of sustenance. In consequence, so serious a scarcity was felt in England, and so terrible a famine fell upon the humble and defenceless populace, that more than 100,000 Christian folk of both sexes, young and old alike, perished of hunger. The survivors were reduced to cannibalism, with one report stating that the skulls of the dead were cracked open so that the brains could be eaten. Bodies were left to rot as there was no-one left to bury them and this eventually lead to a plague.Orderic Vitalis in Ossett.net Afterwards, there were no longer enough healthy men to tend the land. The total death toll from slaughter, disease and hunger is now believed to be more than 150,000. There had been death and destruction across the whole of the north east from the Humber northwards, but in no other county had the devastation been as great as in Yorkshire. William’s army gradually regained control, paying off the Vikings to return home and forcing Malcolm III to sign the Treaty of Abernethy, in 1072, and to swear fealty to William. Feudalism had existed for several hundred years in Europe. Even before the Norman Conquest, peasants in England had worked the land for their lords. After William gained control over the whole country, he needed a way to govern the country and he also had lands in Normandy to govern and feudalism was the most effective way. William now completed his replacement of Anglo-Saxon leaders with Norman ones in the North. The families who had previously held land were either deprived of their holdings altogether, or demoted to sub-tenants. He divided England into large areas or parcels of land, which were redistributed to those noblemen who had fought bravely for him in battle. They had to swear an oath of loyalty to the king and had to collect taxes in their area and they had to provide the king with soldiers if they were told to do so. Everybody had to pay their tax to the king. This meant that no lord or other nobleman could build up enough money to raise a private army to challenge the King’s authority. The men who acquired these parcels of land would have been barons, earls and dukes and became known as the tenants-in-chief. These barons divided up the land further and gave the plots to Norman knights who had served the King in battle. These knights had the duty to maintain law and order in their districts and keep the people under the control of the Normans. Soon, many new motte and bailey castles were built to enable the new overlords to rule over their territories, like the one at Mirfield, the mound of which can still be seen behind the parish church. However, many of the Norman overlords ruled from a distance and did not settle in Yorkshire. This allowed some Anglo-Saxon culture to survive alongside Norman rule; in spite of the complete Norman take-over of the land, the common folk retained their own language, whilst the Normans spoke French. Twenty years after the conquest of England by the Normans, King William ordered a great survey of his realm. The book would record who owed him taxes and once it was recorded, the decision would be final. While spending the Christmas time of 1085 in Gloucester, William had deep speech with his counsellors and sent men all over England to each shire to find out what or how much each landholder had in land and livestock, and what it was worth.Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The survey took less than a year and is a remarkable record of England in the late 11th Century. It is called the Domesday Book. The questions asked in each hamlet, village or town were: - How many ploughs are there in the manor ? - How many mills and fishponds ? - How many freemen, villagers and slaves are there in the manor ? - How much woodland, pasture, meadow ? - What does each freeman owe in the manor ? - How much is the manor worth now (1086)? - How much it was worth before the invasion of 1066, under King Edward? - How much it was worth now under King William? …so very thoroughly did William have the enquiry carried out, that there was not a single piece of land, not even an ox, cow or pig which escaped the notice of the survey.Anglo-Saxon Chronicle What the King’s men found in Yorkshire was that the county had been decimated and the population had not recovered since the harrying 17 years before. Many villages, which had existed in 1066, were still totally deserted and the land gone to waste, with no men to work the land. In those villages that were still inhabited, the number of people was greatly depleted and the value of the area to the crown was a fraction of what it had been in 1066 under King Edward. In villages near Wakefield, Ossett had 3.5 carucates of arable land, four villeins and three bordars, a total of seven men along with their families. Along with Horbury and Crigglestone, the three villages had a total of 8 carucates of arable land and four ploughs and a total of fifteen men. In the whole adjacent area, which included (Earls)heaton, Horbury, Stanley, West Bretton, Shitlington, Emley, Cartworth, Kirkburton, Shepley, Shelley, Upper Cumberworth and North Crosland, all these villages had been totally laid waste and all the inhabitants killed, fled or dead from disease or starvation. The townships of Almondbury, Bradford, Bramley, Elland, Flockton, Huddersfield, Kirkheaton, Morley, Pudsey, Tong, Shipley and Southowram were also all described as ‘waste’. - Total population: 1.7 household (very small). - Total tax assessed: 3.4 geld units (medium). - Taxable units: Taxable value 92.4 geld units. - Value: Value to lord (King Edward) in 1066 £60. - Value to lord (King William) in 1086 £15. - Households: 9 villagers. 22 smallholders. 11 freemen. 3 priests. - Ploughland: 51 ploughlands (can plough). 13 men’s plough teams. - Other resources: Woodland 3 * 3 furlongs & 6 * 4 leagues mixed measures. 2 churches Dewsbury was slightly larger in population but its taxable value was less than Wakefield’s: - Total population: 9 households (still quite small). - Total tax assessed: 3 geld units (medium). - Taxable units: Taxable value 3 geld units. - Value: Value to lord (King Edward) in 1066: 10 shillings (£0.50). - Value to lord in 1086 (King William): 10 shillings (£0.50). - Households: 6 villagers. 2 smallholders. 1 priest. - Ploughland: 2 ploughlands. 4 men’s plough teams - Total population: 9 households (quite small). - Total tax assessed: 6 geld units (quite large). - Taxable units: Taxable value 6 geld units. - Value: Value to lord in 1066 = £3. - Value to lord in 1086 = 10 shillings (£0.50) - Households: 6 villagers. 3 smallholders. - Ploughland: 3 ploughlands (ploughs possible). 2 lord’s plough teams. 2 men’s plough teams. - Other resources: Woodland 0.5 -1 leagues. It seems that the wasting of the north played heavily on William’s conscience, as he is reported to have confessed, on his deathbed: I caused the death of thousands by starvation and war, especially in Yorkshire. In a mad fury I descended on the English of the North like a raging lion, and ordered that their homes and crops and all their equipment and furnishings should be burnt at once and their great flocks and herds of sheep and cattle slaughtered everywhere. So I chastised a great multitude of men and women with the lash of starvation and, alas! was the cruel murderer of many thousands, both young and old.King William I By William I’s death in 1087, the vast majority of pre-conquest landowners had been replaced by Norman overlords and their property absorbed within the new larger complexes of land, controlled by a vast network of barons, knights and castles. Recovery and Life of the Peasants The recovery of the population of West Yorkshire was very slow at first, but gradually it began to grow again; new towns were founded, including Leeds, Barnsley, Doncaster and Pontefract. However, the plight of the peasants remained largely unchanged, as the elite and the commoners had dramatically different rights and freedoms and the peasants, at the bottom of the hierarchy, had no means to change their circumstances…born a peasant, you died a peasant and just feeding the family was a perennial struggle. The peasants ate mostly black rye bread and vegetables, with a little meat when it could be got. Bees would provide honey as a sweetener. In season, nuts and berries could be gathered. The women and girls would rise at dawn to milk the animals, look after vegetable plots, spin and weave to provide rough cloth for the family’s needs. Work also began at dawn for men and boys…ploughing, sowing or harvesting with the seasons, chopping wood for the fire and looking after the animals until work finished at dusk. A poor harvest meant the risk of starvation over the winter. If they were lucky, the peasants could stay out of the battles fought by their masters and there were plenty battles in the tumultuous years of medieval England. Stephen and Matilda The beginning of the 12th Century was dominated by “the Anarchy”, a Royal struggle for power between King Stephen of Blois, a grandson of William I by William’s daughter…and the Empress Matilda, grand-daughter of King William I by his 4th son, King Henry I and Matilda of Scotland. Most of the battles were fought in the south but King David I of Scotland invaded the north to defend his niece’s claim to the throne. Stephen’s army, along with soldiers from Yorkshire, defeated the more numerous Scots at Northallerton. Plantagenet (Angevin) Kings The middle years of the 12th Century were occupied by the reign of the Plantagenet King Henry II, son of the Empress Matilda. During this time, the basics of English Common Law were introduced. In the later years of the century, Henry’s second son, Richard became king but was often absent from England at the Crusades. His youngest brother, John, became king after Richard’s death. Although John’s reputation is almost uniformly bad, he was the first King of England since 1066 to speak English and his reign brought better administration of justice, taxation and military organisation. He also introduced chartered privileges to towns e.g. in trade and the establishment of guilds. Among the wealthy, English now took the place of Norman French as the dominant language. Population, Health and Societal Change Throughout those years of turmoil, the peasantry toiled on in the same old way, but somehow more survived than died as, during the 12th and 13th Centuries, the population of England more than doubled, perhaps helped by warmer temperatures and certainly by good harvests. In Yorkshire’s West Riding, the wool trade began to grow and commerce developed. In 1185, Temple Newsam, just outside the town of Leeds, had the first fulling mill in England. Domestic woollen production was revolutionised by the spinning wheel at the end of the 1200s and the cottage industry was born. In spite of the increase in population, life expectancy was still only 30-35 years. One in five children died before their first birthday and death of the mother in childbirth was common. Almshouses and hospitals were founded, to take care of the sick and the poor. However, there was little knowledge about what caused disease…so it was easy to put the blame on God, luck, sin, bad smells, witches or the Jews. In spite of this lack of basic understanding, some treatments had been found to be efficacious. The application of wine was found to help the healing of wounds, opium could ease pain, bones could be splinted and some surgery existed, including amputation of limbs and trepanning the skull for madness (see article on madness). Blood-letting, to fight illness, was a practice that existed for two millennia until the 19th Century. At the end of the 13th century, harvests began to fail and a great famine took hold in the early 14th century. The Great Famine 1315-17 Famine and starvation were regular occurrences, as were diseases related to malnutrition. The country had already suffered a famine during the early years of the 14th century, which had reduced the population by between 10% and 15% but the years 1315 -17 brought a natural disaster greater than before. The conditions for farming in the early 1300’s were often desperate and perhaps this was one of the reasons for the changes and for prosecutions and fines of the earlier 14th Century. The Great Famine of 1315 – 1317, struck the whole of Europe and was the worst of several such famines to strike during the 14th century. It began with poor weather conditions in spring 1315 and continued for more than two years with devastating effect. Not surprisingly, because the harvests had been largely decimated, there was little to eat and starvation on a massive scale with life expectancy dropping to an even lower level than its norm. Between 1301 and 1325 people were fortunate to reach the age of thirty.In the History of Sowood Farm, by Alan Howe: downloadable from ossett.net It gives a fascinating and detailed history of an Ossett manor and farm throughout the centuries. Johannes de Trokelowe wrote his Annales, including the period 1259 to 1296 and also an account of the reign of the Plantagenet King Edward II, from 1307 to 1323. He wrote: In the year of our Lord 1315, apart from the other hardships with which England was afflicted, hunger grew in the land…. Meat and eggs began to run out, capons and fowl could hardly be found, animals died of pest, swine could not be fed because of the excessive price of fodder. A quarter of wheat or beans or peas sold for twenty shillings [In 1313 a quarter of wheat sold for five shillings.], barley for a mark, oats for ten shillings. A quarter of salt was commonly sold for thirty-five shillings, which in former times was quite unheard of. The land was so oppressed with want that when the king came to St. Albans on the feast of St. Laurence [August 10] it was hardly possible to find bread on sale to supply his immediate household…. The dearth began in the month of May and lasted until the feast of the nativity of the Virgin [September 8]. The summer rains were so heavy that grain could not ripen. It could hardly be gathered and used to bake bread down to the said feast day unless it was first put in vessels to dry. Around the end of autumn the dearth was mitigated in part, but toward Christmas it became as bad as before. Bread did not have its usual nourishing power and strength because the grain was not nourished by the warmth of summer sunshine. Hence those who ate it, even in large quantities, were hungry again after a little while. There can be no doubt that the poor wasted away when even the rich were constantly hungry…. …Four pennies worth of coarse bread was not enough to feed a common man for one day. The usual kinds of meat, suitable for eating, were too scarce; horse meat was precious; plump dogs were stolen. And, according to many reports, men and women in many places secretly ate their own children…. In the year of our Lord 1315, apart from the other hardships with which England was afflicted, hunger grew in the land. Meat and eggs began to run out, capons and fowl could hardly be found, animals died of pest, swine could not be fed because of the excessive price of fodder. A quarter of wheat or beans or peas sold for twenty shillings (in 1313 a quarter of wheat sold for 5 shillings), barley for a mark, oats for ten shillings. A quarter of salt was commonly sold for thirty-five shillings, which in former times was unheard of.Father Johannes de Trokelowe “Annals” It has been estimated that 25% of the population died from the effects of famine between 1315 and 1317. The harvest failed again in 1321, just as families were beginning to recover from the effects of the great famine…and the tax returns for 1334 indicate the relative poverty of the West Riding compared to the North and East. The Great Pestilence or Black Death The Black Death swept across Europe was responsible for the death of more than a third of the whole population. The plague entered England in 1348. Spreading rapidly across counties, it reached the West Riding in 1349 where it would kill up to half of the population, bringing numbers down again to not much more than existed at the time of the Domesday Book. This period is described in more detail in my article on the Plague here. The Poll Tax The poll tax was a tax per head, rather than on goods. It was levied just three times, in 1377, 1379 and 1381. Each time the basis was slightly different. In 1377, everyone over the age of 14 and not exempt had to pay a groat (2p) to the Crown. By 1379 that had been graded by social class, with the lower limit raised to 16, (and 15 two years later). Exemption of the poor means that about 40% of inhabitants of any village or town were not counted. Because they were poor, they would not be recorded as making wills either. Perhaps Manor Court records might pick up a few errant poor people, but on the whole, unless a family had a certain level of means, they do not appear in records from this period. The Peasants’ Revolt The Poll Tax of 1381 was the final straw for many peasants. Richard II’s government imposed a poll tax where everyone over the age of 15 had to pay one shilling, regardless of rank or wealth, to help pay for the war with France (the Hundred Years’ War). Meanwhile wage rises were severely limited. The better off had no problem paying a shilling, but the poor peasants, tied to working on the land, were unable to raise the tax. If they couldn’t pay in money, they could pay in goods or implements, such as seeds, tools etc., but these were vital to the survival of a farmer and his family for the coming year. Non-payment invoked harsh punishment and eventually the peasants were driven to revolt. Uprisings began in the south and spread all over the country, soon spreading to cities like York. The peasants destroyed tax records and registers, and removed the heads from several tax officials, along with burning buildings and targeting priests and lawyers, whom they blamed for their plight. Revolting peasants were led by Wat Tyler and his Kentish rebels. At a tense meeting in London between peasants and King, just outside London’s city walls, the King is reputed to have cried “I am your King…I will be your leader. Follow me into the fields”…he promised that the estates of the church would be confiscated, all lordships except the King’s would be abolished, and all the rebels would be pardoned. With this, Richard persuaded the mob to break up. However, the leaders were rounded up and most were eventually executed, including Wat Tyler whose “head was removed, just above the shoulders” and displayed on London Bridge. Afterwards the King declined to keep the promises made, arguing that they were not valid as they had been extracted under duress. However, the Poll Tax was withdrawn and life returned to normal. The Peasants’ Revolt may not have immediately liberated the people of West Riding towns, but it was, in some respects, a defining moment, the beginning of the end of the Feudal System. During the 15th Century, as a result of the decline in the population, more land had become available for those who were able to take it on and farm it. Consequently, there was a rise in the number of wealthy farming families with sub-tenants and the economic situation of the rural population generally improved. Population change in Yorkshire Taxation and other records provide a “best estimate” of the population of Yorkshire at a given year. The population of Yorkshire’s West Riding: 1290 : 127,371 1377 : 87,049 ( 1347 Black death ) 1600 : 197,498 (Rise of the Wool Trade) In contrast, the East Riding’s population almost halved between 1290-1600 and the North Riding shrunk by a third. © Christine Widdall. Updated Jan 2020.	5,406	ENGLISH	1
The Latin-speaking allies, whose communal life was akin to that of Rome, were to be incorporated into the Roman state as full citizens and organized in locally self-governing municipalities, and the Italic peoples of non-Latin stocks were to have the intermediate status of the Latin allies. This, according to Plutarch, was the first outbreak of civil strife in Rome. With this broad coalition of supporters, Gaius held his office for two years and had much of his prepared legislation passed. But, despite minor confusions, it is clear that Gaius completed the whole of his program that touched the government of the Roman state before he turned to a different problem—the relationship between Rome and its Italian allies—early in his second tribunate and that his bill for the extension of the franchise to the independent peoples of Italy was his last legislative proposal. These reforms were intended to raise army morale and to win the political support of soldiers, allies, and voters with small incomes. Assessment and reasons for failure[ edit ] According Gaius gracchus the classicist J. By securing passage of this law he ensured that the provinces would be allocated before the consuls were elected, thereby preventing the Senate from using the allocation of provinces as a means of punishing consuls of whom it disapproved and rewarding those of whom it did approve. Background[ edit ] Tiberius was born between and BC his Gaius gracchus cannot be confirmed ; His family, the Gracchi branch of the gens Semproniawas one of the most politically connected in Rome. Tiberius countered by a second outrageous proposal, of which he failed to see the implication. Following a similar path, he served under Scipio Aemilianus, and then was elected Consul, in which he spent two years governing Sardinia. Having passed his law, Tiberius was lauded as a founding hero not just of a single city or race, but as the founding hero of all the Italians, who had come to endure immense poverty and deprivation, denied of their rightful land because of their military service and having lost work because of the influx of slaves, who were loyal to no man while citizens were loyal to the state. Swooping down on the Aventine, all hope was lost for the Gracchus party. Return to Rome and outbreak of violence[ edit ] The combined political positions of his fellow tribunes Lucius OpimiusLivius Drusus and Marcus Minucius Rufus, another political enemy of Gaius, meant the repeal of as many of Gaius' measures as possible. His judicial legislation was not intended to introduce democracy but rather to preserve the authority of the Senate in directing policy and of the magistrates in executing it, under legal checks and without financial temptations. Tiberius, consigning himself to the worst situation, had him forcibly removed from the meeting place of the Assembly and proceeded with the vote to depose him. Ultimately he, like them, met a violent end. He cleared himself with ease and in was elected to serve as a tribune for the following year. They also gathered an ad hoc [a] force, with several of them personally marching to the Forum, and had Tiberius and some of his supporters clubbed to death. Instead, Gaius would turn his face to the left, toward the direction of the Forum proper, effectively turning his back on the Senate. His rejected unification of Italy was finally conceded in 89 bce, after a destructive and unnecessary civil war that came close to destroying the foundations of Roman Gaius gracchus. Speaking before a crowd at the Rostra, Tiberius said, "The wild beasts that roam over Italy have their dens, each has a place of repose and refuge. The enfranchisement bill was rejected, and Gaius failed to secure a third tribunate at the elections of Gaius proposed a complex solution of the Italian question. A substantial proportion of the Roman poor, protective of their privileged Roman citizenship, turned against Gaius. The greatest of Roman problems at this time concerned the management of the allies in Italy, who occupied two-thirds of the peninsula. When the Senate heard this, outrage spread among them.Gaius Gracchus, in full Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, (born –? bce —died bce, Grove of Furrina, near Rome), Roman tribune (– bce), who reenacted the agrarian reforms of his brother, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and who proposed other measures to lessen the power of the senatorial nobility. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were a pair of tribunes of the plebs from the 2nd Century BCE, who sought to introduce land reform and other populist legislation in ancient Rome. They were both members of. noun. Tiberius Sempronius (taɪˈbɪərɪəs sɛmˈprəʊnɪəs).?– bc, and his younger brother, Gaius Sempronius (ˈɡaɪəs), – bc, known as the Gracchi. Roman tribunes and reformers. Tiberius attempted to redistribute public land among the poor but was murdered in the ensuing riot. Nov 16, · In the early days of the roman republic, long before the empire or the Caesars who ruled it, there were two classes at war: the poor plebeians who voted on who would rule them, and the wealthy patricians who ruled. Out of this unjust division of power rose the plebeian family, the Gracchi who, though prospering through marriage, never forgot their origins. Gaius Gracchus was born into a family who had a strong tradition in the politics of ancient Rome. His father, Tiberius Gracchus the Elder, was a powerful man in Roman politics throughout the 2nd century BC and had built up a large and powerful clientele largely based in Spain. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS; born c. – – BC) was a Roman populist and reformist politician of the 2nd century BC. He was a son of Tiberius Gracchus the Elder and Cornelia bistroriviere.com a plebeian tribune, Tiberius Gracchus caused political turmoil in the Republic with his reforms of agrarian legislation that sought to transfer land from.Download	<urn:uuid:8a02687f-8c3e-4722-a077-30a3a3bf7455>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pypamob.bistroriviere.com/gaius-gracchus-25944gq.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00331.warc.gz	en	0.980331	1,386	3.9375	4	[ -0.47998470067977905, 0.3449632227420807, 0.2714385390281677, 0.14935243129730225, -0.5647287964820862, -0.5178919434547424, 0.03831900283694267, 0.1440868079662323, 0.027840809896588326, -0.376778781414032, 0.2364673614501953, -0.25973978638648987, 0.36514872312545776, 0.4796276092529297,...	1	The Latin-speaking allies, whose communal life was akin to that of Rome, were to be incorporated into the Roman state as full citizens and organized in locally self-governing municipalities, and the Italic peoples of non-Latin stocks were to have the intermediate status of the Latin allies. This, according to Plutarch, was the first outbreak of civil strife in Rome. With this broad coalition of supporters, Gaius held his office for two years and had much of his prepared legislation passed. But, despite minor confusions, it is clear that Gaius completed the whole of his program that touched the government of the Roman state before he turned to a different problem—the relationship between Rome and its Italian allies—early in his second tribunate and that his bill for the extension of the franchise to the independent peoples of Italy was his last legislative proposal. These reforms were intended to raise army morale and to win the political support of soldiers, allies, and voters with small incomes. Assessment and reasons for failure[ edit ] According Gaius gracchus the classicist J. By securing passage of this law he ensured that the provinces would be allocated before the consuls were elected, thereby preventing the Senate from using the allocation of provinces as a means of punishing consuls of whom it disapproved and rewarding those of whom it did approve. Background[ edit ] Tiberius was born between and BC his Gaius gracchus cannot be confirmed ; His family, the Gracchi branch of the gens Semproniawas one of the most politically connected in Rome. Tiberius countered by a second outrageous proposal, of which he failed to see the implication. Following a similar path, he served under Scipio Aemilianus, and then was elected Consul, in which he spent two years governing Sardinia. Having passed his law, Tiberius was lauded as a founding hero not just of a single city or race, but as the founding hero of all the Italians, who had come to endure immense poverty and deprivation, denied of their rightful land because of their military service and having lost work because of the influx of slaves, who were loyal to no man while citizens were loyal to the state. Swooping down on the Aventine, all hope was lost for the Gracchus party. Return to Rome and outbreak of violence[ edit ] The combined political positions of his fellow tribunes Lucius OpimiusLivius Drusus and Marcus Minucius Rufus, another political enemy of Gaius, meant the repeal of as many of Gaius' measures as possible. His judicial legislation was not intended to introduce democracy but rather to preserve the authority of the Senate in directing policy and of the magistrates in executing it, under legal checks and without financial temptations. Tiberius, consigning himself to the worst situation, had him forcibly removed from the meeting place of the Assembly and proceeded with the vote to depose him. Ultimately he, like them, met a violent end. He cleared himself with ease and in was elected to serve as a tribune for the following year. They also gathered an ad hoc [a] force, with several of them personally marching to the Forum, and had Tiberius and some of his supporters clubbed to death. Instead, Gaius would turn his face to the left, toward the direction of the Forum proper, effectively turning his back on the Senate. His rejected unification of Italy was finally conceded in 89 bce, after a destructive and unnecessary civil war that came close to destroying the foundations of Roman Gaius gracchus. Speaking before a crowd at the Rostra, Tiberius said, "The wild beasts that roam over Italy have their dens, each has a place of repose and refuge. The enfranchisement bill was rejected, and Gaius failed to secure a third tribunate at the elections of Gaius proposed a complex solution of the Italian question. A substantial proportion of the Roman poor, protective of their privileged Roman citizenship, turned against Gaius. The greatest of Roman problems at this time concerned the management of the allies in Italy, who occupied two-thirds of the peninsula. When the Senate heard this, outrage spread among them.Gaius Gracchus, in full Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, (born –? bce —died bce, Grove of Furrina, near Rome), Roman tribune (– bce), who reenacted the agrarian reforms of his brother, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and who proposed other measures to lessen the power of the senatorial nobility. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were a pair of tribunes of the plebs from the 2nd Century BCE, who sought to introduce land reform and other populist legislation in ancient Rome. They were both members of. noun. Tiberius Sempronius (taɪˈbɪərɪəs sɛmˈprəʊnɪəs).?– bc, and his younger brother, Gaius Sempronius (ˈɡaɪəs), – bc, known as the Gracchi. Roman tribunes and reformers. Tiberius attempted to redistribute public land among the poor but was murdered in the ensuing riot. Nov 16, · In the early days of the roman republic, long before the empire or the Caesars who ruled it, there were two classes at war: the poor plebeians who voted on who would rule them, and the wealthy patricians who ruled. Out of this unjust division of power rose the plebeian family, the Gracchi who, though prospering through marriage, never forgot their origins. Gaius Gracchus was born into a family who had a strong tradition in the politics of ancient Rome. His father, Tiberius Gracchus the Elder, was a powerful man in Roman politics throughout the 2nd century BC and had built up a large and powerful clientele largely based in Spain. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS; born c. – – BC) was a Roman populist and reformist politician of the 2nd century BC. He was a son of Tiberius Gracchus the Elder and Cornelia bistroriviere.com a plebeian tribune, Tiberius Gracchus caused political turmoil in the Republic with his reforms of agrarian legislation that sought to transfer land from.Download	1,363	ENGLISH	1
Thunder in the Mountains: Chief Joseph, Oliver Otis Howard, and the Nez Perce War by Daniel J. SharfsteinAfter the Civil War and Reconstruction, a new struggle raged in the Northern Rockies. In the summer of 1877, General Oliver Otis Howard, a champion of African American civil rights, ruthlessly pursued hundreds of Nez Perce families who resisted moving onto a reservation. Standing in his way was Chief Joseph, a young leader who never stopped advocating for Native American sovereignty and equal rights. Thunder in the Mountains is the spellbinding story of two legendary figures and their epic clash of ideas about the meaning of freedom and the role of government in American life. When the United States attempted to force the Nez Perce to move to a reservation in , he reluctantly agreed. Following the killing of a group of white settlers, tensions erupted again, and Chief Joseph tried to lead his people to Canada, in what is considered one of the great retreats in military history. His formal Native American name translates to Thunder Rolling Down a Mountain, but he was largely known as Joseph, the same name his father, Joseph the Elder, had taken after being baptized in Joseph the Elder's relationship with the whites had been unprecedented. He'd been one of the early Nez Perce leaders to convert to Christianity, and his influence had gone a long way toward establishing peace with his white neighbors. He succeeded his father Tuekakas Chief Joseph the Elder in the early s. Chief Joseph led his band of Nez Perce during the most tumultuous period in their history, when they were forcibly removed by the United States federal government from their ancestral lands in the Wallowa Valley of northeastern Oregon onto a significantly reduced reservation in the Idaho Territory. A series of violent encounters with white settlers in the spring of culminated in those Nez Perce who resisted removal, including Joseph's band and an allied band of the Palouse tribe, to flee the United States in an attempt to reach political asylum alongside the Lakota people , who had sought refuge in Canada under the leadership of Sitting Bull. At least men, women, and children led by Joseph and other Nez Perce chiefs were pursued by the U. Army under General Oliver O. The skill with which the Nez Perce fought and the manner in which they conducted themselves in the face of incredible adversity earned them widespread admiration from their military opponents and the American public, and coverage of the war in U. Chief Joseph was a leader of the Wallowa band of the Nez Perce Tribe, who became famous in for leading his people on an epic flight across the Rocky Mountains. He was born in and he was called Joseph by Reverend Henry H. two year old children who throw tantrums get this nickname Curator's statement: Look into Chief Josephs's face. What was he thinking and feeling at that moment? I believe this photograph is one of the most revealing portraits in our collection. You can see great dignity, pride, intelligence, and sadness in Joseph's face and body language as well as tension, and perhaps some anger. This file contains additional information such as Exif metadata which may have been added by the digital camera, scanner, or software program used to create or digitize it.	<urn:uuid:709e17aa-9e76-4a04-8bdd-565a031d1020>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://labelhqs.org/and/3184-chief-joseph-and-his-family-110-81.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00410.warc.gz	en	0.980777	658	3.6875	4	[ -0.4019036293029785, 0.1173195093870163, 0.13874569535255432, 0.38808101415634155, -0.04340283200144768, 0.10312643647193909, 0.4999958872795105, -0.16956254839897156, -0.46888500452041626, 0.16048145294189453, -0.130287766456604, 0.019643297418951988, 0.3360503613948822, 0.251203805208206...	3	Thunder in the Mountains: Chief Joseph, Oliver Otis Howard, and the Nez Perce War by Daniel J. SharfsteinAfter the Civil War and Reconstruction, a new struggle raged in the Northern Rockies. In the summer of 1877, General Oliver Otis Howard, a champion of African American civil rights, ruthlessly pursued hundreds of Nez Perce families who resisted moving onto a reservation. Standing in his way was Chief Joseph, a young leader who never stopped advocating for Native American sovereignty and equal rights. Thunder in the Mountains is the spellbinding story of two legendary figures and their epic clash of ideas about the meaning of freedom and the role of government in American life. When the United States attempted to force the Nez Perce to move to a reservation in , he reluctantly agreed. Following the killing of a group of white settlers, tensions erupted again, and Chief Joseph tried to lead his people to Canada, in what is considered one of the great retreats in military history. His formal Native American name translates to Thunder Rolling Down a Mountain, but he was largely known as Joseph, the same name his father, Joseph the Elder, had taken after being baptized in Joseph the Elder's relationship with the whites had been unprecedented. He'd been one of the early Nez Perce leaders to convert to Christianity, and his influence had gone a long way toward establishing peace with his white neighbors. He succeeded his father Tuekakas Chief Joseph the Elder in the early s. Chief Joseph led his band of Nez Perce during the most tumultuous period in their history, when they were forcibly removed by the United States federal government from their ancestral lands in the Wallowa Valley of northeastern Oregon onto a significantly reduced reservation in the Idaho Territory. A series of violent encounters with white settlers in the spring of culminated in those Nez Perce who resisted removal, including Joseph's band and an allied band of the Palouse tribe, to flee the United States in an attempt to reach political asylum alongside the Lakota people , who had sought refuge in Canada under the leadership of Sitting Bull. At least men, women, and children led by Joseph and other Nez Perce chiefs were pursued by the U. Army under General Oliver O. The skill with which the Nez Perce fought and the manner in which they conducted themselves in the face of incredible adversity earned them widespread admiration from their military opponents and the American public, and coverage of the war in U. Chief Joseph was a leader of the Wallowa band of the Nez Perce Tribe, who became famous in for leading his people on an epic flight across the Rocky Mountains. He was born in and he was called Joseph by Reverend Henry H. two year old children who throw tantrums get this nickname Curator's statement: Look into Chief Josephs's face. What was he thinking and feeling at that moment? I believe this photograph is one of the most revealing portraits in our collection. You can see great dignity, pride, intelligence, and sadness in Joseph's face and body language as well as tension, and perhaps some anger. This file contains additional information such as Exif metadata which may have been added by the digital camera, scanner, or software program used to create or digitize it.	663	ENGLISH	1
Zionism is the Jewish national movement. The word means "marker" or commemoration. It includes, for example, socialist Zionists such as Ber Borochov, religious Zionists such as rabbi Kook, extreme nationalists such as Jabotinski and cultural Zionists exemplified by Asher Ginsberg Ahad Ha'am. Bring fact-checked results to the top of your browser search. In that year Queen Caroline, one of his most important allies, died. The king, born inwas now in his 50s, which was elderly by the standards of the time. Many young ambitious MPs, such as William Pitt, were inclined to join Prince Frederick, because they saw in him the political future. Moreover, as Prince of Wales, Frederick owned a large part of the county of Cornwall and consequently controlled numerous rotten boroughs. In the election the Cornish constituencies had returned 32 pro-government MPs to Parliament; but at the next general election inwhen Prince Frederick used his electoral influence against Walpole, only 17 pro-government candidates were returned by this county. Walpole lost another important ally to the opposition, John, duke of Argyll. Argyll was a member of the Cabinet, the most important Whig landowner in Scotland, and head of Clan Campbell. But by the election he had defected to the Opposition, and the electoral repercussions were serious. On this occasion Scottish constituencies Disraeli s support for reform was motivated elected 17 pro-government MPs. By he was in his 60s and had dominated politics for 15 years. Some ambitious Whigs resented his prolonged monopoly on power; others anticipated his retirement or death and judged it prudent to distance themselves from his administration. Admiral Edward Vernon became a popular and Opposition hero when he captured the Spanish settlement of Portobelo in what is now Panama in November But his victory was followed by several defeats, and Britain soon became embroiled in a wider European conflict, the War of the Austrian Succession. Walpole survived the general election ofbut with a greatly reduced majority. His political doom was sealed in the fall of that year when the Tory and Whig sectors of the Opposition managed finally to agree on a strategy to defeat him. Walpole eventually resigned from his offices in early Although monarchs retained the rights to choose their own ministers, they could no longer retain a chief minister who was unable to command a majority of votes in the House of Commons. If they wanted to remain in office, chief ministers now needed to possess parliamentary as well as royal support. Its Tory sector some MPs strong had expected that a new administration would be formed in which some of their leaders would be given state office. They hoped that the proscription of their party, implemented afterwould be reversed and that various changes in domestic and foreign policy would be made. But now that Walpole was out of the picture many of their Patriot Whig allies wanted nothing more to do with Tories or Tory measures. Six other Patriot Whigs accepted government office, including John, Baron Carteret later earl of Granvillewho became the new secretary of state. Spencer Compton, now earl of Wilmingtonbecame the new first lord of the treasury and nominal head of the government. The Tories, as well as many people outside Parliamenthad expected the fall of Walpole to result in a revolution in government and society, but this did not occur. Instead, all that had happened was a reshuffling of state employment among patrician Whigs, which caused widespread disillusionment and anger. It was with the Patriot Whigs in mind that Samuel Johnsona staunch Tory, was later to describe patriotism in his Dictionary as the last resort of the scoundrel. When Wilmington died inCarteret took over as head of the administration. He was a clever and subtle man, able to speak many European languages, and fascinated by foreign affairs. These qualities naturally endeared him to the king. His status as a royal favourite was confirmed when he accompanied George on a military expedition to Germany in defense of the electorate of Hanover. In June George commanded his British and Hanoverian troops at the Battle of Dettingen the last battle in which a British monarch commandeddefeating the opposing French forces. But the victory was not followed up and aroused little patriotic enthusiasm in Britain. Instead, accusations that the king and Carteret were sacrificing British interests to Hanoverian priorities were openly expressed in Parliament and in the press. In November he was forced to resign, though during the next 18 months George II continued to consult with him privately on political business. These intrigues infuriated Henry Pelham, who was now first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, and his brother Newcastle, who was secretary of state. Since Britain was now at odds with Francethe latter power was willing to sponsor an invasion on behalf of the Stuart dynasty. It hoped that such an invasion would win support from the masses and from the Tory sector of the landed class. Although a handful of Tory conspirators encouraged these hopes, the degree of their commitment is open to question. A large-scale French naval invasion of Britain in early failed in part because these men would not commit themselves to action. In September he and some 2, Scottish supporters defeated a British force of the same size at the Battle of Prestonpans. In December, with an army of 5, men, he marched into England and got as far south as the town of Derbysome miles from London. One problem was that the standing army was too small, consisting of some 62, men. Only 4, men had been left to defend Scotland, and most of them were raw recruits. Moreover, hampered by internal divisions, the administration was slow to respond.When Georg Ludwig, elector of Hanover, became king of Great Britain on August 1, , the country was in some respects bitterly divided. Fundamentally, however, it was prosperous, cohesive, and already a leading European and imperial power. Abroad, Britain’s involvement in the War of the Spanish. At the same time, after the French Revolution and the emancipation of European Jewry, the vague spiritual bonds of the Jewish people began to express themselves in more concrete, though not . Feb 01, · Disraeli And The Secret Plan To End The U.S. Civil War. By. Disraeli’s bris was held in the d’Israeli home on the special Kisseh shel may have influenced him to support the Jewish. Oct 13, · What motivated the conservatives to pass the reform act? the Liberals' clothes,and introducing a Reform Bill that would effectively enfranchise most working class timberdesignmag.comli convinced his own party to support the bill by saying the new voters would be so grateful that they would vote Conservative in future rather than Status: Resolved. The story so far: 5 stars isn't enough. For anyone who listens to this and says (like some misguided reviewers here) "It's not the same" or "The tempos are all wrong" or anything along the lines of "Those were the days" -- you need to get your hands on the DVD . Premierships of Benjamin Disraeli. Jump to navigation Jump to search. Benjamin Disraeli. Benjamin The Disraeli government's programme of social reform began in the second session of parliament, – Gladstone and the Liberals were rallying public support by denouncing Turkish atrocities against Christian communities in the Balkans.	<urn:uuid:3a91bb54-0d24-4874-be28-83781edf1aa3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://daralogozixupo.timberdesignmag.com/disraeli-s-support-for-reform-was-motivated-44387tf.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00337.warc.gz	en	0.984248	1,531	3.5	4	[ -0.39269542694091797, 0.22473262250423431, 0.019854169338941574, -0.06345093250274658, 0.06222793832421303, 0.30537158250808716, 0.3677319884300232, 0.15870867669582367, -0.15031090378761292, 0.3355201780796051, 0.01589735597372055, -0.1158163994550705, 0.4122128188610077, -0.0626084655523...	2	Zionism is the Jewish national movement. The word means "marker" or commemoration. It includes, for example, socialist Zionists such as Ber Borochov, religious Zionists such as rabbi Kook, extreme nationalists such as Jabotinski and cultural Zionists exemplified by Asher Ginsberg Ahad Ha'am. Bring fact-checked results to the top of your browser search. In that year Queen Caroline, one of his most important allies, died. The king, born inwas now in his 50s, which was elderly by the standards of the time. Many young ambitious MPs, such as William Pitt, were inclined to join Prince Frederick, because they saw in him the political future. Moreover, as Prince of Wales, Frederick owned a large part of the county of Cornwall and consequently controlled numerous rotten boroughs. In the election the Cornish constituencies had returned 32 pro-government MPs to Parliament; but at the next general election inwhen Prince Frederick used his electoral influence against Walpole, only 17 pro-government candidates were returned by this county. Walpole lost another important ally to the opposition, John, duke of Argyll. Argyll was a member of the Cabinet, the most important Whig landowner in Scotland, and head of Clan Campbell. But by the election he had defected to the Opposition, and the electoral repercussions were serious. On this occasion Scottish constituencies Disraeli s support for reform was motivated elected 17 pro-government MPs. By he was in his 60s and had dominated politics for 15 years. Some ambitious Whigs resented his prolonged monopoly on power; others anticipated his retirement or death and judged it prudent to distance themselves from his administration. Admiral Edward Vernon became a popular and Opposition hero when he captured the Spanish settlement of Portobelo in what is now Panama in November But his victory was followed by several defeats, and Britain soon became embroiled in a wider European conflict, the War of the Austrian Succession. Walpole survived the general election ofbut with a greatly reduced majority. His political doom was sealed in the fall of that year when the Tory and Whig sectors of the Opposition managed finally to agree on a strategy to defeat him. Walpole eventually resigned from his offices in early Although monarchs retained the rights to choose their own ministers, they could no longer retain a chief minister who was unable to command a majority of votes in the House of Commons. If they wanted to remain in office, chief ministers now needed to possess parliamentary as well as royal support. Its Tory sector some MPs strong had expected that a new administration would be formed in which some of their leaders would be given state office. They hoped that the proscription of their party, implemented afterwould be reversed and that various changes in domestic and foreign policy would be made. But now that Walpole was out of the picture many of their Patriot Whig allies wanted nothing more to do with Tories or Tory measures. Six other Patriot Whigs accepted government office, including John, Baron Carteret later earl of Granvillewho became the new secretary of state. Spencer Compton, now earl of Wilmingtonbecame the new first lord of the treasury and nominal head of the government. The Tories, as well as many people outside Parliamenthad expected the fall of Walpole to result in a revolution in government and society, but this did not occur. Instead, all that had happened was a reshuffling of state employment among patrician Whigs, which caused widespread disillusionment and anger. It was with the Patriot Whigs in mind that Samuel Johnsona staunch Tory, was later to describe patriotism in his Dictionary as the last resort of the scoundrel. When Wilmington died inCarteret took over as head of the administration. He was a clever and subtle man, able to speak many European languages, and fascinated by foreign affairs. These qualities naturally endeared him to the king. His status as a royal favourite was confirmed when he accompanied George on a military expedition to Germany in defense of the electorate of Hanover. In June George commanded his British and Hanoverian troops at the Battle of Dettingen the last battle in which a British monarch commandeddefeating the opposing French forces. But the victory was not followed up and aroused little patriotic enthusiasm in Britain. Instead, accusations that the king and Carteret were sacrificing British interests to Hanoverian priorities were openly expressed in Parliament and in the press. In November he was forced to resign, though during the next 18 months George II continued to consult with him privately on political business. These intrigues infuriated Henry Pelham, who was now first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, and his brother Newcastle, who was secretary of state. Since Britain was now at odds with Francethe latter power was willing to sponsor an invasion on behalf of the Stuart dynasty. It hoped that such an invasion would win support from the masses and from the Tory sector of the landed class. Although a handful of Tory conspirators encouraged these hopes, the degree of their commitment is open to question. A large-scale French naval invasion of Britain in early failed in part because these men would not commit themselves to action. In September he and some 2, Scottish supporters defeated a British force of the same size at the Battle of Prestonpans. In December, with an army of 5, men, he marched into England and got as far south as the town of Derbysome miles from London. One problem was that the standing army was too small, consisting of some 62, men. Only 4, men had been left to defend Scotland, and most of them were raw recruits. Moreover, hampered by internal divisions, the administration was slow to respond.When Georg Ludwig, elector of Hanover, became king of Great Britain on August 1, , the country was in some respects bitterly divided. Fundamentally, however, it was prosperous, cohesive, and already a leading European and imperial power. Abroad, Britain’s involvement in the War of the Spanish. At the same time, after the French Revolution and the emancipation of European Jewry, the vague spiritual bonds of the Jewish people began to express themselves in more concrete, though not . Feb 01, · Disraeli And The Secret Plan To End The U.S. Civil War. By. Disraeli’s bris was held in the d’Israeli home on the special Kisseh shel may have influenced him to support the Jewish. Oct 13, · What motivated the conservatives to pass the reform act? the Liberals' clothes,and introducing a Reform Bill that would effectively enfranchise most working class timberdesignmag.comli convinced his own party to support the bill by saying the new voters would be so grateful that they would vote Conservative in future rather than Status: Resolved. The story so far: 5 stars isn't enough. For anyone who listens to this and says (like some misguided reviewers here) "It's not the same" or "The tempos are all wrong" or anything along the lines of "Those were the days" -- you need to get your hands on the DVD . Premierships of Benjamin Disraeli. Jump to navigation Jump to search. Benjamin Disraeli. Benjamin The Disraeli government's programme of social reform began in the second session of parliament, – Gladstone and the Liberals were rallying public support by denouncing Turkish atrocities against Christian communities in the Balkans.	1,524	ENGLISH	1
Archaeopteryx is a fossil of a bird which existed durring the Jurassic Period.It is approximately 150 million years old.It is considered to be the missing link of Dinosaurs and Modern Birds. The full name of the Archaeopteryx is Archaeopteryx lithographica (“ancient wing from the printing stone”).Named after the limestone in which it was discovered(www.talkorigins.org).Limestone was once used for printing because it was very smooth. Eight fossils have been found of the Archaeopteryx.Thefirst fossil was found in 1860 near Solnhofen Germany.Thisfirst fossil was a well preserved and detailed feather. The second fossil was found in 1861, near Langenaltheim England.This was brought to the British Museum of Natural History in London to be studdied.The fossil was studdied and "failed to recognise the true import of the fossil and merely remarked on it as a'reptile-like bird'" (www.talkorigins.org).The importance of the fossil was not understood untill a comparason was made with another dinosaur called the Compsognathus. The third fossil was found in 1877 near Blumenberg, Berlin.This fossil was found with a complete head.The head was crushed, but was still taken by the Berlin museum for studdy. The forth fossil was also found in 1958 near Langenaltheim, England.This fossil includes the torso only.It is privately owned still.After its owner and finder Eduard Optisch died, the fossil was not found and is thought to have been sold.It has not been found since. The fifth fossil was found near Reidenburg in 1855, 5 years before the fossil of the feather.It was originaly classifyed as a Pterodactylus crassipes, but after it was re-examined in 1970 it was declaired to be the Archaeopteryx lithographica. The sixth fossil was found near Workerszell in 1951.It is the smallest one found as of now, it is two thirds the size of all other fossils.It contains a diff…	<urn:uuid:3a2a2485-8bd3-4c74-abe3-03c5384e2a8e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/archaeopteryx-lithographica/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00105.warc.gz	en	0.98397	456	3.484375	3	[ -0.16431577503681183, 0.12775366008281708, 0.44098150730133057, -0.027874892577528954, -0.3021117150783539, -0.021366484463214874, 0.0202045701444149, 0.47724542021751404, -0.2580988109111786, -0.1575782597064972, 0.09435249865055084, -0.6265196204185486, 0.18715868890285492, 0.26426857709...	1	Archaeopteryx is a fossil of a bird which existed durring the Jurassic Period.It is approximately 150 million years old.It is considered to be the missing link of Dinosaurs and Modern Birds. The full name of the Archaeopteryx is Archaeopteryx lithographica (“ancient wing from the printing stone”).Named after the limestone in which it was discovered(www.talkorigins.org).Limestone was once used for printing because it was very smooth. Eight fossils have been found of the Archaeopteryx.Thefirst fossil was found in 1860 near Solnhofen Germany.Thisfirst fossil was a well preserved and detailed feather. The second fossil was found in 1861, near Langenaltheim England.This was brought to the British Museum of Natural History in London to be studdied.The fossil was studdied and "failed to recognise the true import of the fossil and merely remarked on it as a'reptile-like bird'" (www.talkorigins.org).The importance of the fossil was not understood untill a comparason was made with another dinosaur called the Compsognathus. The third fossil was found in 1877 near Blumenberg, Berlin.This fossil was found with a complete head.The head was crushed, but was still taken by the Berlin museum for studdy. The forth fossil was also found in 1958 near Langenaltheim, England.This fossil includes the torso only.It is privately owned still.After its owner and finder Eduard Optisch died, the fossil was not found and is thought to have been sold.It has not been found since. The fifth fossil was found near Reidenburg in 1855, 5 years before the fossil of the feather.It was originaly classifyed as a Pterodactylus crassipes, but after it was re-examined in 1970 it was declaired to be the Archaeopteryx lithographica. The sixth fossil was found near Workerszell in 1951.It is the smallest one found as of now, it is two thirds the size of all other fossils.It contains a diff…	450	ENGLISH	1
What is bullying in school and how has it been studied? This chapter outlines what we mean by bullying, the history behind the study of it, and the main forms it takes, including the development of cyberbullying. Bullying is an evocative term. Most people will have witnessed it or experienced it in one form or another. But only since the 1980s has there been serious interest, both from researchers and from the wider community. This suggests two aspects that distinguish bullying as a particular form of aggression: it is repeated, and there is an imbalance of power. This concept of bullying was first put forward clearly by Dan Olweus, a Swedish psychologist who has worked in Norway for much of his career. Serious research and consideration of school bullying started, in Europe at least, in the Scandinavian countries – especially Norway and Sweden, soon followed by Finland. Japan and South Korea are more collectivistic societies, whereas European and North American societies are more individualistic.	<urn:uuid:edd13d64-a80d-4fee-8f57-cea6de46dc2a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315516899/chapters/10.4324/9781315516899-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00146.warc.gz	en	0.982689	195	3.28125	3	[ 0.47445929050445557, 0.2906370460987091, 0.1984444409608841, -0.11982736736536026, -0.12727341055870056, 0.21313044428825378, 0.15069565176963806, -0.10510111600160599, 0.44473397731781006, -0.26867246627807617, 0.11243778467178345, -0.2600552439689636, 0.1388891190290451, -0.0464429333806...	1	What is bullying in school and how has it been studied? This chapter outlines what we mean by bullying, the history behind the study of it, and the main forms it takes, including the development of cyberbullying. Bullying is an evocative term. Most people will have witnessed it or experienced it in one form or another. But only since the 1980s has there been serious interest, both from researchers and from the wider community. This suggests two aspects that distinguish bullying as a particular form of aggression: it is repeated, and there is an imbalance of power. This concept of bullying was first put forward clearly by Dan Olweus, a Swedish psychologist who has worked in Norway for much of his career. Serious research and consideration of school bullying started, in Europe at least, in the Scandinavian countries – especially Norway and Sweden, soon followed by Finland. Japan and South Korea are more collectivistic societies, whereas European and North American societies are more individualistic.	199	ENGLISH	1
Siva Prasad is teaching live on Unacademy Plus TN Textbook Class XIl History SIVA PRASAD VELLORE MUTINY . Vellore was the capital of erstwhile North Arcot district in Tamil Nadu. At present, this district is named after its capital Vellore. It With the expansion of the East India Company's rule in India, the native rulers and their dependents suffered. The native rulers either submitted or rebelled. . . These rebellions had no clear vision or ideal but purely motivated by the territorial interest of the native rulers and their ambition to preserve the old feudal order. But all these leaders never organised the common people for a unified and meaningful cause. . The ideas of nationalism, political consciousness and organized struggle came much later. VELLORE MUTINY . In Vellore the native sepoys rose in revolt in 1806. . This incident differs from other previous rebellions in. The earlier rebellions were those of the native rulers. The Vellore Mutiny was organized by the sepoys . The earlier rebellions had only a regional interest. Every prince wanted to safeguard his own kingdom at any cost. But Vellore Mutiny was the result of spontaneous outflow of the feelings of the sepoys who served under the Company It was a protest by the sepoys against the Company. This protest showed the future possibilities Causes . The sepoys were forced to serve under the Company since their earlier patrons (the native chieftains) were all disappearing from the scene . The strict discipline, practice, new weapons, new methods and uniforms were all new to the sepoys. Anything new appears to be difficult and wrong for a man who is well-settled in the old way of life for a long-time. . Anew from of turban, resembling a European hat. Wearing ear rings and caste marks were also prohibited The sepoys were asked to shave the chin and to trim the moustache. The sepoys felt that these were designed to insult them and their religious and social traditions. . There was also a popular belief that this was the beginning of a process by which all of them would be converted to Christianity. Causes . The English treated the Indian sepoys as their inferior. There was the racial prejudice. . The sepoys once served the local chieftains (either Hindu or Muslim). The chieftains were their own kinsmen but now they served under the foreigners. They can never forget their original loyalties. . IlIl feeling persisted in the minds of the sepoys Course of the Mutiny Before the mutiny secret associations were formed and meetings held in which Tipu's family took part. On the eve of the Mutiny at Vellore Fettah Hyder, the first son of Tipu, tried to form an alliance against the English and sought the help of the Marathas and the French. On July 10. in the early morning the native sepoys of the 1 and 23.Regiments started the revolt. British Officers were killed Meantime, the rebels proclaimed Futteh Hyder, Tipu's first son, as their new ruler and hoisted tiger-striped flag of Tipu Sultan. But the uprising was swiftly crushed by Col. Gillespie. Soldiers were killed in the ensuing battle, some were later imprisoned. Some rebels were hung, some shot dead. The uprising was thus brought to a bloody end. Tipu's son was sent to Calcutta. The commander-in-chief and the governor were recalled VELLORE MUTINY . Vellore Mutiny failed. There was no proper leadership. . The rebellion was also not well organized. But it is the starting point of a new era of the resistance of the sepoys to the British rule. The 18.century was marked by the resistance of the local chieftains. The first six decades of 19 century was marked by the resistance of sepoys.	<urn:uuid:27bbdad3-43db-42ac-b172-8c2c4f5f88f9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://unacademy.com/lesson/vellore-mutiny-causes/2OPX8M0W	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00297.warc.gz	en	0.981053	814	3.734375	4	[ -0.29985564947128296, 0.052401747554540634, 0.5074126720428467, -0.21956045925617218, -0.35058748722076416, 0.01153773907572031, 0.12391955405473709, 0.28911131620407104, -0.0013728378107771277, 0.3274344801902771, 0.1931244134902954, -0.2310921847820282, 0.3719617426395416, 0.305399298667...	1	Siva Prasad is teaching live on Unacademy Plus TN Textbook Class XIl History SIVA PRASAD VELLORE MUTINY . Vellore was the capital of erstwhile North Arcot district in Tamil Nadu. At present, this district is named after its capital Vellore. It With the expansion of the East India Company's rule in India, the native rulers and their dependents suffered. The native rulers either submitted or rebelled. . . These rebellions had no clear vision or ideal but purely motivated by the territorial interest of the native rulers and their ambition to preserve the old feudal order. But all these leaders never organised the common people for a unified and meaningful cause. . The ideas of nationalism, political consciousness and organized struggle came much later. VELLORE MUTINY . In Vellore the native sepoys rose in revolt in 1806. . This incident differs from other previous rebellions in. The earlier rebellions were those of the native rulers. The Vellore Mutiny was organized by the sepoys . The earlier rebellions had only a regional interest. Every prince wanted to safeguard his own kingdom at any cost. But Vellore Mutiny was the result of spontaneous outflow of the feelings of the sepoys who served under the Company It was a protest by the sepoys against the Company. This protest showed the future possibilities Causes . The sepoys were forced to serve under the Company since their earlier patrons (the native chieftains) were all disappearing from the scene . The strict discipline, practice, new weapons, new methods and uniforms were all new to the sepoys. Anything new appears to be difficult and wrong for a man who is well-settled in the old way of life for a long-time. . Anew from of turban, resembling a European hat. Wearing ear rings and caste marks were also prohibited The sepoys were asked to shave the chin and to trim the moustache. The sepoys felt that these were designed to insult them and their religious and social traditions. . There was also a popular belief that this was the beginning of a process by which all of them would be converted to Christianity. Causes . The English treated the Indian sepoys as their inferior. There was the racial prejudice. . The sepoys once served the local chieftains (either Hindu or Muslim). The chieftains were their own kinsmen but now they served under the foreigners. They can never forget their original loyalties. . IlIl feeling persisted in the minds of the sepoys Course of the Mutiny Before the mutiny secret associations were formed and meetings held in which Tipu's family took part. On the eve of the Mutiny at Vellore Fettah Hyder, the first son of Tipu, tried to form an alliance against the English and sought the help of the Marathas and the French. On July 10. in the early morning the native sepoys of the 1 and 23.Regiments started the revolt. British Officers were killed Meantime, the rebels proclaimed Futteh Hyder, Tipu's first son, as their new ruler and hoisted tiger-striped flag of Tipu Sultan. But the uprising was swiftly crushed by Col. Gillespie. Soldiers were killed in the ensuing battle, some were later imprisoned. Some rebels were hung, some shot dead. The uprising was thus brought to a bloody end. Tipu's son was sent to Calcutta. The commander-in-chief and the governor were recalled VELLORE MUTINY . Vellore Mutiny failed. There was no proper leadership. . The rebellion was also not well organized. But it is the starting point of a new era of the resistance of the sepoys to the British rule. The 18.century was marked by the resistance of the local chieftains. The first six decades of 19 century was marked by the resistance of sepoys.	830	ENGLISH	1
1) In your own words, briefly explain how Descartes came to be so much more certain of himself as a thinking consciousness ("I think therefore I am") than he was of the physical reality of his everyday world. You sit at your computer now but how can you be sure that it's real and you're not actually dreaming instead? 2) Could a machine think or could a computer develop consciousness? What is the difference between thinking as a human being and computing as a highly developed robotic entity?© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 10, 2019, 2:24 am ad1c9bdddf The Descartes question needs to refer to two concepts that are central to Descartes' Method: that he would only accept as true an idea that presented itself to him "clearly and distinctly" and that he would begin his exploration of certainty by doubting everything that could possibly be doubted. As a result, he imagined that he could doubt any of his perceptions of the world, but he could not doubt his own existence; for even if he ... The solution provides concise advise in the following topics: thinking consciousness and reality (Cartesian) and artificial intelligence probability.	<urn:uuid:21138db2-d558-48cb-beb0-aa7c2989fa5f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brainmass.com/philosophy/descartes/reality-consciousness-ai-375695	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00014.warc.gz	en	0.980023	244	3.5625	4	[ -0.1727457195520401, -0.1626577377319336, 0.18694978952407837, -0.05262620747089386, -0.1601690649986267, 0.20561029016971588, 0.9402363896369934, 0.4505162835121155, 0.3772851824760437, -0.0386422760784626, 0.336487352848053, -0.09453532099723816, 0.14524850249290466, 0.3529227375984192, ...	1	1) In your own words, briefly explain how Descartes came to be so much more certain of himself as a thinking consciousness ("I think therefore I am") than he was of the physical reality of his everyday world. You sit at your computer now but how can you be sure that it's real and you're not actually dreaming instead? 2) Could a machine think or could a computer develop consciousness? What is the difference between thinking as a human being and computing as a highly developed robotic entity?© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 10, 2019, 2:24 am ad1c9bdddf The Descartes question needs to refer to two concepts that are central to Descartes' Method: that he would only accept as true an idea that presented itself to him "clearly and distinctly" and that he would begin his exploration of certainty by doubting everything that could possibly be doubted. As a result, he imagined that he could doubt any of his perceptions of the world, but he could not doubt his own existence; for even if he ... The solution provides concise advise in the following topics: thinking consciousness and reality (Cartesian) and artificial intelligence probability.	248	ENGLISH	1
Writing and Painting saw a significant development in India around 1500 years ago. In India, construction of temples was an expensive activity. In these temples, deities such as Vishnu, Siva and Durga were worshipped in these shrines. Ajanta is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries. During this period, some of the best epics were written. Puranas were written during this time, and Aryabhata wrote a book based on Science concepts. In Chapter 11 of Class 6 History students will learn the details mentioned above in-depth and these CBSE notes of Class 6 History, Chapter 11 are also based on these concepts. The iron pillar on pillar The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, shows the outstanding skill of Indian craftspersons. It is made of iron, 7.2. m high, and weighs over 3 tonnes. It was made about 1500 years ago. The date has been inscribed on the pillar mentioning a ruler named Chandra, who probably belonged to the Gupta dynasty. One interesting fact of the pillar is that it has not rusted in all these years. Buildings in brick and stone Stupas also reflect the skills of craftspersons that have survived. The word stupa means a mound. Stupas can be of different kinds round and tall, big and small, which will have certain common features. At the centre of the stupa, a small box will be placed which contained bodily remains (such as teeth, bone or ashes) of the Buddha or his followers, or things they used, as well as precious stones, and coins. This box, known as a relic casket, was covered with earth. Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was added on top. And then, the dome-like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs. A path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa surrounded with railings. The entrance of the path was through gateways. Devotees walked around the stupa, in a clockwise direction, as a mark of devotion. Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture. During this period, some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built. Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga were worshipped in these shrines. The most important part of the temple was the room known as the garbhagriha, where the image of the chief deity was placed. It was here that priests performed religious rituals, and devotees offered worship to the deity. Bhitargaon, a tower, known as the shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, to mark this out as a sacred place. Most temples also had a space known as the mandapa a hall where people could assemble. How were stupas and temples built? Building stupa and temple went through several stages. Kings or queens wanted to builds these stupas or temples, which was an expensive affair. To start building these sculptures, good quality stone had to be found quarried, and transported to the place chosen for the new building. Here, these rough blocks of stone had to be shaped and carved into pillars, and panels for walls, floors and ceilings. After these, it had to be placed in precisely the right position. To build these splendid structures, kings and queens spent money from their treasury to pay the craftspersons. Besides, when devotees came to visit the temple or the stupa, they often brought gifts, which were used to decorate the buildings. Others who paid for these decorations were merchants, farmers, garland makers, perfumers, smiths, and hundreds of men and women who are known only by their names which were inscribed on pillars, railings and walls. Ajanta is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries. Most of these were monasteries for Buddhist monks, and some of them were decorated with paintings. The world of books During this period, some of the best-known epics were written. Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and include stories about gods. A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800 years ago. It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi. Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar and went to Madurai, where he was wrongly accused of theft by the court jeweller of the Pandya king. The king sentenced Kovalan to death. Kannagi, who still loved him, was full of grief and anger at this injustice and destroyed the entire city of Madurai. Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. Recording and preserving old stories A number of Hindu religious stories were written down around the same time. These include the Puranas, meaning old. The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga or Parvati. They also contain details on how they were to be worshipped. The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse and were meant to be heard by everybody, including women and Shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas. They were probably recited in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them. Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana had been popular for a very long time. The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins. The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. His wife Sita was abducted by the king of Lanka, named Ravana, and Rama had to fight a battle to get her back. Valmiki is the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana. Stories told by ordinary people Ordinary people also told stories, composed poems and songs, sang, danced, and performed plays. Some of these are preserved in collections of stories such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra, which were written down around this time. Stories from the Jatakas were often shown on the railings of stupas and in paintings in places such as Ajanta. Writing books on science Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote a book in Sanskrit known as the Aryabhatiyam. He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday. He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as well. He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle.	<urn:uuid:f5d259db-3780-4f89-b228-02c4efbef6f9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://byjus.com/cbse-notes/class-6-social-science-history-chapter-11-building-paintings-and-books/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00060.warc.gz	en	0.990488	1,462	3.796875	4	[ 0.08947792649269104, 0.10570048540830612, -0.10344340652227402, 0.15814438462257385, -0.6271654367446899, 0.3783608675003052, 0.30916017293930054, -0.0071209692396223545, 0.0407915934920311, -0.32383084297180176, -0.007916107773780823, -0.3793829381465912, 0.09702058136463165, 0.2787158489...	2	Writing and Painting saw a significant development in India around 1500 years ago. In India, construction of temples was an expensive activity. In these temples, deities such as Vishnu, Siva and Durga were worshipped in these shrines. Ajanta is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries. During this period, some of the best epics were written. Puranas were written during this time, and Aryabhata wrote a book based on Science concepts. In Chapter 11 of Class 6 History students will learn the details mentioned above in-depth and these CBSE notes of Class 6 History, Chapter 11 are also based on these concepts. The iron pillar on pillar The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, shows the outstanding skill of Indian craftspersons. It is made of iron, 7.2. m high, and weighs over 3 tonnes. It was made about 1500 years ago. The date has been inscribed on the pillar mentioning a ruler named Chandra, who probably belonged to the Gupta dynasty. One interesting fact of the pillar is that it has not rusted in all these years. Buildings in brick and stone Stupas also reflect the skills of craftspersons that have survived. The word stupa means a mound. Stupas can be of different kinds round and tall, big and small, which will have certain common features. At the centre of the stupa, a small box will be placed which contained bodily remains (such as teeth, bone or ashes) of the Buddha or his followers, or things they used, as well as precious stones, and coins. This box, known as a relic casket, was covered with earth. Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was added on top. And then, the dome-like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs. A path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa surrounded with railings. The entrance of the path was through gateways. Devotees walked around the stupa, in a clockwise direction, as a mark of devotion. Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture. During this period, some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built. Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga were worshipped in these shrines. The most important part of the temple was the room known as the garbhagriha, where the image of the chief deity was placed. It was here that priests performed religious rituals, and devotees offered worship to the deity. Bhitargaon, a tower, known as the shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, to mark this out as a sacred place. Most temples also had a space known as the mandapa a hall where people could assemble. How were stupas and temples built? Building stupa and temple went through several stages. Kings or queens wanted to builds these stupas or temples, which was an expensive affair. To start building these sculptures, good quality stone had to be found quarried, and transported to the place chosen for the new building. Here, these rough blocks of stone had to be shaped and carved into pillars, and panels for walls, floors and ceilings. After these, it had to be placed in precisely the right position. To build these splendid structures, kings and queens spent money from their treasury to pay the craftspersons. Besides, when devotees came to visit the temple or the stupa, they often brought gifts, which were used to decorate the buildings. Others who paid for these decorations were merchants, farmers, garland makers, perfumers, smiths, and hundreds of men and women who are known only by their names which were inscribed on pillars, railings and walls. Ajanta is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries. Most of these were monasteries for Buddhist monks, and some of them were decorated with paintings. The world of books During this period, some of the best-known epics were written. Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and include stories about gods. A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800 years ago. It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi. Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar and went to Madurai, where he was wrongly accused of theft by the court jeweller of the Pandya king. The king sentenced Kovalan to death. Kannagi, who still loved him, was full of grief and anger at this injustice and destroyed the entire city of Madurai. Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. Recording and preserving old stories A number of Hindu religious stories were written down around the same time. These include the Puranas, meaning old. The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga or Parvati. They also contain details on how they were to be worshipped. The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse and were meant to be heard by everybody, including women and Shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas. They were probably recited in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them. Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana had been popular for a very long time. The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins. The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. His wife Sita was abducted by the king of Lanka, named Ravana, and Rama had to fight a battle to get her back. Valmiki is the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana. Stories told by ordinary people Ordinary people also told stories, composed poems and songs, sang, danced, and performed plays. Some of these are preserved in collections of stories such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra, which were written down around this time. Stories from the Jatakas were often shown on the railings of stupas and in paintings in places such as Ajanta. Writing books on science Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote a book in Sanskrit known as the Aryabhatiyam. He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday. He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as well. He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle.	1,458	ENGLISH	1
Want something for lower-level ESL students that is fun and informative? When I taught benchmark one classes, I did something that increased their vocabulary by about 100 words in a month or so. It was also fun. It’s not a very original idea. In fact, I borrowed it from my days as an occasional teacher when I had to teach kindergarten. In many kindergarten classes, they have show and tell. A child brings in an object in a bag, and the rest of the students have to guess what it is by asking questions. I decided to do this with my ESL class. We sat down and thought of all of the properties that might be associated with an object, things like shape, size, colour, age, and material. I got poster paper for each attribute, and then had them make one for each. They supplied me with the words, and I supplemented those words with new ones. For example, they used animals and paper cups for size – tiny, small, medium, large, extra-large, and huge. For materials, they needed some help. Everyone knew the word plastic, but things like ceramic were foreign to them by name. Since I am terrible at art, I let them do most of the creative work. Great idea! They felt more ownership of the project, and had a tactile experience making the posters. Once we completed the property charts, I put them on the wall. Hopefully where you work this practice will be allowed. The first time I brought in an object and said, “What is it?” they would ask yes and no questions. “Is it heavy?” “Is it yellow?” Often they would reverse the subject and verb for the question, but by the end of the month, they were getting it right most of the time. They could ask questions until they got a “no” answer. At the end of the questioning, or if they guessed the object, we would name it and review its properties. It’s a book. It’s rectangular. It’s paper. Sometimes an object would have multiple properties. A pen might be metal and plastic, for example. After a week or so of my doing this, it was their turn to bring in their objects. I helped them a bit at first, but after a while, I was able to participate in the game, too. There usually was a story to the object they brought in. I encouraged the students to ask questions about it. “When did you get it?” “Where did you get it?” “Was it expensive?” There were lots of good conversations and questions! From time to time, I would take a turn to make sure that some property that hadn’t been discussed had an object to match it. As I said, the idea isn’t that original, but it has worked very well for me when I taught the lower levels. Have you tried something similar? Tell me about it.	<urn:uuid:0d80b7bc-0e41-4846-a5fb-270d98760365>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://blog.teslontario.org/is-it-a-bird-is-it-a-plane/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00485.warc.gz	en	0.984542	626	3.296875	3	[ -0.4443836510181427, 0.18029960989952087, 0.2862256169319153, -0.337247371673584, -0.36592409014701843, 0.0027762737590819597, 0.36730581521987915, 0.28802675008773804, 0.1808965802192688, 0.1421147584915161, -0.17767930030822754, 0.18008120357990265, 0.194992333650589, 0.5083629488945007,...	14	Want something for lower-level ESL students that is fun and informative? When I taught benchmark one classes, I did something that increased their vocabulary by about 100 words in a month or so. It was also fun. It’s not a very original idea. In fact, I borrowed it from my days as an occasional teacher when I had to teach kindergarten. In many kindergarten classes, they have show and tell. A child brings in an object in a bag, and the rest of the students have to guess what it is by asking questions. I decided to do this with my ESL class. We sat down and thought of all of the properties that might be associated with an object, things like shape, size, colour, age, and material. I got poster paper for each attribute, and then had them make one for each. They supplied me with the words, and I supplemented those words with new ones. For example, they used animals and paper cups for size – tiny, small, medium, large, extra-large, and huge. For materials, they needed some help. Everyone knew the word plastic, but things like ceramic were foreign to them by name. Since I am terrible at art, I let them do most of the creative work. Great idea! They felt more ownership of the project, and had a tactile experience making the posters. Once we completed the property charts, I put them on the wall. Hopefully where you work this practice will be allowed. The first time I brought in an object and said, “What is it?” they would ask yes and no questions. “Is it heavy?” “Is it yellow?” Often they would reverse the subject and verb for the question, but by the end of the month, they were getting it right most of the time. They could ask questions until they got a “no” answer. At the end of the questioning, or if they guessed the object, we would name it and review its properties. It’s a book. It’s rectangular. It’s paper. Sometimes an object would have multiple properties. A pen might be metal and plastic, for example. After a week or so of my doing this, it was their turn to bring in their objects. I helped them a bit at first, but after a while, I was able to participate in the game, too. There usually was a story to the object they brought in. I encouraged the students to ask questions about it. “When did you get it?” “Where did you get it?” “Was it expensive?” There were lots of good conversations and questions! From time to time, I would take a turn to make sure that some property that hadn’t been discussed had an object to match it. As I said, the idea isn’t that original, but it has worked very well for me when I taught the lower levels. Have you tried something similar? Tell me about it.	587	ENGLISH	1
Art appreciation was one part of Charlotte Mason's "spreading the feast" before her students; and her method, as always, was gentle and inviting. Choose three artists to study, one per term during the year. You can either select artists who correspond to your history time period or choose various styles and time periods. FREE links are provided to each artists and their works. Simply choose the three artists you would like to study and then select the works of art you would like to include in your schedule. They can be viewed on your computer, transferred to a larger screen or printed at your favorite print shop. Display a picture and mention the artist who created it. Have students study the picture, taking in all the details about it. When they are ready, turn the picture over or close the book and ask them to describe the picture. Cover the title of the work and have them guess, based on details they noticed in the picture, what the name of the work is. When their narration is finished, display the picture again and notice together any new aspects. Summarize any accompanying information if desired, but be careful not to interfere with each students forming his own relationship with the artist's work. This study is not a lesson in art criticism. Display the picture in a prominent location so students can look at it throughout the week. Continue to study works by the same artist for several weeks until the students become familiar with that artist's style. If possible, read a short biography about that artist sometime during your study of his or her work. Included in our list are some modern photographers whose work is respected and unique. Be sure to add your artists to your Book of Centuries/Timeline as you study their works. 1200's TO 1300's 1300's TO 1500's 1600's TO I700's 18OO's TO 1900's Vincent van Gogh was a major Post-Impressionist Dutch painter whose work had a huge impact and influence on 20th century art. His paintings were noted for their rough beauty, emotional honesty, and bold color. Although he was not famous in his lifetime, Vincent van Gogh is now considered to be one of the greatest artists of his time and his paintings now sell for millions of dollars. Mary Cassatt was an American artist best remembered for her paintings depicting the intimate bond between mothers and children. She was one of the leading artists of the Impressionist movement. As an artist she was very interested in studying the private and social lives of women which is evident from her paintings. Born into an upper middle-class family she was raised in a culturally stimulating environment and received a good education. She was very close to her mother, who was a well-educated and refined lady and whose influence on Mary Cassatt was immense. Cassatt was also a world traveler and it was during a trip to France that she was exposed to the works of artists like Ingres, Delacroix, Corot, and Courbet which motivated her to pursue art as a career. Getting to Know the World's Greatest Artists is a great series of books to help you delve deeper into the artist and their stories.	<urn:uuid:d83537b6-16f5-49c7-a60b-840d1f1f8b60>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.classicalcharlottemason.com/picture-study	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00246.warc.gz	en	0.986066	651	3.6875	4	[ 0.11495690792798996, 0.22632981836795807, 0.3427782356739044, 0.12234321236610413, -0.2982633113861084, -0.10278274118900299, 0.1896306872367859, 0.09294980764389038, -0.35441553592681885, 0.10745549947023392, -0.07584838569164276, 0.10949257016181946, 0.06210066378116608, 0.30746239423751...	2	Art appreciation was one part of Charlotte Mason's "spreading the feast" before her students; and her method, as always, was gentle and inviting. Choose three artists to study, one per term during the year. You can either select artists who correspond to your history time period or choose various styles and time periods. FREE links are provided to each artists and their works. Simply choose the three artists you would like to study and then select the works of art you would like to include in your schedule. They can be viewed on your computer, transferred to a larger screen or printed at your favorite print shop. Display a picture and mention the artist who created it. Have students study the picture, taking in all the details about it. When they are ready, turn the picture over or close the book and ask them to describe the picture. Cover the title of the work and have them guess, based on details they noticed in the picture, what the name of the work is. When their narration is finished, display the picture again and notice together any new aspects. Summarize any accompanying information if desired, but be careful not to interfere with each students forming his own relationship with the artist's work. This study is not a lesson in art criticism. Display the picture in a prominent location so students can look at it throughout the week. Continue to study works by the same artist for several weeks until the students become familiar with that artist's style. If possible, read a short biography about that artist sometime during your study of his or her work. Included in our list are some modern photographers whose work is respected and unique. Be sure to add your artists to your Book of Centuries/Timeline as you study their works. 1200's TO 1300's 1300's TO 1500's 1600's TO I700's 18OO's TO 1900's Vincent van Gogh was a major Post-Impressionist Dutch painter whose work had a huge impact and influence on 20th century art. His paintings were noted for their rough beauty, emotional honesty, and bold color. Although he was not famous in his lifetime, Vincent van Gogh is now considered to be one of the greatest artists of his time and his paintings now sell for millions of dollars. Mary Cassatt was an American artist best remembered for her paintings depicting the intimate bond between mothers and children. She was one of the leading artists of the Impressionist movement. As an artist she was very interested in studying the private and social lives of women which is evident from her paintings. Born into an upper middle-class family she was raised in a culturally stimulating environment and received a good education. She was very close to her mother, who was a well-educated and refined lady and whose influence on Mary Cassatt was immense. Cassatt was also a world traveler and it was during a trip to France that she was exposed to the works of artists like Ingres, Delacroix, Corot, and Courbet which motivated her to pursue art as a career. Getting to Know the World's Greatest Artists is a great series of books to help you delve deeper into the artist and their stories.	658	ENGLISH	1
Black history is the story of millions of African Americans residing in the United States who have struggled for centuries to fully claim the promises of liberty granted in the founding documents of the United States. The majority are descendants of Africans brought to the New World as property in the Atlantic slave trade. Their story is one of slavery, emancipation, reconstruction, Jim Crow-era disenfranchisement, and the civil rights movement. Through all these centuries, Black Americans have made extraordinary culture contributions to the United States in the areas of theatre, music, film, literature, and every other area of creative expression. Scroll down to see more information about black history in the United States. Black History: Slavery When we think about Africa today, we think of it as a poor third world continent, reliant on the charity of Western nations to survive. This has not always been the case. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when Europeans first began exploring the world, Africa was a rich continent, eager to trade her gold, copper, ivory and leather goods for the white man’s pots, pans, alcohol and guns. Under African law, slavery was a punishment for serious crimes, but most of these slaves were slaves of other black Africans. It was not usual for slaves to be traded at this time. In 1492, Christopher Colombus discovered the Americas. Other Europeans followed and made slaves of the native peoples living there. However, the Europeans also took Western diseases to the Americas and their slaves began dying. Another source of slaves had to be found. From trading with the Africans, Europeans knew that slavery was used as a punishment in Africa. They began to ask for slaves, rather than African goods, in exchange for the guns and alcohol that the African chiefs wanted. Slavery was not new to Africa. Traditionally, slavery was used as a punishment for serious crimes. However, although slavery was a punishment for criminals, they were, in the main, treated fairly well by their masters. This was not the case once trading in slaves became ‘big business’. From about 1510, Europeans had begun capturing slaves and taking them to work in the Americas. They were easily able to do this because their weapons were much more powerful than the Africans’ traditional spears and shields. As the demand for slaves grew, the demand for slaves by Europeans grew. They exchanged guns for slaves and African chiefs, eager to possess guns which would give them power over rival chiefs, began inventing new crimes for which the punishment was slavery. At the same time, coastal Africans were using guns to raid inland villages for the slaves that the Europeans wanted. Those who resisted capture were killed. Slaves were chained together and marched to the coast. Sometimes this could take many days or weeks. Slaves who did not move fast enough, or showed any sign of resistance to the traders, were whipped. Those who were too weak or sickly to complete the journey at the required pace were left to die. Fear of the slave trader led many Africans to move to remote areas where the soil was not so good and they were unable to grow enough crops to feed themselves. Tthe Triangular Trade was developed. This was the name given to the trading route used by European merchants who exchanged goods with Africans for slaves, shipped the slaves to the Americas, sold them and brought goods from the Americas back to Europe. Merchants who traded in this way could get very rich indeed as American goods fetched a high price in Europe. It was called the triangular trade because of the triangular shape that the three legs of the journey made. The first leg was the journey from Europe to Africa where goods were exchanged for slaves.The second, or middle, leg of the journey was the transportation of slaves to the Americas. It was nicknamed the ‘middle passage.’ The third and final leg of the journey, was the transport of goods from the Americas back to Europe. The transport of black Africans to the Americas by slave ship became known as the Middle Passage because it was the middle leg of the Triangular Trade route used by the European merchants. The African slaves were viewed as cargo by the merchants and were packed into the ships with no regard to their basic human rights. Slave ships could be either ‘tight pack’ or ‘loose pack’. A ‘tight pack’ could hold many more slaves than the ‘loose pack’ because the amount of space allocated to each slave was considerably less, but more slaves would die on route to the Americas. Many slaves became seasick or developed diarrhea. Unable to move because they were chained into their positions, the slave’s deck became a stinking mass of human waste. Slaves who had developed sores where their chains had rubbed their skin, had festering wounds often with maggots eating away their flesh. Conditions on the slave ships were so bad that many slaves decided they would prefer to die and tried to starve themselves by refusing to eat or by jumping overboard. However, slaves that would not eat were whipped or force fed and the traders and ship owners began fixing nets to the sides of the boat so that the slaves could not jump overboard. They had no choice but to endure the horrific conditions. Black History: Antebellum America Once in the Americas, slaves were sold, by auction, to the person that bid the most money for them. It was here that family members would find themselves split up, as a bidder may not want to buy the whole family, only the strongest, healthiest member. Slave Auctions were advertised when it was known that a slave ship was due to arrive. Posters like the one pictured above would be displayed around the town. When the slave ship docked, the slaves would be taken off the ship and placed in a pen like this one. There they would be washed and their skin covered with grease, or sometimes tar, to make them look more healthy. This was done so that they would fetch as much money as possible. They would also be branded with a hot iron to identify them as slaves. There were two main types of slave Auction: 1. Those that sold to the highest bidder 2. Grab and go Auctions The slaves would be brought from the pen, in turn, to stand on a raised platform so that they could be seen by the buyers. Before the bidding began, those that wished to, could come up onto the platform to inspect the slaves closely. The slaves had to endure being poked, prodded and forced to open their mouths for the buyers. The auctioneer would decide a price to start the bidding. This would be higher for fit, young slaves and lower for older, very young or sickly slaves. Potential buyers would then bid against each other. The person who bid the most would then own that slave. The picture below shows a slave being auctioned to the highest bidder. Black History: Living Conditions of Slaves in the American South he living conditions of slaves in the antebellum American South were some of the worst for slaves across history. As legal property of their masters they had no rights themselves and fared far worse than Roman slaves or medieval serfs. Africans sold as slaves in the Americas had to rely on their owners providing them with housing or building materials, pots and pans for cooking and eating, food and clothing. Many slaves did the best they could with what they were given. Most did not dare complain for fear of receiving a whipping or worse punishment. Slaves were allocated an area of the plantation for their living quarters. On some plantations the owners would provide the slaves with housing, on others the slaves had to build their own homes. Slaves that had to build their own houses tended to make them like the houses they had had in Africa and they all had thatched roofs. Living conditions were cramped with sometimes as many as ten people sharing a hut. They had little in the way of furniture and their beds usually made of straw or old rags. Slaves who worked in the plantation house generally had slightly better housing nearer to the house and were given better food and clothing than those slaves that worked in the fields. Sometimes they were given pots and pans for cooking, but more often they had to make their own. The long hours they had to work in the fields meant that they had little free time for making things to improve their living conditions. Some slaves used a hollowed out pumpkin shell called a calabash, to cook their food in.? Most plantation owners did not spend more money on food for their slaves than they had to and so the slaves lived on a diet of fatty meat and cornbread. Slaves would be given one pair of shoes and three items of underwear a year. Although these and other clothing would be provided by their owner, they were often ill-fitting and made of coarse material Most slaves had to work from sunrise to sunset. Some owners made their slaves work every day, others allowed slaves one day a month off and some allowed their slaves to have Sundays as a rest-day. Slaves would spend their free time mending their huts, making pots and pans and relaxing. Some plantation owners allowed their slaves a small plot of land to grow things to supplement their diet. Slaves were not allowed to read or write, but some were allowed to go to church. Black History: Work Done By Slaves In the antebellum American South, by law slaves had no say in what task they were required to do, as by legal definition they were considered property and afforded none of the constitution, civil, or criminal legal protections afforded to any citizen of the United States. They also had no control over the length of their working day, which was usually from sun-up in the morning to sunset in the evening (“can see to can’t see” in the slaves’ language). As such, slaves work was whatever their owner required of them. They labored mostly in menial agricultural work, but really in whatever task that was not so totally unnecessary that a machine could not do it for a fraction of the price. Since the South was lightly industrialized at this time, few tasks fit this criteria. Although slaves were used in the northern states in factories to produce manufactured goods, at least prior to those states abolishing slavery, most slaves worked on plantations in the southern states. Slaves were used on plantations for a variety of tasks: Harvesting Sugar Cane \|Planting and Harvesting Rice\| \|Harvesting Tobacco\|\|Growing and Harvesting Coffee\|\|Building Railroads\| \|Working in the Dairy\|\|Weaving\|\|Carpentry\| \|It was usually young girls that churned the milk into butter.\|\|“My mammy was a fine weaver and she work for both white and colored.”\|\|“He used to make spinning wheels and parts of looms. He was a very valuable man.”\| \|Washing Clothes\|\|Cooking\|\|Butchering and Preserving\| \|‘I used battling blocks and battling sticks to help clean the clothes when we was washing’\|\|‘The cooking was done in the kitchen in the yard.’\|\|Meat was butchered by the slaves, then preserved in the smokehouse\| Black History: Olaudah Equiano The autobiography of Olaudah Equiano provides us with a detailed insight into the experience of a captured slave. The following account was adapted from Equiano’s The Interesting Narrative of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa the African by H. Wheeler. Olaudah Equiano was born in 1745 in the African country that is now Nigeria. The adults worked in the fields during the day leaving the children to fend for themselves in the village. Older children were often given the task of acting as lookouts and if they saw any traders approaching the village they would let out a loud cry. ‘AIEEEEEEEYAH!’ Olaudah and his sister were in the hut when they heard the cry. Looking out of the door, Olaudah saw the traders hurrying into the village and knew that there was no time for them to reach the safety of the trees. He and his sister crouched in the corner of the hut and held their breath. Their hearts were pounding and their ears were strained for the sound of approaching footsteps that surely enough came their way. Both Olaudah and his sister were roughly seized and their mouths were stopped with dirty cloths to stop them from crying out. Sacks were placed over their heads and they were carried away from the village. After a while they were put down on the ground and their hands were tied behind their backs. The sacks were replaced over their heads and again they were carried until nightfall.? Although they were offered food that first night the children were unable to eat. They felt too sick from fear, the dirty rags that had been in their mouths and the confinement of the sacking over their heads. After a few days they reached a larger African settlement and here Olaudah and his sister were separated and sold to different families. During the seven months that Olaudah spent in slavery in Africa he was mostly treated kindly, in some cases as part of the family, and was given fairly simple household tasks to do. In Africa slaves were respected and their status as part of the family was valued. Olaudah was soon to discover that slavery in America was very different. The Crossing – Middle Passage Eventually he was sold to another trader. Olaudah was marched many miles and saw the landscape change. He was soon shocked to see that the land had changed to the colour of the sky and appeared to be moving up and down. Olaudah was very frightened and had to be dragged nearer to the sea. He then noticed a very big ‘house’ on the moving land. The people around the big ‘house’ looked very strange. They had long hair, white skin and spoke a strange language. Olaudah thought that they were devils. Because of his youth Olaudah was not chained like the men and women but he was dragged aboard the ship. There he saw a large copper pot above a furnace and fearing that he was going to be boiled alive and eaten by the white men, he fainted on the deck. When he came round black men were standing over him and he was reassured that he was not going to be eaten. As Olaudah looked back towards the shore he saw that he was moving away from the shoreline and realised that he would never see his homeland again. Suddenly all the slaves were forced below deck. The hold was overcrowded, each man only had about eighteen inches space in which to sit. Everywhere people were sweating, vomiting, urinating and defecating from fear and the movement of the ship. The smell was overpowering and many fainted or died from the stale air. There were tubs at one end of the hold, which served as toilets but they were rarely emptied and often small children would fall in and drown. Olaudah was so ill from the smell and the conditions in the hold that he was allowed to sit on deck during the day to breathe fresh air. All he wanted to do though was to die. He was unable to jump overboard because of the nets on the sides of the boat so he refused to eat. He was beaten for not eating and not wishing to be punished again he began to eat some food. Eventually the ship reached the West Indies and although many slaves had died on the crossing many remained alive. Merchants and plantation owners came aboard the ship to look at the slaves and Olaudah was made to jump up and down and stick his tongue out by one of the men. Slaves were poked and prodded all over their bodies by potential owners who wanted to be sure that they got the healthiest slaves. The next day the slaves were taken ashore and Olaudah was amazed to see that the houses were made out of bricks. He was even more amazed to see people riding horses and this served to enhance his belief that the white peoples were devils.? All the slaves were put into a pen like a sheep pen. Suddenly there was a beat of a drum and merchants and plantation owners rushed up to the pen to choose the slave that they wanted. Because he was so sickly Olaudah was one of the last to be chosen. He was taken to a big house and was deposited in the kitchen. Here the sight of the Negro Cook who had a huge wire frame fitted around her mouth shocked him. He was later to learn that the mask was a punishment for too much talking. Olaudah was not strong enough to work in the fields and so was given the task of sitting with the grandfather of the house who was dying. All day long he had to sit on a hard wooden chair ready in case the old man wanted anything. He also had to help feed him. His day was very boring, sat in the deathly quiet room with only the ticking of the clock for company tick-tock-tick-tock-tick- tock punctuated by the groaning and moaning of the old man as he fought to draw breath. Meal times broke the monotony but turned Olaudah’s stomach as he spoon-fed soup to the old man who dribbled and coughed and spluttered all over him. The Merchant and Freedom When the old man died Olaudah was sold to a sea Captain who allowed the sailors on board the ship to teach him to read and to write. Although he was very well treated by the merchant, Olaudah longed to be free and to return to his homeland. He began buying fruit before sailing and selling it on to the sailors for a small profit. Eventually he saved enough to buy his freedom. As a free man, he settled in England. He met Granville Sharp and the other members of the Society for the Abolition of Slavery. He made public speeches, giving a first-hand account of the treatment of slaves during capture, sea passage and slavery. Slavery was abolished in Britain in 1807 and throughout the Empire in 1833. Olaudah eventually travelled back to Nigeria to find his homeland, but sadly there was no trace of his village or his family. Black History and the Civil War: Robert Gould Shaw (1837-1863) Robert Shaw was serving as a Captain in the 2nd Massachusetts when he was asked to raise and command a regiment of black troops. This was not the first coloured regiment to be formed but it was the first to be organized in a Northern state. Shaw recruited free blacks, mainly from the Northern New England states and the new regiment was formed on May 13, 1863 with Shaw as its colonel. The 54th Massachusetts regiment took part in some small actions during the early part of July before being moved to Morris Island. On July 18, 1863, the regiment, with two brigades of white troops, led an assault on the Confederate artillery battery, Fort Wagner. The men fought bravely and proved that black soldiers could fight as well as whites. However, the Union army were unable to take the Fort and many of the 54th Massachusetts regiment, including Robert Gould Shaw were killed. Black History Following the Civil War At the end of the American Civil War, slavery was abolished. Legally the former slaves were free and equal to white people. The reality was far different. The Ku Klux Klan was a white underground terrorist group. They would not accept black people as equals. Members of the Ku Klux Klan dressed in white robes to stress their belief that whites were superior to blacks. As a result many black people did not register to vote and kept away from white areas. They created a wave of terror which included threats of violence, bullying, lynching, setting fire to buildings and murder, among blacks and those who tried to help them. Blacks who tried to vote or gain an education were subjected to name calling, bullying and beatings from white people who supported the aims of the Ku Klux Klan. Black Americans had to face the truth. The war was won, but the battle was not over. They would have to struggle against racial discrimination in order to gain fair and equal treatment. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is the largest, oldest and most well-known civil rights group. It was founded in February 1909 and now has over half a million members. The principal goal of the NAACP is to ensure social, economic and political equality of minorities in the U.S. and to eliminate racism. The NAACP was formed back in 1909 after the 1908 race riot that took place in Springfield. The founding members were appalled by the horrible practise of lynching and the overall violent treatment of blacks in the country. Many of them were white liberals, and their first call to meet and discuss racial justice were signed by about 60 people, among which only 7 were African American. The NAACP still exists today and strives to remove all racial discrimination through democratic means. Founding Members of the NAACP W.E.B. Du Bois – an historian and Pan-Africanist, who was the first African-American to earn a doctorate and become a professor. Ida B. Wells – an African-American newspaper editor and journalist. She was very involved in documenting lynching in the U.S., showing how it was often used as a way to punish or control blacks who were considered to be competition by whites. Archibald Grimke – a journalist, lawyer, intellectual who served as vice president for the organization. Henry Moskowitz – a Jewish civil rights activist who later served as president of NYC’s Municipal Civil Service Commission, Commisioner of Public Markets and who became the Executive Director of the Broadway League. Mary White Ovington – a journalist, suffragist and Republican who ended up serving the organization for 38 years. Oswald Garrison Villard – a journalist who donated space for the first meeting’s announcement in the New York Evening Post. William English Walling – a white American labor reformer who was also a founder of the National Woman’s Trade Union League. Florence Kelly – a political reformer who is well-respected for her fight for the minimum wage, children’s rights, 8-hour workdays and against sweatshops. Charles Edward Russell – an opinion columnist, journalist, editor and activist. Black History: The Jim Crow Era Jim Crow was a character in an old song who was revived by a white comedian called Daddy Rice. Rice used the character to make fun of black people and the way that they spoke. The term Jim Crow came to be used as an insult against black people. In a bid to stop black Americans from being equal, the southern states passed a series of laws known as Jim Crow laws which discriminated against blacks and made sure that they were segregated (treated unequally) from whites A black man, Homer Plessey, took a railroad company to court because he had been made to sit in a ‘coloured only’ carriage. The case went to the Supreme Court who supported the railroad company. The ruling meant that the Jim Crow laws were legal and that it was not illegal to keep blacks and whites separate. Because of Jim Crow Laws Blacks were excluded form all newspapers and from trading. Negroes gradually lost jobs in government, which they gained after the Civil War. Whites owned the land, the police, the government, the courtrooms, the law, the armed forces, and the press. The political system denied blacks the right to vote. Murders were conducted in secret and in public by white men. The blacks were harassed and abused, physically and verbally. These violent acts became a part of their life. Signs were put up to separate facilities saying “whites only” and “colored” or “Negroes” appearing on parks, toilets, waiting rooms, theatres, and water fountains. The Civil War ended in December 1865 and the slaves were free. They hoped to be treated as equal citizens, being able to vote, gain an education and live peaceably and equally with the whites. The former slaves hoped that the plantations would be divided among them so that they could provide for themselves but the plantations were returned to their former owners. Many former slaves did not want to work for wages because they would still have to do what they were told by the whites. The solution lay in sharecropping. Plantation owners broke up their estates into small parcels of land upon which the former slaves could grow their own crops. In return for seed and equipment, the sharecropper would give the plantation owner a third or a half of his crop. Before the Civil War slaves lived in huts grouped together behind the plantation owner’s house. After sharecropping was established the former slaves lived in slightly larger huts spread our around the plantation. There are also more roads as well as a church and school. Black History: The Civil Rights Era Black Americans had to ‘fight’ for their right to equality. In the 1950s a Baptist preacher named Martin Luther King became the leader of the Civil Rights Movement. He believed that peaceful protest was the way forward. Some of the protests of the Civil Rights movement are detailed below: Oliver Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas In the 1950s, school segregation was widely accepted throughout the United States and was a requirement of law in most southern states. In 1952, the Supreme Court heard a number of school-segregation cases, including Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. In 1954 the court decreed that segregation was unconstitutional. Montgomery Bus Boycott Rosa Parks, a 43 year old black seamstress, was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, on 5th December 1955 for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white man. The Montgomery Bus rules stated that white people boarding its buses should fill the bus by occupying seats from the front backwards. Coloured people should fill the bus by occupying the seats from the back forwards. If the bus became full additional coloured people boarding the bus would stand but if additional white people boarded the bus coloured people would be expected to give up their seats and stand. Civil Rights leaders including Dr. Martin Luther King, organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott specifically in protest against Parks’ arrest but also as a protest against the segregation practices used by the bus company. Parks was found guilty by a court on 5th December and fined but she appealed the court’s decision. Meanwhile the Montgomery Bus boycott was being put into place. Negroes and others who supported equality agreed not to use the buses, a move which would deprive the bus company of 65% of its income. Although Martin Luther King was fined $500 for interfering with the running of businesses, the protest was successful and on 4th June 1956 the Supreme Court decided, based on the outcome of recent school segregation cases, that bus segregation violated the United States constitution. Desegregation at Little Rock, Arkansas The Little Rock School Board approved a desegregation programme and nine coloured students were enrolled at the school. The Little Rock Nine (left) Ernest Green, Elizabeth Eckford, Jefferson Thomas, Terrence Watts, Carlotta Walls La Nier, Minnijean Brown, Gloria Ray Karlmark, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Pattillo Beals were to begin their studies in September 1957. On 4th September the nine students duly arrived at the school but found their way barred by anti-desegregation protestors. Arkansas governor, Orval Faubus, had ordered the Arkansas National Guard to reinforce the protest line. The National Guard remained stationed outside the school until 20th September when the courts ordered Faubus to remove them. On September 23rd the nine students returned to the school and although they were shouted at and jeered by the angry crowd of white protestors they were able to enter the school. However, fearing for their safety the police sent them home before the end of the day. President Eisenhower intervened at this point and ordered the 101st Airborne Division of the US Army to Little Rock where they were to ensure that the nine students were able to enter and leave the school in safety. He also federalised the National Guard so that they could no longer be deployed by Faubus. The 101st Airborne remained in Little Rock until November 1957. In Spring 1958 Minnijean Brown was suspended for her acts of retaliation against white taunts and abuse. The other eight remained at school despite the abuse and taunts and all eight graduated. After having been refused service at the lunch counter of a Woolworth’s in Greensboro, North Carolina, Joseph McNeill, a Negro college student, returned the next day with three classmates to sit at the counter until they were served. They were not served. The four students returned to the lunch counter each day. When an article in the New York Times drew attention to the students’ protest, they were joined by more students, both black and white, and students across the nation were inspired to launch similar protests. The Freedom Riders originally consisted of a group of 13 activists who fought for civil rights and against the segregation in interstate bus terminals in the American South. The Congress of Racial Equality originally recruited the group of Freedom Riders and they departed from Washington D.C., attempting to make use of “whites-only” (and vice versa) facilities along the route towards the deep South. Although the Freedom riders were met with very violent treatment from white protesters en route, they managed to gain a lot of international attention. The group grew and hundreds more Freedom Riders joined in their cause, with similar protests. The Interstate Commerce Commission prohibited segregation in train- and bus stations across the country in September, 1961. The first Freedom Ride started on May 4, 1961. A group of 13 riders, of which six white and seven black, left Washington DC on two buses (Greyhound and Trailways). They were planning to drive through the south, ending the route in New Orléans. Their tactics were to have at least one black and one white person in adjoining seats, one black person in the front, “whites only” sets and the rest on seats throughout the bus. One rider would stick to the rules in order to avoid arrest, so he can contact CORE to organize bail. They would also try to use the “wrong” restrooms at stops on the way. The group was however met with heavy resistance from Ku Klux Klansmen who attacked one of the buses on May 14. They slashed its tires, firebombed it and kept the doors shut to try to burn the riders to death. Luckily the riders managed to escape the bus when either the fuel tank exploded or shots went off, but they were caught up with and badly beaten. The riders were hospitalized and attempted to continue their journey, but after further violence they were forced to cut the trip short. This, however didn’t stop other freedom riders to follow their example. University of Mississippi Riot President Kennedy ordered Federal Marshals to escort James Meredith, the first black student to enrol at the University of Mississippi, to campus. A riot broke out and before the National Guard could arrive to reinforce the marshals, two students were killed. Birmingham, Alabama was one of the most segregated cities in the 1960s. Black men and women held sit-ins at lunch counters where they were refused service, and “kneel-ins” on church steps where they were denied entrance. Hundreds of demonstrators were fined and imprisoned. In 1963, Dr. King, the Reverend Abernathy and the Reverend Shuttlesworth led a protest march in Birmingham where they were arrested by policemen with dogs. The three ministers were taken to Southside Jail. Black History: Bibliography Slavery, Abolition and Emancipation -Brycchan Carey Middle Passage – Dr Henrick Clarke Olaudah Equiano – Brycchan Carey Plantations – Thomas Jefferson Foundation Images – Library of Congress Jim Crow – Jim Crow Museum Cite This Article"Black History in the United States: Slavery, Civil Rights, Culture" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/black-history-united-states-slavery-civil-rights-culture> More Citation Information.	<urn:uuid:81d30148-9cab-466e-809d-1b54c2c5a900>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyonthenet.com/black-history-united-states-slavery-civil-rights-culture	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00045.warc.gz	en	0.988753	6,726	4.21875	4	[ -0.09474476426839828, 0.5955036878585815, 0.1243976503610611, 0.2874400019645691, -0.015663176774978638, -0.0053182365372776985, -0.10022362321615219, -0.39864882826805115, -0.040589891374111176, 0.3725980520248413, 0.27254095673561096, -0.047813765704631805, -0.5324149131774902, 0.1201407...	1	Black history is the story of millions of African Americans residing in the United States who have struggled for centuries to fully claim the promises of liberty granted in the founding documents of the United States. The majority are descendants of Africans brought to the New World as property in the Atlantic slave trade. Their story is one of slavery, emancipation, reconstruction, Jim Crow-era disenfranchisement, and the civil rights movement. Through all these centuries, Black Americans have made extraordinary culture contributions to the United States in the areas of theatre, music, film, literature, and every other area of creative expression. Scroll down to see more information about black history in the United States. Black History: Slavery When we think about Africa today, we think of it as a poor third world continent, reliant on the charity of Western nations to survive. This has not always been the case. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when Europeans first began exploring the world, Africa was a rich continent, eager to trade her gold, copper, ivory and leather goods for the white man’s pots, pans, alcohol and guns. Under African law, slavery was a punishment for serious crimes, but most of these slaves were slaves of other black Africans. It was not usual for slaves to be traded at this time. In 1492, Christopher Colombus discovered the Americas. Other Europeans followed and made slaves of the native peoples living there. However, the Europeans also took Western diseases to the Americas and their slaves began dying. Another source of slaves had to be found. From trading with the Africans, Europeans knew that slavery was used as a punishment in Africa. They began to ask for slaves, rather than African goods, in exchange for the guns and alcohol that the African chiefs wanted. Slavery was not new to Africa. Traditionally, slavery was used as a punishment for serious crimes. However, although slavery was a punishment for criminals, they were, in the main, treated fairly well by their masters. This was not the case once trading in slaves became ‘big business’. From about 1510, Europeans had begun capturing slaves and taking them to work in the Americas. They were easily able to do this because their weapons were much more powerful than the Africans’ traditional spears and shields. As the demand for slaves grew, the demand for slaves by Europeans grew. They exchanged guns for slaves and African chiefs, eager to possess guns which would give them power over rival chiefs, began inventing new crimes for which the punishment was slavery. At the same time, coastal Africans were using guns to raid inland villages for the slaves that the Europeans wanted. Those who resisted capture were killed. Slaves were chained together and marched to the coast. Sometimes this could take many days or weeks. Slaves who did not move fast enough, or showed any sign of resistance to the traders, were whipped. Those who were too weak or sickly to complete the journey at the required pace were left to die. Fear of the slave trader led many Africans to move to remote areas where the soil was not so good and they were unable to grow enough crops to feed themselves. Tthe Triangular Trade was developed. This was the name given to the trading route used by European merchants who exchanged goods with Africans for slaves, shipped the slaves to the Americas, sold them and brought goods from the Americas back to Europe. Merchants who traded in this way could get very rich indeed as American goods fetched a high price in Europe. It was called the triangular trade because of the triangular shape that the three legs of the journey made. The first leg was the journey from Europe to Africa where goods were exchanged for slaves.The second, or middle, leg of the journey was the transportation of slaves to the Americas. It was nicknamed the ‘middle passage.’ The third and final leg of the journey, was the transport of goods from the Americas back to Europe. The transport of black Africans to the Americas by slave ship became known as the Middle Passage because it was the middle leg of the Triangular Trade route used by the European merchants. The African slaves were viewed as cargo by the merchants and were packed into the ships with no regard to their basic human rights. Slave ships could be either ‘tight pack’ or ‘loose pack’. A ‘tight pack’ could hold many more slaves than the ‘loose pack’ because the amount of space allocated to each slave was considerably less, but more slaves would die on route to the Americas. Many slaves became seasick or developed diarrhea. Unable to move because they were chained into their positions, the slave’s deck became a stinking mass of human waste. Slaves who had developed sores where their chains had rubbed their skin, had festering wounds often with maggots eating away their flesh. Conditions on the slave ships were so bad that many slaves decided they would prefer to die and tried to starve themselves by refusing to eat or by jumping overboard. However, slaves that would not eat were whipped or force fed and the traders and ship owners began fixing nets to the sides of the boat so that the slaves could not jump overboard. They had no choice but to endure the horrific conditions. Black History: Antebellum America Once in the Americas, slaves were sold, by auction, to the person that bid the most money for them. It was here that family members would find themselves split up, as a bidder may not want to buy the whole family, only the strongest, healthiest member. Slave Auctions were advertised when it was known that a slave ship was due to arrive. Posters like the one pictured above would be displayed around the town. When the slave ship docked, the slaves would be taken off the ship and placed in a pen like this one. There they would be washed and their skin covered with grease, or sometimes tar, to make them look more healthy. This was done so that they would fetch as much money as possible. They would also be branded with a hot iron to identify them as slaves. There were two main types of slave Auction: 1. Those that sold to the highest bidder 2. Grab and go Auctions The slaves would be brought from the pen, in turn, to stand on a raised platform so that they could be seen by the buyers. Before the bidding began, those that wished to, could come up onto the platform to inspect the slaves closely. The slaves had to endure being poked, prodded and forced to open their mouths for the buyers. The auctioneer would decide a price to start the bidding. This would be higher for fit, young slaves and lower for older, very young or sickly slaves. Potential buyers would then bid against each other. The person who bid the most would then own that slave. The picture below shows a slave being auctioned to the highest bidder. Black History: Living Conditions of Slaves in the American South he living conditions of slaves in the antebellum American South were some of the worst for slaves across history. As legal property of their masters they had no rights themselves and fared far worse than Roman slaves or medieval serfs. Africans sold as slaves in the Americas had to rely on their owners providing them with housing or building materials, pots and pans for cooking and eating, food and clothing. Many slaves did the best they could with what they were given. Most did not dare complain for fear of receiving a whipping or worse punishment. Slaves were allocated an area of the plantation for their living quarters. On some plantations the owners would provide the slaves with housing, on others the slaves had to build their own homes. Slaves that had to build their own houses tended to make them like the houses they had had in Africa and they all had thatched roofs. Living conditions were cramped with sometimes as many as ten people sharing a hut. They had little in the way of furniture and their beds usually made of straw or old rags. Slaves who worked in the plantation house generally had slightly better housing nearer to the house and were given better food and clothing than those slaves that worked in the fields. Sometimes they were given pots and pans for cooking, but more often they had to make their own. The long hours they had to work in the fields meant that they had little free time for making things to improve their living conditions. Some slaves used a hollowed out pumpkin shell called a calabash, to cook their food in.? Most plantation owners did not spend more money on food for their slaves than they had to and so the slaves lived on a diet of fatty meat and cornbread. Slaves would be given one pair of shoes and three items of underwear a year. Although these and other clothing would be provided by their owner, they were often ill-fitting and made of coarse material Most slaves had to work from sunrise to sunset. Some owners made their slaves work every day, others allowed slaves one day a month off and some allowed their slaves to have Sundays as a rest-day. Slaves would spend their free time mending their huts, making pots and pans and relaxing. Some plantation owners allowed their slaves a small plot of land to grow things to supplement their diet. Slaves were not allowed to read or write, but some were allowed to go to church. Black History: Work Done By Slaves In the antebellum American South, by law slaves had no say in what task they were required to do, as by legal definition they were considered property and afforded none of the constitution, civil, or criminal legal protections afforded to any citizen of the United States. They also had no control over the length of their working day, which was usually from sun-up in the morning to sunset in the evening (“can see to can’t see” in the slaves’ language). As such, slaves work was whatever their owner required of them. They labored mostly in menial agricultural work, but really in whatever task that was not so totally unnecessary that a machine could not do it for a fraction of the price. Since the South was lightly industrialized at this time, few tasks fit this criteria. Although slaves were used in the northern states in factories to produce manufactured goods, at least prior to those states abolishing slavery, most slaves worked on plantations in the southern states. Slaves were used on plantations for a variety of tasks: Harvesting Sugar Cane \|Planting and Harvesting Rice\| \|Harvesting Tobacco\|\|Growing and Harvesting Coffee\|\|Building Railroads\| \|Working in the Dairy\|\|Weaving\|\|Carpentry\| \|It was usually young girls that churned the milk into butter.\|\|“My mammy was a fine weaver and she work for both white and colored.”\|\|“He used to make spinning wheels and parts of looms. He was a very valuable man.”\| \|Washing Clothes\|\|Cooking\|\|Butchering and Preserving\| \|‘I used battling blocks and battling sticks to help clean the clothes when we was washing’\|\|‘The cooking was done in the kitchen in the yard.’\|\|Meat was butchered by the slaves, then preserved in the smokehouse\| Black History: Olaudah Equiano The autobiography of Olaudah Equiano provides us with a detailed insight into the experience of a captured slave. The following account was adapted from Equiano’s The Interesting Narrative of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa the African by H. Wheeler. Olaudah Equiano was born in 1745 in the African country that is now Nigeria. The adults worked in the fields during the day leaving the children to fend for themselves in the village. Older children were often given the task of acting as lookouts and if they saw any traders approaching the village they would let out a loud cry. ‘AIEEEEEEEYAH!’ Olaudah and his sister were in the hut when they heard the cry. Looking out of the door, Olaudah saw the traders hurrying into the village and knew that there was no time for them to reach the safety of the trees. He and his sister crouched in the corner of the hut and held their breath. Their hearts were pounding and their ears were strained for the sound of approaching footsteps that surely enough came their way. Both Olaudah and his sister were roughly seized and their mouths were stopped with dirty cloths to stop them from crying out. Sacks were placed over their heads and they were carried away from the village. After a while they were put down on the ground and their hands were tied behind their backs. The sacks were replaced over their heads and again they were carried until nightfall.? Although they were offered food that first night the children were unable to eat. They felt too sick from fear, the dirty rags that had been in their mouths and the confinement of the sacking over their heads. After a few days they reached a larger African settlement and here Olaudah and his sister were separated and sold to different families. During the seven months that Olaudah spent in slavery in Africa he was mostly treated kindly, in some cases as part of the family, and was given fairly simple household tasks to do. In Africa slaves were respected and their status as part of the family was valued. Olaudah was soon to discover that slavery in America was very different. The Crossing – Middle Passage Eventually he was sold to another trader. Olaudah was marched many miles and saw the landscape change. He was soon shocked to see that the land had changed to the colour of the sky and appeared to be moving up and down. Olaudah was very frightened and had to be dragged nearer to the sea. He then noticed a very big ‘house’ on the moving land. The people around the big ‘house’ looked very strange. They had long hair, white skin and spoke a strange language. Olaudah thought that they were devils. Because of his youth Olaudah was not chained like the men and women but he was dragged aboard the ship. There he saw a large copper pot above a furnace and fearing that he was going to be boiled alive and eaten by the white men, he fainted on the deck. When he came round black men were standing over him and he was reassured that he was not going to be eaten. As Olaudah looked back towards the shore he saw that he was moving away from the shoreline and realised that he would never see his homeland again. Suddenly all the slaves were forced below deck. The hold was overcrowded, each man only had about eighteen inches space in which to sit. Everywhere people were sweating, vomiting, urinating and defecating from fear and the movement of the ship. The smell was overpowering and many fainted or died from the stale air. There were tubs at one end of the hold, which served as toilets but they were rarely emptied and often small children would fall in and drown. Olaudah was so ill from the smell and the conditions in the hold that he was allowed to sit on deck during the day to breathe fresh air. All he wanted to do though was to die. He was unable to jump overboard because of the nets on the sides of the boat so he refused to eat. He was beaten for not eating and not wishing to be punished again he began to eat some food. Eventually the ship reached the West Indies and although many slaves had died on the crossing many remained alive. Merchants and plantation owners came aboard the ship to look at the slaves and Olaudah was made to jump up and down and stick his tongue out by one of the men. Slaves were poked and prodded all over their bodies by potential owners who wanted to be sure that they got the healthiest slaves. The next day the slaves were taken ashore and Olaudah was amazed to see that the houses were made out of bricks. He was even more amazed to see people riding horses and this served to enhance his belief that the white peoples were devils.? All the slaves were put into a pen like a sheep pen. Suddenly there was a beat of a drum and merchants and plantation owners rushed up to the pen to choose the slave that they wanted. Because he was so sickly Olaudah was one of the last to be chosen. He was taken to a big house and was deposited in the kitchen. Here the sight of the Negro Cook who had a huge wire frame fitted around her mouth shocked him. He was later to learn that the mask was a punishment for too much talking. Olaudah was not strong enough to work in the fields and so was given the task of sitting with the grandfather of the house who was dying. All day long he had to sit on a hard wooden chair ready in case the old man wanted anything. He also had to help feed him. His day was very boring, sat in the deathly quiet room with only the ticking of the clock for company tick-tock-tick-tock-tick- tock punctuated by the groaning and moaning of the old man as he fought to draw breath. Meal times broke the monotony but turned Olaudah’s stomach as he spoon-fed soup to the old man who dribbled and coughed and spluttered all over him. The Merchant and Freedom When the old man died Olaudah was sold to a sea Captain who allowed the sailors on board the ship to teach him to read and to write. Although he was very well treated by the merchant, Olaudah longed to be free and to return to his homeland. He began buying fruit before sailing and selling it on to the sailors for a small profit. Eventually he saved enough to buy his freedom. As a free man, he settled in England. He met Granville Sharp and the other members of the Society for the Abolition of Slavery. He made public speeches, giving a first-hand account of the treatment of slaves during capture, sea passage and slavery. Slavery was abolished in Britain in 1807 and throughout the Empire in 1833. Olaudah eventually travelled back to Nigeria to find his homeland, but sadly there was no trace of his village or his family. Black History and the Civil War: Robert Gould Shaw (1837-1863) Robert Shaw was serving as a Captain in the 2nd Massachusetts when he was asked to raise and command a regiment of black troops. This was not the first coloured regiment to be formed but it was the first to be organized in a Northern state. Shaw recruited free blacks, mainly from the Northern New England states and the new regiment was formed on May 13, 1863 with Shaw as its colonel. The 54th Massachusetts regiment took part in some small actions during the early part of July before being moved to Morris Island. On July 18, 1863, the regiment, with two brigades of white troops, led an assault on the Confederate artillery battery, Fort Wagner. The men fought bravely and proved that black soldiers could fight as well as whites. However, the Union army were unable to take the Fort and many of the 54th Massachusetts regiment, including Robert Gould Shaw were killed. Black History Following the Civil War At the end of the American Civil War, slavery was abolished. Legally the former slaves were free and equal to white people. The reality was far different. The Ku Klux Klan was a white underground terrorist group. They would not accept black people as equals. Members of the Ku Klux Klan dressed in white robes to stress their belief that whites were superior to blacks. As a result many black people did not register to vote and kept away from white areas. They created a wave of terror which included threats of violence, bullying, lynching, setting fire to buildings and murder, among blacks and those who tried to help them. Blacks who tried to vote or gain an education were subjected to name calling, bullying and beatings from white people who supported the aims of the Ku Klux Klan. Black Americans had to face the truth. The war was won, but the battle was not over. They would have to struggle against racial discrimination in order to gain fair and equal treatment. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is the largest, oldest and most well-known civil rights group. It was founded in February 1909 and now has over half a million members. The principal goal of the NAACP is to ensure social, economic and political equality of minorities in the U.S. and to eliminate racism. The NAACP was formed back in 1909 after the 1908 race riot that took place in Springfield. The founding members were appalled by the horrible practise of lynching and the overall violent treatment of blacks in the country. Many of them were white liberals, and their first call to meet and discuss racial justice were signed by about 60 people, among which only 7 were African American. The NAACP still exists today and strives to remove all racial discrimination through democratic means. Founding Members of the NAACP W.E.B. Du Bois – an historian and Pan-Africanist, who was the first African-American to earn a doctorate and become a professor. Ida B. Wells – an African-American newspaper editor and journalist. She was very involved in documenting lynching in the U.S., showing how it was often used as a way to punish or control blacks who were considered to be competition by whites. Archibald Grimke – a journalist, lawyer, intellectual who served as vice president for the organization. Henry Moskowitz – a Jewish civil rights activist who later served as president of NYC’s Municipal Civil Service Commission, Commisioner of Public Markets and who became the Executive Director of the Broadway League. Mary White Ovington – a journalist, suffragist and Republican who ended up serving the organization for 38 years. Oswald Garrison Villard – a journalist who donated space for the first meeting’s announcement in the New York Evening Post. William English Walling – a white American labor reformer who was also a founder of the National Woman’s Trade Union League. Florence Kelly – a political reformer who is well-respected for her fight for the minimum wage, children’s rights, 8-hour workdays and against sweatshops. Charles Edward Russell – an opinion columnist, journalist, editor and activist. Black History: The Jim Crow Era Jim Crow was a character in an old song who was revived by a white comedian called Daddy Rice. Rice used the character to make fun of black people and the way that they spoke. The term Jim Crow came to be used as an insult against black people. In a bid to stop black Americans from being equal, the southern states passed a series of laws known as Jim Crow laws which discriminated against blacks and made sure that they were segregated (treated unequally) from whites A black man, Homer Plessey, took a railroad company to court because he had been made to sit in a ‘coloured only’ carriage. The case went to the Supreme Court who supported the railroad company. The ruling meant that the Jim Crow laws were legal and that it was not illegal to keep blacks and whites separate. Because of Jim Crow Laws Blacks were excluded form all newspapers and from trading. Negroes gradually lost jobs in government, which they gained after the Civil War. Whites owned the land, the police, the government, the courtrooms, the law, the armed forces, and the press. The political system denied blacks the right to vote. Murders were conducted in secret and in public by white men. The blacks were harassed and abused, physically and verbally. These violent acts became a part of their life. Signs were put up to separate facilities saying “whites only” and “colored” or “Negroes” appearing on parks, toilets, waiting rooms, theatres, and water fountains. The Civil War ended in December 1865 and the slaves were free. They hoped to be treated as equal citizens, being able to vote, gain an education and live peaceably and equally with the whites. The former slaves hoped that the plantations would be divided among them so that they could provide for themselves but the plantations were returned to their former owners. Many former slaves did not want to work for wages because they would still have to do what they were told by the whites. The solution lay in sharecropping. Plantation owners broke up their estates into small parcels of land upon which the former slaves could grow their own crops. In return for seed and equipment, the sharecropper would give the plantation owner a third or a half of his crop. Before the Civil War slaves lived in huts grouped together behind the plantation owner’s house. After sharecropping was established the former slaves lived in slightly larger huts spread our around the plantation. There are also more roads as well as a church and school. Black History: The Civil Rights Era Black Americans had to ‘fight’ for their right to equality. In the 1950s a Baptist preacher named Martin Luther King became the leader of the Civil Rights Movement. He believed that peaceful protest was the way forward. Some of the protests of the Civil Rights movement are detailed below: Oliver Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas In the 1950s, school segregation was widely accepted throughout the United States and was a requirement of law in most southern states. In 1952, the Supreme Court heard a number of school-segregation cases, including Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. In 1954 the court decreed that segregation was unconstitutional. Montgomery Bus Boycott Rosa Parks, a 43 year old black seamstress, was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, on 5th December 1955 for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white man. The Montgomery Bus rules stated that white people boarding its buses should fill the bus by occupying seats from the front backwards. Coloured people should fill the bus by occupying the seats from the back forwards. If the bus became full additional coloured people boarding the bus would stand but if additional white people boarded the bus coloured people would be expected to give up their seats and stand. Civil Rights leaders including Dr. Martin Luther King, organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott specifically in protest against Parks’ arrest but also as a protest against the segregation practices used by the bus company. Parks was found guilty by a court on 5th December and fined but she appealed the court’s decision. Meanwhile the Montgomery Bus boycott was being put into place. Negroes and others who supported equality agreed not to use the buses, a move which would deprive the bus company of 65% of its income. Although Martin Luther King was fined $500 for interfering with the running of businesses, the protest was successful and on 4th June 1956 the Supreme Court decided, based on the outcome of recent school segregation cases, that bus segregation violated the United States constitution. Desegregation at Little Rock, Arkansas The Little Rock School Board approved a desegregation programme and nine coloured students were enrolled at the school. The Little Rock Nine (left) Ernest Green, Elizabeth Eckford, Jefferson Thomas, Terrence Watts, Carlotta Walls La Nier, Minnijean Brown, Gloria Ray Karlmark, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Pattillo Beals were to begin their studies in September 1957. On 4th September the nine students duly arrived at the school but found their way barred by anti-desegregation protestors. Arkansas governor, Orval Faubus, had ordered the Arkansas National Guard to reinforce the protest line. The National Guard remained stationed outside the school until 20th September when the courts ordered Faubus to remove them. On September 23rd the nine students returned to the school and although they were shouted at and jeered by the angry crowd of white protestors they were able to enter the school. However, fearing for their safety the police sent them home before the end of the day. President Eisenhower intervened at this point and ordered the 101st Airborne Division of the US Army to Little Rock where they were to ensure that the nine students were able to enter and leave the school in safety. He also federalised the National Guard so that they could no longer be deployed by Faubus. The 101st Airborne remained in Little Rock until November 1957. In Spring 1958 Minnijean Brown was suspended for her acts of retaliation against white taunts and abuse. The other eight remained at school despite the abuse and taunts and all eight graduated. After having been refused service at the lunch counter of a Woolworth’s in Greensboro, North Carolina, Joseph McNeill, a Negro college student, returned the next day with three classmates to sit at the counter until they were served. They were not served. The four students returned to the lunch counter each day. When an article in the New York Times drew attention to the students’ protest, they were joined by more students, both black and white, and students across the nation were inspired to launch similar protests. The Freedom Riders originally consisted of a group of 13 activists who fought for civil rights and against the segregation in interstate bus terminals in the American South. The Congress of Racial Equality originally recruited the group of Freedom Riders and they departed from Washington D.C., attempting to make use of “whites-only” (and vice versa) facilities along the route towards the deep South. Although the Freedom riders were met with very violent treatment from white protesters en route, they managed to gain a lot of international attention. The group grew and hundreds more Freedom Riders joined in their cause, with similar protests. The Interstate Commerce Commission prohibited segregation in train- and bus stations across the country in September, 1961. The first Freedom Ride started on May 4, 1961. A group of 13 riders, of which six white and seven black, left Washington DC on two buses (Greyhound and Trailways). They were planning to drive through the south, ending the route in New Orléans. Their tactics were to have at least one black and one white person in adjoining seats, one black person in the front, “whites only” sets and the rest on seats throughout the bus. One rider would stick to the rules in order to avoid arrest, so he can contact CORE to organize bail. They would also try to use the “wrong” restrooms at stops on the way. The group was however met with heavy resistance from Ku Klux Klansmen who attacked one of the buses on May 14. They slashed its tires, firebombed it and kept the doors shut to try to burn the riders to death. Luckily the riders managed to escape the bus when either the fuel tank exploded or shots went off, but they were caught up with and badly beaten. The riders were hospitalized and attempted to continue their journey, but after further violence they were forced to cut the trip short. This, however didn’t stop other freedom riders to follow their example. University of Mississippi Riot President Kennedy ordered Federal Marshals to escort James Meredith, the first black student to enrol at the University of Mississippi, to campus. A riot broke out and before the National Guard could arrive to reinforce the marshals, two students were killed. Birmingham, Alabama was one of the most segregated cities in the 1960s. Black men and women held sit-ins at lunch counters where they were refused service, and “kneel-ins” on church steps where they were denied entrance. Hundreds of demonstrators were fined and imprisoned. In 1963, Dr. King, the Reverend Abernathy and the Reverend Shuttlesworth led a protest march in Birmingham where they were arrested by policemen with dogs. The three ministers were taken to Southside Jail. Black History: Bibliography Slavery, Abolition and Emancipation -Brycchan Carey Middle Passage – Dr Henrick Clarke Olaudah Equiano – Brycchan Carey Plantations – Thomas Jefferson Foundation Images – Library of Congress Jim Crow – Jim Crow Museum Cite This Article"Black History in the United States: Slavery, Civil Rights, Culture" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/black-history-united-states-slavery-civil-rights-culture> More Citation Information.	6,718	ENGLISH	1
History of Missouri wildlife At the latest Oregon County Historical Society meeting, Oregon County Conservationist Paul Veach, who has been the Missouri Department of Conservation agent for Oregon County since May of 1988, addressed members and visitors about the history of wildlife in the county. A history that evidently shows the importance of conservation efforts. Veach began by suggesting for anyone interested in Missouri wildlife to read the book, Man and Wildlife in Missouri by Charles Carlson, which is required reading for those that go through the conservation agent training. By the time the early settlers arrived in Missouri, there were countless numbers of wildlife. There was a ready source of food available and exchanged in the marketplace. "Buffalo dwelled as far east as the Mississippi River and migrated at times along the open flats of the Ozarks, while antelopes scampered across the western prairies. Elk found the forest and prairies to their liking and white-tail deer were abundant everywhere," said Veach. He stated that the timber wolf, the plains wolf along with panthers preyed on the plains species and wild turkey was a staple for the early settlers. Black bears were also prevalent at the time. Veach told of how settlers treated the animal resources as if they were inexhaustible. This lead to the depletion of population of many of the wildlife species. As this is what happed to the buffalo, antelope and elk that once roamed the Ozarks. He informed the group that the with the expansion of settlers came the depletion of big game wildlife except for deer. "The last great concentration of elk was wiped out by market hunting Indians in Polk County in 1841," said Veach. By 1850, bison and antelope moved westward and black bears were scarce and panthers became rare. From 1870 to 1900, market hunting contributed to the passenger pigeon being wiped out of Missouri. In addition, the population of deer and turkey was almost wiped out in a short period of time. In 1905, one of the first laws was passed for wildlife enforcement, which was legal hunting of ruffed grouse was stopped. "Legislators opposed a five-year closed season to let the birds recover, but they never did," said Veach. He stated that this species was purchased by MDC in other states to be brought back and released. In 1907, prairie chickens were no longer legal to hunt because of the low population. Veach stated that wild turkey steadily declined until 1935 and there was a one month hunting season. "A survey estimated the entire state population had fewer than 4,000 birds at the time. Deer twindled down to approximately 2,500 animals statewide by 1935 and beaver and otter were virtually gone," said Veach. Other species populations that showed an alarming decrease were racoon, muskrat and wild turkey. "We went from unbelievable amounts of wildlife to where we actually wiped some species completely out. The passenger pigeon used to be here by the billions and they are extinct and there will never be another due simply to over harvesting," said Veach. He presented to attendees, information from newspapers from the 50 year ago section and informed the group that after a survey was completed in the mid-1930s the hunting season was closed on many species such as deer and turkey. He stated that racoon season was still open but hunters were limited to 10 a year. On Thursday, Nov. 2, 1944 of The Thayer Newspaper was the announcement for deer season, which was only a two-day season and was the first open season to take place in seven-years. All deer hunting had been suspended after the 1937 open season. However, was reopened in 1944 because the deer herd had increased from approximately 2,500 to approximately 15,000. "That year, hunters reported a total kill of 108 legal bucks," said Veach. He also stated that permits in 1944 cost $3.15. During the meeting, Veach also discussed the reemergence of some wildlife species that have long been thought to be extinct to the area such as mountain lions and black bears. Veach stated there are mountain lions now in Missouri as there were four confirmed sightings three years ago in Oregon County. A confirmed sighting is when a conservation worker from the mountain lion response team confirms it. For instance, if there is a picture on a trail camera, the worker will visit the site to take measurements, collect hair samples, foot prints and scat, which are sent off for DNA testing, to make sure the picture was in the location that it is claimed to be. He also discussed the few confirmed bear sightings that have occurred in the area. The Oregon County Historical Society meets the second Friday of the month at Country Cottage in Thayer at 12 noon.	<urn:uuid:0b7987d6-8c6e-436d-8435-81cd28ff2558>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.areawidenews.com/story/2411050.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00523.warc.gz	en	0.986467	975	3.609375	4	[ -0.045438505709171295, 0.14761263132095337, 0.5339499711990356, -0.6083041429519653, 0.434953510761261, -0.42393195629119873, -0.12558656930923462, 0.09503145515918732, -0.29891037940979004, 0.05843944847583771, 0.28144121170043945, -0.4128986597061157, 0.14455989003181458, -0.023912016302...	1	History of Missouri wildlife At the latest Oregon County Historical Society meeting, Oregon County Conservationist Paul Veach, who has been the Missouri Department of Conservation agent for Oregon County since May of 1988, addressed members and visitors about the history of wildlife in the county. A history that evidently shows the importance of conservation efforts. Veach began by suggesting for anyone interested in Missouri wildlife to read the book, Man and Wildlife in Missouri by Charles Carlson, which is required reading for those that go through the conservation agent training. By the time the early settlers arrived in Missouri, there were countless numbers of wildlife. There was a ready source of food available and exchanged in the marketplace. "Buffalo dwelled as far east as the Mississippi River and migrated at times along the open flats of the Ozarks, while antelopes scampered across the western prairies. Elk found the forest and prairies to their liking and white-tail deer were abundant everywhere," said Veach. He stated that the timber wolf, the plains wolf along with panthers preyed on the plains species and wild turkey was a staple for the early settlers. Black bears were also prevalent at the time. Veach told of how settlers treated the animal resources as if they were inexhaustible. This lead to the depletion of population of many of the wildlife species. As this is what happed to the buffalo, antelope and elk that once roamed the Ozarks. He informed the group that the with the expansion of settlers came the depletion of big game wildlife except for deer. "The last great concentration of elk was wiped out by market hunting Indians in Polk County in 1841," said Veach. By 1850, bison and antelope moved westward and black bears were scarce and panthers became rare. From 1870 to 1900, market hunting contributed to the passenger pigeon being wiped out of Missouri. In addition, the population of deer and turkey was almost wiped out in a short period of time. In 1905, one of the first laws was passed for wildlife enforcement, which was legal hunting of ruffed grouse was stopped. "Legislators opposed a five-year closed season to let the birds recover, but they never did," said Veach. He stated that this species was purchased by MDC in other states to be brought back and released. In 1907, prairie chickens were no longer legal to hunt because of the low population. Veach stated that wild turkey steadily declined until 1935 and there was a one month hunting season. "A survey estimated the entire state population had fewer than 4,000 birds at the time. Deer twindled down to approximately 2,500 animals statewide by 1935 and beaver and otter were virtually gone," said Veach. Other species populations that showed an alarming decrease were racoon, muskrat and wild turkey. "We went from unbelievable amounts of wildlife to where we actually wiped some species completely out. The passenger pigeon used to be here by the billions and they are extinct and there will never be another due simply to over harvesting," said Veach. He presented to attendees, information from newspapers from the 50 year ago section and informed the group that after a survey was completed in the mid-1930s the hunting season was closed on many species such as deer and turkey. He stated that racoon season was still open but hunters were limited to 10 a year. On Thursday, Nov. 2, 1944 of The Thayer Newspaper was the announcement for deer season, which was only a two-day season and was the first open season to take place in seven-years. All deer hunting had been suspended after the 1937 open season. However, was reopened in 1944 because the deer herd had increased from approximately 2,500 to approximately 15,000. "That year, hunters reported a total kill of 108 legal bucks," said Veach. He also stated that permits in 1944 cost $3.15. During the meeting, Veach also discussed the reemergence of some wildlife species that have long been thought to be extinct to the area such as mountain lions and black bears. Veach stated there are mountain lions now in Missouri as there were four confirmed sightings three years ago in Oregon County. A confirmed sighting is when a conservation worker from the mountain lion response team confirms it. For instance, if there is a picture on a trail camera, the worker will visit the site to take measurements, collect hair samples, foot prints and scat, which are sent off for DNA testing, to make sure the picture was in the location that it is claimed to be. He also discussed the few confirmed bear sightings that have occurred in the area. The Oregon County Historical Society meets the second Friday of the month at Country Cottage in Thayer at 12 noon.	1,034	ENGLISH	1
Children have a lot to gain by attending preschool since, at the young ages, they can learn stuff at an accelerated rate due to their high curiosity. The beauty of preschool education is that it prepares these children for school and its structured learning environment. In preschool, children get exposed to various things earlier. They get to know the letters of the alphabet. Further, these children get to learn about numbers as well as shapes. Apart from knowing basic stuff that will help them during their education, they also get to develop some skills that will be extremely important throughout their early learning as well as their education in general. Students get to develop social and emotional skills. These skills are essential since they dictate how a child will perform at school and how they will proceed with the rest of their education. In many respects, therefore, preschool education comes in as a proper pretext to more structured early childhood education as it prepares the child for what is to come. Social and Emotional Skills In a preschool setting, children get exposed to various environments. They interact with fellow children, and this gives an excellent opportunity for them to learn more about social and emotional skills. In such an environment, children can learn how to respect other people and why it is essential. Further, children can get to build their self-confidence in such settings, which is an important aspect of the education journey of any child, as this helps them to be assertive all along. In a setting where children can interact and play with other children, there is also an opportunity to explore. Children can learn basic stuff like pouring water into a glass, and this is important since it means that the capabilities of the students are improving by the day. This means that children also get to become more assertive and self-aware in a preschool environment. Preschool education does an excellent job of providing children with a solid academic foundation. In preschool, children start to learn basic stuff like letters of the alphabet, numbers, as well as stuff like the bills to use in payment of various goods or services. All this is important stuff because whichever way you slice it, these are the things that will make up a considerable part of their life in later stages. Apart from academic foundations, preschool education also provides children with an appropriate social foundation. Children get to know how to interact with their classmates at a very young age. This helps them to understand how to work with others, seek help when stranded, all of which are aspects that they will find useful as they advance in life. Early Exposure to the Learning Environment Preschool education helps to provide an early structured learning setting to children. Children get to know how to behave, how to raise their hands to get the teacher’s attention, how to alternate and take turns, and how to work with others to solve problems. These experiences help to expose children to the standard learning environment at an early stage, which is very important since children get to have a head-start – thanks to preschool. Further, it helps to build their confidence and well prepares them for what is to come in the more structured environment that is the classroom. Children also acquaint themselves with aspects like homework and this helps them understand how school works. However, in advanced learning stages, in cases where students get stuck with their homework, they can pay someone to do homework. In summary, preschool education is an ideal place that children can be for them to learn some of the basic stuff. Given that these preschool environments are learning environments with proper structures, these can be ideal opportunities and places that parents can harness to prepare their children for their education. Also, these can be the places where the traits of children can become visible with regards to education. Tutors or trainers or teachers in preschool can spot out some patterns or habits that could help to shed light on the child’s preferences and tastes as far as schooling goes.	<urn:uuid:d72b045a-8ea7-438c-abec-8f36c46cc4f4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cometogetherbooks.com/things-to-note-when-writing-a-preschool-education-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00028.warc.gz	en	0.98028	784	3.359375	3	[ 0.12248930335044861, -0.230887770652771, 0.5628772974014282, -0.2700989544391632, -0.392816424369812, 0.4106961488723755, 0.06744402647018433, -0.14763608574867249, -0.17972499132156372, -0.03183834254741669, 0.24217677116394043, -0.03607887774705887, 0.2830108106136322, 0.2879182100296020...	17	Children have a lot to gain by attending preschool since, at the young ages, they can learn stuff at an accelerated rate due to their high curiosity. The beauty of preschool education is that it prepares these children for school and its structured learning environment. In preschool, children get exposed to various things earlier. They get to know the letters of the alphabet. Further, these children get to learn about numbers as well as shapes. Apart from knowing basic stuff that will help them during their education, they also get to develop some skills that will be extremely important throughout their early learning as well as their education in general. Students get to develop social and emotional skills. These skills are essential since they dictate how a child will perform at school and how they will proceed with the rest of their education. In many respects, therefore, preschool education comes in as a proper pretext to more structured early childhood education as it prepares the child for what is to come. Social and Emotional Skills In a preschool setting, children get exposed to various environments. They interact with fellow children, and this gives an excellent opportunity for them to learn more about social and emotional skills. In such an environment, children can learn how to respect other people and why it is essential. Further, children can get to build their self-confidence in such settings, which is an important aspect of the education journey of any child, as this helps them to be assertive all along. In a setting where children can interact and play with other children, there is also an opportunity to explore. Children can learn basic stuff like pouring water into a glass, and this is important since it means that the capabilities of the students are improving by the day. This means that children also get to become more assertive and self-aware in a preschool environment. Preschool education does an excellent job of providing children with a solid academic foundation. In preschool, children start to learn basic stuff like letters of the alphabet, numbers, as well as stuff like the bills to use in payment of various goods or services. All this is important stuff because whichever way you slice it, these are the things that will make up a considerable part of their life in later stages. Apart from academic foundations, preschool education also provides children with an appropriate social foundation. Children get to know how to interact with their classmates at a very young age. This helps them to understand how to work with others, seek help when stranded, all of which are aspects that they will find useful as they advance in life. Early Exposure to the Learning Environment Preschool education helps to provide an early structured learning setting to children. Children get to know how to behave, how to raise their hands to get the teacher’s attention, how to alternate and take turns, and how to work with others to solve problems. These experiences help to expose children to the standard learning environment at an early stage, which is very important since children get to have a head-start – thanks to preschool. Further, it helps to build their confidence and well prepares them for what is to come in the more structured environment that is the classroom. Children also acquaint themselves with aspects like homework and this helps them understand how school works. However, in advanced learning stages, in cases where students get stuck with their homework, they can pay someone to do homework. In summary, preschool education is an ideal place that children can be for them to learn some of the basic stuff. Given that these preschool environments are learning environments with proper structures, these can be ideal opportunities and places that parents can harness to prepare their children for their education. Also, these can be the places where the traits of children can become visible with regards to education. Tutors or trainers or teachers in preschool can spot out some patterns or habits that could help to shed light on the child’s preferences and tastes as far as schooling goes.	767	ENGLISH	1
How do you imagine our distant ancestors of the Neanderthals, who lived thousands of years ago? You probably have a picture of somber people with rough facial features and massive muscles chasing large animals in the vastness of the cold Eurasia. It is believed that at that time they could not fully control their upright posture, but a study carried out by archaeologists from the US state of Colorado shows that they were still able to swim very well. Thanks to this skill, they were able to lift strong shells from the sea floor and make tools from them. But how exactly did scientists find out? The discovery by archaeologists was described in a scientific publication called Plos One. Already in 1949 a cave called Moserini was found in the area of modern Italy. Now it is no longer available for research, but previous scientists could find at least 167 shells with polished edges in it. According to scientists, they could serve as tools for the old Neanderthals. If so, our ancestors made strange knives and scrapers more than 100,000 years ago. When did people learn to swim? When examining the mussels found, archaeologists found that 40 of them had a smooth and shiny inner surface. The rest of the shells were scratched by the waves and sand. According to the researchers, this difference is due to the fact that some of the shells were found on the shore by old people. But those who kept a smooth inner surface were clearly mined from the sea floor by Neanderthals. It turned out that the Neanderthals, who were not considered to be particularly smart ancestors of humans, were not so stupid. According to researchers, old people looking for fresh mussels that were stronger than thrown on land could dive two to four meters deep. It is currently unknown whether shellfish was used as food in ancient times. But the fact that they made tools out of shells is a fact. See also: Could Cro-Magnons arrange the genocide of Neanderthals? For some, the lack of evidence seems to make the assumption of scientists not true enough. Important arguments that Neanderthals were able to swim were published in the trade journal Plos One in 2019. By examining the remains of old people, scientists were able to detect the so-called exostoses in their ear canals. These ossifications in the ear canals are still common among professional swimmers and are the result of cold water in the ears. Isn't this strong evidence that Neanderthals could swim? If you are interested in science and technology news, subscribe to our channel in Yandex.Zen. There you will find materials that were not published on the website! Thanks to the study, scientists have identified another common trait between modern humans and Neanderthals. You can also read about the life of our longtime ancestors in other articles that are published on our website. Did you know, for example, that Neanderthals often ate each other because of climate change?	<urn:uuid:834a805d-542d-42e6-9b9e-649b0940c82b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://sklad500.ru/why-are-scientists-so-sure-that-neanderthals-were-experienced-swimmers/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00237.warc.gz	en	0.986329	602	4.40625	4	[ -0.21597632765769958, 0.13966748118400574, 0.1421905755996704, 0.1641109585762024, -0.15808653831481934, -0.36042654514312744, 0.31460392475128174, -0.180010125041008, -0.3424181640148163, -0.05475702881813049, 0.1757199913263321, -0.6142943501472473, 0.12639880180358887, 0.333128839731216...	2	How do you imagine our distant ancestors of the Neanderthals, who lived thousands of years ago? You probably have a picture of somber people with rough facial features and massive muscles chasing large animals in the vastness of the cold Eurasia. It is believed that at that time they could not fully control their upright posture, but a study carried out by archaeologists from the US state of Colorado shows that they were still able to swim very well. Thanks to this skill, they were able to lift strong shells from the sea floor and make tools from them. But how exactly did scientists find out? The discovery by archaeologists was described in a scientific publication called Plos One. Already in 1949 a cave called Moserini was found in the area of modern Italy. Now it is no longer available for research, but previous scientists could find at least 167 shells with polished edges in it. According to scientists, they could serve as tools for the old Neanderthals. If so, our ancestors made strange knives and scrapers more than 100,000 years ago. When did people learn to swim? When examining the mussels found, archaeologists found that 40 of them had a smooth and shiny inner surface. The rest of the shells were scratched by the waves and sand. According to the researchers, this difference is due to the fact that some of the shells were found on the shore by old people. But those who kept a smooth inner surface were clearly mined from the sea floor by Neanderthals. It turned out that the Neanderthals, who were not considered to be particularly smart ancestors of humans, were not so stupid. According to researchers, old people looking for fresh mussels that were stronger than thrown on land could dive two to four meters deep. It is currently unknown whether shellfish was used as food in ancient times. But the fact that they made tools out of shells is a fact. See also: Could Cro-Magnons arrange the genocide of Neanderthals? For some, the lack of evidence seems to make the assumption of scientists not true enough. Important arguments that Neanderthals were able to swim were published in the trade journal Plos One in 2019. By examining the remains of old people, scientists were able to detect the so-called exostoses in their ear canals. These ossifications in the ear canals are still common among professional swimmers and are the result of cold water in the ears. Isn't this strong evidence that Neanderthals could swim? If you are interested in science and technology news, subscribe to our channel in Yandex.Zen. There you will find materials that were not published on the website! Thanks to the study, scientists have identified another common trait between modern humans and Neanderthals. You can also read about the life of our longtime ancestors in other articles that are published on our website. Did you know, for example, that Neanderthals often ate each other because of climate change?	621	ENGLISH	1
Gods and goddesses The ancient Egyptians believed that each god and goddess had special powers over nature and the animals. The Egyptians also believed that their lives were controlled by their deities. Many of the gods and goddesses were thought to look like humans and animals with different bodies or heads of animals. The most famous gods worshipped in ancient Egypt were Ra, Osiris, Isis, Anubis, Thoth, Set, Horus and Ptah. Great temples were built for the important gods. Ancient Egyptians believed that when a person died they would go to the afterlife. But it wasn’t as easy as you think. To get to the afterlife, the ancient Egyptians believed they had to do good deeds and have a light heart. People that did bad things in their life were eaten up by a demoness called Ammit, who was part crocodile, part lion and part hippopotamus. That must have hurt! The ancient Egyptians buried the dead with all sorts of things they would need for their new life. They also wrapped the dead body up to preserve it. This is called mummification. Anubis was the god of mummification with a human body and the head of a jackal. The mummies of Egyptian rulers and pharaohs were placed in tombs in pyramids.	<urn:uuid:7c7818cc-568c-4653-98e1-9a2ca272205f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/ancient-egyptian-religion	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00345.warc.gz	en	0.988297	267	3.375	3	[ 0.08051437884569168, 0.6334971785545349, 0.3179500997066498, -0.04514476656913757, -0.6444702744483948, -0.17273055016994476, 0.6477274298667908, -0.15662424266338348, 0.21354176104068756, 0.2222464382648468, -0.3244191110134125, -0.8582859635353088, -0.0333995446562767, 0.1997632533311844...	3	Gods and goddesses The ancient Egyptians believed that each god and goddess had special powers over nature and the animals. The Egyptians also believed that their lives were controlled by their deities. Many of the gods and goddesses were thought to look like humans and animals with different bodies or heads of animals. The most famous gods worshipped in ancient Egypt were Ra, Osiris, Isis, Anubis, Thoth, Set, Horus and Ptah. Great temples were built for the important gods. Ancient Egyptians believed that when a person died they would go to the afterlife. But it wasn’t as easy as you think. To get to the afterlife, the ancient Egyptians believed they had to do good deeds and have a light heart. People that did bad things in their life were eaten up by a demoness called Ammit, who was part crocodile, part lion and part hippopotamus. That must have hurt! The ancient Egyptians buried the dead with all sorts of things they would need for their new life. They also wrapped the dead body up to preserve it. This is called mummification. Anubis was the god of mummification with a human body and the head of a jackal. The mummies of Egyptian rulers and pharaohs were placed in tombs in pyramids.	268	ENGLISH	1
He was sent to a local school to learn how to read and write. A local vicar paid for this, seeing his obvious intelligence. Faraday became the greatest experimental physicist of the nineteenth century. Faraday became a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was awarded the Royal, Copley and Rumford medals of the Society. Although Faraday had only primary school education, and did not know higher mathematics, he became one of the most influential scientists in history. For the most part, he was an autodidact: he taught himself. At the time when he lived, people like him were called natural philosophers. Then, only a little was known about electricity. Michael Faraday discovered many things about the way electricity flowing in a wire can act like a magnet (now called electromagnetism). He also found out a lot about the way electricity can be used with chemicals to make them change (now called electrochemistry). He showed that magnetism is able to affect rays of light, as there is an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology. He made the first electric motor. It is thanks to his early work that the electricity has been made into a useful thing today. As a chemist, Michael Faraday discovered benzene, invented an early type of Bunsen burner and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode and ion. Faraday was the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life. He was also the Director of the Royal Institution after Sir Humphrey Davy. Michael Faraday's family was poor. His father, James, was a blacksmith. James Faraday had come to London in the 1780s from North-West England. The young Michael Faraday was one of four children and only had the most basic school education.At fourteen he went to learn how to be a bookbinder and bookseller from a man called George Riebau. During his seven-year study of making books with Riebau, he read many books. He read Isaac Watts's The improvement of the mind. Faraday loved to use the ideas in this book in his work. He started to become interested in science, especially in electricity. He began to attend public lessons run by the best scientists in London at the time. He showed the notes he made to the great chemist Sir Humphrey Davy. Davy liked him and offered him a job as an assistant in March 1813. Faraday's knowledge continued to grow as he helped Sir Humphrey Davy until he was making new discoveries on his own. He was eventually made a professor in 1833. The importance of his work was seen within his own lifetime and the British government gave him a pension in his old age as a reward. The Faraday CageEdit Faraday also discovered that if electricity strikes a metal object, it will only pass through the outside of the object. The inside is unaffected by the electricity. This is what keeps the people inside safe when lightning strikes a car or a plane. This is now called Faraday's Cage. - Both place of birth are now in SW London. - Russell, Colin (2000). Michael Faraday: physics and faith. New York: Oxford University Press. - "best experimentalist in the history of science" Peter Ford, University of Bath Department of Physics. Retrieved January 2007. - Archives Biographies: Michael Faraday, The Institution of Engineering and Technology. - "Einstein's heroes: imagining the world through the language of mathematics", by Robyn Arianrhod UQP, reviewed by Jane Gleeson-White, 10 November 2003, The Sydney Morning Herald. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Michael Faraday.\| - Michael Faraday -Citizendium	<urn:uuid:71507297-46c9-4685-9219-dd8a413ec4e3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00250.warc.gz	en	0.98272	818	3.453125	3	[ -0.13549600541591644, 0.4307868182659149, 0.3779880702495575, 0.11096265912055969, -0.023074354976415634, -0.25112801790237427, 0.3580521047115326, 0.10134859383106232, -0.10202930867671967, -0.24074655771255493, 0.16108563542366028, -0.12424562126398087, 0.03744957223534584, 0.31870591640...	1	He was sent to a local school to learn how to read and write. A local vicar paid for this, seeing his obvious intelligence. Faraday became the greatest experimental physicist of the nineteenth century. Faraday became a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was awarded the Royal, Copley and Rumford medals of the Society. Although Faraday had only primary school education, and did not know higher mathematics, he became one of the most influential scientists in history. For the most part, he was an autodidact: he taught himself. At the time when he lived, people like him were called natural philosophers. Then, only a little was known about electricity. Michael Faraday discovered many things about the way electricity flowing in a wire can act like a magnet (now called electromagnetism). He also found out a lot about the way electricity can be used with chemicals to make them change (now called electrochemistry). He showed that magnetism is able to affect rays of light, as there is an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology. He made the first electric motor. It is thanks to his early work that the electricity has been made into a useful thing today. As a chemist, Michael Faraday discovered benzene, invented an early type of Bunsen burner and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode and ion. Faraday was the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life. He was also the Director of the Royal Institution after Sir Humphrey Davy. Michael Faraday's family was poor. His father, James, was a blacksmith. James Faraday had come to London in the 1780s from North-West England. The young Michael Faraday was one of four children and only had the most basic school education.At fourteen he went to learn how to be a bookbinder and bookseller from a man called George Riebau. During his seven-year study of making books with Riebau, he read many books. He read Isaac Watts's The improvement of the mind. Faraday loved to use the ideas in this book in his work. He started to become interested in science, especially in electricity. He began to attend public lessons run by the best scientists in London at the time. He showed the notes he made to the great chemist Sir Humphrey Davy. Davy liked him and offered him a job as an assistant in March 1813. Faraday's knowledge continued to grow as he helped Sir Humphrey Davy until he was making new discoveries on his own. He was eventually made a professor in 1833. The importance of his work was seen within his own lifetime and the British government gave him a pension in his old age as a reward. The Faraday CageEdit Faraday also discovered that if electricity strikes a metal object, it will only pass through the outside of the object. The inside is unaffected by the electricity. This is what keeps the people inside safe when lightning strikes a car or a plane. This is now called Faraday's Cage. - Both place of birth are now in SW London. - Russell, Colin (2000). Michael Faraday: physics and faith. New York: Oxford University Press. - "best experimentalist in the history of science" Peter Ford, University of Bath Department of Physics. Retrieved January 2007. - Archives Biographies: Michael Faraday, The Institution of Engineering and Technology. - "Einstein's heroes: imagining the world through the language of mathematics", by Robyn Arianrhod UQP, reviewed by Jane Gleeson-White, 10 November 2003, The Sydney Morning Herald. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Michael Faraday.\| - Michael Faraday -Citizendium	820	ENGLISH	1
Lancaster County Courthouse Location within the U.S. state of South Carolina South Carolina's location within the U.S. \|o Total\|\|555 sq mi (1,440 km2)\| \|o Land\|\|549 sq mi (1,420 km2)\| \|o Water\|\|6.0 sq mi (16 km2) 1.1%%\| \| o Estimate \| \|o Density\|\|140/sq mi (53/km2)\| \|Time zone\|\|UTC-5 (Eastern)\| \|o Summer (DST)\|\|UTC-4 (EDT)\| Lancaster County is a county located in the U.S. state of South Carolina. As of the 2010 census, its population was 76,652. Its county seat is Lancaster, which has an urban population of 23,979. The county was created in 1785. For hundreds of years, the Catawba Indians occupied what became organized as Lancaster County as part of their historic tribal lands. The Siouan-speaking Catawba were once considered one of the most powerful Southeastern tribes. The Catawba and other Siouan peoples are believed to have emerged and coalesced as individual tribes in the Southeast. Primarily sedentary, cultivating their own crops, the Catawba were friendly toward the early European colonists. When the first Anglo-Europeans reached this area in the early 1750s, they settled between Rum Creek and Twelve Mile Creek. Waxhaw Creek within this area was named after the Waxhaw Indian tribe that was prominent in the region. The majority of the new settlers were Scots-Irish who had migrated from Pennsylvania, where they had landed in Philadelphia. Other Scots-Irish from the backcountry of North Carolina and Virginia joined them. A significant minority of the population was German. Many of the early settlers migrated to South Carolina from Lancaster, Lancashire. They had named their county for the House of Lancaster, which had opposed the House of York in the struggles of 1455-85, known as the War of the Roses. The House of Lancaster chose the red rose as their emblem while their neighbor, York County, boasts the white rose. A second settlement was made in the lower part of the present Lancaster County on Hanging Rock Creek. The South Carolina colony first made a grant to settlers there in 1752; it included the overhanging mass of rock for which the creek was named. About the time the colony opened up this section, other settlers came in and settled along Lynches Creek, Little Lynches creek, Flat Creek, Beaver Creek, and lower Camp Creek. In coming to the Lancaster area, the first settlers followed old Indian paths. The increased traffic began to enlarge the paths and improve them as dirt roads. The Rocky River Road was also based on an Indian path. During the American Revolutionary War, Colonel Abraham Buford and his forces fled from Tarleton along this road. He was overtaken a few miles south of the North Carolina state line, where the Patriot forces were defeated in the Battle of Waxhaws. Locals call it Bufords Massacre. Today, the Rocky River Road has been absorbed by part of South Carolina Highway 522, which was constructed following the old thoroughfare very closely. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 555 square miles (1,440 km2), of which 549 square miles (1,420 km2) is land and 6.0 square miles (16 km2) (1.1%) is water. It is bounded on the west by the Catawba River and Sugar Creek and on the east by the Lynches River. As of the census of 2000, there were 61,351 people, 23,178 households, and 16,850 families living in the county. The population density was 112 inhabitants per square mile (43/km2). There were 24,962 housing units at an average density of 46 per square mile (18/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 71.03% White American, 26.86% African American, 0.22% Native American, 0.27% Asian American, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.89% from other races, and 0.71% from two or more races. 1.59% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 23,178 households out of which 33.40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.60% were married couples living together, 15.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.30% were non-families. 23.70% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.01. In the county, the population was spread out with 25.40% under the age of 18, 8.60% from 18 to 24, 30.30% from 25 to 44, 23.60% from 45 to 64, and 12.10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 98.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.40 males. The median income for a household in the county was $34,688, and the median income for a family was $40,955. Males had a median income of $30,176 versus $22,238 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,276. About 9.70% of families and 12.80% of the population were below the poverty threshold, including 16.50% of those under age 18 and 15.80% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 76,652 people, 29,697 households, and 21,122 families living in the county. The population density was 139.6 inhabitants per square mile (53.9/km2). There were 32,687 housing units at an average density of 59.5 per square mile (23.0/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 71.5% white, 23.8% black or African American, 0.6% Asian, 0.3% American Indian, 2.4% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 4.4% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 23.9% were American, 8.0% were Irish, 7.6% were English, and 7.2% were German. Of the 29,697 households, 33.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.0% were married couples living together, 15.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 28.9% were non-families, and 24.7% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.97. The median age was 39.7 years. The median income for a household in the county was $38,959 and the median income for a family was $46,388. Males had a median income of $39,681 versus $28,985 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,308. About 15.8% of families and 20.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.2% of those under age 18 and 11.2% of those age 65 or over.	<urn:uuid:8d2425cb-3b8f-445e-8823-3a6c53afb7e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://popflock.com/learn?s=Lancaster_County,_South_Carolina	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00036.warc.gz	en	0.982989	1,595	3.5	4	[ -0.28936445713043213, 0.2768758535385132, 0.17266255617141724, 0.036069467663764954, -0.33850181102752686, -0.20050564408302307, 0.23074695467948914, 0.04244040325284004, -0.17519868910312653, 0.36162519454956055, 0.3686152696609497, 0.06674259155988693, 0.40557920932769775, 0.032435964792...	1	Lancaster County Courthouse Location within the U.S. state of South Carolina South Carolina's location within the U.S. \|o Total\|\|555 sq mi (1,440 km2)\| \|o Land\|\|549 sq mi (1,420 km2)\| \|o Water\|\|6.0 sq mi (16 km2) 1.1%%\| \| o Estimate \| \|o Density\|\|140/sq mi (53/km2)\| \|Time zone\|\|UTC-5 (Eastern)\| \|o Summer (DST)\|\|UTC-4 (EDT)\| Lancaster County is a county located in the U.S. state of South Carolina. As of the 2010 census, its population was 76,652. Its county seat is Lancaster, which has an urban population of 23,979. The county was created in 1785. For hundreds of years, the Catawba Indians occupied what became organized as Lancaster County as part of their historic tribal lands. The Siouan-speaking Catawba were once considered one of the most powerful Southeastern tribes. The Catawba and other Siouan peoples are believed to have emerged and coalesced as individual tribes in the Southeast. Primarily sedentary, cultivating their own crops, the Catawba were friendly toward the early European colonists. When the first Anglo-Europeans reached this area in the early 1750s, they settled between Rum Creek and Twelve Mile Creek. Waxhaw Creek within this area was named after the Waxhaw Indian tribe that was prominent in the region. The majority of the new settlers were Scots-Irish who had migrated from Pennsylvania, where they had landed in Philadelphia. Other Scots-Irish from the backcountry of North Carolina and Virginia joined them. A significant minority of the population was German. Many of the early settlers migrated to South Carolina from Lancaster, Lancashire. They had named their county for the House of Lancaster, which had opposed the House of York in the struggles of 1455-85, known as the War of the Roses. The House of Lancaster chose the red rose as their emblem while their neighbor, York County, boasts the white rose. A second settlement was made in the lower part of the present Lancaster County on Hanging Rock Creek. The South Carolina colony first made a grant to settlers there in 1752; it included the overhanging mass of rock for which the creek was named. About the time the colony opened up this section, other settlers came in and settled along Lynches Creek, Little Lynches creek, Flat Creek, Beaver Creek, and lower Camp Creek. In coming to the Lancaster area, the first settlers followed old Indian paths. The increased traffic began to enlarge the paths and improve them as dirt roads. The Rocky River Road was also based on an Indian path. During the American Revolutionary War, Colonel Abraham Buford and his forces fled from Tarleton along this road. He was overtaken a few miles south of the North Carolina state line, where the Patriot forces were defeated in the Battle of Waxhaws. Locals call it Bufords Massacre. Today, the Rocky River Road has been absorbed by part of South Carolina Highway 522, which was constructed following the old thoroughfare very closely. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 555 square miles (1,440 km2), of which 549 square miles (1,420 km2) is land and 6.0 square miles (16 km2) (1.1%) is water. It is bounded on the west by the Catawba River and Sugar Creek and on the east by the Lynches River. As of the census of 2000, there were 61,351 people, 23,178 households, and 16,850 families living in the county. The population density was 112 inhabitants per square mile (43/km2). There were 24,962 housing units at an average density of 46 per square mile (18/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 71.03% White American, 26.86% African American, 0.22% Native American, 0.27% Asian American, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.89% from other races, and 0.71% from two or more races. 1.59% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 23,178 households out of which 33.40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.60% were married couples living together, 15.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.30% were non-families. 23.70% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.01. In the county, the population was spread out with 25.40% under the age of 18, 8.60% from 18 to 24, 30.30% from 25 to 44, 23.60% from 45 to 64, and 12.10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 98.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.40 males. The median income for a household in the county was $34,688, and the median income for a family was $40,955. Males had a median income of $30,176 versus $22,238 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,276. About 9.70% of families and 12.80% of the population were below the poverty threshold, including 16.50% of those under age 18 and 15.80% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 76,652 people, 29,697 households, and 21,122 families living in the county. The population density was 139.6 inhabitants per square mile (53.9/km2). There were 32,687 housing units at an average density of 59.5 per square mile (23.0/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 71.5% white, 23.8% black or African American, 0.6% Asian, 0.3% American Indian, 2.4% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 4.4% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 23.9% were American, 8.0% were Irish, 7.6% were English, and 7.2% were German. Of the 29,697 households, 33.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.0% were married couples living together, 15.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 28.9% were non-families, and 24.7% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.97. The median age was 39.7 years. The median income for a household in the county was $38,959 and the median income for a family was $46,388. Males had a median income of $39,681 versus $28,985 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,308. About 15.8% of families and 20.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.2% of those under age 18 and 11.2% of those age 65 or over.	1,860	ENGLISH	1
On September 28th of 1918, the Liberty Loan parade was held in the city of Philadelphia. Unfortunately, such a large gathering of people happened at the same time the devastating “Spanish Flu” virus was making its deadly way around the world. What eventually became known as the 1918 Flu Pandemic lasted from January of 1918 until December of 1920. The virus was an unusually fatal form of influenza that killed people who were in their prime, as opposed to mostly people with weaker immune systems, like infants and the elderly, and those who were already ill. Recent research on frozen bodies has shown that the virus caused, specifically, an overreaction of the immune system. This is why healthy adults with strong immune systems were struck so violently, while small children and elderly people suffered fewer deaths. Influenza, which attacks the respiratory system, is a highly contagious disease. This particular epidemic infected 500 million people all around the world. Anywhere from 50 to 100 million people died swiftly from this flu. At the time, the fatalities represented between 3 and 5 percent of the world's entire population, causing human life expectancy of the early 20th century to drop by about twelve years. What's more, the Spanish flu was a fast acting virus. A person could wake up feeling ill in the morning and be dead by that same evening. The Flu Pandemic of 1918 was one of the worst natural disasters in human history. Famous people who died from the Spanish flu included Canadian hockey player Hamby Shore (age 32), silent film actor Harold Lockwood (age 31), auto manufacturers Horace and John Dodge (ages 52 and 56), and Black Shawl (age 84), who was the widow of Lakota Chief Crazy Horse. The flu was first observed in Haskell County, Kansas. Evidence suggests that it spread from farm animals to humans, then slowly throughout the United States, and then traveled to Europe by way of about 200,000 American soldiers who went there to fight in the First World War. The flu swiftly overtook Europe. Its initial attack was in Spain, where it killed so many people that it became known as the “Spanish Flu” all over the world. In the United States, Philadelphia was probably the worst affected city, probably because of the Liberty Loan parade. The entire city was quarantined and 12,000 people who had lived there died. Meanwhile, about another 12,000 U.S. Soldiers in Massachusetts came down with the Spanish flu, and hundreds of these soldiers were soon reported dead. Throughout the United States, roughly 1 out of 200 people died from the Spanish flu virus that struck between 1918 and 1920. In the rest of the world, the fatalities were even worse. In Latin America, 1 in 100 people died. In Africa and Asia, the death toll was even higher. In the end, the Spanish Flu had won the war. More people were dead from the Spanish flu than in all the battles of World War I combined.	<urn:uuid:e8e2d022-28f1-4c7c-a707-cbdcdf108c34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://historianinsight.com/philadelphia-flu-epidemic-9-28-1918	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00239.warc.gz	en	0.987864	602	3.4375	3	[ -0.14726561307907104, 0.33062130212783813, 0.2446753978729248, 0.030593018978834152, 0.07897403836250305, -0.03306896984577179, 0.5697346925735474, 0.640825092792511, 0.06895231455564499, 0.03211606293916702, 0.08084923028945923, 0.15715797245502472, 0.24193967878818512, 0.4238152801990509...	1	On September 28th of 1918, the Liberty Loan parade was held in the city of Philadelphia. Unfortunately, such a large gathering of people happened at the same time the devastating “Spanish Flu” virus was making its deadly way around the world. What eventually became known as the 1918 Flu Pandemic lasted from January of 1918 until December of 1920. The virus was an unusually fatal form of influenza that killed people who were in their prime, as opposed to mostly people with weaker immune systems, like infants and the elderly, and those who were already ill. Recent research on frozen bodies has shown that the virus caused, specifically, an overreaction of the immune system. This is why healthy adults with strong immune systems were struck so violently, while small children and elderly people suffered fewer deaths. Influenza, which attacks the respiratory system, is a highly contagious disease. This particular epidemic infected 500 million people all around the world. Anywhere from 50 to 100 million people died swiftly from this flu. At the time, the fatalities represented between 3 and 5 percent of the world's entire population, causing human life expectancy of the early 20th century to drop by about twelve years. What's more, the Spanish flu was a fast acting virus. A person could wake up feeling ill in the morning and be dead by that same evening. The Flu Pandemic of 1918 was one of the worst natural disasters in human history. Famous people who died from the Spanish flu included Canadian hockey player Hamby Shore (age 32), silent film actor Harold Lockwood (age 31), auto manufacturers Horace and John Dodge (ages 52 and 56), and Black Shawl (age 84), who was the widow of Lakota Chief Crazy Horse. The flu was first observed in Haskell County, Kansas. Evidence suggests that it spread from farm animals to humans, then slowly throughout the United States, and then traveled to Europe by way of about 200,000 American soldiers who went there to fight in the First World War. The flu swiftly overtook Europe. Its initial attack was in Spain, where it killed so many people that it became known as the “Spanish Flu” all over the world. In the United States, Philadelphia was probably the worst affected city, probably because of the Liberty Loan parade. The entire city was quarantined and 12,000 people who had lived there died. Meanwhile, about another 12,000 U.S. Soldiers in Massachusetts came down with the Spanish flu, and hundreds of these soldiers were soon reported dead. Throughout the United States, roughly 1 out of 200 people died from the Spanish flu virus that struck between 1918 and 1920. In the rest of the world, the fatalities were even worse. In Latin America, 1 in 100 people died. In Africa and Asia, the death toll was even higher. In the end, the Spanish Flu had won the war. More people were dead from the Spanish flu than in all the battles of World War I combined.	664	ENGLISH	1
and the decline of paganism The Persians defeated and killed Julian and took possession of Armenia. In fact, the initial victories of Julian pushed him too far, and created the conditions for a weakness of the empire in the East. The Emperor Valentinian chose as its capital Milan and Rome , for its strategic location, and Milan remained important until 402, when Ravenna was chosen in his place. Valentinian was a Catholic , but tolerant of the pagans. His successor, Valens was defeated at Adrianople in 378 by the Visigoths , with whom he had entered into a pact that did not survive , because of some episodes, such as the killing of some Goths, by a Roman officer . A few years later, in 382, Theodosius , emperor of the East , the Goths were reinstated in the army, but without being subject to more Roman officials . In 388 until 395 , when the emperor died of the West, Gratian, the Empire was reunified by Theodosius , that: 1 . In 380 he issued the Edict of Thessalonica Thessaloniki today , with which the Catholic religion became the state religion 2 . In 390 he condemned to death 7000 people in Thessalonica , responsible for the clashes , during which an officer died goth, but Christmas always humbly asked forgiveness of the 390 to the bishop Ambrose, and took from him the Eucharist , evidence of the influence of the bishops and the fact that the emperor had to submit to the natural and divine law 3 . in 391 he convened the Council of Constantinople ( second ecumenical council of Nicaea in 325 after that ) when it was repudiated Arianism , which, however , turned away from the empire , then spread among the Goths and Vandals 4 . Eugene defeated in 394 , a Christian, but sympathizer of paganism. 5 . died in 395 and left the empire, but split for good , including Honorius ( West) and Arcadius ( East)	<urn:uuid:b11c1f44-a217-4b20-a7cf-14d54a3b4fbf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.atuttascuola.it/the-empire-defeated/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00331.warc.gz	en	0.985388	424	3.359375	3	[ -0.08358078449964523, 0.4398902356624603, 0.2222227156162262, 0.02085532806813717, -0.4950144588947296, -0.022453349083662033, -0.15408527851104736, 0.6345266699790955, 0.2717941105365753, -0.08415684103965759, -0.2531687021255493, -0.09781008213758469, 0.24659205973148346, 0.4317674338817...	3	and the decline of paganism The Persians defeated and killed Julian and took possession of Armenia. In fact, the initial victories of Julian pushed him too far, and created the conditions for a weakness of the empire in the East. The Emperor Valentinian chose as its capital Milan and Rome , for its strategic location, and Milan remained important until 402, when Ravenna was chosen in his place. Valentinian was a Catholic , but tolerant of the pagans. His successor, Valens was defeated at Adrianople in 378 by the Visigoths , with whom he had entered into a pact that did not survive , because of some episodes, such as the killing of some Goths, by a Roman officer . A few years later, in 382, Theodosius , emperor of the East , the Goths were reinstated in the army, but without being subject to more Roman officials . In 388 until 395 , when the emperor died of the West, Gratian, the Empire was reunified by Theodosius , that: 1 . In 380 he issued the Edict of Thessalonica Thessaloniki today , with which the Catholic religion became the state religion 2 . In 390 he condemned to death 7000 people in Thessalonica , responsible for the clashes , during which an officer died goth, but Christmas always humbly asked forgiveness of the 390 to the bishop Ambrose, and took from him the Eucharist , evidence of the influence of the bishops and the fact that the emperor had to submit to the natural and divine law 3 . in 391 he convened the Council of Constantinople ( second ecumenical council of Nicaea in 325 after that ) when it was repudiated Arianism , which, however , turned away from the empire , then spread among the Goths and Vandals 4 . Eugene defeated in 394 , a Christian, but sympathizer of paganism. 5 . died in 395 and left the empire, but split for good , including Honorius ( West) and Arcadius ( East)	457	ENGLISH	1
Choosen As Best Answer American writer Toni Morrison was born in 1931 in Ohio. She was raised in an African American family filled with songs and stories of Southern myths, which later shaped her prose. Her happy family life led to her excellent performance in school, despite the atmosphere of racial discrimination in the society. After graduating from college, Morrison started to work as a teacher and got married in 1958. Several years later, her marriage began to fail. For a temporary escape, she joined a small writers’ group, in which each member was required to bring a story or poem for discussion. She wrote a story based on the life of a girl she knew in childhood who had prayed to God for blue eyes. The story was well received by the group, but then she put it away, thinking she was done with it. In 1964, Morrison got divorced and devoted herself to writing. One day, she dusted off the story she had written for the writers’ group and decided to make it into a novel. She drew on her memories from childhood and expanded upon them using her imagination so that the characters developed a life of their own. The Bluest Eye was eventually published in 1970. From 1970 to 1992, Morrison published five more novels. In her novels, Morrison brings in different elements of the African American past, their struggles, problems and cultural memory. In Song of Solomon, for example, Morrison tells the story of an African American man and his search for identity in his culture. The novels and other works won her several prizes. In 1993, Morrison received the Nobel Prize in Literature. She is the eighth woman and the first African American woman to win the honor.	<urn:uuid:318069c9-409a-454c-a3f1-01f3ab32c8fb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.clearnotebooks.com/zh-TW/questions/711693	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00482.warc.gz	en	0.987347	343	3.625	4	[ -0.027357617393136024, 0.18005125224590302, 0.1960877925157547, 0.3090076148509979, -0.4801851511001587, 0.15982472896575928, 0.07966837286949158, 0.3652206361293793, -0.062366072088479996, 0.034339938312768936, 0.012361499480903149, 0.030302496626973152, 0.010321111418306828, 0.2815575301...	1	Choosen As Best Answer American writer Toni Morrison was born in 1931 in Ohio. She was raised in an African American family filled with songs and stories of Southern myths, which later shaped her prose. Her happy family life led to her excellent performance in school, despite the atmosphere of racial discrimination in the society. After graduating from college, Morrison started to work as a teacher and got married in 1958. Several years later, her marriage began to fail. For a temporary escape, she joined a small writers’ group, in which each member was required to bring a story or poem for discussion. She wrote a story based on the life of a girl she knew in childhood who had prayed to God for blue eyes. The story was well received by the group, but then she put it away, thinking she was done with it. In 1964, Morrison got divorced and devoted herself to writing. One day, she dusted off the story she had written for the writers’ group and decided to make it into a novel. She drew on her memories from childhood and expanded upon them using her imagination so that the characters developed a life of their own. The Bluest Eye was eventually published in 1970. From 1970 to 1992, Morrison published five more novels. In her novels, Morrison brings in different elements of the African American past, their struggles, problems and cultural memory. In Song of Solomon, for example, Morrison tells the story of an African American man and his search for identity in his culture. The novels and other works won her several prizes. In 1993, Morrison received the Nobel Prize in Literature. She is the eighth woman and the first African American woman to win the honor.	365	ENGLISH	1
Many ancient civilization was given birth by the river nile How was the nile river formed Some of the oldest musical items such as flutes have also been linked to them. Children attended school in the temple, visitors from other towns would also stay there and grain was stored in the temple and shared with those who needed it. Hellman: Using the food surplus generated by a favourable climate and a large labourforce of enforced labour, the Pharaohs financed huge pyramids that eventually would contain their embalmed bodies and worldly riches for the after-life. Those conquered during a battle had to recognise the Egyptian pharaoh as their ruler and offer him the finest and most valuable goods from their land. This change was unpopular and when Akhenaten died the Egyptian people destroyed all traces of his reign. Food for Thought Over time, however, despite being in the midst of desert surroundings, people discovered that the Nile River provided many sources of food. Discovered in the s, Harappan society remains a mystery because the Harappan system of writing has not yet been deciphered. Egyptians strongly believed in an after-life, but only the wealthy could afford the expensive and labour-intensive preparations for this after-life. Steam navigation remained integral to the two countries as late as Archaeologists and historians don't know exactly how Egyptian civilization evolved. Small boats were first built from the papyrus plant which grew on the banks of the Nile River, and was used for fishing and short trips. A tune, Hymn to the Nilewas created and sung by the ancient Egyptian peoples about the flooding of the Nile River and all of the miracles it brought to Ancient Egyptian civilization. Children attended school in the temple, visitors from other towns would also stay there and grain was stored in the temple and shared with those who needed it. As the river receded, it deposited a rich, brown layer of silt that was suitable for growing wheat, beans, barley, or even cotton. Historians have found no evidence of violence or a ruling class; there are no distinctive burial sites and there is not a lot of evidence to suggest a formal military. Nile river valley civilization The Tabula Rogeriana depicted the source as three lakes in The temples were run by the chief priests who were rich and powerful. Organized like a pyramid, Egyptians placed their gods at the capstone, followed by government leaders, then soldiers, scribes, merchants, and artisans with farmers and slaves at the bottom. The Nile river remains an integral part of Egyptian life, lore and commerce today and it is said by the Egyptians that, should a visitor once look upon the beauty of the Nile, the return of that visitor to Egypt is assured a claim made, also, in antiquity. At first they used picture writing called hieroglyphics, where each picture stood for a sound. Osiris, god of the afterlife is also associated with the Nile as he was killed on its river bank. Speke was the Victorian explorer who first reached Lake Victoria in , returning to establish it as the source of the Nile by Large reeds called papyrus grew wild along the Nile. He was also able to make laws, collect taxes and defend Egypt against foreigners. This caused many to theorize that gods controlled the flooding. Although some civilizations like Atlantis and Rama are shrouded by myths and legends, others actually existed in the world. based on 61 review	<urn:uuid:5834fd34-bb0a-444c-a49c-bb4327dabbc0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ferelicipicepo.ettroisptitspointscompagnie.com/many-ancient-civilization-was-given-birth-by-the-river-nile154714270ps.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00384.warc.gz	en	0.981135	696	3.578125	4	[ -0.31459715962409973, 0.7306939363479614, 0.333072692155838, 0.12322504818439484, -0.39374059438705444, -0.2765048146247864, 0.26471659541130066, -0.28261899948120117, -0.360498309135437, 0.05151517316699028, 0.021741818636655807, -0.7729240655899048, 0.002948293462395668, 0.02748273313045...	1	Many ancient civilization was given birth by the river nile How was the nile river formed Some of the oldest musical items such as flutes have also been linked to them. Children attended school in the temple, visitors from other towns would also stay there and grain was stored in the temple and shared with those who needed it. Hellman: Using the food surplus generated by a favourable climate and a large labourforce of enforced labour, the Pharaohs financed huge pyramids that eventually would contain their embalmed bodies and worldly riches for the after-life. Those conquered during a battle had to recognise the Egyptian pharaoh as their ruler and offer him the finest and most valuable goods from their land. This change was unpopular and when Akhenaten died the Egyptian people destroyed all traces of his reign. Food for Thought Over time, however, despite being in the midst of desert surroundings, people discovered that the Nile River provided many sources of food. Discovered in the s, Harappan society remains a mystery because the Harappan system of writing has not yet been deciphered. Egyptians strongly believed in an after-life, but only the wealthy could afford the expensive and labour-intensive preparations for this after-life. Steam navigation remained integral to the two countries as late as Archaeologists and historians don't know exactly how Egyptian civilization evolved. Small boats were first built from the papyrus plant which grew on the banks of the Nile River, and was used for fishing and short trips. A tune, Hymn to the Nilewas created and sung by the ancient Egyptian peoples about the flooding of the Nile River and all of the miracles it brought to Ancient Egyptian civilization. Children attended school in the temple, visitors from other towns would also stay there and grain was stored in the temple and shared with those who needed it. As the river receded, it deposited a rich, brown layer of silt that was suitable for growing wheat, beans, barley, or even cotton. Historians have found no evidence of violence or a ruling class; there are no distinctive burial sites and there is not a lot of evidence to suggest a formal military. Nile river valley civilization The Tabula Rogeriana depicted the source as three lakes in The temples were run by the chief priests who were rich and powerful. Organized like a pyramid, Egyptians placed their gods at the capstone, followed by government leaders, then soldiers, scribes, merchants, and artisans with farmers and slaves at the bottom. The Nile river remains an integral part of Egyptian life, lore and commerce today and it is said by the Egyptians that, should a visitor once look upon the beauty of the Nile, the return of that visitor to Egypt is assured a claim made, also, in antiquity. At first they used picture writing called hieroglyphics, where each picture stood for a sound. Osiris, god of the afterlife is also associated with the Nile as he was killed on its river bank. Speke was the Victorian explorer who first reached Lake Victoria in , returning to establish it as the source of the Nile by Large reeds called papyrus grew wild along the Nile. He was also able to make laws, collect taxes and defend Egypt against foreigners. This caused many to theorize that gods controlled the flooding. Although some civilizations like Atlantis and Rama are shrouded by myths and legends, others actually existed in the world. based on 61 review	691	ENGLISH	1
These are the margin notes of the Geneva Bible, first published complete in 1599. With the rise of Queen Mary Tudor in 1553, many English Protestants fled to Europe and a number of them settled in Geneva. Supported by John Calvin, John Knox, and the Genevan Church, an independent English Bible version was created. The New Testament was translated largely by William Whittingham – a revision of Tyndale's 1534 version – and published in 1557; the complete Bible was published in 1560. It was dedicated to Elizabeth I, sister of Queen Mary, who herself became queen in 1558, restoring Protestantism to England. This version became extremely popular in England – the Soldier's Pocket Bible of Cromwell's army was derived from it. It was also the Bible of the Puritan party, including those who emigrated to America. The margin notes were written by leading Protestants such as John Calvin, John Knox, Miles Coverdale, William Whittingham, Theodore Beza, and others. NOTE: This title is included in the Version 5 and OneTouch Libraries.	<urn:uuid:222a0a91-23ae-4433-a1a1-32b4718916be>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://store.biblesoft.com/products/356-rw000109geneva-geneva-notes.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00304.warc.gz	en	0.980987	220	3.515625	4	[ -0.23768919706344604, 0.1483958512544632, 0.3445330858230591, -0.028228692710399628, -0.10242334008216858, -0.11720644682645798, -0.788112223148346, -0.017218636348843575, 0.3732525408267975, 0.13807809352874756, -0.5672784447669983, -0.6210692524909973, 0.23173648118972778, -0.05186654999...	8	These are the margin notes of the Geneva Bible, first published complete in 1599. With the rise of Queen Mary Tudor in 1553, many English Protestants fled to Europe and a number of them settled in Geneva. Supported by John Calvin, John Knox, and the Genevan Church, an independent English Bible version was created. The New Testament was translated largely by William Whittingham – a revision of Tyndale's 1534 version – and published in 1557; the complete Bible was published in 1560. It was dedicated to Elizabeth I, sister of Queen Mary, who herself became queen in 1558, restoring Protestantism to England. This version became extremely popular in England – the Soldier's Pocket Bible of Cromwell's army was derived from it. It was also the Bible of the Puritan party, including those who emigrated to America. The margin notes were written by leading Protestants such as John Calvin, John Knox, Miles Coverdale, William Whittingham, Theodore Beza, and others. NOTE: This title is included in the Version 5 and OneTouch Libraries.	240	ENGLISH	1
Warfare History Network A predecessor to the modern ballistic submarine. Key Point: One of Japan’s most farsighted technological advancements went on to become a foundational part of U.S. military strength. Lieutenant Commander Stephen L. Johnson had a problem on his hands; a very large problem. His Balao-class submarine, the Segundo, had just picked up a large radar contact on the surface about 100 miles off Honshu, one of Japan’s home islands, heading south toward Tokyo. World War II in the Pacific had just ended, and the ensuing cease fire was in its 14th day. The official peace documents would not be signed for several more days, on September 2, 1945, aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. As Johnson closed on the other vessel, he realized it was a gigantic submarine, so large in fact that it first looked like a surface ship in the darkness. The Americans had nothing that size, so he realized that it had to be a Japanese submarine. This was the first command for the lanky 29-year-old commander. He and his crew faced the largest and perhaps the most advanced submarine in the world. The Japanese I-401 was longer than a football field and had a surface displacement of 5,233 tons, more than three times the Segundo’s displacement. More troubling though was the sub’s bristling weaponry that included a 5.5-inch gun on her aft deck, three triple-barreled 25mm antiaircraft guns, a single 25mm gun mounted on the bridge, and eight large torpedo tubes in her bow. The large sub displayed the mandatory black surrender flag, but when the Segundo edged forward, the Japanese vessel moved rapidly into the night. The movement and the continuing display of the Rising Sun flag caused concern. Johnson’s vessel pursued the craft that eventually slowed down as dawn approached. He brought his bow torpedo tubes to bear on the craft as the two vessels settled into a Mexican standoff. Johnson and his crew had received permission by now to sink the reluctant Japanese vessel if necessary, but he realized he had a career-boosting and perhaps a technologically promising prize in his sights. Much depended on this untried American submarine captain and his wily opponent in the seas off Japan. Source : Link to Author	<urn:uuid:7f3569b1-7f00-4909-b8e0-100a0450a8d5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://e-news.us/meet-imperial-japans-strange-underwater-aircraft-carriers-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00287.warc.gz	en	0.980745	482	3.828125	4	[ -0.45494699478149414, 0.1989274024963379, 0.41436681151390076, -0.4202133119106293, -0.06665435433387756, -0.03550444915890694, -0.0940096452832222, 0.3917326331138611, -0.13712945580482483, -0.16974866390228271, 0.13409027457237244, 0.008927159011363983, 0.44984906911849976, 0.64532804489...	1	Warfare History Network A predecessor to the modern ballistic submarine. Key Point: One of Japan’s most farsighted technological advancements went on to become a foundational part of U.S. military strength. Lieutenant Commander Stephen L. Johnson had a problem on his hands; a very large problem. His Balao-class submarine, the Segundo, had just picked up a large radar contact on the surface about 100 miles off Honshu, one of Japan’s home islands, heading south toward Tokyo. World War II in the Pacific had just ended, and the ensuing cease fire was in its 14th day. The official peace documents would not be signed for several more days, on September 2, 1945, aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. As Johnson closed on the other vessel, he realized it was a gigantic submarine, so large in fact that it first looked like a surface ship in the darkness. The Americans had nothing that size, so he realized that it had to be a Japanese submarine. This was the first command for the lanky 29-year-old commander. He and his crew faced the largest and perhaps the most advanced submarine in the world. The Japanese I-401 was longer than a football field and had a surface displacement of 5,233 tons, more than three times the Segundo’s displacement. More troubling though was the sub’s bristling weaponry that included a 5.5-inch gun on her aft deck, three triple-barreled 25mm antiaircraft guns, a single 25mm gun mounted on the bridge, and eight large torpedo tubes in her bow. The large sub displayed the mandatory black surrender flag, but when the Segundo edged forward, the Japanese vessel moved rapidly into the night. The movement and the continuing display of the Rising Sun flag caused concern. Johnson’s vessel pursued the craft that eventually slowed down as dawn approached. He brought his bow torpedo tubes to bear on the craft as the two vessels settled into a Mexican standoff. Johnson and his crew had received permission by now to sink the reluctant Japanese vessel if necessary, but he realized he had a career-boosting and perhaps a technologically promising prize in his sights. Much depended on this untried American submarine captain and his wily opponent in the seas off Japan. Source : Link to Author	483	ENGLISH	1
William Shakespeare: Part I, His Life Shakespeare is too big of a literary figure so he will be covered in a three-part series about his life his plays and his poetry. The exact day of his birth is not known, but William Shakespeare was in April 1564 in the little town of Stratford, a community of about 2000 people. Stratford was a farming community where the trade of wool and mutton were king And Shakespeare’s father prospered as a yeoman with a lucrative side-hustle in the illegal, unlicensed trade of wool. Eventually, he was elected to be a city alderman with the responsibility of approving and licensing traveling theater groups to perform in his town, until, of course, he was caught and convicted. And that’s when his family began to decline in its economic fortunes. Thusly, was Shakespeare introduced to the acting profession early in his life. However, actors were not highly regarded and held in high esteem in the Elizabethan times in which Shakespeare lived as they are today but were counted as being among “the masterless men” who did not have “real jobs” but were chronically unemployed. And there were no actresses in existence in those days since acting was considered beneath woman so it was the younger teenage boys who dressed up in drag and played the female parts. Not much is known about Shakespeare’s life outside of public records and scholarly conjecture, but according to the records Shakespeare attended grammar school, as was the manner of English boys, and was a good student who learned to translate the Latin classics into English. However, not much is known about his teenage and young adult years, but legend has it that he was joining himself to various traveling acting troops and “paying his dues” so to speak and that he married his wife Anne Hathaway from whom he conceived three children in his lifetime. But eventually he emerged in a popular theater group called Lord Chamberlain’s Men, but eventually, their name was changed to the King’s Men when King James became their patron and an important source of their financial support. They gave their performances at the prestigious Globe Theater in London. Shakespeare was primarily for his company but also supported his company by writing his vast body of plays and poems on the side. Shakespeare, or The Bard” as he is now known, did have his critics and was denounced by one of his critics as “an upstart cow…that supposes he is able to bombaste out a blanke verse as the best of you…in his own conceit.” In other words, he was being accused of being full of himself, In his later years, he was part owner of his company but died on April 23, 1616, at the age of 52 after a night out drinking ale with his friends, and it is thought that the cause of his death was a fever that he contracted from someone at the tavern.	<urn:uuid:5cf11b2f-6ebc-4921-be1c-9d15116a8575>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailywisdomwords.com/william-shakespeare-part-i-his-life/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00357.warc.gz	en	0.996802	606	3.421875	3	[ 0.14282850921154022, -0.11912781745195389, 0.7544797658920288, -0.20640280842781067, -0.33157026767730713, -0.2555871605873108, 0.42234835028648376, 0.024815071374177933, -0.3257981538772583, -0.22366222739219666, -0.11361239850521088, -0.2034171223640442, -0.0519152507185936, 0.2212605178...	2	William Shakespeare: Part I, His Life Shakespeare is too big of a literary figure so he will be covered in a three-part series about his life his plays and his poetry. The exact day of his birth is not known, but William Shakespeare was in April 1564 in the little town of Stratford, a community of about 2000 people. Stratford was a farming community where the trade of wool and mutton were king And Shakespeare’s father prospered as a yeoman with a lucrative side-hustle in the illegal, unlicensed trade of wool. Eventually, he was elected to be a city alderman with the responsibility of approving and licensing traveling theater groups to perform in his town, until, of course, he was caught and convicted. And that’s when his family began to decline in its economic fortunes. Thusly, was Shakespeare introduced to the acting profession early in his life. However, actors were not highly regarded and held in high esteem in the Elizabethan times in which Shakespeare lived as they are today but were counted as being among “the masterless men” who did not have “real jobs” but were chronically unemployed. And there were no actresses in existence in those days since acting was considered beneath woman so it was the younger teenage boys who dressed up in drag and played the female parts. Not much is known about Shakespeare’s life outside of public records and scholarly conjecture, but according to the records Shakespeare attended grammar school, as was the manner of English boys, and was a good student who learned to translate the Latin classics into English. However, not much is known about his teenage and young adult years, but legend has it that he was joining himself to various traveling acting troops and “paying his dues” so to speak and that he married his wife Anne Hathaway from whom he conceived three children in his lifetime. But eventually he emerged in a popular theater group called Lord Chamberlain’s Men, but eventually, their name was changed to the King’s Men when King James became their patron and an important source of their financial support. They gave their performances at the prestigious Globe Theater in London. Shakespeare was primarily for his company but also supported his company by writing his vast body of plays and poems on the side. Shakespeare, or The Bard” as he is now known, did have his critics and was denounced by one of his critics as “an upstart cow…that supposes he is able to bombaste out a blanke verse as the best of you…in his own conceit.” In other words, he was being accused of being full of himself, In his later years, he was part owner of his company but died on April 23, 1616, at the age of 52 after a night out drinking ale with his friends, and it is thought that the cause of his death was a fever that he contracted from someone at the tavern.	596	ENGLISH	1
On April 15, 2019, shortly before 18:50 CEST, a fire broke out in the roof of Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris. Investigation revealed that the fire alarm broke out two times, but the first time, firefighters on the spot couldn’t locate the fire. The fire was extinguished the following day, some 12 hours later. But the fire did severe damage to one of the oldest cathedrals in the world. With more than 13 million visitors per year, the Notre-Dame is one of the most popular attractions in Paris. There are many precious relics inside the Cathedral, but which ones of them survived the fire. Here is a quick list. Arguably one of the most precious relics in the world, not just in Notre-Dame. The original crown of Thorns that Jesus is said to have worn was safely kept in Notre-Dame. Significant to Christians, the crown is still taken out on the first Friday of every month for people to come see. The practice is a way for people to share in that memory of the extraordinary example of humility. Because it is Holy Week, with Good Friday approaching, the crown was out of the cathedral during the fire. The crown, now encased in a glass tube and decorated with gold, will probably be placed in another Cathedral for the time being, while Notre-Dame waits its restoration. The Notre-Dame cathedral has three rose windows dating back to the 13th century. They are among the most famous features of Notre Dame. The first is the smallest one, and it is located on the west façade. It is celebrated for the way the glass seemingly upheld the stonework around it. The south rose window has a diameter of 43 feet and is made of more than 80 panels. While the roof has been completely ruined, the rose windows have survived. Much of the glass has survived and looked more than salvageable. Rose windows are still in remarkable condition, considering what they have been exposed to. They were not touched by the fire, but there are still fears for them because of the fragility of the building. Another priceless artifact that survived the fire is the tunic of St. Louis. It is believed that it belonged to Louis IX, king of France from 1226 to 1270. He died on a crusade in Algeria. He was canonized in 1297, and his tunic was revered as a relic. Louis IX is the only French King to be declared a saint, and he was often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch. Many of his successors were named Louis. In what is said to be a sign of hope, the cathedral’s altar and golden cross are still intact amid the scorched debris from the blaze. Photos show they are both still standing along with many of the surrounding statues. Organists around the world have long coveted the chance to play on the iconic Great Organ in Notre-Dame. According to church officials, there was a two-and-a-half-year waiting list for the Organ before the fire. The Great organ has five keyboards and almost 8,000 pipes. With that, it is the largest of the cathedral’s three such instruments. While it escaped destruction, the organ could have been damaged by the dust, water, and debris. One of the more famous statues, the one representing the 12 apostles and four evangelists survived the fire as well. This statue once graced the top of the cathedral. But they were removed last week as part of the restoration effort. Currently, the statue is stored in Perigueux in southwestern France. There 10 bells in the cathedral, each one named after a saint. They were immortalized in the classic Victor Hugo novel, “The Hunchback of Notre Dame”. The bells itself have undergone their own rebirth. In 2012, they were melted down and recast to restore their tones. Original bells, however, were not replaced. Largest bell is the Emmanuel, which weighs more than 23 tons. Emmanuel was installed in the south tower in 1685. Each of the large 10 bells was blessed with the name of a saint to replicate the original bells that were melted for cannon balls during the French Revolution. Saint Denis was a legendary 3rd century Christian martyr and saint. He was bishop of Paris in the third century, and was decapitated along with his companions Rusticus and Eleutherius. The statue of St. Denis, “Preaching the Faith”, was done by Baroque French sculptor Nicolas Coustou. Luckily, the statue was in the north transept inside the cathedral during the fire and is safe. The Boldt Castle is a major landmark and tourist attraction in the Thousand Islands region of the US state of New York. The landmark is open to guests between May and October...	<urn:uuid:0fec5477-a8b1-4014-ae18-a5133dfe42e4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.documentarytube.com/articles/the-precious-relics-of-notre-dame-which-ones-survived-the-fire	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00503.warc.gz	en	0.983297	998	3.453125	3	[ -0.323122501373291, 0.39799532294273376, 0.01750185340642929, -0.3366064131259918, 0.16813018918037415, 0.2065245509147644, 0.06885877996683121, 0.08483932912349701, 0.2338763326406479, -0.42088714241981506, -0.32960474491119385, -0.1704426407814026, -0.18548932671546936, 0.456599265336990...	1	On April 15, 2019, shortly before 18:50 CEST, a fire broke out in the roof of Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris. Investigation revealed that the fire alarm broke out two times, but the first time, firefighters on the spot couldn’t locate the fire. The fire was extinguished the following day, some 12 hours later. But the fire did severe damage to one of the oldest cathedrals in the world. With more than 13 million visitors per year, the Notre-Dame is one of the most popular attractions in Paris. There are many precious relics inside the Cathedral, but which ones of them survived the fire. Here is a quick list. Arguably one of the most precious relics in the world, not just in Notre-Dame. The original crown of Thorns that Jesus is said to have worn was safely kept in Notre-Dame. Significant to Christians, the crown is still taken out on the first Friday of every month for people to come see. The practice is a way for people to share in that memory of the extraordinary example of humility. Because it is Holy Week, with Good Friday approaching, the crown was out of the cathedral during the fire. The crown, now encased in a glass tube and decorated with gold, will probably be placed in another Cathedral for the time being, while Notre-Dame waits its restoration. The Notre-Dame cathedral has three rose windows dating back to the 13th century. They are among the most famous features of Notre Dame. The first is the smallest one, and it is located on the west façade. It is celebrated for the way the glass seemingly upheld the stonework around it. The south rose window has a diameter of 43 feet and is made of more than 80 panels. While the roof has been completely ruined, the rose windows have survived. Much of the glass has survived and looked more than salvageable. Rose windows are still in remarkable condition, considering what they have been exposed to. They were not touched by the fire, but there are still fears for them because of the fragility of the building. Another priceless artifact that survived the fire is the tunic of St. Louis. It is believed that it belonged to Louis IX, king of France from 1226 to 1270. He died on a crusade in Algeria. He was canonized in 1297, and his tunic was revered as a relic. Louis IX is the only French King to be declared a saint, and he was often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch. Many of his successors were named Louis. In what is said to be a sign of hope, the cathedral’s altar and golden cross are still intact amid the scorched debris from the blaze. Photos show they are both still standing along with many of the surrounding statues. Organists around the world have long coveted the chance to play on the iconic Great Organ in Notre-Dame. According to church officials, there was a two-and-a-half-year waiting list for the Organ before the fire. The Great organ has five keyboards and almost 8,000 pipes. With that, it is the largest of the cathedral’s three such instruments. While it escaped destruction, the organ could have been damaged by the dust, water, and debris. One of the more famous statues, the one representing the 12 apostles and four evangelists survived the fire as well. This statue once graced the top of the cathedral. But they were removed last week as part of the restoration effort. Currently, the statue is stored in Perigueux in southwestern France. There 10 bells in the cathedral, each one named after a saint. They were immortalized in the classic Victor Hugo novel, “The Hunchback of Notre Dame”. The bells itself have undergone their own rebirth. In 2012, they were melted down and recast to restore their tones. Original bells, however, were not replaced. Largest bell is the Emmanuel, which weighs more than 23 tons. Emmanuel was installed in the south tower in 1685. Each of the large 10 bells was blessed with the name of a saint to replicate the original bells that were melted for cannon balls during the French Revolution. Saint Denis was a legendary 3rd century Christian martyr and saint. He was bishop of Paris in the third century, and was decapitated along with his companions Rusticus and Eleutherius. The statue of St. Denis, “Preaching the Faith”, was done by Baroque French sculptor Nicolas Coustou. Luckily, the statue was in the north transept inside the cathedral during the fire and is safe. The Boldt Castle is a major landmark and tourist attraction in the Thousand Islands region of the US state of New York. The landmark is open to guests between May and October...	1,009	ENGLISH	1
Marriage. First marriages were arranged by parents, and girls were often betrothed in childhood. Patrilateral cross-cousin marriage may have been preferred. Polygyny, usually of a sororal type, was permitted and occurred most often among group leaders and skilled hunters. In aboriginal and early-contact times marriage was unaccompanied by ceremony, but today is attended by a Roman Catholic service. In the past the newly married couple resided with the bride's family until the birth of their first child, at which time they might take up residence with the husband's family. In more recent times bilocal and neolocal residence patterns have become prevalent. The option of divorce was available to both husband and wife, but was rarely exercised. Divorce is rare among present-day Chipewyan as well. Domestic Unit. In the historic period and probably in aboriginal times as well, the basic unit of social organization was the hunting group, consisting of a male head and his wife, their unmarried children, and, depending on the male head's hunting skill and influence, their married children and their families. Throughout the seasonal round of subsistence activities, this basic unit remained intact. Involvement in the fur trade, sedentization, and acculturation undermined this traditional pattern and in the twentieth century has resulted in greater emphasis on the nuclear family. Even among those Chipewyan who continue to hunt and trap, the traditional pattern has been broken as men leave their families behind in the villages and hunt alone or in small groups. Inheritance. In aboriginal and early contact times an Individual's property was destroyed at death. Today property is Divided evenly between the deceased's survivors. Socialization. As in adult life, the work responsibilities of adolescents and children fell most heavily on females. There was no rite of initiation recognizing puberty or adulthood for males; for females first menses was marked by a period of isolation. Among contemporary Chipewyan, boys and girls are allowed to play together until about age ten and then are kept apart in separate play groups.	<urn:uuid:e8cf878e-9571-4bf1-b500-94951d2612cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Chipewyan-Marriage-and-Family.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00460.warc.gz	en	0.983761	417	3.890625	4	[ 0.14491093158721924, 0.4185580909252167, 0.0317646786570549, -0.019731726497411728, -0.07572232931852341, 0.05460324510931969, 0.10257253050804138, 0.13474544882774353, -0.07311637699604034, -0.15573208034038544, 0.26144254207611084, -0.07885202020406723, 0.26356208324432373, 0.25262430310...	3	Marriage. First marriages were arranged by parents, and girls were often betrothed in childhood. Patrilateral cross-cousin marriage may have been preferred. Polygyny, usually of a sororal type, was permitted and occurred most often among group leaders and skilled hunters. In aboriginal and early-contact times marriage was unaccompanied by ceremony, but today is attended by a Roman Catholic service. In the past the newly married couple resided with the bride's family until the birth of their first child, at which time they might take up residence with the husband's family. In more recent times bilocal and neolocal residence patterns have become prevalent. The option of divorce was available to both husband and wife, but was rarely exercised. Divorce is rare among present-day Chipewyan as well. Domestic Unit. In the historic period and probably in aboriginal times as well, the basic unit of social organization was the hunting group, consisting of a male head and his wife, their unmarried children, and, depending on the male head's hunting skill and influence, their married children and their families. Throughout the seasonal round of subsistence activities, this basic unit remained intact. Involvement in the fur trade, sedentization, and acculturation undermined this traditional pattern and in the twentieth century has resulted in greater emphasis on the nuclear family. Even among those Chipewyan who continue to hunt and trap, the traditional pattern has been broken as men leave their families behind in the villages and hunt alone or in small groups. Inheritance. In aboriginal and early contact times an Individual's property was destroyed at death. Today property is Divided evenly between the deceased's survivors. Socialization. As in adult life, the work responsibilities of adolescents and children fell most heavily on females. There was no rite of initiation recognizing puberty or adulthood for males; for females first menses was marked by a period of isolation. Among contemporary Chipewyan, boys and girls are allowed to play together until about age ten and then are kept apart in separate play groups.	418	ENGLISH	1
Racial segregation is the separation of people in a community within all areas of daily living; such as education, housing, jobs, and income. It is something that many countries have had issues with throughout history. The United States is no stranger to racial segregation. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Nelson Mandela and Apartheid" essay for youCreate order In fact other countries such as Germany, Haiti, and Australia have all had their fair share of separation, when it comes to the rules or the activities, of the people that live there based on the color of their skin, or how they looked (“Racial Segregation 2015). South Africa was another country that faced major issues with racial segregation. This was known as Apartheid. Apartheid should be ended in South Africa because rules should be the same for everyone regardless of their race, blacks and whites should be able to be educated, obtain housing, marry, and seek employment without being treated differently, and by changing the separation laws the community will be able to come together culturally to learn from each other and grow. Nelson Mandela was a leader in South Africa that was strongly against racial segregation. Mandela who was born July 18, 1918 was groomed for his position in leadership at a very young age. He was the first of his family to receive a formal education and went as far as attending the University of Witwatersrand, where he studied law. It was also at the University where Mandela began his protests against racism and built many important relationships with both black and white activists (Editors 2009). Mandela wanted black people to be treated equally as white people, and have the same rights they had when it came to the activities to live as one in society. In order to help make this happen Mandela joined the African National Congress in 1944. The African National Congress, also known as the ANC, used nonviolent methods like boycotts and strikes to gain full rights for all South Africans (Editors 2009). When the Pan African Congress was formed in 1959 and began using military like force against the peaceful protestors, Mandela chose to fight back. Mandela said, “It would be wrong and unrealistic for African leaders to continue preaching peace and nonviolence at a time when the government met our peaceful demands with force. It was only when all else had failed, when all channels of peaceful protest had been barred to us, that the decision was made to embark on violent forms of political struggle.” (Editors 2009). The decision to fight back with violence soon caused a ban on the African National Congress, and Nelson Mandela to be sent to prison. Before leaving to serve his time he stated that he always wanted the people of South Africa to be able to live together in peace with equal opportunities. He said it was an idea that he hoped he would live for and achieve, but he was willing to die for the same idea as well (Editors 2009). Nelson Mandela’s words before going to prison were so powerful that it caused him to gain respect from numerous of supporters. This new found support caused isolation among the Apartheid government of South Africa. The government could not handle the struggle in which they were undergoing and decided to offer Mandela a deal. The government offered to release Mandela if he would stop the anti-apartheid people in return; however, Mandela declined and said that he would not accept being released until the Apartheid was completely stopped (Campbell 2013). The government soon agreed to lift the ban on the African National Congress and after 27 years of being in prison, Nelson Mandela, was free. Mandela played a major role in restoring friendly relations between blacks and white in the South African community after his release. His efforts made the power that the white people in South Africa held impossible to maintain and soon that power was overturned by the birth of Democracy and the election of Nelson Mandela as the president of South Africa (“Building Democracy After Apartheid”). After the Apartheid ended there were many changes in the South African community. Blacks who were at one point being educated at mission schools were soon forced to receive an Apartheid education, known as Bantu Education. Bantu education kept the blacks from getting the same level of education that the white people received in school. In some cases blacks were not allowed to get an education at all. The ending of Apartheid allowed the blacks and whites to learn the same way and with each other (“Building Democracy After Apartheid”). Blacks were only allowed to live in certain places during the Apartheid. These segregated homes were often times run down with poor sources of water and electricity. When Apartheid ended blacks were given the opportunity to live where they wanted, as long as they could afford to live in the area they were looking to get housing. Also only whites could own land during the Apartheid, while now land can be purchased by blacks as well. Blacks are able to work anywhere now, whereas before jobs were limited. The yearly income for blacks after the end of Apartheid has increased and is now better comparable to most white South Africans (Campbell 2013). Since Apartheid ended the issues with segregation have become much better. Now the citizens of South Africa, blacks and whites, live together in an environment where they can learn and grow from each other culturally. They share things such as food, drawings, and dance that have now spilled out into the world, making major contributions to the arts as a whole. Dance is a form of expression that is used around the world. In South Africa a popular dance that emerged during the Apartheid era was called Pantsula. Pantsula is a dance that was used as a form of expression for political and cultural issues (Sanders). It is a mixture of tap dance and african tribal dancing with a lot of twisting, locking, and popping motions, a lot like what we here in America would call “hip-hop”. During the 1970s and 80s Pantsula was used by the youth of South Africa to rebel against the Apartheid government. This was their way of being able to contribute and respond to the circumstances of Apartheid (Winship 2018). The dance styles used primarily here in America is also a form of communication. Dance styles like hip-hop, contemporary, lyrical, tap, jazz and ballet all tell a story during performance. Like Pantsula it is used to bring people together and help them relate to issues they are going through by using fluid like motions and expressions. This allows for people from all diversities and different backgrounds to grow with each other and learn from one another, as a way of communicating their shared experiences (Sanders). When it comes to dance and people involved in it there is no obvious black and white. Everyone comes together and dances for the enjoyment of it, the lesson to be taught, or the experience to be shared. There is no segregation in dance and that is something that resonates closely to the idea that Nelson Mandela had. The idea of blacks and whites conducting everyday life in peace and harmony (Editors 2009). The world today still has its issues with racial segregation. We are not perfect and have a lot of work to do when it comes to really living the life that Nelson Mandela and many other leaders who wanted equal rights for all races. South Africa has been through the struggle and overcome it all the same. Apartheid has long ended and things have changed drastically for the whites and blacks that live there. Rules in South Africa are now the same for everyone regardless of their race. Blacks and whites can receive the same type education, obtain housing, marry, and seek employment without being judged or told no. And because the separation laws have changed the community is now collectively coming together culturally to learn from each other and grow. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:a029b9c0-689e-41f6-a6cb-96d15e7fc02e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/nelson-mandela-and-apartheid/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00491.warc.gz	en	0.984049	1,612	3.953125	4	[ -0.18198701739311218, 0.3135114908218384, -0.04135506600141525, -0.19613990187644958, -0.20603366196155548, 0.2719835042953491, 0.027442820370197296, -0.302009642124176, 0.1570013463497162, 0.4299924373626709, 0.3701416850090027, -0.30061274766921997, 0.09308801591396332, 0.509800910949707...	1	Racial segregation is the separation of people in a community within all areas of daily living; such as education, housing, jobs, and income. It is something that many countries have had issues with throughout history. The United States is no stranger to racial segregation. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Nelson Mandela and Apartheid" essay for youCreate order In fact other countries such as Germany, Haiti, and Australia have all had their fair share of separation, when it comes to the rules or the activities, of the people that live there based on the color of their skin, or how they looked (“Racial Segregation 2015). South Africa was another country that faced major issues with racial segregation. This was known as Apartheid. Apartheid should be ended in South Africa because rules should be the same for everyone regardless of their race, blacks and whites should be able to be educated, obtain housing, marry, and seek employment without being treated differently, and by changing the separation laws the community will be able to come together culturally to learn from each other and grow. Nelson Mandela was a leader in South Africa that was strongly against racial segregation. Mandela who was born July 18, 1918 was groomed for his position in leadership at a very young age. He was the first of his family to receive a formal education and went as far as attending the University of Witwatersrand, where he studied law. It was also at the University where Mandela began his protests against racism and built many important relationships with both black and white activists (Editors 2009). Mandela wanted black people to be treated equally as white people, and have the same rights they had when it came to the activities to live as one in society. In order to help make this happen Mandela joined the African National Congress in 1944. The African National Congress, also known as the ANC, used nonviolent methods like boycotts and strikes to gain full rights for all South Africans (Editors 2009). When the Pan African Congress was formed in 1959 and began using military like force against the peaceful protestors, Mandela chose to fight back. Mandela said, “It would be wrong and unrealistic for African leaders to continue preaching peace and nonviolence at a time when the government met our peaceful demands with force. It was only when all else had failed, when all channels of peaceful protest had been barred to us, that the decision was made to embark on violent forms of political struggle.” (Editors 2009). The decision to fight back with violence soon caused a ban on the African National Congress, and Nelson Mandela to be sent to prison. Before leaving to serve his time he stated that he always wanted the people of South Africa to be able to live together in peace with equal opportunities. He said it was an idea that he hoped he would live for and achieve, but he was willing to die for the same idea as well (Editors 2009). Nelson Mandela’s words before going to prison were so powerful that it caused him to gain respect from numerous of supporters. This new found support caused isolation among the Apartheid government of South Africa. The government could not handle the struggle in which they were undergoing and decided to offer Mandela a deal. The government offered to release Mandela if he would stop the anti-apartheid people in return; however, Mandela declined and said that he would not accept being released until the Apartheid was completely stopped (Campbell 2013). The government soon agreed to lift the ban on the African National Congress and after 27 years of being in prison, Nelson Mandela, was free. Mandela played a major role in restoring friendly relations between blacks and white in the South African community after his release. His efforts made the power that the white people in South Africa held impossible to maintain and soon that power was overturned by the birth of Democracy and the election of Nelson Mandela as the president of South Africa (“Building Democracy After Apartheid”). After the Apartheid ended there were many changes in the South African community. Blacks who were at one point being educated at mission schools were soon forced to receive an Apartheid education, known as Bantu Education. Bantu education kept the blacks from getting the same level of education that the white people received in school. In some cases blacks were not allowed to get an education at all. The ending of Apartheid allowed the blacks and whites to learn the same way and with each other (“Building Democracy After Apartheid”). Blacks were only allowed to live in certain places during the Apartheid. These segregated homes were often times run down with poor sources of water and electricity. When Apartheid ended blacks were given the opportunity to live where they wanted, as long as they could afford to live in the area they were looking to get housing. Also only whites could own land during the Apartheid, while now land can be purchased by blacks as well. Blacks are able to work anywhere now, whereas before jobs were limited. The yearly income for blacks after the end of Apartheid has increased and is now better comparable to most white South Africans (Campbell 2013). Since Apartheid ended the issues with segregation have become much better. Now the citizens of South Africa, blacks and whites, live together in an environment where they can learn and grow from each other culturally. They share things such as food, drawings, and dance that have now spilled out into the world, making major contributions to the arts as a whole. Dance is a form of expression that is used around the world. In South Africa a popular dance that emerged during the Apartheid era was called Pantsula. Pantsula is a dance that was used as a form of expression for political and cultural issues (Sanders). It is a mixture of tap dance and african tribal dancing with a lot of twisting, locking, and popping motions, a lot like what we here in America would call “hip-hop”. During the 1970s and 80s Pantsula was used by the youth of South Africa to rebel against the Apartheid government. This was their way of being able to contribute and respond to the circumstances of Apartheid (Winship 2018). The dance styles used primarily here in America is also a form of communication. Dance styles like hip-hop, contemporary, lyrical, tap, jazz and ballet all tell a story during performance. Like Pantsula it is used to bring people together and help them relate to issues they are going through by using fluid like motions and expressions. This allows for people from all diversities and different backgrounds to grow with each other and learn from one another, as a way of communicating their shared experiences (Sanders). When it comes to dance and people involved in it there is no obvious black and white. Everyone comes together and dances for the enjoyment of it, the lesson to be taught, or the experience to be shared. There is no segregation in dance and that is something that resonates closely to the idea that Nelson Mandela had. The idea of blacks and whites conducting everyday life in peace and harmony (Editors 2009). The world today still has its issues with racial segregation. We are not perfect and have a lot of work to do when it comes to really living the life that Nelson Mandela and many other leaders who wanted equal rights for all races. South Africa has been through the struggle and overcome it all the same. Apartheid has long ended and things have changed drastically for the whites and blacks that live there. Rules in South Africa are now the same for everyone regardless of their race. Blacks and whites can receive the same type education, obtain housing, marry, and seek employment without being judged or told no. And because the separation laws have changed the community is now collectively coming together culturally to learn from each other and grow. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	1,651	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Analysis Pages: 2 (440 words) In “A Rose For Emily”, Emily was the one who was portrayed as the victim. Her father was very controlling to the point where he wouldn’t let her decide who she could marry. She became so dependent on her father that when he died, she became a completely different person. She had no idea how to function in society as her own individual person. The one person she knew and loved was taken away from her. She was in fact “left alone, and a pauper” (Faulkner 30). Her father left her little money but a prestigious name, which meant that people in the town treated Emily differently. They did not make friends with her, not due to the fact that they did not like her, but because she came from a prestigious family. She would not pay for her taxes due to the loophole found by the town mayor. Essentially he had “invented the tale, to the effect that Miss Emily’s father had loaned money to the town, which the town preferred this way of repaying” (Faulkner 29). The townspeople did not go reach out to her and support her. As if it was karma due to the fact that she did not treat the townspeople with respect, she even gained and became poor. The townspeople understood “that with nothing left, she would have to cling to that which had robbed her as people will”(Faulkner 31). They did not hold it against her that she had trouble handling this situation. Emily is given the “respectful affection of a fallen monument”(Faulkner 28). See more: how to write an analysis paper When a man by the name of Homer showed up in her life and had actually taken interest in her she was very determined to stay with him forever. She was so shocked by his refusal to marry her, so she simply made it impossible for him to leave her. She made sure of it. “She will persuade him yet, because Homer himself had remarked – he liked men, and it was known that he drank with the younger men in the Elks’ Club – that he was not a marrying man.” (Faulkner 41). Emily had them both dressed up in wedding attire and then proceeded to poison him so that she could pretend they had been married. Emily had gone through something extremely horrible and could not cope with it whatsoever. She was somebody who had it all and then lost everything. If anyone else were put in her shoes and experienced the things she was going through, they too might also do something as crazy as what she did. Cite this page a rose for emily analysis. (2016, Apr 01). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/a-rose-for-emily-victim-analysis-paper-essay	<urn:uuid:54f208ee-a0b8-4974-8261-15ca7b8f8f8b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/a-rose-for-emily-victim-analysis-paper-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00257.warc.gz	en	0.995971	612	3.421875	3	[ -0.6132687330245972, 0.11449785530567169, -0.2306773066520691, 0.17032557725906372, -0.14105167984962463, -0.16179385781288147, 0.3834322988986969, 0.29043513536453247, 0.09670119732618332, -0.1462433636188507, 0.1458042412996292, 0.049091264605522156, 0.03855569660663605, -0.0607744827866...	1	Paper type: Analysis Pages: 2 (440 words) In “A Rose For Emily”, Emily was the one who was portrayed as the victim. Her father was very controlling to the point where he wouldn’t let her decide who she could marry. She became so dependent on her father that when he died, she became a completely different person. She had no idea how to function in society as her own individual person. The one person she knew and loved was taken away from her. She was in fact “left alone, and a pauper” (Faulkner 30). Her father left her little money but a prestigious name, which meant that people in the town treated Emily differently. They did not make friends with her, not due to the fact that they did not like her, but because she came from a prestigious family. She would not pay for her taxes due to the loophole found by the town mayor. Essentially he had “invented the tale, to the effect that Miss Emily’s father had loaned money to the town, which the town preferred this way of repaying” (Faulkner 29). The townspeople did not go reach out to her and support her. As if it was karma due to the fact that she did not treat the townspeople with respect, she even gained and became poor. The townspeople understood “that with nothing left, she would have to cling to that which had robbed her as people will”(Faulkner 31). They did not hold it against her that she had trouble handling this situation. Emily is given the “respectful affection of a fallen monument”(Faulkner 28). See more: how to write an analysis paper When a man by the name of Homer showed up in her life and had actually taken interest in her she was very determined to stay with him forever. She was so shocked by his refusal to marry her, so she simply made it impossible for him to leave her. She made sure of it. “She will persuade him yet, because Homer himself had remarked – he liked men, and it was known that he drank with the younger men in the Elks’ Club – that he was not a marrying man.” (Faulkner 41). Emily had them both dressed up in wedding attire and then proceeded to poison him so that she could pretend they had been married. Emily had gone through something extremely horrible and could not cope with it whatsoever. She was somebody who had it all and then lost everything. If anyone else were put in her shoes and experienced the things she was going through, they too might also do something as crazy as what she did. Cite this page a rose for emily analysis. (2016, Apr 01). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/a-rose-for-emily-victim-analysis-paper-essay	591	ENGLISH	1
Explain the key features of ‘The Terror’ The Terror was a phase during the French Revolution when many people of France were executed for supposedly being ‘Enemies of the Revolution’. The Committee of Public Safety were behind most of the deaths and they were lead mainly by Maximilien de Robespierre. The greatest factors of the Terror were the revolution itself, internal political rivalry, social and economic problems, wars, leadership, violence and the Thermidorian reaction. These can be broadly put into the following categories: the causes of ‘The Terror’, the main factors during ‘The Terror’ and the end and consequences of ‘The Terror’. Before ‘The Terror’ began a revolution to overthrow King Louis XVI and bring liberty, freedom and equality to the people of France was taking place. The King was finally executed on 21st January 1793 and the leaders of the country wanted people to fully support the revolution this is a major feature of why ‘The Terror’ started because some powerful people, that will be introduced later, felt violence was the only way to do this. Secondly, within the National Convention (the parliament of the time) there was internal political rivalry between the foremost ‘parties’ the Girondins (who were a moderate party who opposed the violence) and the Jacobins (who were more extreme in their views on way the country should be run). The two parties both wanted more power than the other and control over the country so the Jacobins (who were also supported by the Parisian people) ultimately turned to violence to achieve this and overthrew the Girondins. The next key feature is the continuing social and economic problems among the poor people in France at the time, who had wanted the revolution to take place to achieve equality for them and put an end to their poverty and hunger, as promised by idealists of the revolution. However, the revolution had not achieved this so some peasants started or wanted to rebel. This also influenced the... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	<urn:uuid:bc5e5d41-7210-4895-b2e9-9be5e0a2593f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/The-French-Revolution-50536601.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00352.warc.gz	en	0.982403	424	3.71875	4	[ -0.45445409417152405, 0.36394134163856506, -0.15944606065750122, -0.16737599670886993, 0.03466825932264328, 0.23103941977024078, 0.6778453588485718, 0.37142547965049744, -0.16939282417297363, -0.13069987297058105, 0.08267778158187866, 0.14291895925998688, -0.043208047747612, 0.311468571424...	2	Explain the key features of ‘The Terror’ The Terror was a phase during the French Revolution when many people of France were executed for supposedly being ‘Enemies of the Revolution’. The Committee of Public Safety were behind most of the deaths and they were lead mainly by Maximilien de Robespierre. The greatest factors of the Terror were the revolution itself, internal political rivalry, social and economic problems, wars, leadership, violence and the Thermidorian reaction. These can be broadly put into the following categories: the causes of ‘The Terror’, the main factors during ‘The Terror’ and the end and consequences of ‘The Terror’. Before ‘The Terror’ began a revolution to overthrow King Louis XVI and bring liberty, freedom and equality to the people of France was taking place. The King was finally executed on 21st January 1793 and the leaders of the country wanted people to fully support the revolution this is a major feature of why ‘The Terror’ started because some powerful people, that will be introduced later, felt violence was the only way to do this. Secondly, within the National Convention (the parliament of the time) there was internal political rivalry between the foremost ‘parties’ the Girondins (who were a moderate party who opposed the violence) and the Jacobins (who were more extreme in their views on way the country should be run). The two parties both wanted more power than the other and control over the country so the Jacobins (who were also supported by the Parisian people) ultimately turned to violence to achieve this and overthrew the Girondins. The next key feature is the continuing social and economic problems among the poor people in France at the time, who had wanted the revolution to take place to achieve equality for them and put an end to their poverty and hunger, as promised by idealists of the revolution. However, the revolution had not achieved this so some peasants started or wanted to rebel. This also influenced the... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	409	ENGLISH	1
The Blomberg-Fritsch Crisis of 1938 showed just how ruthless Hitler could be when it came to his expectation that everyone working for him should be totally obedient. Werner von Blomberg and Werner von Fritsch were two very senior officers in the army – and both were compelled into resigning from their posts by Hitler for failing to accept his full authority over the military. There is little doubt that some senior ‘old school’ elements within the army were less than favourable towards Hitler. In 1934, he had cornered the army into swearing an oath of loyalty to him. This played on Hitler’s knowledge that an oath made by an officer in the army was almost like a physical entity; something that they had to uphold even if some senior officers saw Hitler as little more than a jumped-up former corporal. However, Hitler overcame their reticence to fully support him by winning many over with the massive rearmaments programme that Nazi Germany embarked on. The military had vast sums of money spent on its three parts so that the army, air force and navy became the most modern in Europe. The Luftwaffe experienced modern aerial warfare when the Blue Condor Legion was used in the Spanish Civil War. The Kriegsmarine received modern warships that senior officers could only think about during the era of Weimar Germany. The army, officially restricted to 100,000 men by the Treaty of Versailles and minimal armoured equipment, experienced a huge growth when the government openly ignored the treaty. However, despite all this there were senior officers who were very suspicious about Hitler’s true intentions with regards to the military. Blomberg and Fritsch were two such officers. While the military had sworn an oath of loyalty to Hitler, he was never fully convinced that he had the full backing of all his senior officers. Blomberg and Fritsch were two of the highest ranking officers in the newly named Wehrmacht. Blomberg was a Field Marshal and Minister of Defence while Fritsch was a Colonel General and Commander-in-Chief of the army. Both had been present at the Hossbach Conference in November 1937 when Hitler made it clear what his intentions were in Europe. Blomberg and Fritsch were appalled at what they heard – lebensraum taken by force – and expressed their opinions. Within three months of the conference both men were out of office. In 1937, Blomberg, a widower, remarried with Hitler and Goering at the ceremony to ostensibly show support. What happened next could not have worked out better for Hitler. Blomberg’s new bride had been a secretary. To other senior officers in the army, this marriage was unacceptable because of his new wife’s social status and her questionable past. Heinrich Graf von Helldorf, the chief of the Berlin Police force, compiled an official report about Eva and presented it to Goering who then showed it to Hitler. The report stated that Eva had posed for pornographic images in her younger days. The report also stated that she had been arrested by the police for prostitution – though there is now suspicion that Goering embellished the report regarding this knowing that it would infuriate Hitler. Hitler gave a very public show of indignation and supported the view that Blomberg had brought disgrace to the officer corps. Hitler told Blomberg to annul the marriage, which he refused to do. Instead on 27th January 1938 Blomberg resigned when Goering said that he would release to the public police files on his wife. Hitler wrote to Blomberg on February 4th 1938 thanking him for his loyal service to Germany and for the part he played in the modernisation of the army. He accepted his resignation. Blomberg and his wife went into exile in Capri and Hitler made himself Supreme Commander of the armed forces. Fritsch was accused of homosexuality – a crime under Section 175 of the Criminal Code. He was brought before Hitler, Goering and Himmler and accused to his face. A witness was brought forward who claimed to have seen Fritsch engaging in homosexual behaviour in November 1934 while Fritsch was in Potsdam. Fritsch was stunned by the accusation and vehemently denied it. He demanded that he should be tried before an army Court of Honour. The court found him not guilty and acquitted him for lack of evidence. However the damage to his reputation had been done and rumours circulated that the court wanted to uphold army honour first rather than consider the true evidence. Fritsch could have fought on but he chose to resign. Whereas Blomberg had received a reasonably cordial letter from Hitler regarding his resignation, the same was not true for Fritsch. Hitler’s letter accepting the resignation of Fritsch was described as “icy”. He was replaced by Werner von Brauchitsch – a man who was equally against Hitler’s aggressive policies but was tied into Hitler by the oath he took: “as a firm believer in the rule of law he felt bound by his oath of loyalty to Hitler”. (Snyder) Fritsch was fully and publicly rehabilitated on August 11th 1938. He was offered advisory positions in South America and Spain. However, Fritsch wanted to remain in Germany and was appointed honorary commander of Artillery Regiment 12. He was killed in the early days of World War Two while inspecting the front line on September 22nd 1939 on the outskirts of Warsaw. For a senior officer to be so near to the front line was unusual and this has led some to speculate that Fritsch deliberately put himself in danger. This tends to be supported when the report of his aide de camp is read: he claimed that Fritsch specifically asked for his wound not to be treated and he died within a minute. However, an artery in his thigh had been severed so it is unlikely that Fritsch would have survived such a wound whether any attempt was made to treat it or not. The so-called Blomberg-Fritsch Crisis allowed Hitler to put what he considered to be his own men into the posts previously held by Blomberg and Fritsch. This further brought the army into his plans. The successful Anschluss of 1938 greatly added to Hitler’s power and prestige – not least among the people of both Germany and Austria. With such public popularity, the army was now in a very difficult position to oppose Hitler.	<urn:uuid:7de2765c-b046-445e-b12b-7708a692cc9e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nazi-germany/the-blomberg-fritsch-crisis-of-1938/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00029.warc.gz	en	0.992072	1,326	3.4375	3	[ -0.22249911725521088, 0.9534132480621338, -0.1745094656944275, -0.271525502204895, 0.14133168756961823, 0.12246428430080414, 0.175566628575325, -0.08379961550235748, 0.18194520473480225, -0.44112393260002136, 0.06799226254224777, -0.3556874990463257, 0.14950767159461975, 0.2515913248062134...	11	The Blomberg-Fritsch Crisis of 1938 showed just how ruthless Hitler could be when it came to his expectation that everyone working for him should be totally obedient. Werner von Blomberg and Werner von Fritsch were two very senior officers in the army – and both were compelled into resigning from their posts by Hitler for failing to accept his full authority over the military. There is little doubt that some senior ‘old school’ elements within the army were less than favourable towards Hitler. In 1934, he had cornered the army into swearing an oath of loyalty to him. This played on Hitler’s knowledge that an oath made by an officer in the army was almost like a physical entity; something that they had to uphold even if some senior officers saw Hitler as little more than a jumped-up former corporal. However, Hitler overcame their reticence to fully support him by winning many over with the massive rearmaments programme that Nazi Germany embarked on. The military had vast sums of money spent on its three parts so that the army, air force and navy became the most modern in Europe. The Luftwaffe experienced modern aerial warfare when the Blue Condor Legion was used in the Spanish Civil War. The Kriegsmarine received modern warships that senior officers could only think about during the era of Weimar Germany. The army, officially restricted to 100,000 men by the Treaty of Versailles and minimal armoured equipment, experienced a huge growth when the government openly ignored the treaty. However, despite all this there were senior officers who were very suspicious about Hitler’s true intentions with regards to the military. Blomberg and Fritsch were two such officers. While the military had sworn an oath of loyalty to Hitler, he was never fully convinced that he had the full backing of all his senior officers. Blomberg and Fritsch were two of the highest ranking officers in the newly named Wehrmacht. Blomberg was a Field Marshal and Minister of Defence while Fritsch was a Colonel General and Commander-in-Chief of the army. Both had been present at the Hossbach Conference in November 1937 when Hitler made it clear what his intentions were in Europe. Blomberg and Fritsch were appalled at what they heard – lebensraum taken by force – and expressed their opinions. Within three months of the conference both men were out of office. In 1937, Blomberg, a widower, remarried with Hitler and Goering at the ceremony to ostensibly show support. What happened next could not have worked out better for Hitler. Blomberg’s new bride had been a secretary. To other senior officers in the army, this marriage was unacceptable because of his new wife’s social status and her questionable past. Heinrich Graf von Helldorf, the chief of the Berlin Police force, compiled an official report about Eva and presented it to Goering who then showed it to Hitler. The report stated that Eva had posed for pornographic images in her younger days. The report also stated that she had been arrested by the police for prostitution – though there is now suspicion that Goering embellished the report regarding this knowing that it would infuriate Hitler. Hitler gave a very public show of indignation and supported the view that Blomberg had brought disgrace to the officer corps. Hitler told Blomberg to annul the marriage, which he refused to do. Instead on 27th January 1938 Blomberg resigned when Goering said that he would release to the public police files on his wife. Hitler wrote to Blomberg on February 4th 1938 thanking him for his loyal service to Germany and for the part he played in the modernisation of the army. He accepted his resignation. Blomberg and his wife went into exile in Capri and Hitler made himself Supreme Commander of the armed forces. Fritsch was accused of homosexuality – a crime under Section 175 of the Criminal Code. He was brought before Hitler, Goering and Himmler and accused to his face. A witness was brought forward who claimed to have seen Fritsch engaging in homosexual behaviour in November 1934 while Fritsch was in Potsdam. Fritsch was stunned by the accusation and vehemently denied it. He demanded that he should be tried before an army Court of Honour. The court found him not guilty and acquitted him for lack of evidence. However the damage to his reputation had been done and rumours circulated that the court wanted to uphold army honour first rather than consider the true evidence. Fritsch could have fought on but he chose to resign. Whereas Blomberg had received a reasonably cordial letter from Hitler regarding his resignation, the same was not true for Fritsch. Hitler’s letter accepting the resignation of Fritsch was described as “icy”. He was replaced by Werner von Brauchitsch – a man who was equally against Hitler’s aggressive policies but was tied into Hitler by the oath he took: “as a firm believer in the rule of law he felt bound by his oath of loyalty to Hitler”. (Snyder) Fritsch was fully and publicly rehabilitated on August 11th 1938. He was offered advisory positions in South America and Spain. However, Fritsch wanted to remain in Germany and was appointed honorary commander of Artillery Regiment 12. He was killed in the early days of World War Two while inspecting the front line on September 22nd 1939 on the outskirts of Warsaw. For a senior officer to be so near to the front line was unusual and this has led some to speculate that Fritsch deliberately put himself in danger. This tends to be supported when the report of his aide de camp is read: he claimed that Fritsch specifically asked for his wound not to be treated and he died within a minute. However, an artery in his thigh had been severed so it is unlikely that Fritsch would have survived such a wound whether any attempt was made to treat it or not. The so-called Blomberg-Fritsch Crisis allowed Hitler to put what he considered to be his own men into the posts previously held by Blomberg and Fritsch. This further brought the army into his plans. The successful Anschluss of 1938 greatly added to Hitler’s power and prestige – not least among the people of both Germany and Austria. With such public popularity, the army was now in a very difficult position to oppose Hitler.	1,352	ENGLISH	1
On the fifth of March, 1770, a patriot mob began to harass a British sentry outside the Custom House on King Street in Boston, Massachusetts. As the harassment escalated, Captain Thomas Preston was called for backup. During the confrontation, among the shouts and yelling, there were cries for the squad to “fire!”. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Boston Massacre: Another American Revolution" essay for youCreate order The squad responded to this command and ended up killing several colonists. A black sailor names Crispus Attucks, ropemaker Samuel Gray, mariner James Caldwell were instantly killed. Samuel Maverick and Patrick Carr were mortally wounded and would die later. The “Massacre”, as it was named later, led to a concerted effort by resistance leaders to inspire the “ire of citizenry”. Speeches, demonstrations, and propagandistic images fueled the growing flames of discontent towards the monarchy. In the end, this “massacre” and the anger resulting from it were integral in the march towards the eventual Revolutionary war. Tensions in Boston, 1770, were high. During this time, over two thousand British soldiers were occupying the city of Boston, which was populated by by over sixteen thousand colonists. The soldiers were present in order to enforce Britain’s laws, which the colonists were rebelling against. They found the taxes repressive and rallied over the slogan “no taxation without representation”. Skirmishes, a fight between small bodies of troops, especially advanced or outlying detachments of opposing armies, between British and soldiers became very common. They also became popular between patriots, who were loyal to the colonies, and loyalists, who were loyal to Britain. In order to protest these taxes, patriots vandalized stores that sold British goods and intimidated their customers. On February 22, a group of protesters of patriots attacked a store owned by loyalists. A customs officer, Ebenezer Richardson, made an attempt to break up the riot. He fired out his window and onto the crowd below. His gunfire struck and killed Christopher Seider, an eleven year-old boy, who was in the crowd. This attack further enrage patriots and protesters, and helped escalate their protests. Shortly after this event, another fight broke out between local workers and British soldiers. No serious injuries resulted from it, but it helped set up the violence that was yet to come. On the fifth of March, 1770, Private Hugh White was guarding the Custom House on King Street. The Custom House was containing the King’s money. Shortly after White was stationed at his post, a group of colonists joined him, and threatened violence. The violence was much more aggravated than previous encounters, due to recent events leading up to the riot. After a short amount of violent barating from the colonists, White fought back and struck one of the colonists with his bayonet. In response to this, protesters threw snowballs, ice, and stones at him. Bells rung through the street, and sent a rush of male colonists to the streets. The bells were usually a warning for fire, so the men naturally responded to it. As the assault on White continued, he fell and was forced to call for backup. In response to White’s panic, Captain Thomas Preston arrived at the scene with several British soldiers. The Captain feared mass riots and was afraid that they would lose the King’s money, which was being stored in the Custom House. Both the colonists and the soldiers feared that bloodshed was inevitable. During the confrontation, colonists were reported to have dared the soldiers to fire, and other to have begged them to hold their fire. Captain Thomas Preston later revealed that he was told the colonists had a plan to “carry White off his post and murder him”. The violence soon escalated, and the protesters attacked the soldiers with stick and clubs. As this ensued, someone supposedly yelled “fire!”. The reports were mixed on which side ordered the command, or if the shot was intentional or not. After the first shot, other soldiers opened fire on the crowd. The gunfire struck and killed five colonists were killed, and six were wounded. The dead colonists included; Crispus Attucks, Patrick Carr, Samuel Gray, Samuel Maverick, and James Caldwell. Crispus Attucks was one the first to die, and was of African and Native American descent. These deaths are commonly believed as the first deaths of the American Revolution. From the colonist’s point of view, the violence seemed to be caused by the soldiers (Appendix), but Captain Thomas Preston’s account tells a different story. He claims that there was never any intention to ensue violence of any form. He also makes the claim that he never order his men to “fire”. The Captain claims that the colonists threatened and instigated the soldiers with phrases like; “lobster scoundrels” or “come on, you rascals”. He then stated that he attempted to persuade the men to retire peacefully, but clearly failed. Captain Preston was then asked by his men is the guns were loaded, he replied yes, and he was also asked if they should fire, to which he replied no. He claimed to have witnessed a soldier to receive a serious blow from one of the protesters, which caused the soldier to veer a bit to the side and fire into the crowd. The Captain questioned this, but was then, too, hit with a club. Captain Thomas Preston claimed that the soldiers’ lives were in imminent danger and pressured into firing by the protesting crowd of colonists. The colonists yelled phrases like; “damn your bloods- why don’t you fire?”. Shortly after this confusion, three or four soldiers fired into the crowd. He claimed to have yelled “hold your fire” and “stop firing”, but it was too late. Following this riot, four to five thousand people gathered on the street next to the “massacre”. They claimed to have wanted the deaths of the Captain and his men. After hearing this, the soldiers dispersed out of fear. On October 24, 1770, about seven months after the “massacre”, the trial of the soldiers accused of murdering the colonists was taken place. One of the people questioned was Samuel Hemmingway, who decided to testify against the British soldiers, specifically Matthew Kilroy. Kilroy shot and killed Samuel Gray, the owner of a ropemaking shop. In Hemingway’s testimony to the crown, he stated that one evening, about a week before the “massacre”, he overheard Killroy say that “he would never miss an opportunity to fire on the inhabitants” and that he had wanted to ever since he landed”. A contrasting testimony to this is that of Dr John Jeffries for the Defense. Dr Jeffries was Patrick Carr’s surgeon, and operated on him after he was shot, and died four days later. Jeffries testifies that Patrick was new to this kind of violence, since he was originally from Ireland. He testifies that during his last conversation with Carr, he forgave the man who shot him, and understood that the man was just defending himself against the protesters. For this reason, Carr was denounced by Samuel Adams and other patriots, who were angry that they could not use him to stir up more anti-british sentiments. In the depositions of John Wilme and Jeffrey Richards, they claimed that the soldiers were making threatening claims and actions against the colonists. Wilme claimed that about ten days before the “massacre”, Christopher Rumbly of the 14th regiment talk very much against Boston. Wilme claimed that he heard Rumbly say that “blood will run in the streets of Boston”. Jeffrey Richardson made a somewhat similar statement, and he claimed that on the Friday before the violent protest, eight to ten armed soldiers came to Mr. John Gray’s ropemaking shop. They challenged the soldiers to fight them, and tried to instigate violence. The deposition of Ebenezer Bridgham and argument of Josiah Quincy for the defense, found the colonists to be at fault. Bridgham testified that the soldiers were defending themselves against the colonists, as they were striking their guns with sticks. He claimed the patriot group were calling them cowards for bringing arms against unarmed men, and daring them to fire as they hit them. Josiah Quincy made a similar argument for the defense, claiming that the words the colonists used to berate the British sentry were so demeaning and disrespectful helped to provoke the soldiers into such violence. He also claimed that the soldiers tried to procure peace by saying things such as “if they molest me upon my post, I will fire!” and “stand off! I am upon my station!”. Quincy suggest that these words served as a warning to colonists, and the soldiers were only trying to do their jobs. The verdict was announced nine months after the “massacre”, the fifth of December, 1770. The jury that decided the verdict did not contain a single Boston citizen. Matthew Kilroy and Hugh Montgomery were found guilty of manslaughter while the other six soldiers, James Hartigan, William McCauley, Hugh White, William Warren, and John Carroll, were acquitted. Kilroy and Montgomery were able to avoid the death penalty through “benefit of the clergy”, which was used a loophole for first-time offenders. It was an early English law which held that non-religious courts did not have any legal power over clergymen. After the soldiers had “prayed the clergy”, each one was branded on the thumb with and “M”, for manslaughter. This would be visible for any future oaths or handshakes, marking them as killer for the rest of their lives. Yet for many colonists, the branding was still not enough to bring justice to the victims of the “massacre” and the town of Boston. The violence of the riot and the treatment of the soldiers both increased the feelings of turmoil in Boston, and the colonies in general. The new laws and taxes enforced by Parliament onto the colonies already brought anger to the colonies, but the violence by the British soldiers helped increase this hatred towards the crown. The anger and feelings of injustice fueled by the “Boston Massacre”and the trial that followed helped add fuel to the growing fire that was the American Revolution. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:d6accef3-2c1d-4e26-9b80-83e6df54d53a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/boston-massacre-another-american-revolution/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00194.warc.gz	en	0.984685	2,233	3.296875	3	[ 0.03268095850944519, -0.022043658420443535, 0.37249937653541565, -0.07090166211128235, -0.22435887157917023, -0.0709235817193985, 0.19460922479629517, 0.26699331402778625, -0.04418420419096947, 0.07048346847295761, 0.021796591579914093, -0.05385282635688782, -0.1368531584739685, 0.19259157...	1	On the fifth of March, 1770, a patriot mob began to harass a British sentry outside the Custom House on King Street in Boston, Massachusetts. As the harassment escalated, Captain Thomas Preston was called for backup. During the confrontation, among the shouts and yelling, there were cries for the squad to “fire!”. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Boston Massacre: Another American Revolution" essay for youCreate order The squad responded to this command and ended up killing several colonists. A black sailor names Crispus Attucks, ropemaker Samuel Gray, mariner James Caldwell were instantly killed. Samuel Maverick and Patrick Carr were mortally wounded and would die later. The “Massacre”, as it was named later, led to a concerted effort by resistance leaders to inspire the “ire of citizenry”. Speeches, demonstrations, and propagandistic images fueled the growing flames of discontent towards the monarchy. In the end, this “massacre” and the anger resulting from it were integral in the march towards the eventual Revolutionary war. Tensions in Boston, 1770, were high. During this time, over two thousand British soldiers were occupying the city of Boston, which was populated by by over sixteen thousand colonists. The soldiers were present in order to enforce Britain’s laws, which the colonists were rebelling against. They found the taxes repressive and rallied over the slogan “no taxation without representation”. Skirmishes, a fight between small bodies of troops, especially advanced or outlying detachments of opposing armies, between British and soldiers became very common. They also became popular between patriots, who were loyal to the colonies, and loyalists, who were loyal to Britain. In order to protest these taxes, patriots vandalized stores that sold British goods and intimidated their customers. On February 22, a group of protesters of patriots attacked a store owned by loyalists. A customs officer, Ebenezer Richardson, made an attempt to break up the riot. He fired out his window and onto the crowd below. His gunfire struck and killed Christopher Seider, an eleven year-old boy, who was in the crowd. This attack further enrage patriots and protesters, and helped escalate their protests. Shortly after this event, another fight broke out between local workers and British soldiers. No serious injuries resulted from it, but it helped set up the violence that was yet to come. On the fifth of March, 1770, Private Hugh White was guarding the Custom House on King Street. The Custom House was containing the King’s money. Shortly after White was stationed at his post, a group of colonists joined him, and threatened violence. The violence was much more aggravated than previous encounters, due to recent events leading up to the riot. After a short amount of violent barating from the colonists, White fought back and struck one of the colonists with his bayonet. In response to this, protesters threw snowballs, ice, and stones at him. Bells rung through the street, and sent a rush of male colonists to the streets. The bells were usually a warning for fire, so the men naturally responded to it. As the assault on White continued, he fell and was forced to call for backup. In response to White’s panic, Captain Thomas Preston arrived at the scene with several British soldiers. The Captain feared mass riots and was afraid that they would lose the King’s money, which was being stored in the Custom House. Both the colonists and the soldiers feared that bloodshed was inevitable. During the confrontation, colonists were reported to have dared the soldiers to fire, and other to have begged them to hold their fire. Captain Thomas Preston later revealed that he was told the colonists had a plan to “carry White off his post and murder him”. The violence soon escalated, and the protesters attacked the soldiers with stick and clubs. As this ensued, someone supposedly yelled “fire!”. The reports were mixed on which side ordered the command, or if the shot was intentional or not. After the first shot, other soldiers opened fire on the crowd. The gunfire struck and killed five colonists were killed, and six were wounded. The dead colonists included; Crispus Attucks, Patrick Carr, Samuel Gray, Samuel Maverick, and James Caldwell. Crispus Attucks was one the first to die, and was of African and Native American descent. These deaths are commonly believed as the first deaths of the American Revolution. From the colonist’s point of view, the violence seemed to be caused by the soldiers (Appendix), but Captain Thomas Preston’s account tells a different story. He claims that there was never any intention to ensue violence of any form. He also makes the claim that he never order his men to “fire”. The Captain claims that the colonists threatened and instigated the soldiers with phrases like; “lobster scoundrels” or “come on, you rascals”. He then stated that he attempted to persuade the men to retire peacefully, but clearly failed. Captain Preston was then asked by his men is the guns were loaded, he replied yes, and he was also asked if they should fire, to which he replied no. He claimed to have witnessed a soldier to receive a serious blow from one of the protesters, which caused the soldier to veer a bit to the side and fire into the crowd. The Captain questioned this, but was then, too, hit with a club. Captain Thomas Preston claimed that the soldiers’ lives were in imminent danger and pressured into firing by the protesting crowd of colonists. The colonists yelled phrases like; “damn your bloods- why don’t you fire?”. Shortly after this confusion, three or four soldiers fired into the crowd. He claimed to have yelled “hold your fire” and “stop firing”, but it was too late. Following this riot, four to five thousand people gathered on the street next to the “massacre”. They claimed to have wanted the deaths of the Captain and his men. After hearing this, the soldiers dispersed out of fear. On October 24, 1770, about seven months after the “massacre”, the trial of the soldiers accused of murdering the colonists was taken place. One of the people questioned was Samuel Hemmingway, who decided to testify against the British soldiers, specifically Matthew Kilroy. Kilroy shot and killed Samuel Gray, the owner of a ropemaking shop. In Hemingway’s testimony to the crown, he stated that one evening, about a week before the “massacre”, he overheard Killroy say that “he would never miss an opportunity to fire on the inhabitants” and that he had wanted to ever since he landed”. A contrasting testimony to this is that of Dr John Jeffries for the Defense. Dr Jeffries was Patrick Carr’s surgeon, and operated on him after he was shot, and died four days later. Jeffries testifies that Patrick was new to this kind of violence, since he was originally from Ireland. He testifies that during his last conversation with Carr, he forgave the man who shot him, and understood that the man was just defending himself against the protesters. For this reason, Carr was denounced by Samuel Adams and other patriots, who were angry that they could not use him to stir up more anti-british sentiments. In the depositions of John Wilme and Jeffrey Richards, they claimed that the soldiers were making threatening claims and actions against the colonists. Wilme claimed that about ten days before the “massacre”, Christopher Rumbly of the 14th regiment talk very much against Boston. Wilme claimed that he heard Rumbly say that “blood will run in the streets of Boston”. Jeffrey Richardson made a somewhat similar statement, and he claimed that on the Friday before the violent protest, eight to ten armed soldiers came to Mr. John Gray’s ropemaking shop. They challenged the soldiers to fight them, and tried to instigate violence. The deposition of Ebenezer Bridgham and argument of Josiah Quincy for the defense, found the colonists to be at fault. Bridgham testified that the soldiers were defending themselves against the colonists, as they were striking their guns with sticks. He claimed the patriot group were calling them cowards for bringing arms against unarmed men, and daring them to fire as they hit them. Josiah Quincy made a similar argument for the defense, claiming that the words the colonists used to berate the British sentry were so demeaning and disrespectful helped to provoke the soldiers into such violence. He also claimed that the soldiers tried to procure peace by saying things such as “if they molest me upon my post, I will fire!” and “stand off! I am upon my station!”. Quincy suggest that these words served as a warning to colonists, and the soldiers were only trying to do their jobs. The verdict was announced nine months after the “massacre”, the fifth of December, 1770. The jury that decided the verdict did not contain a single Boston citizen. Matthew Kilroy and Hugh Montgomery were found guilty of manslaughter while the other six soldiers, James Hartigan, William McCauley, Hugh White, William Warren, and John Carroll, were acquitted. Kilroy and Montgomery were able to avoid the death penalty through “benefit of the clergy”, which was used a loophole for first-time offenders. It was an early English law which held that non-religious courts did not have any legal power over clergymen. After the soldiers had “prayed the clergy”, each one was branded on the thumb with and “M”, for manslaughter. This would be visible for any future oaths or handshakes, marking them as killer for the rest of their lives. Yet for many colonists, the branding was still not enough to bring justice to the victims of the “massacre” and the town of Boston. The violence of the riot and the treatment of the soldiers both increased the feelings of turmoil in Boston, and the colonies in general. The new laws and taxes enforced by Parliament onto the colonies already brought anger to the colonies, but the violence by the British soldiers helped increase this hatred towards the crown. The anger and feelings of injustice fueled by the “Boston Massacre”and the trial that followed helped add fuel to the growing fire that was the American Revolution. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	2,160	ENGLISH	1
William Shakespeare lived in one of the most vibrant periods of English history. Shakespeare was born in the small town of Stratford, as twenty-one-boy moves to London, where He had collaboration with playwrights, and he soon began to cooperate. He has written a number of excellent works that are celebrated throughout the world and they are Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, King Lear and Cleopatra. These works were written in several stages, and that is the end of the last phase of calm saszoji works where the writer comes to terms with the world. At that time the English language reaches maturity and richness that provides excellent conditions for the creation of literary works. One night on guard there was something unusual, Horace, and Marcel Bernard appeared to the spirit of the former Danish king. They were very surprised and decided that only Hamlet communicates this event. Next time Hamlet was also on guard duty, the spirit of his father discovered that he was poisoned by Claudius. Hamlet could not believe it and vowed to take revenge. At that time the king and queen were celebrating their new marriage, but Hamlet could not bear the pain and despair, and did not show up. When they came to the actors who were to entertain the guests unexpectedly appeared Hamlet. Actors have portrayed drama in which the king was deceived and poisoned, and that Hamlet was used and the words of King attacked. Nobody believed him, and everyone was saying that he can not bear the death of his father. Hamlet was in love with the hill, Polonijevu daughter and everyone hopes the wedding. One case of Hamlet's mother has called for an interview, and behind the curtain there was Polonius who was accidentally killed by Hamlet. For the safety of the king sent him to England, but he suddenly returned, but in the meantime, Ophelia drowned. Because of it, there were clashes between Laertes and Hamlet, and King proposes eleven fights. They begin the fencing, but the blades were lubricated with poison as they did not know. When the king suggested that they did not agree to toast, and drank a pitcher and queen died and Hamlet is stabbed unto Claudius who acknowledged that they were poisoned blades. Farewell to life and die together, and Horatio and Osric look dead. Then he heard a noise that was dedicated Fortinbras since returned as the winner of Polish. In the end, everyone go and amounts dead bodies and heard shooting guns in honor of the dead. This drama is very liked, because the reader is left with a sense of tragedy, something sad. Beyond the written word is more meaning in which it is necessary to keep a bit because otherwise he loses the real meaning of this Shakespearean drama. There are many activities and no descriptive passages, and I like it and because I would definitely recommend it for further reading, not only for school but for general education.	<urn:uuid:1719d531-a404-434c-ab72-319c3d39bb2e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayforum.com/writing/william-shakespeare-great-works-43487/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00134.warc.gz	en	0.990665	606	3.3125	3	[ -0.020454391837120056, 0.04752997308969498, 0.7936229109764099, -0.021960681304335594, -0.34974732995033264, -0.19930943846702576, 0.4082714319229126, 0.245693176984787, -0.09718122333288193, -0.2901745140552521, -0.058444056659936905, -0.17863401770591736, -0.10184276849031448, 0.32905313...	2	William Shakespeare lived in one of the most vibrant periods of English history. Shakespeare was born in the small town of Stratford, as twenty-one-boy moves to London, where He had collaboration with playwrights, and he soon began to cooperate. He has written a number of excellent works that are celebrated throughout the world and they are Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, King Lear and Cleopatra. These works were written in several stages, and that is the end of the last phase of calm saszoji works where the writer comes to terms with the world. At that time the English language reaches maturity and richness that provides excellent conditions for the creation of literary works. One night on guard there was something unusual, Horace, and Marcel Bernard appeared to the spirit of the former Danish king. They were very surprised and decided that only Hamlet communicates this event. Next time Hamlet was also on guard duty, the spirit of his father discovered that he was poisoned by Claudius. Hamlet could not believe it and vowed to take revenge. At that time the king and queen were celebrating their new marriage, but Hamlet could not bear the pain and despair, and did not show up. When they came to the actors who were to entertain the guests unexpectedly appeared Hamlet. Actors have portrayed drama in which the king was deceived and poisoned, and that Hamlet was used and the words of King attacked. Nobody believed him, and everyone was saying that he can not bear the death of his father. Hamlet was in love with the hill, Polonijevu daughter and everyone hopes the wedding. One case of Hamlet's mother has called for an interview, and behind the curtain there was Polonius who was accidentally killed by Hamlet. For the safety of the king sent him to England, but he suddenly returned, but in the meantime, Ophelia drowned. Because of it, there were clashes between Laertes and Hamlet, and King proposes eleven fights. They begin the fencing, but the blades were lubricated with poison as they did not know. When the king suggested that they did not agree to toast, and drank a pitcher and queen died and Hamlet is stabbed unto Claudius who acknowledged that they were poisoned blades. Farewell to life and die together, and Horatio and Osric look dead. Then he heard a noise that was dedicated Fortinbras since returned as the winner of Polish. In the end, everyone go and amounts dead bodies and heard shooting guns in honor of the dead. This drama is very liked, because the reader is left with a sense of tragedy, something sad. Beyond the written word is more meaning in which it is necessary to keep a bit because otherwise he loses the real meaning of this Shakespearean drama. There are many activities and no descriptive passages, and I like it and because I would definitely recommend it for further reading, not only for school but for general education.	598	ENGLISH	1
Timothy Koeth's office is crammed with radioactive relics – old watches with glowing radium dials, pieces of melted glass from beneath the test of the world's first nuclear weapon. But there is one artifact that stands apart from the rest: a dense, charcoal-black cube, two-inches on a side. The cube is made of pure uranium metal. It was forged more than 70 years ago by the Nazis, and it tells the little-known story of Germany's nuclear efforts during World War II. "From a historical perspective this cube weighs a lot more than five pounds," Koeth, a physicist at the University of Maryland, says as he holds it in his hand. The cube entered Koeth's life on a hot August day in 2013. He was out for a jog when a friend called him on his phone. "They said 'I need to meet you as soon as possible,' " Koeth says. Koeth told his friend to drive to a nearby parking lot. Twenty minutes later, he found himself staring at a small satchel in the trunk of the car. Inside, wrapped in paper towels was the cube. "I looked at my friend and I said, 'do you know what that is?' " Koeth recalls. "And my friend said, I think so, 'Do you know what it is?' " It turned out they didn't need to guess because wrapped around the cube was a piece of paper with the words, "Gift of Ninninger [sic], piece of uranium from the reactor Hitler tried to build." At the time of Hitler's rise, Germany was actually at the cutting edge of nuclear technology. "Nuclear fission was discovered in Berlin in late 1938," says Alex Wellerstein is a historian of science at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey. "They were the first team of people who figured out how to split the atom, and figured out that when you split the atom, a lot of energy was going to be released." That basic idea of splitting atoms to release energy is what's at the heart of all of today's nuclear power plants and all the world's nuclear weapons. But back during World War II, it was all theoretical. To find out how it could work, the Germans devised strange looking experiment. Scientists strung together 664 cubes of uranium with aircraft cables and suspended them. The result looked "kind of like a very strange modernist chandelier of cubes," Wellerstein says. The chandelier was dipped into a cylindrical tank of heavy water, which contains special isotopes of hydrogen that make it more conducive to nuclear reactions. The setup was known as the B-VIII reactor. The Germans were experimenting with it inside a cave in the southern town of Haigerloch. They were still trying to get it to work when the allied invasion began. As Allied forces approached, the German scientists disassembled the reactor and buried the cubes in a field. The first wave of Allied troops to arrive included a task force known as Alsos, which was seeking to seize as much of the Nazi program as they could. The Nazi scientists quickly disclosed the location of the buried cubes to the Allies, Wellerstein says. The Alsos team boxed up the cubes, to send them back to America, but what happened after that is not entirely clear. "The records on this kind of stuff are less good than you might expect, given what they are," Wellerstein says. The news that the U.S. government has misplaced over 600 cubes of Nazi uranium might seem highly alarming. However, the cubes are made of natural uranium, which is not particularly radioactive or valuable. And Wellerstein points out that the Nazi program never even got close to building a bomb. It's really a footnote in the history books. But Timothy Koeth doesn't see it as a footnote. At the start of the war, the Americans thought the Nazis were racing towards a bomb, and that's a big part of why they rushed ahead with the Manhattan Project to build the world's first nuclear weapon. As Koeth sees it, it was the fear of the little black cubes like the one on his desk that launched the nuclear age. "Nuclear weapons, nuclear power, the Cold War, this nuclear hostage that the planet is held in--it's all motivated by this effort that produced just these 600-and-some cubes," Koeth says. Which is why Koeth is determined to find out what happened to them. Starting with the one from the trunk of the car. And a big clue was in that note wrapped around the cube. "Literally just a few weeks later I was at a flea market and was looking through a box of science books and came across this book called Minerals for Atomic Energy by Robert D. Nininger," Koeth says. It turns out Robert Nininger was in charge of inventory for part of the Manhattan Project. It's likely that he oversaw the arrival of the Nazi cubes from Europe. Miriam Hiebert postdoc working with Koeth says, it's possible Nininger or one of his colleagues handed out a few cubes a souvenirs. "It sounds nuts to us, but physicists back in the 1940s, it wouldn't have been quite as alarming," she says with a laugh. Koeth and Hiebert were able to verify that Nininger did have a cube, which he kept in his possession until he died. It was found in his estate, and passed to Koeth's friend, who gave it to him. In fact, there are a few other cubes out there. One was donated to Harvard by a physicist who worked on the original Alsos mission to recover the uranium. The Smithsonian has one that was found in the back of a drawer in New Jersey. And another one in Germany was recovered from a creek. It was reportedly tossed away by the famous physicist Werner Heisenberg, as he fled ahead of the approaching allied forces. There are still around 650 cubes completely unaccounted for. It's possible that many were fed into the U.S. government's nuclear complex after the war and eventually manufactured into American atomic weapons. But Hiebert and Koeth believe that many, perhaps most, of the cubes survived. "It genuinely would not shock me at all if they're sitting in a box somewhere and nobody has wanted to move this really heavy box for the past 70 years," Hiebert says. She and Koeth are hoping someone will stumble across the missing uranium and give them a call. Read more about the cubes in Physics Today. You won’t find a paywall here. Come as often as you like — we’re not counting. You’ve found a like-minded tribe that cherishes what a free press stands for. If you can spend another couple of minutes making a pledge of as little as $5, you’ll feel like a superhero defending democracy for less than the cost of a month of Netflix.	<urn:uuid:ed1b80d9-da23-4de5-af7b-d0d390be521e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://knpr.org/npr/2019-08/have-you-seen-any-nazi-uranium-these-researchers-want-know	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00110.warc.gz	en	0.983422	1,461	3.640625	4	[ -0.22269392013549805, 0.724485456943512, 0.04354541003704071, -0.0630253255367279, 0.4031410813331604, -0.060463130474090576, 0.20415106415748596, 0.024435821920633316, -0.3700663447380066, 0.007397741079330444, 0.46682631969451904, -0.19697342813014984, 0.16336634755134583, 0.475807428359...	2	Timothy Koeth's office is crammed with radioactive relics – old watches with glowing radium dials, pieces of melted glass from beneath the test of the world's first nuclear weapon. But there is one artifact that stands apart from the rest: a dense, charcoal-black cube, two-inches on a side. The cube is made of pure uranium metal. It was forged more than 70 years ago by the Nazis, and it tells the little-known story of Germany's nuclear efforts during World War II. "From a historical perspective this cube weighs a lot more than five pounds," Koeth, a physicist at the University of Maryland, says as he holds it in his hand. The cube entered Koeth's life on a hot August day in 2013. He was out for a jog when a friend called him on his phone. "They said 'I need to meet you as soon as possible,' " Koeth says. Koeth told his friend to drive to a nearby parking lot. Twenty minutes later, he found himself staring at a small satchel in the trunk of the car. Inside, wrapped in paper towels was the cube. "I looked at my friend and I said, 'do you know what that is?' " Koeth recalls. "And my friend said, I think so, 'Do you know what it is?' " It turned out they didn't need to guess because wrapped around the cube was a piece of paper with the words, "Gift of Ninninger [sic], piece of uranium from the reactor Hitler tried to build." At the time of Hitler's rise, Germany was actually at the cutting edge of nuclear technology. "Nuclear fission was discovered in Berlin in late 1938," says Alex Wellerstein is a historian of science at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey. "They were the first team of people who figured out how to split the atom, and figured out that when you split the atom, a lot of energy was going to be released." That basic idea of splitting atoms to release energy is what's at the heart of all of today's nuclear power plants and all the world's nuclear weapons. But back during World War II, it was all theoretical. To find out how it could work, the Germans devised strange looking experiment. Scientists strung together 664 cubes of uranium with aircraft cables and suspended them. The result looked "kind of like a very strange modernist chandelier of cubes," Wellerstein says. The chandelier was dipped into a cylindrical tank of heavy water, which contains special isotopes of hydrogen that make it more conducive to nuclear reactions. The setup was known as the B-VIII reactor. The Germans were experimenting with it inside a cave in the southern town of Haigerloch. They were still trying to get it to work when the allied invasion began. As Allied forces approached, the German scientists disassembled the reactor and buried the cubes in a field. The first wave of Allied troops to arrive included a task force known as Alsos, which was seeking to seize as much of the Nazi program as they could. The Nazi scientists quickly disclosed the location of the buried cubes to the Allies, Wellerstein says. The Alsos team boxed up the cubes, to send them back to America, but what happened after that is not entirely clear. "The records on this kind of stuff are less good than you might expect, given what they are," Wellerstein says. The news that the U.S. government has misplaced over 600 cubes of Nazi uranium might seem highly alarming. However, the cubes are made of natural uranium, which is not particularly radioactive or valuable. And Wellerstein points out that the Nazi program never even got close to building a bomb. It's really a footnote in the history books. But Timothy Koeth doesn't see it as a footnote. At the start of the war, the Americans thought the Nazis were racing towards a bomb, and that's a big part of why they rushed ahead with the Manhattan Project to build the world's first nuclear weapon. As Koeth sees it, it was the fear of the little black cubes like the one on his desk that launched the nuclear age. "Nuclear weapons, nuclear power, the Cold War, this nuclear hostage that the planet is held in--it's all motivated by this effort that produced just these 600-and-some cubes," Koeth says. Which is why Koeth is determined to find out what happened to them. Starting with the one from the trunk of the car. And a big clue was in that note wrapped around the cube. "Literally just a few weeks later I was at a flea market and was looking through a box of science books and came across this book called Minerals for Atomic Energy by Robert D. Nininger," Koeth says. It turns out Robert Nininger was in charge of inventory for part of the Manhattan Project. It's likely that he oversaw the arrival of the Nazi cubes from Europe. Miriam Hiebert postdoc working with Koeth says, it's possible Nininger or one of his colleagues handed out a few cubes a souvenirs. "It sounds nuts to us, but physicists back in the 1940s, it wouldn't have been quite as alarming," she says with a laugh. Koeth and Hiebert were able to verify that Nininger did have a cube, which he kept in his possession until he died. It was found in his estate, and passed to Koeth's friend, who gave it to him. In fact, there are a few other cubes out there. One was donated to Harvard by a physicist who worked on the original Alsos mission to recover the uranium. The Smithsonian has one that was found in the back of a drawer in New Jersey. And another one in Germany was recovered from a creek. It was reportedly tossed away by the famous physicist Werner Heisenberg, as he fled ahead of the approaching allied forces. There are still around 650 cubes completely unaccounted for. It's possible that many were fed into the U.S. government's nuclear complex after the war and eventually manufactured into American atomic weapons. But Hiebert and Koeth believe that many, perhaps most, of the cubes survived. "It genuinely would not shock me at all if they're sitting in a box somewhere and nobody has wanted to move this really heavy box for the past 70 years," Hiebert says. She and Koeth are hoping someone will stumble across the missing uranium and give them a call. Read more about the cubes in Physics Today. You won’t find a paywall here. Come as often as you like — we’re not counting. You’ve found a like-minded tribe that cherishes what a free press stands for. If you can spend another couple of minutes making a pledge of as little as $5, you’ll feel like a superhero defending democracy for less than the cost of a month of Netflix.	1,430	ENGLISH	1

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