Split (1)

train · 729k rows

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The historical context of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens. A Christmas Carol was written in 1843 at a time of great change in Victorian Britain. The industrial revolution was taking place and there was a sudden growth of the cities as the economy shifted from agriculture to industry and trade people moved from the countryside to the cities and many lived in squalor as the housing was appalling. Money from industry made the rich, richer and the gap between rich and poor widened. Workers had to toil for long hours and for little money. Children didn’t go to school and worked long hours for a low wage to help support their families who barely had enough money to buy food. In the poorer areas of Britain's larger cities almost 1 in 5 children born in the 1830s and 40s had died by the age of five. The main causes of death were polluted drinking water, damp and tuberculosis, which claimed between 60,000 and 70,000 lives in each decade of Queen Victoria's reign. There was no healthcare at this time and if you got ill and couldn't work, your whole family was at risk of death. For those who were unable to support themselves, there were the workhouses: these were not intended as pleasant places to stay. Men, women and families were separated and those who were physically able were expected to work for their keep. Those who could not pay their debts were sent to debtors' prisons such as Marshalsea, where Charles Dickens' father spent time. During this period a small number of people became very wealthy and they lived in luxury with large houses, plenty of money, food and clothes. Their children didn’t work and were educated. Being seen to be civilised and adhering to a strict set of morals was important to high society in the Victorian age.	<urn:uuid:b9249ecd-7a77-4157-9da5-035c5710db0a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://revisionworld.com/a2-level-level-revision/english-literature-gcse-level/christmas-carol-charles-dickens/historical-context-christmas-carol	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00317.warc.gz	en	0.9956	368	3.859375	4	[ 0.15962877869606018, -0.004078951198607683, 0.7563626766204834, 0.09233474731445312, 0.44925451278686523, -0.29033154249191284, 0.046289898455142975, 0.11581643670797348, -0.10746675729751587, -0.1517411172389984, -0.007651157211512327, -0.1210685670375824, -0.11931395530700684, 0.08715181...	3	The historical context of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens. A Christmas Carol was written in 1843 at a time of great change in Victorian Britain. The industrial revolution was taking place and there was a sudden growth of the cities as the economy shifted from agriculture to industry and trade people moved from the countryside to the cities and many lived in squalor as the housing was appalling. Money from industry made the rich, richer and the gap between rich and poor widened. Workers had to toil for long hours and for little money. Children didn’t go to school and worked long hours for a low wage to help support their families who barely had enough money to buy food. In the poorer areas of Britain's larger cities almost 1 in 5 children born in the 1830s and 40s had died by the age of five. The main causes of death were polluted drinking water, damp and tuberculosis, which claimed between 60,000 and 70,000 lives in each decade of Queen Victoria's reign. There was no healthcare at this time and if you got ill and couldn't work, your whole family was at risk of death. For those who were unable to support themselves, there were the workhouses: these were not intended as pleasant places to stay. Men, women and families were separated and those who were physically able were expected to work for their keep. Those who could not pay their debts were sent to debtors' prisons such as Marshalsea, where Charles Dickens' father spent time. During this period a small number of people became very wealthy and they lived in luxury with large houses, plenty of money, food and clothes. Their children didn’t work and were educated. Being seen to be civilised and adhering to a strict set of morals was important to high society in the Victorian age.	378	ENGLISH	1
Thanksgiving is just around the corner, and there's much to be thankful for. Maybe you're like me and you're thankful for the wonderful desserts that fill the table. But can you imagine what Thanksgiving would be like without the traditional pumpkin pie? When did pumpkin pie originate and why is it traditionally served on Thanksgiving? Pumpkins themselves were unheard of in Europe before the first European explorers brought the seeds back to their native lands. Pumpkins were not even mentioned in European writings until 1536. Within only a few years, the pumpkin caught on as being a wonderful dish--both savory and sweet. By the time the first European settlers arrived in the New World, pumpkin was seen more as a practical and necessary food than as a treat. Pumpkins, because of their size and consistency were useful for feeding many people. In fact, as the people began to prosper in the new land, they began to serve "apples, pears, and quince tarts instead of their former Pumpkin Pies," according to Captain Edward Johnson. It is probable that pumpkin pie was served at the first Thanksgiving, although not in pie form.These "pumpkin pies" were sometimes baked in the pumpkin shell, sometimes without a crust, sometimes savory, and sometimes sweet. "Pumpkin pie" was a broad term encompassing all of these forms of the squash. About the same time as Thanksgiving became widely celebrated in New England, the pumpkin pie that we know and love developed. By 1705, the beloved pie became so important that Colchester, Connecticut postponed its Thanksgiving celebration because the shipment of molasses was late. Because pumpkin pie was a New England tradition, during the Civil War it quickly began to symbolize the North. Thus, after the war, the northern tradition became a national tradition. When Lincoln made Thanksgiving a national holiday in 1863, southerners saw the move as enforcing Northern traditions on the South. Despite this, the beloved pumpkin pie won over the entire nation and has been celebrated ever since.	<urn:uuid:42bddf83-ef92-4b40-8d78-50b3aca849b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.achroanoke.org/single-post/2017/11/20/The-Origin-of-Pumpkin-Pie	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00034.warc.gz	en	0.982806	415	3.5	4	[ -0.040859073400497437, 0.2889833450317383, 0.5585325956344604, -0.029348568990826607, -0.1244700625538826, -0.2138112485408783, -0.00576969888061285, 0.2582181990146637, 0.18036478757858276, 0.253181129693985, -0.036774422973394394, 0.12045380473136902, -0.4753160774707794, 0.0709950402379...	3	Thanksgiving is just around the corner, and there's much to be thankful for. Maybe you're like me and you're thankful for the wonderful desserts that fill the table. But can you imagine what Thanksgiving would be like without the traditional pumpkin pie? When did pumpkin pie originate and why is it traditionally served on Thanksgiving? Pumpkins themselves were unheard of in Europe before the first European explorers brought the seeds back to their native lands. Pumpkins were not even mentioned in European writings until 1536. Within only a few years, the pumpkin caught on as being a wonderful dish--both savory and sweet. By the time the first European settlers arrived in the New World, pumpkin was seen more as a practical and necessary food than as a treat. Pumpkins, because of their size and consistency were useful for feeding many people. In fact, as the people began to prosper in the new land, they began to serve "apples, pears, and quince tarts instead of their former Pumpkin Pies," according to Captain Edward Johnson. It is probable that pumpkin pie was served at the first Thanksgiving, although not in pie form.These "pumpkin pies" were sometimes baked in the pumpkin shell, sometimes without a crust, sometimes savory, and sometimes sweet. "Pumpkin pie" was a broad term encompassing all of these forms of the squash. About the same time as Thanksgiving became widely celebrated in New England, the pumpkin pie that we know and love developed. By 1705, the beloved pie became so important that Colchester, Connecticut postponed its Thanksgiving celebration because the shipment of molasses was late. Because pumpkin pie was a New England tradition, during the Civil War it quickly began to symbolize the North. Thus, after the war, the northern tradition became a national tradition. When Lincoln made Thanksgiving a national holiday in 1863, southerners saw the move as enforcing Northern traditions on the South. Despite this, the beloved pumpkin pie won over the entire nation and has been celebrated ever since.	416	ENGLISH	1
The virtues of an egalitarian society are lauded by many but there are only a few such individuals who strive to live by their ideals in life and indeed work to achieve a goal that defines them and also benefits the entire society. Because society has forever been infested with ills and plagued by issues, the doctrine of social reform occupies centerstage whenever we talk of a just and equal society where each individual has access to the basic rights and privileges that validate their existence as a rightful member of civilised society. Indian society also has been governed by various prejudices and ills that sought to overmine the rights of some individuals while bestowing unnecessary privileges to some. Here are 15 such Indian social reformers who brought about such positive changes in society with their relentless efforts and dedicated works that their contributions can’t ever be forgotten- Dr B. R. Ambedkar Among the most of Indian social reformers is the person who has been so instrumental in shaping the country as one that can take pride in its values and ideals is B. R. Ambedkar. The architect of the Indian Constitution, Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar or Babasaheb Ambedkar, as he is widely known was forever rooting for reforms to dig out evils in the prevailing Indian polity and society. Also a jurist and an economist, it’s only apt that a man so steeped in his vision of an egalitarian society rose to become independent India’s first law and justice minister. Having been born as a Dalit, Ambedkar knew full well of the oppression that this marginalised group of people were subjected to even in a seemingly civlised society. Regarded as untouchables, the Dalits were one of the most overlooked classes of people, who were subjected to being assigned menial jobs while being completely devoid of their political and social rights. It was Babasaheb Ambedkar who raised his voice against such injustice and oppression and advocated for reforms to be forged that would uphold the social freedom and political rights of these underprivileged people. He was so assertive n his demands that he continues to be the symbol of revolt against all forms of oppression even more than six decades after his death. A social activist who is best known for her initiation of the Narmada Bachao Andolan, Medha Patkar has been actively associated with various social issues all her life. Be it political and economic issues or social upliftment of tribals and dalits or labourers and women, Patkar’s understanding and concern for socially backward classes and sections stemmed from her upbringing. Born to parents who were active in the Indian independence movement as well as in bringing about reforms in society, Patkar had been forever sensitive to issues that concern the society at large. The Narmada Bachao Andolan of which Patkar was the founding member was a revolt of sorts against multiple dam projects that had threatened to displace thousands of people, mostly marginalised and tribal folks in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The NBA was essentially a struggle for justice of the people who was affected by the displacement as well as a movement that urged efforts to save the Narmada river from further human interference. This notable name among the Indian social reformers has also been equally involved with various mass struggles across the country that aimed at ending discrimination and inequality and bring about justice and security to the masses. Gopal Ganesh Agarkar Gopal Ganesh Agarkar remains among the lesser known of Indian social reformers even when he was actively associated in bringing about betterment for the marginalised sections of society. Be it his support of widow remarriage and his advocacy for women emancipation or his campaign against the evils of untouchability and the caste system, Agarkar encouraged radical social reforms as the means to build an equal and egalitarian society. He was also supporter of causes as propagating women education and liberation and bringing about reforms in society by encouraging rational thinking. Baba Amte is an Indian social reformer who is known for his untiring efforts in bringing about betterment of people who have been afflicted by leprosy. For someone who was born into an affluent family and had a qualms- free childhood himself, Baba Amte was surprisingly empathetic of people who enjoyed lower societal and economic status than him. A trained lawyer, Amte became actively involved in the Indian struggle for independence and it was around that time that he became aware of the acute stigma that leprosy victims in the society were subjected to. It was the belief that leprosy was a highly contagious disease that made society shun such people and Baba Amte worked devotedly to dispel such notions and make better treatment and rehabilitation more accessible to such patients. He also founded three ashrams and a hospital exclusively dedicated to the welfare and treatment of people with leprosy. Not only that, Baba Amte was also actively associated with the Narmada Bachao Andolan and worked untiringly to raise public awareness about the importance of ecological balance and wildlife preservation and such other issues. Acharya Vinoba Bhave Acharya Vinoba Bhave is one of the well known Indian social reformers who was the propagator of the Bhoodan movement which has been a land donation movement. His social reforms centered around his spiritual beliefs and was manifested through the Sarvodaya movement- a movement that was dedicated to bring about welfare for all. His belief and concern regarding the upliftment of women led him to establish a number of ashrams dedicated to the cause of the underlined female population in the country. Gopal Hari Deshmukh An activist and social reformer, Gopal Hari Deshmukh promoted the emancipation and liberation of women and opposed practices such as polygamy, the evils of the dowry and the caste system, child marriage while propagating reforms like widow remarriage and even positive changes in the religious doctrines that had long been dominating society. The pioneer of reformism in India, Deshmukh’s concern for the underprivileged masses earned him the title of Lokhitwadi. Another of the Indian social reformers who was a spiritual leader, Narayana Guru dwelt on his own experiences as an individual born in the lower strata of society to lead a movement against caste based discrimination that was so rampantly prevalent in society. He wanted to bring about social equality for which purpose he introduced a slew of measures. His disillusion with the prevalent injustice led Narayana Guru to establish a school where he sought to provide free education to all children, irrespective of their caste and social standing. He led several agitations of the lower castes against the injustice propagated by untouchability and as the forerunner of the social renaissance in Kerala consecrated numerous temples even when it was then only a privilege exclusive to the Brahmins. Another of the Indian social reformers who attempted to do away with the inequality perpetuated by the caste system and the evils of the practice of untouchability was Jyotirao Phule. Jotiba Phule, as he was known, was the founder of the Satyashodhak Samaj that aimed to make basic rights accessible to people of also the lower strata of society. He was actively involved in working forward for reforms that would bring betterment for the oppressed people in society and he sough to do that with education. His thrust on the importance of education for the lower class people and also for women as well as his advocacy of women’s rights makes him an activist who wanted to bring about all round emancipation of the society plagued by various social ills. Phule had also been an ardent supporter of widow remarriage and worked to ensure that pregnant Brahmin widows were taken well care of. From establishing orphanages to opening schools, from working to make sure that every individual in society has access to facilities that satisfy their basic needs and interests to encouraging rational thinking and denouncing the caste system, all through his life Phule strived to build a classless and just society free of oppression and steeped in ideals of humanity and equality. Widely regarded as the Mother of Indian Feminism, Savitribai Phule was a social reformer and activist who strived to goad Indian society on the path of development along with her husband Jyotirao Phule. Educated by Jyotirao after she had been married at a very young age, Savitribai herself began to champion the cause of women education and is believed to be the first female teacher in the country. Apart from being an educationist, Savitribai was also a philanthropist who played an important role in Maharashtra’s social reform movement. Not only did she advocate the recognition of the rights of women, she also worked to abolish the caste based discrimination and unfair treatment of people and sought to bring about equality in society. Mahadev Govind Ranade A visionary among the Indian social reformers was Mahadev Govind Ranade who founded the Social Conference Movement and the Widow Marriage Association as institutions that would help him bring about reforms in certain aspects of the prevailing societal practices. A staunch denouncer of child marriage and the purdah system, Ranade also advocated widow remarriage and female education. He was also against such dictates that required widows to shave their heads or the unnecessary costs incurred in marriages and other social functions, as well as the caste restrictions that were largely imposed on traveling out of the country. He also spoke out against the prevailing superstitions and illogical blind faiths of those times. Raja Ram Mohan Roy As the founder of the socio- religious reform movement Brahmo Samaj, Raja Ram Mohan Roy established himself as one of the Indian social reformers who dedicated his entire life to working for bringing about equality and justice in the society. He is particularly known for his efforts to eliminate such evil and inhuman practices as sati and polygamy as well as child marriage while demanding that women should also be entitled to inherit property. His belief that it was education only that could help raise awareness and abolish all injustice was so deep rooted that he himself established a number of schools and colleges to further the purpose. The father of the Indian Renaissance, Raja Ram Mohan Roy indeed attempted to reform the then society and make it one that would be more egalitarian, rational and ethical. Among the well known of the Indian social reformers is also Dayananad Saraswati, founder of the Arya Samaj that was a reform movement of the Vedic dharma. Apart from his attempt at religious reform, Saraswati was also as concerned about bringing in social reforms. Among his major contributions are the advocacy of equal rights for women and their right to education as well as the education of children. He was also against child marriage and the division of society on the basis of caste and gender. He also spoke out against superstitions and denounced various religious practices like animal sacrifice and undue offerings to priests and in temples. Keshub Chandra Sen A member of the Brahmo Samaj and the founder of the Indian Reform Association, Keshub Chandra Sen was another of the eminent Indian social reformers who is known for his efforts at bringing about women emancipation. He was an active supporter of the right to education for women and supported widow remarriage while denouncing child marriage. An epitome of humanity and a Roman catholic nun who made charity and selflessness her life motto, Yogoslavia born Mother Teresa was a social reformer who might not have been Indian by birth but set about bringing in social reform into the country through her humanitarian work . Born to Albanian parents as Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, Mother Teresa was stirred by misery and despair at a young age. Her missionary work brought her to India in 1929 and she was even more appalled by the sorry plight of the abandoned and destitutes here. As the founding figure of The Missionaries of Charity which was aimed at serving the cause of the underprivileged, Mother Teresa rendered social service of an unprecedented magnitude. Another of her foundations was Nirmal Hriday which dedicatedly worked for the welfare of the dying destitutes, lepers and drug addicts. Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979, years later after she attained Indian citizenship in 1951. For the woman whose life was spent serving the ‘poorest of the poor’, The Nobel Peace Prize was indeed a “recognition of [her] work in bringing help to suffering humanity” alongside her claim to a couple more prestigious awards including the Pope John XXIII Peace Prize (1971) and the Magsaysay Award among others. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar A reformer and philanthropist, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar remains one among those Indian social reformers who witnessed first hand the discrimination against the marginalised sections of society and therefore sought to work to initiate reforms for the same. A prominent supporter of widow remarriage, Vidyasagar wanted to uplift the societal status of women in general by bringing about positive changes within the society’s prevailing state of affairs. He harboured a powerful voice against the many oppression of women that were such a regularity in the society of those times and also advocated the right of education for females which was not deemed to be a basic human right by society at that time. An extension of his advocacy of the rights and the just treatment of women folk was his staunch opposition to the practice of polygamy. Vidyasagar also was equally empathetic to the cause of the poor and the destitutes and did everything in his capacity to bring them out of misery.	<urn:uuid:5fda22b6-fa3a-4259-9f9b-6c80f89611ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.innfinity.in/limitless/indian-social-reformers/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00518.warc.gz	en	0.982877	2,813	3.546875	4	[ -0.17706547677516937, 0.1889323890209198, -0.10088472068309784, -0.38364505767822266, -0.437992662191391, -0.05176384001970291, 0.18620747327804565, 0.1793060004711151, 0.35895729064941406, 0.3382614552974701, -0.2503963112831116, -0.13325625658035278, 0.14966434240341187, -0.1049359962344...	5	The virtues of an egalitarian society are lauded by many but there are only a few such individuals who strive to live by their ideals in life and indeed work to achieve a goal that defines them and also benefits the entire society. Because society has forever been infested with ills and plagued by issues, the doctrine of social reform occupies centerstage whenever we talk of a just and equal society where each individual has access to the basic rights and privileges that validate their existence as a rightful member of civilised society. Indian society also has been governed by various prejudices and ills that sought to overmine the rights of some individuals while bestowing unnecessary privileges to some. Here are 15 such Indian social reformers who brought about such positive changes in society with their relentless efforts and dedicated works that their contributions can’t ever be forgotten- Dr B. R. Ambedkar Among the most of Indian social reformers is the person who has been so instrumental in shaping the country as one that can take pride in its values and ideals is B. R. Ambedkar. The architect of the Indian Constitution, Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar or Babasaheb Ambedkar, as he is widely known was forever rooting for reforms to dig out evils in the prevailing Indian polity and society. Also a jurist and an economist, it’s only apt that a man so steeped in his vision of an egalitarian society rose to become independent India’s first law and justice minister. Having been born as a Dalit, Ambedkar knew full well of the oppression that this marginalised group of people were subjected to even in a seemingly civlised society. Regarded as untouchables, the Dalits were one of the most overlooked classes of people, who were subjected to being assigned menial jobs while being completely devoid of their political and social rights. It was Babasaheb Ambedkar who raised his voice against such injustice and oppression and advocated for reforms to be forged that would uphold the social freedom and political rights of these underprivileged people. He was so assertive n his demands that he continues to be the symbol of revolt against all forms of oppression even more than six decades after his death. A social activist who is best known for her initiation of the Narmada Bachao Andolan, Medha Patkar has been actively associated with various social issues all her life. Be it political and economic issues or social upliftment of tribals and dalits or labourers and women, Patkar’s understanding and concern for socially backward classes and sections stemmed from her upbringing. Born to parents who were active in the Indian independence movement as well as in bringing about reforms in society, Patkar had been forever sensitive to issues that concern the society at large. The Narmada Bachao Andolan of which Patkar was the founding member was a revolt of sorts against multiple dam projects that had threatened to displace thousands of people, mostly marginalised and tribal folks in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The NBA was essentially a struggle for justice of the people who was affected by the displacement as well as a movement that urged efforts to save the Narmada river from further human interference. This notable name among the Indian social reformers has also been equally involved with various mass struggles across the country that aimed at ending discrimination and inequality and bring about justice and security to the masses. Gopal Ganesh Agarkar Gopal Ganesh Agarkar remains among the lesser known of Indian social reformers even when he was actively associated in bringing about betterment for the marginalised sections of society. Be it his support of widow remarriage and his advocacy for women emancipation or his campaign against the evils of untouchability and the caste system, Agarkar encouraged radical social reforms as the means to build an equal and egalitarian society. He was also supporter of causes as propagating women education and liberation and bringing about reforms in society by encouraging rational thinking. Baba Amte is an Indian social reformer who is known for his untiring efforts in bringing about betterment of people who have been afflicted by leprosy. For someone who was born into an affluent family and had a qualms- free childhood himself, Baba Amte was surprisingly empathetic of people who enjoyed lower societal and economic status than him. A trained lawyer, Amte became actively involved in the Indian struggle for independence and it was around that time that he became aware of the acute stigma that leprosy victims in the society were subjected to. It was the belief that leprosy was a highly contagious disease that made society shun such people and Baba Amte worked devotedly to dispel such notions and make better treatment and rehabilitation more accessible to such patients. He also founded three ashrams and a hospital exclusively dedicated to the welfare and treatment of people with leprosy. Not only that, Baba Amte was also actively associated with the Narmada Bachao Andolan and worked untiringly to raise public awareness about the importance of ecological balance and wildlife preservation and such other issues. Acharya Vinoba Bhave Acharya Vinoba Bhave is one of the well known Indian social reformers who was the propagator of the Bhoodan movement which has been a land donation movement. His social reforms centered around his spiritual beliefs and was manifested through the Sarvodaya movement- a movement that was dedicated to bring about welfare for all. His belief and concern regarding the upliftment of women led him to establish a number of ashrams dedicated to the cause of the underlined female population in the country. Gopal Hari Deshmukh An activist and social reformer, Gopal Hari Deshmukh promoted the emancipation and liberation of women and opposed practices such as polygamy, the evils of the dowry and the caste system, child marriage while propagating reforms like widow remarriage and even positive changes in the religious doctrines that had long been dominating society. The pioneer of reformism in India, Deshmukh’s concern for the underprivileged masses earned him the title of Lokhitwadi. Another of the Indian social reformers who was a spiritual leader, Narayana Guru dwelt on his own experiences as an individual born in the lower strata of society to lead a movement against caste based discrimination that was so rampantly prevalent in society. He wanted to bring about social equality for which purpose he introduced a slew of measures. His disillusion with the prevalent injustice led Narayana Guru to establish a school where he sought to provide free education to all children, irrespective of their caste and social standing. He led several agitations of the lower castes against the injustice propagated by untouchability and as the forerunner of the social renaissance in Kerala consecrated numerous temples even when it was then only a privilege exclusive to the Brahmins. Another of the Indian social reformers who attempted to do away with the inequality perpetuated by the caste system and the evils of the practice of untouchability was Jyotirao Phule. Jotiba Phule, as he was known, was the founder of the Satyashodhak Samaj that aimed to make basic rights accessible to people of also the lower strata of society. He was actively involved in working forward for reforms that would bring betterment for the oppressed people in society and he sough to do that with education. His thrust on the importance of education for the lower class people and also for women as well as his advocacy of women’s rights makes him an activist who wanted to bring about all round emancipation of the society plagued by various social ills. Phule had also been an ardent supporter of widow remarriage and worked to ensure that pregnant Brahmin widows were taken well care of. From establishing orphanages to opening schools, from working to make sure that every individual in society has access to facilities that satisfy their basic needs and interests to encouraging rational thinking and denouncing the caste system, all through his life Phule strived to build a classless and just society free of oppression and steeped in ideals of humanity and equality. Widely regarded as the Mother of Indian Feminism, Savitribai Phule was a social reformer and activist who strived to goad Indian society on the path of development along with her husband Jyotirao Phule. Educated by Jyotirao after she had been married at a very young age, Savitribai herself began to champion the cause of women education and is believed to be the first female teacher in the country. Apart from being an educationist, Savitribai was also a philanthropist who played an important role in Maharashtra’s social reform movement. Not only did she advocate the recognition of the rights of women, she also worked to abolish the caste based discrimination and unfair treatment of people and sought to bring about equality in society. Mahadev Govind Ranade A visionary among the Indian social reformers was Mahadev Govind Ranade who founded the Social Conference Movement and the Widow Marriage Association as institutions that would help him bring about reforms in certain aspects of the prevailing societal practices. A staunch denouncer of child marriage and the purdah system, Ranade also advocated widow remarriage and female education. He was also against such dictates that required widows to shave their heads or the unnecessary costs incurred in marriages and other social functions, as well as the caste restrictions that were largely imposed on traveling out of the country. He also spoke out against the prevailing superstitions and illogical blind faiths of those times. Raja Ram Mohan Roy As the founder of the socio- religious reform movement Brahmo Samaj, Raja Ram Mohan Roy established himself as one of the Indian social reformers who dedicated his entire life to working for bringing about equality and justice in the society. He is particularly known for his efforts to eliminate such evil and inhuman practices as sati and polygamy as well as child marriage while demanding that women should also be entitled to inherit property. His belief that it was education only that could help raise awareness and abolish all injustice was so deep rooted that he himself established a number of schools and colleges to further the purpose. The father of the Indian Renaissance, Raja Ram Mohan Roy indeed attempted to reform the then society and make it one that would be more egalitarian, rational and ethical. Among the well known of the Indian social reformers is also Dayananad Saraswati, founder of the Arya Samaj that was a reform movement of the Vedic dharma. Apart from his attempt at religious reform, Saraswati was also as concerned about bringing in social reforms. Among his major contributions are the advocacy of equal rights for women and their right to education as well as the education of children. He was also against child marriage and the division of society on the basis of caste and gender. He also spoke out against superstitions and denounced various religious practices like animal sacrifice and undue offerings to priests and in temples. Keshub Chandra Sen A member of the Brahmo Samaj and the founder of the Indian Reform Association, Keshub Chandra Sen was another of the eminent Indian social reformers who is known for his efforts at bringing about women emancipation. He was an active supporter of the right to education for women and supported widow remarriage while denouncing child marriage. An epitome of humanity and a Roman catholic nun who made charity and selflessness her life motto, Yogoslavia born Mother Teresa was a social reformer who might not have been Indian by birth but set about bringing in social reform into the country through her humanitarian work . Born to Albanian parents as Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, Mother Teresa was stirred by misery and despair at a young age. Her missionary work brought her to India in 1929 and she was even more appalled by the sorry plight of the abandoned and destitutes here. As the founding figure of The Missionaries of Charity which was aimed at serving the cause of the underprivileged, Mother Teresa rendered social service of an unprecedented magnitude. Another of her foundations was Nirmal Hriday which dedicatedly worked for the welfare of the dying destitutes, lepers and drug addicts. Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979, years later after she attained Indian citizenship in 1951. For the woman whose life was spent serving the ‘poorest of the poor’, The Nobel Peace Prize was indeed a “recognition of [her] work in bringing help to suffering humanity” alongside her claim to a couple more prestigious awards including the Pope John XXIII Peace Prize (1971) and the Magsaysay Award among others. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar A reformer and philanthropist, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar remains one among those Indian social reformers who witnessed first hand the discrimination against the marginalised sections of society and therefore sought to work to initiate reforms for the same. A prominent supporter of widow remarriage, Vidyasagar wanted to uplift the societal status of women in general by bringing about positive changes within the society’s prevailing state of affairs. He harboured a powerful voice against the many oppression of women that were such a regularity in the society of those times and also advocated the right of education for females which was not deemed to be a basic human right by society at that time. An extension of his advocacy of the rights and the just treatment of women folk was his staunch opposition to the practice of polygamy. Vidyasagar also was equally empathetic to the cause of the poor and the destitutes and did everything in his capacity to bring them out of misery.	2,797	ENGLISH	1
Emperor Tewodros II ruled over Ethiopia from 1855 till his death in 1868. His rule brought considerable development and change to the military and the structure of governance such that his era is described as the beginning of Modern Ethiopia. He was born in 1818 and became king at the age of 37. His father Hailu Welde Giyorigis was the ruler of the Qwara district. At the time, Ethiopia had no single ruler but rulers of various districts who gained more as they conquered other districts. He joined his brother’s army at an early age and served as a protector of the Qwara district until 1839 when his brother was killed, and Qwara was captured by Empress Menan of Gondor. Tewodros refused to submit to the empress but instead left for the outskirts of Qwara and started his own army. He soon became an influential military leader and was named the dajazmach of Qwara. To prevent him from attacking the Empress, he was also given a wife of noble birth. Emperor Tewodros II could not be won by the kind gesture for too long. After a while, he set out to take complete control over Ethiopia first by conquering Gondor and taking Empress Menan as a prisoner after she sent an army after him. Between 1851 and 1855, Twedoros II dedicated his life to defeating all districts until he was crowned king of kings of Ethiopia and named King Tewedros II. Up until his crowning, he was known as Kassa Hailu. As King, he brought considerable change to Ethiopia by establishing a professional standing army doing away with the old system of forming and training an army only when there was a battle. The formation of this army made Ethiopia a powerful state. He not only established a structured government and rule of a central king but also became quite successful in easing tension between districts and making Ethiopia a more peaceful state. Unfortunately, Tewodros II soon became power drunk after gaining the respect of other states in Africa and Europe. His hot temper and wickedness reached its peak at the death of his wife who was successful in speaking to his soft side. After defeating Tedla Gwalu in 1863, he ordered the killing of close to 7000 prisoners he had captured. By October 1863, he was feared and unwanted in all of Ethiopia. To gain more power, Emperor Tewodros II planned to conquer Jerusalem and attempted to seek the help of the British but his plans were leaked, and information was sent out to lower ranking British officials who stopped him. He then sent a letter to Queen Victoria through Captain Charles Duncan Cameron, the British Consul in Ethiopia requesting support from the Britsih army to build a stronger army by sending arms and trainers. He still suggested the joint conquering of Jerusalem. Prisoners of Emperor Tewodros II His letter went unanswered and the Emperor retaliated by arresting and locking up Captain Charles Duncan Cameron and all British and Europeans in Ethiopia. After two years of keeping the foreigners in prison, the Emperor threatened Mr Stern, a British writer who had written a book describing his cruelty, and killed two of the writer’s servants. After three years, the Queen responded to the Emperor’s letter. Tewodros II was so insulted by the negative reply that he imprisoned members of mission lead by Hormuzd Rassam, who bore the letter, and other Europeans. This marked as a breach of diplomatic immunity, forcing Britain to wage war against Ethiopia. The British sent an expeditionary force from India to Ethiopia to fight against the Emperor who, for the first time in several years, was greatly defeated. After the defeat, Emperor Tewodros II attempted to make peace but declared that he would never be taken in as a prisoner. The British went ahead to attack Magdala, where the Europeans were kept as prisoners under full protection under the Ethiopian army. They killed most of the military officials and loyal followers of the Emperor. The Emperor quickly released the European prisoners and ordered up to 300 of the remaining military to jump over a cliff and committed suicide by shooting himself in the head with a pistol on Easter Monday, April 13, 1868, before the British could reach him. The tragic end of Emperor Tewodros II, the mighty king who brought modernity, peace and power to Ethiopia, is less spoken of due to the embarrassing imprisonment of British officials and other Europeans recorded in Western history.	<urn:uuid:7c96ac76-b31f-435e-9f69-d52daac53367>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://howafrica.com/the-tragic-end-of-emperor-tewodros-ii-who-tried-to-capture-jerusalem-in-the-1800s/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00350.warc.gz	en	0.984104	929	3.59375	4	[ -0.5105043053627014, 0.6694839000701904, 0.4354720711708069, -0.1035095602273941, -0.3180199861526489, -0.5756571888923645, -0.03886190056800842, 0.08710291981697083, 0.033317893743515015, 0.27592751383781433, 0.12397900223731995, -0.6370269656181335, 0.3732139468193054, 0.0812624022364616...	3	Emperor Tewodros II ruled over Ethiopia from 1855 till his death in 1868. His rule brought considerable development and change to the military and the structure of governance such that his era is described as the beginning of Modern Ethiopia. He was born in 1818 and became king at the age of 37. His father Hailu Welde Giyorigis was the ruler of the Qwara district. At the time, Ethiopia had no single ruler but rulers of various districts who gained more as they conquered other districts. He joined his brother’s army at an early age and served as a protector of the Qwara district until 1839 when his brother was killed, and Qwara was captured by Empress Menan of Gondor. Tewodros refused to submit to the empress but instead left for the outskirts of Qwara and started his own army. He soon became an influential military leader and was named the dajazmach of Qwara. To prevent him from attacking the Empress, he was also given a wife of noble birth. Emperor Tewodros II could not be won by the kind gesture for too long. After a while, he set out to take complete control over Ethiopia first by conquering Gondor and taking Empress Menan as a prisoner after she sent an army after him. Between 1851 and 1855, Twedoros II dedicated his life to defeating all districts until he was crowned king of kings of Ethiopia and named King Tewedros II. Up until his crowning, he was known as Kassa Hailu. As King, he brought considerable change to Ethiopia by establishing a professional standing army doing away with the old system of forming and training an army only when there was a battle. The formation of this army made Ethiopia a powerful state. He not only established a structured government and rule of a central king but also became quite successful in easing tension between districts and making Ethiopia a more peaceful state. Unfortunately, Tewodros II soon became power drunk after gaining the respect of other states in Africa and Europe. His hot temper and wickedness reached its peak at the death of his wife who was successful in speaking to his soft side. After defeating Tedla Gwalu in 1863, he ordered the killing of close to 7000 prisoners he had captured. By October 1863, he was feared and unwanted in all of Ethiopia. To gain more power, Emperor Tewodros II planned to conquer Jerusalem and attempted to seek the help of the British but his plans were leaked, and information was sent out to lower ranking British officials who stopped him. He then sent a letter to Queen Victoria through Captain Charles Duncan Cameron, the British Consul in Ethiopia requesting support from the Britsih army to build a stronger army by sending arms and trainers. He still suggested the joint conquering of Jerusalem. Prisoners of Emperor Tewodros II His letter went unanswered and the Emperor retaliated by arresting and locking up Captain Charles Duncan Cameron and all British and Europeans in Ethiopia. After two years of keeping the foreigners in prison, the Emperor threatened Mr Stern, a British writer who had written a book describing his cruelty, and killed two of the writer’s servants. After three years, the Queen responded to the Emperor’s letter. Tewodros II was so insulted by the negative reply that he imprisoned members of mission lead by Hormuzd Rassam, who bore the letter, and other Europeans. This marked as a breach of diplomatic immunity, forcing Britain to wage war against Ethiopia. The British sent an expeditionary force from India to Ethiopia to fight against the Emperor who, for the first time in several years, was greatly defeated. After the defeat, Emperor Tewodros II attempted to make peace but declared that he would never be taken in as a prisoner. The British went ahead to attack Magdala, where the Europeans were kept as prisoners under full protection under the Ethiopian army. They killed most of the military officials and loyal followers of the Emperor. The Emperor quickly released the European prisoners and ordered up to 300 of the remaining military to jump over a cliff and committed suicide by shooting himself in the head with a pistol on Easter Monday, April 13, 1868, before the British could reach him. The tragic end of Emperor Tewodros II, the mighty king who brought modernity, peace and power to Ethiopia, is less spoken of due to the embarrassing imprisonment of British officials and other Europeans recorded in Western history.	952	ENGLISH	1
State lands are a consequence of our national independence. In 1785, fresh from the Revolutionary War victory but prior to ratification of our federal constitution, a committee of founders fretted about how to parcel out the millions of acres of land in what was then known as the Northwest—primarily the Ohio River Valley and its tributaries. The Land Act defined how settlers could obtain this “vacant” land, establishing counties that were divided into 6-square-mile townships. Each township was further divided into square-mile sections, 36 per township. Each of these sections could be sold or granted to qualifying settlers, or kept in the public domain to be used for a defined public purpose. West of the Mississippi, it became common that two sections in each township, 16 and 36, were granted to the state as trust lands.	<urn:uuid:947667db-e93b-434f-a049-8cd5efacf8e4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.outdoorlife.com/are-state-lands-really-public/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00297.warc.gz	en	0.981632	170	3.65625	4	[ -0.539535403251648, -0.02556721679866314, 0.021393567323684692, -0.14544451236724854, -0.061782337725162506, 0.4541472792625427, 0.19046086072921753, 0.08021976798772812, -0.30373895168304443, 0.21754488348960876, -0.1693415343761444, -0.40165984630584717, 0.03789152204990387, 0.2089562565...	2	State lands are a consequence of our national independence. In 1785, fresh from the Revolutionary War victory but prior to ratification of our federal constitution, a committee of founders fretted about how to parcel out the millions of acres of land in what was then known as the Northwest—primarily the Ohio River Valley and its tributaries. The Land Act defined how settlers could obtain this “vacant” land, establishing counties that were divided into 6-square-mile townships. Each township was further divided into square-mile sections, 36 per township. Each of these sections could be sold or granted to qualifying settlers, or kept in the public domain to be used for a defined public purpose. West of the Mississippi, it became common that two sections in each township, 16 and 36, were granted to the state as trust lands.	175	ENGLISH	1
The Northwest is known for its contributions to aviation and aerospace, from Boeing for bringing us into the Jet Age to local contributions to the Space Age (in both the 20th and 21st centuries). But it all goes back much further than you might think. I’ve long been fascinated by the flying saucer phenomenon, which started with a sighting at Mount Rainier in 1947. But as I dug into that history, I found that there was an even earlier mass encounter with UFOs in the region, one that had ties to an economic boom that helped boost Seattle: the Klondike Gold Rush. Really? The gold rush and UFOs? Hear me out. The late 19th century was a time of great technological change—diesel engines, electric lights, the telephone. The newspapers of the time were full of new inventions. In the 1890s, people were also looking to the skies. Hotair balloons had been around since the late 18th century, but was it possible to build a new generation of airships that would stay aloft, transport people and goods, and be steered and motorized? Well-known inventors such as Thomas Edison thought about the future of airships. So did science fiction writers like Jules Verne. At this time, airships, blimps and dirigibles were still yet-to-fly concepts—none were known to be in the air. In Washington state, the earliest account I’ve found of a local man working on an airship was in 1895. The man’s name was E.D. Parrott, and he raised money to build an airship on the Columbia River. According to contemporary newspaper accounts, he had raised some $500,000 and was assembling his invention in Goldendale in Klickitat County. He promised to fly it for the public on July 4 of that year. A report in the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, picked up from The Dalles, Oregon, Chronicle in April ’95, reports a test flight of this machine, which was described as small and light, made of aluminum, with propellers and a four-horsepower engine. It reportedly flew 150 feet off the ground in a short circle and landed. Parrott later backed out of the July 4 demonstration, disappointing attendees. Like many other inventors and would-be innovators of the period, his name dropped from the news, though I have found references to an E.D. Parrott who applied for patents for a propeller and carburetor in the early 1900s. Despite the press story, no E.D. Parrott is credited with the first flight of an airplane or an airship. But Parrott’s claimed work is evidence that our state’s aviation roots go back a long time before Bill Boeing. Not long after, in late 1896, reports of a flying cigar-shaped airship came out of northern California. It was said to have floated over Sacramento and the Bay Area at night with bright lights. Suddenly, sightings were happening all over the West, including Oregon, Washington and British Columbia. Airships were seen near Mount Rainier, over Spokane, Snohomish and British Columbia. The sightings swept across the nation in 1897, creating what historians now call the phantom or mystery airship phenomenon. As with UFOs, people speculated that these sky objects were new inventions, alien craft from Mars, atmospheric anomalies or outright hoaxes. The sightings seemed to prompt a redoubling of efforts to get into the air, sped up by the simultaneous discovery of gold in the Klondike and Alaska in 1896–97. Here was the perfect economic spur to invention. Getting to the remote goldfields was difficult over land or by sea. Newspapers soon carried accounts of inventors from around the world who were determined to join the gold rush by air. According to a history of flying in the far north, Polar Winds by Danielle Metcalfe-Chenail, an editorial in The New York Times fanned the flames: “Suppose an airship to be now perfected and practical, the riches of the Klondike would lie patent to mankind. The difficulties of reaching that lonely valley would vanish at once.” An inventor in Germany said he was working on an airship in Hoboken, New Jersey. The inventor of the first automatic machine gun, Hiram Stevens Maxim, announced he was building an aircraft forthe Klondike. Canadian, French and Irish inventors said they, too, were building airships. A woman named Miss Eola Lee was said to be planning to fly an airship described as an “immense aerial houseboat” to the goldfields. Alas, none came to fruition. But there were some strange sightings. One was reported in July 1897 from Rivers Inlet, British Columbia, where fishermen said they saw what they took to be a balloon, described as a powerful light with the pear-shaped body attached, presumably a balloon basket, according to the Seattle P-I. That same month, a balloon expedition had been launched by Swedish explorer Salomon August Andrée from Spitsbergen, Norway, to pass over the North Pole. Could that balloon have reached the far north? No, as it turned out, since Andrée’s balloon had crashed on the ice only three days after takeoff. Andrée and his crew died, stranded in the Arctic. The age of airships came later with the likes of the zeppelins, the first one flown in Germany in 1900. But the drama in the skies of 1897 and the boom of the Klondike Gold Rush were events reflecting the excitement of the times, when the last frontier was not only Alaska and the Yukon, but manned flight itself. The gold rush helped drive greed and growth in Seattle, but also sparked attempts at technological innovation in the skies, something that itself became a Seattle tradition.	<urn:uuid:6ad6f7a9-0e68-463e-adbd-bad562d329d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.seattlemag.com/knute-berger-column/theres-more-pnws-sky-high-aviation-history-just-boeing	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00160.warc.gz	en	0.980508	1,222	3.328125	3	[ -0.12042788416147232, 0.12244264781475067, 0.06294453144073486, -0.07206565141677856, 0.06380470842123032, 0.4290861487388611, 0.06208124756813049, 0.550973117351532, -0.30400678515434265, -0.1825537383556366, 0.29396164417266846, 0.16688954830169678, -0.27510932087898254, -0.0646928623318...	12	The Northwest is known for its contributions to aviation and aerospace, from Boeing for bringing us into the Jet Age to local contributions to the Space Age (in both the 20th and 21st centuries). But it all goes back much further than you might think. I’ve long been fascinated by the flying saucer phenomenon, which started with a sighting at Mount Rainier in 1947. But as I dug into that history, I found that there was an even earlier mass encounter with UFOs in the region, one that had ties to an economic boom that helped boost Seattle: the Klondike Gold Rush. Really? The gold rush and UFOs? Hear me out. The late 19th century was a time of great technological change—diesel engines, electric lights, the telephone. The newspapers of the time were full of new inventions. In the 1890s, people were also looking to the skies. Hotair balloons had been around since the late 18th century, but was it possible to build a new generation of airships that would stay aloft, transport people and goods, and be steered and motorized? Well-known inventors such as Thomas Edison thought about the future of airships. So did science fiction writers like Jules Verne. At this time, airships, blimps and dirigibles were still yet-to-fly concepts—none were known to be in the air. In Washington state, the earliest account I’ve found of a local man working on an airship was in 1895. The man’s name was E.D. Parrott, and he raised money to build an airship on the Columbia River. According to contemporary newspaper accounts, he had raised some $500,000 and was assembling his invention in Goldendale in Klickitat County. He promised to fly it for the public on July 4 of that year. A report in the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, picked up from The Dalles, Oregon, Chronicle in April ’95, reports a test flight of this machine, which was described as small and light, made of aluminum, with propellers and a four-horsepower engine. It reportedly flew 150 feet off the ground in a short circle and landed. Parrott later backed out of the July 4 demonstration, disappointing attendees. Like many other inventors and would-be innovators of the period, his name dropped from the news, though I have found references to an E.D. Parrott who applied for patents for a propeller and carburetor in the early 1900s. Despite the press story, no E.D. Parrott is credited with the first flight of an airplane or an airship. But Parrott’s claimed work is evidence that our state’s aviation roots go back a long time before Bill Boeing. Not long after, in late 1896, reports of a flying cigar-shaped airship came out of northern California. It was said to have floated over Sacramento and the Bay Area at night with bright lights. Suddenly, sightings were happening all over the West, including Oregon, Washington and British Columbia. Airships were seen near Mount Rainier, over Spokane, Snohomish and British Columbia. The sightings swept across the nation in 1897, creating what historians now call the phantom or mystery airship phenomenon. As with UFOs, people speculated that these sky objects were new inventions, alien craft from Mars, atmospheric anomalies or outright hoaxes. The sightings seemed to prompt a redoubling of efforts to get into the air, sped up by the simultaneous discovery of gold in the Klondike and Alaska in 1896–97. Here was the perfect economic spur to invention. Getting to the remote goldfields was difficult over land or by sea. Newspapers soon carried accounts of inventors from around the world who were determined to join the gold rush by air. According to a history of flying in the far north, Polar Winds by Danielle Metcalfe-Chenail, an editorial in The New York Times fanned the flames: “Suppose an airship to be now perfected and practical, the riches of the Klondike would lie patent to mankind. The difficulties of reaching that lonely valley would vanish at once.” An inventor in Germany said he was working on an airship in Hoboken, New Jersey. The inventor of the first automatic machine gun, Hiram Stevens Maxim, announced he was building an aircraft forthe Klondike. Canadian, French and Irish inventors said they, too, were building airships. A woman named Miss Eola Lee was said to be planning to fly an airship described as an “immense aerial houseboat” to the goldfields. Alas, none came to fruition. But there were some strange sightings. One was reported in July 1897 from Rivers Inlet, British Columbia, where fishermen said they saw what they took to be a balloon, described as a powerful light with the pear-shaped body attached, presumably a balloon basket, according to the Seattle P-I. That same month, a balloon expedition had been launched by Swedish explorer Salomon August Andrée from Spitsbergen, Norway, to pass over the North Pole. Could that balloon have reached the far north? No, as it turned out, since Andrée’s balloon had crashed on the ice only three days after takeoff. Andrée and his crew died, stranded in the Arctic. The age of airships came later with the likes of the zeppelins, the first one flown in Germany in 1900. But the drama in the skies of 1897 and the boom of the Klondike Gold Rush were events reflecting the excitement of the times, when the last frontier was not only Alaska and the Yukon, but manned flight itself. The gold rush helped drive greed and growth in Seattle, but also sparked attempts at technological innovation in the skies, something that itself became a Seattle tradition.	1,234	ENGLISH	1
People - Ancient Greece: Perseus of Macedon (ca. 212 BC - 166 BC) He was the last king of the Antigonid dynasty, who ruled from 179–167 BC. Perseus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities or Perses (Περσεύς). The last king of Macedonia, the eldest son of Philip V. He reigned eleven years, from B.C. 178 to 168. Before his accession he persuaded his father to put to death his younger brother Demetrius, whom he suspected that the Roman Senate intended to set up as a competitor for the throne on the death of Philip. Immediately after his accession he began to make preparations for war with the Romans, which he knew to be inevitable, though seven years elapsed before actual hostilities commenced. The war broke out in B.C. 171. The first year of the war was marked by no striking action. The consul P. Licinius Crassus first suffered a defeat in Thessaly in an engagement between the cavalry of the two armies, but subsequently gained a slight advantage over the king's troops. The second year of the war (B.C. 170), in which the consul A. Hostilius Mancinus commanded, also passed over without any important battle, but was, on the whole, favourable to Perseus. The third year (B.C. 169), in which the consul Q. Marcius Philippus commanded, again produced no important results. The length to which the war had been unexpectedly protracted, and the ill success of the Roman arms, had by this time excited a general feeling in favour of the Macedonian monarch; but the ill-timed avarice of Perseus, who refused to advance the sum of money which Eumenes, king of Pergamus, demanded, deprived him of this valuable ally; and the same unseasonable niggardliness likewise deprived him of the services of twenty thousand Gallic mercenaries, who had actually advanced into Macedonia to his support, but retired on failing to obtain their stipulated pay. He was left to carry on the contest against Rome single-handed. The fourth year of the war (B.C. 168) was also the last. The new consul, L. Aemilius Paulus, defeated Perseus with great loss in a decisive battle fought near Pydna, on June 22, B.C. 168. Perseus took refuge in the island of Samothrace, where he shortly afterwards surrendered with his children to the praetor Cn. Octavius. When brought before Aemilius he is said to have degraded himself by the most abject supplications; but he was treated with kindness by the Roman general. The following year he was carried to Italy, where he was compelled to adorn the splendid triumph of his conqueror (November 30, B.C. 167), and afterwards cast into a dungeon, from whence, however, the intercession of Aemilius procured his release, and he was permitted to end his days in an honourable captivity at Alba. He survived his removal thither a few years, and died, according to some accounts, by voluntary starvation, while others, fortunately with less probability, represent him as falling a victim to the cruelty of his guards, who deprived him of sleep. Perseus had been twice married; the name of his first wife, whom he is said to have killed with his own hand in a fit of passion, is not recorded; his second, Laodicé, was the daughter of Seleucus IV. Philopator. He left two children -a son, Alexander, and a daughter, both apparently by his second marriage, as they were mere children when carried to Rome. Besides these, he had adopted his younger brother Philip, who appears to have been regarded by him as the heir to his throne, and who became the partner of his captivity. See Livy, bks. xl.-xliv.; and Polyb. bks. xxiv., xxvi., xxvii., xxix. Perseus of Macedon in Wikipedia Perseus (Greek: Περσεύς) (ca. 212 BC - 166 BC) was the last king (Basileus) of the Antigonid dynasty, who ruled the successor state in Macedon created upon the death of Alexander the Great. He also has the distinction of being the last of the line, after losing the Battle of Pydna on 22 June 168 BC; subsequently Macedon came under Roman rule. In 179 BC Philip V of Macedon died. In the previous year Philip had his pro-Roman son Demetrius executed. Perseus had been jealous of Demetrius' success as ambassador to Rome and had convinced their father to have him poisoned as a potential usurper. The Romans favored Demetrius, and Perseus' role in killing Demetrius did not endear him to Rome when he took the throne. One of his first acts on becoming king was to renew the treaty with Rome. Yet, Perseus' other actions troubled Rome. His interference in the affairs of his neighbors, his ousting of Roman ally Abrupolis from his territories, his armed visit to Delphi, his avoidance of the Roman ambassadors to Macedonia, and his dynastic marriages all gave Rome cause for concern. Soon Rome and Perseus went to war in the Third Macedonian War (171-168 BC). Although Perseus had some initial success, the war ended with the King's surrender to the Roman general Lucius Aemilius Paullus after his decisive defeat at the Battle of Pydna, and his eventual imprisonment in Rome with his half-brother Philippus and son Alexander. Blaise Pascal mentions in his Pensées (Lafuma 15) that Perseus was blamed for not committing suicide, supposedly after his defeat and capture at Pydna. The Antigonid kingdom was dissolved, and replaced with four republics. Andriscus of Macedon broke off the Roman rule for about a year, but was defeated in 148 BC by the Romans. In 146 BC, the four republics were dissolved, and Macedon officially became the Roman province of Macedonia. On 178 BC he had married Laodice V, the daughter of Seleucus IV from Syria. One son of Perseus and Laodice, Alexander was still a child when Perseus was conquered by the Romans, and after the triumph of Aemilius Paullus in 167 BC, was kept in custody at Alba Fucens, together with his father. He became a skillful toreutes, learned the Latin language, and became a public notary.	<urn:uuid:8aff9bac-49b5-4340-b7e1-873aa3567caa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=48&sub=4303&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Greece&subcat_name=Perseus+of+Macedon	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00533.warc.gz	en	0.987594	1,395	3.46875	3	[ -0.3306659162044525, 0.7033077478408813, 0.3299349844455719, -0.2011277675628662, -0.3792727589607239, -0.9484328031539917, -0.044544339179992676, 0.49616992473602295, -0.15061581134796143, 0.050280772149562836, -0.009336777031421661, -0.5929590463638306, -0.08025483787059784, 0.3690857291...	1	People - Ancient Greece: Perseus of Macedon (ca. 212 BC - 166 BC) He was the last king of the Antigonid dynasty, who ruled from 179–167 BC. Perseus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities or Perses (Περσεύς). The last king of Macedonia, the eldest son of Philip V. He reigned eleven years, from B.C. 178 to 168. Before his accession he persuaded his father to put to death his younger brother Demetrius, whom he suspected that the Roman Senate intended to set up as a competitor for the throne on the death of Philip. Immediately after his accession he began to make preparations for war with the Romans, which he knew to be inevitable, though seven years elapsed before actual hostilities commenced. The war broke out in B.C. 171. The first year of the war was marked by no striking action. The consul P. Licinius Crassus first suffered a defeat in Thessaly in an engagement between the cavalry of the two armies, but subsequently gained a slight advantage over the king's troops. The second year of the war (B.C. 170), in which the consul A. Hostilius Mancinus commanded, also passed over without any important battle, but was, on the whole, favourable to Perseus. The third year (B.C. 169), in which the consul Q. Marcius Philippus commanded, again produced no important results. The length to which the war had been unexpectedly protracted, and the ill success of the Roman arms, had by this time excited a general feeling in favour of the Macedonian monarch; but the ill-timed avarice of Perseus, who refused to advance the sum of money which Eumenes, king of Pergamus, demanded, deprived him of this valuable ally; and the same unseasonable niggardliness likewise deprived him of the services of twenty thousand Gallic mercenaries, who had actually advanced into Macedonia to his support, but retired on failing to obtain their stipulated pay. He was left to carry on the contest against Rome single-handed. The fourth year of the war (B.C. 168) was also the last. The new consul, L. Aemilius Paulus, defeated Perseus with great loss in a decisive battle fought near Pydna, on June 22, B.C. 168. Perseus took refuge in the island of Samothrace, where he shortly afterwards surrendered with his children to the praetor Cn. Octavius. When brought before Aemilius he is said to have degraded himself by the most abject supplications; but he was treated with kindness by the Roman general. The following year he was carried to Italy, where he was compelled to adorn the splendid triumph of his conqueror (November 30, B.C. 167), and afterwards cast into a dungeon, from whence, however, the intercession of Aemilius procured his release, and he was permitted to end his days in an honourable captivity at Alba. He survived his removal thither a few years, and died, according to some accounts, by voluntary starvation, while others, fortunately with less probability, represent him as falling a victim to the cruelty of his guards, who deprived him of sleep. Perseus had been twice married; the name of his first wife, whom he is said to have killed with his own hand in a fit of passion, is not recorded; his second, Laodicé, was the daughter of Seleucus IV. Philopator. He left two children -a son, Alexander, and a daughter, both apparently by his second marriage, as they were mere children when carried to Rome. Besides these, he had adopted his younger brother Philip, who appears to have been regarded by him as the heir to his throne, and who became the partner of his captivity. See Livy, bks. xl.-xliv.; and Polyb. bks. xxiv., xxvi., xxvii., xxix. Perseus of Macedon in Wikipedia Perseus (Greek: Περσεύς) (ca. 212 BC - 166 BC) was the last king (Basileus) of the Antigonid dynasty, who ruled the successor state in Macedon created upon the death of Alexander the Great. He also has the distinction of being the last of the line, after losing the Battle of Pydna on 22 June 168 BC; subsequently Macedon came under Roman rule. In 179 BC Philip V of Macedon died. In the previous year Philip had his pro-Roman son Demetrius executed. Perseus had been jealous of Demetrius' success as ambassador to Rome and had convinced their father to have him poisoned as a potential usurper. The Romans favored Demetrius, and Perseus' role in killing Demetrius did not endear him to Rome when he took the throne. One of his first acts on becoming king was to renew the treaty with Rome. Yet, Perseus' other actions troubled Rome. His interference in the affairs of his neighbors, his ousting of Roman ally Abrupolis from his territories, his armed visit to Delphi, his avoidance of the Roman ambassadors to Macedonia, and his dynastic marriages all gave Rome cause for concern. Soon Rome and Perseus went to war in the Third Macedonian War (171-168 BC). Although Perseus had some initial success, the war ended with the King's surrender to the Roman general Lucius Aemilius Paullus after his decisive defeat at the Battle of Pydna, and his eventual imprisonment in Rome with his half-brother Philippus and son Alexander. Blaise Pascal mentions in his Pensées (Lafuma 15) that Perseus was blamed for not committing suicide, supposedly after his defeat and capture at Pydna. The Antigonid kingdom was dissolved, and replaced with four republics. Andriscus of Macedon broke off the Roman rule for about a year, but was defeated in 148 BC by the Romans. In 146 BC, the four republics were dissolved, and Macedon officially became the Roman province of Macedonia. On 178 BC he had married Laodice V, the daughter of Seleucus IV from Syria. One son of Perseus and Laodice, Alexander was still a child when Perseus was conquered by the Romans, and after the triumph of Aemilius Paullus in 167 BC, was kept in custody at Alba Fucens, together with his father. He became a skillful toreutes, learned the Latin language, and became a public notary.	1,449	ENGLISH	1
Did you ever that the Tower of the Winds, which is under the Acropolis, is the oldest meteorological station and a chronometer. It Aerides Its name, which means wind. There are several other names such as “The Temple of Aeolus”, “Clock Kirrista”, “Clepsydra.” Scientists maintain that this tower was built by the ancient Greek astronomer Andronicus, who was a native of the glorious city of Kirra. The tower was built in honor of the goddess of love Athens. The tower is very high, about 12 meters, and its diameter is 8 meters, and it has been made out of a material such as Pentelic marble. As history tells us, at the top of the tower it was eight faces on which was depicted a winged figure, which symbolizes one of the elements, the wind. Once the tower was installed copper weathervane, which was depicted in the form of Triton. It was he who pointed out which of the eight winds blowing at the time. What’s interesting is that at each of these images were carved the name of the wind. Boreas is a north wind, which was depicted as an old man, dressed in a tunic. Kaykyas – a north-easterly wind, the same old man, but he was carrying a shield with hail. Apeliot – is an east wind, a young boy, with fruit in their hands. Evra – the south-east wind is depicted as an old man with empty hands. Horn, south wind, a young man, overturned a jug of water, etc. That is, each of the winds, was in some guise, which meant that the waiting people. Since the mid-19th century, this tower was a museum of ancient finds, as in 1847, is the National Archaeological Museum. As shown by the excavations, it was the first building in the Christian era, which was the church, where they spent such rites as baptism. Until 1821, it was a Muslim dervish convent.	<urn:uuid:50bee98f-cba7-47f5-b2ba-e2e0b4c51dfa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://set-travel.com/en/europe/en_europe_interesting-places/9280-the-oldest-weather-station-is-the-tower-of-the-winds	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00347.warc.gz	en	0.991231	438	3.34375	3	[ -0.04182569682598114, 0.5026875734329224, 0.02614874206483364, 0.2827695310115814, -0.34095242619514465, 0.058534812182188034, 0.21437251567840576, -0.21715834736824036, -0.052106019109487534, 0.18562012910842896, -0.3844020664691925, -0.4147728383541107, -0.2531277537345886, 0.41791874170...	3	Did you ever that the Tower of the Winds, which is under the Acropolis, is the oldest meteorological station and a chronometer. It Aerides Its name, which means wind. There are several other names such as “The Temple of Aeolus”, “Clock Kirrista”, “Clepsydra.” Scientists maintain that this tower was built by the ancient Greek astronomer Andronicus, who was a native of the glorious city of Kirra. The tower was built in honor of the goddess of love Athens. The tower is very high, about 12 meters, and its diameter is 8 meters, and it has been made out of a material such as Pentelic marble. As history tells us, at the top of the tower it was eight faces on which was depicted a winged figure, which symbolizes one of the elements, the wind. Once the tower was installed copper weathervane, which was depicted in the form of Triton. It was he who pointed out which of the eight winds blowing at the time. What’s interesting is that at each of these images were carved the name of the wind. Boreas is a north wind, which was depicted as an old man, dressed in a tunic. Kaykyas – a north-easterly wind, the same old man, but he was carrying a shield with hail. Apeliot – is an east wind, a young boy, with fruit in their hands. Evra – the south-east wind is depicted as an old man with empty hands. Horn, south wind, a young man, overturned a jug of water, etc. That is, each of the winds, was in some guise, which meant that the waiting people. Since the mid-19th century, this tower was a museum of ancient finds, as in 1847, is the National Archaeological Museum. As shown by the excavations, it was the first building in the Christian era, which was the church, where they spent such rites as baptism. Until 1821, it was a Muslim dervish convent.	431	ENGLISH	1
Middle School Physics can be hard. This past week I brought out some Newtonian Demonstrators aka Newton Balls aka the click clacky things. The students love playing with them so it’s a great hook to get them into this lesson. I used these to demonstrate Newton’s Third Law. Students say that every action had an equal and opposite reaction. Each time they lifted one of the balls on one side and let it go, a ball went up, just as high on the other side. Most students expected this to happen, but getting them to explain what was happening in terms of Newton’s Laws. It was fun to have students predict what would happen when one ball was lifted on one side and two balls was lifted on the other side. Most students were amazed with what happened as it wasn’t what they expected. Of course, with some fun comes some problems. As you can see the demonstrators often get tangled. Most of them I am able to get out in a few minutes, but the one below was a real challenge. It was a little worse before I took that picture, but I got a little bit out. I tried for TWO days and couldn’t untangle it (and I like to think that I’m good at untangling things). One of my honors 8th graders, who isn’t even in the class that I did this in) was able to get it out. I was truly amazed! I’d love to hear about your experience with this in the classroom! Cristina from Savvy Secondary Science	<urn:uuid:506280dc-1100-4257-a57c-79cbc4c47a92>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.classroomfreebies.com/2019/12/newtons-third-law-and-newtonian-demonstrators-physics-middle-school-science.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00036.warc.gz	en	0.985917	327	3.328125	3	[ -0.4903131425380707, -0.49808788299560547, -0.12470103055238724, -0.23675177991390228, -0.4246281385421753, 0.19832594692707062, 0.366894006729126, 0.2210392951965332, -0.129699245095253, 0.0035518091171979904, 0.1611940860748291, -0.1957091987133026, -0.008516156114637852, -0.001125405891...	6	Middle School Physics can be hard. This past week I brought out some Newtonian Demonstrators aka Newton Balls aka the click clacky things. The students love playing with them so it’s a great hook to get them into this lesson. I used these to demonstrate Newton’s Third Law. Students say that every action had an equal and opposite reaction. Each time they lifted one of the balls on one side and let it go, a ball went up, just as high on the other side. Most students expected this to happen, but getting them to explain what was happening in terms of Newton’s Laws. It was fun to have students predict what would happen when one ball was lifted on one side and two balls was lifted on the other side. Most students were amazed with what happened as it wasn’t what they expected. Of course, with some fun comes some problems. As you can see the demonstrators often get tangled. Most of them I am able to get out in a few minutes, but the one below was a real challenge. It was a little worse before I took that picture, but I got a little bit out. I tried for TWO days and couldn’t untangle it (and I like to think that I’m good at untangling things). One of my honors 8th graders, who isn’t even in the class that I did this in) was able to get it out. I was truly amazed! I’d love to hear about your experience with this in the classroom! Cristina from Savvy Secondary Science	308	ENGLISH	1
Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution \|This article is part of a series on the\| \|Constitution of the\| United States of America Preamble and Articles\| of the Constitution \|Amendments to the Constitution\| \|Full text of the Constitution and Amendments\| The Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution was an addition to the United States Constitution that put a limit on how many times a person could be elected to be President. A person is limited to being elected twice - or once if they've already served more than two years as President. Congress passed the amendment on March 21, 1947. It was ratified on February 27, 1951. History[change \| change source] The President of the United States is elected to have that position for a period, or "term", that lasts for four years. The Constitution had no limit on how many times a person could be elected as president. The nation’s first president, George Washington chose not to try to be elected for a third term. This suggested that two terms were enough for any president. Washington’s two-term limit became the unwritten rule for all Presidents until 1940. In 1940, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt won a third term. He also won a fourth term in 1944. Roosevelt was president through the Great Depression of the 1930's and almost all of World War II. He held approval ratings in the mid-50% to the low 60% ranges over his many years in office. Roosevelt died of a cerebral hemorrhage in April of 1945, just months after the start of his fourth term. Soon after, Republicans in Congress began the work of creating Amendment XXII. Roosevelt was the first and only President to serve more than two consecutive terms. The amendment was passed by Congress in 1947, and was ratified by the states on February 27, 1951. The Twenty-Second Amendment says a person can only be elected to be president two times for a total of eight years. It does make it possible for a person to serve up to ten years as president. This can happen if a person (most likely the Vice-President) takes over for a president who can no longer serve their term. If this person serves two years or less of the preceding President’s term, he or she may serve for two more four-year terms. If he or she served more than two years of the last President's term, the new President can serve only one full four-year term. Under the language of the amendment, the President at the time of its ratification (Harry Truman) was exempt from the two-term limitation. Truman served nearly all of Roosevelt's unexpired fourth term and then was elected President once, serving his own four year term. Criticism and problems[change \| change source] Since 1985, there have been many attempts to either change or remove this amendment. This began when Ronald Reagan was serving his 2nd term as President. Since then, changes have been tried from both Democrats and Republicans. No changes have been made. There is some debate about how this amendment works with the 12th Amendment. The 12th Amendment limits who can become Vice-President to only people who meet the requirements of being President. The central question in this debate is whether the 22nd Amendment is imposing requirements on eligibility for holding the office of President or if it is merely imposing requirements on being elected to the office of President. One side of the debate argues that the 22nd Amendment explicitly uses the language "No person shall be elected" and is therefore issuing guidance on elections. The existence of other means of assuming the office (as enumerated in the 20th Amendment, Section 3 and the 25th Amendment) lends support to this argument. The other side of the debate argues that the 12th Amendment, in describing how elections are to be carried out, is enumerating additional requirement for holding the office of President. In support of this side of the argument is the fact that the requirements for holding the office of President are not restricted to Article 2 (where the main requirements like age and citizenship are listed). For example, impeachment is described in Article 1, Section 3 and upon impeachment, conviction, and removal from office a person becomes ineligible to hold the office in the future. Similarly, the 14th Amendment establishes a requirement that a President must not have fought against the United States or given aide and comfort to its enemies. These amendments suggest a pattern of enumerating additional requirements for the presidency and proponents of this side of the debate would argue that the 22nd Amendment was intended to add yet another requirement. Since no president who has served two terms has ever tried to be vice-president, this situation has not yet been decided by the courts. People affected[change \| change source] Harry S Truman became President because of the death of Roosevelt. He served most of Roosevelt's last term as President. This would have limited him to being elected only one time, but he was not affected since the amendment did not affect the person who was the current President when the amendment was originally proposed by Congress. Since this provision could only have applied to Truman, it was an obvious effort not to limit him. Truman did win the election in 1948 but ended his try to be President in 1952 before the election began. Lyndon B. Johnson is the only president so far who could have served more than 8 years under this amendment. He became President in 1963 after John F. Kennedy was assassinated. He served the last 14 months of Kennedy's term. Because this was less than two years, he was allowed to be elected for two additional terms. He won the first term in 1964, but chose not to run for a second term before the elections in 1968. Gerald Ford became President in 1974 after Richard M. Nixon left office. Ford served the last 29 months of Nixon's term. This meant he could only be elected as president once but he lost that election to Jimmy Carter in 1976. Out of the U.S. Presidents that are still alive in 2020, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama could not be elected again because of this amendment. All of them were elected twice. Jimmy Carter and Donald Trump (the current U.S. President) can run for president again as they have only been elected once. Text of the 22nd Amendment[change \| change source] Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of President more than once. But this Article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this Article was proposed by Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term. Section 2. This Article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the Congress. - Lancaster, LNP Media in; Pennsylvania. "These Are the 5 Living People Who Have Served as U.S. President". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2019-11-30.	<urn:uuid:c5d4158e-6b6e-4351-8615-f6b6f6159420>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00284.warc.gz	en	0.981383	1,524	3.6875	4	[ -0.3058200478553772, 0.006833354011178017, 0.17802050709724426, -0.3489297032356262, -0.41826730966567993, 0.49893125891685486, -0.03128381446003914, -0.05037931352853775, 0.33853745460510254, 0.0793856829404831, 0.560966968536377, 0.5741658210754395, 0.26836004853248596, 0.198214352130889...	1	Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution \|This article is part of a series on the\| \|Constitution of the\| United States of America Preamble and Articles\| of the Constitution \|Amendments to the Constitution\| \|Full text of the Constitution and Amendments\| The Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution was an addition to the United States Constitution that put a limit on how many times a person could be elected to be President. A person is limited to being elected twice - or once if they've already served more than two years as President. Congress passed the amendment on March 21, 1947. It was ratified on February 27, 1951. History[change \| change source] The President of the United States is elected to have that position for a period, or "term", that lasts for four years. The Constitution had no limit on how many times a person could be elected as president. The nation’s first president, George Washington chose not to try to be elected for a third term. This suggested that two terms were enough for any president. Washington’s two-term limit became the unwritten rule for all Presidents until 1940. In 1940, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt won a third term. He also won a fourth term in 1944. Roosevelt was president through the Great Depression of the 1930's and almost all of World War II. He held approval ratings in the mid-50% to the low 60% ranges over his many years in office. Roosevelt died of a cerebral hemorrhage in April of 1945, just months after the start of his fourth term. Soon after, Republicans in Congress began the work of creating Amendment XXII. Roosevelt was the first and only President to serve more than two consecutive terms. The amendment was passed by Congress in 1947, and was ratified by the states on February 27, 1951. The Twenty-Second Amendment says a person can only be elected to be president two times for a total of eight years. It does make it possible for a person to serve up to ten years as president. This can happen if a person (most likely the Vice-President) takes over for a president who can no longer serve their term. If this person serves two years or less of the preceding President’s term, he or she may serve for two more four-year terms. If he or she served more than two years of the last President's term, the new President can serve only one full four-year term. Under the language of the amendment, the President at the time of its ratification (Harry Truman) was exempt from the two-term limitation. Truman served nearly all of Roosevelt's unexpired fourth term and then was elected President once, serving his own four year term. Criticism and problems[change \| change source] Since 1985, there have been many attempts to either change or remove this amendment. This began when Ronald Reagan was serving his 2nd term as President. Since then, changes have been tried from both Democrats and Republicans. No changes have been made. There is some debate about how this amendment works with the 12th Amendment. The 12th Amendment limits who can become Vice-President to only people who meet the requirements of being President. The central question in this debate is whether the 22nd Amendment is imposing requirements on eligibility for holding the office of President or if it is merely imposing requirements on being elected to the office of President. One side of the debate argues that the 22nd Amendment explicitly uses the language "No person shall be elected" and is therefore issuing guidance on elections. The existence of other means of assuming the office (as enumerated in the 20th Amendment, Section 3 and the 25th Amendment) lends support to this argument. The other side of the debate argues that the 12th Amendment, in describing how elections are to be carried out, is enumerating additional requirement for holding the office of President. In support of this side of the argument is the fact that the requirements for holding the office of President are not restricted to Article 2 (where the main requirements like age and citizenship are listed). For example, impeachment is described in Article 1, Section 3 and upon impeachment, conviction, and removal from office a person becomes ineligible to hold the office in the future. Similarly, the 14th Amendment establishes a requirement that a President must not have fought against the United States or given aide and comfort to its enemies. These amendments suggest a pattern of enumerating additional requirements for the presidency and proponents of this side of the debate would argue that the 22nd Amendment was intended to add yet another requirement. Since no president who has served two terms has ever tried to be vice-president, this situation has not yet been decided by the courts. People affected[change \| change source] Harry S Truman became President because of the death of Roosevelt. He served most of Roosevelt's last term as President. This would have limited him to being elected only one time, but he was not affected since the amendment did not affect the person who was the current President when the amendment was originally proposed by Congress. Since this provision could only have applied to Truman, it was an obvious effort not to limit him. Truman did win the election in 1948 but ended his try to be President in 1952 before the election began. Lyndon B. Johnson is the only president so far who could have served more than 8 years under this amendment. He became President in 1963 after John F. Kennedy was assassinated. He served the last 14 months of Kennedy's term. Because this was less than two years, he was allowed to be elected for two additional terms. He won the first term in 1964, but chose not to run for a second term before the elections in 1968. Gerald Ford became President in 1974 after Richard M. Nixon left office. Ford served the last 29 months of Nixon's term. This meant he could only be elected as president once but he lost that election to Jimmy Carter in 1976. Out of the U.S. Presidents that are still alive in 2020, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama could not be elected again because of this amendment. All of them were elected twice. Jimmy Carter and Donald Trump (the current U.S. President) can run for president again as they have only been elected once. Text of the 22nd Amendment[change \| change source] Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of President more than once. But this Article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this Article was proposed by Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term. Section 2. This Article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the Congress. - Lancaster, LNP Media in; Pennsylvania. "These Are the 5 Living People Who Have Served as U.S. President". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2019-11-30.	1,601	ENGLISH	1
Jane Austen was born on December 16, 1775, in Steventon, Hampshire, England. While not widely known in her own time, Austen’s comic novels of love among the landed gentry gained popularity after 1869, and her reputation skyrocketed in the 20th century. Her novels, including Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility, are considered literary classics, bridging the gap between romance and realism. The seventh child and second daughter of Cassandra and George Austen, Jane Austen was born on December 16, 1775, in Steventon, Hampshire, England. Jane’s parents were well-respected community members. Her father served as the Oxford-educated rector for a nearby Anglican parish. The family was close and the children grew up in an environment that stressed learning and creative thinking. When Jane was young, she and her siblings were encouraged to read from their father’s extensive library. The children also authored and put on plays and charades. Over the span of her life, Jane would become especially close to her father and older sister, Cassandra. Indeed, she and Cassandra would one day collaborate on a published work. In order to acquire a more formal education, Jane and Cassandra were sent to boarding schools during Jane’s pre-adolescence. During this time, Jane and her sister caught typhus, with Jane nearly succumbing to the illness. After a short period of formal education cut short by financial constraints, they returned home and lived with the family from that time forward. Ever fascinated by the world of stories, Jane began to write in bound notebooks. In the 1790s, during her adolescence, she started to craft her own novels and wrote Love and Freindship sic, a parody of romantic fiction organized as a series of love letters. Using that framework, she unveiled her wit and dislike of sensibility, or romantic hysteria, a distinct perspective that would eventually characterize much of her later writing. The next year she wrote The History of England…, a 34-page parody of historical writing that included illustrations drawn by Cassandra. These notebooks, encompassing the novels as well as short stories, poems and plays, are now referred to as Jane’s Juvenilia. Jane spent much of her early adulthood helping run the family home, playing piano, attending church, and socializing with neighbors. Her nights and weekends often involved cotillions, and as a result, she became an accomplished dancer. On other evenings, she would choose a novel from the shelf and read it aloud to her family, occasionally one she had written herself. She continued to write, developing her style in more ambitious works such as Lady Susan, another epistolary story about a manipulative woman who uses her sexuality, intelligence and charm to have her way with others. Jane also started to write some of her future major works, the first called Elinor and Marianne, another story told as a series of letters, which would eventually be published as Sense and Sensibility. She began drafts of First Impressions, which would later be published as Pride and Prejudice, and Susan, later published as Northanger Abbey by Jane’s brother, Henry, following Jane’s death. In 1801, Jane moved to Bath with her father, mother and Cassandra. Then, in 1805, her father died after a short illness. As a result, the family was thrust into financial straits; the three women moved from place to place, skipping between the homes of various family members to rented flats. It was not until 1809 that they were able to settle into a stable living situation at Jane’s brother Edward’s cottage in Chawton. Now in her 30s, Jane started to anonymously publish her works. In the period spanning 1811-16, she pseudonymously published Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice (a work she referred to as her “darling child,” which also received critical acclaim), Mansfield Park and Emma. In 1816, at the age of 41, Jane started to become ill with what some say might have been Addison’s disease. She made impressive efforts to continue working at a normal pace, editing older works as well as starting a new novel called The Brothers, which would be published after her death as Sanditon. Another novel, Persuasion, would also be published posthumously. At some point, Jane’s condition deteriorated to such a degree that she ceased writing. She died on July 18, 1817, in Winchester, Hampshire, England. While Austen received some accolades for her works while still alive, with her first three novels garnering critical attention and increasing financial reward, it was not until after her death that her brother Henry revealed to the public that she was an author. Today, Austen is considered one of the greatest writers in English history, both by academics and the general public. In 2002, as part of a BBC poll, the British public voted her No. 70 on a list of “100 Most Famous Britons of All Time.” Austen’s transformation from little-known to internationally renowned author began in the 1920s, when scholars began to recognize her works as masterpieces, thus increasing her general popularity. The Janeites, a Jane Austen fan club, eventually began to take on wider significance, similar to the Trekkie phenomenon that characterizes fans of the Star Trek franchise. The popularity of her work is also evident in the many film and TV adaptations of Emma, Mansfield Park, Pride and Prejudice, and Sense and Sensibility, as well as the TV series and film Clueless, which was based on Emma.	<urn:uuid:1c794af4-24bf-4019-9bbc-bf5d3c8cca9b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayprepper.com/jane-cassandra-would-one-day-collaborate-on-a-published/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00421.warc.gz	en	0.988684	1,167	3.5	4	[ 0.4447259306907654, 0.31351011991500854, 0.08443998545408249, -0.17273592948913574, -0.1888883411884308, 0.3144139051437378, -0.5757191181182861, 0.027187153697013855, 0.24310842156410217, -0.07281950116157532, 0.38322192430496216, -0.08486054837703705, 0.4696461260318756, 0.19654281437397...	1	Jane Austen was born on December 16, 1775, in Steventon, Hampshire, England. While not widely known in her own time, Austen’s comic novels of love among the landed gentry gained popularity after 1869, and her reputation skyrocketed in the 20th century. Her novels, including Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility, are considered literary classics, bridging the gap between romance and realism. The seventh child and second daughter of Cassandra and George Austen, Jane Austen was born on December 16, 1775, in Steventon, Hampshire, England. Jane’s parents were well-respected community members. Her father served as the Oxford-educated rector for a nearby Anglican parish. The family was close and the children grew up in an environment that stressed learning and creative thinking. When Jane was young, she and her siblings were encouraged to read from their father’s extensive library. The children also authored and put on plays and charades. Over the span of her life, Jane would become especially close to her father and older sister, Cassandra. Indeed, she and Cassandra would one day collaborate on a published work. In order to acquire a more formal education, Jane and Cassandra were sent to boarding schools during Jane’s pre-adolescence. During this time, Jane and her sister caught typhus, with Jane nearly succumbing to the illness. After a short period of formal education cut short by financial constraints, they returned home and lived with the family from that time forward. Ever fascinated by the world of stories, Jane began to write in bound notebooks. In the 1790s, during her adolescence, she started to craft her own novels and wrote Love and Freindship sic, a parody of romantic fiction organized as a series of love letters. Using that framework, she unveiled her wit and dislike of sensibility, or romantic hysteria, a distinct perspective that would eventually characterize much of her later writing. The next year she wrote The History of England…, a 34-page parody of historical writing that included illustrations drawn by Cassandra. These notebooks, encompassing the novels as well as short stories, poems and plays, are now referred to as Jane’s Juvenilia. Jane spent much of her early adulthood helping run the family home, playing piano, attending church, and socializing with neighbors. Her nights and weekends often involved cotillions, and as a result, she became an accomplished dancer. On other evenings, she would choose a novel from the shelf and read it aloud to her family, occasionally one she had written herself. She continued to write, developing her style in more ambitious works such as Lady Susan, another epistolary story about a manipulative woman who uses her sexuality, intelligence and charm to have her way with others. Jane also started to write some of her future major works, the first called Elinor and Marianne, another story told as a series of letters, which would eventually be published as Sense and Sensibility. She began drafts of First Impressions, which would later be published as Pride and Prejudice, and Susan, later published as Northanger Abbey by Jane’s brother, Henry, following Jane’s death. In 1801, Jane moved to Bath with her father, mother and Cassandra. Then, in 1805, her father died after a short illness. As a result, the family was thrust into financial straits; the three women moved from place to place, skipping between the homes of various family members to rented flats. It was not until 1809 that they were able to settle into a stable living situation at Jane’s brother Edward’s cottage in Chawton. Now in her 30s, Jane started to anonymously publish her works. In the period spanning 1811-16, she pseudonymously published Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice (a work she referred to as her “darling child,” which also received critical acclaim), Mansfield Park and Emma. In 1816, at the age of 41, Jane started to become ill with what some say might have been Addison’s disease. She made impressive efforts to continue working at a normal pace, editing older works as well as starting a new novel called The Brothers, which would be published after her death as Sanditon. Another novel, Persuasion, would also be published posthumously. At some point, Jane’s condition deteriorated to such a degree that she ceased writing. She died on July 18, 1817, in Winchester, Hampshire, England. While Austen received some accolades for her works while still alive, with her first three novels garnering critical attention and increasing financial reward, it was not until after her death that her brother Henry revealed to the public that she was an author. Today, Austen is considered one of the greatest writers in English history, both by academics and the general public. In 2002, as part of a BBC poll, the British public voted her No. 70 on a list of “100 Most Famous Britons of All Time.” Austen’s transformation from little-known to internationally renowned author began in the 1920s, when scholars began to recognize her works as masterpieces, thus increasing her general popularity. The Janeites, a Jane Austen fan club, eventually began to take on wider significance, similar to the Trekkie phenomenon that characterizes fans of the Star Trek franchise. The popularity of her work is also evident in the many film and TV adaptations of Emma, Mansfield Park, Pride and Prejudice, and Sense and Sensibility, as well as the TV series and film Clueless, which was based on Emma.	1,195	ENGLISH	1
Another of the intaglio printmaking techniques, steel engraving produced illustrations based on steel, rather than copper. The method was first introduced in 1792 by American physicist, Jacob Perkins, for the printing of banknotes, and was later adapted in England by Charles Warren for Thomas Campbell’s 1820 poem ‘Pleasure of Hope’, which contained the first published plates engraved on steel. Until this time, copper had been the preferred metal for engraving. The plates were soft, simple to carve, and were capable of producing a few hundred prints before re-engraving was required to sharpen the image. These characteristics made copper an attractive medium, particularly for mapmakers who frequently needed to update their prints when new land was discovered or existing land changed hands. By the 1820s, however, a shift towards steel for engravings began to emerge. Steel was cheaper than copper and the engraved plates produced much sharper and more distinct lines. The plates were also harder-wearing, resulting in thousands of prints before re-engraving became necessary. This hard nature allowed for much finer detail than copper and, for the first time, it was possible to achieve a beautiful pale grey in the final illustration. With its shimmering appearance, the steel engraving became instantly recognisable. Though it looked more refined than its copperplate counterpart, the steel engraving was actually created in much the same way. The steel plate was engraved with a burin that produced thin, furrowed lines which, in turn, left behind a ‘burr’. This burr was then scraped away so as not to introduce unsightly spots into the final print. This process was not easy for the engraver. The steel was so hard that many turned to etching the plate instead; acid quickly created image outlines in the plate where ‘ground’ had been removed with an etching needle. Once the engraver was satisfied with their work, the plate’s surface was inked and wiped in a circular motion to push that ink in the incised lines. A piece of slightly dampened paper was then placed on top of the plate and the whole pressed with sufficient force to produce the final print. As in copperplate engraving, a plate mark or indentation in the paper remained visible around the edges of the illustration. In its heyday of the 1820s-1840s, steel engraving was responsible for some of the most superb illustrations. Steel allowed engravers to push the craft to its absolute limits; in some prints it was only possible to see the individual lines with a magnifying glass. Some illustrations were so authentic, so real, that it was not impossible for the reader, particularly of travel books, to actually imagine themselves there.	<urn:uuid:7512dc07-1ac9-485c-ae86-992a302c0b46>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.adelaide.edu.au/library/special/exhibitions/history-of-book-illustration/steel-engravings/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00223.warc.gz	en	0.98071	577	3.859375	4	[ -0.28850340843200684, 0.16780035197734833, 0.14437422156333923, 0.5356532335281372, -0.3423801064491272, -0.007098864763975143, -0.2787695527076721, 0.36271628737449646, -0.18259060382843018, -0.18429452180862427, 0.2720419764518738, -0.17069865763187408, 0.072899729013443, 0.2430146336555...	1	Another of the intaglio printmaking techniques, steel engraving produced illustrations based on steel, rather than copper. The method was first introduced in 1792 by American physicist, Jacob Perkins, for the printing of banknotes, and was later adapted in England by Charles Warren for Thomas Campbell’s 1820 poem ‘Pleasure of Hope’, which contained the first published plates engraved on steel. Until this time, copper had been the preferred metal for engraving. The plates were soft, simple to carve, and were capable of producing a few hundred prints before re-engraving was required to sharpen the image. These characteristics made copper an attractive medium, particularly for mapmakers who frequently needed to update their prints when new land was discovered or existing land changed hands. By the 1820s, however, a shift towards steel for engravings began to emerge. Steel was cheaper than copper and the engraved plates produced much sharper and more distinct lines. The plates were also harder-wearing, resulting in thousands of prints before re-engraving became necessary. This hard nature allowed for much finer detail than copper and, for the first time, it was possible to achieve a beautiful pale grey in the final illustration. With its shimmering appearance, the steel engraving became instantly recognisable. Though it looked more refined than its copperplate counterpart, the steel engraving was actually created in much the same way. The steel plate was engraved with a burin that produced thin, furrowed lines which, in turn, left behind a ‘burr’. This burr was then scraped away so as not to introduce unsightly spots into the final print. This process was not easy for the engraver. The steel was so hard that many turned to etching the plate instead; acid quickly created image outlines in the plate where ‘ground’ had been removed with an etching needle. Once the engraver was satisfied with their work, the plate’s surface was inked and wiped in a circular motion to push that ink in the incised lines. A piece of slightly dampened paper was then placed on top of the plate and the whole pressed with sufficient force to produce the final print. As in copperplate engraving, a plate mark or indentation in the paper remained visible around the edges of the illustration. In its heyday of the 1820s-1840s, steel engraving was responsible for some of the most superb illustrations. Steel allowed engravers to push the craft to its absolute limits; in some prints it was only possible to see the individual lines with a magnifying glass. Some illustrations were so authentic, so real, that it was not impossible for the reader, particularly of travel books, to actually imagine themselves there.	561	ENGLISH	1
Imaginary play - Healthy or harmful? The land of make-believe is the best destination for the world 's future novelists, scientists and inventors, writes Rochelle Gillespie. One of the joys of parenting is that little moment when you realise you have front-row tickets to the greatest show on earth. You might walk past your child's room and spy him playing school with Ted and Mr Moon. Or you might give him a cardboard box, and watch the original Transformer -is it a plane? No,it's a train, and now an oven! You'll first start to see your child engage in pretend play at around 18 months. It will begin with simple imitations of actions he sees around him every day. For instance, drinking from a pretend cup or holding a banana to his ear and pretending it's a phone. A child uses his imagination to work out the "what ifs?" of the world with an openness and innocence that we too often lose as adults. To be a great thinker in adulthood you need to light the spark of imagination in infanthood. In doing so, you may be laying the groundwork for the next Albert Einstein, Steve Jobs or Charles Dickens. Prof Alison Gopnik is a professor of psychology at the University of California at Berkeley and author of The Philosophical Baby. She's one of the world's leading experts on the power of pretend play. She believes that even the youngest children use the same techniques for learning about the world as the most brilliant scientists, and that they are more conscious of the world around them than adults are. Alison and her research team have spent many hours devising experiments to test a child's ability at counter-factual thinking or, put simply, when you think about a possibility then work out the "what ifs?". She says, if you give a child a machine and tell him to figure out how it works, he might go through seven different hypotheses in two minutes, but most adults would think of one, maybe two options, then stick with that until they make it work. It's the difference between explorer learning and exploit learning. Exploit learning is working out the best solution to the problem that's going to work right now, while explorer learning is just trying out options for the fun of it, and that's what under-fives are really good at. It's also what scientists and inventors are really good at - using their brains to look at a problem from all angles. But for most of us, the closest we get to that child-like, uninhibited world of possibilities is when we travel to a foreign city. Alison says when things outside your comfort zone bombard your senses, you're forced to imagine possibilities. Interestingly, the research shows that children do know the difference between what is real and what is not. Think about when you've had a teddy bears' tea party. No doubt you and your child used very elaborate, exaggerated gestures when drinking your "tea". Alison says this is a form of "pretendese" which children and adults use as a signal that they're now in a fantasy world, not a real world. Setting the scene If you want to give your child the tools for some fabulous, philosophical, socially engaging pretend play then you should arm him with props that are open-ended and capture things that are going on in the world around them, says Alison. "Good old-fashioned blocks are great because there's such a wide range of things children can pretend they are. Dolls and farm sets are great too because children are so interested in social play." She also encourages parents to invest in a varied and fun-filled dress-up box from which you get "a great play value". Give children toys that leave room for their own input and creativity. Some toys may appear to literally have all the bells and whistles, but they're actually a one-hit wonder. With a toy that does everything, there's not enough room for the child to explore his own imagination. Another important tool is time away from others. Children need "me time" just as much as we do, to reflect and recharge. While real pretend play doesn't begin until around 18 months of age, you can get your baby ready for such play with simple peek-a-boo toys. Farmyard books which encourage a child to imitate the sounds of a sheep or a cow are all encouraging early pretence. Role reversal is another great form of pretend play that helps children understand relationships. Your child can be "Mum" and you act as the child. You'll often find that children are much tougher mums than you are in real life. But it's a useful way for them to think through why Mum is behaving this way. And this child-like talent at acting a part is something we grown-ups can learn from. Are you guilty of falling into the "imposter syndrome"? Do you sometimes think to yourself, "I'm not really sure that I'm doing a great job as a mother, but I'm doing a darn good job of pretending like I am?" Well, that's not such a bad thing. Professor Gopnik would tell you that by pretending to be confident and successful, you actually do become confident and successful. "It's part of this curious human ability to create who we are, in as much as we discover who we are," she says. Perhaps the ultimate form of pretend play is the invention of an imaginary friend. My daughter was three when Hadyn appeared in our lives for a few weeks. He was a troublesome little lad, that Hadyn, with a tendency to test the boundaries and break the rules, while she declared with big innocent eyes, "It wasn't me, Hadyn did it." Needless to say I was nonplussed when Hadyn seemed to pay fewer visits and eventually disappeared altogether. But perhaps, I was wrong. Perhaps I should have encouraged Hadyn to become a more well-rounded character, because research tells us that children with imaginary friends are better off. Marjorie Taylor is a professor of psychology at the University of Oregon and author of Imagination Companions and the Children Who Create Them. She has found that 65% of children up to the age of seven have played with at least one imaginary friend at some point. An imaginary friend can be relied upon to keep a secret and give undivided attention. They'll listen to your secrets and watch your back. But just like a real playmate, sometimes the imaginary friend may refuse to share or be too busy to play. These made-up role-play situations are a healthy way for a child to work through conflict and real-life issues. Alison's brother is a writer for a New York magazine and his three-year-old daughter had an imaginary friend called Charlie Ravioli. Alison says, "The interesting thing was that Charlie Ravioli was always too busy to play with her. She'd say things like, 'I bumped into Charlie at the coffee shop today but he was too busy to stay, he had to run.' She would leave messages for him on an imaginary answer phone: 'Charlie, it's Olivia. Could you get back to me?' Then she'd turn to her father and say, 'I always get his machine." This says a lot about how a three year old had worked out some pretty profound things about the way life in literary New York works. Think about this. One of the symptoms of autistic children is that they don't engage in as much pretence. As Prof Gopnik points out, "Contrary to what many people think about imaginary friends being a sign something is wrong, it is in fact a sign something is right. "Children who engage in a lot of pretend play tend to be more social and engage with other friends." But this is a relatively recent revelation. A few decades ago the stereotype of someone with an imaginary friend was of a loner, confused about reality and fantasy, who couldn't make real friends. Marjorie says once she started researching this area she found the opposite to be true. Children with imaginary friends were more creative in their story-telling, had an advantage with language and were better able to appreciate other people's perspectives. For someone who has spent years talking to children about their made-up friends, some have made a lasting impression on Marjorie. Like Elfie Welfie, a tiny veterinarian, who was married to Sammy Wammy, and lived in an entirely tie-dyed world. Elfie Welfie had a long life as far as imaginary friends go. She was with the child when she was four and was still around three years later. Then there's Skateboard Guy who would pop out of his child's pocket and do tricks to entertain him. Nutsy and Nutsy were two birds who lived in a tree outside their child's window and she could hear them arguing with each other. Sometimes they'd argue so much they'd fall out of the tree. There was one child whose made-up pal was particularly disagreeable and was named "Darn It". And again, researchers have found children are very forthcoming about their imaginary friends, and are well aware of the difference between reality and fantasy. Marjorie says once in the middle of a fascinating interview about an imaginary friend, a child became concerned the interviewer was getting confused, leaned over and reminded her that, "It's just pretend, you know." One of Marjorie's other discoveries is that many fiction writers say they had imaginary friends when they were young. In one study she found that the percentage of writers who said they had had imaginary friends during childhood was more than twice the average found in a study of high school students. She says many authors interact with their characters in the same way children engage with their make-believe playmates. Alice Walker, author of The Colour Purple, says she lived with her characters Celie and Shug for a year while writing the novel. And this certainly isn't a new revelation. As far back as 1908 Sigmund Freud wrote, "Might we not say that every child at play behaves like a creative writer, in that he creates a world of his own?" As Alison says, you may hear writers talking about their characters and they'll say something like, "I didn't want her to commit suicide, but that's what she did. I was devastated." "So if you have ambitions of becoming a great novelist keep your imaginary friends in your Rolodex," says Alison. Marjorie says if your child has an imaginary friend you should relax and enjoy it. This "friend's" existence can in fact be helpful to you as it's a window on your child's world. If you're worried about him being afraid of the neighbour's new dog, you may find he's out-sourced that fear to his imaginary friend. And how much should a parent engage with the imaginary friend? Is it necessary to set a place at the table for him? And what about discipline? If, in my case, when my daughter claimed Hadyn was the culprit, how could I reprimand her, yet still acknowledge Hadyn's existence? Marjorie's advice is to turn the situation around, by saying, "So what are we going to say to Hadyn?" and give my daughter responsibility for deciding the consequence of the bad behaviour. Alison agrees that you can engage with the imaginary companion, but you need to be led by your own child. "Remember it's her imaginary friend and you shouldn't turn it into something you want it to be. " Marjorie and her research team are now exploring things like the role of technology - trying to see how children conceptualise a virtual pet, for example. They want to know if, for instance, children will tell their secrets to a puppy on a screen, or only to their stuffed animals. They're also looking at paracosms - detailed imaginary worlds older children create. They can have their own characters, geography and even language. Peter Pan creator James M. Barrie and author Emily Brontë were both said to have created made-up worlds in response to the death of a loved one. Again, the results suggest that time spent in the land of make-believe leads to happier and more developmentally advanced children in reality. Marjorie points to a study that involved interviewing 12 year olds who were identified as children likely to have problems later in life. Thirteen of those 150 children still had imaginary friends at the age of 12. Skip forward a few years and, as predicted, many of those, now aged 18, hadn't graduated, were using illegal drugs or had a mental illness. But what about those with imaginary friends? Well, they were much more likely to be doing well. Some psychologists suggest we're less likely to hear of imaginary friends in older children because kids simply stop talking about them due to peer or adult pressure. So, if we know children with imaginary friends have better social skills, you might be wondering, "How can I encourage my little one to create a made-up friend?" Well, that's the nub of it. You can't. All you can do is lay the foundations for great imaginative, creative, free, pretend play. The benefits will manifest themselves in a multitude of ways - and yes, perhaps even as Man Booker Prize-winning novelist, or the next Mark Zuckerburg. The best thing you can give your child is your own grown-up time, attention, love, oh, and a plain old cardboard box. Rochelle Gillespie a mother of three. In her imagination she can assemble a croquembouche profiterole tower, sing like Diana Krall, and get away with wearing six-inch heels. Sadly she's all too aware of the difference between fantasy and reality. AS FEATURED IN ISSUE 19 OF OHbaby! MAGAZINE. CHECK OUT OTHER ARTICLES IN THIS ISSUE BELOW	<urn:uuid:f160d3d9-7551-43cc-a6ad-93e127520e40>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ohbaby.co.nz/under-5/parenting-toddlers/imaginary-play	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00501.warc.gz	en	0.981651	2,902	3.328125	3	[ -0.02278720587491989, 0.1275760978460312, 0.3754201829433441, -0.14453056454658508, -0.24300549924373627, 0.25312864780426025, 0.41434744000434875, 0.18091455101966858, -0.11568629741668701, 0.022415384650230408, 0.18816329538822174, 0.15934784710407257, 0.13163407146930695, 0.349054038524...	8	Imaginary play - Healthy or harmful? The land of make-believe is the best destination for the world 's future novelists, scientists and inventors, writes Rochelle Gillespie. One of the joys of parenting is that little moment when you realise you have front-row tickets to the greatest show on earth. You might walk past your child's room and spy him playing school with Ted and Mr Moon. Or you might give him a cardboard box, and watch the original Transformer -is it a plane? No,it's a train, and now an oven! You'll first start to see your child engage in pretend play at around 18 months. It will begin with simple imitations of actions he sees around him every day. For instance, drinking from a pretend cup or holding a banana to his ear and pretending it's a phone. A child uses his imagination to work out the "what ifs?" of the world with an openness and innocence that we too often lose as adults. To be a great thinker in adulthood you need to light the spark of imagination in infanthood. In doing so, you may be laying the groundwork for the next Albert Einstein, Steve Jobs or Charles Dickens. Prof Alison Gopnik is a professor of psychology at the University of California at Berkeley and author of The Philosophical Baby. She's one of the world's leading experts on the power of pretend play. She believes that even the youngest children use the same techniques for learning about the world as the most brilliant scientists, and that they are more conscious of the world around them than adults are. Alison and her research team have spent many hours devising experiments to test a child's ability at counter-factual thinking or, put simply, when you think about a possibility then work out the "what ifs?". She says, if you give a child a machine and tell him to figure out how it works, he might go through seven different hypotheses in two minutes, but most adults would think of one, maybe two options, then stick with that until they make it work. It's the difference between explorer learning and exploit learning. Exploit learning is working out the best solution to the problem that's going to work right now, while explorer learning is just trying out options for the fun of it, and that's what under-fives are really good at. It's also what scientists and inventors are really good at - using their brains to look at a problem from all angles. But for most of us, the closest we get to that child-like, uninhibited world of possibilities is when we travel to a foreign city. Alison says when things outside your comfort zone bombard your senses, you're forced to imagine possibilities. Interestingly, the research shows that children do know the difference between what is real and what is not. Think about when you've had a teddy bears' tea party. No doubt you and your child used very elaborate, exaggerated gestures when drinking your "tea". Alison says this is a form of "pretendese" which children and adults use as a signal that they're now in a fantasy world, not a real world. Setting the scene If you want to give your child the tools for some fabulous, philosophical, socially engaging pretend play then you should arm him with props that are open-ended and capture things that are going on in the world around them, says Alison. "Good old-fashioned blocks are great because there's such a wide range of things children can pretend they are. Dolls and farm sets are great too because children are so interested in social play." She also encourages parents to invest in a varied and fun-filled dress-up box from which you get "a great play value". Give children toys that leave room for their own input and creativity. Some toys may appear to literally have all the bells and whistles, but they're actually a one-hit wonder. With a toy that does everything, there's not enough room for the child to explore his own imagination. Another important tool is time away from others. Children need "me time" just as much as we do, to reflect and recharge. While real pretend play doesn't begin until around 18 months of age, you can get your baby ready for such play with simple peek-a-boo toys. Farmyard books which encourage a child to imitate the sounds of a sheep or a cow are all encouraging early pretence. Role reversal is another great form of pretend play that helps children understand relationships. Your child can be "Mum" and you act as the child. You'll often find that children are much tougher mums than you are in real life. But it's a useful way for them to think through why Mum is behaving this way. And this child-like talent at acting a part is something we grown-ups can learn from. Are you guilty of falling into the "imposter syndrome"? Do you sometimes think to yourself, "I'm not really sure that I'm doing a great job as a mother, but I'm doing a darn good job of pretending like I am?" Well, that's not such a bad thing. Professor Gopnik would tell you that by pretending to be confident and successful, you actually do become confident and successful. "It's part of this curious human ability to create who we are, in as much as we discover who we are," she says. Perhaps the ultimate form of pretend play is the invention of an imaginary friend. My daughter was three when Hadyn appeared in our lives for a few weeks. He was a troublesome little lad, that Hadyn, with a tendency to test the boundaries and break the rules, while she declared with big innocent eyes, "It wasn't me, Hadyn did it." Needless to say I was nonplussed when Hadyn seemed to pay fewer visits and eventually disappeared altogether. But perhaps, I was wrong. Perhaps I should have encouraged Hadyn to become a more well-rounded character, because research tells us that children with imaginary friends are better off. Marjorie Taylor is a professor of psychology at the University of Oregon and author of Imagination Companions and the Children Who Create Them. She has found that 65% of children up to the age of seven have played with at least one imaginary friend at some point. An imaginary friend can be relied upon to keep a secret and give undivided attention. They'll listen to your secrets and watch your back. But just like a real playmate, sometimes the imaginary friend may refuse to share or be too busy to play. These made-up role-play situations are a healthy way for a child to work through conflict and real-life issues. Alison's brother is a writer for a New York magazine and his three-year-old daughter had an imaginary friend called Charlie Ravioli. Alison says, "The interesting thing was that Charlie Ravioli was always too busy to play with her. She'd say things like, 'I bumped into Charlie at the coffee shop today but he was too busy to stay, he had to run.' She would leave messages for him on an imaginary answer phone: 'Charlie, it's Olivia. Could you get back to me?' Then she'd turn to her father and say, 'I always get his machine." This says a lot about how a three year old had worked out some pretty profound things about the way life in literary New York works. Think about this. One of the symptoms of autistic children is that they don't engage in as much pretence. As Prof Gopnik points out, "Contrary to what many people think about imaginary friends being a sign something is wrong, it is in fact a sign something is right. "Children who engage in a lot of pretend play tend to be more social and engage with other friends." But this is a relatively recent revelation. A few decades ago the stereotype of someone with an imaginary friend was of a loner, confused about reality and fantasy, who couldn't make real friends. Marjorie says once she started researching this area she found the opposite to be true. Children with imaginary friends were more creative in their story-telling, had an advantage with language and were better able to appreciate other people's perspectives. For someone who has spent years talking to children about their made-up friends, some have made a lasting impression on Marjorie. Like Elfie Welfie, a tiny veterinarian, who was married to Sammy Wammy, and lived in an entirely tie-dyed world. Elfie Welfie had a long life as far as imaginary friends go. She was with the child when she was four and was still around three years later. Then there's Skateboard Guy who would pop out of his child's pocket and do tricks to entertain him. Nutsy and Nutsy were two birds who lived in a tree outside their child's window and she could hear them arguing with each other. Sometimes they'd argue so much they'd fall out of the tree. There was one child whose made-up pal was particularly disagreeable and was named "Darn It". And again, researchers have found children are very forthcoming about their imaginary friends, and are well aware of the difference between reality and fantasy. Marjorie says once in the middle of a fascinating interview about an imaginary friend, a child became concerned the interviewer was getting confused, leaned over and reminded her that, "It's just pretend, you know." One of Marjorie's other discoveries is that many fiction writers say they had imaginary friends when they were young. In one study she found that the percentage of writers who said they had had imaginary friends during childhood was more than twice the average found in a study of high school students. She says many authors interact with their characters in the same way children engage with their make-believe playmates. Alice Walker, author of The Colour Purple, says she lived with her characters Celie and Shug for a year while writing the novel. And this certainly isn't a new revelation. As far back as 1908 Sigmund Freud wrote, "Might we not say that every child at play behaves like a creative writer, in that he creates a world of his own?" As Alison says, you may hear writers talking about their characters and they'll say something like, "I didn't want her to commit suicide, but that's what she did. I was devastated." "So if you have ambitions of becoming a great novelist keep your imaginary friends in your Rolodex," says Alison. Marjorie says if your child has an imaginary friend you should relax and enjoy it. This "friend's" existence can in fact be helpful to you as it's a window on your child's world. If you're worried about him being afraid of the neighbour's new dog, you may find he's out-sourced that fear to his imaginary friend. And how much should a parent engage with the imaginary friend? Is it necessary to set a place at the table for him? And what about discipline? If, in my case, when my daughter claimed Hadyn was the culprit, how could I reprimand her, yet still acknowledge Hadyn's existence? Marjorie's advice is to turn the situation around, by saying, "So what are we going to say to Hadyn?" and give my daughter responsibility for deciding the consequence of the bad behaviour. Alison agrees that you can engage with the imaginary companion, but you need to be led by your own child. "Remember it's her imaginary friend and you shouldn't turn it into something you want it to be. " Marjorie and her research team are now exploring things like the role of technology - trying to see how children conceptualise a virtual pet, for example. They want to know if, for instance, children will tell their secrets to a puppy on a screen, or only to their stuffed animals. They're also looking at paracosms - detailed imaginary worlds older children create. They can have their own characters, geography and even language. Peter Pan creator James M. Barrie and author Emily Brontë were both said to have created made-up worlds in response to the death of a loved one. Again, the results suggest that time spent in the land of make-believe leads to happier and more developmentally advanced children in reality. Marjorie points to a study that involved interviewing 12 year olds who were identified as children likely to have problems later in life. Thirteen of those 150 children still had imaginary friends at the age of 12. Skip forward a few years and, as predicted, many of those, now aged 18, hadn't graduated, were using illegal drugs or had a mental illness. But what about those with imaginary friends? Well, they were much more likely to be doing well. Some psychologists suggest we're less likely to hear of imaginary friends in older children because kids simply stop talking about them due to peer or adult pressure. So, if we know children with imaginary friends have better social skills, you might be wondering, "How can I encourage my little one to create a made-up friend?" Well, that's the nub of it. You can't. All you can do is lay the foundations for great imaginative, creative, free, pretend play. The benefits will manifest themselves in a multitude of ways - and yes, perhaps even as Man Booker Prize-winning novelist, or the next Mark Zuckerburg. The best thing you can give your child is your own grown-up time, attention, love, oh, and a plain old cardboard box. Rochelle Gillespie a mother of three. In her imagination she can assemble a croquembouche profiterole tower, sing like Diana Krall, and get away with wearing six-inch heels. Sadly she's all too aware of the difference between fantasy and reality. AS FEATURED IN ISSUE 19 OF OHbaby! MAGAZINE. CHECK OUT OTHER ARTICLES IN THIS ISSUE BELOW	2,832	ENGLISH	1
Five years after the end of World War II, the United States became involved in yet another armed conflict. In 1950, the United States, as part of a United Nations force, sent troops to aide South Korea in countering the threat of communist North Korea. In 1951 it seemed as though there may have been an end in sight for the conflict in Korea and there were rumors of a truce, however the Commander-in-Chief of the United Nation’s Command (UNCOM), General Douglas MacArthur, was threatening this tentative peace with his unauthorized action. When the United States first became involved in Korea in 1950, Douglas MacArthur, a well-respected World War II general whose leadership was celebrated internationally in the Pacific Theatre, was named commander of the troops in Korea. MacArthur believed that his mission as commander was to defeat North Korea no matter the cost. WashingtonD.C. believed that it was important to defeat North Korea as well, however 400,000 Chinese troops entered the picture and MacArthur saw their involvement as a communist attack against the West in the Far East and believed that all the resources the United States had to offer should be sent to the Far East to counter this threat. Truman and his advisors did not share this view. Several of Truman’s advisors believed Korea might have simply been a secondary effort for communist China and Truman’s advisors were thus reluctant to expend significant amounts of military resources in Asia in case there was later a need to for these resources elsewhere (Eastern Europe for example). At this juncture, the conflicts between MacArthur and the rest of the United States government were not irreconcilable; however future actions on MacArthur’s part caused the differences to grow and to eventually become so unresolvable that MacArthur could not remain in his position as commander of the troops in Korea. MacArthur future actions only served to further infuriated Truman and other high ranking officials in Washington. One of these actions was a secret meeting with Chiang Kai-shek, a Chinese general. Additionally, MacArthur gave a speech where he claimed to have superior knowledge of the “Oriental mentality” and indirectly referred to the leadership of the United States as “timid and vacillating” in regards to the action (or lack of action) in Korea relevant to the communist Chinese. Truman rightly saw this speech as a direct blow to his foreign policy and demanded MacArthur retract his statements. MacArthur eventually did, however the damage was already done. MacArthur’s statements directly contradicted Truman who was not only his boss, but the President of the United States of America and the face of democracy. This situation demonstrated weakness and it demonstrated lack of unity to the rest of the world. These statements and actions made it even more necessary that Truman remove MacArthur to save the United States’ reputation and to prevent future global conflicts. Furthermore, the general feeling in Washington was that MacArthur was incorrect and that committing to a war with China would have disastrous results and would undoubtedly lead to future armed global conflict. By this point Omar Bradley (chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff) and Dean Acheson (the Sectary of the State) believed that the United States would not be able to defeat China while still militarily involved in Korea and they believed that few things would make the Kremlin happier than an all-out war between the United States and China. If MacArthur did not contain his gusto in the Far East, then there was a very really possibility that there would be an even larger war that could potentially turn into a global conflict between communism and democracy. It was in the United States best interest to ensure that the current conflict in Korea did not escalate into anything greater. To do this, MacArthur would have to be removed as he had consistently disobeyed orders and requests to conform with the United States’ foreign policy program it did not seem likely that he would change he views and he had already gone against the wishes of the government too many times before to be completely trustworthy. When the United States began to think about drafting a truce to end the conflict in Korea, MacArthur issued a contradictory ultimatum to China which resulted in MacArthur being told not to make any more statements unless they were first approved by the government. Truman waited for MacArthur to give him just cause to relieve him and he was trying to garner support for removing MacArthur (who was a very popular public figure). Truman knew that he must prevent another world war from occurring and he also knew that to do that he would have to fire General Douglas MacArthur. To fire MacArthur Truman would have to use a lot of tact and finesse. One of the largest obstacles blocking Truman from achieving his goal of preventing global conflict was General Douglas MacArthur. MacArthur’s actions and his lack of response to orders made him a very dangerous person to have so close to the conflict in Korea. Truman knew that MacArthur would have to eventually be removed; the only problems were the when and the how. Truman knew that the repercussions of firing MacArthur would be great. In fact Dean Acheson (Truman’s Secretary of State) warned Truman that firing MacArthur would likely be the biggest fight of Truman’s entire administration. However, Truman decided that if future global conflict was to be prevented (and because MacArthur had so obviously disobeyed orders), MacArthur would have to be removed from power in the United States military. Once Truman decided to fire MacArthur, he had to contend with all of the obstacles that may prevent or hinder him from doing so. One very large obstacle was public opinion. The public was enamored with MacArthur, largely due to his performance in World War II and his larger than life personality. Truman was well aware that if he fired MacArthur, he would lose the favor of the public. This caused him to delay firing MacArthur for some time while he waited for the right moment to act. Truman thought long and hard about the consequences before finally deciding to fire MacArthur. He was well aware that the action would lead to public outcry and possibly even to Congressional hearings or impeachment (Ryan). Despite these seemingly inevitable consequences and arduous obstacles, Truman decided that he would still need to remove MacArthur if he wished to prevent a third world war. Truman first decided who to replace MacArthur with (General Ridgeway) for removing MacArthur without a suitable replacement in mind would be just as disastrous as leaving MacArthur in place. Then Truman had to decide how he would inform MacArthur. One of Truman’s greatest fears was that MacArthur would find out about Truman’s plans to fire him and then announce that he was resigning before Truman had the chance to fire him. This would be devastating to the country. A top general resigning would reflect very poorly on the Truman administration. Thus Truman decided against using military channels to fire MacArthur (Maihefer). Although these channels were theoretically confidential, MacArthur would probably find out about these plans due to his vast network of military acquaintances who had a deep respect for MacArthur and who would be likely to inform MacArthur of Truman’s plans before the message had officially reached him. Truman decided to use a little know diplomat (Frank Pace JR) instead. However there were delays in Pace receiving instructions and the White House thought that news may have been leaked to the public. Truman, wary of the political implications of MacArthur resigning, before he could be properly fired reportedly said “That SOB isn’t going to resign on me, I want him fired”. This fear led to Truman using another power of the presidency- the power to make speeches and to address the public. So a one o’clock am on April 11th 1951, Truman held a press conference where he explained to the public that he was firing MacArthur because “ General Douglas MacArthur in unable to give his whole hearted support to the policies of the United States government and the United Nations in matters pertaining to his official duties…”. This speech made it impossible for MacArthur to resign his post because the entire American public knew that he had been fired. By using this tool of the presidency, Truman averted the disaster that would have occurred had MacArthur been able to resign before Truman was able to make his decision to fire MacArthur public. However, Truman’s spur of the moment speech also meant that MacArthur had yet to receive new of his removal. MacArthur’s aid, Sid Huff, heard the speech on the radio and then delivered the news to MacArthur, after the news had been received by the public. When MacArthur returned home, he was honored with one of the largest ticker-tape parades New York City had ever seen. This demonstrates the public’s support of MacArthur even after President Truman stripped him of his power. Even once MacArthur’s dismissal was official, Truman continued to face obstacles in the form of public opinion. In the time following MacArthur’s dismissal, the White House received 3,427 letters pertaining to Truman’s decision. 7% (2,301) of these letters were against his decision, while 32% (1,126) of the letter were for it (Ryan). Truman did not make the decision to fire MacArthur lightly. “He had thought for a long time and very heavily on the consequences of the action and determined that it was a necessary and proper action and that he couldn’t avoid it….” (Ryan). Truman knew that public criticism would be inevitable and that it would be a huge obstacle to overcome, yet he chose to fire MacArthur anyways because he knew that, in order to prevent an armed global conflict from occurring, MacArthur had to go. Truman’s decision to fire MacArthur has been called “a courageous act of political suicide” (Guttman). Truman’s objective was to prevent a new world war and he decided that to prevent that from occurring, he needed to remove General Douglas MacArthur from power. Doing so resulted in public outrage, yet Truman managed to prevent the Korean conflict from escalating into something much larger. Truman was able to accomplish his objectives (despite the costs) and he was able to keep the United States from becoming entangled in a much larger conflict, yet he lost a great deal of public support. Cable News Network, USA Today. CNN/USA Today/Gallup Poll # 2000-20: Microsoft/Parents/’Socially Responsible’ [computer file]. 1st RoperCenter for Public Opinion Research version. Lincoln, NE: Gallup Organization [producer], 2000. Storrs, CT: The Roper Center, University of Connecticut [distributor], 2001. Donaldson, Gary A. “Douglas MacArthur.” The Korean War: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland Pub., 1995. Print. Guttman, Jon. “President Harry Truman’s Decision to Fire Douglas MacArthur was a Courageous Act of Political Suicide.” Military History 18.1 (2006): 6. Academic Sear Premier. Maihafer, Harry J. “Message to MacArthur. (Cover Story)”. American History 31.2 (1996): 28. Academic Search Premier. Web. 20 March 2013. Ryan, Halford R. “Harry S Truman: A Misdirected Defense for MacArthur’s Dismissal.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 11.4 (1981): 576-82. Print.	<urn:uuid:e3708ccf-1362-4373-a783-801066a92112>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ushistoryscene.com/article/truman-macarthur/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00313.warc.gz	en	0.980063	2,318	3.734375	4	[ -0.39983659982681274, 0.2621992826461792, 0.43995940685272217, -0.46594589948654175, 0.0679684653878212, 0.09012230485677719, 0.2469128966331482, 0.05518167465925217, -0.099795401096344, -0.05974859744310379, 0.5852541923522949, 0.17947277426719666, 0.5299391746520996, 0.5392730832099915, ...	7	Five years after the end of World War II, the United States became involved in yet another armed conflict. In 1950, the United States, as part of a United Nations force, sent troops to aide South Korea in countering the threat of communist North Korea. In 1951 it seemed as though there may have been an end in sight for the conflict in Korea and there were rumors of a truce, however the Commander-in-Chief of the United Nation’s Command (UNCOM), General Douglas MacArthur, was threatening this tentative peace with his unauthorized action. When the United States first became involved in Korea in 1950, Douglas MacArthur, a well-respected World War II general whose leadership was celebrated internationally in the Pacific Theatre, was named commander of the troops in Korea. MacArthur believed that his mission as commander was to defeat North Korea no matter the cost. WashingtonD.C. believed that it was important to defeat North Korea as well, however 400,000 Chinese troops entered the picture and MacArthur saw their involvement as a communist attack against the West in the Far East and believed that all the resources the United States had to offer should be sent to the Far East to counter this threat. Truman and his advisors did not share this view. Several of Truman’s advisors believed Korea might have simply been a secondary effort for communist China and Truman’s advisors were thus reluctant to expend significant amounts of military resources in Asia in case there was later a need to for these resources elsewhere (Eastern Europe for example). At this juncture, the conflicts between MacArthur and the rest of the United States government were not irreconcilable; however future actions on MacArthur’s part caused the differences to grow and to eventually become so unresolvable that MacArthur could not remain in his position as commander of the troops in Korea. MacArthur future actions only served to further infuriated Truman and other high ranking officials in Washington. One of these actions was a secret meeting with Chiang Kai-shek, a Chinese general. Additionally, MacArthur gave a speech where he claimed to have superior knowledge of the “Oriental mentality” and indirectly referred to the leadership of the United States as “timid and vacillating” in regards to the action (or lack of action) in Korea relevant to the communist Chinese. Truman rightly saw this speech as a direct blow to his foreign policy and demanded MacArthur retract his statements. MacArthur eventually did, however the damage was already done. MacArthur’s statements directly contradicted Truman who was not only his boss, but the President of the United States of America and the face of democracy. This situation demonstrated weakness and it demonstrated lack of unity to the rest of the world. These statements and actions made it even more necessary that Truman remove MacArthur to save the United States’ reputation and to prevent future global conflicts. Furthermore, the general feeling in Washington was that MacArthur was incorrect and that committing to a war with China would have disastrous results and would undoubtedly lead to future armed global conflict. By this point Omar Bradley (chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff) and Dean Acheson (the Sectary of the State) believed that the United States would not be able to defeat China while still militarily involved in Korea and they believed that few things would make the Kremlin happier than an all-out war between the United States and China. If MacArthur did not contain his gusto in the Far East, then there was a very really possibility that there would be an even larger war that could potentially turn into a global conflict between communism and democracy. It was in the United States best interest to ensure that the current conflict in Korea did not escalate into anything greater. To do this, MacArthur would have to be removed as he had consistently disobeyed orders and requests to conform with the United States’ foreign policy program it did not seem likely that he would change he views and he had already gone against the wishes of the government too many times before to be completely trustworthy. When the United States began to think about drafting a truce to end the conflict in Korea, MacArthur issued a contradictory ultimatum to China which resulted in MacArthur being told not to make any more statements unless they were first approved by the government. Truman waited for MacArthur to give him just cause to relieve him and he was trying to garner support for removing MacArthur (who was a very popular public figure). Truman knew that he must prevent another world war from occurring and he also knew that to do that he would have to fire General Douglas MacArthur. To fire MacArthur Truman would have to use a lot of tact and finesse. One of the largest obstacles blocking Truman from achieving his goal of preventing global conflict was General Douglas MacArthur. MacArthur’s actions and his lack of response to orders made him a very dangerous person to have so close to the conflict in Korea. Truman knew that MacArthur would have to eventually be removed; the only problems were the when and the how. Truman knew that the repercussions of firing MacArthur would be great. In fact Dean Acheson (Truman’s Secretary of State) warned Truman that firing MacArthur would likely be the biggest fight of Truman’s entire administration. However, Truman decided that if future global conflict was to be prevented (and because MacArthur had so obviously disobeyed orders), MacArthur would have to be removed from power in the United States military. Once Truman decided to fire MacArthur, he had to contend with all of the obstacles that may prevent or hinder him from doing so. One very large obstacle was public opinion. The public was enamored with MacArthur, largely due to his performance in World War II and his larger than life personality. Truman was well aware that if he fired MacArthur, he would lose the favor of the public. This caused him to delay firing MacArthur for some time while he waited for the right moment to act. Truman thought long and hard about the consequences before finally deciding to fire MacArthur. He was well aware that the action would lead to public outcry and possibly even to Congressional hearings or impeachment (Ryan). Despite these seemingly inevitable consequences and arduous obstacles, Truman decided that he would still need to remove MacArthur if he wished to prevent a third world war. Truman first decided who to replace MacArthur with (General Ridgeway) for removing MacArthur without a suitable replacement in mind would be just as disastrous as leaving MacArthur in place. Then Truman had to decide how he would inform MacArthur. One of Truman’s greatest fears was that MacArthur would find out about Truman’s plans to fire him and then announce that he was resigning before Truman had the chance to fire him. This would be devastating to the country. A top general resigning would reflect very poorly on the Truman administration. Thus Truman decided against using military channels to fire MacArthur (Maihefer). Although these channels were theoretically confidential, MacArthur would probably find out about these plans due to his vast network of military acquaintances who had a deep respect for MacArthur and who would be likely to inform MacArthur of Truman’s plans before the message had officially reached him. Truman decided to use a little know diplomat (Frank Pace JR) instead. However there were delays in Pace receiving instructions and the White House thought that news may have been leaked to the public. Truman, wary of the political implications of MacArthur resigning, before he could be properly fired reportedly said “That SOB isn’t going to resign on me, I want him fired”. This fear led to Truman using another power of the presidency- the power to make speeches and to address the public. So a one o’clock am on April 11th 1951, Truman held a press conference where he explained to the public that he was firing MacArthur because “ General Douglas MacArthur in unable to give his whole hearted support to the policies of the United States government and the United Nations in matters pertaining to his official duties…”. This speech made it impossible for MacArthur to resign his post because the entire American public knew that he had been fired. By using this tool of the presidency, Truman averted the disaster that would have occurred had MacArthur been able to resign before Truman was able to make his decision to fire MacArthur public. However, Truman’s spur of the moment speech also meant that MacArthur had yet to receive new of his removal. MacArthur’s aid, Sid Huff, heard the speech on the radio and then delivered the news to MacArthur, after the news had been received by the public. When MacArthur returned home, he was honored with one of the largest ticker-tape parades New York City had ever seen. This demonstrates the public’s support of MacArthur even after President Truman stripped him of his power. Even once MacArthur’s dismissal was official, Truman continued to face obstacles in the form of public opinion. In the time following MacArthur’s dismissal, the White House received 3,427 letters pertaining to Truman’s decision. 7% (2,301) of these letters were against his decision, while 32% (1,126) of the letter were for it (Ryan). Truman did not make the decision to fire MacArthur lightly. “He had thought for a long time and very heavily on the consequences of the action and determined that it was a necessary and proper action and that he couldn’t avoid it….” (Ryan). Truman knew that public criticism would be inevitable and that it would be a huge obstacle to overcome, yet he chose to fire MacArthur anyways because he knew that, in order to prevent an armed global conflict from occurring, MacArthur had to go. Truman’s decision to fire MacArthur has been called “a courageous act of political suicide” (Guttman). Truman’s objective was to prevent a new world war and he decided that to prevent that from occurring, he needed to remove General Douglas MacArthur from power. Doing so resulted in public outrage, yet Truman managed to prevent the Korean conflict from escalating into something much larger. Truman was able to accomplish his objectives (despite the costs) and he was able to keep the United States from becoming entangled in a much larger conflict, yet he lost a great deal of public support. Cable News Network, USA Today. CNN/USA Today/Gallup Poll # 2000-20: Microsoft/Parents/’Socially Responsible’ [computer file]. 1st RoperCenter for Public Opinion Research version. Lincoln, NE: Gallup Organization [producer], 2000. Storrs, CT: The Roper Center, University of Connecticut [distributor], 2001. Donaldson, Gary A. “Douglas MacArthur.” The Korean War: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland Pub., 1995. Print. Guttman, Jon. “President Harry Truman’s Decision to Fire Douglas MacArthur was a Courageous Act of Political Suicide.” Military History 18.1 (2006): 6. Academic Sear Premier. Maihafer, Harry J. “Message to MacArthur. (Cover Story)”. American History 31.2 (1996): 28. Academic Search Premier. Web. 20 March 2013. Ryan, Halford R. “Harry S Truman: A Misdirected Defense for MacArthur’s Dismissal.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 11.4 (1981): 576-82. Print.	2,363	ENGLISH	1
Tommy Douglas’ view on healthcare and politics revolutionised Canada. He introduced free health care to the citizens of Saskatchewan and influenced the rest of Canada to follow in their footsteps. He also introduced pensions to the elderly people residing in Saskatchewan and unemployment insurance to ensure people are content. Douglas was a Canadian social-democratic politician and brought new ideas to the people of Canada, especially after The Great Depression and World War 2. His government was the first social-democratic government in North America. Although some people believe he was just another rich politician but he was much more than that. He cared about the citizens and their health. He wanted people to prosper and excel in life, this is what made Tommy Douglas the best Canadian in history. Tommy Douglas’ vision for universal health care started when he got a bone infection in his leg. He came from a poor family who could not afford healthcare, so they were going to amputate his leg. Thankfully, a surgeon offered to treat him for free if learning surgeons could watch the process. After he recovered, his sights were set. He wanted everyone to have universally accessible health care. Tommy was a Baptist minister but he knew he could do more for the healthcare system in politics. In 1931, Douglas decided to establish a local association of the independent labour party and two years later, he attended the first national of the new Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. In 1935, Douglas ran for parliament and was successful. During his first term, he introduced medical insurance reform and gradually moved the province towards universal medicare near the end of his first term. The doctors of Saskatchewan did not like the change The doctors of Saskatchewan formed a strike because they believed their best interests were not being considered, and also feared a loss of income. Douglas agreed his government would pay the going rate for service that doctors charged. Even though Douglas stated he would pay the doctors, they still feared Douglas would bring in foreign doctors to make his plans work. After the doctors realized he was only trying to better the province and not sabotage them, things turned around. The federal government noticed the success of the healthcare system and newly elected Prime Minister, John Diefenbaker, stated that any province seeking to introduce healthcare would receive 50 cents on the dollar from the Saskatchewan government. Tommy Douglas made this chain reaction happen and this is why he is known as the “father of medicare”. Tommy Douglas’ view on politics changed the Saskatchewan government for the better and also brought new ideas too. The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) was led by Tommy Douglas, and it was North America’s first socialist government. “During the Great Depression, neither Mackenzie king nor R.B Bennett were willing to do anything. They believed the economic crisis required no drastic measures to be fixed.” (Tommy Douglas: “Greatest Canadian”). Since the Canadian government was not trying to fix the crisis, others had to take action. The CCF was founded in 1932 by farmers, academics, and Ottawa MPs associated with farmer and trade-union organization.	<urn:uuid:26e33e9a-b042-447f-bd19-da538df2bbe5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://taxteaparty.com/tommy-politician-but-he-was-much-more-than/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00285.warc.gz	en	0.986592	619	3.34375	3	[ -0.4756661653518677, 0.1496485471725464, 0.20442414283752441, -0.20744439959526062, 0.1991795152425766, 0.2535763382911682, 0.286746621131897, 0.5414485931396484, -0.242154061794281, 0.19755934178829193, 0.28635501861572266, -0.02241988480091095, -0.11601229012012482, 0.09847448766231537, ...	1	Tommy Douglas’ view on healthcare and politics revolutionised Canada. He introduced free health care to the citizens of Saskatchewan and influenced the rest of Canada to follow in their footsteps. He also introduced pensions to the elderly people residing in Saskatchewan and unemployment insurance to ensure people are content. Douglas was a Canadian social-democratic politician and brought new ideas to the people of Canada, especially after The Great Depression and World War 2. His government was the first social-democratic government in North America. Although some people believe he was just another rich politician but he was much more than that. He cared about the citizens and their health. He wanted people to prosper and excel in life, this is what made Tommy Douglas the best Canadian in history. Tommy Douglas’ vision for universal health care started when he got a bone infection in his leg. He came from a poor family who could not afford healthcare, so they were going to amputate his leg. Thankfully, a surgeon offered to treat him for free if learning surgeons could watch the process. After he recovered, his sights were set. He wanted everyone to have universally accessible health care. Tommy was a Baptist minister but he knew he could do more for the healthcare system in politics. In 1931, Douglas decided to establish a local association of the independent labour party and two years later, he attended the first national of the new Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. In 1935, Douglas ran for parliament and was successful. During his first term, he introduced medical insurance reform and gradually moved the province towards universal medicare near the end of his first term. The doctors of Saskatchewan did not like the change The doctors of Saskatchewan formed a strike because they believed their best interests were not being considered, and also feared a loss of income. Douglas agreed his government would pay the going rate for service that doctors charged. Even though Douglas stated he would pay the doctors, they still feared Douglas would bring in foreign doctors to make his plans work. After the doctors realized he was only trying to better the province and not sabotage them, things turned around. The federal government noticed the success of the healthcare system and newly elected Prime Minister, John Diefenbaker, stated that any province seeking to introduce healthcare would receive 50 cents on the dollar from the Saskatchewan government. Tommy Douglas made this chain reaction happen and this is why he is known as the “father of medicare”. Tommy Douglas’ view on politics changed the Saskatchewan government for the better and also brought new ideas too. The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) was led by Tommy Douglas, and it was North America’s first socialist government. “During the Great Depression, neither Mackenzie king nor R.B Bennett were willing to do anything. They believed the economic crisis required no drastic measures to be fixed.” (Tommy Douglas: “Greatest Canadian”). Since the Canadian government was not trying to fix the crisis, others had to take action. The CCF was founded in 1932 by farmers, academics, and Ottawa MPs associated with farmer and trade-union organization.	619	ENGLISH	1
Football Pushing Rules What is pushing in football? Pushing in football is when players attempt to move opposing players by pushing into them with their bodies. Football is a contact sport, so it's inevitable that hits, pushes and charges are permitted during the game. Players are allowed to be aggressive to other team members in order to keep them away from the ball or prevent them from making a run down the field. Why do players push? Pushing occurs on every single play, regardless of the score or situation. Every defensive formation consists of blocking out their opponents. Defensive players push away opponents to keep them away from the quarterback. It's a natural part of the game. They try to keep players from moving into open positions and away from scoring opportunities. Pushing occurs when a player charges another, hitting him directly on his shoulders with enough power and force to move him backwards or tackle him entirely. Pushing players can get dangerous, so it's important that players perform pushes with as much caution as they can without getting injured. Although pushing is permitted, illegal contact is not permitted during games. Illegal contact occurs when a player is still making significant contact with a receiver after the receiver crosses five yards over the line of scrimmage. The official will call a penalty if this occurs.	<urn:uuid:effe7bbb-6023-4c72-b769-0201febceacc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.rookieroad.com/football/rules-and-regulations/pushing-rules/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00193.warc.gz	en	0.983195	259	3.3125	3	[ -0.07348310947418213, -0.24020668864250183, 0.033855289220809937, -0.4066193699836731, 0.11785977333784103, 0.3063544034957886, 0.9394339323043823, -0.13441981375217438, 0.22879716753959656, -0.0978088527917862, -0.07801951467990875, -0.021119996905326843, -0.10795853286981583, -0.17146402...	4	Football Pushing Rules What is pushing in football? Pushing in football is when players attempt to move opposing players by pushing into them with their bodies. Football is a contact sport, so it's inevitable that hits, pushes and charges are permitted during the game. Players are allowed to be aggressive to other team members in order to keep them away from the ball or prevent them from making a run down the field. Why do players push? Pushing occurs on every single play, regardless of the score or situation. Every defensive formation consists of blocking out their opponents. Defensive players push away opponents to keep them away from the quarterback. It's a natural part of the game. They try to keep players from moving into open positions and away from scoring opportunities. Pushing occurs when a player charges another, hitting him directly on his shoulders with enough power and force to move him backwards or tackle him entirely. Pushing players can get dangerous, so it's important that players perform pushes with as much caution as they can without getting injured. Although pushing is permitted, illegal contact is not permitted during games. Illegal contact occurs when a player is still making significant contact with a receiver after the receiver crosses five yards over the line of scrimmage. The official will call a penalty if this occurs.	255	ENGLISH	1
He Was Offered the Presidency of Israel Although Einstein made his mark primarily as a physicist, his political views have grown nearly as famous as his scientific achievements. But they were also more complex than many realize. Einstein was a lifelong pacifist, except when it came to taking up defensive arms against the Nazis, who singled him out for persecution. Moreover, when he realized that scientists in Nazi Germany might be working on nuclear chain reactions with bomb potential, he wrote a letter to President Roosevelt urging that the U.S. government coordinate its own research in the area. The letter may have contributed to the formation of the Manhattan Project, to which Einstein -- much to his relief -- was not invited; the government considered him a security risk due to his many associations with peace causes and memberships in social advocacy groups like the NAACP [sources: Kaku]. Nevertheless, his E = mc2 equation was essential to their successful efforts in making the first atomic bombs [sources: Kaku]. Einstein also helped fund the war effort by auctioning his manuscripts, and worked after the war to oppose the development of the hydrogen bomb and to control nuclear proliferation. In 1952, Israeli premier David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the presidency of the newly established state of Israel. Einstein politely turned him down, citing advancing age and stating that his lifelong focus on objective matters had left him unsuited to politics [sources: Einstein; Kaku].	<urn:uuid:1c568588-b421-4355-854c-4d73f4c51b6c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/famous-scientists/physicists/10-things-not-known-about-einstein9.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00232.warc.gz	en	0.985856	289	3.453125	3	[ -0.49355995655059814, 0.4791424870491028, -0.18463990092277527, 0.019067173823714256, -0.025860963389277458, 0.2044811248779297, 0.3318314850330353, 0.35757383704185486, -0.3007754683494568, 0.04560442268848419, 0.5019391179084778, -0.18571285903453827, 0.2318759262561798, 0.42396074533462...	2	He Was Offered the Presidency of Israel Although Einstein made his mark primarily as a physicist, his political views have grown nearly as famous as his scientific achievements. But they were also more complex than many realize. Einstein was a lifelong pacifist, except when it came to taking up defensive arms against the Nazis, who singled him out for persecution. Moreover, when he realized that scientists in Nazi Germany might be working on nuclear chain reactions with bomb potential, he wrote a letter to President Roosevelt urging that the U.S. government coordinate its own research in the area. The letter may have contributed to the formation of the Manhattan Project, to which Einstein -- much to his relief -- was not invited; the government considered him a security risk due to his many associations with peace causes and memberships in social advocacy groups like the NAACP [sources: Kaku]. Nevertheless, his E = mc2 equation was essential to their successful efforts in making the first atomic bombs [sources: Kaku]. Einstein also helped fund the war effort by auctioning his manuscripts, and worked after the war to oppose the development of the hydrogen bomb and to control nuclear proliferation. In 1952, Israeli premier David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the presidency of the newly established state of Israel. Einstein politely turned him down, citing advancing age and stating that his lifelong focus on objective matters had left him unsuited to politics [sources: Einstein; Kaku].	289	ENGLISH	1
During World War II , it has been estimated that between 19, and 50, members of the Imperial Japanese military surrendered to Western Allied combatants prior to the end of the Pacific War in August Western Allied governments and senior military commanders directed that Japanese POWs be treated in accordance with relevant international conventions. In practice though, many Allied soldiers were unwilling to accept the surrender of Japanese troops because of atrocities committed by the Japanese as well as racist sentiments. A campaign launched in to encourage prisoner-taking was partially successful, and the number of prisoners taken increased significantly in the last year of the war. Japanese POWs often believed that by surrendering they had broken all ties with Japan, and many provided military intelligence to the Allies. The prisoners taken by the Western Allies were held in generally good conditions in camps located in Australia, New Zealand, India and the United States. From to , it was the policy of the U. Enacted in reaction to Pearl Harbor and the ensuing war, the Japanese internment camps are now considered one of the most atrocious violations of American civil rights in the 20th century. Roosevelt signed Executive Order with the intention of preventing espionage on American shores. Executive Order affected the lives about , people—the majority of whom were American citizens. Canada soon followed suit, relocating 21, of its Japanese residents from its west coast. The majority of the approximately 3. Western Allies had taken 35, Japanese prisoners between December and 15 August , i. The majority of Japanese who were held in the USSR did not consider themselves as "Prisoners of War" and referred to themselves as "internees", because they voluntarily laid down their arms after the official capitulation of Japan, i. The number of Japanese prisoners captured in combat was very small. In addition there were two camps for those convicted of various crimes.	<urn:uuid:38c15391-70e0-48a4-b359-c674f113e352>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://franceisrael.info/catsuit/japanese-prisoners-51497.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00012.warc.gz	en	0.985793	366	4.4375	4	[ -0.4646003544330597, 0.3360309600830078, -0.029112188145518303, -0.2624509334564209, 0.0695590004324913, 0.49183177947998047, 0.00877221580594778, 0.22311629354953766, 0.20583687722682953, 0.17218253016471863, 0.6004399657249451, 0.08549533039331436, 0.4201829731464386, 0.7781171202659607,...	2	During World War II , it has been estimated that between 19, and 50, members of the Imperial Japanese military surrendered to Western Allied combatants prior to the end of the Pacific War in August Western Allied governments and senior military commanders directed that Japanese POWs be treated in accordance with relevant international conventions. In practice though, many Allied soldiers were unwilling to accept the surrender of Japanese troops because of atrocities committed by the Japanese as well as racist sentiments. A campaign launched in to encourage prisoner-taking was partially successful, and the number of prisoners taken increased significantly in the last year of the war. Japanese POWs often believed that by surrendering they had broken all ties with Japan, and many provided military intelligence to the Allies. The prisoners taken by the Western Allies were held in generally good conditions in camps located in Australia, New Zealand, India and the United States. From to , it was the policy of the U. Enacted in reaction to Pearl Harbor and the ensuing war, the Japanese internment camps are now considered one of the most atrocious violations of American civil rights in the 20th century. Roosevelt signed Executive Order with the intention of preventing espionage on American shores. Executive Order affected the lives about , people—the majority of whom were American citizens. Canada soon followed suit, relocating 21, of its Japanese residents from its west coast. The majority of the approximately 3. Western Allies had taken 35, Japanese prisoners between December and 15 August , i. The majority of Japanese who were held in the USSR did not consider themselves as "Prisoners of War" and referred to themselves as "internees", because they voluntarily laid down their arms after the official capitulation of Japan, i. The number of Japanese prisoners captured in combat was very small. In addition there were two camps for those convicted of various crimes.	375	ENGLISH	1
700 people from England to Massachusetts sailed on March 29, 1630.In the beginning people stayed and got settled Charlestown (founded an year ago). The water was not available to suffice the needs to all who were living there so the newly settled people went across the river to Trimountaine peninsula and in 1630 as mentioned before, this new settlement got the name Boston after the city Boston in England from where many of the people had come. Also check out Boston SEO. The puritan wanted to make a Godly society which can become an example to the world but they actually again crated a society which was had the same level of intolerance like the society they had left and come. The Early habitats believed that Boston was a Godly city and everything was in ordinance with God, Hence every aspect of the Boston people got affected by this mentality and they started dominating the citizens’ whole life and every facet. The colonists came up with the rules of morality and in the word of God they forced people into marriage, church attendance, and education and the sinners or the deniers to follow any of the rules, had to face the punishment. Boston Latin School which was the first school in America was founded in 1635 and the first college in America which was Harvard college was founded in 1636.Any religious idea which was good enough or looked modern but was not according the Godly rules or coming from the religious books, were not accepted and people had to face the consequences for coming up with any new idea. Many controversies took place and there is famous theological controversy called Antinomian controversy (1636 to 1638) which was a religious and political conflict, the religious leader and the dynamic protester of the policies, Anne Hutchinson and the clergyman, the religious leader John Wheelwright both were punished to go out the colony due to trying to oppose the dead thoughts. Obadiah Holmes who was a Baptist Minister was imprisoned and was also whipped publically in Boston in July 1651 because of following his religion. The first president of Harvard College between 1640s and 1650s named Henry Dunster was also persecuted for supporting Baptist beliefs. William Robinson and Marmaduke Stevenson who were the believers of Quaker philosophy were hanged in the new Boston. Mary Dyer also was a Quaker who was hanged on June 1st, 1660.In 1679 the Baptist dared to establish their meeting house which could not continue as it was closed by the authorities supporting colonial thoughts. Hence though the religious liberty was restricted but still the Baptists kept innovative with the worship and practices. Mary Dyer continuously opposed the law due to which the Quakers were banned to be in the country. History Of Roads Connecting The CityThe city got connected to New York and Major Settlements in West and Central Massachusetts through Boston Post Road. The route near U.S 1, the lower route connected Providence and Rhode Island. The Upper route was built in 1673 from Boston Neck , following the present U.S. route 20 and went around Hence from 1686 till 1689 Massachusetts and colonies in surroundings were together ot united by the roads. Calamities In BostonFrom 1636 to 1698 there were six small pox attack incidents. The epidemic which broke out in 1721-1722, made 844 people die. Out of 10,500 people 5889 were infected form the disease, out of which 14% which was 844 saw death. Around 900 people went out of the city. Colonists also tried isolation in order to stop the spread of smallpox disease. To save people from the disease first in American History, vaccination came into experiment. At that time people did not have trust in the process like today as it could cause serious illness to two percent of taking the vaccine and it might also spread the disease. Zabdiel Boylston and Cotton Mather introduced it at that time. Boston got hit by the large level earthquake in 1755, ( 6.0 to 6.3 on Richter scale)and it was called the Cape Ann earthquake. Though no one died in the accident but some building were damaged. On March 20, 1760 there was a ‘Great fire’ in Boston.349 buildings were destroyed in the area between the Fort Hill and Modern Washington Street. Many ships in port also caught the fire and around one thousand people lost their homes. Boston Fire department can never forget the fight against this great Fire. Soon the industry of ship building and whaling industry flourished in Boston. In December 1773, the British reacted harshly against the Boston Tea party which was a protest against the Tea Act came on May 20, 1773.The protest took place on December 16, 1773 by the secret group formed to fight against the taxation rules against British Government. The tea act was to allow the East India Company of Britain to sell tea in American collies from China without paying taxes apart from few exceptions decided by the British Government. So a well known battle at Breed’s Hill took place in Charlestown occurred on June 17, 1775 (the colonists lost it but caused big loss to the British). They won the Siege of Boston and forced the British to vacate the city on March 17, 1776.So this is considered as eruption of American Revolution. The blocking activities in town and port by British or Americans, badly affected the economy and till 1770 the pollination had fallen by two third. After 1800, Boston again saw recovery and it again and due to its railroad network, it became the transport centre for the New England region. In 19th century Boston was the centre of finance of the United States, along with New York. Several activities against slavery took place in Boston during the times of Civil War. The city faced domination of the Boston Brahmins called Elite in the 19th century. Catholic immigrants were challenging the Boston Brahmins politically that time. Boston financed the industries of the region and the industrial foundation could reach its peak till 1950.after that thousand of factories and textile mills got closed and the city saw the industrial decline. City’s economy again could recover by the 21st century and it started growing the in areas of medicine, education. High technology including biotechnology and many adjacent towns became the residential suburbs these days. Boston History In reference To Its Role In American RevolutionThe Stamp act came in 1765, was protested by Boston actively. The custom duties were avoided by Boston’s merchants and as a result the London officials got angry due to which the smuggling came to crackdown. Thomas Pownall the Governor between 1757 to 1760 was a peacemaker but the Governor came after him named Francis Bernard between 1760 and 1769 , he wanted to make all the voices which were raising in the opposition in the papers(pamphlets) and meetings. During his time four thousand British troops reached Boston which was a tremendous show of power. On March 5, 1770 the Boston Massacre took place. Outside the British custom house there were unarmed demonstrators who were fired by the British soldiers and as a result this cruel act, five civilians died. This incident played a very important part in escalation of the tensions. Meanwhile the parliament insisted on its right of taking tax from the Americans and tax on tea came up as a result.A noticeable incident took place on December 16, 1773 when the Sons Of Liberty who were protecting against the tea Act( which was allowing the East India Company of Britain to sell tea from China to Americans without paying the tax) came disguised as naive Americans. They threw 342 boxes of tea in the harbour. This protest is called as Boston Tea Party. The British government do not take this lightly and came up with many cruel laws one after another. The Port of Boston was closed and the Self Government system was removed after this incident as revenge by the British government. The other colonies came together and the First Continental Congress took birth from here. British kept suppressing the rights and voices of the protestors and more troops were sent to Boston to keep everything in control. Thomas Gage was given the charge of the governor. Gage sent the troops to capture the patriots to the town of Concord as he believed that ammunitions were hidden by the patriots there. William Dawes, Paul Revere and Dr Samuel Prescott immediately had their rides in the midnight to make the patriot leaders alert in the towns in hr surroundings. These leaders were called Minutemen who formed well trained military companies independently. In April 1775 these soldiers fought the Battle of Lexington and Concord. In the American Revolution history, this was the first battle. Across New England the military units got united to protect Boston. Congress gave the command in hands of General George Washington. At the Battle of Bunker Hill the British were trapped by the freedom fighters in the city and faced heavy loss. The patriots took the full command of Boston and Washington also brought the artillery hence as a result British were forced to go out. The victory day of March 17, 1776 is celebrated as Evacuation Day in American History. Boston In Reference To The Population And EconomyBy 1780 Boston was comparatively economically unstable and small but it developed in such a way till 1800 that it owned a very bug number of mobile population which high in numbers. It became the cosmopolitan city having a busy sea port. It started exporting tobacco, salt, fish and rum and this is how it became one of richest trading ports of the world. Due to the continuous disturbances in daily life while the revolution in America and naval blockades by British had brought the economy to the down and as a result most of the people had run out of the city. In 1780 there were about ten thousand people and till 1800 it attracted the people such a way that the population became 25000.In 1783 the slavery came to an end hence the physical mobility was gained physical mobility. Location of Boston also played an important part in its growth as it was a part of the triangular trade which had a connectivity to the Caribbean and hence it could receive the sugar and then refine it to rum and molasses and part of it was exported to Europe. After that the same raw material would be used to make other refined confectionary. Names of few of the companies making such products are Boston Sugar Refinery (first time makers of granulated sugar) ,Purity Distilling Company, Necco, Domino Sugar, Schrafft’s Squirrel Brands and American Nut and Chocolate. There were 140 candy companies in Boston by 1950.In 1885 the importing of the tropical fruits from the Caribbean was started by The Boston Fruit Company. In 1882 Boston got chartered as a city which was considered as a Town till then. Josiah Quincy III became the second mayor and he concentrated on the infrastructure related work in sewer and roads. He got the dock area around the Faneuil Hall Marketplace which was newly erected organised which was known as Quincy Market. Boston got a remarkable place in the quality of garments, leather and also the machinery and till mid 19th century it achieved to be the largest centre of manufacturing in the country. There were small rivers around the city. These connected the city to other surrounding regions and this helped in spreading of the factories and mills as the shipment became very easy. After Middlesex Canal was built, the small river network around the city got connectivity till the large Merrimack River and the mills over there. Couple of mentionable mills are Lowell Mills and mills in New Hampshire and mills on Nashua River. By 1850 there was a comparatively dense network of railroads which helped the industries of the region to raise more. In 1851 Benjamin L. Marsh and Eben started a store in downtown Boston called Jordan Marsh Department store. William Filene also opened a departmental store called Filene’s across the street after thirty years. Many turnpikes also were made so that the transportation between the cities especially the transportation of cattle and sheep could become easy. The Worcester Turnpike got constructed in 1810 which was a major route connecting east to west. Other routes were Newburyport Turnpike and the Salem Lawrence Turnpike. Some Important Incidents of 20th Century And LaterLady from Irish Catholic community called Julia Harrington Duff got elected to the Boston School Committee in 1900.She tried to get the very old text books replaced, to also protect the local woman’s claims to be part of the school system as career opportunity and also to bring up the idea of a teacher’s college which can provide degrees. In 1905 the school committee which had 25 members were reduces to just five and women’s opportunities for direct participation in school policies was banned. Boston became the home of Porter Motor Company in the beginning of 20th century. Great Molasses Flood came on Jan 15, 1919 in the North End. Twenty one people died and one fifty people got injured due to the powerful waves. These immense Molasses waves went fast in the streets with the speed of 56 km per hour and it chocked people’s throats and also crushed them to death. More than six months it took to have the molasses removed from the streets, theatres, automobiles, businesses and the homes. More than 1000 members from the Boston Police Department went on strike while it summer in 1919. In Boston the law officers were less in number and hence it had to see many riots. Governor of Massachusetts Calvin Coolidge got appreciation from all over the nation for by having the police force replaced and making it peaceful. On August 23,1927 Boston burnt in the fames of anger and riots as the anarchists from Italy named anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti after a trail for seven years were sent to the electric chair. This execution cause many riots occurring in London, Germany and Paris. In 1948 Master Highway Plan was published by William F. Callahan for Metropolitan Boston. Parts of Chinatown, financial street and North End were demolished so that new construction can take place. The Central Artery’s northern part got constructed in 1956 but due to strong local oppose, the southern downtown portion was built underground. Downtown got connected to Southeast Expressway through the Dewey Square Tunnel. The first Turnpike extension of Massachusetts got completed in 1965, from Route 128 to South Station. Because of the opposing voices by public, the inner belt which was proposed in Boston, Brookline, Cambridge and Somerville, was cancelled. There was a huge fire in Cocoanut Grove nightclub on November 28, 1942. This is known as the deadliest fires in nay nightclubs in the history of America. 492 people were killed by the fire in the incident and hundreds of people were injured. The anti-Semitic violence got escalated in Boston during the Second World War years. Irish Catholic young people emerged in big numbers and made a group to fight with Jews. They disrespected the Jew cemeteries and synagogues, damaged the stores and homes owned by the Jews and assaulted the Jews physically in the streets. The police did not interfere much as most of the police many were Irish Catholics. In 1953, the largest bank robbery in the United Stated took place as the thieves stole $2.775 million. This incident is called the Great Brink’s Robbery. The community health centre came in to existence in 1966. Between June 14 and January 4, 1964 there were thirteen single women were murdered who were between the ages of 19 and 85. In 1970s Boston again saw a boom in economy after many years of downtime. The mutual fund industry grew fast in Boston as many people stated investing in Mutual funds in Boston. Many financial institutions also came in to existence during this time. This was the time when the intellectual properties grew and people looked at the quality of life again. Health care saw many innovations and facilities and it became more expensive as well. Few Hospital at that time like Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Centre, Massachusetts General Hospital, , and Brigham and Women’s Hospital came up with the innovative ways of medical practice and also better care facilities of the patients. The education was in very much demand and that’s why the higher education became costly. Universities in Boston like Harvard, MIT, Boston College, BU and Tufts attracted big numbers of the students. Many of them studies, started earning and got settled there. Student passed from these universities specially the MIT passed outs came up with high tech companies and gave Boston a new recognition in sector as well. In 2007, Te central Artery tunnel project nicknamed as Big Dig got completed. This was planned and approved in 1980 during the time of governor Michael Dukakis. The construction began in 1991 and later the construction moved underground. It widened the north south highway and created local bypasses to prevent it from congestion by the east west traffic. Ted Williams Tunnel was made the third highway tunnel to East Boston and Logan International Airport. The Big Dig project also includes public parks over 70 acres of area in the middle of the city. This played an historic role in controlling the troublesome traffic in the city and it is mentionable because it is the most expensive construction projects in the united Stated so far and also this is the most expensive projects in the history of the world. Hence Boston is a city who has seen several ups and down and now it has stood up as a city which glorifies the nation in the world.	<urn:uuid:4f22f4f5-9b72-4131-aa6f-9ed9cbd930ce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://billlentis.com/history-of-boston-ma	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00259.warc.gz	en	0.986338	3,541	3.359375	3	[ 0.3362747132778168, -0.17129077017307281, -0.07988591492176056, -0.4505530297756195, -0.560306966304779, -0.010971702635288239, -0.09203767776489258, -0.032904256135225296, -0.08196327835321426, 0.24247604608535767, 0.15624496340751648, -0.18058457970619202, -0.038638509809970856, -0.06775...	7	700 people from England to Massachusetts sailed on March 29, 1630.In the beginning people stayed and got settled Charlestown (founded an year ago). The water was not available to suffice the needs to all who were living there so the newly settled people went across the river to Trimountaine peninsula and in 1630 as mentioned before, this new settlement got the name Boston after the city Boston in England from where many of the people had come. Also check out Boston SEO. The puritan wanted to make a Godly society which can become an example to the world but they actually again crated a society which was had the same level of intolerance like the society they had left and come. The Early habitats believed that Boston was a Godly city and everything was in ordinance with God, Hence every aspect of the Boston people got affected by this mentality and they started dominating the citizens’ whole life and every facet. The colonists came up with the rules of morality and in the word of God they forced people into marriage, church attendance, and education and the sinners or the deniers to follow any of the rules, had to face the punishment. Boston Latin School which was the first school in America was founded in 1635 and the first college in America which was Harvard college was founded in 1636.Any religious idea which was good enough or looked modern but was not according the Godly rules or coming from the religious books, were not accepted and people had to face the consequences for coming up with any new idea. Many controversies took place and there is famous theological controversy called Antinomian controversy (1636 to 1638) which was a religious and political conflict, the religious leader and the dynamic protester of the policies, Anne Hutchinson and the clergyman, the religious leader John Wheelwright both were punished to go out the colony due to trying to oppose the dead thoughts. Obadiah Holmes who was a Baptist Minister was imprisoned and was also whipped publically in Boston in July 1651 because of following his religion. The first president of Harvard College between 1640s and 1650s named Henry Dunster was also persecuted for supporting Baptist beliefs. William Robinson and Marmaduke Stevenson who were the believers of Quaker philosophy were hanged in the new Boston. Mary Dyer also was a Quaker who was hanged on June 1st, 1660.In 1679 the Baptist dared to establish their meeting house which could not continue as it was closed by the authorities supporting colonial thoughts. Hence though the religious liberty was restricted but still the Baptists kept innovative with the worship and practices. Mary Dyer continuously opposed the law due to which the Quakers were banned to be in the country. History Of Roads Connecting The CityThe city got connected to New York and Major Settlements in West and Central Massachusetts through Boston Post Road. The route near U.S 1, the lower route connected Providence and Rhode Island. The Upper route was built in 1673 from Boston Neck , following the present U.S. route 20 and went around Hence from 1686 till 1689 Massachusetts and colonies in surroundings were together ot united by the roads. Calamities In BostonFrom 1636 to 1698 there were six small pox attack incidents. The epidemic which broke out in 1721-1722, made 844 people die. Out of 10,500 people 5889 were infected form the disease, out of which 14% which was 844 saw death. Around 900 people went out of the city. Colonists also tried isolation in order to stop the spread of smallpox disease. To save people from the disease first in American History, vaccination came into experiment. At that time people did not have trust in the process like today as it could cause serious illness to two percent of taking the vaccine and it might also spread the disease. Zabdiel Boylston and Cotton Mather introduced it at that time. Boston got hit by the large level earthquake in 1755, ( 6.0 to 6.3 on Richter scale)and it was called the Cape Ann earthquake. Though no one died in the accident but some building were damaged. On March 20, 1760 there was a ‘Great fire’ in Boston.349 buildings were destroyed in the area between the Fort Hill and Modern Washington Street. Many ships in port also caught the fire and around one thousand people lost their homes. Boston Fire department can never forget the fight against this great Fire. Soon the industry of ship building and whaling industry flourished in Boston. In December 1773, the British reacted harshly against the Boston Tea party which was a protest against the Tea Act came on May 20, 1773.The protest took place on December 16, 1773 by the secret group formed to fight against the taxation rules against British Government. The tea act was to allow the East India Company of Britain to sell tea in American collies from China without paying taxes apart from few exceptions decided by the British Government. So a well known battle at Breed’s Hill took place in Charlestown occurred on June 17, 1775 (the colonists lost it but caused big loss to the British). They won the Siege of Boston and forced the British to vacate the city on March 17, 1776.So this is considered as eruption of American Revolution. The blocking activities in town and port by British or Americans, badly affected the economy and till 1770 the pollination had fallen by two third. After 1800, Boston again saw recovery and it again and due to its railroad network, it became the transport centre for the New England region. In 19th century Boston was the centre of finance of the United States, along with New York. Several activities against slavery took place in Boston during the times of Civil War. The city faced domination of the Boston Brahmins called Elite in the 19th century. Catholic immigrants were challenging the Boston Brahmins politically that time. Boston financed the industries of the region and the industrial foundation could reach its peak till 1950.after that thousand of factories and textile mills got closed and the city saw the industrial decline. City’s economy again could recover by the 21st century and it started growing the in areas of medicine, education. High technology including biotechnology and many adjacent towns became the residential suburbs these days. Boston History In reference To Its Role In American RevolutionThe Stamp act came in 1765, was protested by Boston actively. The custom duties were avoided by Boston’s merchants and as a result the London officials got angry due to which the smuggling came to crackdown. Thomas Pownall the Governor between 1757 to 1760 was a peacemaker but the Governor came after him named Francis Bernard between 1760 and 1769 , he wanted to make all the voices which were raising in the opposition in the papers(pamphlets) and meetings. During his time four thousand British troops reached Boston which was a tremendous show of power. On March 5, 1770 the Boston Massacre took place. Outside the British custom house there were unarmed demonstrators who were fired by the British soldiers and as a result this cruel act, five civilians died. This incident played a very important part in escalation of the tensions. Meanwhile the parliament insisted on its right of taking tax from the Americans and tax on tea came up as a result.A noticeable incident took place on December 16, 1773 when the Sons Of Liberty who were protecting against the tea Act( which was allowing the East India Company of Britain to sell tea from China to Americans without paying the tax) came disguised as naive Americans. They threw 342 boxes of tea in the harbour. This protest is called as Boston Tea Party. The British government do not take this lightly and came up with many cruel laws one after another. The Port of Boston was closed and the Self Government system was removed after this incident as revenge by the British government. The other colonies came together and the First Continental Congress took birth from here. British kept suppressing the rights and voices of the protestors and more troops were sent to Boston to keep everything in control. Thomas Gage was given the charge of the governor. Gage sent the troops to capture the patriots to the town of Concord as he believed that ammunitions were hidden by the patriots there. William Dawes, Paul Revere and Dr Samuel Prescott immediately had their rides in the midnight to make the patriot leaders alert in the towns in hr surroundings. These leaders were called Minutemen who formed well trained military companies independently. In April 1775 these soldiers fought the Battle of Lexington and Concord. In the American Revolution history, this was the first battle. Across New England the military units got united to protect Boston. Congress gave the command in hands of General George Washington. At the Battle of Bunker Hill the British were trapped by the freedom fighters in the city and faced heavy loss. The patriots took the full command of Boston and Washington also brought the artillery hence as a result British were forced to go out. The victory day of March 17, 1776 is celebrated as Evacuation Day in American History. Boston In Reference To The Population And EconomyBy 1780 Boston was comparatively economically unstable and small but it developed in such a way till 1800 that it owned a very bug number of mobile population which high in numbers. It became the cosmopolitan city having a busy sea port. It started exporting tobacco, salt, fish and rum and this is how it became one of richest trading ports of the world. Due to the continuous disturbances in daily life while the revolution in America and naval blockades by British had brought the economy to the down and as a result most of the people had run out of the city. In 1780 there were about ten thousand people and till 1800 it attracted the people such a way that the population became 25000.In 1783 the slavery came to an end hence the physical mobility was gained physical mobility. Location of Boston also played an important part in its growth as it was a part of the triangular trade which had a connectivity to the Caribbean and hence it could receive the sugar and then refine it to rum and molasses and part of it was exported to Europe. After that the same raw material would be used to make other refined confectionary. Names of few of the companies making such products are Boston Sugar Refinery (first time makers of granulated sugar) ,Purity Distilling Company, Necco, Domino Sugar, Schrafft’s Squirrel Brands and American Nut and Chocolate. There were 140 candy companies in Boston by 1950.In 1885 the importing of the tropical fruits from the Caribbean was started by The Boston Fruit Company. In 1882 Boston got chartered as a city which was considered as a Town till then. Josiah Quincy III became the second mayor and he concentrated on the infrastructure related work in sewer and roads. He got the dock area around the Faneuil Hall Marketplace which was newly erected organised which was known as Quincy Market. Boston got a remarkable place in the quality of garments, leather and also the machinery and till mid 19th century it achieved to be the largest centre of manufacturing in the country. There were small rivers around the city. These connected the city to other surrounding regions and this helped in spreading of the factories and mills as the shipment became very easy. After Middlesex Canal was built, the small river network around the city got connectivity till the large Merrimack River and the mills over there. Couple of mentionable mills are Lowell Mills and mills in New Hampshire and mills on Nashua River. By 1850 there was a comparatively dense network of railroads which helped the industries of the region to raise more. In 1851 Benjamin L. Marsh and Eben started a store in downtown Boston called Jordan Marsh Department store. William Filene also opened a departmental store called Filene’s across the street after thirty years. Many turnpikes also were made so that the transportation between the cities especially the transportation of cattle and sheep could become easy. The Worcester Turnpike got constructed in 1810 which was a major route connecting east to west. Other routes were Newburyport Turnpike and the Salem Lawrence Turnpike. Some Important Incidents of 20th Century And LaterLady from Irish Catholic community called Julia Harrington Duff got elected to the Boston School Committee in 1900.She tried to get the very old text books replaced, to also protect the local woman’s claims to be part of the school system as career opportunity and also to bring up the idea of a teacher’s college which can provide degrees. In 1905 the school committee which had 25 members were reduces to just five and women’s opportunities for direct participation in school policies was banned. Boston became the home of Porter Motor Company in the beginning of 20th century. Great Molasses Flood came on Jan 15, 1919 in the North End. Twenty one people died and one fifty people got injured due to the powerful waves. These immense Molasses waves went fast in the streets with the speed of 56 km per hour and it chocked people’s throats and also crushed them to death. More than six months it took to have the molasses removed from the streets, theatres, automobiles, businesses and the homes. More than 1000 members from the Boston Police Department went on strike while it summer in 1919. In Boston the law officers were less in number and hence it had to see many riots. Governor of Massachusetts Calvin Coolidge got appreciation from all over the nation for by having the police force replaced and making it peaceful. On August 23,1927 Boston burnt in the fames of anger and riots as the anarchists from Italy named anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti after a trail for seven years were sent to the electric chair. This execution cause many riots occurring in London, Germany and Paris. In 1948 Master Highway Plan was published by William F. Callahan for Metropolitan Boston. Parts of Chinatown, financial street and North End were demolished so that new construction can take place. The Central Artery’s northern part got constructed in 1956 but due to strong local oppose, the southern downtown portion was built underground. Downtown got connected to Southeast Expressway through the Dewey Square Tunnel. The first Turnpike extension of Massachusetts got completed in 1965, from Route 128 to South Station. Because of the opposing voices by public, the inner belt which was proposed in Boston, Brookline, Cambridge and Somerville, was cancelled. There was a huge fire in Cocoanut Grove nightclub on November 28, 1942. This is known as the deadliest fires in nay nightclubs in the history of America. 492 people were killed by the fire in the incident and hundreds of people were injured. The anti-Semitic violence got escalated in Boston during the Second World War years. Irish Catholic young people emerged in big numbers and made a group to fight with Jews. They disrespected the Jew cemeteries and synagogues, damaged the stores and homes owned by the Jews and assaulted the Jews physically in the streets. The police did not interfere much as most of the police many were Irish Catholics. In 1953, the largest bank robbery in the United Stated took place as the thieves stole $2.775 million. This incident is called the Great Brink’s Robbery. The community health centre came in to existence in 1966. Between June 14 and January 4, 1964 there were thirteen single women were murdered who were between the ages of 19 and 85. In 1970s Boston again saw a boom in economy after many years of downtime. The mutual fund industry grew fast in Boston as many people stated investing in Mutual funds in Boston. Many financial institutions also came in to existence during this time. This was the time when the intellectual properties grew and people looked at the quality of life again. Health care saw many innovations and facilities and it became more expensive as well. Few Hospital at that time like Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Centre, Massachusetts General Hospital, , and Brigham and Women’s Hospital came up with the innovative ways of medical practice and also better care facilities of the patients. The education was in very much demand and that’s why the higher education became costly. Universities in Boston like Harvard, MIT, Boston College, BU and Tufts attracted big numbers of the students. Many of them studies, started earning and got settled there. Student passed from these universities specially the MIT passed outs came up with high tech companies and gave Boston a new recognition in sector as well. In 2007, Te central Artery tunnel project nicknamed as Big Dig got completed. This was planned and approved in 1980 during the time of governor Michael Dukakis. The construction began in 1991 and later the construction moved underground. It widened the north south highway and created local bypasses to prevent it from congestion by the east west traffic. Ted Williams Tunnel was made the third highway tunnel to East Boston and Logan International Airport. The Big Dig project also includes public parks over 70 acres of area in the middle of the city. This played an historic role in controlling the troublesome traffic in the city and it is mentionable because it is the most expensive construction projects in the united Stated so far and also this is the most expensive projects in the history of the world. Hence Boston is a city who has seen several ups and down and now it has stood up as a city which glorifies the nation in the world.	3,778	ENGLISH	1
December 08, 2011 The impact of Westernization under Peter the Great The impact of Westernization under Peter the Great. Virtually every aspect of Russia was affected by reforms during the reign of Peter the Great. His reforms were the most wide-spread ever to take place. Of all of the Czars Peter is one of the most visible and in Russian history. The reforms and westernization of Peter the Great made Russia a more modern and stronger power in Europe under his rule and until his death in 1725. Peter was a powerful and forceful leader with a vision. He wanted to westernize Russia and bring the state to a more modern era in order to compete with Europe for goods and services. …show more content… Peter the Great launched his movement of many reforms and quickly become evident that the military needed a more current structure, one similar to those in Western Europe that required him to re-organize the military. That was noteworthy for the nobility that were obligated to serve in the Russian army. He formed his army along the European lines, Peter the Great endeavored to simplify the transfers from one branch of service to another. He also established the precedence of the officials in civilian service and with the courts. The Table composed of 14 chins called classes of ranks. The Table of Ranks included some 262-service titles. It was organized to restructure all military branches namely the Infantry, Cavalry, Guard, Artillery, Navy, civilian and court positions. The classes were numbered in ascending order from the highest rank to the lowest. A proper system of addressing the ranks was also established. The Guards was a privileged core and was given higher classes of ranks than at equivalent rank in the other branches of the military.	<urn:uuid:b046fb73-d973-4bf8-b8b3-e1017ba06671>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Peter-the-Great-F3Q4MWGQSS.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00313.warc.gz	en	0.980702	354	3.5	4	[ -0.1845584511756897, 0.10183428227901459, 0.2949731945991516, 0.046099551022052765, -0.2959468364715576, -0.15544162690639496, -0.08661278337240219, 0.5541945695877075, -0.0043793306685984135, 0.08189008384943008, 0.07816453278064728, -0.0597802959382534, 0.05963932350277901, 0.24548086524...	1	December 08, 2011 The impact of Westernization under Peter the Great The impact of Westernization under Peter the Great. Virtually every aspect of Russia was affected by reforms during the reign of Peter the Great. His reforms were the most wide-spread ever to take place. Of all of the Czars Peter is one of the most visible and in Russian history. The reforms and westernization of Peter the Great made Russia a more modern and stronger power in Europe under his rule and until his death in 1725. Peter was a powerful and forceful leader with a vision. He wanted to westernize Russia and bring the state to a more modern era in order to compete with Europe for goods and services. …show more content… Peter the Great launched his movement of many reforms and quickly become evident that the military needed a more current structure, one similar to those in Western Europe that required him to re-organize the military. That was noteworthy for the nobility that were obligated to serve in the Russian army. He formed his army along the European lines, Peter the Great endeavored to simplify the transfers from one branch of service to another. He also established the precedence of the officials in civilian service and with the courts. The Table composed of 14 chins called classes of ranks. The Table of Ranks included some 262-service titles. It was organized to restructure all military branches namely the Infantry, Cavalry, Guard, Artillery, Navy, civilian and court positions. The classes were numbered in ascending order from the highest rank to the lowest. A proper system of addressing the ranks was also established. The Guards was a privileged core and was given higher classes of ranks than at equivalent rank in the other branches of the military.	364	ENGLISH	1
The birth of Jesus was not simply an ordinary or a historical event. It was God's design to save the human race. There were multiple divine interventions both in terms of preparation for the execution of God's redemptive plan, and also for the protection of the life of the young child, Jesus. God initiated the idea of saving the 'Fallen race' after they disobeyed God. The redemptive plan has been prophesized, especially by prophet Isaiah, who lived in the eighth century, before the birth of Jesus. When the time was due, God chose the young couple, Joseph and Mary, from Nazareth to take an active part in this magnificent saving action. The saving action happened only once and for all humanity. It was for humanity, and human beings were invited to take part. Joseph and Mary, each played a prominent role in the saving action, but the actual driving force behind the scene was the work of the Holy Spirit. Because human beings disobeyed God; God's Son took the form of a human, being born into this world, to obey God. In him the perfect obedience took place as he said: 'I come not to do my own will, but to do the will of the Father'. Jn 4,34; 5,30, 6,38 Jesus was born in Bethlehem, but known as Jesus of Nazareth, the birthplace of Joseph and Mary. Both of them lived a simple life, and were humble at heart. They received God's favour, and God's messenger interrupted their personal plans. They abandoned their own plans to adopt God's plan for them. Mary vowed to live a single life style, and God's messenger changed her mind when she responded 'yes' to God. Joseph intended to divorce Mary informally on the grounds, that she was pregnant before they came to live together. An engagement is not a legally binding in today's cultures, but in those days the betrothal could only be broken by divorce. The Jewish law at the time considered a pregnancy out of the wedlock was an act of adultery, and that person would be punished severely by stoning to death. To save Mary from this public disgrace, Joseph intended to leave her quietly. Mary probably knew nothing about Joseph's plan. His plan was shattered, when God's angel told him in his dream to abolish the idea, because what in her was not the work of any human person, but it was the work of the Spirit. In confirming the work of the Spirit, the name of the new born baby was chosen not by Mary or Joseph. The name was dictated by God and his name tells to the world about his life vocation- 'to save his people from their sins(Mat. 1,21). Augustus called the first ever census, and that enabled Mary and Joseph to return to their birthplace to be registered. It was not a sheer accident, but a part of God's plan. Jesus was born at an open place, telling us that this world is only a passing place. He was born amongst the homeless, showing us that our true home is in heaven. He was born amongst the people society had rejected, confirming for us that God rejects no one. The shepherds waded in the snow to find the Light, assuring us that those who search for the Light certainly will find it. The birth of Jesus is the fulfilment of the promise God has made to save the human race. In him, we have hope, and are saved.	<urn:uuid:77798e6d-0bbe-41d2-aafc-eb1b26b9af0d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://tiengchuong.org/reflections/19_a_advent4.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00354.warc.gz	en	0.984999	709	3.40625	3	[ -0.37807804346084595, 0.5718402862548828, -0.2819531559944153, -0.12207856774330139, -0.3104323744773865, 0.3383706212043762, -0.23992806673049927, 0.22445017099380493, 0.3870614767074585, 0.10327984392642975, -0.11943372339010239, 0.1758614182472229, 0.22120752930641174, 0.069542601704597...	2	The birth of Jesus was not simply an ordinary or a historical event. It was God's design to save the human race. There were multiple divine interventions both in terms of preparation for the execution of God's redemptive plan, and also for the protection of the life of the young child, Jesus. God initiated the idea of saving the 'Fallen race' after they disobeyed God. The redemptive plan has been prophesized, especially by prophet Isaiah, who lived in the eighth century, before the birth of Jesus. When the time was due, God chose the young couple, Joseph and Mary, from Nazareth to take an active part in this magnificent saving action. The saving action happened only once and for all humanity. It was for humanity, and human beings were invited to take part. Joseph and Mary, each played a prominent role in the saving action, but the actual driving force behind the scene was the work of the Holy Spirit. Because human beings disobeyed God; God's Son took the form of a human, being born into this world, to obey God. In him the perfect obedience took place as he said: 'I come not to do my own will, but to do the will of the Father'. Jn 4,34; 5,30, 6,38 Jesus was born in Bethlehem, but known as Jesus of Nazareth, the birthplace of Joseph and Mary. Both of them lived a simple life, and were humble at heart. They received God's favour, and God's messenger interrupted their personal plans. They abandoned their own plans to adopt God's plan for them. Mary vowed to live a single life style, and God's messenger changed her mind when she responded 'yes' to God. Joseph intended to divorce Mary informally on the grounds, that she was pregnant before they came to live together. An engagement is not a legally binding in today's cultures, but in those days the betrothal could only be broken by divorce. The Jewish law at the time considered a pregnancy out of the wedlock was an act of adultery, and that person would be punished severely by stoning to death. To save Mary from this public disgrace, Joseph intended to leave her quietly. Mary probably knew nothing about Joseph's plan. His plan was shattered, when God's angel told him in his dream to abolish the idea, because what in her was not the work of any human person, but it was the work of the Spirit. In confirming the work of the Spirit, the name of the new born baby was chosen not by Mary or Joseph. The name was dictated by God and his name tells to the world about his life vocation- 'to save his people from their sins(Mat. 1,21). Augustus called the first ever census, and that enabled Mary and Joseph to return to their birthplace to be registered. It was not a sheer accident, but a part of God's plan. Jesus was born at an open place, telling us that this world is only a passing place. He was born amongst the homeless, showing us that our true home is in heaven. He was born amongst the people society had rejected, confirming for us that God rejects no one. The shepherds waded in the snow to find the Light, assuring us that those who search for the Light certainly will find it. The birth of Jesus is the fulfilment of the promise God has made to save the human race. In him, we have hope, and are saved.	718	ENGLISH	1
Consider his advice on marriage and the roles of men and women in the First letter to the Corinthians” (Crawford et al. 2:27), and compare and contrast these ideas about marriage and the roles of wife and husband to those expressed by Chaucer in the Wife of Bath’s tale from the Canterbury Tales and those expressed in The Thousand and One Nights When St. Paul was writing the letter to the Corinthians, he talked about marriage and the role of men and women. St. Paul is seen as the primary promulgators of patriarchal ideas in Christian cultures. This is because he gives more power to men than women. He asserts that men have authority over women body whereas women do not have any authority over their body. Additionally, he gives men freedom to leave their wife if they are not satisfied. He says that a man has the right to do whatever his heart directs him to do. However, a woman is advised to endure all the difficulties in marriage when his man is alive. He asserted many things regarding to marriage. For instance, he portrays the truth that women are bound to their husband incase he is alive. He also suggested that women have the authority to marry whom they like incase their husbands are dead. He says that married women have to concern themselves with things that please their husbands. He argues the unmarried women and widows should remain as they are. However, he said that if they tend to loss self-control, it is advisable for them to marry whomever they love. He says that no married women should ever leave their husbands and if they have to do that, it is good for them to remain unmarried. He cautions men not to divorce their women. According to St. Paul, men and women have different roles. For instance, a man should be the head of the family and has authority over his wife (1 Corinthians 7). Women have a responsibility to honor their husbands and obey them. They have a role of taking care of their children. The story of the “Wife of Bath’s tale from the Canterbury Tales” tends to point out some important ideas about marriage and roles of women and men (Chaucer 176). The main character is “the wife” and she tends to portray the difficulties she experienced during her marriage life. This wife had married five husbands. She had a perception that whenever one divorces a man she should not remain a widow instead she should find another man to marry (Chaucer 176). She presents some argument about those who claims that once a husband has died a woman should become a nun. The fact that she was married to five men, she had a lot of wealth as she was inheriting everything when they divorce (Chaucer 176). Therefore, she was only looking for a man with outstanding characteristics; however, the man she married turned to be problematic. She asserts that men and women should have equal opportunities to rule the family. She curses men who refuse to be ruled by their wife. According to this story, the wife should play same roles that a man carries. One of the differences between St. Paul and The wife of Baths’ tale is their ideas on marriage and role of man and women. For instance, St. Paul asserts that men have authority over women whereas the story of the wife opposes this argument. Another difference is that St. Paul argues women to remain widowed if they have control whereas the story of the wife opposes the claim that widowed women should become nuns. According to St. Paul, men have the mandate of being the head of the family, but the story of the Wife curses those men that refuse to be ruled by their wives. This is different in the story of one thousands and one night. This is because men and women have different roles that they play during the night. For instance, women will turn to be slaves and concubines and they must respect their men (Hovannisian 16). Others were faithful while others tend to be unfaithful. There are also a number of women who are magician and others are not. On the other hand, men have the role of being the head of the family and should be respected by their wives. This story is different from that one of the Wife as some of the women are still virgin and they are willing to live that way.	<urn:uuid:5c9810dd-7800-4ce7-aed7-b5d9cdc3b0d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graceplaceofwillmar.org/marriage-and-role-of-women-and-men/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00131.warc.gz	en	0.989056	884	3.359375	3	[ -0.12693095207214355, 0.7482365369796753, 0.006336097605526447, -0.5293067097663879, -0.27069538831710815, 0.46450844407081604, 0.5863471031188965, 0.0383099690079689, 0.2602972984313965, -0.1458861082792282, -0.26636719703674316, 0.36144375801086426, 0.5807569622993469, 0.3117254972457886...	4	Consider his advice on marriage and the roles of men and women in the First letter to the Corinthians” (Crawford et al. 2:27), and compare and contrast these ideas about marriage and the roles of wife and husband to those expressed by Chaucer in the Wife of Bath’s tale from the Canterbury Tales and those expressed in The Thousand and One Nights When St. Paul was writing the letter to the Corinthians, he talked about marriage and the role of men and women. St. Paul is seen as the primary promulgators of patriarchal ideas in Christian cultures. This is because he gives more power to men than women. He asserts that men have authority over women body whereas women do not have any authority over their body. Additionally, he gives men freedom to leave their wife if they are not satisfied. He says that a man has the right to do whatever his heart directs him to do. However, a woman is advised to endure all the difficulties in marriage when his man is alive. He asserted many things regarding to marriage. For instance, he portrays the truth that women are bound to their husband incase he is alive. He also suggested that women have the authority to marry whom they like incase their husbands are dead. He says that married women have to concern themselves with things that please their husbands. He argues the unmarried women and widows should remain as they are. However, he said that if they tend to loss self-control, it is advisable for them to marry whomever they love. He says that no married women should ever leave their husbands and if they have to do that, it is good for them to remain unmarried. He cautions men not to divorce their women. According to St. Paul, men and women have different roles. For instance, a man should be the head of the family and has authority over his wife (1 Corinthians 7). Women have a responsibility to honor their husbands and obey them. They have a role of taking care of their children. The story of the “Wife of Bath’s tale from the Canterbury Tales” tends to point out some important ideas about marriage and roles of women and men (Chaucer 176). The main character is “the wife” and she tends to portray the difficulties she experienced during her marriage life. This wife had married five husbands. She had a perception that whenever one divorces a man she should not remain a widow instead she should find another man to marry (Chaucer 176). She presents some argument about those who claims that once a husband has died a woman should become a nun. The fact that she was married to five men, she had a lot of wealth as she was inheriting everything when they divorce (Chaucer 176). Therefore, she was only looking for a man with outstanding characteristics; however, the man she married turned to be problematic. She asserts that men and women should have equal opportunities to rule the family. She curses men who refuse to be ruled by their wife. According to this story, the wife should play same roles that a man carries. One of the differences between St. Paul and The wife of Baths’ tale is their ideas on marriage and role of man and women. For instance, St. Paul asserts that men have authority over women whereas the story of the wife opposes this argument. Another difference is that St. Paul argues women to remain widowed if they have control whereas the story of the wife opposes the claim that widowed women should become nuns. According to St. Paul, men have the mandate of being the head of the family, but the story of the Wife curses those men that refuse to be ruled by their wives. This is different in the story of one thousands and one night. This is because men and women have different roles that they play during the night. For instance, women will turn to be slaves and concubines and they must respect their men (Hovannisian 16). Others were faithful while others tend to be unfaithful. There are also a number of women who are magician and others are not. On the other hand, men have the role of being the head of the family and should be respected by their wives. This story is different from that one of the Wife as some of the women are still virgin and they are willing to live that way.	887	ENGLISH	1
This article does not have any sources. (July 2018) They are sometimes called Eskimos, a word which likely comes from the Algonquin language and may mean "eater of raw meat". Most Inuit prefer to be called by their own name, either the more general Inuit particularly in Canada or their actual tribe name. Inuit is a tribe name but not all indigenous Arctic peoples in North America are Inuits. Particularly in the United States Alaska, the word Eskimo would be accepted as a more general term, but would probably refer to themselves by their tribe name. Inuit in Canada and Greenland like the name Inuit because it is their own name for themselves. Inuit means more than one, one person is an "Inuk". The native Greenlanders are related to the Inuit. The language of the Inuit is Inuktitut, and it is one of the official languages of Nunavut and of the Northwest Territories in Canada. Eskimo is a term more frequently used in mainstream United States where such concerns get less attention. Inuits in Alaska have various concerns, such as protecting the caribou from American oil pipelines. Anti-seal hunt campaigns work to eliminate this aspect of northern culture, which most Inuits regard as vital to their lives. Traditional culture[change \| change source] Inuit ate both raw and cooked meat and fish, as well as the fetus's of pregnant animals. Whale blubber was burned as fuel for cooking and lamps. Inuit were also Nomadic people, but they did not domesticate any animals except for dogs, which they used to pull their sleds and help with the hunting. They were hunter-gatherers, living off the land. They were very careful to make good use of every part of the animals they killed. Respect for the land and the animals they harvested was and is a focal part of their culture. Inuit lived in tents made of animal skins during the summer. In the winter they lived in sod houses and igloos. They could build an igloo out of snow bricks in just a couple of hours. Snow is full of air spaces, which helps it hold in warmth. With just a blubber lamp for heat, an igloo could be warmer than the air outside. The Inuit made very clever things from the bones, antlers, and wood they had. They invented the , which was used to hunt seals and whales. They built boats from wood or bone covered with animal skins. They invented the kayak for one man to use for hunting the ocean and among the pack ice. Inuit sleds could be built from wood, bone, or even animal skins wrapped around frozen fish. Dishes were made from carving soapstone, bones, or musk ox horns. They wore two layers of skins, one fur side in, the other facing out, to stay warm. Inuit had to be good hunters to survive. When an animal was killed in a hunt, it was thanked respectfully for offering itself to the hunter. They believed it intended to provide itself as a gift towards the survival of the hunter and his children. Their gratitude was deeply sincere and is an important aspect of their belief system. In the winter, seals did not come out onto the ice. They only came up for air at holes they chewed in the ice. Inuit would use their dogs to find the air holes, then wait patiently until the seal came back to breathe and kill it with a . In the summer, the seals would lie out on the ice enjoying the sun. The hunter would have to slowly creep up on a seal to kill it. The Inuit would use their dogs and spears to hunt polar bears, musk ox, and caribou. Sometimes they would kill caribou from their boats as the animals crossed the rivers on their migration. The Inuit even hunted whales. From their boat, they would throw harpoons that were attached to floats made of seal skins. The whale would grow tired from dragging the floats under the water. When it slowed down and came up to the surface, the Inuit could keep hitting it with more harpoons or spears until it died. Whale blubber provide Vitamin D and Omegas to their cultural diet, and prevented rickets. The whaling industry around the world has depleted the whale population, and now traditional whale hunting for subsistence purposes is rare around the world. Inuits have added to their modern northern diet with grocery foods, which are normally very expensive in the north. During the summer months, the Inuit were able to gather berries and roots to eat. They also collected grass to line their boots or make baskets. Often the food they found or killed during the summer was put into a cache for use during the long winter. A cache was created by digging down to the permafrost and building a rock lined pit there. The top would be covered with a pile of rocks to keep out the animals. It was as good as a freezer, because the food would stay frozen there until the family needed it. Inuit cultural traditions and traditional stories provided each new generation with the lifeskills and knowledge to survive their environment and work together. They usually moved around in small groups looking for food, and sometimes they would get together with other groups to hunt for larger animals such as whales. The men did the hunting and home building, and also made weapons, sleds, and boats. The women cooked, made the clothes, and took care of the children. Children and infants under the ages of 5 became easy victims of hypothermia, and if they were to die, their mothers would weight the children's corpses with stones and wrap them in fishnets before placing the bodies through holes in the ice. The mothers believed the children's souls were being offered to the god Phallus, who would reincarnate them as whales. North American Arctic people today[change \| change source] Today, most Inuit live in modern houses. Many still hunt or fish for a major part of their food supply and sometimes some income. Seal pelts are used to protect from the extreme cold in the Arctic and are far more effective than man-made fabrics. The technology has worked well for many thousands of years. Besides, commercial winter clothes are expensive. Today, they use rifles and snowmobiles when hunting, however traditional values respecting the animals hunted still very much applies. In Alaska, many of the people have received money from the oil discovered in that state on their traditional lands. The Arctic is very different from the rest of the world. The way of life in the south does not work well in the north. Canada values having Inuit peoples in Canada's northernmost lands as proof of sovereignty over the Canadian portion of the Arctic Circle. It's a very challenging living in an Arctic environment. There is some controversy over the practice of sinking the corpses of child victims of hypothermia under the ice, as bodies have been known to drift through the currents and wash up on the eastern coast of Canada, and, upon occasion, the northeastern United States.	<urn:uuid:a31a782f-520f-474b-bd9c-7ebc4f943e9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00522.warc.gz	en	0.984422	1,451	3.5625	4	[ -0.08263654261827469, 0.16270262002944946, 0.13761842250823975, 0.2636551856994629, -0.21327823400497437, -0.324040949344635, 0.6812281012535095, -0.049105361104011536, -0.3656638264656067, 0.28029024600982666, 0.011125318706035614, -0.3525306284427643, 0.024023912847042084, -0.10237944871...	1	This article does not have any sources. (July 2018) They are sometimes called Eskimos, a word which likely comes from the Algonquin language and may mean "eater of raw meat". Most Inuit prefer to be called by their own name, either the more general Inuit particularly in Canada or their actual tribe name. Inuit is a tribe name but not all indigenous Arctic peoples in North America are Inuits. Particularly in the United States Alaska, the word Eskimo would be accepted as a more general term, but would probably refer to themselves by their tribe name. Inuit in Canada and Greenland like the name Inuit because it is their own name for themselves. Inuit means more than one, one person is an "Inuk". The native Greenlanders are related to the Inuit. The language of the Inuit is Inuktitut, and it is one of the official languages of Nunavut and of the Northwest Territories in Canada. Eskimo is a term more frequently used in mainstream United States where such concerns get less attention. Inuits in Alaska have various concerns, such as protecting the caribou from American oil pipelines. Anti-seal hunt campaigns work to eliminate this aspect of northern culture, which most Inuits regard as vital to their lives. Traditional culture[change \| change source] Inuit ate both raw and cooked meat and fish, as well as the fetus's of pregnant animals. Whale blubber was burned as fuel for cooking and lamps. Inuit were also Nomadic people, but they did not domesticate any animals except for dogs, which they used to pull their sleds and help with the hunting. They were hunter-gatherers, living off the land. They were very careful to make good use of every part of the animals they killed. Respect for the land and the animals they harvested was and is a focal part of their culture. Inuit lived in tents made of animal skins during the summer. In the winter they lived in sod houses and igloos. They could build an igloo out of snow bricks in just a couple of hours. Snow is full of air spaces, which helps it hold in warmth. With just a blubber lamp for heat, an igloo could be warmer than the air outside. The Inuit made very clever things from the bones, antlers, and wood they had. They invented the , which was used to hunt seals and whales. They built boats from wood or bone covered with animal skins. They invented the kayak for one man to use for hunting the ocean and among the pack ice. Inuit sleds could be built from wood, bone, or even animal skins wrapped around frozen fish. Dishes were made from carving soapstone, bones, or musk ox horns. They wore two layers of skins, one fur side in, the other facing out, to stay warm. Inuit had to be good hunters to survive. When an animal was killed in a hunt, it was thanked respectfully for offering itself to the hunter. They believed it intended to provide itself as a gift towards the survival of the hunter and his children. Their gratitude was deeply sincere and is an important aspect of their belief system. In the winter, seals did not come out onto the ice. They only came up for air at holes they chewed in the ice. Inuit would use their dogs to find the air holes, then wait patiently until the seal came back to breathe and kill it with a . In the summer, the seals would lie out on the ice enjoying the sun. The hunter would have to slowly creep up on a seal to kill it. The Inuit would use their dogs and spears to hunt polar bears, musk ox, and caribou. Sometimes they would kill caribou from their boats as the animals crossed the rivers on their migration. The Inuit even hunted whales. From their boat, they would throw harpoons that were attached to floats made of seal skins. The whale would grow tired from dragging the floats under the water. When it slowed down and came up to the surface, the Inuit could keep hitting it with more harpoons or spears until it died. Whale blubber provide Vitamin D and Omegas to their cultural diet, and prevented rickets. The whaling industry around the world has depleted the whale population, and now traditional whale hunting for subsistence purposes is rare around the world. Inuits have added to their modern northern diet with grocery foods, which are normally very expensive in the north. During the summer months, the Inuit were able to gather berries and roots to eat. They also collected grass to line their boots or make baskets. Often the food they found or killed during the summer was put into a cache for use during the long winter. A cache was created by digging down to the permafrost and building a rock lined pit there. The top would be covered with a pile of rocks to keep out the animals. It was as good as a freezer, because the food would stay frozen there until the family needed it. Inuit cultural traditions and traditional stories provided each new generation with the lifeskills and knowledge to survive their environment and work together. They usually moved around in small groups looking for food, and sometimes they would get together with other groups to hunt for larger animals such as whales. The men did the hunting and home building, and also made weapons, sleds, and boats. The women cooked, made the clothes, and took care of the children. Children and infants under the ages of 5 became easy victims of hypothermia, and if they were to die, their mothers would weight the children's corpses with stones and wrap them in fishnets before placing the bodies through holes in the ice. The mothers believed the children's souls were being offered to the god Phallus, who would reincarnate them as whales. North American Arctic people today[change \| change source] Today, most Inuit live in modern houses. Many still hunt or fish for a major part of their food supply and sometimes some income. Seal pelts are used to protect from the extreme cold in the Arctic and are far more effective than man-made fabrics. The technology has worked well for many thousands of years. Besides, commercial winter clothes are expensive. Today, they use rifles and snowmobiles when hunting, however traditional values respecting the animals hunted still very much applies. In Alaska, many of the people have received money from the oil discovered in that state on their traditional lands. The Arctic is very different from the rest of the world. The way of life in the south does not work well in the north. Canada values having Inuit peoples in Canada's northernmost lands as proof of sovereignty over the Canadian portion of the Arctic Circle. It's a very challenging living in an Arctic environment. There is some controversy over the practice of sinking the corpses of child victims of hypothermia under the ice, as bodies have been known to drift through the currents and wash up on the eastern coast of Canada, and, upon occasion, the northeastern United States.	1,435	ENGLISH	1
Nijmegen: city in the Netherlands, where several Roman settlements have been discovered. First Phase (19 BCE-c.17 CE) In 16 BCE, a Roman general named Marcus Lollius was defeated by a group of Germanic tribal warriors, the Sugambri. The emperor Augustus decided that the best defense was to attack the Germans at home, and sent his stepson Drusus to the north. It was not the first Roman expedition to the Lower Rhine; the fortress at the Hunerberg (map) had been founded in 19 BCE, and its construction may have been one of the reasons why the Germanic tribes had become restless. However that may be, the fortress at the Hunerberg was used as a military base during Drusus' offensive across the river Rhine, which lasted from 15 to 12 BCE. The site was well-chosen. The Hunerberg is part of an ice-pushed ridge south of the river Waal, the main distribuary branch of the Rhine. From Gaul, the river Meuse flows to the north, but it cannot break through the ridge, and turns to the west, joining the Waal further downstream. At Nijmegen, only ten kilometer separate the two streams, which means that it is easy to bring food supplies to the Hunerberg and the civil settlement in its neighborhood, Batavodurum. Besides, the native people, the Batavians, supported the Romans; when the Greek-Roman author Cassius Dio describes Drusus' campaigns, he implies that the Batavian territories had already been pacified.note[Cassius Dio, Roman History 54.32.] The Hunerberg fortress was very, very large. With a size of 650x650 meters, it offered accommodation to at least two legions, and possibly three. (Epigraphically attested are I Germanica and XIII Gemina.) The site was surrounded by two ditches and a large wall, with towers every 24 meter. The HQs have been identified, but were not excavated. The mansions of the officers, however, were investigated; they measured between 240 and 540 square meter, and the house of the commander, measuring 35½ x 36½ meter, was more than double that size. It was not very long in use: after two campaigns on the east bank of the Rhine, Drusus had reached his war aims and could transfer his legions to Oberaden on the Lippe. Although the legions returned to the site during the retaliatory campaigns of Germanicus after the disaster in the Teutoburg Forest (9 CE), the site was essentially abandoned. After 17, the only (known) garrison at Nijmegen was the fort at the nearby Kops Plateau, which offered accommodation to one cavalry unit. Second Phase (70- after 120) The Hunerberg fortress was discovered 1916, and excavated almost completely between 1917 and 1921, and since 1951. However, the archaeologists only reached to the top level; the first building phase, described above, was not recognized until 1960. This is easy to explain: the final building phase contained stone buildings, which were easy to recognize. The second occupation of the Hunerberg started in 70. The Batavian Revolt had shown that one cavalry unit was insufficient to control this part of the Rhine frontier, and the Second Legion Adiutrix was transferred from northern Italy to Nijmegen, where it built a bridge. It was almost immediately replaced by the Tenth Legion Gemina , which arrived from northern Spain. The new fortress was smaller than the first one: it measured 350x465 meter or 16 hectare, which suggests that not the entire legion was stationed over here, because a full-strength legion requires a bit more space. The fortress was surrounded by a ditch that was about four meter wide, and a wall with towers at every forty-five meter. The HQs measured about 93x65 meter. Until now, the buildings had been made of wood, but towards the end of the reign of the emperor Domitian (81-96), the fortress was rebuilt; this building phase was, as already indicated, out of stone. The site had an aqueduct and a sewer system; the underground canal, which was about 1½ meter below street level, was covered with roof tiles. The Tenth had to abandon the fortress in 104 or 105, not very long after the rebuilding, because it was transferred to Aquincum (modern Budapest in Hungary), to take part in the Dacian Wars of the emperor Trajan. A vexillation from Britain, which consisted of parts of VIIII Hispana and other units, now occupied the site, and after 120, subunits of XXX Ulpia Victrix were the residents of the Hunerberg. Wherever the Romans built a legionary base, other settlements were bound to grow. To the west was Ulpia Noviomagus, the city that had replaced Batavodurum as main civil settlement in the neighborhood. The six thousand legionaries that spent their pay in that town, must have been a considerable boost for the local economy. The old river port of Batavodurum continued to be in use to receive goods. A country estate near Nijmegen called De Holdeurn was once the location of a large production center of tiles and pottery. There was also a sanctuary dedicated to the supreme god Jupiter, to Vesta, and to a local goddess named Hludana. The factory was to continue its production after the legion had left. Of course, the Hunerberg fortress was surrounded by a civil settlement, the vicus, which appears to have contracted after the legion left. Still, the amphitheater was in use during the second century. Of this monument, there are no visible remains, but in the Mesdagstraat and the Rembrandtstraat, the place where it once stood is indicated in the pavement. East of the fortress was a large forum, which measured about 166x137 meter and is the largest known Roman building in the Netherlands. To the west of the Hunerberg base was an inn, which has been rebuilt in the Archeon archaeological park in Alphen aan den Rijn. In the Middle Ages, the stones of the Hunerberg were taken away and reused in the city of Nijmegen. The inhabitants did not know what the ruins really were, and ascribed them - as was common in the Netherlands back then - to the Huns: the name "Hunerberg" means "mountain of the Huns".	<urn:uuid:824fc305-8762-49d1-888e-616d04a8e78b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.livius.org/articles/place/noviomagus/nijmegen-photos/nijmegen-hunerberg/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00544.warc.gz	en	0.984138	1,373	3.6875	4	[ -0.33895623683929443, 0.6131892204284668, 0.2831847071647644, 0.10673487186431885, -0.058317720890045166, -0.378884494304657, -0.33305275440216064, 0.4345704913139343, -0.22427067160606384, -0.4577297270298004, 0.15864558517932892, -1.2128539085388184, -0.5677791833877563, 0.33192494511604...	16	Nijmegen: city in the Netherlands, where several Roman settlements have been discovered. First Phase (19 BCE-c.17 CE) In 16 BCE, a Roman general named Marcus Lollius was defeated by a group of Germanic tribal warriors, the Sugambri. The emperor Augustus decided that the best defense was to attack the Germans at home, and sent his stepson Drusus to the north. It was not the first Roman expedition to the Lower Rhine; the fortress at the Hunerberg (map) had been founded in 19 BCE, and its construction may have been one of the reasons why the Germanic tribes had become restless. However that may be, the fortress at the Hunerberg was used as a military base during Drusus' offensive across the river Rhine, which lasted from 15 to 12 BCE. The site was well-chosen. The Hunerberg is part of an ice-pushed ridge south of the river Waal, the main distribuary branch of the Rhine. From Gaul, the river Meuse flows to the north, but it cannot break through the ridge, and turns to the west, joining the Waal further downstream. At Nijmegen, only ten kilometer separate the two streams, which means that it is easy to bring food supplies to the Hunerberg and the civil settlement in its neighborhood, Batavodurum. Besides, the native people, the Batavians, supported the Romans; when the Greek-Roman author Cassius Dio describes Drusus' campaigns, he implies that the Batavian territories had already been pacified.note[Cassius Dio, Roman History 54.32.] The Hunerberg fortress was very, very large. With a size of 650x650 meters, it offered accommodation to at least two legions, and possibly three. (Epigraphically attested are I Germanica and XIII Gemina.) The site was surrounded by two ditches and a large wall, with towers every 24 meter. The HQs have been identified, but were not excavated. The mansions of the officers, however, were investigated; they measured between 240 and 540 square meter, and the house of the commander, measuring 35½ x 36½ meter, was more than double that size. It was not very long in use: after two campaigns on the east bank of the Rhine, Drusus had reached his war aims and could transfer his legions to Oberaden on the Lippe. Although the legions returned to the site during the retaliatory campaigns of Germanicus after the disaster in the Teutoburg Forest (9 CE), the site was essentially abandoned. After 17, the only (known) garrison at Nijmegen was the fort at the nearby Kops Plateau, which offered accommodation to one cavalry unit. Second Phase (70- after 120) The Hunerberg fortress was discovered 1916, and excavated almost completely between 1917 and 1921, and since 1951. However, the archaeologists only reached to the top level; the first building phase, described above, was not recognized until 1960. This is easy to explain: the final building phase contained stone buildings, which were easy to recognize. The second occupation of the Hunerberg started in 70. The Batavian Revolt had shown that one cavalry unit was insufficient to control this part of the Rhine frontier, and the Second Legion Adiutrix was transferred from northern Italy to Nijmegen, where it built a bridge. It was almost immediately replaced by the Tenth Legion Gemina , which arrived from northern Spain. The new fortress was smaller than the first one: it measured 350x465 meter or 16 hectare, which suggests that not the entire legion was stationed over here, because a full-strength legion requires a bit more space. The fortress was surrounded by a ditch that was about four meter wide, and a wall with towers at every forty-five meter. The HQs measured about 93x65 meter. Until now, the buildings had been made of wood, but towards the end of the reign of the emperor Domitian (81-96), the fortress was rebuilt; this building phase was, as already indicated, out of stone. The site had an aqueduct and a sewer system; the underground canal, which was about 1½ meter below street level, was covered with roof tiles. The Tenth had to abandon the fortress in 104 or 105, not very long after the rebuilding, because it was transferred to Aquincum (modern Budapest in Hungary), to take part in the Dacian Wars of the emperor Trajan. A vexillation from Britain, which consisted of parts of VIIII Hispana and other units, now occupied the site, and after 120, subunits of XXX Ulpia Victrix were the residents of the Hunerberg. Wherever the Romans built a legionary base, other settlements were bound to grow. To the west was Ulpia Noviomagus, the city that had replaced Batavodurum as main civil settlement in the neighborhood. The six thousand legionaries that spent their pay in that town, must have been a considerable boost for the local economy. The old river port of Batavodurum continued to be in use to receive goods. A country estate near Nijmegen called De Holdeurn was once the location of a large production center of tiles and pottery. There was also a sanctuary dedicated to the supreme god Jupiter, to Vesta, and to a local goddess named Hludana. The factory was to continue its production after the legion had left. Of course, the Hunerberg fortress was surrounded by a civil settlement, the vicus, which appears to have contracted after the legion left. Still, the amphitheater was in use during the second century. Of this monument, there are no visible remains, but in the Mesdagstraat and the Rembrandtstraat, the place where it once stood is indicated in the pavement. East of the fortress was a large forum, which measured about 166x137 meter and is the largest known Roman building in the Netherlands. To the west of the Hunerberg base was an inn, which has been rebuilt in the Archeon archaeological park in Alphen aan den Rijn. In the Middle Ages, the stones of the Hunerberg were taken away and reused in the city of Nijmegen. The inhabitants did not know what the ruins really were, and ascribed them - as was common in the Netherlands back then - to the Huns: the name "Hunerberg" means "mountain of the Huns".	1,436	ENGLISH	1
This post will document the Czech/Slovak resistance to Nazism in Czechoslovakia during the Second World War. It was a time of great struggle for the people of Czechoslovakia under the Munich Agreement of 1938 the area of Sudetenland (today in the Czech Republic) on the borders of Bavaria, Saxony and Lower Silesia now Poland was amalgamated into Nazi Germany. It was in September of that year in 1938 that Adolf Hitler wanted to take Sudetenland. The area of Sudetenland had many German speakers residing there and many of the population suffered greatly during the Great Depression. Much of the population were employed in export dependent industries including; paper making, textiles, toy manufacturing and glass manufacturing. Many Sudeten Germans wanted answers to their problems and as a result they turned to more extreme movements to rectify this. One as such was Fascism. The Munich Agreement was a conference attended by Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Italy. Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference and as a result felt betrayed by the United Kingdom and France, hence the name the Munich betrayal. All parties signed the agreement on 30th September 1938, however it was dated on 29th September that Hitler was permitted to take Sudeten lands in Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovakian government was exiled to London. Fast forward a year and the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia was a separate pro-Nazi republic and Hitler proceeded to seize the rest of the area including Moravia and Bohemia where Prague is located. This fundamental decision on Hitler’s part ended appeasement. Later in 1939 Germany invaded Poland and propelled Europe into another war, The Second World War that would last another 6 years. Resistance occurred in the form of boycotts and mass protest demonstrations at the start of the Second World War. Operation Anthropoid was a planned assassination of a high ranking Nazi Official by the name of Reinhard Heydrich. Heydrich was head of the Reich Main Security Office , General of Police and later Acting Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia. He was notoriously attributed to the “Final solution” to the Jewish question, helping to organise Kristallnacht and quash resistance in Czech/Slovak lands, this involved suppressing their culture. When he was in Prague he did not hesitate to eliminate any threat to Nazi rule. 92 people were assassinated shortly after Heydrich’s arrival to Prague and placed c.5000 people into concentration camps. Heydrich did not hide his intentions that he wanted the Czech lands to become German. The Czech people were an exploited labour force for Nazi Germany. The Czech government in exile in London agreed that Heydrich was to be assassinated. Jan Kubis, a Czech and Jozef Gabcik were chosen to lead the operation and it was initiated by the Head of Czech Intelligence Frantisek Moravec and approved by Czechoslovakian President, Edvard Benes. They were trained by the British Operations Executives in order to carry out the operation. Kubis and Gabcik arrived via parachute in December 1941 and were in hiding whilst planning and conducting the assignation attempt. In this time they came into contact with anti-Nazi organisations and families that helped them and prevent them being thwarted. It was intended that they were to arrive in Pilsen, however this never happened due to navigation issues. This included doing background research that included Heydrich’s routine in order to paint a reliable picture for them to aid with their mission. It wasn’t until May 27th 1942 that they were successful. Kubis and Gabcik eventually settled on a plan to assassinate Heydrich in Prague. On May 27th 1942 Heydrich left for Prague from his home in Panenske Brezany. The area that Kubis and Gabcik ambushed Heydrich was at a curvature of a tram line. This area was used because the curvature allowed for Heydrich’s car to slow down making the ambush seemingly easier to perpetrate. Kubis and Gabcik were stationed 100 metres from each other and when Heydrich’s car approached the curvature, it was Gabcik who opened fire at Heydrich with a sub machine gun but it wasn’t functioning properly. Heydrich ordered the car to stop to apprehend the assailant and tried to shoot Gabcik with his luger pistol. Upon witnessing this Kubis threw a grenade at the car. Shrapnel was scattered from the grenades collision through the car’s right rear bumper and hit Heydrich’s border (the shrapnel). Kubis and Gabcik shortly attempted to shoot in the direction of Heydrich but missed their target. Heydrich attempted to chase and shoot Gabcik but he collapsed and was bleeding heavily from his injuries. Heydrich’s driver attempted to apprehend Gabcik after Kubis left the scene by bicycle. However Gabcik wounded the driver and he too escaped. Initially it was thought on both Kubis and Gabcik’s part that the operation was a complete failure. Heydrich was later taken to hospital and operated on and needed blood transfusions. On 4th June Heydrich died from his injuries and contracted sepsis. The consequences were that Heydrich’s death was the only successful assassination attempt of a high ranking Nazi official. Gabcik and Kubis managed to lay down low from preying Nazi eyes. In the meantime Nazi Intelligence linked the assailants to the village of Lidice and or Lezaky where the entire village was completely obliterated to the ground. Many inhabitants died. Intelligence officers alluded to the fact many Czech soldiers who were in exile in the United Kingdom originated in Lidice and so was concluded the assailants had connections there. For a time it proved difficult for the Nazi’s to get a lead on who perpetrated the assignation. The bounty was set for 1million marks in exchange for where the assailants were hiding. A fellow exiled Czech soldier, Karel Curda who arrived along with 3 other exiled soldiers for their own mission to sabotage gasworks in Prague in 1942 as part of a resistance group Out Distance betrayed the operation and led the Nazis to those who provided help to Kubis and Gabcik. Those who offered help to the resistance were tortured, sent to concentration camps and killed. The torture for one young man, Ata was truly deplorable as after he was beaten his torturers showed the decapitated head of his mother. Ata resisted any attempts to reveal information for some time and continued to uphold his silence on the matter very bravely in the face of adversity. However, he later broke his silence under the torture and revealed to the Gestapo what they needed to know. Nazi Intelligence found out that Kubis and Gabcik were residing in the Cathedral of Saints Cyril and Methodius in Prague. A shootout ensued which resulted in the death of Gabcik and other resistance fighters. Kubis alongside other resistance fighters committed suicide in the crypt. The Bishop Gorazd and other senior church leaders were shot by firing squad. In a noble fashion Bishop Gorazd took the blame for what happened in the Cathedral to protect his flock. The man who betrayed his fellow comrades, Curda was a Gestapo collaborator for the reminder of the war but after the war was over he was tracked down and charged with high treason and for punishment was hanged. It is certainly an enthralling piece of Czeck/Slovak history and one that is remembered for those who fought for freedom and justice to crush Fascism and tyranny. The bullet holes are still evident on the outside of the Cathedral today from the shootout and today a museum is housed in the Cathedral. I was lucky enough to visit Prague and was staying in the Manes area in the New Town, fairly close to Wenceslas Square and to this day the bullet holes remain on the exterior of the Cathedral. Although, please note the museum is not open on Mondays* There are two films that base the events of what happened; Operation Daybreak released in 1975, starring Anthony Andrews and Timothy Bottoms and Anthropoid released in 2016, starring Cillian Murphy and Jamie Dornan that are both worth watching in order to gain more of an insight regarding the operation. *correct at present time of publishing	<urn:uuid:abacd0c4-b015-419b-9d62-70c232f96e70>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wuhstry.wordpress.com/2017/10/06/the-path-to-operation-anthropoid/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00038.warc.gz	en	0.982468	1,724	3.6875	4	[ -0.32955053448677063, 0.6835362911224365, -0.34268465638160706, 0.17695416510105133, -0.0023912638425827026, 0.22181028127670288, -0.03966112062335014, 0.2167295515537262, -0.268757164478302, -0.10865017771720886, 0.3583031892776489, -0.3786936402320862, 0.26545631885528564, 0.181847691535...	5	This post will document the Czech/Slovak resistance to Nazism in Czechoslovakia during the Second World War. It was a time of great struggle for the people of Czechoslovakia under the Munich Agreement of 1938 the area of Sudetenland (today in the Czech Republic) on the borders of Bavaria, Saxony and Lower Silesia now Poland was amalgamated into Nazi Germany. It was in September of that year in 1938 that Adolf Hitler wanted to take Sudetenland. The area of Sudetenland had many German speakers residing there and many of the population suffered greatly during the Great Depression. Much of the population were employed in export dependent industries including; paper making, textiles, toy manufacturing and glass manufacturing. Many Sudeten Germans wanted answers to their problems and as a result they turned to more extreme movements to rectify this. One as such was Fascism. The Munich Agreement was a conference attended by Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Italy. Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference and as a result felt betrayed by the United Kingdom and France, hence the name the Munich betrayal. All parties signed the agreement on 30th September 1938, however it was dated on 29th September that Hitler was permitted to take Sudeten lands in Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovakian government was exiled to London. Fast forward a year and the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia was a separate pro-Nazi republic and Hitler proceeded to seize the rest of the area including Moravia and Bohemia where Prague is located. This fundamental decision on Hitler’s part ended appeasement. Later in 1939 Germany invaded Poland and propelled Europe into another war, The Second World War that would last another 6 years. Resistance occurred in the form of boycotts and mass protest demonstrations at the start of the Second World War. Operation Anthropoid was a planned assassination of a high ranking Nazi Official by the name of Reinhard Heydrich. Heydrich was head of the Reich Main Security Office , General of Police and later Acting Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia. He was notoriously attributed to the “Final solution” to the Jewish question, helping to organise Kristallnacht and quash resistance in Czech/Slovak lands, this involved suppressing their culture. When he was in Prague he did not hesitate to eliminate any threat to Nazi rule. 92 people were assassinated shortly after Heydrich’s arrival to Prague and placed c.5000 people into concentration camps. Heydrich did not hide his intentions that he wanted the Czech lands to become German. The Czech people were an exploited labour force for Nazi Germany. The Czech government in exile in London agreed that Heydrich was to be assassinated. Jan Kubis, a Czech and Jozef Gabcik were chosen to lead the operation and it was initiated by the Head of Czech Intelligence Frantisek Moravec and approved by Czechoslovakian President, Edvard Benes. They were trained by the British Operations Executives in order to carry out the operation. Kubis and Gabcik arrived via parachute in December 1941 and were in hiding whilst planning and conducting the assignation attempt. In this time they came into contact with anti-Nazi organisations and families that helped them and prevent them being thwarted. It was intended that they were to arrive in Pilsen, however this never happened due to navigation issues. This included doing background research that included Heydrich’s routine in order to paint a reliable picture for them to aid with their mission. It wasn’t until May 27th 1942 that they were successful. Kubis and Gabcik eventually settled on a plan to assassinate Heydrich in Prague. On May 27th 1942 Heydrich left for Prague from his home in Panenske Brezany. The area that Kubis and Gabcik ambushed Heydrich was at a curvature of a tram line. This area was used because the curvature allowed for Heydrich’s car to slow down making the ambush seemingly easier to perpetrate. Kubis and Gabcik were stationed 100 metres from each other and when Heydrich’s car approached the curvature, it was Gabcik who opened fire at Heydrich with a sub machine gun but it wasn’t functioning properly. Heydrich ordered the car to stop to apprehend the assailant and tried to shoot Gabcik with his luger pistol. Upon witnessing this Kubis threw a grenade at the car. Shrapnel was scattered from the grenades collision through the car’s right rear bumper and hit Heydrich’s border (the shrapnel). Kubis and Gabcik shortly attempted to shoot in the direction of Heydrich but missed their target. Heydrich attempted to chase and shoot Gabcik but he collapsed and was bleeding heavily from his injuries. Heydrich’s driver attempted to apprehend Gabcik after Kubis left the scene by bicycle. However Gabcik wounded the driver and he too escaped. Initially it was thought on both Kubis and Gabcik’s part that the operation was a complete failure. Heydrich was later taken to hospital and operated on and needed blood transfusions. On 4th June Heydrich died from his injuries and contracted sepsis. The consequences were that Heydrich’s death was the only successful assassination attempt of a high ranking Nazi official. Gabcik and Kubis managed to lay down low from preying Nazi eyes. In the meantime Nazi Intelligence linked the assailants to the village of Lidice and or Lezaky where the entire village was completely obliterated to the ground. Many inhabitants died. Intelligence officers alluded to the fact many Czech soldiers who were in exile in the United Kingdom originated in Lidice and so was concluded the assailants had connections there. For a time it proved difficult for the Nazi’s to get a lead on who perpetrated the assignation. The bounty was set for 1million marks in exchange for where the assailants were hiding. A fellow exiled Czech soldier, Karel Curda who arrived along with 3 other exiled soldiers for their own mission to sabotage gasworks in Prague in 1942 as part of a resistance group Out Distance betrayed the operation and led the Nazis to those who provided help to Kubis and Gabcik. Those who offered help to the resistance were tortured, sent to concentration camps and killed. The torture for one young man, Ata was truly deplorable as after he was beaten his torturers showed the decapitated head of his mother. Ata resisted any attempts to reveal information for some time and continued to uphold his silence on the matter very bravely in the face of adversity. However, he later broke his silence under the torture and revealed to the Gestapo what they needed to know. Nazi Intelligence found out that Kubis and Gabcik were residing in the Cathedral of Saints Cyril and Methodius in Prague. A shootout ensued which resulted in the death of Gabcik and other resistance fighters. Kubis alongside other resistance fighters committed suicide in the crypt. The Bishop Gorazd and other senior church leaders were shot by firing squad. In a noble fashion Bishop Gorazd took the blame for what happened in the Cathedral to protect his flock. The man who betrayed his fellow comrades, Curda was a Gestapo collaborator for the reminder of the war but after the war was over he was tracked down and charged with high treason and for punishment was hanged. It is certainly an enthralling piece of Czeck/Slovak history and one that is remembered for those who fought for freedom and justice to crush Fascism and tyranny. The bullet holes are still evident on the outside of the Cathedral today from the shootout and today a museum is housed in the Cathedral. I was lucky enough to visit Prague and was staying in the Manes area in the New Town, fairly close to Wenceslas Square and to this day the bullet holes remain on the exterior of the Cathedral. Although, please note the museum is not open on Mondays* There are two films that base the events of what happened; Operation Daybreak released in 1975, starring Anthony Andrews and Timothy Bottoms and Anthropoid released in 2016, starring Cillian Murphy and Jamie Dornan that are both worth watching in order to gain more of an insight regarding the operation. *correct at present time of publishing	1,748	ENGLISH	1
Born Fred Toyosaburo Korematsu, Fred Korematsu was a civil rights activist from the United States. He was born on January 30, 1919 and passed away on March 30, 2005. He was buried at the Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland, California. His main concern was the rights and freedom of Japanese-Americans during World War II. The need for the defense of Japanese American rights became apparent shortly after the Imperial Japanese Navy began attacking Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. In response, President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved of Executive Order 9066, which stated that all people of Japanese lineage living on the West or the Pacific Coast were to be placed in internment camps. The internment order, which was upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States during the case labeled Korematsu v. the United States, was what forced Korematsu to become a fugitive activist. In 2018, that ruling was officially overruled after new evidence, which had been withheld during the initial case, emerged. In honor of his exploits and hard work, the state of California became the first state to approve the "Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties and the Constitution." Here are some facts about Fred Korematsu. He Was Opossed to the Internment of Japanese Americans Korematsu’s main reason for becoming an activist was that he was in opposition to the order that allowed the internment of Japanese Americans. Korematsu was against the idea that innocent people could be taken from their homes and placed in internment camps. He questioned the legality of the order in the Supreme Court but he lost, which further placed him on the activist path. There are Streets and Schools Around the Country Named For Him In honor of his work as a human rights activist, a number of streets and schools have been named after Korematsu. An example of such a school is the Fred T. Korematsu Elementary School in Davis, California. Another school is the Fred T. Korematsu Campus (formerly the San Leandro High School) in San Leandro. The Fred T. Korematsu Discovery Academy, which was formerly called The Discovery Academy elementary school, in Oakland, California is another school that was also renamed. The Portola Middle School in El Cerrito, California also changed its name to The Fred T Korematsu Middle School. An example of a renamed street is the Korematsu Court in San Jose, California. He Was Discriminated Against Throughout His Entire Life Korematsu faced a number of discriminations largely due to his Japanese lineage. During World War II, after he was again denied entry to the military due to ulcers, he decided to train as a welder and started working at a shipyard. However, he was kicked out after a while due to his Japanese heritage. Following the Pearl Harbor attack, he kept on losing all his jobs. He Was Arrested For Refusing Internment Korematsu was arrested when he went into hiding after learning that Japanese people were to be interned. General DeWitt issued the order for the internment on May 3, 1942. Eventually, he was arrested on May 30, 1942, in San Leandro. After being detained in San Francisco, he had his first hearing on June 12, 1942. His appeals over the years bore no fruit. He Spoke Out After September 11th After the gruesome outcome of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, Korematsu had a few words for the US government. While being sympathetic, he advised the government to avoid making the same discrimination that happened to people of Japanese lineage. In fact, he filed documents warning the Supreme Court after a protracted detainment of detainees at Guantanamo Bay. He Was Awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom In 1998, President Bill Clinton awarded him the highest honor a civilian can get in the US, that is, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In the same year, during the Cherry Blossom Festival annual parade in San Francisco, Fred was the Grand Marshal. By getting the medal, he became part of a family including people like Walt Disney and Warren Buffett. He Fought Against Inequal Wages After his arrest and subsequent release, Fred did odd poorly paying jobs. For example, he worked as a tank repairer in Salt Lake City, Utah. However, after three months, he realized he was getting only half of what white workers were getting. In an attempt to rectify this, he complained to his boss who quieted him by threatening to call the police. He Was Born in Oakland, California Fred Korematsu was born on January 30, 1919, in Oakland, California to his Japanese parents Kotsui Aoki and Kakusaburo Korematsu. His parents had migrated to American in 1905 and had a family of four sons. During his stay in Oakland, Korematsu attended the Castlemont High School where he was active in sports like tennis and swimming. Fred attempted to join the army while still in high school but he was discriminated because of his race. In fact, the recruiting officer told him that he was not allowed to accept him since he was of Japanese descent. It was the First Day Commemorating an Asian American By establishing the "Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties and the Constitution," the state of California and Korematsu made history. Fred Korematsu became the first Asian American to be remembered as such in the US. In order to perpetuate the impressive work he started, his daughter and the Asian Law Caucus established the Korematsu Institute in 2009. A Day Was Named in His Honor In 2011 In honor of his impressive work, the governor of the state of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger, signed a bill into law that set a day for remembering Korematsu. The bill was signed on September 23, 2010, and recognizes the Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties and the Constitution, which is to be marked on January 30 of each year. The very first celebration of the day was held on January 30, 2011. In 2015, the Commonwealth of Virginia also passed a bill that also set January 30 as a day to remember Korematsu. In Virginia, the first celebrations were held in 2016. New York also passed a similar resolution on December 19, 2017. Aside from these states, other states that have also marked the day since 2010 include the states of Hawaii, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Florida, Utah, Michigan, Illinois, and Georgia. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:f41727dd-32fc-4373-996c-02a7cb86fd5b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-was-fred-korematsu-facts-about-fred-korematsu.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00127.warc.gz	en	0.985583	1,395	3.6875	4	[ -0.26902663707733154, 0.22216151654720306, 0.23952464759349823, -0.20890012383460999, 0.10460729897022247, 0.3039354979991913, 0.023314347490668297, 0.27325862646102905, 0.05777470022439957, 0.28960785269737244, 0.1584293395280838, -0.12435100972652435, -0.14457638561725616, 0.301882266998...	2	Born Fred Toyosaburo Korematsu, Fred Korematsu was a civil rights activist from the United States. He was born on January 30, 1919 and passed away on March 30, 2005. He was buried at the Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland, California. His main concern was the rights and freedom of Japanese-Americans during World War II. The need for the defense of Japanese American rights became apparent shortly after the Imperial Japanese Navy began attacking Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. In response, President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved of Executive Order 9066, which stated that all people of Japanese lineage living on the West or the Pacific Coast were to be placed in internment camps. The internment order, which was upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States during the case labeled Korematsu v. the United States, was what forced Korematsu to become a fugitive activist. In 2018, that ruling was officially overruled after new evidence, which had been withheld during the initial case, emerged. In honor of his exploits and hard work, the state of California became the first state to approve the "Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties and the Constitution." Here are some facts about Fred Korematsu. He Was Opossed to the Internment of Japanese Americans Korematsu’s main reason for becoming an activist was that he was in opposition to the order that allowed the internment of Japanese Americans. Korematsu was against the idea that innocent people could be taken from their homes and placed in internment camps. He questioned the legality of the order in the Supreme Court but he lost, which further placed him on the activist path. There are Streets and Schools Around the Country Named For Him In honor of his work as a human rights activist, a number of streets and schools have been named after Korematsu. An example of such a school is the Fred T. Korematsu Elementary School in Davis, California. Another school is the Fred T. Korematsu Campus (formerly the San Leandro High School) in San Leandro. The Fred T. Korematsu Discovery Academy, which was formerly called The Discovery Academy elementary school, in Oakland, California is another school that was also renamed. The Portola Middle School in El Cerrito, California also changed its name to The Fred T Korematsu Middle School. An example of a renamed street is the Korematsu Court in San Jose, California. He Was Discriminated Against Throughout His Entire Life Korematsu faced a number of discriminations largely due to his Japanese lineage. During World War II, after he was again denied entry to the military due to ulcers, he decided to train as a welder and started working at a shipyard. However, he was kicked out after a while due to his Japanese heritage. Following the Pearl Harbor attack, he kept on losing all his jobs. He Was Arrested For Refusing Internment Korematsu was arrested when he went into hiding after learning that Japanese people were to be interned. General DeWitt issued the order for the internment on May 3, 1942. Eventually, he was arrested on May 30, 1942, in San Leandro. After being detained in San Francisco, he had his first hearing on June 12, 1942. His appeals over the years bore no fruit. He Spoke Out After September 11th After the gruesome outcome of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, Korematsu had a few words for the US government. While being sympathetic, he advised the government to avoid making the same discrimination that happened to people of Japanese lineage. In fact, he filed documents warning the Supreme Court after a protracted detainment of detainees at Guantanamo Bay. He Was Awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom In 1998, President Bill Clinton awarded him the highest honor a civilian can get in the US, that is, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In the same year, during the Cherry Blossom Festival annual parade in San Francisco, Fred was the Grand Marshal. By getting the medal, he became part of a family including people like Walt Disney and Warren Buffett. He Fought Against Inequal Wages After his arrest and subsequent release, Fred did odd poorly paying jobs. For example, he worked as a tank repairer in Salt Lake City, Utah. However, after three months, he realized he was getting only half of what white workers were getting. In an attempt to rectify this, he complained to his boss who quieted him by threatening to call the police. He Was Born in Oakland, California Fred Korematsu was born on January 30, 1919, in Oakland, California to his Japanese parents Kotsui Aoki and Kakusaburo Korematsu. His parents had migrated to American in 1905 and had a family of four sons. During his stay in Oakland, Korematsu attended the Castlemont High School where he was active in sports like tennis and swimming. Fred attempted to join the army while still in high school but he was discriminated because of his race. In fact, the recruiting officer told him that he was not allowed to accept him since he was of Japanese descent. It was the First Day Commemorating an Asian American By establishing the "Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties and the Constitution," the state of California and Korematsu made history. Fred Korematsu became the first Asian American to be remembered as such in the US. In order to perpetuate the impressive work he started, his daughter and the Asian Law Caucus established the Korematsu Institute in 2009. A Day Was Named in His Honor In 2011 In honor of his impressive work, the governor of the state of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger, signed a bill into law that set a day for remembering Korematsu. The bill was signed on September 23, 2010, and recognizes the Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties and the Constitution, which is to be marked on January 30 of each year. The very first celebration of the day was held on January 30, 2011. In 2015, the Commonwealth of Virginia also passed a bill that also set January 30 as a day to remember Korematsu. In Virginia, the first celebrations were held in 2016. New York also passed a similar resolution on December 19, 2017. Aside from these states, other states that have also marked the day since 2010 include the states of Hawaii, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Florida, Utah, Michigan, Illinois, and Georgia. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	1,495	ENGLISH	1
Shifts in verb tense, Definition and Example Definition: A shift in verb tense is when the writer changes from one tense to another. Sometimes it is done on purpose, but some writers accidentally switch back and forth. Accidental shifting usually happens when a writer begins writing as if he or she is watching the story. It is usually told in past tense. Then as the writer gets absorbed in the story and feels like he or she is experiencing the story, the tense switches to present tense. When the writer gets distracted, the tense switches back to past tense. Note:- If you include dialogue, the quotations will usually be in a different tense (usually present tense) from the narration. Examples of shift in verb tense Once there was a little kid who went on a / an numerous hike through a/an Juicy forest in the middle of Afica. At first he had fun watching the cute little light brown go jumping through the trees and talking to the Giraffe that dodged between name was Nemo realized he was lost, and he got very frightened. His Giraffe began to chatter and he wished he were home with daddy band Nemo. Suddenly he noted that the huge trees began to look like desert, and they seemed.	<urn:uuid:6bca4c6e-0721-417b-91f3-d951b5aeedf4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://englishgrammar10.com/verb/shifts-in-verb-tense-definition-and-example/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00239.warc.gz	en	0.980169	250	3.34375	3	[ -0.1898103654384613, -0.16543535888195038, 0.6164490580558777, 0.05319467559456825, -0.47561952471733093, -0.11708678305149078, 0.8173222541809082, -0.12851881980895996, 0.25643470883369446, -0.08580252528190613, -0.05527026951313019, 0.10903437435626984, -0.18709594011306763, 0.2337358146...	1	Shifts in verb tense, Definition and Example Definition: A shift in verb tense is when the writer changes from one tense to another. Sometimes it is done on purpose, but some writers accidentally switch back and forth. Accidental shifting usually happens when a writer begins writing as if he or she is watching the story. It is usually told in past tense. Then as the writer gets absorbed in the story and feels like he or she is experiencing the story, the tense switches to present tense. When the writer gets distracted, the tense switches back to past tense. Note:- If you include dialogue, the quotations will usually be in a different tense (usually present tense) from the narration. Examples of shift in verb tense Once there was a little kid who went on a / an numerous hike through a/an Juicy forest in the middle of Afica. At first he had fun watching the cute little light brown go jumping through the trees and talking to the Giraffe that dodged between name was Nemo realized he was lost, and he got very frightened. His Giraffe began to chatter and he wished he were home with daddy band Nemo. Suddenly he noted that the huge trees began to look like desert, and they seemed.	248	ENGLISH	1
The history of Christianity in the United States has been punctuated by periodic widespread revivals of religion. Traditionally, these have resulted in unusual numerical growth in evangelical churches and denominations and a general stimulation of religious interest throughout the country. Baptists have been repeatedly the beneficiaries of these revivals. This was particularly true during periods following what are often referred to as the First and Second Great Awakenings. This paper will address itself primarily to this concern: The Effect of Revivals on Baptist Growth in the South, 1740-1845. The First Great Awakening and Following, 1740-1799 In the third decade of the eighteenth century, revival of some proportion was experienced in Dutch Reformed churches in the Raritan River Valley of New Jersey. Actually, it was the beginning of what historians have called the First Great Awakening in this country. It spread into other Middle Colonies and ultimately reached its zenith in the early 1740's in New England. Baptists were numerically insignificant at the beginning of this period and were directly affected by the awakening very little. As was true in other denominations, some Baptists were actually opposed to the revival. But events which took place during the awakening were destined to radically affect Baptists in this country before the end of the eighteenth century. The first of these events was the result of the influence of the English evangelist, George Whitefield, upon two men; one a Congregationalist, the other a Presbyterian. These two men were Shubal Stearns and Daniel Marshall. Chronologically, Daniel Marshall, was the first to feel the effect of the ministry of the English evangelist. Marshall had been an active Presbyterian for eighteen years, when, in 1744, he heard Whitefield for the first time.1 He was so moved to a deeper commitment of his life and so awakened in evangelistic zeal that he gave up his comfortable living in Connecticut to become a missionary to the Mohawk Indians. When Indian wars drove him from his missionary work in Pennsylvania, he moved near Winchester, Virginia, where he became acquainted with Baptist work. Here in 1754 he was baptized into a Baptist church, a work which was carried on under the auspices of the Philadelphia Association. He was also licensed by this church as a minister of the Gospel. Shortly after Marshall's conversion Shubal Stearns also came under Whitefield's influence. There is some question as to the precise nature of Stearns' experience in 1745. Likely he was converted under Whitefield's ministry and joined the New Light Movement, a Separatist movement in Congregational churches which began around 1744. He actually served as a New Light Congregationalist minister for six years. Stearns was baptized into a Baptist Church in Connecticut in 1751 and three years later ordained into the Baptist ministry becoming pastor of a Baptist church. Sensing definite leadership from God, he embarked on his memorable journey to colonies in the South. He stopped for a while in Virginia, where he was joined by Daniel Marshall, his brother-in-law by virtue of Marshall's marriage to Shubal's sister, Martha Stearns, in 1748. The Separate Baptists move South In Virginia the work did not meet with the success for which Stearns had hoped. Having heard that in North Carolina, "Preaching was greatly desired," Stearns and Marshall and fourteen others made a two hundred mile journey to Sandy Creek, in Guilford County, North Carolina, where they took up permanent residence.2 The story of the Sandy Creek Church, established in 1755, is well known. In a few years its membership had swelled to over 600 and by 1772, 125 ministers had gone forth from this church. In addition, the Sandy Creek church had a direct hand in the formation of forty-two other Baptist churches. Baptists had been in the South since the last decade of the seventeenth century. In the 1690's William Screven established the First Baptist Church of Charleston, South Carolina. Between this period and 1755, some twenty-eight Baptist churches had been constituted in the South, including the General Baptist churches which owed their existence to the work of Paul Palmer. Nine of these churches were in South Carolina, fourteen in North Carolina, and the remainder in Virginia. The rate of church expansion appears to have been slow and painful during this period. With one or two exceptions, there was no unusual evangelistic thrust or success on the part of these churches. By 1755, the tide began to turn for Baptists in the South. This was the year in which Separate Baptists made their inauspicious but far-reaching invasion of North Carolina. Forty-five years later, in 1790, the number of Baptist churches in the South had increased from 28 to 410. And more than half the Baptists in the United States were in the South, where in 1740 there were only a handful. Baptists had established themselves as easily the most potent of all religious groups in the South. The primary human instrument responsible for this accelerated growth was Shubal Stearns. Stearns, a highly gifted and zealous preacher, was one of the most remarkable evangelists of the eighteenth century. Newman writes of him, "It is doubtful whether any evangelist but Whitefield surpasses Stearns in magnetic power over audiences."3 Morgan Edwards refers both to the power of his penetrating eyes and his strong musical voice which "managed in such manners, as one while, to make soft impressions on the heart, and fetch tears from the eyes in a mechanical way; and anon, to shake the very nerves through and through the animal system into tumults and perturbations."4 From Stearns' work at Sandy Creek, Baptist work spread westward to Kentucky and Tennessee, northward to Virginia and southward to Georgia and South Carolina. And the spread is the story of aggressive evangelism, or spiritual awakening in new frontiers, of revival which was to lay foundations on which Southern Baptists still build today. Because many of the Separate Baptist leaders labored in more than one state, it is difficult to trace and categorize the development both through personalities and particular states at the same time. For that reason this part of the paper will major on prominent personalities including the states in which they labored only incidentally. However, a summary statement regarding the evangelistic advance in each state will be given. To illustrate the point, Shubal Stearns himself, though a pastor, was also an itinerant evangelist whose labors periodically took him away from Sandy Creek. He describes: The Lord carries on his work gloriously in sundry places in this province, and in Virginia, and in South Carolina.... Not long since, I attended a meeting on Hoy (Haw) River, about thirty miles from hence. About seven hundred souls attended the meeting, which held six days. We received twenty-four persons by a satisfactory declaration of grace, and eighteen of them were baptized. The power of God was wonderful.5 Mention has already been made of Daniel Marshall. Though not as gifted as Stearns, he was a man of indefatigable labors and a commitment which never wavered. It was Marshall who gathered the first congregation formed out of the Sandy Creek Church. It was called Abbot's Creek. Marshall went to the area to preach and many responded. They were constituted into a church in 1756. He extended his labors into Virginia where at Dan River the first Separate Baptist Church in that state was constituted by him. Two outstanding "preachers to be" were touched by his ministry. Dutton Lane, a man of great gifts, was converted through Marshall's ministry and became pastor of the Dan River Church. The second of these was Colonel Samuel Harris, the most famous convert of the Baptists in early Virginia Baptist history. Marshall baptized Harris in 1758.6 Convinced of the leadership of the Holy Spirit, Daniel Marshall turned his efforts to South Carolina. Here he was instrumental in founding Beaver Creek Church. Ultimately he became the founder of the following churches in that state: Stephen's Creek, 1762; Horn's Creek, 1768; Bush River, 1771; Raburn's Creek, 1771; Bethesda, 1773; and Horse Creek, 1789. From South Carolina, Marshall proceeded to Georgia, where he established the first Baptist church in Georgia in 1772. All in all he was the immediate founder of eleven churches, the instrument through which hundreds came to the Lord and a major stone in the foundation of Baptist work in the South. Samuel Harris was a well-known citizen of Virginia where he was converted at the age of 34. He was well-educated, wealthy, and prominent in local political life. But all of these things he "counted but loss" for Christ's sake when he gave himself to the ministry of the Gospel shortly after his conversion. He traveled with Daniel Marshall frequently and Marshall's zeal and diligence were well caught by him. His ministry extended into much of Virginia and parts of North Carolina. He was a powerful preacher. It was said of him that as he preached "great streams of celestial lightning would flash from his eyes, which whenever he turned his face, would strike down hundreds at once." Many hundreds were converted through his ministry of itinerant evangelism. People would travel from up to 100 miles to attend his meetings. He founded or assisted in the founding of 26 churches in 19 different counties in Virginia. His spirit was caught by other young preachers such as Lewis and Elijah Craig, John Waller, James Childs, and John Burrus. Elijah Craig was won to Christ through Harris' ministry and Craig's testimony was responsible for the salvation of Waller, who was later baptized by Harris also. The Baptist historian Cathcart says, "Mr. Harris was the best known man in his native colony, and it is doubtful if Patrick Henry could control a vast assemblage by a power superior to that of Samuel Harris."7 While looking briefly at the lives of early Separate Baptists and their labors, discussion has included Baptist expansion in the states of North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, and South Carolina. Such coverage would not be complete without some mention of Philip Mulkey, who did more to advance the cause of Christ in the name of Baptists than any one individual in Ihc eighteenth century in South Carolina. As a church builder, Mulkey ranks along side Shubal Stearns and Daniel Marshall. He was a tireless laborer working under extremely difficult circumstances. His conversion experience was rather dramatic and occurred outside the realm of influence of any church. However, shortly after his conversion he identified himself with the Sandy Creek Church and was baptized into its fellowship in 1756. He was shortly thereafter called into the ministry and began preaching in areas hitherto unreached with the Gospel. He was instrumental in founding Bluestone (Deep River) Church in North Carolina in 1757 of which he became pastor. With the migration of many families to South Carolina, Mulkey also moved to the neighboring colony in 1760. The same year these families were constituted into a church with Mulkey as pastor. The pastor and church began to extend their witness in all of the surrounding area. Within twelve years, ten other churches were established in this part of South Carolina as a result. These ten were responsible for the organization of nine other churches before 1789, all nineteen of which are in existence today! Perhaps the most notable contribution of Mulkey was his work at Congaree Church, where three, who were to become prominent preachers, were won to Christ. These three were Thomas Norris, who became a noted minister; Timothy Dargan, one of the first of the long line of illustrious preachers bearing that name; and Joseph Reese. It was through the ministry of the latter two men that a Young Carolinian of sixteen was converted who was destined to help shape Baptist life across the world. That young man was Richard Furman. Philip Mulkey deserves a high place in the standing of Baptist church builders and evangelists of the eighteenth century. One other outstanding Baptist preacher in the South was John Leland who came to Virginia from Massachusetts in 1777. The Baptist historian Cathcart says of him, "Wonderful revivals everywhere followed the labors of Mr. Leland of Virginia. Hundreds came under the power of converting grace, and professed their faith in Christ."8 Though he served as pastor for brief periods, he was much more suited to an itinerant ministry. His most productive years were during the revival period of 1787-89. During these years he baptized some four hundred people, three hundred of them in one year. At the close of his life, he had baptized over fifteen hundred people, preached over eight thousand sermons and covered some 70,000 miles on horseback.9 Summary of Events and Growth, 1750-1790 Though most historians contend that the First Great Awakening in this country had run its course by 1750, the truth is that for Baptists this was only the time of its beginning. In my opinion there is evidence that spiritual awakening among Baptists continued to be experienced in some major geographic area until the end of the eighteenth century. Not even the war years, 1775-1781, were excepted. However, it was in the aftermath of the awakening that the Baptist cause prospered. As has been indicated, the years following the coming of the Separate Baptists into North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia were years of great expansion. During the entire period, 1755-1800, the Separate Baptists experienced a phenomenal growth. Though the war was a serious impediment to vital spiritual life among Virginians, revival fires began to burn again with the cessation of hostilities in 1785. "It spread as fire among stubble, continuing for several years in different parts. Very few churches were without the blessing."10 The revival continued until 1792 and witnessed thousands of conversions and additions to Baptist churches. In the Carolinas its effect was not nearly so great, but there were evidences of spiritual renewal in a number of congregations and a good number of people were baptized, particularly in the back country churches. The Charleston Association gave evidence of revival at this time, baptizing 546 people during the years 1786-1789.11 The revival was felt as far west as the Kentucky frontier. To give a clearer picture of the impact of the revivals of the period, coupled with evangelistic emphases, upon Baptists, the following summaries are given. Some mention will be made of Baptist work outside the South in the summary. In New England by 1740 there were 21 Baptist churches. Most were feeble and declining. By 1790 the number had risen to 286, an increase of over 1000% in fifty years. By 1790, Massachusetts could count 92 Baptist churches with 6,234 members. Rhode Island had 38 churches with 3,502 members. New Hampshire Baptists numbered 1,732 in 32 churches. Maine contained the smallest constituency of 15 churches and 882 members, Connecticut could count 55 churches with 3,214 members, and Vermont, 34 churches with 1,610 members. The number of Baptist churches in New England had increased from 21 in 1740 to 266 in 1790.12 In the South, Baptists in Virginia had their beginnings with the first Baptist church in Virginia formed in 1714. By 1793 there were 227 churches, 22,793 members in 14 associations.13 Holmes says in his American Annals that "in 1793 the Baptists of the United States numbered 73,471, so that at that time Virginia contained nearly one third of the whole."14 In North Carolina, there was a handful of Baptist churches when the Sandy Creek Church was founded in 1755. By 1784 there were 42 churches and 3,276 members; in 1792 there were 94 churches and 7,503 members. In South Carolina there were nine Baptist churches in 1755. By 1784 there were 27 churches and 1,620 members. In 1792 there were 70 churches with a membership of 4,167. In Georgia, where the first Baptist church was planted in 1771, Baptists had 50 churches and 3,211 members in 1792. From 1755 to 1792, Baptist churches in the South had grown in number from 28 to 44l,15 an increase of over 1500%. The Second Great Awakening and Following, 1800-1845 In 1795, two prominent Baptist preachers, Stephen Gano of Providence, Rhode Island, and Isaac Backus of Middleboro, Massachusetts, joined with twenty-one other New England ministers in issuing a "Circular Letter" which was an appeal for prayer for a general revival. The appeal met with unanimous approval from every major denominational group. The intercession fostered by this action led to one of the most remarkable revivals in the history of this nation. Though revival of great proportion was experienced in churches along the coastal states, customarily the revival of 1800 is associated primarily with the camp meetings in the frontier states. This religious phenomenon drastically affected this region of our nation, composed of Kentucky, Tennessee, the Western part of North Carolina and South Carolina, Southern Virginia, and Northern Georgia. The change was so great that some who knew the frontier well could hardly believe it was the same geographic region. Numerically, churches and denominations witnessed unprecedented growth. Seasons of Revival in Kentucky, 1800-1840 The revival had its beginning in Kentucky, where the apex of irreligion and heathenism were found. This frontier state increased in population from 73,677 in 1790 to 220,955 in 1800. The churches had simply been unable to keep up with the staggering population growth. When revival did come, it came not as a still small voice but rather as an earthquake and a whirlwind. It was marked by emotional extremes and much physical contortion on the part of many who were affected by it. Though Baptists participated fairly universally in the frontier revivals, they seem not to have been as caught up in the emotional excesses as either the Methodists or the Presbyterians. The Baptist historian [John H.] Spencer virtually exonerates all Baptists of any undue extremes.16 This did not noticeably impede their numerical gains. The beginning of the revival among Baptists in Kentucky was at the village of Port William (now Carrollton) where a union meeting was taking place. This was in the early spring of 1800 before the camp meetings came into existence. John Taylor, the preacher through whom revival had come to Kentucky, in both 1785 and 1788, preached in the house of Benjamin Craig, brother of the famous Louis Craig. After his message, prayer and praise and exhortation continued until late in the night. Many anxious inquirers were dealt with and found deliverance throughout the hours of the night. Taylor left the next day for Trimble County where revival was experienced during his stay of three days. From here he went to Clear Creek in Woodford County and a bountiful harvest was reaped. Next to feel the impact of revival through Taylor's ministry was Bullittsburg, where over a period of time almost every adult in the community was baptized. By the end of 1800, the revival had spread to all parts of the state. Unprecedented numbers were added to Kentucky Baptist churches. In most regions of Kentucky, the number of Baptists doubled or tripled. It was not the noisy excitement of the camp meetings but a solemn moving of God's spirit. "The preaching was doctrinal rather than hortatory. The exhortations were fervent and made up largely of Scripture quotations, as were also the prayers. The songs were of Watts' collections, and were sung slowly and gravely!"17 Statistically, what happened in some churches is of great interest. Severns Valley Church numbered 47 members in 1801. Over a period of a few months, 146 were received by baptism. At South Elkhorn, a church numbering 127, 318 were baptized. In a church which numbered 170 in 1800, 424 were baptized during the revival period. Great Crossing Church numbered 107 members before the revival. Four hundred and seven people were baptized into this church.18 The Elkhorn Association which had reported 82 baptisms in 1800 reported 3,011 in 1801 and 488 in 1802.19 In 1800 there were seven associations, 106 churches, and 5,119 members. In 1803 after the revival, there were 10 associations, 219 churches, and 15,495 members. In three years, the number of churches had doubled and the number of members had tripled. The affect on morals in Kentucky was so stupendous that the land itself seemed to have been regenerated. So many infidels had been converted, (many of whom became preachers), that John Mason Peck declared that the revival dealt infidelity in that state its death blow. Evangelistic and missionary zeal were quickened, fellowship was restored between Baptist groups who had been separated by indifferences, and benevolent interests were supported with new vigor.20 Baptist work in Kentucky was blessed with revival again from 1810-13. The year 1817 was also a year of mighty revivals in Kentucky. Though these did not spread as rapidly, and though there were not as many converts as in the revival of 1800, both represented unusual work of divine grace. By 1820, revivals during the preceding decade had helped to increase the number of Baptist churches in Kentucky to 491 and the total membership to 31,689.21 In twenty years the number of churches and members had doubled in Kentucky. In 1827 another great period of revival began among Kentucky Baptists. It also lasted for approximately three years. Baptisms in the Salem Association which had been around one hundred or fewer for several years sky-rocketed to 1,007 in 1829.22 In Elkhorn Association the number of baptisms increased from 72 in 1827 to 1,676 in 1828.23 In the small Bracken Association over 1,300 people were baptized during the revival. In Catcs Creek Association, a rather small association, over 1,600 people were baptized. During the period of the revival something over 15,000 people wore baptized in Kentucky and the churches were greatly enlarged in numbers.24 In 1829 there were 614 churches in Kentucky; 45,442 members. The last general revival experienced in Kentucky before 1845 began in 1837 and lasted for some six years. It was the most extensive awakening that had occurred in the state since the revival of 1800. It began in the First Baptist Church in Louisville, which baptized over 600 people into its fellowship in a six-year period. Almost 18,000 were baptized in the first t h ree years and approximately 12,000 in the next three. This was a period of significance in evangelism in Kentucky due to the fact that "protracted meetings" were practiced for the first time in the state during this period. Up until this time even during revival seasons meetings were held only on weekends with occasional meetings in homes during the week. At this period meetings began to approach a duration of two weeks. The year 1840 found Kentucky Baptists with 711 churches, 49,308 members.25 Revivals in Other Southern States, 1700-1840 The Frontier Revival of 1800 spread from Kentucky into the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Virginia. It appears that in most instances revivals in Baptist churches were fairly free from extreme emotional excesses in these states as was true in Kentucky.26 As there had been periodic seasons of revival in Kentucky following the revival of 1800, so were there seasons of revival in all of the states of the South. For instance, Georgia experienced its first great general revival in 1802 during which some 700 people were baptized. The two most wide¬spread seasons of awakening occurred between 1827 and 1830-1831 and 1834. As Kentucky had been swept by revival during the period of 1827-1830, Georgia and certain sections of South Carolina also were mightily moved upon by the Spirit of God. In Georgia the most remarkable and memorable revival in the history of the state was witnessed and over 14,000 people were brought into Baptist churches during its progress. In 1825 after this season of revival, there were 356 churches and 28,268 members. This was an increase of 96 churches and 10,000 members in a period of three years. By 1835 there were 583 churches and 41,810 members. By 1845 there were 971 churches and 58,388 members. In South Carolina the revival of 1800 spread over the whole state and continued for several years. The Bethel Association in South Carolina increased in baptisms from 119 in 1800 to 703 in 1802, 1411 in 1803.27 The Broad River Association which had begun in 1801 with959members had increased to 1480 in 1802 and 2,084 in 1803. During this two year period it baptized 1,167 people. Between 1802 and 1804 thirty-five new churches and branches came into existence in South Carolina and there was a gain of 80 percent in total membership during this three-year period.28 A second major season of revival for many Southern churches was the year 1831-1834. Powerful revivals swept the Carolinas and Tennessee during this period. In 1832 the Saluda Association of South Carolina increased its baptisms over the previous year from 113 to 1,273.29 The Broad River Association in that state baptized 574 in 1832.30 The Bethel Association increased its number of baptisms from 148 in the two previously recorded years to 1,279 in 1832-33.31 The Edgefield Association increased its baptisms from 361 to 1,062 over the period of 1830-31.32 In 1833 this association baptized 878. The Savannah River Association which had baptized 487 people in 1829-30 baptized 3,553 people during the period 1831-1834.33 The Tennessee Association in that state increased its number of baptisms from 57 in the most recently recorded year (1829) to 1,109 in 1833.34 In every Southern state, major periods of numerical growth were always related to widespread revivals of religion. Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee each had similar seasons of revival like those mentioned above. Summary of Reasons for Baptist Growth in the South This author is aware of some of the reasons customarily given for the rapid growth among Baptists during this period. For instance, in Virginia their response to persecution seems to have promoted their cause rather than to have impeded it. "The patient manner in which they suffered persecution raised their reputation for piety and goodness in the estimation of a large majority of the people. Their numbers actually increased in a surprising degree."35 Further, Baptists had come out of the Revolutionary War with increased respectablity as a denomination. Their chaplains were likely the most esteemed of any religious group which provided chaplains for the army. Third, the Baptist part in the struggle for religious liberty was a factor which enhanced their image and became an impetus for numerical growth. Their defiance of laws which would prohibit them from preaching was symbolic of the growing spirit of independence. "More and more a strong element in the Colonies, represented by Madison, Jefferson, and Henry, viewed the Established Church and its clergy as incompatible with the principles of the Revolution and became champions of the Baptists."36 The primary factor in Baptist growth was their ability to identify with the common people. These represented the greatest number of the total population. Ultimately the Methodists gained a similar rapport with the people but the Presbyterians with their intellectual demands for their pastors did not. Speaking of Baptists, David Thomas in The Virginian Baptist said: "The people needed a distinctive symbol and a comparatively formless faith; they found the one in adult baptism by immersion, and the other in the wide compass of Bible teaching wherein the devout and emotional soul finds what it seeks . . . They wanted an organization, a ministry, a preach¬ing, responsive to their emotions. The Baptist organization supplied the demands of their thoughts and their emotion, and on a plane congenial to their habit of speech and life."37 The fact that Baptists made no demand for a formally trained clergy not only resulted in an adequate supply of preachers, their lack of education placed them on the same plane with those to whom they preached and a strong bond of sympathy developed between the two. The above factors may be foundational as causes for Baptist growth, but there are other factors related to methods of evangelism which Baptists employed which must not be overlooked. These are seldom, if ever, mentioned as reasons for growth. First of all, Baptists were responsible for reinstituting a type of public invitation which had not been employed by the church for many centuries. Though preachers, during the great awakenings of the 1700's had urged immediate acceptance of the benefits of the gospel, there is no record of opportunity being given for open response on the part of those who desired to respond. Baptists began, not only to call for immediate response, but appealed to people to demonstrate their interest by a kind of profession of interest. Separate Baptists had begun this by 1770. This method is described as follows:At the close of his sermon, the minister would come down from the pulpit and while singing a suitable hymn would go around among the brethren shaking hands. They hymn being sung, he would then extend an invitation to such persons as felt themselves to be poor guilty sinners, and were anxiously enquiring the way of salvation, to come forward and kneel near the stand, or, if they preferred to do so, they could kneel at their seats, proffering to unite with them in prayer for their conversion. After prayer, singing and exhortation, prolonged according to circum¬stances, the congregation would be dismissed to meet again at night at the meeting house or at some private residence, either for preaching or in the capacity of a prayer-meeting.38This is the earliest record of an invitation of this type being extended in modern times. Early Methodists in this country began offering similar invitations and found them to enhance their evangelistic efforts noticeably. In one way or another, invitation to immediate public decision has been practiced in Baptist churches in the South ever since. The call to immediate decision in response to their preaching, is one explanation for rapid growth of Baptists in the South which must not be overlooked. A second method employed by Baptists in the South was the continuation of a series of revival services from day to day or night by night which they called "protracted meetings." Spencer and Armitage both make the mistake of dating the beginning of such meetings in the 1830's.39 (Spencer, p. 672; Armitage, p. 889). However, Separate Baptists had been practicing this kind of evangelism for at least sixty years. Shubal Stearns records:Not long since, I attended a meeting on Hoy (Haw) River, about thirty miles from hence. About seven hundred souls attended the meeting, which held six days. We received twenty-four persons by a satisfactory declaration of grace, and eigh¬teen of them were baptized. The power of God was wonderful.40 Regardless of when they began, protracted meetings became a major method of evangelism in the South. This kind of evangelism still exists today among Southern Baptists. Many students of evangelism contend that today approximately forty per cent of the people converted in Baptist churches made their initial commitment during a "protracted meeting." The fact that Baptists in the South have practiced revival evangelism consistently and Baptists in the North only spasmodically could be one reason why Baptists in the South have numerically exceeded those in the North to such a great degree. A third factor which ought to be mentioned is the ultimate response of Baptists to emotional extremes which grew out of both awakenings. It is true that the Separate Baptists in the First Awakening were somewhat extreme, as were other groups in their emotional reactions. However, in the Second Awakening, Baptists repudiated extreme emotional response and assumed something of a middle of the road position toward emotionalism in their services. They continued to preach fervently, refused to do away with emotion in religion, and have maintained a similar position since that time. Undoubtedly their refusal to outlaw emotional expression in public worship, coupled with the effort to steer away from extremes, has been another factor in the growth of Baptists in the South. 1 Jesse H. Campbell, Georgia Baptists: Historical and Biographical (Richmond: H. K. Ellyson, 1847), pp. 15-16. 2 George Washington Paschal, History of North Carolina Baptists (Raleigh: The General Board North Carolina Baptist Convention, 1930), p. 274. 3 Albert H. Newman, ed., A Century of Baptist Achievement (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1901), p. 293. 4 Morgan Edwards, Materials Towards a History of the American Baptists (Philadelphia, 1770-1792), p. 386. 5 Isaac Backus, A History of New England Baptists (Newton, Massachusetts: Backus Historical Society, 1871), p. 531. 6 Robert B. Semple, A History of the Rise and Progress of the Baptists in Virginia (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1894), pp. 17, 18. 7 William Cathcart, The Baptists and the American Revolution (Philadelphia: S. A. George & Co., 1876), p. 504. 8 Ibid., p. 682-683. 9 Albert L. Vail, The Morning Hour of American Baptist Missions (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1907), p. 34. 10 Robert B. Semple, A History of the Rise and Progress of the Baptists in Virginia (Richmond: Pitt and Dickson, 1894), p. 56. 11 Minutes of Charleston Association 12 Albert H. Newman, A History of the Baptist Churches in the United States (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1898), p. 271. 13 Thomas Armitage, A History of the Baptists; Traced by Their Vital Principles and Practices, from the Times of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ to the year 1889 (New York: Bryan Taylor, 1889), p. 735. 14 Ahiel Holmes, American Annals, p. 488. 15 J. H. Spencer, History of Kentucky Baptists, from 1769 to 1885 Including More than 800 Biographical Sketches, Vol. I, (Cincinnati: T. R. Baumes, 1885), pp. 535-536. 16 Ibid., p. 539. 17 Ibid., p. 539. 18 Ibid., p. 540. 19 Minutes of Elkhorn Association. 20 Ibid., p. 541. 22 Minutes of Salem Association. 23 Minutes of Elkhorn Association. 24 Spencer, op. cit., p. 599. 25 Ibid., p. 671 ff. 26 Leah Townsend, South Carolina Baptists, 1670-1805 (Florence, S.C.: Florence Printing Co., 1935), p. 299. 27 Minutes of Bethel Association. 28 Townsend, op. cit. 29 Minutes of Saluda Association. 30 Minutes of Broad River Association. 31 Minutes of Bethel Association. 32 Minutes of Edgefield Association. 33 Minutes of Savannah Association. 34 Minutes of Tennessee Association. 35 Semple, p. 42. 36 Wesley M. Gewehr,The Great Awakening in Virginia, 1740-1790 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1930), p. 135. 37 David Thomas, The Virginian Baptist (Baltimore, 1774), p. 32. 38 Robert I. Devin, A History of Grassy Creek Baptist Church (Raleigh: Edwards, Broughton, & Co., 1880), p. 69. 39 Armitage, op. cit., p. 889. 40 Backus, op. cit. [From The Lord's Free People, 1976, pp. 99-111. Scanned and formatted by Jim Duvall.] More on Baptists: Various Subjects Baptist History Homepage	<urn:uuid:70114659-f75a-41c0-a817-b6c438e7047d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://baptisthistoryhomepage.com/fish.roy.effect.revivals.south.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00061.warc.gz	en	0.98017	7,511	3.453125	3	[ 0.054546065628528595, 0.1192416101694107, 0.17093582451343536, 0.052177295088768005, 0.11641157418489456, 0.3354496657848358, -0.39580538868904114, 0.004682409577071667, -0.07515496760606766, 0.22049002349376678, -0.08911605179309845, 0.2596172094345093, 0.08282120525836945, 0.031325060874...	2	The history of Christianity in the United States has been punctuated by periodic widespread revivals of religion. Traditionally, these have resulted in unusual numerical growth in evangelical churches and denominations and a general stimulation of religious interest throughout the country. Baptists have been repeatedly the beneficiaries of these revivals. This was particularly true during periods following what are often referred to as the First and Second Great Awakenings. This paper will address itself primarily to this concern: The Effect of Revivals on Baptist Growth in the South, 1740-1845. The First Great Awakening and Following, 1740-1799 In the third decade of the eighteenth century, revival of some proportion was experienced in Dutch Reformed churches in the Raritan River Valley of New Jersey. Actually, it was the beginning of what historians have called the First Great Awakening in this country. It spread into other Middle Colonies and ultimately reached its zenith in the early 1740's in New England. Baptists were numerically insignificant at the beginning of this period and were directly affected by the awakening very little. As was true in other denominations, some Baptists were actually opposed to the revival. But events which took place during the awakening were destined to radically affect Baptists in this country before the end of the eighteenth century. The first of these events was the result of the influence of the English evangelist, George Whitefield, upon two men; one a Congregationalist, the other a Presbyterian. These two men were Shubal Stearns and Daniel Marshall. Chronologically, Daniel Marshall, was the first to feel the effect of the ministry of the English evangelist. Marshall had been an active Presbyterian for eighteen years, when, in 1744, he heard Whitefield for the first time.1 He was so moved to a deeper commitment of his life and so awakened in evangelistic zeal that he gave up his comfortable living in Connecticut to become a missionary to the Mohawk Indians. When Indian wars drove him from his missionary work in Pennsylvania, he moved near Winchester, Virginia, where he became acquainted with Baptist work. Here in 1754 he was baptized into a Baptist church, a work which was carried on under the auspices of the Philadelphia Association. He was also licensed by this church as a minister of the Gospel. Shortly after Marshall's conversion Shubal Stearns also came under Whitefield's influence. There is some question as to the precise nature of Stearns' experience in 1745. Likely he was converted under Whitefield's ministry and joined the New Light Movement, a Separatist movement in Congregational churches which began around 1744. He actually served as a New Light Congregationalist minister for six years. Stearns was baptized into a Baptist Church in Connecticut in 1751 and three years later ordained into the Baptist ministry becoming pastor of a Baptist church. Sensing definite leadership from God, he embarked on his memorable journey to colonies in the South. He stopped for a while in Virginia, where he was joined by Daniel Marshall, his brother-in-law by virtue of Marshall's marriage to Shubal's sister, Martha Stearns, in 1748. The Separate Baptists move South In Virginia the work did not meet with the success for which Stearns had hoped. Having heard that in North Carolina, "Preaching was greatly desired," Stearns and Marshall and fourteen others made a two hundred mile journey to Sandy Creek, in Guilford County, North Carolina, where they took up permanent residence.2 The story of the Sandy Creek Church, established in 1755, is well known. In a few years its membership had swelled to over 600 and by 1772, 125 ministers had gone forth from this church. In addition, the Sandy Creek church had a direct hand in the formation of forty-two other Baptist churches. Baptists had been in the South since the last decade of the seventeenth century. In the 1690's William Screven established the First Baptist Church of Charleston, South Carolina. Between this period and 1755, some twenty-eight Baptist churches had been constituted in the South, including the General Baptist churches which owed their existence to the work of Paul Palmer. Nine of these churches were in South Carolina, fourteen in North Carolina, and the remainder in Virginia. The rate of church expansion appears to have been slow and painful during this period. With one or two exceptions, there was no unusual evangelistic thrust or success on the part of these churches. By 1755, the tide began to turn for Baptists in the South. This was the year in which Separate Baptists made their inauspicious but far-reaching invasion of North Carolina. Forty-five years later, in 1790, the number of Baptist churches in the South had increased from 28 to 410. And more than half the Baptists in the United States were in the South, where in 1740 there were only a handful. Baptists had established themselves as easily the most potent of all religious groups in the South. The primary human instrument responsible for this accelerated growth was Shubal Stearns. Stearns, a highly gifted and zealous preacher, was one of the most remarkable evangelists of the eighteenth century. Newman writes of him, "It is doubtful whether any evangelist but Whitefield surpasses Stearns in magnetic power over audiences."3 Morgan Edwards refers both to the power of his penetrating eyes and his strong musical voice which "managed in such manners, as one while, to make soft impressions on the heart, and fetch tears from the eyes in a mechanical way; and anon, to shake the very nerves through and through the animal system into tumults and perturbations."4 From Stearns' work at Sandy Creek, Baptist work spread westward to Kentucky and Tennessee, northward to Virginia and southward to Georgia and South Carolina. And the spread is the story of aggressive evangelism, or spiritual awakening in new frontiers, of revival which was to lay foundations on which Southern Baptists still build today. Because many of the Separate Baptist leaders labored in more than one state, it is difficult to trace and categorize the development both through personalities and particular states at the same time. For that reason this part of the paper will major on prominent personalities including the states in which they labored only incidentally. However, a summary statement regarding the evangelistic advance in each state will be given. To illustrate the point, Shubal Stearns himself, though a pastor, was also an itinerant evangelist whose labors periodically took him away from Sandy Creek. He describes: The Lord carries on his work gloriously in sundry places in this province, and in Virginia, and in South Carolina.... Not long since, I attended a meeting on Hoy (Haw) River, about thirty miles from hence. About seven hundred souls attended the meeting, which held six days. We received twenty-four persons by a satisfactory declaration of grace, and eighteen of them were baptized. The power of God was wonderful.5 Mention has already been made of Daniel Marshall. Though not as gifted as Stearns, he was a man of indefatigable labors and a commitment which never wavered. It was Marshall who gathered the first congregation formed out of the Sandy Creek Church. It was called Abbot's Creek. Marshall went to the area to preach and many responded. They were constituted into a church in 1756. He extended his labors into Virginia where at Dan River the first Separate Baptist Church in that state was constituted by him. Two outstanding "preachers to be" were touched by his ministry. Dutton Lane, a man of great gifts, was converted through Marshall's ministry and became pastor of the Dan River Church. The second of these was Colonel Samuel Harris, the most famous convert of the Baptists in early Virginia Baptist history. Marshall baptized Harris in 1758.6 Convinced of the leadership of the Holy Spirit, Daniel Marshall turned his efforts to South Carolina. Here he was instrumental in founding Beaver Creek Church. Ultimately he became the founder of the following churches in that state: Stephen's Creek, 1762; Horn's Creek, 1768; Bush River, 1771; Raburn's Creek, 1771; Bethesda, 1773; and Horse Creek, 1789. From South Carolina, Marshall proceeded to Georgia, where he established the first Baptist church in Georgia in 1772. All in all he was the immediate founder of eleven churches, the instrument through which hundreds came to the Lord and a major stone in the foundation of Baptist work in the South. Samuel Harris was a well-known citizen of Virginia where he was converted at the age of 34. He was well-educated, wealthy, and prominent in local political life. But all of these things he "counted but loss" for Christ's sake when he gave himself to the ministry of the Gospel shortly after his conversion. He traveled with Daniel Marshall frequently and Marshall's zeal and diligence were well caught by him. His ministry extended into much of Virginia and parts of North Carolina. He was a powerful preacher. It was said of him that as he preached "great streams of celestial lightning would flash from his eyes, which whenever he turned his face, would strike down hundreds at once." Many hundreds were converted through his ministry of itinerant evangelism. People would travel from up to 100 miles to attend his meetings. He founded or assisted in the founding of 26 churches in 19 different counties in Virginia. His spirit was caught by other young preachers such as Lewis and Elijah Craig, John Waller, James Childs, and John Burrus. Elijah Craig was won to Christ through Harris' ministry and Craig's testimony was responsible for the salvation of Waller, who was later baptized by Harris also. The Baptist historian Cathcart says, "Mr. Harris was the best known man in his native colony, and it is doubtful if Patrick Henry could control a vast assemblage by a power superior to that of Samuel Harris."7 While looking briefly at the lives of early Separate Baptists and their labors, discussion has included Baptist expansion in the states of North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, and South Carolina. Such coverage would not be complete without some mention of Philip Mulkey, who did more to advance the cause of Christ in the name of Baptists than any one individual in Ihc eighteenth century in South Carolina. As a church builder, Mulkey ranks along side Shubal Stearns and Daniel Marshall. He was a tireless laborer working under extremely difficult circumstances. His conversion experience was rather dramatic and occurred outside the realm of influence of any church. However, shortly after his conversion he identified himself with the Sandy Creek Church and was baptized into its fellowship in 1756. He was shortly thereafter called into the ministry and began preaching in areas hitherto unreached with the Gospel. He was instrumental in founding Bluestone (Deep River) Church in North Carolina in 1757 of which he became pastor. With the migration of many families to South Carolina, Mulkey also moved to the neighboring colony in 1760. The same year these families were constituted into a church with Mulkey as pastor. The pastor and church began to extend their witness in all of the surrounding area. Within twelve years, ten other churches were established in this part of South Carolina as a result. These ten were responsible for the organization of nine other churches before 1789, all nineteen of which are in existence today! Perhaps the most notable contribution of Mulkey was his work at Congaree Church, where three, who were to become prominent preachers, were won to Christ. These three were Thomas Norris, who became a noted minister; Timothy Dargan, one of the first of the long line of illustrious preachers bearing that name; and Joseph Reese. It was through the ministry of the latter two men that a Young Carolinian of sixteen was converted who was destined to help shape Baptist life across the world. That young man was Richard Furman. Philip Mulkey deserves a high place in the standing of Baptist church builders and evangelists of the eighteenth century. One other outstanding Baptist preacher in the South was John Leland who came to Virginia from Massachusetts in 1777. The Baptist historian Cathcart says of him, "Wonderful revivals everywhere followed the labors of Mr. Leland of Virginia. Hundreds came under the power of converting grace, and professed their faith in Christ."8 Though he served as pastor for brief periods, he was much more suited to an itinerant ministry. His most productive years were during the revival period of 1787-89. During these years he baptized some four hundred people, three hundred of them in one year. At the close of his life, he had baptized over fifteen hundred people, preached over eight thousand sermons and covered some 70,000 miles on horseback.9 Summary of Events and Growth, 1750-1790 Though most historians contend that the First Great Awakening in this country had run its course by 1750, the truth is that for Baptists this was only the time of its beginning. In my opinion there is evidence that spiritual awakening among Baptists continued to be experienced in some major geographic area until the end of the eighteenth century. Not even the war years, 1775-1781, were excepted. However, it was in the aftermath of the awakening that the Baptist cause prospered. As has been indicated, the years following the coming of the Separate Baptists into North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia were years of great expansion. During the entire period, 1755-1800, the Separate Baptists experienced a phenomenal growth. Though the war was a serious impediment to vital spiritual life among Virginians, revival fires began to burn again with the cessation of hostilities in 1785. "It spread as fire among stubble, continuing for several years in different parts. Very few churches were without the blessing."10 The revival continued until 1792 and witnessed thousands of conversions and additions to Baptist churches. In the Carolinas its effect was not nearly so great, but there were evidences of spiritual renewal in a number of congregations and a good number of people were baptized, particularly in the back country churches. The Charleston Association gave evidence of revival at this time, baptizing 546 people during the years 1786-1789.11 The revival was felt as far west as the Kentucky frontier. To give a clearer picture of the impact of the revivals of the period, coupled with evangelistic emphases, upon Baptists, the following summaries are given. Some mention will be made of Baptist work outside the South in the summary. In New England by 1740 there were 21 Baptist churches. Most were feeble and declining. By 1790 the number had risen to 286, an increase of over 1000% in fifty years. By 1790, Massachusetts could count 92 Baptist churches with 6,234 members. Rhode Island had 38 churches with 3,502 members. New Hampshire Baptists numbered 1,732 in 32 churches. Maine contained the smallest constituency of 15 churches and 882 members, Connecticut could count 55 churches with 3,214 members, and Vermont, 34 churches with 1,610 members. The number of Baptist churches in New England had increased from 21 in 1740 to 266 in 1790.12 In the South, Baptists in Virginia had their beginnings with the first Baptist church in Virginia formed in 1714. By 1793 there were 227 churches, 22,793 members in 14 associations.13 Holmes says in his American Annals that "in 1793 the Baptists of the United States numbered 73,471, so that at that time Virginia contained nearly one third of the whole."14 In North Carolina, there was a handful of Baptist churches when the Sandy Creek Church was founded in 1755. By 1784 there were 42 churches and 3,276 members; in 1792 there were 94 churches and 7,503 members. In South Carolina there were nine Baptist churches in 1755. By 1784 there were 27 churches and 1,620 members. In 1792 there were 70 churches with a membership of 4,167. In Georgia, where the first Baptist church was planted in 1771, Baptists had 50 churches and 3,211 members in 1792. From 1755 to 1792, Baptist churches in the South had grown in number from 28 to 44l,15 an increase of over 1500%. The Second Great Awakening and Following, 1800-1845 In 1795, two prominent Baptist preachers, Stephen Gano of Providence, Rhode Island, and Isaac Backus of Middleboro, Massachusetts, joined with twenty-one other New England ministers in issuing a "Circular Letter" which was an appeal for prayer for a general revival. The appeal met with unanimous approval from every major denominational group. The intercession fostered by this action led to one of the most remarkable revivals in the history of this nation. Though revival of great proportion was experienced in churches along the coastal states, customarily the revival of 1800 is associated primarily with the camp meetings in the frontier states. This religious phenomenon drastically affected this region of our nation, composed of Kentucky, Tennessee, the Western part of North Carolina and South Carolina, Southern Virginia, and Northern Georgia. The change was so great that some who knew the frontier well could hardly believe it was the same geographic region. Numerically, churches and denominations witnessed unprecedented growth. Seasons of Revival in Kentucky, 1800-1840 The revival had its beginning in Kentucky, where the apex of irreligion and heathenism were found. This frontier state increased in population from 73,677 in 1790 to 220,955 in 1800. The churches had simply been unable to keep up with the staggering population growth. When revival did come, it came not as a still small voice but rather as an earthquake and a whirlwind. It was marked by emotional extremes and much physical contortion on the part of many who were affected by it. Though Baptists participated fairly universally in the frontier revivals, they seem not to have been as caught up in the emotional excesses as either the Methodists or the Presbyterians. The Baptist historian [John H.] Spencer virtually exonerates all Baptists of any undue extremes.16 This did not noticeably impede their numerical gains. The beginning of the revival among Baptists in Kentucky was at the village of Port William (now Carrollton) where a union meeting was taking place. This was in the early spring of 1800 before the camp meetings came into existence. John Taylor, the preacher through whom revival had come to Kentucky, in both 1785 and 1788, preached in the house of Benjamin Craig, brother of the famous Louis Craig. After his message, prayer and praise and exhortation continued until late in the night. Many anxious inquirers were dealt with and found deliverance throughout the hours of the night. Taylor left the next day for Trimble County where revival was experienced during his stay of three days. From here he went to Clear Creek in Woodford County and a bountiful harvest was reaped. Next to feel the impact of revival through Taylor's ministry was Bullittsburg, where over a period of time almost every adult in the community was baptized. By the end of 1800, the revival had spread to all parts of the state. Unprecedented numbers were added to Kentucky Baptist churches. In most regions of Kentucky, the number of Baptists doubled or tripled. It was not the noisy excitement of the camp meetings but a solemn moving of God's spirit. "The preaching was doctrinal rather than hortatory. The exhortations were fervent and made up largely of Scripture quotations, as were also the prayers. The songs were of Watts' collections, and were sung slowly and gravely!"17 Statistically, what happened in some churches is of great interest. Severns Valley Church numbered 47 members in 1801. Over a period of a few months, 146 were received by baptism. At South Elkhorn, a church numbering 127, 318 were baptized. In a church which numbered 170 in 1800, 424 were baptized during the revival period. Great Crossing Church numbered 107 members before the revival. Four hundred and seven people were baptized into this church.18 The Elkhorn Association which had reported 82 baptisms in 1800 reported 3,011 in 1801 and 488 in 1802.19 In 1800 there were seven associations, 106 churches, and 5,119 members. In 1803 after the revival, there were 10 associations, 219 churches, and 15,495 members. In three years, the number of churches had doubled and the number of members had tripled. The affect on morals in Kentucky was so stupendous that the land itself seemed to have been regenerated. So many infidels had been converted, (many of whom became preachers), that John Mason Peck declared that the revival dealt infidelity in that state its death blow. Evangelistic and missionary zeal were quickened, fellowship was restored between Baptist groups who had been separated by indifferences, and benevolent interests were supported with new vigor.20 Baptist work in Kentucky was blessed with revival again from 1810-13. The year 1817 was also a year of mighty revivals in Kentucky. Though these did not spread as rapidly, and though there were not as many converts as in the revival of 1800, both represented unusual work of divine grace. By 1820, revivals during the preceding decade had helped to increase the number of Baptist churches in Kentucky to 491 and the total membership to 31,689.21 In twenty years the number of churches and members had doubled in Kentucky. In 1827 another great period of revival began among Kentucky Baptists. It also lasted for approximately three years. Baptisms in the Salem Association which had been around one hundred or fewer for several years sky-rocketed to 1,007 in 1829.22 In Elkhorn Association the number of baptisms increased from 72 in 1827 to 1,676 in 1828.23 In the small Bracken Association over 1,300 people were baptized during the revival. In Catcs Creek Association, a rather small association, over 1,600 people were baptized. During the period of the revival something over 15,000 people wore baptized in Kentucky and the churches were greatly enlarged in numbers.24 In 1829 there were 614 churches in Kentucky; 45,442 members. The last general revival experienced in Kentucky before 1845 began in 1837 and lasted for some six years. It was the most extensive awakening that had occurred in the state since the revival of 1800. It began in the First Baptist Church in Louisville, which baptized over 600 people into its fellowship in a six-year period. Almost 18,000 were baptized in the first t h ree years and approximately 12,000 in the next three. This was a period of significance in evangelism in Kentucky due to the fact that "protracted meetings" were practiced for the first time in the state during this period. Up until this time even during revival seasons meetings were held only on weekends with occasional meetings in homes during the week. At this period meetings began to approach a duration of two weeks. The year 1840 found Kentucky Baptists with 711 churches, 49,308 members.25 Revivals in Other Southern States, 1700-1840 The Frontier Revival of 1800 spread from Kentucky into the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Virginia. It appears that in most instances revivals in Baptist churches were fairly free from extreme emotional excesses in these states as was true in Kentucky.26 As there had been periodic seasons of revival in Kentucky following the revival of 1800, so were there seasons of revival in all of the states of the South. For instance, Georgia experienced its first great general revival in 1802 during which some 700 people were baptized. The two most wide¬spread seasons of awakening occurred between 1827 and 1830-1831 and 1834. As Kentucky had been swept by revival during the period of 1827-1830, Georgia and certain sections of South Carolina also were mightily moved upon by the Spirit of God. In Georgia the most remarkable and memorable revival in the history of the state was witnessed and over 14,000 people were brought into Baptist churches during its progress. In 1825 after this season of revival, there were 356 churches and 28,268 members. This was an increase of 96 churches and 10,000 members in a period of three years. By 1835 there were 583 churches and 41,810 members. By 1845 there were 971 churches and 58,388 members. In South Carolina the revival of 1800 spread over the whole state and continued for several years. The Bethel Association in South Carolina increased in baptisms from 119 in 1800 to 703 in 1802, 1411 in 1803.27 The Broad River Association which had begun in 1801 with959members had increased to 1480 in 1802 and 2,084 in 1803. During this two year period it baptized 1,167 people. Between 1802 and 1804 thirty-five new churches and branches came into existence in South Carolina and there was a gain of 80 percent in total membership during this three-year period.28 A second major season of revival for many Southern churches was the year 1831-1834. Powerful revivals swept the Carolinas and Tennessee during this period. In 1832 the Saluda Association of South Carolina increased its baptisms over the previous year from 113 to 1,273.29 The Broad River Association in that state baptized 574 in 1832.30 The Bethel Association increased its number of baptisms from 148 in the two previously recorded years to 1,279 in 1832-33.31 The Edgefield Association increased its baptisms from 361 to 1,062 over the period of 1830-31.32 In 1833 this association baptized 878. The Savannah River Association which had baptized 487 people in 1829-30 baptized 3,553 people during the period 1831-1834.33 The Tennessee Association in that state increased its number of baptisms from 57 in the most recently recorded year (1829) to 1,109 in 1833.34 In every Southern state, major periods of numerical growth were always related to widespread revivals of religion. Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee each had similar seasons of revival like those mentioned above. Summary of Reasons for Baptist Growth in the South This author is aware of some of the reasons customarily given for the rapid growth among Baptists during this period. For instance, in Virginia their response to persecution seems to have promoted their cause rather than to have impeded it. "The patient manner in which they suffered persecution raised their reputation for piety and goodness in the estimation of a large majority of the people. Their numbers actually increased in a surprising degree."35 Further, Baptists had come out of the Revolutionary War with increased respectablity as a denomination. Their chaplains were likely the most esteemed of any religious group which provided chaplains for the army. Third, the Baptist part in the struggle for religious liberty was a factor which enhanced their image and became an impetus for numerical growth. Their defiance of laws which would prohibit them from preaching was symbolic of the growing spirit of independence. "More and more a strong element in the Colonies, represented by Madison, Jefferson, and Henry, viewed the Established Church and its clergy as incompatible with the principles of the Revolution and became champions of the Baptists."36 The primary factor in Baptist growth was their ability to identify with the common people. These represented the greatest number of the total population. Ultimately the Methodists gained a similar rapport with the people but the Presbyterians with their intellectual demands for their pastors did not. Speaking of Baptists, David Thomas in The Virginian Baptist said: "The people needed a distinctive symbol and a comparatively formless faith; they found the one in adult baptism by immersion, and the other in the wide compass of Bible teaching wherein the devout and emotional soul finds what it seeks . . . They wanted an organization, a ministry, a preach¬ing, responsive to their emotions. The Baptist organization supplied the demands of their thoughts and their emotion, and on a plane congenial to their habit of speech and life."37 The fact that Baptists made no demand for a formally trained clergy not only resulted in an adequate supply of preachers, their lack of education placed them on the same plane with those to whom they preached and a strong bond of sympathy developed between the two. The above factors may be foundational as causes for Baptist growth, but there are other factors related to methods of evangelism which Baptists employed which must not be overlooked. These are seldom, if ever, mentioned as reasons for growth. First of all, Baptists were responsible for reinstituting a type of public invitation which had not been employed by the church for many centuries. Though preachers, during the great awakenings of the 1700's had urged immediate acceptance of the benefits of the gospel, there is no record of opportunity being given for open response on the part of those who desired to respond. Baptists began, not only to call for immediate response, but appealed to people to demonstrate their interest by a kind of profession of interest. Separate Baptists had begun this by 1770. This method is described as follows:At the close of his sermon, the minister would come down from the pulpit and while singing a suitable hymn would go around among the brethren shaking hands. They hymn being sung, he would then extend an invitation to such persons as felt themselves to be poor guilty sinners, and were anxiously enquiring the way of salvation, to come forward and kneel near the stand, or, if they preferred to do so, they could kneel at their seats, proffering to unite with them in prayer for their conversion. After prayer, singing and exhortation, prolonged according to circum¬stances, the congregation would be dismissed to meet again at night at the meeting house or at some private residence, either for preaching or in the capacity of a prayer-meeting.38This is the earliest record of an invitation of this type being extended in modern times. Early Methodists in this country began offering similar invitations and found them to enhance their evangelistic efforts noticeably. In one way or another, invitation to immediate public decision has been practiced in Baptist churches in the South ever since. The call to immediate decision in response to their preaching, is one explanation for rapid growth of Baptists in the South which must not be overlooked. A second method employed by Baptists in the South was the continuation of a series of revival services from day to day or night by night which they called "protracted meetings." Spencer and Armitage both make the mistake of dating the beginning of such meetings in the 1830's.39 (Spencer, p. 672; Armitage, p. 889). However, Separate Baptists had been practicing this kind of evangelism for at least sixty years. Shubal Stearns records:Not long since, I attended a meeting on Hoy (Haw) River, about thirty miles from hence. About seven hundred souls attended the meeting, which held six days. We received twenty-four persons by a satisfactory declaration of grace, and eigh¬teen of them were baptized. The power of God was wonderful.40 Regardless of when they began, protracted meetings became a major method of evangelism in the South. This kind of evangelism still exists today among Southern Baptists. Many students of evangelism contend that today approximately forty per cent of the people converted in Baptist churches made their initial commitment during a "protracted meeting." The fact that Baptists in the South have practiced revival evangelism consistently and Baptists in the North only spasmodically could be one reason why Baptists in the South have numerically exceeded those in the North to such a great degree. A third factor which ought to be mentioned is the ultimate response of Baptists to emotional extremes which grew out of both awakenings. It is true that the Separate Baptists in the First Awakening were somewhat extreme, as were other groups in their emotional reactions. However, in the Second Awakening, Baptists repudiated extreme emotional response and assumed something of a middle of the road position toward emotionalism in their services. They continued to preach fervently, refused to do away with emotion in religion, and have maintained a similar position since that time. Undoubtedly their refusal to outlaw emotional expression in public worship, coupled with the effort to steer away from extremes, has been another factor in the growth of Baptists in the South. 1 Jesse H. Campbell, Georgia Baptists: Historical and Biographical (Richmond: H. K. Ellyson, 1847), pp. 15-16. 2 George Washington Paschal, History of North Carolina Baptists (Raleigh: The General Board North Carolina Baptist Convention, 1930), p. 274. 3 Albert H. Newman, ed., A Century of Baptist Achievement (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1901), p. 293. 4 Morgan Edwards, Materials Towards a History of the American Baptists (Philadelphia, 1770-1792), p. 386. 5 Isaac Backus, A History of New England Baptists (Newton, Massachusetts: Backus Historical Society, 1871), p. 531. 6 Robert B. Semple, A History of the Rise and Progress of the Baptists in Virginia (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1894), pp. 17, 18. 7 William Cathcart, The Baptists and the American Revolution (Philadelphia: S. A. George & Co., 1876), p. 504. 8 Ibid., p. 682-683. 9 Albert L. Vail, The Morning Hour of American Baptist Missions (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1907), p. 34. 10 Robert B. Semple, A History of the Rise and Progress of the Baptists in Virginia (Richmond: Pitt and Dickson, 1894), p. 56. 11 Minutes of Charleston Association 12 Albert H. Newman, A History of the Baptist Churches in the United States (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1898), p. 271. 13 Thomas Armitage, A History of the Baptists; Traced by Their Vital Principles and Practices, from the Times of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ to the year 1889 (New York: Bryan Taylor, 1889), p. 735. 14 Ahiel Holmes, American Annals, p. 488. 15 J. H. Spencer, History of Kentucky Baptists, from 1769 to 1885 Including More than 800 Biographical Sketches, Vol. I, (Cincinnati: T. R. Baumes, 1885), pp. 535-536. 16 Ibid., p. 539. 17 Ibid., p. 539. 18 Ibid., p. 540. 19 Minutes of Elkhorn Association. 20 Ibid., p. 541. 22 Minutes of Salem Association. 23 Minutes of Elkhorn Association. 24 Spencer, op. cit., p. 599. 25 Ibid., p. 671 ff. 26 Leah Townsend, South Carolina Baptists, 1670-1805 (Florence, S.C.: Florence Printing Co., 1935), p. 299. 27 Minutes of Bethel Association. 28 Townsend, op. cit. 29 Minutes of Saluda Association. 30 Minutes of Broad River Association. 31 Minutes of Bethel Association. 32 Minutes of Edgefield Association. 33 Minutes of Savannah Association. 34 Minutes of Tennessee Association. 35 Semple, p. 42. 36 Wesley M. Gewehr,The Great Awakening in Virginia, 1740-1790 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1930), p. 135. 37 David Thomas, The Virginian Baptist (Baltimore, 1774), p. 32. 38 Robert I. Devin, A History of Grassy Creek Baptist Church (Raleigh: Edwards, Broughton, & Co., 1880), p. 69. 39 Armitage, op. cit., p. 889. 40 Backus, op. cit. [From The Lord's Free People, 1976, pp. 99-111. Scanned and formatted by Jim Duvall.] More on Baptists: Various Subjects Baptist History Homepage	8,352	ENGLISH	1
Martin Luther King Jr Essay. was a fine and strong man and should be viewed as such, along with other American heroes, such as Abraham Lincoln, and George Washington. He truly believed in his philosophy till his death. Martin Luther King Jr. was born on January 19, 1929, to Albert and Martin Luther King Sr. He was the second child in the family, with an older sister, and a younger brother coming later. As a boy, Martin was extremely smart, and could read before the age of six. He had already set academic standards for himself by stating that he would finish school priorr to his year older sister. In my opinion this could have had a major effect on King’s life by encouraging him to learn faster and better. Martin was first exposed to racism at an early age, (probably six, none of my sources specified his exact age at the time) when he was not allowed to play with some white friends of his. Martin also became accustomed to his liberal ideas while he was still in grade school. This became known to his mother after Martin said “You know, when I grow up to be a man, I’m going to hit this thing, and hit it hard, Mother; there’s no such thing as one people better than another. The Lord created us all equal , and I’m going to see to that.” Over the years King was involved in many famous boycotts and marches, but none of them matched his famous march in Washington. He gave a speech that showed bigotry in the government. Now, just 20 years later, our country is changing, and helping to change South Africa. The key to all this success was Martin Luther King Jr. who showed us that one man, nonviolently, could make a difference. Most of all he made us realize that all men are created equal, and should be treated for what they are, not limited by their appearance or anything else in this world. .	<urn:uuid:48227993-e310-4738-8ef2-f10e359efcb5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/martin-luther-king-jr-essay-18-110847/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00336.warc.gz	en	0.991037	411	3.296875	3	[ -0.2997204661369324, 0.5647300481796265, 0.3220408260822296, -0.23419174551963806, -0.4970480799674988, 0.30580371618270874, 0.12985998392105103, 0.2567038834095001, 0.008301240392029285, 0.047505974769592285, -0.06818309426307678, 0.37846261262893677, 0.38564956188201904, -0.1206769943237...	4	Martin Luther King Jr Essay. was a fine and strong man and should be viewed as such, along with other American heroes, such as Abraham Lincoln, and George Washington. He truly believed in his philosophy till his death. Martin Luther King Jr. was born on January 19, 1929, to Albert and Martin Luther King Sr. He was the second child in the family, with an older sister, and a younger brother coming later. As a boy, Martin was extremely smart, and could read before the age of six. He had already set academic standards for himself by stating that he would finish school priorr to his year older sister. In my opinion this could have had a major effect on King’s life by encouraging him to learn faster and better. Martin was first exposed to racism at an early age, (probably six, none of my sources specified his exact age at the time) when he was not allowed to play with some white friends of his. Martin also became accustomed to his liberal ideas while he was still in grade school. This became known to his mother after Martin said “You know, when I grow up to be a man, I’m going to hit this thing, and hit it hard, Mother; there’s no such thing as one people better than another. The Lord created us all equal , and I’m going to see to that.” Over the years King was involved in many famous boycotts and marches, but none of them matched his famous march in Washington. He gave a speech that showed bigotry in the government. Now, just 20 years later, our country is changing, and helping to change South Africa. The key to all this success was Martin Luther King Jr. who showed us that one man, nonviolently, could make a difference. Most of all he made us realize that all men are created equal, and should be treated for what they are, not limited by their appearance or anything else in this world. .	399	ENGLISH	1
The Somme: From Tauranga to the Trenches featured maps, quotes, photographs and facts relating to New Zealand’s efforts at the Somme. It also revealed the connection Tauranga had to “that terrible battle” through the stories and images of many of the Tauranga men who fought and, in some cases, died there. The exhibition opened at the Phoenix car park downtown Mount Maunganui on 15 September 2016 - one hundred years to the day New Zealand entered the fray on the Western Front. It also traveled to the Papamoa and Greerton Libraries. “The Gallipoli experience of 1915 has overshadowed New Zealand’s enormous contribution on the Western Front between 1916 and 1918. It was on the Somme that the majority of New Zealanders were killed or wounded during the First World War. And it was here that New Zealand experienced its worst days in military history in terms of loss of life. The Battle of the Somme was New Zealand’s first major engagement on the Western Front. It took a huge toll on the 15,000 members of the New Zealand Division who were involved. Roughly one in seven of the division who fought on the Somme was killed, and about four in every 10 were wounded.” - New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage	<urn:uuid:5c916539-755e-4bb5-b5b5-b4f810e64f4c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.handsontauranga.co.nz/heritage-collection/in-the-community/the-somme/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00215.warc.gz	en	0.980424	271	3.265625	3	[ -0.05992789939045906, 0.6942352056503296, 0.1338742971420288, -0.016444336622953415, 0.07145549356937408, 0.405037522315979, 0.015532107092440128, 0.3983079791069031, -0.020904649049043655, -0.0770069807767868, -0.00825063232332468, -0.5516251921653748, -0.08904767781496048, 0.690447747707...	10	The Somme: From Tauranga to the Trenches featured maps, quotes, photographs and facts relating to New Zealand’s efforts at the Somme. It also revealed the connection Tauranga had to “that terrible battle” through the stories and images of many of the Tauranga men who fought and, in some cases, died there. The exhibition opened at the Phoenix car park downtown Mount Maunganui on 15 September 2016 - one hundred years to the day New Zealand entered the fray on the Western Front. It also traveled to the Papamoa and Greerton Libraries. “The Gallipoli experience of 1915 has overshadowed New Zealand’s enormous contribution on the Western Front between 1916 and 1918. It was on the Somme that the majority of New Zealanders were killed or wounded during the First World War. And it was here that New Zealand experienced its worst days in military history in terms of loss of life. The Battle of the Somme was New Zealand’s first major engagement on the Western Front. It took a huge toll on the 15,000 members of the New Zealand Division who were involved. Roughly one in seven of the division who fought on the Somme was killed, and about four in every 10 were wounded.” - New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage	282	ENGLISH	1
Indian National Army Indian National Army, also known as the Azad Hind Fauj, was formed for the liberation of India from the British rule. It was formed in South-East Asia in the year 1942 by pioneering Indian Nationalists and prisoners who wanted to throw off the yoke of foreign domination and liberate the country. The INA was initially formed under Mohan Singh, after the fall of Singapore, the captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the British Army. However, the first INA under Mohan Singh collapsed and finally it was revived under the leadership of Subash Chandra Bose in 1943. Bose`s army was declared as the Azri Hukumat e Azad Hind. Indian National Army emerged along with Mahatma Gandhi`s peaceful resistance movement within India. In contrast to Mahatma Gandhi, Bose advocated a more aggressive confrontation with the British authorities. Origin of Indian National Army INA was formed during the first world war when the Ghadar Party and the emergence form of the Indian Independence League planned to rebel in the British Indian Army from the Punjab through Bengal to Hong Kong. However, this plan met with failure after the information was leaked to British Intelligence. During the Second World War, the plan to fight the British found revival and a number of leaders and movements were initiated. These included the various “liberation armies” which were formed in as well as with the help of Italy, Germany as well as in South-east Asia. Thus in South East Asia the concept of the Indian National Army emerged. It was supported by the Japanese 15th army and led by Bose. Composition of the Indian National Army Indian National Army had many valued freedom fighters that helped in the battles. They all had a brilliant background and fought for a similar cause, freedom of India. The INA freedom fighters were from every sphere ranging from barristers to plantation workers. The revival of the Indian National Army was done by Subhash Chandra Bose. Most of the people who joined the army had no prior military experience and thus to ensure a well-trained army, Bose established an Officers Training School for INA officers and the Azad School for the civilian volunteers Many youth were also sent to the Imperial Military Academy in Japan for advanced training. Every soldier was required to spend about six to eight hours of training daily. The training included physical training, army drill and handling arms such as rifles, pistols, hand grenades and bayonets. The soldiers also attended lectures of Indian and world history and military subjects like map reading as well as signaling. Battles of Indian National Army The battles that were fought by the Indian National Army during World War II were fought in the South-East Asian region. The operations include Malayan Campaign in 1942 as well as Burma Campaign. The operations of the INA involved the battle of Imphal, Kohima, Pokoku and Irrawady River operations. It began a long march over land and on foot towards Bangkok, along with Subash Chandra Bose. At the time of Japan`s surrender in September 1945, Bose left for Manchuria to attempt to contact the advancing Soviet troops, and was reported to have died in an air crash near Taiwan. On the other hand the INA fighters were imprisoned. The prisoners faced the death penalty, life imprisonment or a fine as punishment if found guilty. Women in Indian National Army Indian National Army was structured in a way that lodged active participation from women. A women regiment was formed in 1943. INA had John Thivy, Dr. Lakhsmi Sehgal, Narayan Karruppiah as well as Janaki Thevar as its members. Among the masses attending Bose`s rally on 9 July, Dr.Lakshmi, responded immediately to his appeal to form a Women`s Regiment. She visited many families to persuade the women to join the INA. Many were reluctant; however, she managed to gather twenty enthusiastic girls who were willing to break the traditional barriers. The girls presented the guard-of-honour to Bose. He was impressed and invited Dr. Lakshmi to lead the Women`s Regiment. On 12 July 1943, Bose announced the formation of the Women`s Regiment, naming it “Rani of Jhansi Regiment” which in later years was considered to be a special characteristic of the INA. INA fighters were not invited to join the Indian Army after India`s independence. However, a few ex-INA members later have seen prominent public life or held important positions in independent India. The Indian National Army thus rose to power under the able leadership of Bose. Though it was ultimately disbanded, its heroic attempts at forming an army and taking a radical step towards Indian Independence marked a significant step in the Indian Independence Movement. Subhas Chandra Bose Subhas Chandra Bose was most dynamic leader of India`s struggle for independence. He is more familiar with his name Netaji. His contribution towards India`s Freedom struggle was of a revolutionary. Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd Jan, 1897 in Cuttack, Orissa, India. From his childhood he was a bright student and was a topper in the matriculation examination from the whole of Kolkata province. He graduated from the Scottish Church College in Kolkata with a First Class degree in Philosophy. Influenced by the teachings of Swami Vivekananda, he was known for his patriotic zeal as a student. He went to England to fulfil his parents` desire to appear in the Indian Civil Services. He stood fourth in order of merit. But he left civil Service`s apprenticeship and joined India`s freedom struggle. During his service with the Indian National Congress, he was greatly influenced by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Sri Aurobindo. He did not agree with Gandhiji`s methods of achieving Independence through non-violence. He believed that the only way of achieving Independence was by shedding blood. He therefore returned to Kolkata to work under Chittaranjan Das, the Bengali freedom fighter and co-founder of the Swaraj Party. He was imprisoned for his revolutionary activities on various occasions. In 1921, Bose organized a boycott of the celebrations to mark the visit of the Prince of Wales to India for which he was imprisoned for the first time. Bose was elected to the post of Chief Executive Officer of the newly constituted Calcutta Corporation in April 1924. That same year in October, Bose was arrested on suspicion of terrorism. At first, he was kept in Alipur Jail and later he was exiled to Mandalay in Burma. Bose was once again arrested on January, 1930. After his release from jail on September 25, he was elected as the Mayor of the City of Kolkata. Netaji was imprisoned eleven times by the British over a span of 20 years either in India or in Rangoon. During the mid 1930s he was exiled by the British from India to Europe where he championed India`s cause and aspiration for self-rule before gatherings and conferences. Throughout his stay in Europe from 1933 to 1936, he met several European leaders and thinkers. He travelled extensively in India and in Europe before stating his political opposition to Gandhi. Subhash Chandra Bose married Emilie Schenkl, an Austrian born national, who was his secretary, in 1937 in German. Bose wrote many letters to Schenkl of which many have been published in the book “Letters to Emilie Schenkl”, edited by Sisir Kumar Bose and Sugata Bose. Subhas Chandra Bose became the president of the Haripura Indian National Congress against the wishes of Gandhiji in 1938. He was elected as the president for two consecutive terms. Expressing his disagreement with Bose, Gandhi commented “Subhas` victory is my defeat”. Gandhi`s continued opposition led to Netaji`s resignation from the Working Committee. He was left with no alternative but to form an independent party, the “All India Forward Bloc”. In his call to freedom, Subhas Chandra Bose encouraged full participation of the Indian Masses to strive for independence. Bose initiated the concept of the “National Planning Committee” in 1938. His correspondence reveals that despite his clear dislike for British subjugation, he was deeply impressed by their methodical and systematic approach and their steadfastly disciplinarian outlook towards life. The contrast between Gandhi and Bose is captured with reasonable measure in a saying attributable to him “”If people slap you once, slap them twice”. Having failed to persuade Gandhi for the mass civil disobedience to protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow`s decision to declare war on India`s behalf without consulting the Congress leadership, he organised mass protests in Kolkata. The disobedience was calling for the `Holwell Monument` commemorating the Black Hole of Kolkata. He was thrown in Jail and was released only after a seven-day hunger strike. Bose`s house in Kolkata was kept under surveillance by the British. With two pending court cases; he felt that the British would not let him leave the country before the end of the war. This set the scene for Bose`s escape to Germany, via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. In Germany he instituted the Special Bureau for India under Adam von Trott zu Solz, broadcasting on the German-sponsored Azad Hind Radio. Here he founded the “Free India Centre” in Berlin, and created the Indian Legion consisting of some 4500 soldiers who were the Indian prisoners of war. The soldiers had previously fought for the British in North Africa prior to their capture by Axis forces.APPSC GROUP 1 Notes brings Prelims and Mains programs for APPSC GROUP 1 Prelims and APPSC GROUP 1 Mains Exam preparation. Various Programs initiated by APPSC GROUP 1 Notes are as follows:- - APPSC GROUP 1 Mains Tests and Notes Program - APPSC GROUP 1 Prelims Exam - Test Series and Notes Program - APPSC GROUP 1 Prelims and Mains Tests Series and Notes Program - APPSC GROUP 1 Detailed Complete Prelims Notes	<urn:uuid:a7a30d08-f141-4532-8422-84705b42989b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://andhrapradesh.pscnotes.com/history-of-india/indian-national-army-subhash-chandra-bose/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00397.warc.gz	en	0.981168	2,109	3.421875	3	[ -0.10108986496925354, 0.3676011264324188, -0.04403463006019592, 0.04647928476333618, -0.1894460916519165, 0.34920576214790344, 0.33681339025497437, -0.12878480553627014, -0.005909922532737255, -0.5353682041168213, 0.3433646559715271, -0.6276634335517883, 0.4912509620189667, 0.3658798336982...	3	Indian National Army Indian National Army, also known as the Azad Hind Fauj, was formed for the liberation of India from the British rule. It was formed in South-East Asia in the year 1942 by pioneering Indian Nationalists and prisoners who wanted to throw off the yoke of foreign domination and liberate the country. The INA was initially formed under Mohan Singh, after the fall of Singapore, the captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the British Army. However, the first INA under Mohan Singh collapsed and finally it was revived under the leadership of Subash Chandra Bose in 1943. Bose`s army was declared as the Azri Hukumat e Azad Hind. Indian National Army emerged along with Mahatma Gandhi`s peaceful resistance movement within India. In contrast to Mahatma Gandhi, Bose advocated a more aggressive confrontation with the British authorities. Origin of Indian National Army INA was formed during the first world war when the Ghadar Party and the emergence form of the Indian Independence League planned to rebel in the British Indian Army from the Punjab through Bengal to Hong Kong. However, this plan met with failure after the information was leaked to British Intelligence. During the Second World War, the plan to fight the British found revival and a number of leaders and movements were initiated. These included the various “liberation armies” which were formed in as well as with the help of Italy, Germany as well as in South-east Asia. Thus in South East Asia the concept of the Indian National Army emerged. It was supported by the Japanese 15th army and led by Bose. Composition of the Indian National Army Indian National Army had many valued freedom fighters that helped in the battles. They all had a brilliant background and fought for a similar cause, freedom of India. The INA freedom fighters were from every sphere ranging from barristers to plantation workers. The revival of the Indian National Army was done by Subhash Chandra Bose. Most of the people who joined the army had no prior military experience and thus to ensure a well-trained army, Bose established an Officers Training School for INA officers and the Azad School for the civilian volunteers Many youth were also sent to the Imperial Military Academy in Japan for advanced training. Every soldier was required to spend about six to eight hours of training daily. The training included physical training, army drill and handling arms such as rifles, pistols, hand grenades and bayonets. The soldiers also attended lectures of Indian and world history and military subjects like map reading as well as signaling. Battles of Indian National Army The battles that were fought by the Indian National Army during World War II were fought in the South-East Asian region. The operations include Malayan Campaign in 1942 as well as Burma Campaign. The operations of the INA involved the battle of Imphal, Kohima, Pokoku and Irrawady River operations. It began a long march over land and on foot towards Bangkok, along with Subash Chandra Bose. At the time of Japan`s surrender in September 1945, Bose left for Manchuria to attempt to contact the advancing Soviet troops, and was reported to have died in an air crash near Taiwan. On the other hand the INA fighters were imprisoned. The prisoners faced the death penalty, life imprisonment or a fine as punishment if found guilty. Women in Indian National Army Indian National Army was structured in a way that lodged active participation from women. A women regiment was formed in 1943. INA had John Thivy, Dr. Lakhsmi Sehgal, Narayan Karruppiah as well as Janaki Thevar as its members. Among the masses attending Bose`s rally on 9 July, Dr.Lakshmi, responded immediately to his appeal to form a Women`s Regiment. She visited many families to persuade the women to join the INA. Many were reluctant; however, she managed to gather twenty enthusiastic girls who were willing to break the traditional barriers. The girls presented the guard-of-honour to Bose. He was impressed and invited Dr. Lakshmi to lead the Women`s Regiment. On 12 July 1943, Bose announced the formation of the Women`s Regiment, naming it “Rani of Jhansi Regiment” which in later years was considered to be a special characteristic of the INA. INA fighters were not invited to join the Indian Army after India`s independence. However, a few ex-INA members later have seen prominent public life or held important positions in independent India. The Indian National Army thus rose to power under the able leadership of Bose. Though it was ultimately disbanded, its heroic attempts at forming an army and taking a radical step towards Indian Independence marked a significant step in the Indian Independence Movement. Subhas Chandra Bose Subhas Chandra Bose was most dynamic leader of India`s struggle for independence. He is more familiar with his name Netaji. His contribution towards India`s Freedom struggle was of a revolutionary. Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd Jan, 1897 in Cuttack, Orissa, India. From his childhood he was a bright student and was a topper in the matriculation examination from the whole of Kolkata province. He graduated from the Scottish Church College in Kolkata with a First Class degree in Philosophy. Influenced by the teachings of Swami Vivekananda, he was known for his patriotic zeal as a student. He went to England to fulfil his parents` desire to appear in the Indian Civil Services. He stood fourth in order of merit. But he left civil Service`s apprenticeship and joined India`s freedom struggle. During his service with the Indian National Congress, he was greatly influenced by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Sri Aurobindo. He did not agree with Gandhiji`s methods of achieving Independence through non-violence. He believed that the only way of achieving Independence was by shedding blood. He therefore returned to Kolkata to work under Chittaranjan Das, the Bengali freedom fighter and co-founder of the Swaraj Party. He was imprisoned for his revolutionary activities on various occasions. In 1921, Bose organized a boycott of the celebrations to mark the visit of the Prince of Wales to India for which he was imprisoned for the first time. Bose was elected to the post of Chief Executive Officer of the newly constituted Calcutta Corporation in April 1924. That same year in October, Bose was arrested on suspicion of terrorism. At first, he was kept in Alipur Jail and later he was exiled to Mandalay in Burma. Bose was once again arrested on January, 1930. After his release from jail on September 25, he was elected as the Mayor of the City of Kolkata. Netaji was imprisoned eleven times by the British over a span of 20 years either in India or in Rangoon. During the mid 1930s he was exiled by the British from India to Europe where he championed India`s cause and aspiration for self-rule before gatherings and conferences. Throughout his stay in Europe from 1933 to 1936, he met several European leaders and thinkers. He travelled extensively in India and in Europe before stating his political opposition to Gandhi. Subhash Chandra Bose married Emilie Schenkl, an Austrian born national, who was his secretary, in 1937 in German. Bose wrote many letters to Schenkl of which many have been published in the book “Letters to Emilie Schenkl”, edited by Sisir Kumar Bose and Sugata Bose. Subhas Chandra Bose became the president of the Haripura Indian National Congress against the wishes of Gandhiji in 1938. He was elected as the president for two consecutive terms. Expressing his disagreement with Bose, Gandhi commented “Subhas` victory is my defeat”. Gandhi`s continued opposition led to Netaji`s resignation from the Working Committee. He was left with no alternative but to form an independent party, the “All India Forward Bloc”. In his call to freedom, Subhas Chandra Bose encouraged full participation of the Indian Masses to strive for independence. Bose initiated the concept of the “National Planning Committee” in 1938. His correspondence reveals that despite his clear dislike for British subjugation, he was deeply impressed by their methodical and systematic approach and their steadfastly disciplinarian outlook towards life. The contrast between Gandhi and Bose is captured with reasonable measure in a saying attributable to him “”If people slap you once, slap them twice”. Having failed to persuade Gandhi for the mass civil disobedience to protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow`s decision to declare war on India`s behalf without consulting the Congress leadership, he organised mass protests in Kolkata. The disobedience was calling for the `Holwell Monument` commemorating the Black Hole of Kolkata. He was thrown in Jail and was released only after a seven-day hunger strike. Bose`s house in Kolkata was kept under surveillance by the British. With two pending court cases; he felt that the British would not let him leave the country before the end of the war. This set the scene for Bose`s escape to Germany, via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. In Germany he instituted the Special Bureau for India under Adam von Trott zu Solz, broadcasting on the German-sponsored Azad Hind Radio. Here he founded the “Free India Centre” in Berlin, and created the Indian Legion consisting of some 4500 soldiers who were the Indian prisoners of war. The soldiers had previously fought for the British in North Africa prior to their capture by Axis forces.APPSC GROUP 1 Notes brings Prelims and Mains programs for APPSC GROUP 1 Prelims and APPSC GROUP 1 Mains Exam preparation. Various Programs initiated by APPSC GROUP 1 Notes are as follows:- - APPSC GROUP 1 Mains Tests and Notes Program - APPSC GROUP 1 Prelims Exam - Test Series and Notes Program - APPSC GROUP 1 Prelims and Mains Tests Series and Notes Program - APPSC GROUP 1 Detailed Complete Prelims Notes	2,084	ENGLISH	1
Prague History – Post World War Two Changes Last Updated: 7515 views Prague and most of the rest of Czechoslovakia were liberated by the Soviet Red Army in May, 1945. That this would happen had been decided by Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill at the Yalta Conference. It was at this same conference that it was decided that Czechoslovakia would come under the Soviet “sphere of influence” after World War II. But, the westernmost part of the country – from the beer-brewing town of Pilsen to the spa town of Carlsbad (Karlovy Vary) were liberated by the Americans led by General Patton. It was in 1945 that the USSR officially annexed this western part then known as Ruthenia. On May 7, 1945, Germany unconditionally surrendered to the Allied Forces, but the last shots on Czech territory were fired on May 11. During the war, most of the members of the domestic resistance movement had gradually become ever more leftist in their ideology, since they were so vehemently opposed to the extreme right ideals that were ruling it at the time. Czechoslovakia’s first post-war government was constructed exclusively from the political parties of the leftist “National Front.” These included the Communist Party, the Social Democratic Party, the National Democratic Party, the People’s Party and the Slovak Democratic Party. Pre-war right-wing parties were not allowed to renew their activities, because of their real and/or alleged collaboration with the Nazis. Left-wing Social Democrat, Zdenek Fierlinger, well-known for his affiliation with the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSC), was appointed Prime Minister. The remaining six government posts were filled with Czech and Slovak Communists – Klement Gottwald, Viliam Siroky, Vaclav Kopecky, Julius Duris and Jozef Soltesz. In addition, the Communists were able to place their loyal supporter, Ludvik Svoboda (later Czechoslovak President), in the key post of defense minister. Thus, the extreme left gained a strong political position in the newly-liberated country as early as 1945. Democratic life in Czechoslovakia never fully recovered. The most apparent demonstration of this were the 1945 Presidential Decrees (today called the “Benes Decrees”), especially those of October 24, 1945 on the nationalization of coal mines, heavy industry, food production, banks and private insurance companies. More than 3,000 companies – representing about two-thirds of the overall industrial capacity of the country at that time – were nationalized. Other presidential decrees were issued “on the punishment of Nazi criminals, traitors and their supporters, and on extraordinary people’s courts” (the Large Retribution Decree of June 19, 1945) and “on the punishment of some offenses against the national pride” (the Small Retribution Decree of October 10, 1945). On the basis of these decrees, not only the real collaborators – but also those who were only accused of collaboration – were punished harshly and without regular trials. Before World War II, some 30 percent of the population in the Czech lands had been Germans; in Slovakia, 17 percent had been Hungarians. In 1945, 700,000 Germans were expelled from Czechoslovakia under an agreement which was sanctioned by the Allies and had been reached at the Potsdam Conference. This expulsion was, in some cases, accompanied by brutality against the Germans, which brought about protests by the Allied Powers. In the second and more organized wave of deportation in 1946, 1.3 million Germans were deported to the American zone (in what would become West Germany) and 800,000 to the Soviet zone (in what would become East Germany). Another 200,000 Germans had fled voluntarily before the end of the war to the American zone, and around 200,000 escaped to Austria. According to the Presidential Decrees, property which had belonged to many of these people was confiscated and put under “national supervision” and the people themselves were deprived of their Czechoslovak citizenship. Only about half a million Germans remained on the territory of Czechoslovakia after the deportations, and just 165,000 of these claimed German nationality in the first post-war census. In 1950, according to the official statistics, Germans accounted for just 1.8 percent of the population in the Czech lands, compared with a pre-war count of almost 30 percent. The Potsdam Conference, which had approved the expulsion of Germans from the Czech lands, had vetoed the deportation of the Hungarian minority from Slovakia, after the Allies saw what had happened in the first deportations. Nonetheless, anti-Hungarian sentiment was so strong that a significant number of Hungarians did not claim Hungarian nationality in the 1950 census. Official statistics from that census show a significant drop in the number of people claiming Hungarian nationality in Slovakia, from around 17 percent before the war to only about 10 percent after the war. Czechoslovakia’s first post-war Parliament, the provisional National Assembly, began its activities on October 28, 1945. Its composition had been determined by an agreement among the political parties and social organizations within the “National Front”. The first test of the new political environment came with the Parliamentary elections of May 1946. The results corresponded to the expectations of the Communists, who won 40.17 percent of the vote, making them the most powerful party in Parliament by quite a large margin. The next strongest parties were the National Socialists with 23.66 percent, the People’s Party with 20.24 percent and the Social Democrats with 15.28 percent. In Slovakia, the Communists obtained only 30.37 percent of the vote, while the Democratic Party took 62 percent. Two newly-registered Slovak parties, the Freedom Party and the Labour Party, together received just 3.73 percent of the vote. In terms of the country as a whole, it was a landslide election victory for the Communists. In the new Parliament, the Constituent National Assembly, they won 114 seats, while the National Socialists held 55, the People’s Party 46, the Democrats 43, the Social Democrats united with the Slovak Labour Party 39, and the Freedom Party had just three seats. Based on the results of the May elections, a new government headed by the Communist leader Klement Gottwald was appointed on July 6, 1946. Gottwald formed a cabinet consisting of seven Czech Communists; two Slovak Communists; four Ministers from the National Socialists, the Democrats, and representatives of the People’s Party; and three Social Democrats. Thus, the communists had a strong grip on power well in advance of the “coup” which would take place nearly two years later. Only two government ministers were not then members of any political party. (They were Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk (the son of Czechoslovakia’s first president, Tomas Garrigue Masaryk) would soon meet his death under mysterious circumstances and War Hero Ludvik Svoboda, who would later join the Communist Party and later still would become Czechoslovak President in 1968). On June 5, 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall delivered a speech in which he offered assistance (which came to be known as the Marshall Plan) from the United States to all the countries of Europe for the reconstruction of their economies damaged during the war. The Soviet Union had already refused to participate in the plan as early as June 1946. And in fact of the future Soviet bloc countries only Czechoslovakia considered taking part in the Marshall Plan. After consultations with Stalin, however, Czechoslovakia too, refused the aid. For the next four decades Czechoslovakia would continue to follow Soviet orders.	<urn:uuid:3296be51-38b4-4288-b72c-1f5cce2509c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://livingprague.com/prague-history/prague-post-world-war-two/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00064.warc.gz	en	0.980655	1,597	3.5	4	[ -0.3447001576423645, 0.5722464323043823, 0.021876614540815353, -0.3091288208961487, 0.07394188642501831, 0.49551576375961304, -0.21101121604442596, 0.2286866009235382, -0.20648273825645447, 0.043261874467134476, 0.4705919027328491, 0.059193000197410583, 0.30689212679862976, 0.2191152870655...	1	Prague History – Post World War Two Changes Last Updated: 7515 views Prague and most of the rest of Czechoslovakia were liberated by the Soviet Red Army in May, 1945. That this would happen had been decided by Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill at the Yalta Conference. It was at this same conference that it was decided that Czechoslovakia would come under the Soviet “sphere of influence” after World War II. But, the westernmost part of the country – from the beer-brewing town of Pilsen to the spa town of Carlsbad (Karlovy Vary) were liberated by the Americans led by General Patton. It was in 1945 that the USSR officially annexed this western part then known as Ruthenia. On May 7, 1945, Germany unconditionally surrendered to the Allied Forces, but the last shots on Czech territory were fired on May 11. During the war, most of the members of the domestic resistance movement had gradually become ever more leftist in their ideology, since they were so vehemently opposed to the extreme right ideals that were ruling it at the time. Czechoslovakia’s first post-war government was constructed exclusively from the political parties of the leftist “National Front.” These included the Communist Party, the Social Democratic Party, the National Democratic Party, the People’s Party and the Slovak Democratic Party. Pre-war right-wing parties were not allowed to renew their activities, because of their real and/or alleged collaboration with the Nazis. Left-wing Social Democrat, Zdenek Fierlinger, well-known for his affiliation with the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSC), was appointed Prime Minister. The remaining six government posts were filled with Czech and Slovak Communists – Klement Gottwald, Viliam Siroky, Vaclav Kopecky, Julius Duris and Jozef Soltesz. In addition, the Communists were able to place their loyal supporter, Ludvik Svoboda (later Czechoslovak President), in the key post of defense minister. Thus, the extreme left gained a strong political position in the newly-liberated country as early as 1945. Democratic life in Czechoslovakia never fully recovered. The most apparent demonstration of this were the 1945 Presidential Decrees (today called the “Benes Decrees”), especially those of October 24, 1945 on the nationalization of coal mines, heavy industry, food production, banks and private insurance companies. More than 3,000 companies – representing about two-thirds of the overall industrial capacity of the country at that time – were nationalized. Other presidential decrees were issued “on the punishment of Nazi criminals, traitors and their supporters, and on extraordinary people’s courts” (the Large Retribution Decree of June 19, 1945) and “on the punishment of some offenses against the national pride” (the Small Retribution Decree of October 10, 1945). On the basis of these decrees, not only the real collaborators – but also those who were only accused of collaboration – were punished harshly and without regular trials. Before World War II, some 30 percent of the population in the Czech lands had been Germans; in Slovakia, 17 percent had been Hungarians. In 1945, 700,000 Germans were expelled from Czechoslovakia under an agreement which was sanctioned by the Allies and had been reached at the Potsdam Conference. This expulsion was, in some cases, accompanied by brutality against the Germans, which brought about protests by the Allied Powers. In the second and more organized wave of deportation in 1946, 1.3 million Germans were deported to the American zone (in what would become West Germany) and 800,000 to the Soviet zone (in what would become East Germany). Another 200,000 Germans had fled voluntarily before the end of the war to the American zone, and around 200,000 escaped to Austria. According to the Presidential Decrees, property which had belonged to many of these people was confiscated and put under “national supervision” and the people themselves were deprived of their Czechoslovak citizenship. Only about half a million Germans remained on the territory of Czechoslovakia after the deportations, and just 165,000 of these claimed German nationality in the first post-war census. In 1950, according to the official statistics, Germans accounted for just 1.8 percent of the population in the Czech lands, compared with a pre-war count of almost 30 percent. The Potsdam Conference, which had approved the expulsion of Germans from the Czech lands, had vetoed the deportation of the Hungarian minority from Slovakia, after the Allies saw what had happened in the first deportations. Nonetheless, anti-Hungarian sentiment was so strong that a significant number of Hungarians did not claim Hungarian nationality in the 1950 census. Official statistics from that census show a significant drop in the number of people claiming Hungarian nationality in Slovakia, from around 17 percent before the war to only about 10 percent after the war. Czechoslovakia’s first post-war Parliament, the provisional National Assembly, began its activities on October 28, 1945. Its composition had been determined by an agreement among the political parties and social organizations within the “National Front”. The first test of the new political environment came with the Parliamentary elections of May 1946. The results corresponded to the expectations of the Communists, who won 40.17 percent of the vote, making them the most powerful party in Parliament by quite a large margin. The next strongest parties were the National Socialists with 23.66 percent, the People’s Party with 20.24 percent and the Social Democrats with 15.28 percent. In Slovakia, the Communists obtained only 30.37 percent of the vote, while the Democratic Party took 62 percent. Two newly-registered Slovak parties, the Freedom Party and the Labour Party, together received just 3.73 percent of the vote. In terms of the country as a whole, it was a landslide election victory for the Communists. In the new Parliament, the Constituent National Assembly, they won 114 seats, while the National Socialists held 55, the People’s Party 46, the Democrats 43, the Social Democrats united with the Slovak Labour Party 39, and the Freedom Party had just three seats. Based on the results of the May elections, a new government headed by the Communist leader Klement Gottwald was appointed on July 6, 1946. Gottwald formed a cabinet consisting of seven Czech Communists; two Slovak Communists; four Ministers from the National Socialists, the Democrats, and representatives of the People’s Party; and three Social Democrats. Thus, the communists had a strong grip on power well in advance of the “coup” which would take place nearly two years later. Only two government ministers were not then members of any political party. (They were Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk (the son of Czechoslovakia’s first president, Tomas Garrigue Masaryk) would soon meet his death under mysterious circumstances and War Hero Ludvik Svoboda, who would later join the Communist Party and later still would become Czechoslovak President in 1968). On June 5, 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall delivered a speech in which he offered assistance (which came to be known as the Marshall Plan) from the United States to all the countries of Europe for the reconstruction of their economies damaged during the war. The Soviet Union had already refused to participate in the plan as early as June 1946. And in fact of the future Soviet bloc countries only Czechoslovakia considered taking part in the Marshall Plan. After consultations with Stalin, however, Czechoslovakia too, refused the aid. For the next four decades Czechoslovakia would continue to follow Soviet orders.	1,722	ENGLISH	1
Nestled in the country lanes by Wragby, Lincolnshire, flanked by yew trees and heavy swags of long-abandoned cobwebs, sits the tiny church of All Saints at Snelland. All Saints at Snelland has a long history, first recorded in the 12thcentury. It was then rebuilt in the 15thcentury and heavily remodelled in the 19th, but it was in the reign of Henry VIII that Snelland achieved notoriety. During the Reformation, whereby Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries and founded the Church of England, his forces dismantled established (catholic) communities. Not all of these communities were to take Henry’s order lying down. When the King’s envoy was sent to Lincoln Cathedral to present the King’s proclamation, Thomas Retford, Vicar of Snelland, demanded that the entirety of the proclamation be read out. Retford had noticed prior to this, that the King’s envoy was deliberately omitting passages of the proclamation; passages that would have enraged the masses with their severity and brutality. In response to this, Retford was seen as a troublemaker, enemy of the state and was swiftly put to death. He is today known as one of the members of the Lincolnshire Rising. The Lincolnshire rising was a brief and bloody uprising by local Roman Catholics who opposed the King’s new commands and control of the established church. It sprung from the Pilgrimage of Grace which had begun in Yorkshire beforehand. Henry VIII’s new rules were very financially extreme; his commissioners seized land and church gold and silverware, replacing anything of worth with a cheap and inferior copy. There were new taxes through the Statute of Uses and a sense of anger and unease swiftly spread through Lincolnshire. The rising was unsurprisingly quashed with a series of public executions, including that of the vicar of Louth, a nearby larger town. Retford was thereafter seen as a martyr figure, and is still referenced today in church literature. The church itself is a modest structure with many hidden pockets of history inside. There are medieval carved stone faces, an ancient sundial in the outer stonework and a very rare example of a ‘leper’s window.’ This window is thought to originate from 1440 (although was moved in later years) and was installed so that parishioners within the church could pass alms through the hatch and the lepers, who had to remain outside church walls, could receive spiritual succour. The remainder of the church is primarily a 19thcentury rebuild, which was instigated by the architect Edward Browning in 1863. Much like the small church, the equally small churchyard is just as interesting. In amongst the Victorian headstones, one in particular stands out. The headstone of the wife of rector Thomas Heel, is cracked in two as though snapped by giant hands. A local historian informed me that the grave of Mrs Peel, who died in 1873 had been struck by lightening some years after her death, splitting her stone dramatically in two. No other graves nearby were affected, but hers, despite the damage, has remained upright and a local curiosity for decades. Today, services run only once a month and is most frequently visited during the annual West Lindsey Churches Festival. Nonetheless, All Saints is a loved and cherished landmark in a little local community. Should you be in the area, do visit – but perhaps not if you see lightening overhead!	<urn:uuid:7e2ee7bb-0a23-498b-98d3-95553636590c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://burialsandbeyond.com/2019/12/15/all-saints-church-snelland-where-lightening-splits-the-dead/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00200.warc.gz	en	0.981605	727	3.28125	3	[ 0.24126863479614258, -0.024681519716978073, 0.07363975048065186, 0.0037472983822226524, 0.21695619821548462, -0.21481406688690186, -0.025120120495557785, -0.29985612630844116, 0.023924918845295906, -0.2537476718425751, -0.00880448054522276, -0.3752777576446533, 0.34896308183670044, 0.06600...	5	Nestled in the country lanes by Wragby, Lincolnshire, flanked by yew trees and heavy swags of long-abandoned cobwebs, sits the tiny church of All Saints at Snelland. All Saints at Snelland has a long history, first recorded in the 12thcentury. It was then rebuilt in the 15thcentury and heavily remodelled in the 19th, but it was in the reign of Henry VIII that Snelland achieved notoriety. During the Reformation, whereby Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries and founded the Church of England, his forces dismantled established (catholic) communities. Not all of these communities were to take Henry’s order lying down. When the King’s envoy was sent to Lincoln Cathedral to present the King’s proclamation, Thomas Retford, Vicar of Snelland, demanded that the entirety of the proclamation be read out. Retford had noticed prior to this, that the King’s envoy was deliberately omitting passages of the proclamation; passages that would have enraged the masses with their severity and brutality. In response to this, Retford was seen as a troublemaker, enemy of the state and was swiftly put to death. He is today known as one of the members of the Lincolnshire Rising. The Lincolnshire rising was a brief and bloody uprising by local Roman Catholics who opposed the King’s new commands and control of the established church. It sprung from the Pilgrimage of Grace which had begun in Yorkshire beforehand. Henry VIII’s new rules were very financially extreme; his commissioners seized land and church gold and silverware, replacing anything of worth with a cheap and inferior copy. There were new taxes through the Statute of Uses and a sense of anger and unease swiftly spread through Lincolnshire. The rising was unsurprisingly quashed with a series of public executions, including that of the vicar of Louth, a nearby larger town. Retford was thereafter seen as a martyr figure, and is still referenced today in church literature. The church itself is a modest structure with many hidden pockets of history inside. There are medieval carved stone faces, an ancient sundial in the outer stonework and a very rare example of a ‘leper’s window.’ This window is thought to originate from 1440 (although was moved in later years) and was installed so that parishioners within the church could pass alms through the hatch and the lepers, who had to remain outside church walls, could receive spiritual succour. The remainder of the church is primarily a 19thcentury rebuild, which was instigated by the architect Edward Browning in 1863. Much like the small church, the equally small churchyard is just as interesting. In amongst the Victorian headstones, one in particular stands out. The headstone of the wife of rector Thomas Heel, is cracked in two as though snapped by giant hands. A local historian informed me that the grave of Mrs Peel, who died in 1873 had been struck by lightening some years after her death, splitting her stone dramatically in two. No other graves nearby were affected, but hers, despite the damage, has remained upright and a local curiosity for decades. Today, services run only once a month and is most frequently visited during the annual West Lindsey Churches Festival. Nonetheless, All Saints is a loved and cherished landmark in a little local community. Should you be in the area, do visit – but perhaps not if you see lightening overhead!	722	ENGLISH	1
Jonas Paulavičius (1858-1952) During the Nazi occupation years, when humanity was being trampled, and marauding and murder were rampant, when all effort was put toward turning the inhabitants of occupied lands into obedient and unfeeling creatures, meeting a dedicated person who dared to resist the spreading hatred seemed like a miracle to the unjustly persecuted. Jonas Paulavičius, indomitable enemy of the Nazi regime and veteran volunteer of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence, went on to become such a miracle to twelve Kaunas Jews, two Russian POWs, and two persecuted Lithuanians. Jonas made a decision: the only way to resist the terror of the Nazis and their helpers was to save at least several Jews who were suffering at the hands of the Nazis and whose lives were at risk. Jonas Paulavičius was born in 1898 to a family of poor peasants. He learned the trade of the carpenter in his teenage years and could earn a living by himself, thus becoming self-sufficient and independent at a young age. After Lithuania declared independence in 1918, it soon became clear that, without a military of its own, Lithuanian statehood was doomed. During the period of its initial formation and the first stage of battles against the Bolsheviks, the Lithuanian military was comprised of 3,000 volunteers who responded to the December 27, 1918, call issued by the Government: Lithuania is in Danger. Jonas Paulavičius was among the brave men who volunteered immediately to fight for the freedom of Lithuania.	<urn:uuid:0011040d-cdcf-4abe-b196-4b2654bfa464>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://defendinghistory.com/category/danute-selcinskaja	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00472.warc.gz	en	0.98463	315	3.34375	3	[ -0.2021993100643158, 0.0905153825879097, 0.14517690241336823, 0.22418583929538727, 0.13120883703231812, -0.22129209339618683, 0.16676294803619385, 0.4144415855407715, -0.0720863789319992, 0.09272949397563934, 0.4043987989425659, -0.1977778673171997, -0.4119662046432495, 0.48864880204200745...	9	Jonas Paulavičius (1858-1952) During the Nazi occupation years, when humanity was being trampled, and marauding and murder were rampant, when all effort was put toward turning the inhabitants of occupied lands into obedient and unfeeling creatures, meeting a dedicated person who dared to resist the spreading hatred seemed like a miracle to the unjustly persecuted. Jonas Paulavičius, indomitable enemy of the Nazi regime and veteran volunteer of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence, went on to become such a miracle to twelve Kaunas Jews, two Russian POWs, and two persecuted Lithuanians. Jonas made a decision: the only way to resist the terror of the Nazis and their helpers was to save at least several Jews who were suffering at the hands of the Nazis and whose lives were at risk. Jonas Paulavičius was born in 1898 to a family of poor peasants. He learned the trade of the carpenter in his teenage years and could earn a living by himself, thus becoming self-sufficient and independent at a young age. After Lithuania declared independence in 1918, it soon became clear that, without a military of its own, Lithuanian statehood was doomed. During the period of its initial formation and the first stage of battles against the Bolsheviks, the Lithuanian military was comprised of 3,000 volunteers who responded to the December 27, 1918, call issued by the Government: Lithuania is in Danger. Jonas Paulavičius was among the brave men who volunteered immediately to fight for the freedom of Lithuania.	337	ENGLISH	1
Art forgery is a real threat that museums have to deal with. From time to time there is a fake artifact in a museum that can be exhibited for a few years before realizing that it is a fake. For counterfeiters, the high price tags associated with these counterfeits are often enough incentives to continue counterfeiting. Counterfeiters often make extreme efforts to mislead museums into buying their works. Some counterfeits are so good that historians and archaeologists have a hard time distinguishing them from reality. Many museums have fallen victim to counterfeiters, including the famous Louvre, who for some years exhibited a fake work of art without noticing it. 0 The Three Etruscan Warriors In 1933, the Metropolitan Museum of Art (also known as the Met) in New York City has expanded its exhibit by three new works of art. They were the sculptures of three warriors from the ancient Etruscan civilization. The seller, an art dealer named Pietro Szettiner, claimed the sculptures were in the fifth century BCE. Been made. Italian archaeologists expressed their first concerns that the statues could be forgeries. The museum curators, however, refused to adhere to the warning because they believed that they had received the works of art at a bargain price and did not want to lose them to another museum. Other archeologists later discovered that the statues had unusual shapes and sizes for works of art in their day. The body parts were also unevenly shaped, and the entire collection had little damage. The museum discovered the truth only in 1960, when archaeologist Joseph V. Noble rebuilt using the same techniques as the Etruscan model statues and found that the statues in the Met could not have come from them. Research shows that Szczecin was part of a larger group of counterfeiters who had conspired to create the statues. The team copied the sculptures from collections of several museums, including the Met itself. One of the warriors was copied from a picture of a Greek statue in a book by the Berlin Museum. The head of another warrior was copied from the drawing on a real Etruscan vase of the Met. The sculptures also had uneven body parts because they were too big for the studio, forcing the counterfeiters to downsize some parts. One of the sculptures also lacked an arm, because the counterfeiters could not decide on an attitude. 9 The Persian Mummy In 2000, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan were almost diplomatically engaged in rowing over the mummy and coffin of an unidentified 2,600-year-old princess. The mummy, often referred to as a Persian mummy, was discovered when Pakistani police raided a house in Kharan after receiving a hint that the owner was illegally trying to sell antiques. The owner was Sardar Wali Reeki trying to sell the mummy for 35 million pounds to an unknown buyer. Reeki claimed he found the mummy and the coffin after an earthquake. Iran soon gained ownership of the mummy, as Reeki's village was right on the border. The Taliban, who then ruled Afghanistan, later joined the struggle to challenge the possession of the mummy. The mummy was sent to the National Museum of Pakistan and exhibited there. Several archaeologists discovered, however, that some parts of the coffin were too modern. In addition, there was no evidence that the tribes in Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan had ever mummified their dead. Further analysis showed that the mummy was indeed the remains of a 21-year-old woman who was possibly a murder victim. It was taken to a morgue and the police arrested Reeki and his family. 8 Scrolls of the Dead Sea The Dead Sea Scrolls are a group of handwritten scrolls with Jewish religious text content. They were written in the harsh environment of 2000 years ago and are among the oldest surviving writings of Hebrew scriptures. Most of the scrolls and fragments are kept in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, some in the hands of private collectors and museums. This includes the Museum of the Bible in Washington, DC, which contained five fragments of scrolls on the screen. However, this changed in 2018, when it turned out that the fragments were counterfeits. The trick was discovered after the museum sent the fragments to Germany for analysis. The museum sent the scrolls for investigation after experts raised the alarm that they might be counterfeits. These concerns were first expressed months before the opening of the museum in November 2017. Speculators claim the museum spent millions of dollars to acquire the fake scroll fragments. This remains unconfirmed, considering that the museum does not speak. 7 Several Artworks in the Brooklyn Museum In 1932, the Brooklyn Museum received 926 works of art from the estate of Colonel Michael Friedsam, who had died a year earlier. The artworks were a mixture of paintings, jewelery, woodwork and pottery from ancient Rome, the Chinese Qing Dynasty and the Renaissance. Colonel Friedsam gave the art to the museum on the condition that they obtained the permission of his estate before selling or selling any of them. This condition became a problem decades later, when the museum discovered that 229 of the artworks were counterfeits. The Brooklyn Museum could not decommission the art, as Colonel Friedsam's last descendant died half a century ago. The museum also can not throw it away because the Association of American Museums sets strict rules for the storage and disposal of art by member museums. In 2010, the Brooklyn Museum went to court to allow the forgery of these forgeries. According to the petition filed with the court, the museum would initially spend $ 403,000 to set up an artifact storage facility if the court declined the request. Then it would spend another $ 286,000 a year on rent and labor to maintain the artwork. 6 The Henlein pocket watch Peter Henlein was a locksmith and inventor who lived in Germany between 1485 and 1542. I do not know him, but we all know and use his invention: the clock. Henlein invented the watch when he replaced the heavy weights used in watches with a lighter tension spring, which allowed him to make smaller watches. Clocks were made at that time by locksmiths and blacksmiths. One of Henlein's supposedly early creations has been kept in the Germanic National Museum in Germany since 1897. The pocket watch resembles a small tin and fits in the palm of your hand. However, it became the center of controversy soon after its inclusion in the museum collection. Several historians claimed that the so-called Henlein clock was a forgery and not an original. This happened, although the signature on the inside of the back of the clock in 1510 by Peter Henlein came. A 1930 report stated that the signature was added years after the alleged construction of the watch. The experts reached their conclusion after finding that the signature over- and underlined the scratches on the back. Recent tests showed that most parts of the watch were made in the 19th century, suggesting that it could be a fake. However, other experts suspect that the parts were made in an attempt to repair the watch. 5 Almost everything in the Mexican Museum of San Francisco In 2012, the Mexican Museum was opened in San Francisco San Francisco received the status of a member of the Smithsonian Institution. The status allows the museum to loan and loan works of art from over 200 partner museums and institutions with affiliate status. However, the Smithsonian requires member museums to authenticate their collections before they can begin lending or lending artwork. In 2017, the Mexican Museum discovered that only 83 of the first 2,000 works of art were counterfeit or, in rare cases, originals that were not suitable for exhibition. This was troubling given that the museum has 16,000 works of art in its collection. Experts estimate that half of the inventory of the museum is fake. Some of the fakes were purposely created for transmission as an original, while others were originally intended as decoration. Some were not associated with Mexican culture at all. The variety of counterfeits is not surprising, as the museum received most of its collections of donors and had not bothered to confirm their authenticity. 4 The Amarna Princess In 2003, the city council of Bolton, Manchester, decided to acquire some new works of art for the local museum. They chose an allegedly 3,300-year-old statue called Amarma Princess which depicts a relative of Pharaoh Tutankhamun of ancient Egypt. The sellers of the statue said they had been dug out of an Egyptian site. This claim was supported by the British Museum, which found no evidence of a nasty match after examining the statue. Satisfied, the Bolton City Council paid £ 440,000 for the statue exhibited in the museum. A few years later, the Bolton Museum discovered that the British Museum was wrong. The statue was a forgery, the work of Shaun Greenhalgh, a notorious forger who made forged works of art, which he sold as originals to museums. Ironically Greenhalgh lived in Bolton and created the sculpture there. His parents, George and Olive Greenhalgh, acted as his salesmen and sold the counterfeits to the museums. In 2007, Shaun was sentenced to four years and eight months in prison for his crime. His parents received suspended sentences for their part. 3 A golden crown in the Louvre In the 19th century, two men turned to the goldsmith Israel Rouchomovsky in what is today Odessa in Ukraine to commission a gold crown in the Greek style as a gift to an archaeologist Friend. In truth, the men had no friend of the archaeologist and wanted to sell the crown only as an original work of art from ancient Greece. Schapschelle Hochmann, the cleverer of the duo, claimed that the crown was a gift from a Greek king to the king of Scythia sometime in the third century BC. Several British and Austrian museums rejected offers to purchase the crown. Hochmann, however, was lucky when the Louvre bought him for 200,000 francs. Some archaeologists expressed concern that the crown might be faked shortly after its exhibition at the Louvre. Nobody listened to them because they were not French. The Louvre considered their statements an act of jealousy, as they probably wanted to crown their own museums. The archaeologists were right in 1903, when a man named Lifschitz, a friend who saw Rouchomovsky make the crown, informed Rouchomovsky that his work was being exhibited as an original in the Louvre. Rouchomovsky traveled with a reproduction to France to prove that he had really made the crown. The revelation was bad news for the Louvre and good news for Rouchomovsky, who immediately became famous. A century later, the Israel Museum borrowed the crown from the Louvre and turned it into an original work of art by Rouchomovsky. 2 More than half of the paintings in the Etienne Terrus Museum The Etienne Terrus Museum is a small well-known museum in Elne, France. It belongs to the city of Elne and shows the works of the 1857 in Elne born French artist Etienne Terrus. In 2018, the museum expanded its collection by 80 new paintings. However, things quickly went south when a historian commissioned to organize the new paintings noted that about 60 percent of the entire museum collection was counterfeit. The historian had no difficulty in determining the works of art as forgeries. His gloved hand wiped the signature of a painting in one fell swoop. Some paintings also contained buildings that had not been built at the time Terrus was still alive. Another analysis found that 82 of the 140 paintings kept in the museum were counterfeit. The City Council had purchased most of the paintings between 1990 and 2010. The counterfeits were transferred to the local police station when police began investigations. 1 Everything in the Museum of Art Forgery The Museum of Art Forgery is a real museum of art forgeries. The museum is located in Vienna, Austria, and collects only fake artifacts and works of art. Parts of his collections contain pages from a journal allegedly owned by Adolf Hitler. In fact, the diary was forged by a Konrad Kujau. The museum divides its collections into counterfeits intended to imitate the style of a more well-known artist, forgeries to be sold as previously undiscovered works of art by a well-known artist, and to spend counterfeits as originals of already famous works of art. The museum includes a category for works of art that it considers as replicas. Replicas are made by artists after the death of the original artist. They were often labeled as such and sold without being referred to as originals. The Museum of Art Fakes also dedicates exhibition space to notorious forgers such as Tom Keating, who created over 2,000 counterfeit works of art during his lifetime. Keating purposely made mistakes in his art so that they could be exposed as a fake long after he had been paid. He called these deliberate mistakes "time bombs". The museum also displays the work of Edgar Mrugalla, who created over 3,500 fake works of art, which he sold as originals. Mrugalla's career as a counterfeiter ended after being sentenced to two years imprisonment for counterfeiting. He was released only on the condition that he starts a new career, which forces him to assist authorities in detecting fake works of art.	<urn:uuid:97ee0ecb-9666-46d6-9068-2b9d6509ca87>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bestglitz.com/10-fake-works-of-art-and-artifacts-exhibited-in-museums-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00149.warc.gz	en	0.98458	2,746	3.515625	4	[ -0.05493761599063873, 0.20058289170265198, 0.061451807618141174, 0.3169528841972351, -0.2627814710140228, -0.42197850346565247, 0.25554966926574707, 0.05534997954964638, -0.25509271025657654, 0.09251750260591507, 0.220604807138443, 0.014338214881718159, 0.025919964537024498, 0.518562734127...	1	Art forgery is a real threat that museums have to deal with. From time to time there is a fake artifact in a museum that can be exhibited for a few years before realizing that it is a fake. For counterfeiters, the high price tags associated with these counterfeits are often enough incentives to continue counterfeiting. Counterfeiters often make extreme efforts to mislead museums into buying their works. Some counterfeits are so good that historians and archaeologists have a hard time distinguishing them from reality. Many museums have fallen victim to counterfeiters, including the famous Louvre, who for some years exhibited a fake work of art without noticing it. 0 The Three Etruscan Warriors In 1933, the Metropolitan Museum of Art (also known as the Met) in New York City has expanded its exhibit by three new works of art. They were the sculptures of three warriors from the ancient Etruscan civilization. The seller, an art dealer named Pietro Szettiner, claimed the sculptures were in the fifth century BCE. Been made. Italian archaeologists expressed their first concerns that the statues could be forgeries. The museum curators, however, refused to adhere to the warning because they believed that they had received the works of art at a bargain price and did not want to lose them to another museum. Other archeologists later discovered that the statues had unusual shapes and sizes for works of art in their day. The body parts were also unevenly shaped, and the entire collection had little damage. The museum discovered the truth only in 1960, when archaeologist Joseph V. Noble rebuilt using the same techniques as the Etruscan model statues and found that the statues in the Met could not have come from them. Research shows that Szczecin was part of a larger group of counterfeiters who had conspired to create the statues. The team copied the sculptures from collections of several museums, including the Met itself. One of the warriors was copied from a picture of a Greek statue in a book by the Berlin Museum. The head of another warrior was copied from the drawing on a real Etruscan vase of the Met. The sculptures also had uneven body parts because they were too big for the studio, forcing the counterfeiters to downsize some parts. One of the sculptures also lacked an arm, because the counterfeiters could not decide on an attitude. 9 The Persian Mummy In 2000, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan were almost diplomatically engaged in rowing over the mummy and coffin of an unidentified 2,600-year-old princess. The mummy, often referred to as a Persian mummy, was discovered when Pakistani police raided a house in Kharan after receiving a hint that the owner was illegally trying to sell antiques. The owner was Sardar Wali Reeki trying to sell the mummy for 35 million pounds to an unknown buyer. Reeki claimed he found the mummy and the coffin after an earthquake. Iran soon gained ownership of the mummy, as Reeki's village was right on the border. The Taliban, who then ruled Afghanistan, later joined the struggle to challenge the possession of the mummy. The mummy was sent to the National Museum of Pakistan and exhibited there. Several archaeologists discovered, however, that some parts of the coffin were too modern. In addition, there was no evidence that the tribes in Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan had ever mummified their dead. Further analysis showed that the mummy was indeed the remains of a 21-year-old woman who was possibly a murder victim. It was taken to a morgue and the police arrested Reeki and his family. 8 Scrolls of the Dead Sea The Dead Sea Scrolls are a group of handwritten scrolls with Jewish religious text content. They were written in the harsh environment of 2000 years ago and are among the oldest surviving writings of Hebrew scriptures. Most of the scrolls and fragments are kept in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, some in the hands of private collectors and museums. This includes the Museum of the Bible in Washington, DC, which contained five fragments of scrolls on the screen. However, this changed in 2018, when it turned out that the fragments were counterfeits. The trick was discovered after the museum sent the fragments to Germany for analysis. The museum sent the scrolls for investigation after experts raised the alarm that they might be counterfeits. These concerns were first expressed months before the opening of the museum in November 2017. Speculators claim the museum spent millions of dollars to acquire the fake scroll fragments. This remains unconfirmed, considering that the museum does not speak. 7 Several Artworks in the Brooklyn Museum In 1932, the Brooklyn Museum received 926 works of art from the estate of Colonel Michael Friedsam, who had died a year earlier. The artworks were a mixture of paintings, jewelery, woodwork and pottery from ancient Rome, the Chinese Qing Dynasty and the Renaissance. Colonel Friedsam gave the art to the museum on the condition that they obtained the permission of his estate before selling or selling any of them. This condition became a problem decades later, when the museum discovered that 229 of the artworks were counterfeits. The Brooklyn Museum could not decommission the art, as Colonel Friedsam's last descendant died half a century ago. The museum also can not throw it away because the Association of American Museums sets strict rules for the storage and disposal of art by member museums. In 2010, the Brooklyn Museum went to court to allow the forgery of these forgeries. According to the petition filed with the court, the museum would initially spend $ 403,000 to set up an artifact storage facility if the court declined the request. Then it would spend another $ 286,000 a year on rent and labor to maintain the artwork. 6 The Henlein pocket watch Peter Henlein was a locksmith and inventor who lived in Germany between 1485 and 1542. I do not know him, but we all know and use his invention: the clock. Henlein invented the watch when he replaced the heavy weights used in watches with a lighter tension spring, which allowed him to make smaller watches. Clocks were made at that time by locksmiths and blacksmiths. One of Henlein's supposedly early creations has been kept in the Germanic National Museum in Germany since 1897. The pocket watch resembles a small tin and fits in the palm of your hand. However, it became the center of controversy soon after its inclusion in the museum collection. Several historians claimed that the so-called Henlein clock was a forgery and not an original. This happened, although the signature on the inside of the back of the clock in 1510 by Peter Henlein came. A 1930 report stated that the signature was added years after the alleged construction of the watch. The experts reached their conclusion after finding that the signature over- and underlined the scratches on the back. Recent tests showed that most parts of the watch were made in the 19th century, suggesting that it could be a fake. However, other experts suspect that the parts were made in an attempt to repair the watch. 5 Almost everything in the Mexican Museum of San Francisco In 2012, the Mexican Museum was opened in San Francisco San Francisco received the status of a member of the Smithsonian Institution. The status allows the museum to loan and loan works of art from over 200 partner museums and institutions with affiliate status. However, the Smithsonian requires member museums to authenticate their collections before they can begin lending or lending artwork. In 2017, the Mexican Museum discovered that only 83 of the first 2,000 works of art were counterfeit or, in rare cases, originals that were not suitable for exhibition. This was troubling given that the museum has 16,000 works of art in its collection. Experts estimate that half of the inventory of the museum is fake. Some of the fakes were purposely created for transmission as an original, while others were originally intended as decoration. Some were not associated with Mexican culture at all. The variety of counterfeits is not surprising, as the museum received most of its collections of donors and had not bothered to confirm their authenticity. 4 The Amarna Princess In 2003, the city council of Bolton, Manchester, decided to acquire some new works of art for the local museum. They chose an allegedly 3,300-year-old statue called Amarma Princess which depicts a relative of Pharaoh Tutankhamun of ancient Egypt. The sellers of the statue said they had been dug out of an Egyptian site. This claim was supported by the British Museum, which found no evidence of a nasty match after examining the statue. Satisfied, the Bolton City Council paid £ 440,000 for the statue exhibited in the museum. A few years later, the Bolton Museum discovered that the British Museum was wrong. The statue was a forgery, the work of Shaun Greenhalgh, a notorious forger who made forged works of art, which he sold as originals to museums. Ironically Greenhalgh lived in Bolton and created the sculpture there. His parents, George and Olive Greenhalgh, acted as his salesmen and sold the counterfeits to the museums. In 2007, Shaun was sentenced to four years and eight months in prison for his crime. His parents received suspended sentences for their part. 3 A golden crown in the Louvre In the 19th century, two men turned to the goldsmith Israel Rouchomovsky in what is today Odessa in Ukraine to commission a gold crown in the Greek style as a gift to an archaeologist Friend. In truth, the men had no friend of the archaeologist and wanted to sell the crown only as an original work of art from ancient Greece. Schapschelle Hochmann, the cleverer of the duo, claimed that the crown was a gift from a Greek king to the king of Scythia sometime in the third century BC. Several British and Austrian museums rejected offers to purchase the crown. Hochmann, however, was lucky when the Louvre bought him for 200,000 francs. Some archaeologists expressed concern that the crown might be faked shortly after its exhibition at the Louvre. Nobody listened to them because they were not French. The Louvre considered their statements an act of jealousy, as they probably wanted to crown their own museums. The archaeologists were right in 1903, when a man named Lifschitz, a friend who saw Rouchomovsky make the crown, informed Rouchomovsky that his work was being exhibited as an original in the Louvre. Rouchomovsky traveled with a reproduction to France to prove that he had really made the crown. The revelation was bad news for the Louvre and good news for Rouchomovsky, who immediately became famous. A century later, the Israel Museum borrowed the crown from the Louvre and turned it into an original work of art by Rouchomovsky. 2 More than half of the paintings in the Etienne Terrus Museum The Etienne Terrus Museum is a small well-known museum in Elne, France. It belongs to the city of Elne and shows the works of the 1857 in Elne born French artist Etienne Terrus. In 2018, the museum expanded its collection by 80 new paintings. However, things quickly went south when a historian commissioned to organize the new paintings noted that about 60 percent of the entire museum collection was counterfeit. The historian had no difficulty in determining the works of art as forgeries. His gloved hand wiped the signature of a painting in one fell swoop. Some paintings also contained buildings that had not been built at the time Terrus was still alive. Another analysis found that 82 of the 140 paintings kept in the museum were counterfeit. The City Council had purchased most of the paintings between 1990 and 2010. The counterfeits were transferred to the local police station when police began investigations. 1 Everything in the Museum of Art Forgery The Museum of Art Forgery is a real museum of art forgeries. The museum is located in Vienna, Austria, and collects only fake artifacts and works of art. Parts of his collections contain pages from a journal allegedly owned by Adolf Hitler. In fact, the diary was forged by a Konrad Kujau. The museum divides its collections into counterfeits intended to imitate the style of a more well-known artist, forgeries to be sold as previously undiscovered works of art by a well-known artist, and to spend counterfeits as originals of already famous works of art. The museum includes a category for works of art that it considers as replicas. Replicas are made by artists after the death of the original artist. They were often labeled as such and sold without being referred to as originals. The Museum of Art Fakes also dedicates exhibition space to notorious forgers such as Tom Keating, who created over 2,000 counterfeit works of art during his lifetime. Keating purposely made mistakes in his art so that they could be exposed as a fake long after he had been paid. He called these deliberate mistakes "time bombs". The museum also displays the work of Edgar Mrugalla, who created over 3,500 fake works of art, which he sold as originals. Mrugalla's career as a counterfeiter ended after being sentenced to two years imprisonment for counterfeiting. He was released only on the condition that he starts a new career, which forces him to assist authorities in detecting fake works of art.	2,870	ENGLISH	1
A Big Band is a kind of musical ensemble of jazz music. They usually have ten or more musicians, and it is divided into four sections, namely the trombones, saxophones, trumpets, and the rhythm section. Big bands started to emerge in early 1090, and it began dominating the jazz scene in the early 1940s, where swing was one of the most popular music genres in the world. The name Big Band is also used to describe the type of music even if it is not the only style of music that was frequently performed by big bands. Before 1910, social dance in America was dominated by dance styles such as polka and the waltz. When jazz music began to migrate from New Orleans to Chicago and New York City, it bought suggestive and energetic dances along with it. As time passed by, ballrooms were filled with people who were doing the Lindy Hop and the jitterbug. By the 1920s, Big bands slowly emerged at the music scene. They typically included at least ten musicians, and they played written arrangements that have consistent melodies along with improvisation and spontaneous soloing. One of the most famous artists in the big band scene was Duke Ellington, who was considered to be the most innovative composer and arranger during that time. He often composed music around the strengths of the soloist in the big band. When the stock market crashed in 1929, it caused a drastic decrease in record sales along with an increase in the unemployment rate among musicians. However, the Depression proved to be a catalyst for big band music because of the excess of musicians who were looking for work brought down wages, and it made it easier for leaders to hire bands with big numbers. The increasing radio accessibility also helped broadcast the big bang music from different venues, which helped popularize the big band sound and create iconic musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Cab Calloway. After that, thousands of musicians followed through their success, and they spent the decade traveling to clubs and dance halls in almost every city and town in the United States. The significant band phenomena continued on, and it took jazz to new venues like the Carnegie Hall, which has been a preserved place for classical music. During that time, swing bands became a big business because if you create the right song, you can expect that you will have a million-seller on your hands. However, aside from being a test of musical prowess, running a big band during that time was a bit tricky, especially when it comes to the financial astuteness and the management of the band’s members. Back then, the bandleader would have to pay for the band’s uniforms, bus, publicity costs, and even agency fees. Big band music continued to dominate the music scene even during the Second World War. By the end of the war, Big band music along with jazz music started to move on into new experimental ways Most Notable Big Band Artist - Count Basie – Count Basie was a pianist that started to gain popularity in Kansas City as a member of Bennie Moten’s big band in 1929. After a few years, Basie decided to form his own big group, which became one of the most famous artists in the country. Count Basie is known for his precise and sparse piano playing style, along with his rousing and bluesy compositions. - Coleman Hawkins – Coleman Hawkins is known for his raspy and unique tone, which is combined with his beautifully detailed improvisation. He was able to become one of the preeminent tenor saxophonists during the swing era. - Fletcher Henderson – This man had an essential role in opening up new and creative possibilities in jazz music. Fletcher Henderson is known to be a skilled arranger, pianist, and composer during the significant band era. He was also the man who was responsible for the formation of Louis Armstrong’s career. - Duke Ellington – Duke Ellington is considered to be one of the most famous composers in American music history. He managed to lead his band for almost a decade of performing, recording, and as well as composing and arranging their songs. Several songs that were done by Duke Ellington are now considered jazz standards. - Ben Webster – Webster was one of the three titans of the tenor saxophone during the swing era. He is known for his rough up-tempo tunes and graceful ballads. He rose to popularity while being a member of Duke Ellington’s band, wherein he was the leading tenor soloist.	<urn:uuid:7f20c520-7ab0-4f23-866b-3451eea36433>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mentalitch.com/history-of-big-band-music/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00283.warc.gz	en	0.987054	938	3.71875	4	[ 0.085996113717556, -0.5529356598854065, 0.05988156050443649, -0.5073732137680054, -0.0004891168791800737, 0.42112311720848083, -0.3094231188297272, -0.20697274804115295, 0.44199252128601074, -0.48036065697669983, 0.4495556354522705, 0.6307361125946045, 0.2410660982131958, -0.29794842004776...	13	A Big Band is a kind of musical ensemble of jazz music. They usually have ten or more musicians, and it is divided into four sections, namely the trombones, saxophones, trumpets, and the rhythm section. Big bands started to emerge in early 1090, and it began dominating the jazz scene in the early 1940s, where swing was one of the most popular music genres in the world. The name Big Band is also used to describe the type of music even if it is not the only style of music that was frequently performed by big bands. Before 1910, social dance in America was dominated by dance styles such as polka and the waltz. When jazz music began to migrate from New Orleans to Chicago and New York City, it bought suggestive and energetic dances along with it. As time passed by, ballrooms were filled with people who were doing the Lindy Hop and the jitterbug. By the 1920s, Big bands slowly emerged at the music scene. They typically included at least ten musicians, and they played written arrangements that have consistent melodies along with improvisation and spontaneous soloing. One of the most famous artists in the big band scene was Duke Ellington, who was considered to be the most innovative composer and arranger during that time. He often composed music around the strengths of the soloist in the big band. When the stock market crashed in 1929, it caused a drastic decrease in record sales along with an increase in the unemployment rate among musicians. However, the Depression proved to be a catalyst for big band music because of the excess of musicians who were looking for work brought down wages, and it made it easier for leaders to hire bands with big numbers. The increasing radio accessibility also helped broadcast the big bang music from different venues, which helped popularize the big band sound and create iconic musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Cab Calloway. After that, thousands of musicians followed through their success, and they spent the decade traveling to clubs and dance halls in almost every city and town in the United States. The significant band phenomena continued on, and it took jazz to new venues like the Carnegie Hall, which has been a preserved place for classical music. During that time, swing bands became a big business because if you create the right song, you can expect that you will have a million-seller on your hands. However, aside from being a test of musical prowess, running a big band during that time was a bit tricky, especially when it comes to the financial astuteness and the management of the band’s members. Back then, the bandleader would have to pay for the band’s uniforms, bus, publicity costs, and even agency fees. Big band music continued to dominate the music scene even during the Second World War. By the end of the war, Big band music along with jazz music started to move on into new experimental ways Most Notable Big Band Artist - Count Basie – Count Basie was a pianist that started to gain popularity in Kansas City as a member of Bennie Moten’s big band in 1929. After a few years, Basie decided to form his own big group, which became one of the most famous artists in the country. Count Basie is known for his precise and sparse piano playing style, along with his rousing and bluesy compositions. - Coleman Hawkins – Coleman Hawkins is known for his raspy and unique tone, which is combined with his beautifully detailed improvisation. He was able to become one of the preeminent tenor saxophonists during the swing era. - Fletcher Henderson – This man had an essential role in opening up new and creative possibilities in jazz music. Fletcher Henderson is known to be a skilled arranger, pianist, and composer during the significant band era. He was also the man who was responsible for the formation of Louis Armstrong’s career. - Duke Ellington – Duke Ellington is considered to be one of the most famous composers in American music history. He managed to lead his band for almost a decade of performing, recording, and as well as composing and arranging their songs. Several songs that were done by Duke Ellington are now considered jazz standards. - Ben Webster – Webster was one of the three titans of the tenor saxophone during the swing era. He is known for his rough up-tempo tunes and graceful ballads. He rose to popularity while being a member of Duke Ellington’s band, wherein he was the leading tenor soloist.	935	ENGLISH	1
Arete: The Meaning of Life Bheeni Jajodia, Class VIII F Author: Jasmine Prakash, Class X G Twitty, a beautiful bird, had a nest on one of the oldest trees of the jungle. That day, the air smelled of a storm. Twitty was not worried about herself and her children as they were well protected under the dense tree. Though, she did worry about the other animals in the jungle. Dark clouds covered the entire sky. It started to rain steadily. Twitty knew that this was just the beginning. She had enough experience to know that this storm would create havoc and take the lives of many. Suddenly, she saw a ball of stark black feathers huddled together at the end of the branch of the opposite tree. She flew over to inspect it. On a closer look, she found that it was a baby crow, shivering in the cold. “Hey”, she called out to him, “What are you doing all by yourself in the storm?” she gently asked. The baby crow looked up fearfully and said, “I can’t find my parents,” and burst into tears. Twitty took pity on him. She knew he was miserable. She decided to take him under her wings. “Come” she said, “Rest in my nest until the storm passes.” The next morning, when the storm had cleared up, they went to search for his parents. But on enquiring, they found that the crow family had not survived the storm. Twitty knew that the crow wouldn’t be able to survive alone. So, she decided to keep him. Her decision was widely opposed. “You’re making a huge mistake” said the nightingale. “Crows are bad omen. You should keep away from them” said the sparrow. “Crows are unfaithful. They will destroy your sweet little family” said the pigeon. “Your family is so beautiful. Pretty yellow feathers and cute brown beaks. Why do you want that black sinister crow in your nest?” said the peacock. But Twitty didn’t listen to anyone. She trusted him. What could a small crow do? She raised him as one of her own. One day, when Twitty returned to her nest, she saw that the nest was empty. She panicked and wondered where her children could be. Just as she was about to call out to them, her eyes fell on the crow. She felt relieved. But the relief went away as soon as it came. She saw blood dripping from the crow’s beak. Without thinking, she screamed in fury, “You traitor! You filthy black crow! I gave you a home to live and you killed my children!” In anger she attacked the crow and pecked him to death in her fury. Just as she was done, she heard the small voice of her children. Her blood ran cold. She turned and saw all of her children safe and sound. “Mom, he just saved us from the snake” they said still shaky from the experience. And indeed, there was a dead snake lying under the tree.	<urn:uuid:1cbe7dfd-4809-4c5e-a5cb-f3f468e94d4a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shishukunj.in/the-colour-of-loyalty/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00024.warc.gz	en	0.99044	683	3.328125	3	[ 0.07862888276576996, 0.10110931843519211, 0.08486658334732056, 0.10626912862062454, -0.09528155624866486, -0.08754433691501617, 0.8830544352531433, 0.3003864884376526, 0.04268079251050949, -0.1918674111366272, -0.1623014509677887, -0.6074589490890503, 0.20394009351730347, 0.285223633050918...	1	Arete: The Meaning of Life Bheeni Jajodia, Class VIII F Author: Jasmine Prakash, Class X G Twitty, a beautiful bird, had a nest on one of the oldest trees of the jungle. That day, the air smelled of a storm. Twitty was not worried about herself and her children as they were well protected under the dense tree. Though, she did worry about the other animals in the jungle. Dark clouds covered the entire sky. It started to rain steadily. Twitty knew that this was just the beginning. She had enough experience to know that this storm would create havoc and take the lives of many. Suddenly, she saw a ball of stark black feathers huddled together at the end of the branch of the opposite tree. She flew over to inspect it. On a closer look, she found that it was a baby crow, shivering in the cold. “Hey”, she called out to him, “What are you doing all by yourself in the storm?” she gently asked. The baby crow looked up fearfully and said, “I can’t find my parents,” and burst into tears. Twitty took pity on him. She knew he was miserable. She decided to take him under her wings. “Come” she said, “Rest in my nest until the storm passes.” The next morning, when the storm had cleared up, they went to search for his parents. But on enquiring, they found that the crow family had not survived the storm. Twitty knew that the crow wouldn’t be able to survive alone. So, she decided to keep him. Her decision was widely opposed. “You’re making a huge mistake” said the nightingale. “Crows are bad omen. You should keep away from them” said the sparrow. “Crows are unfaithful. They will destroy your sweet little family” said the pigeon. “Your family is so beautiful. Pretty yellow feathers and cute brown beaks. Why do you want that black sinister crow in your nest?” said the peacock. But Twitty didn’t listen to anyone. She trusted him. What could a small crow do? She raised him as one of her own. One day, when Twitty returned to her nest, she saw that the nest was empty. She panicked and wondered where her children could be. Just as she was about to call out to them, her eyes fell on the crow. She felt relieved. But the relief went away as soon as it came. She saw blood dripping from the crow’s beak. Without thinking, she screamed in fury, “You traitor! You filthy black crow! I gave you a home to live and you killed my children!” In anger she attacked the crow and pecked him to death in her fury. Just as she was done, she heard the small voice of her children. Her blood ran cold. She turned and saw all of her children safe and sound. “Mom, he just saved us from the snake” they said still shaky from the experience. And indeed, there was a dead snake lying under the tree.	636	ENGLISH	1
Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays. This essay aims to discuss and asses the aims of President Wilson in the war, America’s relationship with the other Allied Powers in the ending of the war, the consequences of the Treaty of Versailles and the controversial League of Nations. Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the twenty eight president of the United States of America. He served for two terms lasting from March 1913 until March 1921. He was re-elected for his second term in 1916 which was partly due to his team slogan of “He kept us out of war”. The United States government kept a neutral stance for the first four years of the war so to the American people Wilson was doing what he promised. However the neutrality of the United States was jeopardised in early 1917 and they had to enter the war. President Woodrow Wilson never wanted to enter America into the war and he wanted to create a peaceful Europe. Through the few years following his declaration of war he created a Fourteen Points document which he wanted implemented to end the war. This in turn led to the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations. In 1915 during the first stages of the war, the German army attacked ships and vessels in the seas if they suspected they were helping the Allies. However one ship which they took down was carrying American civilians and this caused controversy in the case of American neutrality to the war. The Germans agreed that they would desert the unrestricted submarine warfare and that they would start warning ships if they were going to sink them . The Germans wanted to keep the American government in a neutral state because they knew if The United States got involved on the Allied side of the war that Wilson’s men would end the war. However in February 1917 Germany resumed its attacks on the ships and President Wilson felt this was the sign of a threat. Also in February the American government got hold of a telegram being sent to Mexico from Germany asking for its alliance and this further agitated Wilson. These events acted towards the approval for Wilson to declare war by the American Congress on April 6th 1917 . The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28th 1919 to ensure lasting peace and to end the First World War. It was going to do this by punishing Germany and by creating the League of Nations. The League of Nations was to be created to solve any diplomatic problems that occurred. It left a legacy of political and geographical difficulties once it was signed, and it can be seen as part of the cause for the Second World War. The Treaty took about six months to be finalised completely because of the amount of negotiations that had to be done between the three major Ally countries. The Allies gathered to discuss a forthcoming peace treaty however the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary were not invited to these talks. They were allowed to present a response to the meeting but these responses were not taken seriously. The main representatives at the meeting in Paris were the British Prime Minister, Lloyd George; the French Prime Minister, Frances Clemenceau; the Italian Prime Minister, Vittorio Orlando; and the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson. They each went in to the talks with their own personal aims. Woodrow Wilson wanted to create a lasting peace among the countries, and he felt this was possible with the help of his “Fourteen Points” which he had previously created. He wanted the armed forces of every nation involved, ally or other, to be made smaller. He wanted the League of Nations created to ensure lasting peace. Frances Clemenceau wanted Germany to suffer because of the war and it wanted it to pay. He wanted it stripped of its land, armed forces and parts of its industry. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles states “The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies” . It is clear in this section that Prime Minister Clemenceau wanted Germany to pay war reparations to the countries it affected by causing the war. France and Britain had both suffered great losses due to the war and so he wanted to make Germany a smaller European state. As France was invaded twice previously (1870 and 1914) he wanted to ensure that his homeland would never again be invaded by its neighbour Germany. The Prime Minister of the British Empire at the time wanted both of these. He himself was more inclined to go with Wilson’s outlook on the Treaty; however because of the opinion of the British public he didn’t really have a choice in the matter. He had to side more with Clemenceau and punishing Germany and her allies. Lloyd George like the treaty because it did help Britain’s empire grow and it helped them to control the naval areas better, however he did not like the treaty because like President Wilson he wanted to settle down Germany and create a more peaceful Europe. He thought the Treaty was very harsh on Germany and would ruin the country. In a speech Wilson gave on the radio in 1923 he says how he felt the Treaty of Versailles was going to cause another war . Lloyd agreed with this and felt that at one of the most critical turning points in history that they had done wrong. The Italian Prime Minister went to Versailles with the hope of gaining back rule over the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the negotiations Woodrow Wilson agreed to let Italy take over many states, such as Tyrol, even though at the time it was mostly a German speaking population and it went against his ninth point . The fourteen points were the aims given in a speech delivered by Woodrow Wilson to a session of the American congress in January of 1918 and what he wanted to achieve in ending the war. It was essential to make the American people know that the Great War was being fought for a moral cause and for post-war peace in Europe. The US had joined the Allies in the war in April of 1917; however by early 1918 it was clear that the war was nearing an end. In January 1918 Wilson’s speech took a lot of the ideas that had helped reform the US domestics and made them into his new foreign policy. The fourteen points was the only explicit aims set out by any of the countries fighting the war, some would only give a brief overview of their aims and others wouldn’t state any of their aims at all. Woodrow Wilson thought that if they could implement his ideas throughout Europe then it would keep Europe and peaceful. Some of the points he gave would not only benefit the countries of Europe, some would most definitely aid the United States. The third point on his list was “the removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance” . This would benefit Europe because they would all be able to trade and move about between each other, it would also benefit America in that it was not going to be as expensive for them to trade with Europe so it would lead to more markets and more profits for the US. The next couple of points he gave were mostly freeing up the countries that had been invaded and it was helping to make smaller nations their own. For example the seventh point about Belgium, Wilson asks that it be given its own authority. He wanted it to be restored and evacuated of all foreign peoples so that it would be free for itself. He also adds about the territories taken over by France in point eight and those of Russia in point six. His final point that he gave was that “A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike” . He wanted the nations to come together and form a union that would keep all the nations separate in the running of the countries but it would keep the nations united in peace. As Wilson wanted in his Fourteen Points, the Treaty of Versailles altered the way that territory in Europe was set out and it helped to make more independent states. It made Germany’s empire smaller. Alsace-Lorraine which Germany took over in 1870 was given back to France. Poland was named as an independent state along with some countries near Russia like Latvia and Lithuania. Also Wilson wanted Belgium to get more control of it itself and this also happened. In the Treaty the Allied powers made a law where all of the German territories overseas and in Europe were handed over to the ruling of the Allies. This was noted in Article 119 of the Treaty. It said that “Germany renounces in favor of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers all her rights and titles over her oversea possessions” . Not everything the President Wilson wanted as regards territorial distribution was put into the Treaty of Versailles but he did manage to push freeing several countries so his Fourteen Points succeeded to a point. Wilson did however have a lot of say in the first few weeks as regards Italy and giving it new states to control and this meant the Italian Prime Minister was not going to get everything he wanted but only a small bit of it. During World War One a lot of the countries involved had financial problems and therefore they created what was known as ‘war bonds’. These were taxes issued by a government to finance the military operations during the war. It gave the militaries more money and it helped the civilians feel included in their military. In the United States these were know as ‘Liberty Bonds’. They were sold in the States to people who wanted to support the allied cause in World War One. The US government issued these bonds in 1918. A massive campaign was created by the then Secretary of the Treasury to make the bonds seem like a great idea and make people want to get involved. The American government also used the influence of famous artists and actors to make the bonds appeal more to civilians. In total the US government earned 21.5 billion dollars from the Liberty Bonds throughout the war. As a result of the high costs of the war, in the Treaty of Versailles Germany was made to repay the countries their losses, the reparations of the First World War. This was mostly due to Clemenceau and his want of revenge on Germany. After the conference in Paris Wilson went back to America but he was not to be met by a happy government. A Republican politician by the name of Henry Cabot Lodge, who did not agree with America joining the League of Nations, led a campaign to stop Wilson succeeding. One of his biggest arguments against it was in Article X of the agreement which stated that “The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League. In the case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression the Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled” . Lodge wanted America to be able to deploy soldiers to conflict at will if it was felt by the American government that they needed to. He did not want to have the League of Nations to decide what America was going to and whether or not such conflict was a threat. Despite Wilson’s claims that The League of Nations and the Treaty of Versailles would in time aid The United States, Lodge succeeded in putting doubt into the minds of the American population and they did not join the other Allied powers. This essay has concluded that even though Wilson had great intentions in the Great War his ideas did indeed fail in the most part. His aims in the Fourteen Points were not all liked by the other Allied powers especially France so they did not all make it into the Treaty of Versailles. He wanted the League of Nations so that there would be a way to keep the countries at bay and mean the chance of more wars would be slimmer however he failed in this because of republican opposition at home and The United States never joined the war. Wilson’s contribution to the negotiations in Paris and his attempt at forging international relationships with the other Allies of the war were mixed. He went back to America with mixed reactions from all ends and the war did not end the way he wanted it to. Despite his idealistic belief that an era of collective security had begun that would prevent future wars of a similar magnitude, the outcomes of the Paris Peace Conference left this difficult to come through. It can be seen as part of the reason for the start of World War Two and Hitler. Cite This Work To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: Related ServicesView all DMCA / Removal Request If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please:	<urn:uuid:0998adfe-7d11-4f61-ad9e-fa05d8e819b2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/woodrow-wilsons-contribution-to-the-versailles-treaty-history-essay.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00201.warc.gz	en	0.987068	2,667	3.765625	4	[ -0.027153784409165382, 0.25352752208709717, 0.1391250193119049, -0.13362237811088562, 0.20634758472442627, 0.3641788065433502, -0.08872579783201218, 0.21079233288764954, 0.3232463598251343, 0.12493893504142761, 0.20831891894340515, 0.12816670536994934, 0.07352645695209503, 0.72240430116653...	1	Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays. This essay aims to discuss and asses the aims of President Wilson in the war, America’s relationship with the other Allied Powers in the ending of the war, the consequences of the Treaty of Versailles and the controversial League of Nations. Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the twenty eight president of the United States of America. He served for two terms lasting from March 1913 until March 1921. He was re-elected for his second term in 1916 which was partly due to his team slogan of “He kept us out of war”. The United States government kept a neutral stance for the first four years of the war so to the American people Wilson was doing what he promised. However the neutrality of the United States was jeopardised in early 1917 and they had to enter the war. President Woodrow Wilson never wanted to enter America into the war and he wanted to create a peaceful Europe. Through the few years following his declaration of war he created a Fourteen Points document which he wanted implemented to end the war. This in turn led to the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations. In 1915 during the first stages of the war, the German army attacked ships and vessels in the seas if they suspected they were helping the Allies. However one ship which they took down was carrying American civilians and this caused controversy in the case of American neutrality to the war. The Germans agreed that they would desert the unrestricted submarine warfare and that they would start warning ships if they were going to sink them . The Germans wanted to keep the American government in a neutral state because they knew if The United States got involved on the Allied side of the war that Wilson’s men would end the war. However in February 1917 Germany resumed its attacks on the ships and President Wilson felt this was the sign of a threat. Also in February the American government got hold of a telegram being sent to Mexico from Germany asking for its alliance and this further agitated Wilson. These events acted towards the approval for Wilson to declare war by the American Congress on April 6th 1917 . The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28th 1919 to ensure lasting peace and to end the First World War. It was going to do this by punishing Germany and by creating the League of Nations. The League of Nations was to be created to solve any diplomatic problems that occurred. It left a legacy of political and geographical difficulties once it was signed, and it can be seen as part of the cause for the Second World War. The Treaty took about six months to be finalised completely because of the amount of negotiations that had to be done between the three major Ally countries. The Allies gathered to discuss a forthcoming peace treaty however the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary were not invited to these talks. They were allowed to present a response to the meeting but these responses were not taken seriously. The main representatives at the meeting in Paris were the British Prime Minister, Lloyd George; the French Prime Minister, Frances Clemenceau; the Italian Prime Minister, Vittorio Orlando; and the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson. They each went in to the talks with their own personal aims. Woodrow Wilson wanted to create a lasting peace among the countries, and he felt this was possible with the help of his “Fourteen Points” which he had previously created. He wanted the armed forces of every nation involved, ally or other, to be made smaller. He wanted the League of Nations created to ensure lasting peace. Frances Clemenceau wanted Germany to suffer because of the war and it wanted it to pay. He wanted it stripped of its land, armed forces and parts of its industry. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles states “The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies” . It is clear in this section that Prime Minister Clemenceau wanted Germany to pay war reparations to the countries it affected by causing the war. France and Britain had both suffered great losses due to the war and so he wanted to make Germany a smaller European state. As France was invaded twice previously (1870 and 1914) he wanted to ensure that his homeland would never again be invaded by its neighbour Germany. The Prime Minister of the British Empire at the time wanted both of these. He himself was more inclined to go with Wilson’s outlook on the Treaty; however because of the opinion of the British public he didn’t really have a choice in the matter. He had to side more with Clemenceau and punishing Germany and her allies. Lloyd George like the treaty because it did help Britain’s empire grow and it helped them to control the naval areas better, however he did not like the treaty because like President Wilson he wanted to settle down Germany and create a more peaceful Europe. He thought the Treaty was very harsh on Germany and would ruin the country. In a speech Wilson gave on the radio in 1923 he says how he felt the Treaty of Versailles was going to cause another war . Lloyd agreed with this and felt that at one of the most critical turning points in history that they had done wrong. The Italian Prime Minister went to Versailles with the hope of gaining back rule over the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the negotiations Woodrow Wilson agreed to let Italy take over many states, such as Tyrol, even though at the time it was mostly a German speaking population and it went against his ninth point . The fourteen points were the aims given in a speech delivered by Woodrow Wilson to a session of the American congress in January of 1918 and what he wanted to achieve in ending the war. It was essential to make the American people know that the Great War was being fought for a moral cause and for post-war peace in Europe. The US had joined the Allies in the war in April of 1917; however by early 1918 it was clear that the war was nearing an end. In January 1918 Wilson’s speech took a lot of the ideas that had helped reform the US domestics and made them into his new foreign policy. The fourteen points was the only explicit aims set out by any of the countries fighting the war, some would only give a brief overview of their aims and others wouldn’t state any of their aims at all. Woodrow Wilson thought that if they could implement his ideas throughout Europe then it would keep Europe and peaceful. Some of the points he gave would not only benefit the countries of Europe, some would most definitely aid the United States. The third point on his list was “the removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance” . This would benefit Europe because they would all be able to trade and move about between each other, it would also benefit America in that it was not going to be as expensive for them to trade with Europe so it would lead to more markets and more profits for the US. The next couple of points he gave were mostly freeing up the countries that had been invaded and it was helping to make smaller nations their own. For example the seventh point about Belgium, Wilson asks that it be given its own authority. He wanted it to be restored and evacuated of all foreign peoples so that it would be free for itself. He also adds about the territories taken over by France in point eight and those of Russia in point six. His final point that he gave was that “A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike” . He wanted the nations to come together and form a union that would keep all the nations separate in the running of the countries but it would keep the nations united in peace. As Wilson wanted in his Fourteen Points, the Treaty of Versailles altered the way that territory in Europe was set out and it helped to make more independent states. It made Germany’s empire smaller. Alsace-Lorraine which Germany took over in 1870 was given back to France. Poland was named as an independent state along with some countries near Russia like Latvia and Lithuania. Also Wilson wanted Belgium to get more control of it itself and this also happened. In the Treaty the Allied powers made a law where all of the German territories overseas and in Europe were handed over to the ruling of the Allies. This was noted in Article 119 of the Treaty. It said that “Germany renounces in favor of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers all her rights and titles over her oversea possessions” . Not everything the President Wilson wanted as regards territorial distribution was put into the Treaty of Versailles but he did manage to push freeing several countries so his Fourteen Points succeeded to a point. Wilson did however have a lot of say in the first few weeks as regards Italy and giving it new states to control and this meant the Italian Prime Minister was not going to get everything he wanted but only a small bit of it. During World War One a lot of the countries involved had financial problems and therefore they created what was known as ‘war bonds’. These were taxes issued by a government to finance the military operations during the war. It gave the militaries more money and it helped the civilians feel included in their military. In the United States these were know as ‘Liberty Bonds’. They were sold in the States to people who wanted to support the allied cause in World War One. The US government issued these bonds in 1918. A massive campaign was created by the then Secretary of the Treasury to make the bonds seem like a great idea and make people want to get involved. The American government also used the influence of famous artists and actors to make the bonds appeal more to civilians. In total the US government earned 21.5 billion dollars from the Liberty Bonds throughout the war. As a result of the high costs of the war, in the Treaty of Versailles Germany was made to repay the countries their losses, the reparations of the First World War. This was mostly due to Clemenceau and his want of revenge on Germany. After the conference in Paris Wilson went back to America but he was not to be met by a happy government. A Republican politician by the name of Henry Cabot Lodge, who did not agree with America joining the League of Nations, led a campaign to stop Wilson succeeding. One of his biggest arguments against it was in Article X of the agreement which stated that “The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League. In the case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression the Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled” . Lodge wanted America to be able to deploy soldiers to conflict at will if it was felt by the American government that they needed to. He did not want to have the League of Nations to decide what America was going to and whether or not such conflict was a threat. Despite Wilson’s claims that The League of Nations and the Treaty of Versailles would in time aid The United States, Lodge succeeded in putting doubt into the minds of the American population and they did not join the other Allied powers. This essay has concluded that even though Wilson had great intentions in the Great War his ideas did indeed fail in the most part. His aims in the Fourteen Points were not all liked by the other Allied powers especially France so they did not all make it into the Treaty of Versailles. He wanted the League of Nations so that there would be a way to keep the countries at bay and mean the chance of more wars would be slimmer however he failed in this because of republican opposition at home and The United States never joined the war. Wilson’s contribution to the negotiations in Paris and his attempt at forging international relationships with the other Allies of the war were mixed. He went back to America with mixed reactions from all ends and the war did not end the way he wanted it to. Despite his idealistic belief that an era of collective security had begun that would prevent future wars of a similar magnitude, the outcomes of the Paris Peace Conference left this difficult to come through. It can be seen as part of the reason for the start of World War Two and Hitler. Cite This Work To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: Related ServicesView all DMCA / Removal Request If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please:	2,668	ENGLISH	1
Falaise facts for kids Faliase is where William the Conqueror was born. William became Duke of Normandy when he was just a boy. He went on to become the first Norman king of England in 1066. Falaise was where many of the dukes of Normandy resided before William. It is where the Treaty of Falaise was signed in December 1174. It was a treaty between William I of Scotland, King of Scots, and the King of England Henry II Plantagenet. The town is also the place where Rabbi Yom Tov of Falaise, grandchild of Rashi held his court. In World War II In modern times it is known for the battle of the "Falaise Pocket" during Operation Overlord) in August 1944. Two German armies were surrounded by the Allied armies. About 10,000 German soldiers were killed. Over 50,000 were taken prisoner. Falaise Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	<urn:uuid:a93d5e8f-053d-49c2-a3a5-5f7df75c06f5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.kiddle.co/Falaise	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00062.warc.gz	en	0.985278	201	3.421875	3	[ 0.02355550043284893, 0.47636649012565613, -0.01001670677214861, -0.2290681153535843, -0.10900453478097916, -0.04692009836435318, 0.06339199095964432, 0.37847450375556946, -0.08852776139974594, -0.024031126871705055, 0.15832391381263733, -0.7675095200538635, 0.16367097198963165, 0.453569144...	1	Falaise facts for kids Faliase is where William the Conqueror was born. William became Duke of Normandy when he was just a boy. He went on to become the first Norman king of England in 1066. Falaise was where many of the dukes of Normandy resided before William. It is where the Treaty of Falaise was signed in December 1174. It was a treaty between William I of Scotland, King of Scots, and the King of England Henry II Plantagenet. The town is also the place where Rabbi Yom Tov of Falaise, grandchild of Rashi held his court. In World War II In modern times it is known for the battle of the "Falaise Pocket" during Operation Overlord) in August 1944. Two German armies were surrounded by the Allied armies. About 10,000 German soldiers were killed. Over 50,000 were taken prisoner. Falaise Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	214	ENGLISH	1
Published on 10/12/19 Today we learnt about a range of topics including Mary Tudor, Henry VIII’s reformation, Elizabeth’s golden age and Henry VII. We started off by being asked the question ‘should the reign of Mary Tudor be considered unsuccessful?’ Susan Doran introduced an interesting discussion on Mary’s unpopular marriage to Philip II of Spain. He was Catholic and foreign, making him England’s enemy. Mary’s marriage was met with much opposition and triggered the popular uprising which was, Wyatt’s rebellion in 1554. Philip was unpopular because he was Catholic and the ruler of England’s biggest threat at the time. The English were worried that Phillip would manage to gain control over England as Mary was seen as a weakness due to her gender. However, Philip didn’t end up having much interest in England and after Mary’s ‘phantom pregnancy’ he seemed to disappear from the scene. Mary’s loss of Calais in 1558 gave Mary a bad reputation as on top of her being seen as a weakness for being a woman, she lost England’s most important territory in France which was important for demonstrating international power. At this time it was a big loss and also a national humiliation. We also looked at the successes of Mary’s reign which included the Catholic reformation and concluded that as Elizabeth became queen against Mary’s previous wishes, her rule can be seen as unsuccessful. We were also given an insight into the impact of Henry’s break from Rome. John Morrill examined the reasons for the reformation which included the insecure dynasty as Henry didn’t have a legitimate heir. We were told about the propaganda that was needed to gain support for the reformation and what would happen if it wasn’t supported. We learnt more about the so called ‘golden age’ from 1558 to 1603 that was the Elizabethan reign. This involved the Spanish Armada of 1558 and the threat of Mary Queen of Scots. The Spanish Armada boosted Elizabeth’s reputation and was seen as a great victory for the English as Spain was a big international power. Although it didn’t end the wars with Spain and it was very costly for England in the 1590s. A major problem for Elizabeth was Mary Queen of Scots because of Mary’s potential legitimacy to the throne. Elizabeth didn’t want to execute Mary because she was family and a fellow female queen. But Mary created unease and paranoia in England and in 1587 she was beheaded for treason. Lastly, we were lucky enough to listen to David Starkey talk about Henry VII and his claim to the throne. It was interesting to learn that he wasn’t from the direct line of monarchs and had a weak claim to the throne and as Starkey joked, as did Theresa May to be Prime Minister. We learnt that Henry lived in France for most of his life and so when he came over to rule he wasn’t familiar with the aristocracy and had limited knowledge about how England worked. This was a weakness for Henry, because it was essential that he had links within the Government. Despite Henry’s weaknesses, he gained support from the people and managed to become King of England in 1457. He worked to increase financial stability and therefore the sense of security within the country by imposing huge fines on criminals instead of executing them. The talks were very interesting and educational and benefited us with a wider knowledge of the periods we are studying. Written by Florence G.	<urn:uuid:85857aa6-25b2-44df-80b5-1c6d1d5891fb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sixthform.stephenperse.com/news/?pid=458&nid=22&storyid=4808	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00297.warc.gz	en	0.989352	740	3.828125	4	[ -0.17018231749534607, 0.26137489080429077, 0.36525219678878784, 0.06234632059931755, -0.11216973513364792, 0.2061671018600464, -0.23389606177806854, 0.24750632047653198, 0.13870413601398468, -0.0012861283030360937, -0.43306964635849, -0.4602046608924866, -0.014107228256762028, 0.4472897648...	21	Published on 10/12/19 Today we learnt about a range of topics including Mary Tudor, Henry VIII’s reformation, Elizabeth’s golden age and Henry VII. We started off by being asked the question ‘should the reign of Mary Tudor be considered unsuccessful?’ Susan Doran introduced an interesting discussion on Mary’s unpopular marriage to Philip II of Spain. He was Catholic and foreign, making him England’s enemy. Mary’s marriage was met with much opposition and triggered the popular uprising which was, Wyatt’s rebellion in 1554. Philip was unpopular because he was Catholic and the ruler of England’s biggest threat at the time. The English were worried that Phillip would manage to gain control over England as Mary was seen as a weakness due to her gender. However, Philip didn’t end up having much interest in England and after Mary’s ‘phantom pregnancy’ he seemed to disappear from the scene. Mary’s loss of Calais in 1558 gave Mary a bad reputation as on top of her being seen as a weakness for being a woman, she lost England’s most important territory in France which was important for demonstrating international power. At this time it was a big loss and also a national humiliation. We also looked at the successes of Mary’s reign which included the Catholic reformation and concluded that as Elizabeth became queen against Mary’s previous wishes, her rule can be seen as unsuccessful. We were also given an insight into the impact of Henry’s break from Rome. John Morrill examined the reasons for the reformation which included the insecure dynasty as Henry didn’t have a legitimate heir. We were told about the propaganda that was needed to gain support for the reformation and what would happen if it wasn’t supported. We learnt more about the so called ‘golden age’ from 1558 to 1603 that was the Elizabethan reign. This involved the Spanish Armada of 1558 and the threat of Mary Queen of Scots. The Spanish Armada boosted Elizabeth’s reputation and was seen as a great victory for the English as Spain was a big international power. Although it didn’t end the wars with Spain and it was very costly for England in the 1590s. A major problem for Elizabeth was Mary Queen of Scots because of Mary’s potential legitimacy to the throne. Elizabeth didn’t want to execute Mary because she was family and a fellow female queen. But Mary created unease and paranoia in England and in 1587 she was beheaded for treason. Lastly, we were lucky enough to listen to David Starkey talk about Henry VII and his claim to the throne. It was interesting to learn that he wasn’t from the direct line of monarchs and had a weak claim to the throne and as Starkey joked, as did Theresa May to be Prime Minister. We learnt that Henry lived in France for most of his life and so when he came over to rule he wasn’t familiar with the aristocracy and had limited knowledge about how England worked. This was a weakness for Henry, because it was essential that he had links within the Government. Despite Henry’s weaknesses, he gained support from the people and managed to become King of England in 1457. He worked to increase financial stability and therefore the sense of security within the country by imposing huge fines on criminals instead of executing them. The talks were very interesting and educational and benefited us with a wider knowledge of the periods we are studying. Written by Florence G.	711	ENGLISH	1
Dec. 20, 2019 December 20, 1860 Looking Back December 20, 2019 Looking Ahead December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union because of one simple fact. South Carolina didn't not want to lose the privilege of maintaining the peculiar institution of slavery. This was the beginning of what would become the most fierce battle on this nation's lands. The nation was split by race in 1860 and that split would lead to the Civil War. The election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency in 1860 was the final blow for South Carolina. Even though Abraham Lincoln didn't really want to end the institution of slavery in this nation. Lincoln simply wanted to end the future spread of slavery beyond it's current borders. Race has always been a peculiar issue in America. Dubois stated that the problem of race would continue to be the problem in this nation into the 20th Century. It seems that wherever issue that cause confrontation in this nation those primary issues reflect back to the issue of race. Ibram Kenti's book, Stamped From The Beginning discusses how race is stitched into the fabric and weaved throughout America's history from the days of the Revolutionary War up until present day. America always seems to be caught in the snare of the racism and the ills that are manifested by its power. In 1860, the issue of maintaining men, women, and children in bondage for their entire lives and the lives of coming generations was the reason for South Carolina's succession. Even though a bloody war was fought and hundreds of thousands of lives were lost the race issue was never solved. The issue of race was never completely confronted and the inequality caused by racism was simply ignored and allowed to fester. All the Civil War accomplished was the end of legalized enslavement by chains and bondage. The issue of race and racism was never confronted or eliminated. The fact is the race and racism was allowed to prosper for almost another century or more. Now we still have a nation conflicted with the issue of race and racism. Those being confronted with the hatred and divisiveness that permeates because of race and racism are still people of color but now that color has spread across the rainbow. In fact when America should have entered a post racial period after the election of a President of the color. The actuality is that race and racism has evolved and grown more depth to those on the wrong end of the color line. The inequality gap that is manifested due to race and racism on economic and educational levels has widen. Today, we America is a nation continually split along the color line and that chasm has allowed the election of President who relishes the hate and hatred that race and racism causes. When the nation should be concentrating it's focus on solving the numerous ecological issues facing our planet. America is stuck on a revolving spinning wheel powered by race and racism. When America should be concerned with elevating the needs and wants of those without the great benefits of this society. America is pointing the finger of race and racism to those people of color in need. When America should be sharing the bounty of it's wealth, the country is driven by a small class of economically empowered people who turn of the engine of divisiveness and anger to keep the average citizen focused on those in need rather then those centered on greed. Now December 20, 2019, 169 years from the date of South Carolina's succession from the Union. We have people in this nation talking again of civil strife. You have state legislators pondering whether its time to do what South Carolina did 169 years which lead to a Civil War between the Northern States and the Southern States. They will say it isn't about race or racism but any person with a sense of history and a sense and understanding fill comprehend that race and racism is motivating these acts and actions. So, the question is this. Has America truly moved the needle to a post racial society? No, because in order to move the needle you have to have actual conversations about the impact that race and racism has had on the American society. America has to make amends for the deprivation that race and racism has caused to those on the wrong side of the color line. Especially, African Americans who were forced into free labor situations to build this nation. African Americans who were brutalized simply because they were on the wrong side of the color line. African Americans who were prosecuted relentlessly simply because they were on the wrong side of the color line. So as we back to December 20, 1860 a date of infamy in American history. We must be form and our demand that our America, yes our America confront the issue and race and racism and make amends for the acts that were allowed in order for race and racism to prosper.	<urn:uuid:12e1d7bd-5314-4ea2-870f-b0d253b339cf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.joesmokethoughts.com/423564185/6853766/posting/december-20-1860-looking-back-december-20-2019-looking-ahead	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00510.warc.gz	en	0.980455	950	3.9375	4	[ -0.17543581128120422, 0.42609789967536926, 0.13977430760860443, 0.1887652426958084, -0.16602164506912231, 0.10488634556531906, -0.3011358976364136, -0.1142011508345604, -0.09271109104156494, 0.09808358550071716, 0.4589105546474457, -0.004850043915212154, 0.017830274999141693, 0.44994896650...	11	Dec. 20, 2019 December 20, 1860 Looking Back December 20, 2019 Looking Ahead December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union because of one simple fact. South Carolina didn't not want to lose the privilege of maintaining the peculiar institution of slavery. This was the beginning of what would become the most fierce battle on this nation's lands. The nation was split by race in 1860 and that split would lead to the Civil War. The election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency in 1860 was the final blow for South Carolina. Even though Abraham Lincoln didn't really want to end the institution of slavery in this nation. Lincoln simply wanted to end the future spread of slavery beyond it's current borders. Race has always been a peculiar issue in America. Dubois stated that the problem of race would continue to be the problem in this nation into the 20th Century. It seems that wherever issue that cause confrontation in this nation those primary issues reflect back to the issue of race. Ibram Kenti's book, Stamped From The Beginning discusses how race is stitched into the fabric and weaved throughout America's history from the days of the Revolutionary War up until present day. America always seems to be caught in the snare of the racism and the ills that are manifested by its power. In 1860, the issue of maintaining men, women, and children in bondage for their entire lives and the lives of coming generations was the reason for South Carolina's succession. Even though a bloody war was fought and hundreds of thousands of lives were lost the race issue was never solved. The issue of race was never completely confronted and the inequality caused by racism was simply ignored and allowed to fester. All the Civil War accomplished was the end of legalized enslavement by chains and bondage. The issue of race and racism was never confronted or eliminated. The fact is the race and racism was allowed to prosper for almost another century or more. Now we still have a nation conflicted with the issue of race and racism. Those being confronted with the hatred and divisiveness that permeates because of race and racism are still people of color but now that color has spread across the rainbow. In fact when America should have entered a post racial period after the election of a President of the color. The actuality is that race and racism has evolved and grown more depth to those on the wrong end of the color line. The inequality gap that is manifested due to race and racism on economic and educational levels has widen. Today, we America is a nation continually split along the color line and that chasm has allowed the election of President who relishes the hate and hatred that race and racism causes. When the nation should be concentrating it's focus on solving the numerous ecological issues facing our planet. America is stuck on a revolving spinning wheel powered by race and racism. When America should be concerned with elevating the needs and wants of those without the great benefits of this society. America is pointing the finger of race and racism to those people of color in need. When America should be sharing the bounty of it's wealth, the country is driven by a small class of economically empowered people who turn of the engine of divisiveness and anger to keep the average citizen focused on those in need rather then those centered on greed. Now December 20, 2019, 169 years from the date of South Carolina's succession from the Union. We have people in this nation talking again of civil strife. You have state legislators pondering whether its time to do what South Carolina did 169 years which lead to a Civil War between the Northern States and the Southern States. They will say it isn't about race or racism but any person with a sense of history and a sense and understanding fill comprehend that race and racism is motivating these acts and actions. So, the question is this. Has America truly moved the needle to a post racial society? No, because in order to move the needle you have to have actual conversations about the impact that race and racism has had on the American society. America has to make amends for the deprivation that race and racism has caused to those on the wrong side of the color line. Especially, African Americans who were forced into free labor situations to build this nation. African Americans who were brutalized simply because they were on the wrong side of the color line. African Americans who were prosecuted relentlessly simply because they were on the wrong side of the color line. So as we back to December 20, 1860 a date of infamy in American history. We must be form and our demand that our America, yes our America confront the issue and race and racism and make amends for the acts that were allowed in order for race and racism to prosper.	1,004	ENGLISH	1
The contributions of King Pepi I in the growth and development of Egypt territory under him cannot be overlooked. Pepi I quite likely reigned during the 6th dynasty of ancient Egypt. This reign saw the spread and growing prominence of trade and conquest. In addition, Upper Egypt's provincical regions were also on the rise. In reality, the king can be said to be the real founder of the 6th dynasty, even if, Teti was the official founder. He actively initiated a policy of intensive penetration in different parts of Nubia. There are even records of his journeys in the early half of his reign. Throughout his reign, he had several marked achievements. The growing nobility of the king was one of the major achievements during his reign. The aggressive expansion into Nubia and the spread of trade to far-flung areas are also well recognized. One of the officials of the king even fought in Asia on his behalf. The mortuary complex of the king also became the name of the entire city he ruled, and this took place after the 18th dynasty. In fact, the decline of the Old Kingdom began with his reign. The regional representatives of the king became more powerful and they started spreading greater level of influence throughout the territory. A proper and careful analysis of the damaged 6th dynasty records indicates that Pepi I probably ruled for 48-49 years. However, this is not confirmed because some historical lists show that he reigned for a period of 44 years. Some doubts have also been expressed regarding the cattle count system because it says that the king dominated for 35 years. Despite the time span for which the king reigned, it can be said that he did a lot for the improvement and development of his kingdom, and he continued doing so before his death. He actively initiated an extensive trade with Lebanon, as attested by the amount of vessels made during his reign. These vessels were later found at Byblos. On the other hand, an Egyptian biography mentions that he frequently traveled to Punt, a coastal part of eastern Africa and the main purpose of the journey was the trade. Along with that, he even carried out several quarrying expeditions in different parts of Egypt. The remains of the temple built by the king are found in the delta of River Nile. There are two different copper statues of Pepi I depicting royal symbols found at a site called Hierakonpolis. These statues are also a stylized representation of the conquered foreign subjects of Egypt. They are rare and were found in an underground store of the temples. Currently, the statues have been disassembled and they are sealed within a thin layer of copper. The statues bear the name and titles of the king.	<urn:uuid:855ac747-3700-4811-8184-b3667be27f7e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ask-aladdin.com/egypt-pharaohs/pepi-i/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00278.warc.gz	en	0.988933	555	3.71875	4	[ -0.1623128205537796, 0.9323282241821289, 0.4964596927165985, -0.30942434072494507, -0.4402734041213989, -0.437889963388443, 0.45036208629608154, -0.10737095773220062, 0.04182308167219162, -0.03955615311861038, -0.2028128206729889, -0.6743743419647217, 0.14991363883018494, -0.08332069963216...	7	The contributions of King Pepi I in the growth and development of Egypt territory under him cannot be overlooked. Pepi I quite likely reigned during the 6th dynasty of ancient Egypt. This reign saw the spread and growing prominence of trade and conquest. In addition, Upper Egypt's provincical regions were also on the rise. In reality, the king can be said to be the real founder of the 6th dynasty, even if, Teti was the official founder. He actively initiated a policy of intensive penetration in different parts of Nubia. There are even records of his journeys in the early half of his reign. Throughout his reign, he had several marked achievements. The growing nobility of the king was one of the major achievements during his reign. The aggressive expansion into Nubia and the spread of trade to far-flung areas are also well recognized. One of the officials of the king even fought in Asia on his behalf. The mortuary complex of the king also became the name of the entire city he ruled, and this took place after the 18th dynasty. In fact, the decline of the Old Kingdom began with his reign. The regional representatives of the king became more powerful and they started spreading greater level of influence throughout the territory. A proper and careful analysis of the damaged 6th dynasty records indicates that Pepi I probably ruled for 48-49 years. However, this is not confirmed because some historical lists show that he reigned for a period of 44 years. Some doubts have also been expressed regarding the cattle count system because it says that the king dominated for 35 years. Despite the time span for which the king reigned, it can be said that he did a lot for the improvement and development of his kingdom, and he continued doing so before his death. He actively initiated an extensive trade with Lebanon, as attested by the amount of vessels made during his reign. These vessels were later found at Byblos. On the other hand, an Egyptian biography mentions that he frequently traveled to Punt, a coastal part of eastern Africa and the main purpose of the journey was the trade. Along with that, he even carried out several quarrying expeditions in different parts of Egypt. The remains of the temple built by the king are found in the delta of River Nile. There are two different copper statues of Pepi I depicting royal symbols found at a site called Hierakonpolis. These statues are also a stylized representation of the conquered foreign subjects of Egypt. They are rare and were found in an underground store of the temples. Currently, the statues have been disassembled and they are sealed within a thin layer of copper. The statues bear the name and titles of the king.	560	ENGLISH	1
Read from Genesis 37-45. The story of Joseph tells how the Israelites came to be in Egypt. Being Jacob’s favourite and spoiled son, having been given his famous coat of many colours, he also had a gift for interpreting dreams. Because they were jealous his brothers schemed to kill him, but they eventually just threw him into a pit, from where he was rescued by passing travellers and taken to Egypt. He prospered there, although he did end up in jail for a time falsely accused of rape. It was interpreting of dreams that attracted Pharaoh’s attention and because of his skills he became Pharaoh’s right hand man. At a time of a famine in Israel the brothers came to Egypt for help. They did not recognise Joseph but he recognised them. After testing them he expressed his forgiveness for how they had treated him. Pope Francis: Children need help in the process of inner healing and in this way grow in the ability to understand and live in peace with others. Points for reflection and discussion. From being a spoilt child Joseph’s good qualities of leadership emerged. A central message is Joseph’s willingness to forgive. Would one expect such things from spoilt children? Belief in and interpretation of dreams is still an area of confusion.	<urn:uuid:f568ec13-0150-45d9-a7fd-8a6d6fa46887>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.marfam.org.za/joseph-family-violence-and-forgiveness-family-jesse-tree-thought-december-7/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00139.warc.gz	en	0.981915	262	3.703125	4	[ 0.07591277360916138, 0.6362847685813904, 0.08366387337446213, -0.13732680678367615, -0.2755942642688751, 0.13606353104114532, 0.6846504807472229, 0.05890876427292824, -0.04744705557823181, 0.13604049384593964, -0.03980213403701782, -0.39480847120285034, -0.01793004758656025, 0.182193711400...	2	Read from Genesis 37-45. The story of Joseph tells how the Israelites came to be in Egypt. Being Jacob’s favourite and spoiled son, having been given his famous coat of many colours, he also had a gift for interpreting dreams. Because they were jealous his brothers schemed to kill him, but they eventually just threw him into a pit, from where he was rescued by passing travellers and taken to Egypt. He prospered there, although he did end up in jail for a time falsely accused of rape. It was interpreting of dreams that attracted Pharaoh’s attention and because of his skills he became Pharaoh’s right hand man. At a time of a famine in Israel the brothers came to Egypt for help. They did not recognise Joseph but he recognised them. After testing them he expressed his forgiveness for how they had treated him. Pope Francis: Children need help in the process of inner healing and in this way grow in the ability to understand and live in peace with others. Points for reflection and discussion. From being a spoilt child Joseph’s good qualities of leadership emerged. A central message is Joseph’s willingness to forgive. Would one expect such things from spoilt children? Belief in and interpretation of dreams is still an area of confusion.	256	ENGLISH	1
It's a bit hard to stick name on the inventor on the car. It is even thought that the ancient Egyptians had wagons that were pushed forward by the wind thanks to sails. But many claim Ferdinand Verbiest as the inventor of the car. In 1672 he designed the first motorized vehicle. Ferdinand Verbiest was born in 1623 in the village of Pittem, near Kortrijk. The inventor of the car was therefore a Belgian! In 1641, Verbiest joined the Jesuits. He went to Seville where he went to study theology. He completed those studies in Rome where he also studied astronomy. Verbiest wanted to do missionary work in Central America, but that never happened. He was sent by the church to the Far East where the people were urged to convert to Catholics because Protestantism was on the rise in Europe. Verbiest was much more than a missionary in China, he was involved in mathematics and astronomy and proved at the court of Emperor Kangxi that European astronomy was much more accurate than Chinese. He also improved the Chinese calendar and was later asked to help build the old Beijing observatory and then add to it. There he became, among other things, head of the mathematical administration and head of the observatory. He became good friends with Emperor Kangxi, who asked him to help him learn about geometry, philosophy and music. \|The first car ever design\| Verbiest also experimented with steam. Around 1672 he made a cart for the emperor that worked on steam. It was most likely the first "vehicle" that worked on steam. Although it was only 65 cm in size, it was never intended to carry human passengers. It was more a scale model that served as a toy for the emperor. It is not known whether this scale model has been worked out in actual size.	<urn:uuid:b1fd600c-40fc-4c14-9efe-4d7748d43b01>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.amazingbelgium.be/2019/12/ferdinand-verbiest-inverted-first-car.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00197.warc.gz	en	0.992166	377	3.5	4	[ 0.020795349031686783, 0.4207790791988373, 0.6888368725776672, -0.0046114795841276646, -0.6591504812240601, 0.028083954006433487, 0.08627118915319443, 0.3861118257045746, -0.018387163057923317, 0.02159963734447956, 0.06614693254232407, -0.5761191844940186, -0.06639204919338226, 0.6199965476...	3	It's a bit hard to stick name on the inventor on the car. It is even thought that the ancient Egyptians had wagons that were pushed forward by the wind thanks to sails. But many claim Ferdinand Verbiest as the inventor of the car. In 1672 he designed the first motorized vehicle. Ferdinand Verbiest was born in 1623 in the village of Pittem, near Kortrijk. The inventor of the car was therefore a Belgian! In 1641, Verbiest joined the Jesuits. He went to Seville where he went to study theology. He completed those studies in Rome where he also studied astronomy. Verbiest wanted to do missionary work in Central America, but that never happened. He was sent by the church to the Far East where the people were urged to convert to Catholics because Protestantism was on the rise in Europe. Verbiest was much more than a missionary in China, he was involved in mathematics and astronomy and proved at the court of Emperor Kangxi that European astronomy was much more accurate than Chinese. He also improved the Chinese calendar and was later asked to help build the old Beijing observatory and then add to it. There he became, among other things, head of the mathematical administration and head of the observatory. He became good friends with Emperor Kangxi, who asked him to help him learn about geometry, philosophy and music. \|The first car ever design\| Verbiest also experimented with steam. Around 1672 he made a cart for the emperor that worked on steam. It was most likely the first "vehicle" that worked on steam. Although it was only 65 cm in size, it was never intended to carry human passengers. It was more a scale model that served as a toy for the emperor. It is not known whether this scale model has been worked out in actual size.	389	ENGLISH	1
One legend contends that Valentine was a priest who served during the third century in Rome. When Emperor Claudius II decided that single men made better soldiers than those with wives and families, he outlawed marriage for young men. Valentine, realizing the injustice of the decree, defied Claudius and continued to perform marriages for young lovers in secret. When Valentine’s actions were discovered, Claudius ordered that he be put to death. Valentine greetings were popular as far back as the Middle Ages, though written Valentine’s didn’t begin to appear until after 1400. The oldest known valentine still in existence today was a poem written in 1415 by Charles, Duke of Orleans, to his wife while he was imprisoned in the Tower of London following his capture at the Battle of Agincourt. By the middle of the 18th century, it was common for friends and lovers of all social classes to exchange small tokens of affection or handwritten notes, and by 1900 printed cards began to replace written letters due to improvements in printing technology. Ready-made cards were an easy way for people to express their emotions in a time when direct expression of one’s feelings was discouraged. In 1797, a British publisher issued The Young Man’s Valentine Writer, which contained scores of suggested sentimental verses for the young lover unable to compose his own. Printers had already begun producing a limited number of cards with verses and sketches, called “mechanical valentines.” Paper Valentines became so popular in England in the early 19th century that they were assembled in factories. Fancy Valentines were made with real lace and ribbons, with paper lace introduced in the mid-19th century. In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in the United Kingdom, despite postage being expensive. In 1868, Cadbury created Fancy Boxes – a decorated box of chocolates – in the shape of a heart for Valentine’s Day. These boxes of filled chocolates quickly became associated with the holiday. In the second half of the 20th century, the practice of exchanging cards was extended to all manner of gifts, such as giving jewellery and flowers. So however you’re spending your day, we send you our love!	<urn:uuid:2069eabc-23b2-4eb0-a6d1-a9b46a72d07d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://locallinksmedia.co.uk/post/the-valentine-origin	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00072.warc.gz	en	0.98181	468	3.4375	3	[ -0.07796162366867065, 0.4305250942707062, 0.4153151214122772, -0.12404099106788635, -0.3845022916793823, -0.10983585566282272, -0.11888810247182846, 0.2624468207359314, 0.23442351818084717, -0.47037845849990845, -0.08506167680025101, 0.24887996912002563, 0.1642906665802002, 0.0007271842914...	2	One legend contends that Valentine was a priest who served during the third century in Rome. When Emperor Claudius II decided that single men made better soldiers than those with wives and families, he outlawed marriage for young men. Valentine, realizing the injustice of the decree, defied Claudius and continued to perform marriages for young lovers in secret. When Valentine’s actions were discovered, Claudius ordered that he be put to death. Valentine greetings were popular as far back as the Middle Ages, though written Valentine’s didn’t begin to appear until after 1400. The oldest known valentine still in existence today was a poem written in 1415 by Charles, Duke of Orleans, to his wife while he was imprisoned in the Tower of London following his capture at the Battle of Agincourt. By the middle of the 18th century, it was common for friends and lovers of all social classes to exchange small tokens of affection or handwritten notes, and by 1900 printed cards began to replace written letters due to improvements in printing technology. Ready-made cards were an easy way for people to express their emotions in a time when direct expression of one’s feelings was discouraged. In 1797, a British publisher issued The Young Man’s Valentine Writer, which contained scores of suggested sentimental verses for the young lover unable to compose his own. Printers had already begun producing a limited number of cards with verses and sketches, called “mechanical valentines.” Paper Valentines became so popular in England in the early 19th century that they were assembled in factories. Fancy Valentines were made with real lace and ribbons, with paper lace introduced in the mid-19th century. In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in the United Kingdom, despite postage being expensive. In 1868, Cadbury created Fancy Boxes – a decorated box of chocolates – in the shape of a heart for Valentine’s Day. These boxes of filled chocolates quickly became associated with the holiday. In the second half of the 20th century, the practice of exchanging cards was extended to all manner of gifts, such as giving jewellery and flowers. So however you’re spending your day, we send you our love!	468	ENGLISH	1
An Erie Flag Nestled away in the Galena History Museum in Galena, Il is this wonderful gem. Though most of the artifacts and exhibits have to do with General Grant the War of 1812 is represented. The flag in the picture above survived the Battle of Lake Erie. In 1812 US and British forces vied for control of the Great Lakes as the war raged on. The origins of the conflict lay in the murkiness of maritime rights and unresolved issues stemming from the Revolution. With Great Britain thousands of miles away, Canada became the main target of the US Army. With a long shared border made mostly at the time of lakes and rivers, the naval battles almost overshadowed the land battles. In September 1813 the American Navy struck at the British on Lake Erie. Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry commanded, in his flagship the Lawerence, led the American fleet of 9 ships against a British squadron of 6 ships. Though outnumbered, the British outclassed the Americans in weaponry and training. For almost 4 hours the fleets engaged in a closely contested battle. The Lawerence took the brunt of the British fire, eventually leading Perry to abandon ship, but not before taking the flag with him. Raising that same flag on the Niagra, Perry took it as his flagship. Perry doubled down and caused the British squadron to surrender. The victory was complete. In one of the more famous dispatches of the war, Perry exclaimed, “We have met the enemy and they are ours…” The British were forced to surrender Detroit and with it control of the Great Lakes. At some point during the war Hezekiah Gear, a Galena resident was given the flag as an honor for his service during the war. Hezekiah brought it home with him when his service ended. From Lake Erie to Galena this flag certainly has a tale to tell. In April 1775 when the American Revolution became an armed conflict the people of America were torn. For the most part, the conflict was not against the King or the Empire, but against Parliment. They saw themselves mostly still as loyal subjects and Englishmen. In August of that year that the King issued A Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition. He formally declared the colonies in rebellion. The people in America who thought the king may be an ally, now realized he was NOT on their side. From there the true independence movement began to grow. Many of the early flags of the rebellious colonies show the mixed emotions of the time. Feeling like they were still British, the Union Jack showed prominently in the corner of the flags. The solid colored field varied from colony to colony. It was not until The Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution on June 14, 1777, that the now familiar United States flag began to make an appearance. Thirteen white stars on a blue field, red and white stripes alternating. The idea of still being British was cast off as the new nation struggled for independence. A new flag symbolized a new destiny. The flag in the picture above is one of the earliest surviving flags. It has been dated back to 1775-76 and was passed down through the hands of a Pennsylvania family. Reportedly it was flown in combat at the Battle of Monmouth in 1778. From that, it has taken the name of the “Monmouth Flag.” “The Stainless Banner” On May 1, 1863, the flag you see above became the official national flag of the Confederate States of America. The version seen in the picture above has a slightly different design for use as a naval ensign. The flag above flew over one of the ships of the Confederate Navy. The name “The Stainless Banner” came from the large white field that takes up most of the flag. White, seen as a symbol of purity, was chosen by the designer to symbolize the “supremacy of the white man” and he referred to it as “The White Man’s Flag”. (Even typing his words makes my skin crawl.) That man, William T. Thompson, was a newspaper editor in Savannah, GA who also doubled as a blockade runner. His design for the new flag was submitted to Congress and his newspaper was sued to rally support for the new standard. Eventually, thanks to the Richmond papers carrying his editorials, approval for the design gained momentum. Some have implied that he was the creator of the more familiar “battle flag” of the Confederacy but that preexisted the second national flag and was only used by Thompson. When the Confederate Congress passed the official act naming that design as the national flag, it seemed well received by the public. Before long though it was thought to be, ironically, “too white”. Having the battle flag sitting on top of a white flag was sending a bit of a mixed message. A white flag generally indicated surrender. not a good thing to be flying over the battlefield. In 1865, near the end of the war, the design was changed to include a red vertical stripe at the far edge. This “bloodline” symbolized those lost in the war. The flag was last flown in an official capacity on the CSS Shenandoah that was based out of Liverpool, England. On November 7, 1865, it was lowered but lives on as a symbol. One thing is for sure, 150 years later the flag still has an impact. The Rising Sun It is known by several names but the most widely used is Hinomaru, “circle of the sun”. Like many flags through history, it has seen its share of good and bad. This flag has represented Japan since 1870. Even before that the sun motif was used to represent Japan and the history of the Japanese people. During WWII it became a symbol of empire and domination. Since the end of the war, it has become a symbol of a past that many would soon forget. It has been a long road since the war ended. Mainly among the Japanese themselves who turned away from their militaristic past and have tried to distance themselves from it. For a period the flag was seldom used, almost hidden from sight but once Japan sought to rejoin the world it could no longer be hidden raising the question on the validity of having such a symbol representing their nation. Protests at home and abroad have sought the removal of the flag for generations now. The issues of displaying it in their schools have divided the people. In many places across the country, it is never seen flying, even on national holidays. Yet there are many that see it as a symbol of pride and strength, and while many wrongs were done under it they question the validity of attempting to erase the history that it represents. In August 1999 the Diet, Japan’s ruling body, officially passed legislation making the Hinomaru the official national flag of Japan. It would seem that it was decided that the best way to avoid repeating the past is to never forget it. We all know the story. April 14th, 1865 the Civil War was all but over and President Lincoln decides (OK, Mary decides) that they need so enjoy a night at the theater. Originally General Grant and his wife we supposed to accompany them, but using many skills I assume he learned on the battle field, Grant was able to get out of going. Instead it would be Henry Rathbone and his fiance that would accompany the Lincolns to the Ford Theater and “Our American Cousin.” Joining that night would also be John Wilkes Booth, a famous actor and Southern sympathizer that wanted Lincoln dead. His story goes well beyond the scope of this brief article, but the important thing is that during the play he found himself with unfettered access to the President’s box and the man himself. A small pistol in one hand and a dagger in the other he looked to “avenge” the Confederacy. Sneaking into the box he moved behind Lincoln and fired his pistol, jumped onto the ledge of the box and by most accounts yelled, “Sic Semper Tyrannis!” and leaps from the box to the stage. It would have been perfect if he had not caught his spur on one of the bunting flags that hung on the outside of the box. That snag of his boot caused him to land awkwardly and severely injury his leg. From that point on the story is well-known. In the photo above is the flag from the box that Booth snagged his spur on. If not for that flag and the injury that Booth sustained, it is very possible that he may have avoided capture. That makes that relic pretty darn cool. This the monumental 100th post on this blog. That means we have reached almost a year of telling stories and sharing some of the military of this great nation. Thank you all for your support. Flags have been in the news a lot lately, and oddly enough if you look back through you will see that we have been talking about flags before it became fashionable. See, flags have meaning, they are symbols. The problem is that sometimes the symbols don’t mean the same thing to everyone. The flag in this photo above should be very familiar to you. Take a close look though and you will that it is a little different. Did you see it? There are 48 stars. See this flag is from the WWII era and for the most part during that time if you saw this flag it meant one of two things. To our friends it was a symbol of hope, it was a symbol that the big dog had entered the fight and we were going to be doing everything possible to win the war. For ourselves, for our friends and for the sake of the world. Many Americans and our allies died for that flag and many more since have for the very same reasons. To our enemies it was a symbol of dread. They say the flag and knew that the fight was on. We would not quit, we would not stop until they were defeated. Early in the war our enemies underestimated us and that was to their detriment. Many enemies died in the shadow of that flag, and they still do today. So same flag different meanings. Weird how that happens, eh? Thanks for the first 100. Stay tuned for the next 100.	<urn:uuid:80210af8-f240-4cf1-9241-d9cda009ec42>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://historiamilitaris.org/tag/flags/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00398.warc.gz	en	0.981275	2,127	3.484375	3	[ -0.31905919313430786, 0.33713069558143616, 0.15544384717941284, -0.1424761265516281, -0.20505142211914062, -0.05254974961280823, 0.3256613612174988, 0.13816413283348083, 0.03319219499826431, -0.0116810267791152, -0.23920565843582153, -0.04526331275701523, -0.5217979550361633, -0.0139889847...	11	An Erie Flag Nestled away in the Galena History Museum in Galena, Il is this wonderful gem. Though most of the artifacts and exhibits have to do with General Grant the War of 1812 is represented. The flag in the picture above survived the Battle of Lake Erie. In 1812 US and British forces vied for control of the Great Lakes as the war raged on. The origins of the conflict lay in the murkiness of maritime rights and unresolved issues stemming from the Revolution. With Great Britain thousands of miles away, Canada became the main target of the US Army. With a long shared border made mostly at the time of lakes and rivers, the naval battles almost overshadowed the land battles. In September 1813 the American Navy struck at the British on Lake Erie. Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry commanded, in his flagship the Lawerence, led the American fleet of 9 ships against a British squadron of 6 ships. Though outnumbered, the British outclassed the Americans in weaponry and training. For almost 4 hours the fleets engaged in a closely contested battle. The Lawerence took the brunt of the British fire, eventually leading Perry to abandon ship, but not before taking the flag with him. Raising that same flag on the Niagra, Perry took it as his flagship. Perry doubled down and caused the British squadron to surrender. The victory was complete. In one of the more famous dispatches of the war, Perry exclaimed, “We have met the enemy and they are ours…” The British were forced to surrender Detroit and with it control of the Great Lakes. At some point during the war Hezekiah Gear, a Galena resident was given the flag as an honor for his service during the war. Hezekiah brought it home with him when his service ended. From Lake Erie to Galena this flag certainly has a tale to tell. In April 1775 when the American Revolution became an armed conflict the people of America were torn. For the most part, the conflict was not against the King or the Empire, but against Parliment. They saw themselves mostly still as loyal subjects and Englishmen. In August of that year that the King issued A Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition. He formally declared the colonies in rebellion. The people in America who thought the king may be an ally, now realized he was NOT on their side. From there the true independence movement began to grow. Many of the early flags of the rebellious colonies show the mixed emotions of the time. Feeling like they were still British, the Union Jack showed prominently in the corner of the flags. The solid colored field varied from colony to colony. It was not until The Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution on June 14, 1777, that the now familiar United States flag began to make an appearance. Thirteen white stars on a blue field, red and white stripes alternating. The idea of still being British was cast off as the new nation struggled for independence. A new flag symbolized a new destiny. The flag in the picture above is one of the earliest surviving flags. It has been dated back to 1775-76 and was passed down through the hands of a Pennsylvania family. Reportedly it was flown in combat at the Battle of Monmouth in 1778. From that, it has taken the name of the “Monmouth Flag.” “The Stainless Banner” On May 1, 1863, the flag you see above became the official national flag of the Confederate States of America. The version seen in the picture above has a slightly different design for use as a naval ensign. The flag above flew over one of the ships of the Confederate Navy. The name “The Stainless Banner” came from the large white field that takes up most of the flag. White, seen as a symbol of purity, was chosen by the designer to symbolize the “supremacy of the white man” and he referred to it as “The White Man’s Flag”. (Even typing his words makes my skin crawl.) That man, William T. Thompson, was a newspaper editor in Savannah, GA who also doubled as a blockade runner. His design for the new flag was submitted to Congress and his newspaper was sued to rally support for the new standard. Eventually, thanks to the Richmond papers carrying his editorials, approval for the design gained momentum. Some have implied that he was the creator of the more familiar “battle flag” of the Confederacy but that preexisted the second national flag and was only used by Thompson. When the Confederate Congress passed the official act naming that design as the national flag, it seemed well received by the public. Before long though it was thought to be, ironically, “too white”. Having the battle flag sitting on top of a white flag was sending a bit of a mixed message. A white flag generally indicated surrender. not a good thing to be flying over the battlefield. In 1865, near the end of the war, the design was changed to include a red vertical stripe at the far edge. This “bloodline” symbolized those lost in the war. The flag was last flown in an official capacity on the CSS Shenandoah that was based out of Liverpool, England. On November 7, 1865, it was lowered but lives on as a symbol. One thing is for sure, 150 years later the flag still has an impact. The Rising Sun It is known by several names but the most widely used is Hinomaru, “circle of the sun”. Like many flags through history, it has seen its share of good and bad. This flag has represented Japan since 1870. Even before that the sun motif was used to represent Japan and the history of the Japanese people. During WWII it became a symbol of empire and domination. Since the end of the war, it has become a symbol of a past that many would soon forget. It has been a long road since the war ended. Mainly among the Japanese themselves who turned away from their militaristic past and have tried to distance themselves from it. For a period the flag was seldom used, almost hidden from sight but once Japan sought to rejoin the world it could no longer be hidden raising the question on the validity of having such a symbol representing their nation. Protests at home and abroad have sought the removal of the flag for generations now. The issues of displaying it in their schools have divided the people. In many places across the country, it is never seen flying, even on national holidays. Yet there are many that see it as a symbol of pride and strength, and while many wrongs were done under it they question the validity of attempting to erase the history that it represents. In August 1999 the Diet, Japan’s ruling body, officially passed legislation making the Hinomaru the official national flag of Japan. It would seem that it was decided that the best way to avoid repeating the past is to never forget it. We all know the story. April 14th, 1865 the Civil War was all but over and President Lincoln decides (OK, Mary decides) that they need so enjoy a night at the theater. Originally General Grant and his wife we supposed to accompany them, but using many skills I assume he learned on the battle field, Grant was able to get out of going. Instead it would be Henry Rathbone and his fiance that would accompany the Lincolns to the Ford Theater and “Our American Cousin.” Joining that night would also be John Wilkes Booth, a famous actor and Southern sympathizer that wanted Lincoln dead. His story goes well beyond the scope of this brief article, but the important thing is that during the play he found himself with unfettered access to the President’s box and the man himself. A small pistol in one hand and a dagger in the other he looked to “avenge” the Confederacy. Sneaking into the box he moved behind Lincoln and fired his pistol, jumped onto the ledge of the box and by most accounts yelled, “Sic Semper Tyrannis!” and leaps from the box to the stage. It would have been perfect if he had not caught his spur on one of the bunting flags that hung on the outside of the box. That snag of his boot caused him to land awkwardly and severely injury his leg. From that point on the story is well-known. In the photo above is the flag from the box that Booth snagged his spur on. If not for that flag and the injury that Booth sustained, it is very possible that he may have avoided capture. That makes that relic pretty darn cool. This the monumental 100th post on this blog. That means we have reached almost a year of telling stories and sharing some of the military of this great nation. Thank you all for your support. Flags have been in the news a lot lately, and oddly enough if you look back through you will see that we have been talking about flags before it became fashionable. See, flags have meaning, they are symbols. The problem is that sometimes the symbols don’t mean the same thing to everyone. The flag in this photo above should be very familiar to you. Take a close look though and you will that it is a little different. Did you see it? There are 48 stars. See this flag is from the WWII era and for the most part during that time if you saw this flag it meant one of two things. To our friends it was a symbol of hope, it was a symbol that the big dog had entered the fight and we were going to be doing everything possible to win the war. For ourselves, for our friends and for the sake of the world. Many Americans and our allies died for that flag and many more since have for the very same reasons. To our enemies it was a symbol of dread. They say the flag and knew that the fight was on. We would not quit, we would not stop until they were defeated. Early in the war our enemies underestimated us and that was to their detriment. Many enemies died in the shadow of that flag, and they still do today. So same flag different meanings. Weird how that happens, eh? Thanks for the first 100. Stay tuned for the next 100.	2,128	ENGLISH	1
As a result of the Battle of Ware Bottom Church, over 1,400 people were either killed or wounded. As the Confederates were able to gain ground and drive back the Union soldiers, Beauregard was also able to establish the Hewitt Line. This fortified defensive line, located between the James and Appomatox Rivers, bottled in the Union forces as President Lincoln noted. However, Ulysses S. Grant would later cause Beauregard to leave abandon this line in an attempt to stop Grant's march on Petersburg, which once again put Ware Bottom Church under Union control until Lee retook it in mid-June and the church was destroyed by a fire started by Confederate artillery soldiers in order to drive out Union sharpshooters that had been using the church. Ware bottom Church had been at the time one of Virginia's oldest churches until its destruction.	<urn:uuid:0aff5377-21c9-4598-9298-df5d12bd1ac6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/4875	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00210.warc.gz	en	0.990191	177	3.390625	3	[ -0.3125966787338257, 0.10477833449840546, 0.2044125348329544, 0.16548392176628113, 0.07851281017065048, 0.016767092049121857, -0.193648099899292, 0.1280221939086914, -0.6238300204277039, -0.34589236974716187, -0.1470031589269638, -0.0831918716430664, 0.4267078936100006, 0.1822517067193985,...	2	As a result of the Battle of Ware Bottom Church, over 1,400 people were either killed or wounded. As the Confederates were able to gain ground and drive back the Union soldiers, Beauregard was also able to establish the Hewitt Line. This fortified defensive line, located between the James and Appomatox Rivers, bottled in the Union forces as President Lincoln noted. However, Ulysses S. Grant would later cause Beauregard to leave abandon this line in an attempt to stop Grant's march on Petersburg, which once again put Ware Bottom Church under Union control until Lee retook it in mid-June and the church was destroyed by a fire started by Confederate artillery soldiers in order to drive out Union sharpshooters that had been using the church. Ware bottom Church had been at the time one of Virginia's oldest churches until its destruction.	177	ENGLISH	1
Thomas Paine grew up in a household of modest means, and only came to America a year before the start of the Revolutionary War at the age of 37. Yet, before long, his writings had set the continent aflame and Paine established himself as the preeminent voice for independence from Great Britain, and later as one of the great Enlightenment thinkers on either side of the Atlantic. Born in February 9th, 1737 in a small town in Norfolk, England, Paine spent much of his childhood as an apprentice to his father, a stay-maker for sailing ships. Later writers helped spread the idea that Paine and his father made stays, or wiring, for women’s corsets, but this is likely a myth, originating as a cruel joke at Paine’s expense by his political opponents. He did, however, receive some schooling, as until the age of thirteen he attended the local grammar school where he learned to read and write. His parents also played a strong role in his upbringing, with his ostracized Quaker father instilling many of those values in him, while his Anglican mother taught him the Bible. But the qualities that made him truly famous, his rhetorical flourish and his passion for human dignity, he learned not in school, but through decades of experience laboring for himself and others as a customs officer, privateer and school teacher, to name a few. Seemingly incapable of settling down for long, Paine crisscrossed England from his Norfolk home to Kent to Cornwall to London before finally moving to Lewes, a small Sussex town near the Channel coast, where his writing career began. Before his appointment at Lewes, Paine was relatively uninterested in politics, but through his many travels he had taken notice of the deep divide between wealthy and poor in his society, despite much pretense about “English Liberties” bandied about by those wealthy enough to afford them. Upon moving to Lewes, therefore, Paine used his new side career to advocate for the welfare of his fellow excise officers. At this point, it might be easy to characterize Paine as a rough-and-ready working-class hero, but that does not nearly paint a full enough picture. Though he kept his style unpretentious and accessible for less educated readers (his father even forbade him from learning Latin to prevent snobbery), Paine demonstrated interest in a variety of academic subjects. The theories of Isaac Newton greatly inspired him, and Paine closely followed all recent scientific and technological developments whenever he was in London. He also remained fairly well-connected to some of the leading minds in Britain, including Philadelphia publisher Benjamin Franklin, who at the time was in London to lobby Parliament in the interests of the American colonies. But despite his connections, Paine honed a relatively radical edge to his rhetoric, taking on Lewes’ history as a former hotbed of Republicanism during the English Civil War a century prior as an influence. In 1774, Franklin made an offer to Paine to come to Pennsylvania. By then, there was very little holding Paine to England: his first wife, Mary Lambert, died in childbirth six years prior, and his second wife, Elizabeth Ollive, left him after his new obsession with political advocacy led to his sacking. With the aid of some wealthy friends, Paine gathered what he could and paid for a voyage across the Atlantic. Typhoid fever nearly killed Paine while during the crossing, but once he recovered, he soon began making a living as writer and editor for the Pennsylvania Magazine. In contrast to his fellow Englishmen, American colonists were on average wealthier, more literate and more politically engaged, meaning that Paine had a more receptive audience, which contributed to his popularity. For his part, Paine took a strong liking to Philadelphia society and more broadly, the discontent against Great Britain that had been simmering since the end of the Seven Years War (French & Indian War). Though the First Continental Congress had already convened by the time of Paine’s arrival in America, many of the leading Patriot voices were uncomfortable to fully come out in support of independence, even after the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Their general complaint had always been that their natural rights as British subjects had been violated by Parliament, and they wished to see those wrongs rectified. Paine’s far more radical outlook led him to see the situation quite differently, and so he set out to make the case for independence and describe his vision for America’s political future in his most famous work: the 47-page pamphlet titled “Common Sense.” Published on January 10th, 1776, “Common Sense” decries not just British tyranny, but the concept of monarchy itself, and calls for the formation of an American republic in the purest sense of the word: a government run as a res publica, or “public affair.” Paine’s radical rhetoric and skillful argumentation electrified the colonies, and “Common Sense” quickly became one of the best-selling written works in America, followed only by the Bible. As one Connecticut reader wrote to a Philadelphia newspaper, “We were blind, but on reading these enlightening words the scales have fallen from our eyes.” Seven months after the publication of “Common Sense,” the Second Continental Congress signed the Declaration of Independence, announcing their intention to formally sever ties with Great Britain. Paine’s writing career did not stop as the war progressed, however. Between 1776 and 1783, he published a series of smaller pamphlets collectively titled “The American Crisis.” The first issue of the series was published during America’s lowest point in the war, as the British crushed General George Washington and the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island and forced him from New York City. With news of rampant desertion plaguing Washington’s army reaching Philadelphia, many of Paine’s associates may have predicted a swift end to the Revolution, but Paine manages to find a grim resolve in the desperation, writing, “These are the times that try men’s souls: The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman.” On the 23rd of December, two days before Christmas, Washington had the pamphlet read to his cold, starving troops in a last-ditch attempt to boost their morale. The gambit worked, and two days later, Washington crossed the Delaware River with his army and ambushed a Hessian garrison at the Battle of Trenton the next morning. The Revolution had been preserved for just a little while longer, thanks in part to Paine’s prose. Though he worked to aid the war effort in several other ways, Paine eventually returned to England in 1787, where yet another Revolution caught his attention, this time in the heart of European Absolutism: France. In 1791 and 1792, partially in response to Conservative politician Edmund Burke’s published views on the subject, Paine defended the ideals of the French Revolution by publishing his most comprehensive work yet, Rights of Man. Dedicated to Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette, Rights of Man extensively lays out Paine’s Republican utopianism and envisions a society where man’s natural rights are respected, all forms of hereditary government such as monarchy and aristocracy are abolished, and the welfare of the poor are taken care of. Paine’s work resulted in him receiving honorary French citizenship as a reward, as well as a seat on the French Constitutional Committee. In France, Paine wrote several other important works, such as “Age of Reason”, which discusses his personal theology of deism (belief in a single God as a distant, unknowable entity) and “Agrarian Justice”, which expounds upon his almost proto-socialist economic views. Despite his support, however, Paine ran afoul of the Jacobin Party which took control of the French government after King Louis XVI’s execution. He was arrested and slated to be executed himself, but the government delayed the date long enough for the American Minister to France, James Monroe, to secure his release. His ordeal in prison could not suppress his political idealism, however, and Paine continued to interact with some of the leading figures of France, including a chance meeting with the ever more popular General Napoleon Bonaparte, who claimed to sleep with a copy of Rights of Man under his pillow. Paine, of course, later denounced Bonaparte as a charlatan when the latter established his military dictatorship in late 1799. Finally bereft of all hope for France, Paine returned to America in 1802, but found that he did not receive nearly as warm a welcome as a former intellectual champion of liberty might expect. His published criticisms of President’s Washington and John Adams alienated him from the Federalist Party, while his deism made him a hated figure by the religious community. Paine continued to write and publish until the end of his life on June 8th, 1809, when he died in New York City. His funeral was poorly attended, and a local paper summed up his life as having done “some good and much harm,” but in time, Paine’s work proved to be a great inspiration to politicians and activists alike in the coming centuries, Abraham Lincoln among them. As John Adams once wrote, “Without the pen of the author of ‘Common Sense’, the sword of Washington would have been raised in vain.” Join t Fight Donate today to preserve Revolutionary War battlefields and the nation’s history for generations to come.	<urn:uuid:cf2d42da-676a-44f9-8cd8-5ed031bf4f7b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.battlefields.org/learn/biographies/thomas-paine	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00048.warc.gz	en	0.982745	2,036	3.765625	4	[ -0.044564031064510345, 0.4929996430873871, 0.38401466608047485, -0.16015368700027466, 0.016248416155576706, -0.006938794627785683, 0.050303153693675995, -0.0002992552472278476, -0.12893468141555786, -0.4484868049621582, -0.017622167244553566, -0.04466162621974945, 0.11367824673652649, 0.10...	2	Thomas Paine grew up in a household of modest means, and only came to America a year before the start of the Revolutionary War at the age of 37. Yet, before long, his writings had set the continent aflame and Paine established himself as the preeminent voice for independence from Great Britain, and later as one of the great Enlightenment thinkers on either side of the Atlantic. Born in February 9th, 1737 in a small town in Norfolk, England, Paine spent much of his childhood as an apprentice to his father, a stay-maker for sailing ships. Later writers helped spread the idea that Paine and his father made stays, or wiring, for women’s corsets, but this is likely a myth, originating as a cruel joke at Paine’s expense by his political opponents. He did, however, receive some schooling, as until the age of thirteen he attended the local grammar school where he learned to read and write. His parents also played a strong role in his upbringing, with his ostracized Quaker father instilling many of those values in him, while his Anglican mother taught him the Bible. But the qualities that made him truly famous, his rhetorical flourish and his passion for human dignity, he learned not in school, but through decades of experience laboring for himself and others as a customs officer, privateer and school teacher, to name a few. Seemingly incapable of settling down for long, Paine crisscrossed England from his Norfolk home to Kent to Cornwall to London before finally moving to Lewes, a small Sussex town near the Channel coast, where his writing career began. Before his appointment at Lewes, Paine was relatively uninterested in politics, but through his many travels he had taken notice of the deep divide between wealthy and poor in his society, despite much pretense about “English Liberties” bandied about by those wealthy enough to afford them. Upon moving to Lewes, therefore, Paine used his new side career to advocate for the welfare of his fellow excise officers. At this point, it might be easy to characterize Paine as a rough-and-ready working-class hero, but that does not nearly paint a full enough picture. Though he kept his style unpretentious and accessible for less educated readers (his father even forbade him from learning Latin to prevent snobbery), Paine demonstrated interest in a variety of academic subjects. The theories of Isaac Newton greatly inspired him, and Paine closely followed all recent scientific and technological developments whenever he was in London. He also remained fairly well-connected to some of the leading minds in Britain, including Philadelphia publisher Benjamin Franklin, who at the time was in London to lobby Parliament in the interests of the American colonies. But despite his connections, Paine honed a relatively radical edge to his rhetoric, taking on Lewes’ history as a former hotbed of Republicanism during the English Civil War a century prior as an influence. In 1774, Franklin made an offer to Paine to come to Pennsylvania. By then, there was very little holding Paine to England: his first wife, Mary Lambert, died in childbirth six years prior, and his second wife, Elizabeth Ollive, left him after his new obsession with political advocacy led to his sacking. With the aid of some wealthy friends, Paine gathered what he could and paid for a voyage across the Atlantic. Typhoid fever nearly killed Paine while during the crossing, but once he recovered, he soon began making a living as writer and editor for the Pennsylvania Magazine. In contrast to his fellow Englishmen, American colonists were on average wealthier, more literate and more politically engaged, meaning that Paine had a more receptive audience, which contributed to his popularity. For his part, Paine took a strong liking to Philadelphia society and more broadly, the discontent against Great Britain that had been simmering since the end of the Seven Years War (French & Indian War). Though the First Continental Congress had already convened by the time of Paine’s arrival in America, many of the leading Patriot voices were uncomfortable to fully come out in support of independence, even after the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Their general complaint had always been that their natural rights as British subjects had been violated by Parliament, and they wished to see those wrongs rectified. Paine’s far more radical outlook led him to see the situation quite differently, and so he set out to make the case for independence and describe his vision for America’s political future in his most famous work: the 47-page pamphlet titled “Common Sense.” Published on January 10th, 1776, “Common Sense” decries not just British tyranny, but the concept of monarchy itself, and calls for the formation of an American republic in the purest sense of the word: a government run as a res publica, or “public affair.” Paine’s radical rhetoric and skillful argumentation electrified the colonies, and “Common Sense” quickly became one of the best-selling written works in America, followed only by the Bible. As one Connecticut reader wrote to a Philadelphia newspaper, “We were blind, but on reading these enlightening words the scales have fallen from our eyes.” Seven months after the publication of “Common Sense,” the Second Continental Congress signed the Declaration of Independence, announcing their intention to formally sever ties with Great Britain. Paine’s writing career did not stop as the war progressed, however. Between 1776 and 1783, he published a series of smaller pamphlets collectively titled “The American Crisis.” The first issue of the series was published during America’s lowest point in the war, as the British crushed General George Washington and the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island and forced him from New York City. With news of rampant desertion plaguing Washington’s army reaching Philadelphia, many of Paine’s associates may have predicted a swift end to the Revolution, but Paine manages to find a grim resolve in the desperation, writing, “These are the times that try men’s souls: The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman.” On the 23rd of December, two days before Christmas, Washington had the pamphlet read to his cold, starving troops in a last-ditch attempt to boost their morale. The gambit worked, and two days later, Washington crossed the Delaware River with his army and ambushed a Hessian garrison at the Battle of Trenton the next morning. The Revolution had been preserved for just a little while longer, thanks in part to Paine’s prose. Though he worked to aid the war effort in several other ways, Paine eventually returned to England in 1787, where yet another Revolution caught his attention, this time in the heart of European Absolutism: France. In 1791 and 1792, partially in response to Conservative politician Edmund Burke’s published views on the subject, Paine defended the ideals of the French Revolution by publishing his most comprehensive work yet, Rights of Man. Dedicated to Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette, Rights of Man extensively lays out Paine’s Republican utopianism and envisions a society where man’s natural rights are respected, all forms of hereditary government such as monarchy and aristocracy are abolished, and the welfare of the poor are taken care of. Paine’s work resulted in him receiving honorary French citizenship as a reward, as well as a seat on the French Constitutional Committee. In France, Paine wrote several other important works, such as “Age of Reason”, which discusses his personal theology of deism (belief in a single God as a distant, unknowable entity) and “Agrarian Justice”, which expounds upon his almost proto-socialist economic views. Despite his support, however, Paine ran afoul of the Jacobin Party which took control of the French government after King Louis XVI’s execution. He was arrested and slated to be executed himself, but the government delayed the date long enough for the American Minister to France, James Monroe, to secure his release. His ordeal in prison could not suppress his political idealism, however, and Paine continued to interact with some of the leading figures of France, including a chance meeting with the ever more popular General Napoleon Bonaparte, who claimed to sleep with a copy of Rights of Man under his pillow. Paine, of course, later denounced Bonaparte as a charlatan when the latter established his military dictatorship in late 1799. Finally bereft of all hope for France, Paine returned to America in 1802, but found that he did not receive nearly as warm a welcome as a former intellectual champion of liberty might expect. His published criticisms of President’s Washington and John Adams alienated him from the Federalist Party, while his deism made him a hated figure by the religious community. Paine continued to write and publish until the end of his life on June 8th, 1809, when he died in New York City. His funeral was poorly attended, and a local paper summed up his life as having done “some good and much harm,” but in time, Paine’s work proved to be a great inspiration to politicians and activists alike in the coming centuries, Abraham Lincoln among them. As John Adams once wrote, “Without the pen of the author of ‘Common Sense’, the sword of Washington would have been raised in vain.” Join t Fight Donate today to preserve Revolutionary War battlefields and the nation’s history for generations to come.	1,985	ENGLISH	1
Medieval painting in Europe was rich in religious imagery and symbolism due to the influence of religion during the medieval times. The main attention in the medieval painting was paid to the depiction of famous figures, mainly religious, and scenes from religious tales and heaven and hell. Medieval painting began from the early Christian paintings during the early medieval times and went up to the period of Gothic art. It was also during the early medieval times that transition took place from Roman art to Byzantine style under the increasing influence of Christianity. Medieval painting types can be broadly classified into iconography, fresco, and panel painting. During the medieval times, Catholic iconography was an important type of medieval painting which consisted of the representation of holy figures as well as heaven and hell and other religious concepts. Fresco was another popular type of medieval painting which employed the technique of mural painting on wet lime plaster. Water was used to merge the pigment with the plaster and cause the painting to become an integral part of the wall. The technique remained popular even after the end of the medieval times. Finally, medieval panel painting was done on a flat panel generally made of wood. A variety of medieval painting styles were prevalent during different eras of the medieval times. The earliest one is called the Byzantine Style which mainly consists of the representation of holy figures. These figures are often halo-crowned and have serene expressions. More often than not, the Byzantine mosaics have a gleaming golden background. During the subsequent centuries, Germanic, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon art remained dominant. During the middle medieval times, Romanesque paintings remained dominant and were distinctive with respect to their aesthetic unity throughout Europe. One of the most important works from this era is the Winchester Bible which consists of the paintings and their historical details. During the late medieval times Gothic paintings became popular and had a greater degree of realism and depth of perspective. A variety of famous medieval paintings can be listed from different eras of medieval times. A famous painting was the Carolingian Evangelist portrait from the Codex Aureus of Lorsch. Another famous painting from the 11th century is called the Bamberg Apocalypse from the Ottonian Reichenau School. A famous painting form the 12th century is Mary Magdalene announcing the Resurrection to the Apostles, which was painted by Albans Psalter. The dominant themes of all these paintings remained religious in nature till the end of the medieval times. Various famous medieval painters left their mark on the art and paintings of the medieval times and enriched the culture. One famous painter of medieval paintings was Giotto di Bondone who lived in Italy during the late medieval times. Among his famous medieval paintings, we can include the portrait of Dante, Meeting of Anna and Joachim, The Kiss of Judas, and others. Another famous medieval painter was Cimabue who also lived in Italy during the late medieval times. His famous paintings include Virgin Enthroned with Angels, The Last Supper, Flagellation, and others. During the late medieval times, paintings and sculpture flourished in Italy which became the birthplace of Renaissance. Medieval paintings were rich in religious themes and the themes of doomsday and apocalypse were important. A wide range of doom paintings also dealt with the images of the Last Judgement and Heaven and Hell. One famous painting of the Last Judgement was painted in Fra Angelico in the late 14th century. Last Judgement was also painted by various other medieval painters including Stephan Lochner, Michelangelo, Marcello Venusti, and others. Seven Deadly Sins were also popular theme of medieval doom paintings. Various methods and paints were used for medieval paintings during different eras. One of the most popular painting mediums used was called Tempera which was also known as egg tempera. It was composed of coloured pigment mixed into water-soluble binder medium which made it very long lasting. Thus the medieval paintings from early medieval times painted in this painting material survive to the day. It remained the most popular painting material throughout the medieval times. Other painting materials often used for medieval painting include red ochre, yellow ochre, umber, and lime white. Among the religious themes of the medieval times, hell was easily one of the most popular themes since it constantly reminded people of punishment for their sins. One of the most famous paintings of hell was done by Hieronymus Bosch where he painted heaven and hell side by side. Frescos of hell were common in churches as well as in religious manuscripts during the medieval times. For instance, a famous depiction of hell is found in the Hortus Deliciarum of Herrad of Landsberg from 1180 AD. Another famous painting of hell is called The Temptation of St Anthony and it was also painted by Hieronymus Bosch. During the medieval times, it was very common to paint the walls and ceilings of the churches with religious themes. For instance, a complete set of medieval paintings is found on the three walls of the chancel of St. Mary. This was painted around 1320 AD and depicts the entire life of Jesus Christ as well as the Day of Judgement. Similar medieval wall paintings are found on the famous Ivanovo Rock Monastery of Bulgaria and date from the 14th century. Medieval wall paintings rich in religious themes are found in the medieval churches throughout Europe. Medieval times in Europe were dominated by religious authorities and just like every other sphere of life arts and paintings also had predominantly religious themes. During different eras of the medieval times, different techniques and styles were adopted by the painters for medieval paintings. The most common religious themes that recurred in the medieval paintings included heaven and hell, the Last Supper, The Day of Resurrection, and the Seven Deadly Sins. It was also a common practice to paint church walls and ceilings with religious paintings. This article on medieval painting gives detailed information on the painting styles used the history of medieval painting and the artist and materials used for medieval paintings. If you’d like to learn more about medieval art in general please look at the numerous links at the bottom of this medieval painting page you may also find the articles on medieval architecture interesting as well.	<urn:uuid:8eecb110-ee87-404c-af1c-b7d654efd50c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-art/medieval-painting/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00400.warc.gz	en	0.981585	1,258	3.609375	4	[ 0.06600704044103622, 0.3401673436164856, 0.008583330549299717, 0.03731469810009003, 0.10801469534635544, 0.1856357902288437, -0.45444566011428833, -0.08266457170248032, 0.3311242163181305, -0.033772457391023636, -0.34706956148147583, -0.23523610830307007, -0.20772847533226013, 0.1884074956...	2	Medieval painting in Europe was rich in religious imagery and symbolism due to the influence of religion during the medieval times. The main attention in the medieval painting was paid to the depiction of famous figures, mainly religious, and scenes from religious tales and heaven and hell. Medieval painting began from the early Christian paintings during the early medieval times and went up to the period of Gothic art. It was also during the early medieval times that transition took place from Roman art to Byzantine style under the increasing influence of Christianity. Medieval painting types can be broadly classified into iconography, fresco, and panel painting. During the medieval times, Catholic iconography was an important type of medieval painting which consisted of the representation of holy figures as well as heaven and hell and other religious concepts. Fresco was another popular type of medieval painting which employed the technique of mural painting on wet lime plaster. Water was used to merge the pigment with the plaster and cause the painting to become an integral part of the wall. The technique remained popular even after the end of the medieval times. Finally, medieval panel painting was done on a flat panel generally made of wood. A variety of medieval painting styles were prevalent during different eras of the medieval times. The earliest one is called the Byzantine Style which mainly consists of the representation of holy figures. These figures are often halo-crowned and have serene expressions. More often than not, the Byzantine mosaics have a gleaming golden background. During the subsequent centuries, Germanic, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon art remained dominant. During the middle medieval times, Romanesque paintings remained dominant and were distinctive with respect to their aesthetic unity throughout Europe. One of the most important works from this era is the Winchester Bible which consists of the paintings and their historical details. During the late medieval times Gothic paintings became popular and had a greater degree of realism and depth of perspective. A variety of famous medieval paintings can be listed from different eras of medieval times. A famous painting was the Carolingian Evangelist portrait from the Codex Aureus of Lorsch. Another famous painting from the 11th century is called the Bamberg Apocalypse from the Ottonian Reichenau School. A famous painting form the 12th century is Mary Magdalene announcing the Resurrection to the Apostles, which was painted by Albans Psalter. The dominant themes of all these paintings remained religious in nature till the end of the medieval times. Various famous medieval painters left their mark on the art and paintings of the medieval times and enriched the culture. One famous painter of medieval paintings was Giotto di Bondone who lived in Italy during the late medieval times. Among his famous medieval paintings, we can include the portrait of Dante, Meeting of Anna and Joachim, The Kiss of Judas, and others. Another famous medieval painter was Cimabue who also lived in Italy during the late medieval times. His famous paintings include Virgin Enthroned with Angels, The Last Supper, Flagellation, and others. During the late medieval times, paintings and sculpture flourished in Italy which became the birthplace of Renaissance. Medieval paintings were rich in religious themes and the themes of doomsday and apocalypse were important. A wide range of doom paintings also dealt with the images of the Last Judgement and Heaven and Hell. One famous painting of the Last Judgement was painted in Fra Angelico in the late 14th century. Last Judgement was also painted by various other medieval painters including Stephan Lochner, Michelangelo, Marcello Venusti, and others. Seven Deadly Sins were also popular theme of medieval doom paintings. Various methods and paints were used for medieval paintings during different eras. One of the most popular painting mediums used was called Tempera which was also known as egg tempera. It was composed of coloured pigment mixed into water-soluble binder medium which made it very long lasting. Thus the medieval paintings from early medieval times painted in this painting material survive to the day. It remained the most popular painting material throughout the medieval times. Other painting materials often used for medieval painting include red ochre, yellow ochre, umber, and lime white. Among the religious themes of the medieval times, hell was easily one of the most popular themes since it constantly reminded people of punishment for their sins. One of the most famous paintings of hell was done by Hieronymus Bosch where he painted heaven and hell side by side. Frescos of hell were common in churches as well as in religious manuscripts during the medieval times. For instance, a famous depiction of hell is found in the Hortus Deliciarum of Herrad of Landsberg from 1180 AD. Another famous painting of hell is called The Temptation of St Anthony and it was also painted by Hieronymus Bosch. During the medieval times, it was very common to paint the walls and ceilings of the churches with religious themes. For instance, a complete set of medieval paintings is found on the three walls of the chancel of St. Mary. This was painted around 1320 AD and depicts the entire life of Jesus Christ as well as the Day of Judgement. Similar medieval wall paintings are found on the famous Ivanovo Rock Monastery of Bulgaria and date from the 14th century. Medieval wall paintings rich in religious themes are found in the medieval churches throughout Europe. Medieval times in Europe were dominated by religious authorities and just like every other sphere of life arts and paintings also had predominantly religious themes. During different eras of the medieval times, different techniques and styles were adopted by the painters for medieval paintings. The most common religious themes that recurred in the medieval paintings included heaven and hell, the Last Supper, The Day of Resurrection, and the Seven Deadly Sins. It was also a common practice to paint church walls and ceilings with religious paintings. This article on medieval painting gives detailed information on the painting styles used the history of medieval painting and the artist and materials used for medieval paintings. If you’d like to learn more about medieval art in general please look at the numerous links at the bottom of this medieval painting page you may also find the articles on medieval architecture interesting as well.	1,260	ENGLISH	1
Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Harry Burger. Harry Burger was born on May 10, 1924, in Vienna, Austria. The Burger family was affluent and lived a comfortable life until 1938, when Germany annexed Austria and the German Nuremberg Laws were put into effect there. Harry's family escaped into France, hoping to flee German rule, but their plans were dashed when France was conquered by Germany in 1940. Harry's father was arrested and sent to Auschwitz. Meanwhile, Harry and his mother were moved to a makeshift ghetto in Nice, France. Their one stroke of luck was that the Italian army, which was not abusive to Jews, occupied Nice. When the Italians left France, Harry, his mother and 700 other Jews followed them into Italy. When they arrived at an Italian fort, Harry learned the Nazis were en route to collect the Jews. Harry and his mother escaped capture, while more than 350 of the others were taken by the Nazis. Harry and his mother were living in a barn on the Italian-French border when he was approached by a group of Italian soldiers. Harry asked if he could join them. On the spot, the soldier issued Harry a rifle. In this fashion, he became a partisan in the First Alpine Division, where he used his fluency in German to interrogate captured soldiers. Initially, the First Alpine Division was under-equipped; they eventually received Allied support in the form of airdropped munitions and clothing. One of the First Alpine's most important tasks was the sabotage of German electric capabilities. In Northern Italy the train system was electrically powered, so the destruction of local electric plants seriously hindered German mobility. After the war, Harry was reunited with his mother and returned to France. He stayed in France for five years, working as a photographer. In 1950, Harry immigrated to the United States, eventually finding photography work with two prominent television networks. Harry has one child and four grandchildren. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Harry Burger's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	<urn:uuid:81c7b511-7766-4557-bb72-bea9f8e89697>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/harry-burger	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00478.warc.gz	en	0.985553	514	3.921875	4	[ -0.8115946054458618, 0.6294099688529968, -0.10956020653247833, -0.15589845180511475, -0.28556185960769653, 0.01647520251572132, 0.13557304441928864, -0.0058782282285392284, -0.44571226835250854, -0.30245959758758545, 0.2642183005809784, -0.41397321224212646, 0.045327577739953995, 0.0220113...	11	Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Harry Burger. Harry Burger was born on May 10, 1924, in Vienna, Austria. The Burger family was affluent and lived a comfortable life until 1938, when Germany annexed Austria and the German Nuremberg Laws were put into effect there. Harry's family escaped into France, hoping to flee German rule, but their plans were dashed when France was conquered by Germany in 1940. Harry's father was arrested and sent to Auschwitz. Meanwhile, Harry and his mother were moved to a makeshift ghetto in Nice, France. Their one stroke of luck was that the Italian army, which was not abusive to Jews, occupied Nice. When the Italians left France, Harry, his mother and 700 other Jews followed them into Italy. When they arrived at an Italian fort, Harry learned the Nazis were en route to collect the Jews. Harry and his mother escaped capture, while more than 350 of the others were taken by the Nazis. Harry and his mother were living in a barn on the Italian-French border when he was approached by a group of Italian soldiers. Harry asked if he could join them. On the spot, the soldier issued Harry a rifle. In this fashion, he became a partisan in the First Alpine Division, where he used his fluency in German to interrogate captured soldiers. Initially, the First Alpine Division was under-equipped; they eventually received Allied support in the form of airdropped munitions and clothing. One of the First Alpine's most important tasks was the sabotage of German electric capabilities. In Northern Italy the train system was electrically powered, so the destruction of local electric plants seriously hindered German mobility. After the war, Harry was reunited with his mother and returned to France. He stayed in France for five years, working as a photographer. In 1950, Harry immigrated to the United States, eventually finding photography work with two prominent television networks. Harry has one child and four grandchildren. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Harry Burger's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	533	ENGLISH	1
It has been another great week in our PK class. We continue to talk about the winter season and many of it's characteristics. The girls were interested in the animals that especially like the winter season and the cold weather. They wanted to learn about the penguin and how he survives in the ice. They have learned many facts that they can share with you and they even can waddle like the penguin. We also discovered the many things that would sink or float in water. They found it interesting to guess on what would and would not. Our centers continue to encourage our girls to be creative and to express themselves. They emphasize numbers, counting, rhyming, drawing, storytelling and writing. Number recognition and counting Cutting and creating Experimenting with sink or float Using our small motor skills with playdough Learning to ryhyme	<urn:uuid:7f4478f1-226f-4d24-8c4e-2abd07869d42>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://hutchisonpk.weebly.com/allenburt/winter-fun	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00060.warc.gz	en	0.980179	174	3.328125	3	[ -0.18236954510211945, -0.06128730624914169, 0.31982073187828064, -0.4237355589866638, 0.0008886744035407901, 0.2018338143825531, 0.45553943514823914, 0.28022199869155884, -0.2996542155742645, 0.026851138100028038, 0.13432668149471283, -0.42017650604248047, 0.3591935634613037, -0.0384455136...	1	It has been another great week in our PK class. We continue to talk about the winter season and many of it's characteristics. The girls were interested in the animals that especially like the winter season and the cold weather. They wanted to learn about the penguin and how he survives in the ice. They have learned many facts that they can share with you and they even can waddle like the penguin. We also discovered the many things that would sink or float in water. They found it interesting to guess on what would and would not. Our centers continue to encourage our girls to be creative and to express themselves. They emphasize numbers, counting, rhyming, drawing, storytelling and writing. Number recognition and counting Cutting and creating Experimenting with sink or float Using our small motor skills with playdough Learning to ryhyme	172	ENGLISH	1
Emotional intelligence is as important as academics when it comes to a student’s performance at school. Recent research published in the journal American Psychological Association found that students with emotional intelligence (EI) show better performance at school than their less-skilled counterparts. EI was defined as the ability to understand and manage emotions. The team gathered this cross-country data from more than 160 studies from 27 countries, covering over 42,000 students. Almost three-quarters of these countries (76 percent) were English-speaking. The participants ranged from elementary school to college-going students. When collecting and analyzing the data, the team took into consideration factors like personality and intelligence. The researchers found that students who recorded high EI also showed better academic performance with higher grades and test scores when compared to students with lower EI. The association was possibly due to three reasons. Firstly, students with high EI are better able to manage the negative emotions like frustration and anxiety associated with academic performance. Secondly, they are more adept at navigating their social relationships. Thirdly, certain EI skills overlap with academics, helping the student to understand the subject. In a related article published in the same journal, the team also cautioned against testing for low EI as a means of improving performance. Instead, schools should focus on teacher training and well-being.	<urn:uuid:56584fef-daa2-4005-a31f-22aa2efaf542>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.organicfacts.net/emotional-intelligence	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00467.warc.gz	en	0.980096	272	3.375	3	[ -0.08028891682624817, 0.32327526807785034, 0.3547457456588745, 0.15427927672863007, -0.15816543996334076, 0.2938660979270935, 0.5079493522644043, 0.2683257460594177, 0.32744693756103516, -0.17439410090446472, 0.08265144377946854, 0.06772244721651077, 0.6953652501106262, 0.11054795235395432...	11	Emotional intelligence is as important as academics when it comes to a student’s performance at school. Recent research published in the journal American Psychological Association found that students with emotional intelligence (EI) show better performance at school than their less-skilled counterparts. EI was defined as the ability to understand and manage emotions. The team gathered this cross-country data from more than 160 studies from 27 countries, covering over 42,000 students. Almost three-quarters of these countries (76 percent) were English-speaking. The participants ranged from elementary school to college-going students. When collecting and analyzing the data, the team took into consideration factors like personality and intelligence. The researchers found that students who recorded high EI also showed better academic performance with higher grades and test scores when compared to students with lower EI. The association was possibly due to three reasons. Firstly, students with high EI are better able to manage the negative emotions like frustration and anxiety associated with academic performance. Secondly, they are more adept at navigating their social relationships. Thirdly, certain EI skills overlap with academics, helping the student to understand the subject. In a related article published in the same journal, the team also cautioned against testing for low EI as a means of improving performance. Instead, schools should focus on teacher training and well-being.	265	ENGLISH	1
Cycladic Narrow Idol A hand made bronze cycladic narrow idol. Hand-Made Bronze Sculpture with Quality Guarantee. Traditionally made with the method of casting bronze and with a museum-like oxidization. The best-known art of this period are the marble figures usually called "idols" or "figurines", though neither name is exactly accurate: the former term suggests a religious function which is by no means agreed on by experts, and the latter doesn't properly apply to the largest figures, which are nearly life size. These marble figures are seen scattered around the Aegean, suggesting that these figures were popular amongst the people of Crete and mainland Greece. Perhaps the most famous of these figures are musicians: one a harp-player the other a pipe-player. Dating to approximately 2500 BCE, these musicians are sometimes considered “the earliest extant musicians from the Aegean.” The majority of these figures, however, are highly stylized representations of the female human form, typically having a flat, geometric quality which gives them a striking resemblance to today's modern art. However, this may be a modern misconception as there is evidence that the idols were originally brightly painted. A majority of the figurines are female, depicted nude, and with arms folded across the stomach, typically with the right arm held below the left. Most writers who have considered these artifacts from an anthropological or psychological viewpoint have assumed that they are representative of a Great Goddess of nature, in a tradition continuous with that of Neolithic female figures such as the Venus of Willendorf. Although some archeologists would agree, this interpretation is not generally agreed on by archeologists, among whom there is no consensus on their significance. They have been variously interpreted as idols of the gods, images of death, children's dolls, and other things. One authority feels they were "more than dolls and probably less than sacrosanct idols." Female Figure, ca. 3000 B.C.E. Brooklyn Museum Suggestions that these images were idols in the strict sense—cult objects which were the focus of ritual worship—are unsupported by any archeological evidence. What the archeological evidence does suggest is that these images were regularly used in funerary practice: they have all been found in graves. Yet at least some of them show clear signs of having been repaired, implying that they were objects valued by the deceased during life and were not made specifically for burial. Furthermore, larger figures were sometimes broken up so that only part of them was buried, a phenomenon for which there is no explanation. The figures apparently were buried equally with both men and women. Such figures were not found in every grave. While the idols are most frequently found laid on their backs in graves, larger examples may have been set up in shrines or dwelling places. Read more here	<urn:uuid:55519305-2a26-4f85-8244-35152d0b93cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.artgreka.gr/cycladic-narrow-idol	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00195.warc.gz	en	0.981779	583	3.515625	4	[ 0.30112695693969727, 0.2305087447166443, 0.5684645175933838, 0.03744690492749214, -0.5069947242736816, 0.269367516040802, 0.20660924911499023, 0.24672096967697144, 0.2547767758369446, 0.05455853044986725, 0.11138807237148285, -0.27806025743484497, 0.04025035351514816, 0.2745041847229004, ...	2	Cycladic Narrow Idol A hand made bronze cycladic narrow idol. Hand-Made Bronze Sculpture with Quality Guarantee. Traditionally made with the method of casting bronze and with a museum-like oxidization. The best-known art of this period are the marble figures usually called "idols" or "figurines", though neither name is exactly accurate: the former term suggests a religious function which is by no means agreed on by experts, and the latter doesn't properly apply to the largest figures, which are nearly life size. These marble figures are seen scattered around the Aegean, suggesting that these figures were popular amongst the people of Crete and mainland Greece. Perhaps the most famous of these figures are musicians: one a harp-player the other a pipe-player. Dating to approximately 2500 BCE, these musicians are sometimes considered “the earliest extant musicians from the Aegean.” The majority of these figures, however, are highly stylized representations of the female human form, typically having a flat, geometric quality which gives them a striking resemblance to today's modern art. However, this may be a modern misconception as there is evidence that the idols were originally brightly painted. A majority of the figurines are female, depicted nude, and with arms folded across the stomach, typically with the right arm held below the left. Most writers who have considered these artifacts from an anthropological or psychological viewpoint have assumed that they are representative of a Great Goddess of nature, in a tradition continuous with that of Neolithic female figures such as the Venus of Willendorf. Although some archeologists would agree, this interpretation is not generally agreed on by archeologists, among whom there is no consensus on their significance. They have been variously interpreted as idols of the gods, images of death, children's dolls, and other things. One authority feels they were "more than dolls and probably less than sacrosanct idols." Female Figure, ca. 3000 B.C.E. Brooklyn Museum Suggestions that these images were idols in the strict sense—cult objects which were the focus of ritual worship—are unsupported by any archeological evidence. What the archeological evidence does suggest is that these images were regularly used in funerary practice: they have all been found in graves. Yet at least some of them show clear signs of having been repaired, implying that they were objects valued by the deceased during life and were not made specifically for burial. Furthermore, larger figures were sometimes broken up so that only part of them was buried, a phenomenon for which there is no explanation. The figures apparently were buried equally with both men and women. Such figures were not found in every grave. While the idols are most frequently found laid on their backs in graves, larger examples may have been set up in shrines or dwelling places. Read more here	578	ENGLISH	1
Iliad and The Odyssey, which have had an enormous effect on Western culture, but very little is known about their alleged author. The Mystery of Homer Homer is a mystery. The Greek epic poet credited with the enduring epic tales of The Iliad and The Odyssey Is an enigma insofar as actual facts of his life go. Some scholars believe him to be one man; others think these Iconic stones were created by a group. A variation on the group Idea stems from the fact that storytelling was an oral tradition and Homer Is the one who took the time to write It down.Order now Homer’s style, whoever he was, falls more in the category of minstrel poet or ladder, as opposed to a cultivated poet who is the product of a fervent literary moment, such as a Virgil or a Shakespeare. The stories have repetitive elements, almost like a chorus or refrain, which suggests a musical element. However, Homer’s works are designated as epic rather than lyric poetry, which was originally recited with lyre in hand, much in the same vein as spoken-word performances. All this speculation about who he was has Inevitably led to what is known as the Homeric Question-?whether he actually existed at all. This Is often considered to be the greatest literary mystery. When He Was Born Much speculation surrounds when Homer was born, because of the dearth of real information about him. Guesses at his birth date range from 750 BC all the way back to 1200 BC, the latter because The Iliad encompasses the story of the Trojan War, so some scholars have thought it fit to put the poet and chronicler nearer to the time of that actual event. But others believe the poetic style of his work indicates a much later period. Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484425 SC), often called the father of history, placed Homer several centuries before himself, around 850 BC. Part of the problem is that Homer lived before a chronological dating system was in place. The Olympic Games of classical Greece marked an epoch, with 776 BC as a starting point by which to measure out four-year periods for the event. In short, It Is difficult to give someone a birth date when he was born before there was a calendar. Where He Was Born Once again, the exact location of Homer’s birth cannot be pinpointed, although that rate, on the coast of Asia Minor or the island of Choices. But seven cities lay claim to Homer as their native son. There is some basis for some of these claims, however. The dialect that The Iliad and The Odyssey are written in is considered Asiatic Greek, specifically Ionic. That fact, paired with frequent mentions of local phenomena such as strong winds blowing from the northwest from the direction of Thrace, suggests, scholars feel, a familiarity with that region that could only mean Homer came from there. The dialect helps narrow down his lifespan by coinciding it with the development and usage of language in general, but The Iliad and The Odyssey were so popular that this particular dialect became the norm for much of Greek literature going forward. The Iliad and The Odyssey Homer’s two epic poems have become archetypal road maps in world mythology. The stories provide an important insight into early human society, and illustrate, in some aspects, how little has changed. Even if The Iliad itself seems unfamiliar, the story of the siege of Troy, the Trojan War and Paris’ kidnapping of Helen, the world’s most beautiful woman, are all familiar characters or scenarios. Some scholars insist that Homer was personally familiar with the plain of Troy, due to the geographical accuracy in the poem. The Odyssey picks up after the fall of Troy. Further controversy about authorship brings from the differing styles of the two long narrative poems, indicating they were composed a century apart, while other historians claim only decades -the more formal structure of The Iliad is attributed to a poet at the height of his powers, whereas the more colloquial, novelistic approach in The Odyssey is attributed to an elderly Homer. Homer enriched his descriptive story with liberal use of simile and metaphor, which has inspired a long path of writers behind him. His structuring device was to start in the middle-in medias rest- and then fill in the missing information via remembrances. The two narrative poems pop up throughout modern literature: Homer’s The Odyssey has parallels in James Jockey’s Ulysses, and his tale of Achilles in The Iliad is echoed in J. R. R. Toolkit’s The Fall of Condoling. Even the Cone Brothers’ film O Brother, Where Art Thou? Makes use of The Odyssey. Other works have been attributed to Homer over the centuries, most notably the Homeric Hymns, but in the end only the two epic works remain enduringly his. Quote About Homer: “Homer and Hissed have ascribed to the gods all things that are a shame and a disgrace among mortals, stealing and adulteries and deceiving on one another. ” SHOP The dates of Shop or Shoppe are not known. She is thought to have been born around 610 B. C. And to have died in about 570. This was the period of the sages Thales, considered, by Aristotle, the founder of natural philosophers, and Solon, the law-giver of Athens. In Rome, it was the time of the legendary kings. Shop is thought to have come from Imminently on the island of Losses. Shop’s Poetry: Playing with the available meters, Shop wrote moving lyric poetry. A poetic meter was named in honor of her. Shop wrote odes to the goddesses, especially Aphrodite the subject of Shop’s complete surviving ode, and love otter, including the wedding genre (epithelial), using vernacular and epic vocabulary. She also wrote about herself, her women’s community, and her times. Her writing about her times was very different from her contemporary Locales, whose poetry was more political. Transmission of Shop’s Poetry: Although we do not know how Shop’s poetry was transmitted, by the Hellenic Era when Alexander the Great (d. 323 B. C. ) had brought Greek culture from Egypt to the Indus River, Shop’s poetry was published. Along with the writing of other lyric poets, Shop’s poetry was categorized metrically. By the Middle Ages most of Shop’s poetry was lost, and so today there are only parts of four poems. Only one of them is complete. There are also fragments of her poetry, including 63 complete, single lines and perhaps 264 fragments. The fourth poem is a recent discovery from rolls of papyrus in Cologne University. Legends About Shop’s Life: There is a legend that Shop leaped to her death as the result of a failed love affair with a man named Phonon. This is probably untrue. Shop is usually counted a lesbian the very word coming from the island where Shop lived, and Shop’s otter clearly shows that she loved some of the women of her community, whether or not the passion was expressed sexually. Shop may have been married to a wealthy man named Scarcely. Established Facts About Shop: Larches and Charades were Shop’s brothers. She also had a daughter named Clevis or Class. In the community of women in which Shop participated and taught, singing, poetry, and dance played a big part. Earthly Muse: An elegiac poet of the first century B. C. Named Antimatter of Thessalonians catalogued the most respected women poets and called them the nine earthly muses. Shop was one of these earthly muses. AESCHYLUS Aeschylus Basics Aeschylus was born at Leslies in Attica in 525/524 and died at Gala in Sicily in 456/55. The 7 Surviving (out of 90) Tragedies Persians – 472 Seven Against Thebes – 468 Suppliant Women – 463 (Trilogy) – 458 Agamemnon Mudslide Prometheus Bound – 450-425 Aeschylus Facts and Figures Dating Suppliant Women is problematic. It was thought to be the earliest, performed in the ass’s, but a recently discovered papyrus fragment suggests it was performed at the same festival as a play by Sophocles, whose first victory and performance took place in 468. Because of a reference on the papyrus to an archon, 463 may be the est. guess. We don’t know when Prometheus Bound was performed or even if it was really by Aeschylus. Aeschylus was the earliest of the three great tragic poets of Greece-Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. He was born at Leslies in 525 B. C. E. , served in the Athenian army, and fought in the pivotal battles of the great Greek war with the Persians, including at Marathon. He showed himself as a great writer at a young age, but did not win a dramatic competition before his late ass. After that, he won nearly every time he entered, until he reached the age of 50 and Sophocles arrived on the scene. The two of them struggled back and forth for years for top honors. After the performance of his Roasters, 459 B. C. E. , he left home for Sicily, perhaps in response to the growing power of the democracy (toward which he had nuanced views), and was killed, says one story, by an eagle dropping a tortoise on his bare skull. The Sicilians honored him with a splendid monument. A century later, the Athenians, on the motion of the orator Ulcerous, placed a brazen statue of him, as well as of Sophocles and Euripides, in the theater. His tragedies, like those of Sophocles and Euripides, were preserved in a special standard copy to guard them against arbitrary alterations. I In 458 B. C. E. , he composed the Roasters, a trilogy of which we will be reading the first and last parts. The story recounts the murder of Agamemnon on his return home from the Trojan War, Rooster’ revenge by murdering his own mother and her lover, and finally Rooster’ run-in with justice. Probably his final work performed at Athens, it gives us an idea of the whole artistic conception of the poet, and must be looked upon as one of the greatest works of art ever produced. The style is marked by sublimity and majesty and is characterized by strong, sonorous words, an accumulation of epithets, and a profusion of bold metaphors and similes. His view of the universe reveals a profoundly philosophic mind and a heartfelt piety, which conceives of the gods as powers working in the interest of morality. The plots of his plays are simple and economical, and small details in the language are often freighted with significance. I Aeschylus deserves to be seen as the true creator of tragedy. Before his plays, only a single actor was positioned onstage at any given time, and the chorus was the most important element on stage. The actor could wonder aloud or have conversations with the chorus, but there was no room for person-to-person dialogue. By adding a second actor to the first, he originated the genuine dramatic dialogue, which he made the chief part of the play by gradually cutting down the choral parts. He also made much greater use of the scenic apparatus than his predecessors. He introduced masks for the players, and by vibrant and richly embroidered trailing garments, high boots, head-dresses, and other means, gave them a grand imposing painting and machinery. All these features became the standard elements of ancient drama. I The number of Aeschylus plays is stated as 90, of which 82 are still known by title, but only 7 are preserved: The Persians, The Seven against Thebes, The Suppliants, Prometheus Bound, and the three plays of the Roasters. I MEANDER After the Macedonian conquest, Greek comedy moved away from the daring personal and political satire of Aristotelian. Lacking complete political independence, writers of this New Comedy found themselves moving towards safer more mundane subject matter. They found their inspiration in the daily life of Athens. Their characters were drawn from the cooks, merchants, farmers and slaves of the city. According to ancient report, the most gifted of these new writers was Meander. Meander, the child of a distinguished family, wrote more than 100 plays during a career that spanned about thirty-three years. He was known for the delicacy and truthfulness of his characterizations, and his poetic style was often mentioned in the same breath as Homer’s. Although he won first prize at only eight festivals, he did much to move comedy towards a more realistic representation of human life. Meander’s harassers spoke in the contemporary dialect and concerned themselves not with the great myths of the past, but rather with the everyday affairs of the people of Athens. His plots revolved around young boys in love with young girls, parents concerned with the misbehaver of their children, unwanted pregnancies, long-lost relatives, and all sorts of sexual misadventures. His first play, The Self Tormentor, was written at the age of twenty. And he won his first victory with a play entitled Anger in 316 B. C. Meander’s plays held a place in the standard literature of western Europe for over 800 years. At some point, however, his manuscripts were lost or destroyed, and what we now know of the poet is based primarily on ancient reports, a few manuscripts which have been recovered in the last hundred years, and adaptations by the Roman playwrights Plateaus and Terrace. There is only one complete play–Dossals (The Grouch)–which was not rediscovered until 1957. A few long fragments have survived as well from such plays as The Arbitration, The Girl from Samos, The Shorn Girl, and The Hero. “He who labors diligently need never despair, for all things are accomplished by diligence and labor. ” -? Meander PONIARD Biographical Data Poniard, although difficult for many of us today to read or appreciate, was considered one of, if not the greatest Greek lyric poet. He was born at the time of the Python festival at Delphi in either the 65th Olympian (518) according to the Suds, or in the 64th Olympian, 4 years earlier, at Conceptually, near Thebes, in Biota. A contemporary of Aeschylus, Poniard was around 40 years of age during the Persian War of 481-479 B. C. He probably died in 443 B. C. At Argos, at around the age of 80. His daughters, Approximate and Emits brought his ashes back to Thebes where a mob was built and mentioned centuries later by the travel writer Pausing. Use of Because Poniard was so valued in antiquity, much of his poetry survives at least in quotations. He is now valued for information contained in his poetry on the ancient games and Greek mythology. Much of his material may seem obscure and there is a repetitious nature to the biographical detail he provides on those men he celebrates. As a result, students often resist working on him. . Poniard had a problem at the start of his career with the amount of mythological detail he used. His rival, the female poet Ocarina faulted him, according to Sandy, for failing to use mythological material in his lyric, so he went the other way and used it too liberally. He was then chided for his heavy- handedness. Training It is possible that Poniard’s family was Spartan, but he was Boating, home also of the epic poet Hissed. Biota was considered somewhat backwards. This influence may explain Poniard’s conservatism, although he studied music (stringed instruments and the LULAS ‘flute’) at the center of Greek culture, in Athens, where he studied lyric composition under Stagecoaches, Pollards, and Luaus of Hormone, following his initial instruction at home under Couplings, who may have been his father or uncle. Sandy says his parents were Diaphanous and Clicked. He returned to his homeland of Thebes at about age 20 when he started his career as a lyric poet. Poniard’s Lyric Poetry He is said to have been a contemporary of the poet Ocarina, who beat him in poetic competition. Poniard, however, won first place in the dramatic competition at the Great Dionysian in c. 497/6. Poniard’s 44 Phoenicia (victory odes) are divided into Olympic, Python (the time of Poniard’s birth, noted above)), Isthmian, and Mean, for the names of the Phenylalanine games. The term Pandemic ode refers to a verse form used primarily in England in the 17th and 18th cent. The form, based on a somewhat faulty understanding of the metrical pattern used by Poniard, originated with Abraham Cooley in his Pandering Odes (1656) and was later used by John Dryden, among others. It is characterized by irregularity in the rhyme scheme, length of the stanzas, and number of stresses in a line. SOPHOCLES Dates: c. 496-406 B. C. Occupation: Playwright Sophocles was the second of the 3 greatest Greek writers of tragedy (with Aeschylus and Euripides). He is known best for what he wrote about Oedipus, he mythological figure who proved central to Freud and the history of psychoanalysis. He lived through most of the 5th century, experiencing the Age of Perils and the Peloponnesus War. Basics: Sophocles grew up in the town of Colon’s, Just outside Athens, which was the setting of his tragedy Oedipus at Colon’s. His father, Sophocles, thought to have been been a wealthy nobleman, sent his son to Athens for an education. Public Offices: In 443/2 Sophocles was hollandaise or treasurer of the Greeks and managed, with 9 the Arcadian War (431-421) Sophocles was strategies ‘general’. In 413/2, he was one of the board of 10 opprobrious or commissioners in charge of the council. Religious Office: Sophocles was a priest of Hallo and helped introduce the cult of Ecclesiae, god of medicine, to Athens. He was honored posthumously as a hero. Dramatic Accomplishments: In 468, Sophocles defeated the first of the the three great Greek tragedians, Aeschylus, in a dramatic competition; then in 441, the third of the tragedian trio, Euripides, beat him. During his long life Sophocles earned many prizes, including about 20 for 1st place. Sophocles increased the number of actors to 3 (thereby educing the importance of the chorus). He broke from Aeschylus’ thematically- unified trilogies, and invented iconographic(scene painting), to define the background. Extant Plays: Seven complete tragedies out of more than 100 survive; fragments exist for 80-90 others. Oedipus at Colon’s was produced posthumously. * Oedipus Tyrannous * Trichinae * Ajax * Plainclothes * Antigen * Electra * Oedipus at Colon’s ARISTOTELIAN Aristotelian (c. 46 BC – c. 386 SC), son of Philippic, of the deem Chasteness, was a comic playwright of ancient. Eleven of his 40 plays survive virtually complete. These, gather with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, and they are used to define the genre. Also known as the Father of Comedy and the Prince of Ancient Comedy, Aristotelian has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristotelian’ play The Clouds as slander contributing to the trial and execution of Socrates although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher. His second play, The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced by the demagogue Clean as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristotelian caricatured Clean mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights, the first of many plays that he directed himself. In my opinion,” he says through the Chorus in that play, “the author- director of comedies has the hardest Job of all. ” The language in Aristotelian’ plays and in Old Comedy generally, was valued by ancient commentators as a model of the Attic dialect. The orator Quintillion believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy an example for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of Homer. A revival of interest in the Attic dialect may have been responsible for the recovery and circulation of Aristotelian’ plays during the 4th and 5th centuries AD, resulting in his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities. EURIPIDES Euripides was born in 480 BC and died in 406 BC. Euripides was the youngest of the three principal fifth-century tragic poets. His work, which was quite popular in his own time, exerted great influence on Roman drama. In more recent times he has influenced English and German drama, and most conspicuously such French dramatists as Pierre Chronicle and Jean-Batiste Racine. His plays began to be performed in the Attic drama festivals in 454 BC, but it was not until 442 BC that he won first prize. This distinction, despite his prolific talent, fell to him again only four times. Aside from his writings, his chief interests were philosophy and science. Euripides represented the new moral, social, and political movements that were aging place in Athens towards the end of the 5th century BC. It was a period of enormous intellectual discovery, in which “wisdom” ranked as the highest earthly accomplishment. Angoras had Just proven that air was an element, and that the sun was not a divinity but matter. New truths were being established in all departments of knowledge, and Euripides, reacting to them, brought a new kind of consciousness to the writing of tragedy. His interest lay in the thought and experience of the ordinary individual rather than in the experiences of legendary figures of the heroic past.	<urn:uuid:533e8b21-0a46-4579-9bf1-1e0237df24c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/literary-arts/poetry/greek-poets-37003/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00242.warc.gz	en	0.981388	4,857	3.484375	3	[ 0.2898572087287903, 0.09257859736680984, 0.30681824684143066, 0.09332828223705292, -0.4720487594604492, -0.6448849439620972, 0.009156854823231697, 0.5907482504844666, 0.019575567916035652, 0.1834714114665985, -0.09639635682106018, -0.13917312026023865, -0.4010089039802551, 0.68232512474060...	3	Iliad and The Odyssey, which have had an enormous effect on Western culture, but very little is known about their alleged author. The Mystery of Homer Homer is a mystery. The Greek epic poet credited with the enduring epic tales of The Iliad and The Odyssey Is an enigma insofar as actual facts of his life go. Some scholars believe him to be one man; others think these Iconic stones were created by a group. A variation on the group Idea stems from the fact that storytelling was an oral tradition and Homer Is the one who took the time to write It down.Order now Homer’s style, whoever he was, falls more in the category of minstrel poet or ladder, as opposed to a cultivated poet who is the product of a fervent literary moment, such as a Virgil or a Shakespeare. The stories have repetitive elements, almost like a chorus or refrain, which suggests a musical element. However, Homer’s works are designated as epic rather than lyric poetry, which was originally recited with lyre in hand, much in the same vein as spoken-word performances. All this speculation about who he was has Inevitably led to what is known as the Homeric Question-?whether he actually existed at all. This Is often considered to be the greatest literary mystery. When He Was Born Much speculation surrounds when Homer was born, because of the dearth of real information about him. Guesses at his birth date range from 750 BC all the way back to 1200 BC, the latter because The Iliad encompasses the story of the Trojan War, so some scholars have thought it fit to put the poet and chronicler nearer to the time of that actual event. But others believe the poetic style of his work indicates a much later period. Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484425 SC), often called the father of history, placed Homer several centuries before himself, around 850 BC. Part of the problem is that Homer lived before a chronological dating system was in place. The Olympic Games of classical Greece marked an epoch, with 776 BC as a starting point by which to measure out four-year periods for the event. In short, It Is difficult to give someone a birth date when he was born before there was a calendar. Where He Was Born Once again, the exact location of Homer’s birth cannot be pinpointed, although that rate, on the coast of Asia Minor or the island of Choices. But seven cities lay claim to Homer as their native son. There is some basis for some of these claims, however. The dialect that The Iliad and The Odyssey are written in is considered Asiatic Greek, specifically Ionic. That fact, paired with frequent mentions of local phenomena such as strong winds blowing from the northwest from the direction of Thrace, suggests, scholars feel, a familiarity with that region that could only mean Homer came from there. The dialect helps narrow down his lifespan by coinciding it with the development and usage of language in general, but The Iliad and The Odyssey were so popular that this particular dialect became the norm for much of Greek literature going forward. The Iliad and The Odyssey Homer’s two epic poems have become archetypal road maps in world mythology. The stories provide an important insight into early human society, and illustrate, in some aspects, how little has changed. Even if The Iliad itself seems unfamiliar, the story of the siege of Troy, the Trojan War and Paris’ kidnapping of Helen, the world’s most beautiful woman, are all familiar characters or scenarios. Some scholars insist that Homer was personally familiar with the plain of Troy, due to the geographical accuracy in the poem. The Odyssey picks up after the fall of Troy. Further controversy about authorship brings from the differing styles of the two long narrative poems, indicating they were composed a century apart, while other historians claim only decades -the more formal structure of The Iliad is attributed to a poet at the height of his powers, whereas the more colloquial, novelistic approach in The Odyssey is attributed to an elderly Homer. Homer enriched his descriptive story with liberal use of simile and metaphor, which has inspired a long path of writers behind him. His structuring device was to start in the middle-in medias rest- and then fill in the missing information via remembrances. The two narrative poems pop up throughout modern literature: Homer’s The Odyssey has parallels in James Jockey’s Ulysses, and his tale of Achilles in The Iliad is echoed in J. R. R. Toolkit’s The Fall of Condoling. Even the Cone Brothers’ film O Brother, Where Art Thou? Makes use of The Odyssey. Other works have been attributed to Homer over the centuries, most notably the Homeric Hymns, but in the end only the two epic works remain enduringly his. Quote About Homer: “Homer and Hissed have ascribed to the gods all things that are a shame and a disgrace among mortals, stealing and adulteries and deceiving on one another. ” SHOP The dates of Shop or Shoppe are not known. She is thought to have been born around 610 B. C. And to have died in about 570. This was the period of the sages Thales, considered, by Aristotle, the founder of natural philosophers, and Solon, the law-giver of Athens. In Rome, it was the time of the legendary kings. Shop is thought to have come from Imminently on the island of Losses. Shop’s Poetry: Playing with the available meters, Shop wrote moving lyric poetry. A poetic meter was named in honor of her. Shop wrote odes to the goddesses, especially Aphrodite the subject of Shop’s complete surviving ode, and love otter, including the wedding genre (epithelial), using vernacular and epic vocabulary. She also wrote about herself, her women’s community, and her times. Her writing about her times was very different from her contemporary Locales, whose poetry was more political. Transmission of Shop’s Poetry: Although we do not know how Shop’s poetry was transmitted, by the Hellenic Era when Alexander the Great (d. 323 B. C. ) had brought Greek culture from Egypt to the Indus River, Shop’s poetry was published. Along with the writing of other lyric poets, Shop’s poetry was categorized metrically. By the Middle Ages most of Shop’s poetry was lost, and so today there are only parts of four poems. Only one of them is complete. There are also fragments of her poetry, including 63 complete, single lines and perhaps 264 fragments. The fourth poem is a recent discovery from rolls of papyrus in Cologne University. Legends About Shop’s Life: There is a legend that Shop leaped to her death as the result of a failed love affair with a man named Phonon. This is probably untrue. Shop is usually counted a lesbian the very word coming from the island where Shop lived, and Shop’s otter clearly shows that she loved some of the women of her community, whether or not the passion was expressed sexually. Shop may have been married to a wealthy man named Scarcely. Established Facts About Shop: Larches and Charades were Shop’s brothers. She also had a daughter named Clevis or Class. In the community of women in which Shop participated and taught, singing, poetry, and dance played a big part. Earthly Muse: An elegiac poet of the first century B. C. Named Antimatter of Thessalonians catalogued the most respected women poets and called them the nine earthly muses. Shop was one of these earthly muses. AESCHYLUS Aeschylus Basics Aeschylus was born at Leslies in Attica in 525/524 and died at Gala in Sicily in 456/55. The 7 Surviving (out of 90) Tragedies Persians – 472 Seven Against Thebes – 468 Suppliant Women – 463 (Trilogy) – 458 Agamemnon Mudslide Prometheus Bound – 450-425 Aeschylus Facts and Figures Dating Suppliant Women is problematic. It was thought to be the earliest, performed in the ass’s, but a recently discovered papyrus fragment suggests it was performed at the same festival as a play by Sophocles, whose first victory and performance took place in 468. Because of a reference on the papyrus to an archon, 463 may be the est. guess. We don’t know when Prometheus Bound was performed or even if it was really by Aeschylus. Aeschylus was the earliest of the three great tragic poets of Greece-Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. He was born at Leslies in 525 B. C. E. , served in the Athenian army, and fought in the pivotal battles of the great Greek war with the Persians, including at Marathon. He showed himself as a great writer at a young age, but did not win a dramatic competition before his late ass. After that, he won nearly every time he entered, until he reached the age of 50 and Sophocles arrived on the scene. The two of them struggled back and forth for years for top honors. After the performance of his Roasters, 459 B. C. E. , he left home for Sicily, perhaps in response to the growing power of the democracy (toward which he had nuanced views), and was killed, says one story, by an eagle dropping a tortoise on his bare skull. The Sicilians honored him with a splendid monument. A century later, the Athenians, on the motion of the orator Ulcerous, placed a brazen statue of him, as well as of Sophocles and Euripides, in the theater. His tragedies, like those of Sophocles and Euripides, were preserved in a special standard copy to guard them against arbitrary alterations. I In 458 B. C. E. , he composed the Roasters, a trilogy of which we will be reading the first and last parts. The story recounts the murder of Agamemnon on his return home from the Trojan War, Rooster’ revenge by murdering his own mother and her lover, and finally Rooster’ run-in with justice. Probably his final work performed at Athens, it gives us an idea of the whole artistic conception of the poet, and must be looked upon as one of the greatest works of art ever produced. The style is marked by sublimity and majesty and is characterized by strong, sonorous words, an accumulation of epithets, and a profusion of bold metaphors and similes. His view of the universe reveals a profoundly philosophic mind and a heartfelt piety, which conceives of the gods as powers working in the interest of morality. The plots of his plays are simple and economical, and small details in the language are often freighted with significance. I Aeschylus deserves to be seen as the true creator of tragedy. Before his plays, only a single actor was positioned onstage at any given time, and the chorus was the most important element on stage. The actor could wonder aloud or have conversations with the chorus, but there was no room for person-to-person dialogue. By adding a second actor to the first, he originated the genuine dramatic dialogue, which he made the chief part of the play by gradually cutting down the choral parts. He also made much greater use of the scenic apparatus than his predecessors. He introduced masks for the players, and by vibrant and richly embroidered trailing garments, high boots, head-dresses, and other means, gave them a grand imposing painting and machinery. All these features became the standard elements of ancient drama. I The number of Aeschylus plays is stated as 90, of which 82 are still known by title, but only 7 are preserved: The Persians, The Seven against Thebes, The Suppliants, Prometheus Bound, and the three plays of the Roasters. I MEANDER After the Macedonian conquest, Greek comedy moved away from the daring personal and political satire of Aristotelian. Lacking complete political independence, writers of this New Comedy found themselves moving towards safer more mundane subject matter. They found their inspiration in the daily life of Athens. Their characters were drawn from the cooks, merchants, farmers and slaves of the city. According to ancient report, the most gifted of these new writers was Meander. Meander, the child of a distinguished family, wrote more than 100 plays during a career that spanned about thirty-three years. He was known for the delicacy and truthfulness of his characterizations, and his poetic style was often mentioned in the same breath as Homer’s. Although he won first prize at only eight festivals, he did much to move comedy towards a more realistic representation of human life. Meander’s harassers spoke in the contemporary dialect and concerned themselves not with the great myths of the past, but rather with the everyday affairs of the people of Athens. His plots revolved around young boys in love with young girls, parents concerned with the misbehaver of their children, unwanted pregnancies, long-lost relatives, and all sorts of sexual misadventures. His first play, The Self Tormentor, was written at the age of twenty. And he won his first victory with a play entitled Anger in 316 B. C. Meander’s plays held a place in the standard literature of western Europe for over 800 years. At some point, however, his manuscripts were lost or destroyed, and what we now know of the poet is based primarily on ancient reports, a few manuscripts which have been recovered in the last hundred years, and adaptations by the Roman playwrights Plateaus and Terrace. There is only one complete play–Dossals (The Grouch)–which was not rediscovered until 1957. A few long fragments have survived as well from such plays as The Arbitration, The Girl from Samos, The Shorn Girl, and The Hero. “He who labors diligently need never despair, for all things are accomplished by diligence and labor. ” -? Meander PONIARD Biographical Data Poniard, although difficult for many of us today to read or appreciate, was considered one of, if not the greatest Greek lyric poet. He was born at the time of the Python festival at Delphi in either the 65th Olympian (518) according to the Suds, or in the 64th Olympian, 4 years earlier, at Conceptually, near Thebes, in Biota. A contemporary of Aeschylus, Poniard was around 40 years of age during the Persian War of 481-479 B. C. He probably died in 443 B. C. At Argos, at around the age of 80. His daughters, Approximate and Emits brought his ashes back to Thebes where a mob was built and mentioned centuries later by the travel writer Pausing. Use of Because Poniard was so valued in antiquity, much of his poetry survives at least in quotations. He is now valued for information contained in his poetry on the ancient games and Greek mythology. Much of his material may seem obscure and there is a repetitious nature to the biographical detail he provides on those men he celebrates. As a result, students often resist working on him. . Poniard had a problem at the start of his career with the amount of mythological detail he used. His rival, the female poet Ocarina faulted him, according to Sandy, for failing to use mythological material in his lyric, so he went the other way and used it too liberally. He was then chided for his heavy- handedness. Training It is possible that Poniard’s family was Spartan, but he was Boating, home also of the epic poet Hissed. Biota was considered somewhat backwards. This influence may explain Poniard’s conservatism, although he studied music (stringed instruments and the LULAS ‘flute’) at the center of Greek culture, in Athens, where he studied lyric composition under Stagecoaches, Pollards, and Luaus of Hormone, following his initial instruction at home under Couplings, who may have been his father or uncle. Sandy says his parents were Diaphanous and Clicked. He returned to his homeland of Thebes at about age 20 when he started his career as a lyric poet. Poniard’s Lyric Poetry He is said to have been a contemporary of the poet Ocarina, who beat him in poetic competition. Poniard, however, won first place in the dramatic competition at the Great Dionysian in c. 497/6. Poniard’s 44 Phoenicia (victory odes) are divided into Olympic, Python (the time of Poniard’s birth, noted above)), Isthmian, and Mean, for the names of the Phenylalanine games. The term Pandemic ode refers to a verse form used primarily in England in the 17th and 18th cent. The form, based on a somewhat faulty understanding of the metrical pattern used by Poniard, originated with Abraham Cooley in his Pandering Odes (1656) and was later used by John Dryden, among others. It is characterized by irregularity in the rhyme scheme, length of the stanzas, and number of stresses in a line. SOPHOCLES Dates: c. 496-406 B. C. Occupation: Playwright Sophocles was the second of the 3 greatest Greek writers of tragedy (with Aeschylus and Euripides). He is known best for what he wrote about Oedipus, he mythological figure who proved central to Freud and the history of psychoanalysis. He lived through most of the 5th century, experiencing the Age of Perils and the Peloponnesus War. Basics: Sophocles grew up in the town of Colon’s, Just outside Athens, which was the setting of his tragedy Oedipus at Colon’s. His father, Sophocles, thought to have been been a wealthy nobleman, sent his son to Athens for an education. Public Offices: In 443/2 Sophocles was hollandaise or treasurer of the Greeks and managed, with 9 the Arcadian War (431-421) Sophocles was strategies ‘general’. In 413/2, he was one of the board of 10 opprobrious or commissioners in charge of the council. Religious Office: Sophocles was a priest of Hallo and helped introduce the cult of Ecclesiae, god of medicine, to Athens. He was honored posthumously as a hero. Dramatic Accomplishments: In 468, Sophocles defeated the first of the the three great Greek tragedians, Aeschylus, in a dramatic competition; then in 441, the third of the tragedian trio, Euripides, beat him. During his long life Sophocles earned many prizes, including about 20 for 1st place. Sophocles increased the number of actors to 3 (thereby educing the importance of the chorus). He broke from Aeschylus’ thematically- unified trilogies, and invented iconographic(scene painting), to define the background. Extant Plays: Seven complete tragedies out of more than 100 survive; fragments exist for 80-90 others. Oedipus at Colon’s was produced posthumously. * Oedipus Tyrannous * Trichinae * Ajax * Plainclothes * Antigen * Electra * Oedipus at Colon’s ARISTOTELIAN Aristotelian (c. 46 BC – c. 386 SC), son of Philippic, of the deem Chasteness, was a comic playwright of ancient. Eleven of his 40 plays survive virtually complete. These, gather with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, and they are used to define the genre. Also known as the Father of Comedy and the Prince of Ancient Comedy, Aristotelian has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristotelian’ play The Clouds as slander contributing to the trial and execution of Socrates although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher. His second play, The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced by the demagogue Clean as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristotelian caricatured Clean mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights, the first of many plays that he directed himself. In my opinion,” he says through the Chorus in that play, “the author- director of comedies has the hardest Job of all. ” The language in Aristotelian’ plays and in Old Comedy generally, was valued by ancient commentators as a model of the Attic dialect. The orator Quintillion believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy an example for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of Homer. A revival of interest in the Attic dialect may have been responsible for the recovery and circulation of Aristotelian’ plays during the 4th and 5th centuries AD, resulting in his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities. EURIPIDES Euripides was born in 480 BC and died in 406 BC. Euripides was the youngest of the three principal fifth-century tragic poets. His work, which was quite popular in his own time, exerted great influence on Roman drama. In more recent times he has influenced English and German drama, and most conspicuously such French dramatists as Pierre Chronicle and Jean-Batiste Racine. His plays began to be performed in the Attic drama festivals in 454 BC, but it was not until 442 BC that he won first prize. This distinction, despite his prolific talent, fell to him again only four times. Aside from his writings, his chief interests were philosophy and science. Euripides represented the new moral, social, and political movements that were aging place in Athens towards the end of the 5th century BC. It was a period of enormous intellectual discovery, in which “wisdom” ranked as the highest earthly accomplishment. Angoras had Just proven that air was an element, and that the sun was not a divinity but matter. New truths were being established in all departments of knowledge, and Euripides, reacting to them, brought a new kind of consciousness to the writing of tragedy. His interest lay in the thought and experience of the ordinary individual rather than in the experiences of legendary figures of the heroic past.	4,854	ENGLISH	1
Throughout United States history, we learn about various important people who left a mark to this country. One of the outstanding icons of the nineteenth century Indian defiance of American expansion was Sitting Bull. He led his Lakota people from their prime mid nineteenth century. Which led to the decline of their culture in the face of superior technology and as well as the increasing numbers of the whites. His story begins in a village a few miles below where it is now present-day Bullhead, South Dakota. For the first years of his life he lived an “active and vigorous life”, giving him his reputation of a viable leader early on. As Sitting Bull grew older, the warrior aspect of male life came more into play. At the age of fourteen, the young boy “learned his lessons well” and joined a mounted war party, in which he was responsible for “picking out the enemy” and “charged at the rival warrior” and struck him with his coup stick.1 Word of his heroic deed quickly spread around his village leading to him being dubbed Sitting Bull. This was done by his father, Jumping Bull, who said his son was like a “beast that the Lakota respected…for its tenacity.” With time Sitting Bull became the Chief of Hunkpapa in 1857, due his common sense and demonstration of his abilities as a warrior, and leader. He was often tested in his abilities when it came to dealing with the whites. He dwelled with the whites along the Powder River in Wyoming, where he learned their combat methods and was left in awe of their weapons. The year of 1867 the whites traveled to Lakota territory in hopes of making a treaty that limited the Lakota into what is present day western South Dakota. Although, Sitting Bull was against the treaty, other Lakota had made their mark on the paper, which lead to the Treaty of 1868.Sitting Bull was a great military and spiritual leader during the Sioux war. The war was between the US government and the Sioux, Lakota and Cheyenne. The US desired the black hills of Dakota, due to the discovery of gold, the Sioux resisted. Even, with the US ransacking their villages, it was no match for the combined forces of Sitting bull and Crazy Horse. After the battles of Little big Horn and Rosebud, the Lakota where forced under military control. Except for those who were able to get away with Sitting bull and go north, which lead to them seeking refuge in Canada. They stayed in Canada for about four and a half years. Following the destruction of the bison herds the Lakota in exile where facing hard times. With time sitting bulls band dwindled down as they reunited with relatives. After months of communication with Canadian Officials and US Army messengers, “Sitting bull led his remaining band back to the United States in July 1881 and formally surrendered.” In conclusion, once Sitting Bull had surrendered there were conflicts between US officials and agencies on as to where they should place Sitting bull, due to the fact that he was a great influence among his people.	<urn:uuid:6836a0f0-6113-4dc7-98b2-c09ef6c5e083>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayhub.net/essays/sitting-bull-one-of-the-outstanding-icons-of-the-nineteenth-century-indian-defiance-of-american-expansion	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00535.warc.gz	en	0.989562	643	3.765625	4	[ 0.23060479760169983, 0.2699733078479767, 0.4361972510814667, 0.0840643048286438, -0.2236042618751526, -0.09649480134248734, 0.2525286078453064, 0.28089338541030884, -0.16423431038856506, -0.20693862438201904, 0.04150982201099396, -0.07161328941583633, 0.46794623136520386, 0.138732105493545...	3	Throughout United States history, we learn about various important people who left a mark to this country. One of the outstanding icons of the nineteenth century Indian defiance of American expansion was Sitting Bull. He led his Lakota people from their prime mid nineteenth century. Which led to the decline of their culture in the face of superior technology and as well as the increasing numbers of the whites. His story begins in a village a few miles below where it is now present-day Bullhead, South Dakota. For the first years of his life he lived an “active and vigorous life”, giving him his reputation of a viable leader early on. As Sitting Bull grew older, the warrior aspect of male life came more into play. At the age of fourteen, the young boy “learned his lessons well” and joined a mounted war party, in which he was responsible for “picking out the enemy” and “charged at the rival warrior” and struck him with his coup stick.1 Word of his heroic deed quickly spread around his village leading to him being dubbed Sitting Bull. This was done by his father, Jumping Bull, who said his son was like a “beast that the Lakota respected…for its tenacity.” With time Sitting Bull became the Chief of Hunkpapa in 1857, due his common sense and demonstration of his abilities as a warrior, and leader. He was often tested in his abilities when it came to dealing with the whites. He dwelled with the whites along the Powder River in Wyoming, where he learned their combat methods and was left in awe of their weapons. The year of 1867 the whites traveled to Lakota territory in hopes of making a treaty that limited the Lakota into what is present day western South Dakota. Although, Sitting Bull was against the treaty, other Lakota had made their mark on the paper, which lead to the Treaty of 1868.Sitting Bull was a great military and spiritual leader during the Sioux war. The war was between the US government and the Sioux, Lakota and Cheyenne. The US desired the black hills of Dakota, due to the discovery of gold, the Sioux resisted. Even, with the US ransacking their villages, it was no match for the combined forces of Sitting bull and Crazy Horse. After the battles of Little big Horn and Rosebud, the Lakota where forced under military control. Except for those who were able to get away with Sitting bull and go north, which lead to them seeking refuge in Canada. They stayed in Canada for about four and a half years. Following the destruction of the bison herds the Lakota in exile where facing hard times. With time sitting bulls band dwindled down as they reunited with relatives. After months of communication with Canadian Officials and US Army messengers, “Sitting bull led his remaining band back to the United States in July 1881 and formally surrendered.” In conclusion, once Sitting Bull had surrendered there were conflicts between US officials and agencies on as to where they should place Sitting bull, due to the fact that he was a great influence among his people.	635	ENGLISH	1
The beginning of education is one of the most important aspects of the life of a child. As a parent, one would ensure that the best of education is provided for their child. Humans are accustomed to learning as they grow older. Education starts at home with the family, moving on to school and then in the community. All parents wonder at what age their child should start school. Not too late for them to be far behind their peers, and not too early that they find themselves not ready for early separation from parents and home. Teaches Good Habits And Independence The age at which a child starts school will be largely dependent on the laws of the state or country in which one resides. In some it may be as early as 5 years while in others at 8 years. School ideally starts with Kindergarten in most countries. But nowadays, there are many pre-schools that introduces a child to early education like the mitchell street early learning. Pre-schools help children interact with other children and help develop their communication and engagement. It teaches children to be more independent like going to the bathroom by themselves, putting on their clothes by themselves, having food on their own and many others. It can also be a tool in introducing good habits to children such as washing hands after using a bathroom, cough etiquette, saying please and thank you. Depends On The Child Pre-school which is usually for children aged 3-4 years might sound too early for many. But the age at which a child should be introduced to it should not be governed by the biological age but rather their developmental age. For example, a child who is excellent at interactive play with toys by the age of 3 and communicates well with parents might excel well in pre-school where their skills are further developed upon. They might not be as well challenged at home. However, if a child is having severe separation anxiety, sending them off to pre-school will only aggravate it. Rather it must be dealt with carefully with the help of family, teachers and if indicated a psychiatrist as well. It Will Help Children Improve Their Ability To Concentrate Some people think that a child’s childhood is robbed off of them by sending them early to school. Homework and exercises to read and write might introduce a child to stress early on in life. But it is not so. It is important to do careful research on the pre-school which you have chosen for your child. A good pre-school will not be stressful for the child or the parents. They will only prepare the child to be better in school. Studies have shown that children who go to pre-school are better at concentration and getting less distracted in school, thus reducing the risk of developing disorders like attention deficit hyperactive disorder. Education, which is a right of all children is introduced at kindergarten at an age decided by the laws of the different states or countries. However, pre-school can help a child develop their skills making them better at school. Rather than just learning to read and write, it will inculcate good habits and skills of independence that a child may value for the rest of their life.	<urn:uuid:1188c574-d0c1-44b5-b949-a764baf6206b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.ecokid.com.au/2019/09/10/the-importance-of-sending-your-child-to-pre-school-at-the-right-age/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00481.warc.gz	en	0.980288	646	3.28125	3	[ 0.03341646492481232, -0.1888963133096695, 0.5671522617340088, -0.6331976652145386, -0.24558109045028687, 0.42663252353668213, -0.13245347142219543, -0.20364926755428314, 0.12290001660585403, -0.18035227060317993, 0.061544694006443024, 0.1724829524755478, -0.02632937766611576, 0.51282340288...	5	The beginning of education is one of the most important aspects of the life of a child. As a parent, one would ensure that the best of education is provided for their child. Humans are accustomed to learning as they grow older. Education starts at home with the family, moving on to school and then in the community. All parents wonder at what age their child should start school. Not too late for them to be far behind their peers, and not too early that they find themselves not ready for early separation from parents and home. Teaches Good Habits And Independence The age at which a child starts school will be largely dependent on the laws of the state or country in which one resides. In some it may be as early as 5 years while in others at 8 years. School ideally starts with Kindergarten in most countries. But nowadays, there are many pre-schools that introduces a child to early education like the mitchell street early learning. Pre-schools help children interact with other children and help develop their communication and engagement. It teaches children to be more independent like going to the bathroom by themselves, putting on their clothes by themselves, having food on their own and many others. It can also be a tool in introducing good habits to children such as washing hands after using a bathroom, cough etiquette, saying please and thank you. Depends On The Child Pre-school which is usually for children aged 3-4 years might sound too early for many. But the age at which a child should be introduced to it should not be governed by the biological age but rather their developmental age. For example, a child who is excellent at interactive play with toys by the age of 3 and communicates well with parents might excel well in pre-school where their skills are further developed upon. They might not be as well challenged at home. However, if a child is having severe separation anxiety, sending them off to pre-school will only aggravate it. Rather it must be dealt with carefully with the help of family, teachers and if indicated a psychiatrist as well. It Will Help Children Improve Their Ability To Concentrate Some people think that a child’s childhood is robbed off of them by sending them early to school. Homework and exercises to read and write might introduce a child to stress early on in life. But it is not so. It is important to do careful research on the pre-school which you have chosen for your child. A good pre-school will not be stressful for the child or the parents. They will only prepare the child to be better in school. Studies have shown that children who go to pre-school are better at concentration and getting less distracted in school, thus reducing the risk of developing disorders like attention deficit hyperactive disorder. Education, which is a right of all children is introduced at kindergarten at an age decided by the laws of the different states or countries. However, pre-school can help a child develop their skills making them better at school. Rather than just learning to read and write, it will inculcate good habits and skills of independence that a child may value for the rest of their life.	628	ENGLISH	1
This article is reposted from the old Wordpress incarnation of Not Exactly Rocket Science. Two years ago, Sarah Brosnan and Frans de Waal at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center found that brown capuchin monkeys also react badly to receiving raw deals. Forget bananas - capuchins love the taste of grapes and far prefer them over cucumber. If monkeys were rewarded for completing a task with cucumber while their peers were given succulent grapes, they were more likely to shun both task and reward. That suggested that the human ability to compare own efforts and rewards with those of our peers evolved much earlier in our history than we previously thought. Of course, animal behaviour researchers always need to be careful that they're not reading too much into the actions of the animals they study. It's easy to suggest that the monkeys were motivated by envy, fuelled by directly weighing up their rewards with those of others. But they could equally be driven by greed of frustration. They could simply have coveted the better reward regardless of the fact that it was given to their partner. Alternatively, they could have been frustrated at being given grapes in previous trials and having to contend with cucumbers. To rule out these alternative explanations, de Waal and Brosnan tasked graduate student, Megan van Wolkenten with repeating their earlier study with subtle tweaks. Their new results firmly show that monkeys can indeed spot unjust deals and respond with envy and apathy. The trio worked with 13 capuchins who were asked to hand over a small granite rock in exchange for a cucumber or grape reward. They tested the monkeys in pairs, sat in adjacent wire cages so that each individual could see what its partner was getting. If both partners were rewarded equally, they completed the task about 90% of the time, regardless of whether they were given grapes or cucumbers. Even if they were shown their future rewards before the experimenters reached for the rock tokens, they didn't make any special efforts to earn the grapes. That suggests that they're not being greedy after all and are more than happy to work for a cucumber reward if their peers are rewarded equally. However, if monkeys were given cucumbers while their partners received grapes, they only cooperated 80% of the time and as the trials continued, they were more and more likely to refuse. The researchers also found that monkeys were just as likely to hand over the tokens, regardless of whether they received a grape or a cucumber in the previous round. That effectively discounts the frustration angle, which suggests that cucumbers fail to meet the lofty expectations set by grapes. The trio of researchers also found that the monkeys weren't just fussed about rewards. They also compared their efforts to those of their partners and were less likely to cooperate if they had gone to more trouble to get their rewards. If one monkey exchanged tokens for cucumbers while their partner got one for free, it was still happy to complete the task 90% of the time. But if it had to hand over three rocks for the same reward, it only complied 75% of the time. The monkeys became even more indignant if their slacker partners were given grapes for slacking. Now, they were making more effort and getting poorer rewards and their tendency to hand over rocks fell to new lows. However, if both partners were given grapes, they were willing to do whatever it took to get them, inequity be damned. It seems that capuchins aren't willing to act disdainfully in the face of really good rewards. Together, these new results show that capuchins react negatively to unequal rewards and are motivated neither by greed nor frustration. Capuchins hunt squirrels as a team and once food is found, they willingly share it out among the group. Their intolerance for unequal handouts would foster greater cooperation among monkey troupes by preventing any individuals from monopolising the spoils. In other studies, pairs of capuchins who cooperate for unequal rewards do better in the long run if they swap who gets the lion's share. De Waal speculates that this need to share the spoils of a hunt could be the origin of our own disdain for inequality. Even so, de Waal notes that the monkeys' aversion to injustice isn't on a par with humans. They don't like getting less than their peers, but they don't react to getting more. If anything, this worsens any inequality since monkeys that do badly end up shunning the task and its reward altogether, while the one that's better off continues to be rewarded. It may be that in a more realistic situation, monkeys that were ripped off could just leave and find other social partners, but only further research would tell. Reference: van Wolkenten, M., Brosnan, S., de Waal, F. (2007). Inequity responses of monkeys modified by effort.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(47), 18854-18859.	<urn:uuid:5a5e6775-6c2f-480d-ba4f-999d697fd9af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/envious-capuchin-monkeys-react-badly-to-raw-deals	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00040.warc.gz	en	0.982339	1,018	3.390625	3	[ -0.1666412502527237, 0.1180635392665863, -0.08457819372415543, 0.09485479444265366, 0.18523404002189636, 0.0923018604516983, 0.37509414553642273, 0.09612469375133514, 0.24023713171482086, 0.1384335458278656, 0.3638509511947632, -0.6942322254180908, 0.3192821145057678, 0.14770236611366272, ...	6	This article is reposted from the old Wordpress incarnation of Not Exactly Rocket Science. Two years ago, Sarah Brosnan and Frans de Waal at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center found that brown capuchin monkeys also react badly to receiving raw deals. Forget bananas - capuchins love the taste of grapes and far prefer them over cucumber. If monkeys were rewarded for completing a task with cucumber while their peers were given succulent grapes, they were more likely to shun both task and reward. That suggested that the human ability to compare own efforts and rewards with those of our peers evolved much earlier in our history than we previously thought. Of course, animal behaviour researchers always need to be careful that they're not reading too much into the actions of the animals they study. It's easy to suggest that the monkeys were motivated by envy, fuelled by directly weighing up their rewards with those of others. But they could equally be driven by greed of frustration. They could simply have coveted the better reward regardless of the fact that it was given to their partner. Alternatively, they could have been frustrated at being given grapes in previous trials and having to contend with cucumbers. To rule out these alternative explanations, de Waal and Brosnan tasked graduate student, Megan van Wolkenten with repeating their earlier study with subtle tweaks. Their new results firmly show that monkeys can indeed spot unjust deals and respond with envy and apathy. The trio worked with 13 capuchins who were asked to hand over a small granite rock in exchange for a cucumber or grape reward. They tested the monkeys in pairs, sat in adjacent wire cages so that each individual could see what its partner was getting. If both partners were rewarded equally, they completed the task about 90% of the time, regardless of whether they were given grapes or cucumbers. Even if they were shown their future rewards before the experimenters reached for the rock tokens, they didn't make any special efforts to earn the grapes. That suggests that they're not being greedy after all and are more than happy to work for a cucumber reward if their peers are rewarded equally. However, if monkeys were given cucumbers while their partners received grapes, they only cooperated 80% of the time and as the trials continued, they were more and more likely to refuse. The researchers also found that monkeys were just as likely to hand over the tokens, regardless of whether they received a grape or a cucumber in the previous round. That effectively discounts the frustration angle, which suggests that cucumbers fail to meet the lofty expectations set by grapes. The trio of researchers also found that the monkeys weren't just fussed about rewards. They also compared their efforts to those of their partners and were less likely to cooperate if they had gone to more trouble to get their rewards. If one monkey exchanged tokens for cucumbers while their partner got one for free, it was still happy to complete the task 90% of the time. But if it had to hand over three rocks for the same reward, it only complied 75% of the time. The monkeys became even more indignant if their slacker partners were given grapes for slacking. Now, they were making more effort and getting poorer rewards and their tendency to hand over rocks fell to new lows. However, if both partners were given grapes, they were willing to do whatever it took to get them, inequity be damned. It seems that capuchins aren't willing to act disdainfully in the face of really good rewards. Together, these new results show that capuchins react negatively to unequal rewards and are motivated neither by greed nor frustration. Capuchins hunt squirrels as a team and once food is found, they willingly share it out among the group. Their intolerance for unequal handouts would foster greater cooperation among monkey troupes by preventing any individuals from monopolising the spoils. In other studies, pairs of capuchins who cooperate for unequal rewards do better in the long run if they swap who gets the lion's share. De Waal speculates that this need to share the spoils of a hunt could be the origin of our own disdain for inequality. Even so, de Waal notes that the monkeys' aversion to injustice isn't on a par with humans. They don't like getting less than their peers, but they don't react to getting more. If anything, this worsens any inequality since monkeys that do badly end up shunning the task and its reward altogether, while the one that's better off continues to be rewarded. It may be that in a more realistic situation, monkeys that were ripped off could just leave and find other social partners, but only further research would tell. Reference: van Wolkenten, M., Brosnan, S., de Waal, F. (2007). Inequity responses of monkeys modified by effort.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(47), 18854-18859.	1,028	ENGLISH	1
Which of the strategies employed by civil rights activists do you think was most effective? This question has no one right answer, but one of the many reasons that the Civil Rights movement was effective is that Martin Luther King Jr. and his followers practiced non-violence. Even when they were being attacked, they did not strike back. Instead, they were trained in using non-violent means of resistance, such as curling up into a ball or lying down. These tactics were effective for several reasons. They made the white people attacking the civil rights protestors look like the perpetrators, while the protestors looked like innocent victims. In addition, the violence perpetrated by white citizens and by the police played very badly in the media. Photos and film of the protestors showed the protestors as guiltless while the police attacked people without provocation. These photos were shown around the world, making the US look bad and increasing pressure on the government to aid the Civil Rights movement. In addition, many of these tactics, while non-violent in nature, were designed to inflict economic damage on white-owned businesses. For example, during the Montgomery Bus Boycott, black riders stayed off buses. As black people were the main riders of the buses in Montgomery at that time, their actions financially crippled the bus lines. Later, in the Civil Rights protests in Birmingham, Alabama, black customers boycotted white-owned businesses in the segregated downtown area. These tactics were designed to harm businesses without using physical violence. They achieved the aims of the Civil Rights movement without inflicting physical harm on others, which made the movement look good to the general public. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:e3a8587c-95aa-4a1a-8c68-d931a3b9e937>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/which-of-the-strategies-employed-by-civil-rights-2039031	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00392.warc.gz	en	0.980196	332	3.78125	4	[ -0.3831581473350525, -0.03513572737574577, 0.17965936660766602, -0.11755409836769104, -0.13213814795017242, 0.3252694010734558, 0.2556752860546112, 0.35036954283714294, -0.3057492673397064, 0.4567904472351074, 0.1133318841457367, 0.5236905813217163, -0.03881804645061493, -0.051954019814729...	1	Which of the strategies employed by civil rights activists do you think was most effective? This question has no one right answer, but one of the many reasons that the Civil Rights movement was effective is that Martin Luther King Jr. and his followers practiced non-violence. Even when they were being attacked, they did not strike back. Instead, they were trained in using non-violent means of resistance, such as curling up into a ball or lying down. These tactics were effective for several reasons. They made the white people attacking the civil rights protestors look like the perpetrators, while the protestors looked like innocent victims. In addition, the violence perpetrated by white citizens and by the police played very badly in the media. Photos and film of the protestors showed the protestors as guiltless while the police attacked people without provocation. These photos were shown around the world, making the US look bad and increasing pressure on the government to aid the Civil Rights movement. In addition, many of these tactics, while non-violent in nature, were designed to inflict economic damage on white-owned businesses. For example, during the Montgomery Bus Boycott, black riders stayed off buses. As black people were the main riders of the buses in Montgomery at that time, their actions financially crippled the bus lines. Later, in the Civil Rights protests in Birmingham, Alabama, black customers boycotted white-owned businesses in the segregated downtown area. These tactics were designed to harm businesses without using physical violence. They achieved the aims of the Civil Rights movement without inflicting physical harm on others, which made the movement look good to the general public. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	326	ENGLISH	1
Manor, in the medieval times, referred to the large chunk of land owned by an individual. The land resulted in certain political rights in the society. At the time, political rights were based on land-ownership and land-ownership could only be granted by a king. Consequently, only the wealthy people could own land and their political rights were based on the type of land that they owned. To stay rich and powerful in those days, one had to mind their manors. Hence, manorialism was the overall structure of holding and maintaining manors. Other words used instead of manorialism were the manorial system, seignorialism, or seignorial system. Structure of the Manorial System Manorialism became feasible by the relationship between the landowners and the people who worked on the land, called peasants. The landowners had the legal right to own land and estate. They enjoyed three significant benefits. The first benefit was their ability to possess the land. Secondly, they earned themselves the title of “Lord of the Manor” which was a noble title. With this title, the landlords had the privilege of attending the royal court. Thirdly, the owners of the land had a right over their land and so had a right to collect their taxes. Most of the peasants, also called serfs, did not own any land. They stayed on the manors held by the landlords. As such, they became subjects of the lords. The serfs had a duty to compensate the lords for living on their land. The standard payment method was labor.The serfs would till the land belonging to the lords and ensure they had a good harvest. However, the other payment that the lords received from the serfs was direct tax or actual money. But they were eager for the labor services more than the different modes of payment. Common Features of Manors There were three classes of manors, namely demesne, dependent, and free peasant land. The demesne was the portion of land under the direct control of the lords. The use of the land was for the benefit of his dependents and household. The serfs occupied the portion of the land reserved for dependents. In turn, they had an obligation to provide labor services to the landlord. The lord would specify tasks for which he required labor as compensation for allowing the peasant to live on his land. The occupants of the free peasant land did not have a duty to serve the lord. They owned the land based on a lease agreement which outlined the terms of payment. However, the free peasants were still subject to the manorial jurisdiction. Variations in Manorial Structures Not all manors were divided into three portions. Some manors only had demesnes. On the other hand, some manors were made of either serf lands only or demesne only. In a case where the manors were relatively small, the tended demesne occupied a large portion of the land. The arrangement allowed the landlords to have an abundant supply of obligatory labor. Geographically, most manors did not occupy a single village. Instead, they consisted of a portion of two or more villages. Consequently, those who lived very far away from the lord’s estate preferred to replace their labor obligations by cash payments. There was also a variation in the experiences that the serfs had. For some, the lords preserved some of the peasant freedoms. An example is that some of them did not require labor services in some duties like livestock husbandry which was less demanding. As a result, the low eastern England had a large free peasantry which was a legacy of the Scandinavian settlement. On the contrary, some upland areas in Europe had the most oppressive manorial systems. The End of Manorialism The manorial system came to a halt with the spread of the money economy. Money economy stimulated the replacement of mandatory labor supply by monetary payments. However, in 1170, the landlords had to resort back to leasing land for labor services due to inflation. Inflation resulted in the decline in the value of money. Ultimately, manorialism ended as money became the primary form of payment in the latter years. About the Author Sharon is a Kenyan native with a wide range of interests. An accountant and financial analyst by profession, Sharon enjoys writing about world facts, the environment, society, politics, and more. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:10a5d41b-7c54-4f05-9072-0a658190d73c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/what-is-manorialism.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00483.warc.gz	en	0.983251	930	4.25	4	[ -0.3876378536224365, 0.3304206430912018, -0.09324436634778976, -0.15215930342674255, 0.18260951340198517, -0.17071028053760529, 0.2266089916229248, -0.5279222726821899, 0.022059861570596695, 0.3586377501487732, -0.2378803789615631, -0.10468100756406784, 0.18030261993408203, 0.1543994247913...	2	Manor, in the medieval times, referred to the large chunk of land owned by an individual. The land resulted in certain political rights in the society. At the time, political rights were based on land-ownership and land-ownership could only be granted by a king. Consequently, only the wealthy people could own land and their political rights were based on the type of land that they owned. To stay rich and powerful in those days, one had to mind their manors. Hence, manorialism was the overall structure of holding and maintaining manors. Other words used instead of manorialism were the manorial system, seignorialism, or seignorial system. Structure of the Manorial System Manorialism became feasible by the relationship between the landowners and the people who worked on the land, called peasants. The landowners had the legal right to own land and estate. They enjoyed three significant benefits. The first benefit was their ability to possess the land. Secondly, they earned themselves the title of “Lord of the Manor” which was a noble title. With this title, the landlords had the privilege of attending the royal court. Thirdly, the owners of the land had a right over their land and so had a right to collect their taxes. Most of the peasants, also called serfs, did not own any land. They stayed on the manors held by the landlords. As such, they became subjects of the lords. The serfs had a duty to compensate the lords for living on their land. The standard payment method was labor.The serfs would till the land belonging to the lords and ensure they had a good harvest. However, the other payment that the lords received from the serfs was direct tax or actual money. But they were eager for the labor services more than the different modes of payment. Common Features of Manors There were three classes of manors, namely demesne, dependent, and free peasant land. The demesne was the portion of land under the direct control of the lords. The use of the land was for the benefit of his dependents and household. The serfs occupied the portion of the land reserved for dependents. In turn, they had an obligation to provide labor services to the landlord. The lord would specify tasks for which he required labor as compensation for allowing the peasant to live on his land. The occupants of the free peasant land did not have a duty to serve the lord. They owned the land based on a lease agreement which outlined the terms of payment. However, the free peasants were still subject to the manorial jurisdiction. Variations in Manorial Structures Not all manors were divided into three portions. Some manors only had demesnes. On the other hand, some manors were made of either serf lands only or demesne only. In a case where the manors were relatively small, the tended demesne occupied a large portion of the land. The arrangement allowed the landlords to have an abundant supply of obligatory labor. Geographically, most manors did not occupy a single village. Instead, they consisted of a portion of two or more villages. Consequently, those who lived very far away from the lord’s estate preferred to replace their labor obligations by cash payments. There was also a variation in the experiences that the serfs had. For some, the lords preserved some of the peasant freedoms. An example is that some of them did not require labor services in some duties like livestock husbandry which was less demanding. As a result, the low eastern England had a large free peasantry which was a legacy of the Scandinavian settlement. On the contrary, some upland areas in Europe had the most oppressive manorial systems. The End of Manorialism The manorial system came to a halt with the spread of the money economy. Money economy stimulated the replacement of mandatory labor supply by monetary payments. However, in 1170, the landlords had to resort back to leasing land for labor services due to inflation. Inflation resulted in the decline in the value of money. Ultimately, manorialism ended as money became the primary form of payment in the latter years. About the Author Sharon is a Kenyan native with a wide range of interests. An accountant and financial analyst by profession, Sharon enjoys writing about world facts, the environment, society, politics, and more. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	918	ENGLISH	1
- Medieval County around the city of Avignon, which stands on the River Rhône in Provence in southeastern France; - A Bishopric and Archbishopric. 1. Avignon was a Roman city (Avenio), which later belonged to the Middle Kingdom of the Emperor Lothar (843), to the Kingdom of Provence, and to the united Kingdom of Burgundy (933). In that Kingdom, Provence was an important county, which was quite often held jointly by brothers. Avignon was usually a residence of one of the Counts. Later the County of Provence became partitioned among heirs, but the city and county of Avignon remained united and were jointly held by the two or three Counts. This system was still operating in the third quarter of the 13th century when two brothers of Louis IX, Alphonse and Charles were respectively Marquis and Count of Provence, both by marriage with the heiresses. They both held Avignon. It was in 1291 that King Philip IV the Fair, who had succeeded to the Marquisate, ceded his rights to his cousin, King Charles II of Naples. Earlier Avignon had actually been held for a time from 1226 by a Papal legate, after the city, besieged by King Louis VIII, had surrendered on terms, but this arrangement had provoked the intervention of the Emperor Frederick II, in whose Kingdom of Burgundy Avignon lay, and Avignon had then reverted to being jointly held by the Count and Marquis of Provence. In 1309 the Papal connection was resumed when Pope Clement V, who held the neighbouring Comtat Venaissin, took up residence in Avignon. The city was bought from the impoverished Queen Joanna of Naples, the ruler of Provence, by the Pope in 1348. The Babylonish Captivity of the Church came to an end in 1376, and the Pope returned to Rome, but by 1379 there were two Popes, and the French-favoured Pontiff, Clement VII, returned to Avignon. The Great Schism lasted until 1417. Avignon remained Papal territory, as did the Comtat Venaissin, until 1791, when both were annexed by revolutionary France and in 1793 became the larger part of the Department of Vaucluse, of which Avignon is capital. 2. The diocese of Avignon was an ancient one and was long part of the province of Arles, including the period when the Popes resided in the city. In 1475 Pope Sixtus IV detached it and the other dioceses in his possession in the Comtat Venaissin (Carpentras, Vaison and Cavaillon) to form the province of Avignon. In 1793, with the Papal territory annexed by France and transformed into the Département of Vaucluse, Avignon, reduced to a Bishopric, became the diocese for the department. In 1822 the diocese was again headed by an Archbishop, whose province included the dioceses of Montpellier, Nîmes, Viviers and Valence.	<urn:uuid:d7bae983-ac1c-4ccb-a994-b2b163a9fac2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://davidseurope.wordpress.com/2013/05/08/avignon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00369.warc.gz	en	0.982375	676	3.5	4	[ 0.007983318530023098, 0.04410050809383392, -0.18352320790290833, -0.3902260959148407, 0.06679053604602814, -0.2505451440811157, -0.3152676820755005, 0.19849584996700287, 0.27139919996261597, 0.002183817094191909, -0.34330064058303833, -0.6337503790855408, 0.15891584753990173, 0.09568348526...	2	- Medieval County around the city of Avignon, which stands on the River Rhône in Provence in southeastern France; - A Bishopric and Archbishopric. 1. Avignon was a Roman city (Avenio), which later belonged to the Middle Kingdom of the Emperor Lothar (843), to the Kingdom of Provence, and to the united Kingdom of Burgundy (933). In that Kingdom, Provence was an important county, which was quite often held jointly by brothers. Avignon was usually a residence of one of the Counts. Later the County of Provence became partitioned among heirs, but the city and county of Avignon remained united and were jointly held by the two or three Counts. This system was still operating in the third quarter of the 13th century when two brothers of Louis IX, Alphonse and Charles were respectively Marquis and Count of Provence, both by marriage with the heiresses. They both held Avignon. It was in 1291 that King Philip IV the Fair, who had succeeded to the Marquisate, ceded his rights to his cousin, King Charles II of Naples. Earlier Avignon had actually been held for a time from 1226 by a Papal legate, after the city, besieged by King Louis VIII, had surrendered on terms, but this arrangement had provoked the intervention of the Emperor Frederick II, in whose Kingdom of Burgundy Avignon lay, and Avignon had then reverted to being jointly held by the Count and Marquis of Provence. In 1309 the Papal connection was resumed when Pope Clement V, who held the neighbouring Comtat Venaissin, took up residence in Avignon. The city was bought from the impoverished Queen Joanna of Naples, the ruler of Provence, by the Pope in 1348. The Babylonish Captivity of the Church came to an end in 1376, and the Pope returned to Rome, but by 1379 there were two Popes, and the French-favoured Pontiff, Clement VII, returned to Avignon. The Great Schism lasted until 1417. Avignon remained Papal territory, as did the Comtat Venaissin, until 1791, when both were annexed by revolutionary France and in 1793 became the larger part of the Department of Vaucluse, of which Avignon is capital. 2. The diocese of Avignon was an ancient one and was long part of the province of Arles, including the period when the Popes resided in the city. In 1475 Pope Sixtus IV detached it and the other dioceses in his possession in the Comtat Venaissin (Carpentras, Vaison and Cavaillon) to form the province of Avignon. In 1793, with the Papal territory annexed by France and transformed into the Département of Vaucluse, Avignon, reduced to a Bishopric, became the diocese for the department. In 1822 the diocese was again headed by an Archbishop, whose province included the dioceses of Montpellier, Nîmes, Viviers and Valence.	681	ENGLISH	1
Medieval Castles Were Smelly, Damp, and Dark Castles Were Built For Defence Not Comfort Castles were designed as defensive structures. They were built from strong materials like stone and slate so that they could withstand attack. They were located overlooking key harbors or at vulnerable entry points on the border between England and its neighbors, Scotland and Wales. For the soldiers stationed within them, they were barracks rather than cosy homes. The security of the people living in and around them was more important than the comfort of the castle’s occupants. Features of Medieval Castles Damp walls from rain No glass for windows No running water Damp floors from groundwater Clothes not washed often Defensive slits instead of windows A Hard Life Over the five hundred years of the Middle Ages, there were some periods of relative peace. During these stable times, wealthy landowners and those of noble rank began to employ large numbers of servants rather than soldiers. These household servants worked hard to make the cold, dank castle rooms more comfortable to live in. They tried to soften their surroundings by using rushes on the floors and fabric hangings on the walls. Surprising as it seems today, these household jobs were considered to be a step up from working as a landless laborer (or serf) in a village. A castle servant’s work was arduous and physically demanding, but at least these workers were fed and clothed, and they had a roof over their heads. The unreliability of harvests and the lack of clean water in the villages made subsistence farming with its disease and malnutrition, an uncomfortable and short life. European Castle Life in Medieval Times Who Lived in a Castle in the Middle Ages? The Medieval era (or Middle Ages) in England is generally defined as the period between the end of Norman rule (11th century) and the start of the Tudor dynasty (15th century). Life at this time was governed by a feudal system. This was a rigid class system in which each layer of society owed allegiance to the layer above in return for military security. The nobility were given land and favors by the monarch in return for raising a militia in times of war. The tenant farmers grew crops on land they leased from the landowning lord in return for his defending their interests in case of invasion. Members of the nobility had a retinue of servants who lived with the lord in his castle which doubled as a fort. There were also battalions of soldiers stationed within the fortification. Farmers and other villagers lived on land surrounding the castle but they could shelter inside its strong walls if the settlement was attacked. Your Ancestors in Medieval Europe Which would you have been? Made from Local Stone and Timber The main purpose of a medieval castle was defensive. It was a fort built strong enough to withstand military attack. Potential attacks could be from fire, gunshot, explosion or even tunneling beneath the castle walls. To minimize such risks, castles were built where it was possible to get a wide (360 degree) view of surrounding countryside. Castles are at strategic vantage points to prevent enemies approaching unseen and catching residents by surprise. Transporting building materials was difficult and expensive so locally found resources were used in their construction. Any timber structures have long since rotted away and so the castles which remain today are those that were built from hard wearing local stone. Most castles were built on the top of hills or overlooking natural harbors. Both of these locations tend to suffer from extremes of weather such as high winds and driving rain. The result is that castles are generally cold and damp. Medieval builders did not understand the benefits of inserting damp proof courses into walls and floors. Many castles are surrounded by moats or natural water courses for defense. So medieval castles suffer with both penetrating damp through the walls and rising dampness through the earth floors. No Glass in Their Windows and No Flushing Toilets Castles were dark inside with little natural light. Glass was extremely expensive and was not produced in large quantities until the 17th century. Any gaps in the walls for light had to be small or they let in too much wind and draughty air. The defensive towers of a castle (sometimes referred to as turrets) have narrow slits instead of windows. These have the dual purpose of allowing archers to fire arrows at the enemy, as well as allowing light in. In fact, most castles were not lived in permanently. There were also other problems with living in a medieval castle, the main one being that there were no sewers or flushing toilets. Often the moat surrounding the castle was used as a sewer. Both the moat and the castle quickly became smelly and dirty. It's said that the kings and queens of England never stayed longer than eight weeks in one of their castles because of the build-up of foul odors. The remaining ten months of the year their castles would remain vacant (apart from minimal security) for Mother Nature to naturally cleanse the building. When the royals were in residence, however, thick tapestries were hung on the walls and floors. These made the place feel much warmer and absorbed a lot of the dampness from the air. With roaring fires and many people milling about, for a few short weeks, castles could be reasonably comfortable places to live. Secrets of Ancient Castles Why Do Castles Have High Narrow Openings in Their Walls? Medieval castles were built before glass was invented. Castle dwellers needed openings in walls to get natural light into their rooms. They used tallow candles for some illumination, but these were expensive to make and gave relatively little light. Natural light is free and in summer it lasts almost all the waking hours. However, without glass, openings in walls are draughty and they also pose a security risk. By putting narrow openings high up in the walls, castle builders minimized security risks and maximized available daylight. How Long Did it Take to Build a Castle in the Middle Ages? Castles are huge buildings and take a long time to build. They could take anything from 5 years to hundreds of years to complete. First, a site would be chosen and prepared for the intended structure. The ground may need levelling or trees and rocks cleared to make the site more suitable. Next, building materials such as stone and timber would be brought to the site. Castles are defensive structures and must be built with durable materials. Railways and electricity had not yet been invented, so everything had to be carried to the castle by hand or moved using horse-power. Obtaining sufficient building materials was a slow process. Building operations were sometimes interrupted for political or military reasons. A country at war conscripted fit men into the army. Any castle-building would grind to a halt to be resumed in more peaceful times. How Were Castles Cleaned in the Middle Ages? Compared to modern houses, castles were very difficult to keep clean. With no running water, even simple washing tasks meant carrying a lot of bucketfuls of water from a well or stream. Few people had the luxury of being able to bathe regularly, so the community was generally more tolerant of smells and dirt. The floors were often covered in sweet-smelling straw and grass. This could be swept away and replaced when full of grime. It also had the advantage of masking other, more unpleasant odors. Walls were often covered with tapestries to cover the cold stonework and make rooms warmer and more homely. Visit a Real Medieval Castle There are many medieval castles in the UK that are open to the public. Many are owned by non-profit organizations and they have reasonable entrance prices for family tickets as they want to encourage children to visit and explore history. They often host educational activity days where you can experience for yourself what life was like in medieval times If you are visiting the UK, check out the following websites for events in castles and other heritage buildings. There are subtle differences in architecture between those built in Scotland, England, Wales and Northern Ireland so its worth travelling to all parts of UK to get a comprehensive idea of what life must have been like in a medieval castle. This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.	<urn:uuid:eac83030-1f00-4a86-9fd0-9ed09beea253>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/humanities/What-Life-Was-Like-in-a-Medieval-Castle-Middle-Ages	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00167.warc.gz	en	0.982206	1,723	3.6875	4	[ -0.3749043047428131, 0.45461505651474, 0.42066240310668945, 0.28198039531707764, 0.1054292693734169, -0.3743066191673279, 0.1821894645690918, -0.6580513715744019, -0.1307830512523651, -0.15830503404140472, -0.338949590921402, -0.21730312705039978, 0.5197889804840088, -0.029871536418795586,...	1	Medieval Castles Were Smelly, Damp, and Dark Castles Were Built For Defence Not Comfort Castles were designed as defensive structures. They were built from strong materials like stone and slate so that they could withstand attack. They were located overlooking key harbors or at vulnerable entry points on the border between England and its neighbors, Scotland and Wales. For the soldiers stationed within them, they were barracks rather than cosy homes. The security of the people living in and around them was more important than the comfort of the castle’s occupants. Features of Medieval Castles Damp walls from rain No glass for windows No running water Damp floors from groundwater Clothes not washed often Defensive slits instead of windows A Hard Life Over the five hundred years of the Middle Ages, there were some periods of relative peace. During these stable times, wealthy landowners and those of noble rank began to employ large numbers of servants rather than soldiers. These household servants worked hard to make the cold, dank castle rooms more comfortable to live in. They tried to soften their surroundings by using rushes on the floors and fabric hangings on the walls. Surprising as it seems today, these household jobs were considered to be a step up from working as a landless laborer (or serf) in a village. A castle servant’s work was arduous and physically demanding, but at least these workers were fed and clothed, and they had a roof over their heads. The unreliability of harvests and the lack of clean water in the villages made subsistence farming with its disease and malnutrition, an uncomfortable and short life. European Castle Life in Medieval Times Who Lived in a Castle in the Middle Ages? The Medieval era (or Middle Ages) in England is generally defined as the period between the end of Norman rule (11th century) and the start of the Tudor dynasty (15th century). Life at this time was governed by a feudal system. This was a rigid class system in which each layer of society owed allegiance to the layer above in return for military security. The nobility were given land and favors by the monarch in return for raising a militia in times of war. The tenant farmers grew crops on land they leased from the landowning lord in return for his defending their interests in case of invasion. Members of the nobility had a retinue of servants who lived with the lord in his castle which doubled as a fort. There were also battalions of soldiers stationed within the fortification. Farmers and other villagers lived on land surrounding the castle but they could shelter inside its strong walls if the settlement was attacked. Your Ancestors in Medieval Europe Which would you have been? Made from Local Stone and Timber The main purpose of a medieval castle was defensive. It was a fort built strong enough to withstand military attack. Potential attacks could be from fire, gunshot, explosion or even tunneling beneath the castle walls. To minimize such risks, castles were built where it was possible to get a wide (360 degree) view of surrounding countryside. Castles are at strategic vantage points to prevent enemies approaching unseen and catching residents by surprise. Transporting building materials was difficult and expensive so locally found resources were used in their construction. Any timber structures have long since rotted away and so the castles which remain today are those that were built from hard wearing local stone. Most castles were built on the top of hills or overlooking natural harbors. Both of these locations tend to suffer from extremes of weather such as high winds and driving rain. The result is that castles are generally cold and damp. Medieval builders did not understand the benefits of inserting damp proof courses into walls and floors. Many castles are surrounded by moats or natural water courses for defense. So medieval castles suffer with both penetrating damp through the walls and rising dampness through the earth floors. No Glass in Their Windows and No Flushing Toilets Castles were dark inside with little natural light. Glass was extremely expensive and was not produced in large quantities until the 17th century. Any gaps in the walls for light had to be small or they let in too much wind and draughty air. The defensive towers of a castle (sometimes referred to as turrets) have narrow slits instead of windows. These have the dual purpose of allowing archers to fire arrows at the enemy, as well as allowing light in. In fact, most castles were not lived in permanently. There were also other problems with living in a medieval castle, the main one being that there were no sewers or flushing toilets. Often the moat surrounding the castle was used as a sewer. Both the moat and the castle quickly became smelly and dirty. It's said that the kings and queens of England never stayed longer than eight weeks in one of their castles because of the build-up of foul odors. The remaining ten months of the year their castles would remain vacant (apart from minimal security) for Mother Nature to naturally cleanse the building. When the royals were in residence, however, thick tapestries were hung on the walls and floors. These made the place feel much warmer and absorbed a lot of the dampness from the air. With roaring fires and many people milling about, for a few short weeks, castles could be reasonably comfortable places to live. Secrets of Ancient Castles Why Do Castles Have High Narrow Openings in Their Walls? Medieval castles were built before glass was invented. Castle dwellers needed openings in walls to get natural light into their rooms. They used tallow candles for some illumination, but these were expensive to make and gave relatively little light. Natural light is free and in summer it lasts almost all the waking hours. However, without glass, openings in walls are draughty and they also pose a security risk. By putting narrow openings high up in the walls, castle builders minimized security risks and maximized available daylight. How Long Did it Take to Build a Castle in the Middle Ages? Castles are huge buildings and take a long time to build. They could take anything from 5 years to hundreds of years to complete. First, a site would be chosen and prepared for the intended structure. The ground may need levelling or trees and rocks cleared to make the site more suitable. Next, building materials such as stone and timber would be brought to the site. Castles are defensive structures and must be built with durable materials. Railways and electricity had not yet been invented, so everything had to be carried to the castle by hand or moved using horse-power. Obtaining sufficient building materials was a slow process. Building operations were sometimes interrupted for political or military reasons. A country at war conscripted fit men into the army. Any castle-building would grind to a halt to be resumed in more peaceful times. How Were Castles Cleaned in the Middle Ages? Compared to modern houses, castles were very difficult to keep clean. With no running water, even simple washing tasks meant carrying a lot of bucketfuls of water from a well or stream. Few people had the luxury of being able to bathe regularly, so the community was generally more tolerant of smells and dirt. The floors were often covered in sweet-smelling straw and grass. This could be swept away and replaced when full of grime. It also had the advantage of masking other, more unpleasant odors. Walls were often covered with tapestries to cover the cold stonework and make rooms warmer and more homely. Visit a Real Medieval Castle There are many medieval castles in the UK that are open to the public. Many are owned by non-profit organizations and they have reasonable entrance prices for family tickets as they want to encourage children to visit and explore history. They often host educational activity days where you can experience for yourself what life was like in medieval times If you are visiting the UK, check out the following websites for events in castles and other heritage buildings. There are subtle differences in architecture between those built in Scotland, England, Wales and Northern Ireland so its worth travelling to all parts of UK to get a comprehensive idea of what life must have been like in a medieval castle. This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.	1,711	ENGLISH	1
Discusses the role of Jewish workers in early unions in the U.S. \|As many states begin to look at the cutting away of public union benefits in response to growing budget deficits, I was reminded of the role of the Jewish worker in the establishment of some of the earliest trade unions in the United States. During the time period of 1880 thru 1919, almost 2 million Jewish immigrants arrived in America and quickly became the labor backbone of the garment industry. Jewish immigrants continued in this role through the depression years, fading out of this industry after World War II as the children of these immigrants became more educated and moved into other career fields. Most of the Jewish immigrants worked in sweatshop like conditions for 12-16 hours a day within the same tenements they lived in. These workers had to supply their own equipment on top of the lousy work conditions and long hours they suffered through. The conditions and squalor that the early Jewish workers were forced to endure eventually lead to the call to organize. Early efforts to organize only resulted in short term walkouts that led to very minimal changes in the working environment. Union organizer and leader of the American Socialist Party Morris Hillquit observed the Jewish worker as “unorganizable, dull, apathetic, and unintelligent.” The Jewish workers were soon to prove his statement false. In 1888, thanks in part to the efforts of a 19 year old shirt maker named Bernard Weinstein, Hillquit formed the United Hebrew Trades. By 1890, this group was able to setup no less than 22 unions, including a Yiddish actors union, despite their intense yet unfocused idealism. The United Hebrew Trades made arguably their first public group appearance in 1890 when it accepted the request of Labor Socialist Labor Party Daniel De Leon’s invitation to participate in that year’s May Day parade, which was meant as a demonstration for an eight hour workday. Around 9,000 Jewish workers marched in this parade in the rain to Union Square in Manhattan. Unfortunately for the Jewish workers, De Leon’s group would soon fold. Shortly after De Leon’s group folded, the United Hebrew Trades would find itself at the mercy of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), lead by Samuel Gompers, which he had negotiated for and became president of in 1886. The troubling thing for Jewish workers was the opinion Gompers held about the typical Jewish worker; he thought of them to be lazy and indignant. Although this was a setback to the Jewish garment workers, this setback would be short lived as an unexpected group would emerge as a major player on the labor scene. Joseph Barondess successfully organized the cloak makers in 1890, which at the time was the largest sector of the garment industry. Barondess wasted little time in organizing a strike of the cloak makers that lasted eight weeks. The strike took a toll on the striking workers, as they endured police beatings and hunger. In the end the cloak makers were successful, gaining concessions from management in the form of reduced hours and work. The dawn of the 20th century brought with it many economic and technological gains throughout the garment industry, which saw the sunset on the sweatshop model and saw the rise of the factory model. The rise of the factory played a key role in the rise of the union worker. Workers were now able to work side by side, and could more readily share complaints, ideas, and thoughts among themselves. This was not possible under the sweatshop model in which most workers completed their work in the relative isolation of the tenements. Within the women’s garment industry, which had become the 3rd largest goods industry in the U.S., an increasing number of Jewish workers started or joined unions. These unions would often time act independently of each other, until the AFL convinced the independent unions to come together under one organization, called the International Ladies Garment Workers Union, in 1900. The ILGWU quickly became the most outspoken and radical part of the AFL, and had grown to a size of nearly 20,000 members by 1909. It was in this year that the ILGWU made history. In 1909, at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company, an uprising of the ILGWU began and would last two months. Shock was expressed by multiple groups around the country that a group of women, Jewish women, could organize and hold on to their ideals so steadfastly. The ILGWU had set out to put an end to long days, low wages, and other discriminatory methods used by management to curtail and control the lives of these women. The leader of the strike, Clara Lemlich, was not scheduled to speak to the AFL in the Great Hall at New York’s Cooper Union, but what she said sparked the strike. Although she concluded her speech in Yiddish, the other workers in attendance that day understood what she had said; “I offer that a general strike be declared now”. Samuel Gompers would comment afterwards that the strike “brought to the consciousness of the nation a recognition of certain features looming up on its social development.” Unfortunately, little was gained by this uprising at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company where tragedy struck on March 25, 1911. A fire broke out and claimed 146 lives, most of which were Jewish women. The victims became symbols for what was wrong with labor conditions in America, and eventually led to better fire and safety regulations in the State of New York. The after affects of the strike and tragedy at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company would prove to be empowering to not just to garment unions but unions all over the country. The ILGWU wanted to be a union to protect the needs of its workers, as well as their development and role in shaping society. Their work would lead to educational gains for Jewish and non-Jewish members of unions everywhere, as in 1920 the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics noted that the ILGWU established “the first systematic scheme of education undertaken by organized [labor] in the United States.” The Jewish immigrants that were part of the garment industry near the turn of the 20th century played a pivotal role in labor equality and organization. Many of the discussions we have today about organized labor, as well as the benefits and working conditions we have all become accustomed to are a direct result of the Jewish workers near the turn of the 20th century. “A History of the Jews in America”; by Howard Sachar “Organizing the Unorganizable: Three Jewish Women and Their Union”; by Alice Kessler-Harris	<urn:uuid:a4928ad5-e7c3-4c48-b17e-ea6faf3cd557>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.writing.com/main/view_item/item_id/1756873-Jewish-Influences-on-Early-Unions	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00095.warc.gz	en	0.980758	1,349	3.3125	3	[ -0.39473438262939453, 0.3232213854789734, 0.12172470986843109, 0.17931365966796875, 0.04045286029577255, 0.5083885192871094, -0.086606465280056, 0.14591601490974426, -0.1458110809326172, -0.07952618598937988, -0.033845432102680206, 0.4656863212585449, -0.12734270095825195, 0.40441179275512...	1	Discusses the role of Jewish workers in early unions in the U.S. \|As many states begin to look at the cutting away of public union benefits in response to growing budget deficits, I was reminded of the role of the Jewish worker in the establishment of some of the earliest trade unions in the United States. During the time period of 1880 thru 1919, almost 2 million Jewish immigrants arrived in America and quickly became the labor backbone of the garment industry. Jewish immigrants continued in this role through the depression years, fading out of this industry after World War II as the children of these immigrants became more educated and moved into other career fields. Most of the Jewish immigrants worked in sweatshop like conditions for 12-16 hours a day within the same tenements they lived in. These workers had to supply their own equipment on top of the lousy work conditions and long hours they suffered through. The conditions and squalor that the early Jewish workers were forced to endure eventually lead to the call to organize. Early efforts to organize only resulted in short term walkouts that led to very minimal changes in the working environment. Union organizer and leader of the American Socialist Party Morris Hillquit observed the Jewish worker as “unorganizable, dull, apathetic, and unintelligent.” The Jewish workers were soon to prove his statement false. In 1888, thanks in part to the efforts of a 19 year old shirt maker named Bernard Weinstein, Hillquit formed the United Hebrew Trades. By 1890, this group was able to setup no less than 22 unions, including a Yiddish actors union, despite their intense yet unfocused idealism. The United Hebrew Trades made arguably their first public group appearance in 1890 when it accepted the request of Labor Socialist Labor Party Daniel De Leon’s invitation to participate in that year’s May Day parade, which was meant as a demonstration for an eight hour workday. Around 9,000 Jewish workers marched in this parade in the rain to Union Square in Manhattan. Unfortunately for the Jewish workers, De Leon’s group would soon fold. Shortly after De Leon’s group folded, the United Hebrew Trades would find itself at the mercy of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), lead by Samuel Gompers, which he had negotiated for and became president of in 1886. The troubling thing for Jewish workers was the opinion Gompers held about the typical Jewish worker; he thought of them to be lazy and indignant. Although this was a setback to the Jewish garment workers, this setback would be short lived as an unexpected group would emerge as a major player on the labor scene. Joseph Barondess successfully organized the cloak makers in 1890, which at the time was the largest sector of the garment industry. Barondess wasted little time in organizing a strike of the cloak makers that lasted eight weeks. The strike took a toll on the striking workers, as they endured police beatings and hunger. In the end the cloak makers were successful, gaining concessions from management in the form of reduced hours and work. The dawn of the 20th century brought with it many economic and technological gains throughout the garment industry, which saw the sunset on the sweatshop model and saw the rise of the factory model. The rise of the factory played a key role in the rise of the union worker. Workers were now able to work side by side, and could more readily share complaints, ideas, and thoughts among themselves. This was not possible under the sweatshop model in which most workers completed their work in the relative isolation of the tenements. Within the women’s garment industry, which had become the 3rd largest goods industry in the U.S., an increasing number of Jewish workers started or joined unions. These unions would often time act independently of each other, until the AFL convinced the independent unions to come together under one organization, called the International Ladies Garment Workers Union, in 1900. The ILGWU quickly became the most outspoken and radical part of the AFL, and had grown to a size of nearly 20,000 members by 1909. It was in this year that the ILGWU made history. In 1909, at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company, an uprising of the ILGWU began and would last two months. Shock was expressed by multiple groups around the country that a group of women, Jewish women, could organize and hold on to their ideals so steadfastly. The ILGWU had set out to put an end to long days, low wages, and other discriminatory methods used by management to curtail and control the lives of these women. The leader of the strike, Clara Lemlich, was not scheduled to speak to the AFL in the Great Hall at New York’s Cooper Union, but what she said sparked the strike. Although she concluded her speech in Yiddish, the other workers in attendance that day understood what she had said; “I offer that a general strike be declared now”. Samuel Gompers would comment afterwards that the strike “brought to the consciousness of the nation a recognition of certain features looming up on its social development.” Unfortunately, little was gained by this uprising at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company where tragedy struck on March 25, 1911. A fire broke out and claimed 146 lives, most of which were Jewish women. The victims became symbols for what was wrong with labor conditions in America, and eventually led to better fire and safety regulations in the State of New York. The after affects of the strike and tragedy at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company would prove to be empowering to not just to garment unions but unions all over the country. The ILGWU wanted to be a union to protect the needs of its workers, as well as their development and role in shaping society. Their work would lead to educational gains for Jewish and non-Jewish members of unions everywhere, as in 1920 the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics noted that the ILGWU established “the first systematic scheme of education undertaken by organized [labor] in the United States.” The Jewish immigrants that were part of the garment industry near the turn of the 20th century played a pivotal role in labor equality and organization. Many of the discussions we have today about organized labor, as well as the benefits and working conditions we have all become accustomed to are a direct result of the Jewish workers near the turn of the 20th century. “A History of the Jews in America”; by Howard Sachar “Organizing the Unorganizable: Three Jewish Women and Their Union”; by Alice Kessler-Harris	1,377	ENGLISH	1
Being a coastal environment, fishing was one of the most important activities for the Worimi in Port Stephens. Fishing methods included both line, and spearing. The women (galbaan) utilised fishing lines (yirawaan) and typically fished from canoes (guuyang), whilst the men (guri) also speared fish from canoes and the shoreline. The string used for fishing lines and nets were made by the women from the inner bark of the young Kurrajong trees (garrajung). The bark (banya) would be stripped carefully from the tree and soaked in water until the outer portions could be readily scrapped off with a shell. This left a white, flax like fibre that was very tough and strong. This fibre was rolled into string on the womans thigh to the required thickness. Fishhooks (birrwuy) were made from the oyster and turban shell. The fishing hooks made from these shells have only been found at two places within Port Stephens, one is Karuah and the other is Birubi, both estimated to be 900 years old. Fish spears (dhatay) were barbed and made in three distinct parts, the main shaft was the dried stem of the Gigantic Gymea Lily (bulungiyan) and into this was fitted a dried flower stem of the Grass Tree (bumiray) the barbed head had 4 prongs made of Iron-bark (djikarr). The Worimi fished certain areas of the Port at night, but they never ventured in or around Fame Cove after dark, it was taboo, for fear of shark (duraagal) attacks. Over generations, the Worimi observed signs from nature that would tell them when the mullet (biiwa) were running. The Worimi always knew when this event occurred by observing the hairy grubs, which would attach themselves to each other to form a single line up-to a metre long. One with little finger removed (gatjiwuy). The Aboriginal custom of fingertip removal first observed in Sydney was a source of curiosity for colonialist. Initially the British were unsure why some women and girls were missing the first joint of the little finger on the left hand. They assumed it was indicative of marriage and important enough to be worthy of permanent marking. This custom of amputating a small portion of the little finger of young girls to mark them out as fishers was also practiced further north in the Port Stephens, and was observed into the 1860s. William Scott (source of The Port Stephens Blacks), who grew up in Port Stephens explains how this practice was related to fishing; “An Aboriginal woman, Fanny, who was a servant of our family for many years, was in her girlhood days dedicated to the art of fishing. When quite young, a ligature was tied about the first joint of her left finger very tightly, and being left there for a considerable time, the top portion mortified and, in time, fell off. This was carefully secured, taken out into the bay, and, with great solemnity, committed to the deep. The belief was that the fish would eat this part of the girl’s finger, and would ever, thereafter, be attracted to the rest of the hand from which it had come”. These women were not only defined as fishers, but also as the makers of fishing lines so that the virtue accruing from her innate powers over fish were communicated to the fishing lines she made. Scott had no doubts that the sacrificial offering was effective, saying that Fanny ‘was indeed a wonderfully lucky fisher. The Worimi women had special sacred places close to fresh water, where they would go to give birth to a child (burray). These special places were known as Increase Sites (gayay). The young pregnant woman was usually accompanied by an older woman, who acted as a midwife. No men could go there – ever. The site provided safety and shelter; mother (ngaya) and child (burray) would stay until they were safe and well enough to travel and re-join their people. Totems (bakuwi) are symbols that acknowledge specific species of birds, animals, or fish and are considered sacred by their owners. Traditionally, a Worimi child would receive a totem from their mother or father. Each totem would have previously been owned by his/her parent’s ancestors. Totems never change and are continually passed on to each generation. Totems have existed in traditional Aboriginal life since the Dreaming. The totem given to a person is never hunted or killed by the person of that totem; this ensured that a particular species was not subject to extinction. Totems were extremely important because they showed loyalty to the past. Totem systems are still used by Worimi people as a way of continuing and maintaining connections with the land and all the species within it. The Worimi also had gender Totems which symbolized the solidarity of the sexes. In the book The Port Stephens Blacks; William Scott wrote; “The men had as theirs the tiny bat that flies about at dusk, and this little winged sprite was regarded with deep veneration. He was “gimbi”, the friend of the males. The women looked upon the small woodpecker, hailing his appearance with delight; he was the totem of the women. In “Notes on the Social Organisation of the Worimi” A.P. Elkin wrote; The men’s totem or kimbai, that is mate, was kulangulang, the bat. Tree-creeper, this bird is also the womans friend and the womans totem was “dilmun” the woodpecker. Clothes and Accessories The clothes that adorned the Worimi consisted of possum (barrangi) fur skin (daan) attached as a belt to cover the lower front and back of the body. Possum fur skins were stitched together and used as a cloak and blanket during the colder months. The Men decorate themselves with pipeclay (dabu) and wore elaborate head-dresses. His long hair was turned up and bound about the head with opossum yarn with a tuft of grass in the centre above the hair, to present the appearance of a plume. In the hair, a little above the ear, was placed a small sharp pointed bone, from the leg of a kangaroo: this was used a comb, or to unravel the hair. The Worimi performed many types of ceremonies for both Men’s and Women’s business. Symbolic dances and rites were performed to teach vital lessons to the initiate. The Bora ground (burrabang) is where the Worimi performed initiation ceremonies for boys to take the status of a man within the tribe. The front tooth of the young initiate man (bumbat) was removed by one of the Elders by placing his bottom tooth against the Bumbats upper tooth and, by giving a sudden jerk; snaps the boys tooth off. The Bora (burra) initiation ceremonies were also conducted by the Women (galbaan) and males and females were excluded from each other’s initiation ceremonies. The Bora ground was also used for other ceremonies such as a corroboree dance (djaraalma). Clap-sticks, boomerangs (barrgan) and spears (gamay) were used for rhythm making at all ceremonies. Bullroarers (burruwa) were used at initiation ceremonies and are spun above the head of an initiate (bumbat) before the sacred ceremony. The unearthly sound produced, serves both as a warning for the uninitiated to keep clear, and to cleanse the area of evil spirits (guwiyn). The Moon Dancers Before European settlement began around the Karuah area of Port Stephens, there were many important ceremonies held there by the Worimi. One of the reasons why the Worimi chose this area is the bright coloured ochre, which is found in very small deposits near and around Karuah. One is vivid red clay ochre and the other bright orange clay ochre. This clay ochre was used for ceremonial dances. The dancers used fine crushed Mica which was rubbed in with the clay ochre and was painted on the bodies of the dancers in artistic pattern designs handed down through generations. After intense rubbing, the clay would shine brightly during the full moon giving a “startling” effect against the silvery moonlight. The corroboree dance and the use of this special ochre was symbolically intended for the sun and the moon and went on until the silvery light had faded. The Worimi obtained the finely crushed Mica from the Nangongan (which means “people from the back of the hills”). The Worimi regard the Willy Wagtail (gitjarrgitjarr) as the bearer of bad news. If he appeared at an important meeting, all talk would cease, because it was believed that he would eavesdrop and spread tales. Because of this reputation as a gossip monger, he was not permitted to listen to any conversations. He is known as gitjarrgitjarr because that’s the sound of his call as he shakes his body from side to side when delivering his news or calls of warning when danger is present. He finds it very hard to sit still. The Worimi didn’t trust him because he was a trouble maker. He is sometimes called the “bird of death”. If he was seen, he was chased away. It was believed that killing him would bring very bad luck, or perhaps even death. Whenever he made an appearance, it was thought he could be bringing an important message, especially if he looked one in the eye, made a noise as if talking, or flew in front of one’s path. This message would come, shortly afterwards, in the form of a dream, an unannounced visitor, or an omen. The Worimi feared an invisible spirit they called “Guwiyn” who exercised harmful or evil acts over their lives. They feared the dark as any mysterious noise at night was attributed to “Guwiyn” and they never moved around after dark without a fire-stick to keep him away. The little hairy man they called “Yurriwina” or Brown Jack was a creature that roamed throughout the bush particularly at night and was feared by the Worimi. It is believed that the clever man (Giraadji) could talk to these creatures. Around the harbour, the time of burials were fixed for the flood tide (wakaguba) the belief was that if the burial happened at the ebb tide (baaraguba) the spirit of the deceased would be carried out to sea (garuwa) and lost in the great waters. A small She-Oak sapling was always planted over the grave site to identify the burial site. It was considered bad luck for the Worimi to go fishing after a feed of fruit. The Worimi were greatly afraid of blood falling into lakes or rivers from a cut or wound, as great storms (malu) would result and cause the destruction of fish (makurr).	<urn:uuid:0e418380-1366-42f3-8ce8-0bef9810a8a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worimiconservationlands.com/customs-and-beliefs/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00026.warc.gz	en	0.98231	2,384	3.75	4	[ -0.03744295984506607, 0.0743061825633049, 0.18373893201351166, -0.30370768904685974, -0.056588754057884216, -0.14225754141807556, 0.5201125144958496, 0.01572607085108757, -0.2846565842628479, -0.16538694500923157, -0.047755349427461624, -0.7914383411407471, 0.07405827939510345, 0.444945663...	16	Being a coastal environment, fishing was one of the most important activities for the Worimi in Port Stephens. Fishing methods included both line, and spearing. The women (galbaan) utilised fishing lines (yirawaan) and typically fished from canoes (guuyang), whilst the men (guri) also speared fish from canoes and the shoreline. The string used for fishing lines and nets were made by the women from the inner bark of the young Kurrajong trees (garrajung). The bark (banya) would be stripped carefully from the tree and soaked in water until the outer portions could be readily scrapped off with a shell. This left a white, flax like fibre that was very tough and strong. This fibre was rolled into string on the womans thigh to the required thickness. Fishhooks (birrwuy) were made from the oyster and turban shell. The fishing hooks made from these shells have only been found at two places within Port Stephens, one is Karuah and the other is Birubi, both estimated to be 900 years old. Fish spears (dhatay) were barbed and made in three distinct parts, the main shaft was the dried stem of the Gigantic Gymea Lily (bulungiyan) and into this was fitted a dried flower stem of the Grass Tree (bumiray) the barbed head had 4 prongs made of Iron-bark (djikarr). The Worimi fished certain areas of the Port at night, but they never ventured in or around Fame Cove after dark, it was taboo, for fear of shark (duraagal) attacks. Over generations, the Worimi observed signs from nature that would tell them when the mullet (biiwa) were running. The Worimi always knew when this event occurred by observing the hairy grubs, which would attach themselves to each other to form a single line up-to a metre long. One with little finger removed (gatjiwuy). The Aboriginal custom of fingertip removal first observed in Sydney was a source of curiosity for colonialist. Initially the British were unsure why some women and girls were missing the first joint of the little finger on the left hand. They assumed it was indicative of marriage and important enough to be worthy of permanent marking. This custom of amputating a small portion of the little finger of young girls to mark them out as fishers was also practiced further north in the Port Stephens, and was observed into the 1860s. William Scott (source of The Port Stephens Blacks), who grew up in Port Stephens explains how this practice was related to fishing; “An Aboriginal woman, Fanny, who was a servant of our family for many years, was in her girlhood days dedicated to the art of fishing. When quite young, a ligature was tied about the first joint of her left finger very tightly, and being left there for a considerable time, the top portion mortified and, in time, fell off. This was carefully secured, taken out into the bay, and, with great solemnity, committed to the deep. The belief was that the fish would eat this part of the girl’s finger, and would ever, thereafter, be attracted to the rest of the hand from which it had come”. These women were not only defined as fishers, but also as the makers of fishing lines so that the virtue accruing from her innate powers over fish were communicated to the fishing lines she made. Scott had no doubts that the sacrificial offering was effective, saying that Fanny ‘was indeed a wonderfully lucky fisher. The Worimi women had special sacred places close to fresh water, where they would go to give birth to a child (burray). These special places were known as Increase Sites (gayay). The young pregnant woman was usually accompanied by an older woman, who acted as a midwife. No men could go there – ever. The site provided safety and shelter; mother (ngaya) and child (burray) would stay until they were safe and well enough to travel and re-join their people. Totems (bakuwi) are symbols that acknowledge specific species of birds, animals, or fish and are considered sacred by their owners. Traditionally, a Worimi child would receive a totem from their mother or father. Each totem would have previously been owned by his/her parent’s ancestors. Totems never change and are continually passed on to each generation. Totems have existed in traditional Aboriginal life since the Dreaming. The totem given to a person is never hunted or killed by the person of that totem; this ensured that a particular species was not subject to extinction. Totems were extremely important because they showed loyalty to the past. Totem systems are still used by Worimi people as a way of continuing and maintaining connections with the land and all the species within it. The Worimi also had gender Totems which symbolized the solidarity of the sexes. In the book The Port Stephens Blacks; William Scott wrote; “The men had as theirs the tiny bat that flies about at dusk, and this little winged sprite was regarded with deep veneration. He was “gimbi”, the friend of the males. The women looked upon the small woodpecker, hailing his appearance with delight; he was the totem of the women. In “Notes on the Social Organisation of the Worimi” A.P. Elkin wrote; The men’s totem or kimbai, that is mate, was kulangulang, the bat. Tree-creeper, this bird is also the womans friend and the womans totem was “dilmun” the woodpecker. Clothes and Accessories The clothes that adorned the Worimi consisted of possum (barrangi) fur skin (daan) attached as a belt to cover the lower front and back of the body. Possum fur skins were stitched together and used as a cloak and blanket during the colder months. The Men decorate themselves with pipeclay (dabu) and wore elaborate head-dresses. His long hair was turned up and bound about the head with opossum yarn with a tuft of grass in the centre above the hair, to present the appearance of a plume. In the hair, a little above the ear, was placed a small sharp pointed bone, from the leg of a kangaroo: this was used a comb, or to unravel the hair. The Worimi performed many types of ceremonies for both Men’s and Women’s business. Symbolic dances and rites were performed to teach vital lessons to the initiate. The Bora ground (burrabang) is where the Worimi performed initiation ceremonies for boys to take the status of a man within the tribe. The front tooth of the young initiate man (bumbat) was removed by one of the Elders by placing his bottom tooth against the Bumbats upper tooth and, by giving a sudden jerk; snaps the boys tooth off. The Bora (burra) initiation ceremonies were also conducted by the Women (galbaan) and males and females were excluded from each other’s initiation ceremonies. The Bora ground was also used for other ceremonies such as a corroboree dance (djaraalma). Clap-sticks, boomerangs (barrgan) and spears (gamay) were used for rhythm making at all ceremonies. Bullroarers (burruwa) were used at initiation ceremonies and are spun above the head of an initiate (bumbat) before the sacred ceremony. The unearthly sound produced, serves both as a warning for the uninitiated to keep clear, and to cleanse the area of evil spirits (guwiyn). The Moon Dancers Before European settlement began around the Karuah area of Port Stephens, there were many important ceremonies held there by the Worimi. One of the reasons why the Worimi chose this area is the bright coloured ochre, which is found in very small deposits near and around Karuah. One is vivid red clay ochre and the other bright orange clay ochre. This clay ochre was used for ceremonial dances. The dancers used fine crushed Mica which was rubbed in with the clay ochre and was painted on the bodies of the dancers in artistic pattern designs handed down through generations. After intense rubbing, the clay would shine brightly during the full moon giving a “startling” effect against the silvery moonlight. The corroboree dance and the use of this special ochre was symbolically intended for the sun and the moon and went on until the silvery light had faded. The Worimi obtained the finely crushed Mica from the Nangongan (which means “people from the back of the hills”). The Worimi regard the Willy Wagtail (gitjarrgitjarr) as the bearer of bad news. If he appeared at an important meeting, all talk would cease, because it was believed that he would eavesdrop and spread tales. Because of this reputation as a gossip monger, he was not permitted to listen to any conversations. He is known as gitjarrgitjarr because that’s the sound of his call as he shakes his body from side to side when delivering his news or calls of warning when danger is present. He finds it very hard to sit still. The Worimi didn’t trust him because he was a trouble maker. He is sometimes called the “bird of death”. If he was seen, he was chased away. It was believed that killing him would bring very bad luck, or perhaps even death. Whenever he made an appearance, it was thought he could be bringing an important message, especially if he looked one in the eye, made a noise as if talking, or flew in front of one’s path. This message would come, shortly afterwards, in the form of a dream, an unannounced visitor, or an omen. The Worimi feared an invisible spirit they called “Guwiyn” who exercised harmful or evil acts over their lives. They feared the dark as any mysterious noise at night was attributed to “Guwiyn” and they never moved around after dark without a fire-stick to keep him away. The little hairy man they called “Yurriwina” or Brown Jack was a creature that roamed throughout the bush particularly at night and was feared by the Worimi. It is believed that the clever man (Giraadji) could talk to these creatures. Around the harbour, the time of burials were fixed for the flood tide (wakaguba) the belief was that if the burial happened at the ebb tide (baaraguba) the spirit of the deceased would be carried out to sea (garuwa) and lost in the great waters. A small She-Oak sapling was always planted over the grave site to identify the burial site. It was considered bad luck for the Worimi to go fishing after a feed of fruit. The Worimi were greatly afraid of blood falling into lakes or rivers from a cut or wound, as great storms (malu) would result and cause the destruction of fish (makurr).	2,295	ENGLISH	1
Throughout his narrative, Kafka employs various symbols and metaphors in order to convey his theme about the isolation of modern man. In the allegory, Gregor, on some level, represents all of humankind. His job suggests that he was, in some ways, a beetle inside all along, just as all human beings are essentially beetles deep within. Although we may interact with other human beings on a very superficial level, the human condition deep down is marked by the deepest form of isolation and hunger for relatively non-existant human contact. The Allegory in the metamorphosis refers to the unconscious; the internal feelings humans first have in order to satisfy their urges. His father shoos him away with a cane and while making hissing noises, and his mother runs away in disgust. His sister brings him food, cleans his room, and takes care of him. She is the one he feels the strongest connection to in his family. He also loves that she plays the violin. Gregor wants to respond to his innate sexual desire for his sister, but he is trapped by his metamorphosis. Gregor Samsa also had a questionable affliction for his mother, with whom he is the most frustrated. Though she is initially disgusted, his mother loves Gregor and wishes to help him. When his father started throwing apples at him to make Gregor go away, his mother intervened and begged for his life: There is somewhat of a competition between Gregor and his father for the attention of his mother. Gregor is required by his father to be submissive towards him and repress his true feelings for his mother, which makes him miserable. Gregor has all these impulses, feelings, and desires that he wants and needs to fulfill, but he cannot. The ego can fluctuate between thoughts of unconsciousness and consciousness. Gregor wishes he could come in contact with his family, especially his sister, and he thinks of this often. Once he realizes these thoughts are useless, they, along with his feelings, slip into repression. His conscious thoughts slipped into the unconscious, or the id, where he needed to fulfill his urges. Gregor has an absence of family values, or even a family at all. His mother and father are both out of work, and expect Gregor to pay off all of their debt to his boss. Every decision Gregor makes is based off of his superego. Every time he takes a chance and ventures out of his room, or out of his hiding place, is the result of his conscience, which lacks family union and love: He came out of his room to hear his sister play because he felt a connection, one he did not feel with his mother or father. Gregor has been in a constant battle with his conscience, but at the end he finally agrees with it: That he was a burden to his parents, and the hurt he caused to his loved ones though they did not really seem to love himwas not worth the fight anymore. The id, the ego, and the superego of Gregor Samsa correlate between his parents and his surroundings. Gregor has urges he needs to fulfill but cannot based on the containment of his job and societal rules the id. He has to conform to society and attempts to find different ways to satisfy his needs the ego.allegory the metamorphosis analysis. allegory of the caveduck and cover s. essays comparing allegory of the cave to antigone. allegory of the cave plateau. table of tightening torque hino. allegory of the cave summary. compare and contrast platos allegory of the cave with todays drug addicts. The Ruins of Allegory: "Paradise Lost" and the Metamorphosis of Epic Convention (review) Gordon Teskey MLQ: Modern Language Quarterly, Volume 61, Number 2, June , pp. Symbolism Franz Kafka uses symbolism in order to express many of the more complex themes in the novella, The Metamorphosis. One of the main symbols he uses is the picture of the woman on the wall. The Metamorphosis fits the bill of an Expressionist work of art. It tells its story from an extremely subjective viewpoint, plunging deeper and deeper into Gregor’s singular confusion, pain, and sorrow. Rarely do we venture beyond what he sees or feels. Literary Techniques Kafka’s Metamorphosis is an existential allegory of human isolation. Throughout his narrative, Kafka employs various symbols and metaphors in order to convey his theme about the isolation of modern man. May 11, · The Metamorphosis is an autobiographical piece of writing, and it's been found that parts of the story reflect Kafka's own life. It's well known that Kafka felt like an insect in his father's authoritative presence and even developed a stammer while speaking to him.	<urn:uuid:760a3c33-b879-4dfa-9551-fcfb16a584a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qifopuviru.benjaminpohle.com/allegory-in-the-metamorphosis-38029qy.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00513.warc.gz	en	0.98611	1,001	3.40625	3	[ 0.03533672168850899, 0.12707148492336273, -0.048172615468502045, 0.04960785061120987, -0.4618707299232483, -0.3304138779640198, 0.5065512657165527, -0.008099464699625969, 0.010077573359012604, -0.28881168365478516, -0.10018885135650635, -0.11892147362232208, 0.11873123794794083, 0.10230143...	1	Throughout his narrative, Kafka employs various symbols and metaphors in order to convey his theme about the isolation of modern man. In the allegory, Gregor, on some level, represents all of humankind. His job suggests that he was, in some ways, a beetle inside all along, just as all human beings are essentially beetles deep within. Although we may interact with other human beings on a very superficial level, the human condition deep down is marked by the deepest form of isolation and hunger for relatively non-existant human contact. The Allegory in the metamorphosis refers to the unconscious; the internal feelings humans first have in order to satisfy their urges. His father shoos him away with a cane and while making hissing noises, and his mother runs away in disgust. His sister brings him food, cleans his room, and takes care of him. She is the one he feels the strongest connection to in his family. He also loves that she plays the violin. Gregor wants to respond to his innate sexual desire for his sister, but he is trapped by his metamorphosis. Gregor Samsa also had a questionable affliction for his mother, with whom he is the most frustrated. Though she is initially disgusted, his mother loves Gregor and wishes to help him. When his father started throwing apples at him to make Gregor go away, his mother intervened and begged for his life: There is somewhat of a competition between Gregor and his father for the attention of his mother. Gregor is required by his father to be submissive towards him and repress his true feelings for his mother, which makes him miserable. Gregor has all these impulses, feelings, and desires that he wants and needs to fulfill, but he cannot. The ego can fluctuate between thoughts of unconsciousness and consciousness. Gregor wishes he could come in contact with his family, especially his sister, and he thinks of this often. Once he realizes these thoughts are useless, they, along with his feelings, slip into repression. His conscious thoughts slipped into the unconscious, or the id, where he needed to fulfill his urges. Gregor has an absence of family values, or even a family at all. His mother and father are both out of work, and expect Gregor to pay off all of their debt to his boss. Every decision Gregor makes is based off of his superego. Every time he takes a chance and ventures out of his room, or out of his hiding place, is the result of his conscience, which lacks family union and love: He came out of his room to hear his sister play because he felt a connection, one he did not feel with his mother or father. Gregor has been in a constant battle with his conscience, but at the end he finally agrees with it: That he was a burden to his parents, and the hurt he caused to his loved ones though they did not really seem to love himwas not worth the fight anymore. The id, the ego, and the superego of Gregor Samsa correlate between his parents and his surroundings. Gregor has urges he needs to fulfill but cannot based on the containment of his job and societal rules the id. He has to conform to society and attempts to find different ways to satisfy his needs the ego.allegory the metamorphosis analysis. allegory of the caveduck and cover s. essays comparing allegory of the cave to antigone. allegory of the cave plateau. table of tightening torque hino. allegory of the cave summary. compare and contrast platos allegory of the cave with todays drug addicts. The Ruins of Allegory: "Paradise Lost" and the Metamorphosis of Epic Convention (review) Gordon Teskey MLQ: Modern Language Quarterly, Volume 61, Number 2, June , pp. Symbolism Franz Kafka uses symbolism in order to express many of the more complex themes in the novella, The Metamorphosis. One of the main symbols he uses is the picture of the woman on the wall. The Metamorphosis fits the bill of an Expressionist work of art. It tells its story from an extremely subjective viewpoint, plunging deeper and deeper into Gregor’s singular confusion, pain, and sorrow. Rarely do we venture beyond what he sees or feels. Literary Techniques Kafka’s Metamorphosis is an existential allegory of human isolation. Throughout his narrative, Kafka employs various symbols and metaphors in order to convey his theme about the isolation of modern man. May 11, · The Metamorphosis is an autobiographical piece of writing, and it's been found that parts of the story reflect Kafka's own life. It's well known that Kafka felt like an insect in his father's authoritative presence and even developed a stammer while speaking to him.	987	ENGLISH	1
The Whiteboard today is the English Idiom "Draw the Short Straw". What it means and how to use it. Here's something we were discussing the other day. In this story, one of my students was trying to tell that, because he was the youngest, he was assigned to do a task that no one else wanted to do. I told him that he had, unfortunately, drawn the short straw as he was delegated a task to do that he found quite unpleasant and didn't particularly, want to do. He was chosen to tidy and clean up one of the offices for an impending visit. it was a job that everyone found quite boring and nobody volunteered to do it. Leaving the manager to make a decision, which of course, once my students name was mentioned to do it, everyone hurried to agree with the decision. Much to the weariness of my student. He had drawn the short straw. We use the English Idiom 'to draw the short straw' to show that someone has been chosen to do a task that no one else wanted to do. Usually the decision is then made by the boss and most of the time the person chosen will be a more junior member of the team. So we can use it like this as: - No one volunteered to do the task, so because I was the youngest, I drew the short straw and had to do it. - I drew the short straw so it was my responsibility make sure the office looked its best. Hope you found this useful, let us know if you have any comments, suggestions or questions and I'll be only to happy to answer. WE use to show that someone has been assigned to do a task that no one else wanted to do or volunteered to do. Usually a manager or someone senior will make that decision but sometimes it could go to a vote from the group to decide. Download your English Tips EBook Delegated (verb 2) - When a boss or supervisor assigns work or a task for you to do Particularly (adverb) - To emphasise a specific feeling about doing or not doing something Impending (adjective) - An event that has been planned to happen and the moment is about to arrive Weariness (noun) - To show that emotionally you have no energy or little energy or enthusiasm for a task	<urn:uuid:2d2a8dcf-43b4-4305-9392-d3538c7cb89b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.getenglishtips.com/en/91-vocabulary/166-idiom-from-the-english-whiteboard-draw-the-short-straw	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00297.warc.gz	en	0.981749	484	3.8125	4	[ -0.18262198567390442, -0.03633711114525795, 0.30830949544906616, -0.15425096452236176, -0.15385937690734863, 0.004944780841469765, 0.7215137481689453, -0.046857189387083054, 0.4877549409866333, 0.12440246343612671, -0.010412255302071571, -0.2880149781703949, 0.10871239006519318, 0.38879153...	3	The Whiteboard today is the English Idiom "Draw the Short Straw". What it means and how to use it. Here's something we were discussing the other day. In this story, one of my students was trying to tell that, because he was the youngest, he was assigned to do a task that no one else wanted to do. I told him that he had, unfortunately, drawn the short straw as he was delegated a task to do that he found quite unpleasant and didn't particularly, want to do. He was chosen to tidy and clean up one of the offices for an impending visit. it was a job that everyone found quite boring and nobody volunteered to do it. Leaving the manager to make a decision, which of course, once my students name was mentioned to do it, everyone hurried to agree with the decision. Much to the weariness of my student. He had drawn the short straw. We use the English Idiom 'to draw the short straw' to show that someone has been chosen to do a task that no one else wanted to do. Usually the decision is then made by the boss and most of the time the person chosen will be a more junior member of the team. So we can use it like this as: - No one volunteered to do the task, so because I was the youngest, I drew the short straw and had to do it. - I drew the short straw so it was my responsibility make sure the office looked its best. Hope you found this useful, let us know if you have any comments, suggestions or questions and I'll be only to happy to answer. WE use to show that someone has been assigned to do a task that no one else wanted to do or volunteered to do. Usually a manager or someone senior will make that decision but sometimes it could go to a vote from the group to decide. Download your English Tips EBook Delegated (verb 2) - When a boss or supervisor assigns work or a task for you to do Particularly (adverb) - To emphasise a specific feeling about doing or not doing something Impending (adjective) - An event that has been planned to happen and the moment is about to arrive Weariness (noun) - To show that emotionally you have no energy or little energy or enthusiasm for a task	471	ENGLISH	1
The ethnic cleansing that was to unfold during the Nazi rule under Hitler began with the simple boycotts of Jewish shops and businesses. The escalation of the Nazi Holocaust from 1938-1945 resulted in the deaths of 6,000,000 people. Operation “Final Solution” was also devised to kill Polish Jews with the use of railways that transported millions of people, many whom died along the ride in the overcrowded, resourceless train. This was also a ploy that gave support to the lie that the Germans were merely “resettling” the Polish Jews, when in truth, the trains were taking them to the Belzec extermination camp, where those that survived the train ride were executed. Soviet Holocaust Ethnic Cleansing Soviet troops liberated the Majdanek camp on Polish grounds on July 24, 1944 where a total of 360,000 Jews had already been murdered. Himmler, in fear for the fast approaching Soviet Army, mandated the destruction of the gas chambers. The SS troops began to round up the surviving concentration camp inmates for the death marches that killed many more Jews through exhaustion, starvation, dehydration. Also, any victims that failed to keep up in the march were shot by the SS. The Soviet Army was able to approach the Auschwitz camp by January 27 of 1945. The Western Allies had followed by forcing their way onto German grounds by spring of 1945. Then they proceeded to liberate the holocaust victims in the remaining Buchenwald, Dachau and Bergen-Belsen camps. General religious and political Opposition Also, opposition was felt in a small group of young Germans who resented the required collaboration to the Hitler Youth. University students in Munich were also recorded to have had formed White Rose in 1942, a resistance group against the holocaust that created leaflets to distribute. This led to the arrest and execution of the group’s three main leaders, a professor and two siblings. Moreover, a conservative group comprised of diplomats and military officers devised an assassination plan for Hitler’s death who they hoped to replace with right-wing conservative Karl Goerdeler. The attempt failed as Hitler survived the bomb’s blast. Those that were involved in the attempt were tried and most were executed.	<urn:uuid:764980bc-077b-4508-a9b8-2f9f054071a4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://immigration.laws.com/category/Nazi	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00508.warc.gz	en	0.983943	454	3.765625	4	[ -0.19246307015419006, 0.6756273508071899, 0.1563105285167694, 0.26502975821495056, 0.1698274165391922, 0.040954358875751495, 0.02199728973209858, 0.26489734649658203, -0.4275076389312744, -0.06724443286657333, 0.3672572374343872, -0.2047954499721527, -0.02352326177060604, 0.420398652553558...	12	The ethnic cleansing that was to unfold during the Nazi rule under Hitler began with the simple boycotts of Jewish shops and businesses. The escalation of the Nazi Holocaust from 1938-1945 resulted in the deaths of 6,000,000 people. Operation “Final Solution” was also devised to kill Polish Jews with the use of railways that transported millions of people, many whom died along the ride in the overcrowded, resourceless train. This was also a ploy that gave support to the lie that the Germans were merely “resettling” the Polish Jews, when in truth, the trains were taking them to the Belzec extermination camp, where those that survived the train ride were executed. Soviet Holocaust Ethnic Cleansing Soviet troops liberated the Majdanek camp on Polish grounds on July 24, 1944 where a total of 360,000 Jews had already been murdered. Himmler, in fear for the fast approaching Soviet Army, mandated the destruction of the gas chambers. The SS troops began to round up the surviving concentration camp inmates for the death marches that killed many more Jews through exhaustion, starvation, dehydration. Also, any victims that failed to keep up in the march were shot by the SS. The Soviet Army was able to approach the Auschwitz camp by January 27 of 1945. The Western Allies had followed by forcing their way onto German grounds by spring of 1945. Then they proceeded to liberate the holocaust victims in the remaining Buchenwald, Dachau and Bergen-Belsen camps. General religious and political Opposition Also, opposition was felt in a small group of young Germans who resented the required collaboration to the Hitler Youth. University students in Munich were also recorded to have had formed White Rose in 1942, a resistance group against the holocaust that created leaflets to distribute. This led to the arrest and execution of the group’s three main leaders, a professor and two siblings. Moreover, a conservative group comprised of diplomats and military officers devised an assassination plan for Hitler’s death who they hoped to replace with right-wing conservative Karl Goerdeler. The attempt failed as Hitler survived the bomb’s blast. Those that were involved in the attempt were tried and most were executed.	479	ENGLISH	1
The name is easily familiar to those who read about early medieval India. Though not an Indian figure, the persona of Mahmud of Ghazni (997 – 1030 CE) is of immense importance to the contours of Indian history. Mahmud of Ghazni started out in the world as a constant war companion to his father, Abu Mansur Sabuktigin. He thus inherited his father’s spirit as well as his martial ability. Succeeding the throne at the age of 30, Mahmud of Ghazni launched a number of raids on the Indian subcontinent. The primary aim of these raids was to acquire wealth, to finance the campaigns in central Asia and to strengthen the empire. He conducted a total of as many as 17 raids in northern India between the years 1001 and 1027 CE. He thereby established a hold on what is the modern-day Punjab. Mahmud of Ghazni was the first Muslim conqueror to rule Afghanistan with an empire ranging from what in the present day would be north east of Iran, Afghanistan and north India. India became for Ghazni a target in particular, famous for its apparent wealth and splendour. What were raided specifically were temple towns of northern and western parts of India. The plundering and looting of wealth seem to have been the main aim instead of conquest at this stage. After a number of raids, all held in close succession to each other, there appeared to have been a further motive: to go beyond the Punjab area and reach the heart of the subcontinent. In 1017 CE, a raid was held and led to the city of Mathura. Known then as a vaishnavite city, the city’s wealth was looted and shrines plundered. The conquest, so to speak, went in further and took Kannauj as well. There are many stories associated with him, his most famous raid was on the Somnath temple in Gujarat, where among things to be conquered was the mighty Thar desert. His last exploits took place around 1027 CE against Jats who had attacked the army on return from Somnath. Ghazni died finally in 1030 CE, due to a prolonged ilness, after a life strewn with war, plunder and weariness. 3,331 total views, 8 views today	<urn:uuid:844905ce-17a3-4b82-99db-60aa37b76d54>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/history/who-was-mahmud-of-ghazni	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00387.warc.gz	en	0.982108	483	3.390625	3	[ 0.16136083006858826, 0.526753306388855, 0.15991736948490143, -0.17011083662509918, -0.5071355104446411, -0.21222539246082306, 0.5633653402328491, -0.20642602443695068, -0.18854166567325592, -0.0810166522860527, -0.15005163848400116, -0.3753637671470642, 0.24527131021022797, 0.2688898146152...	1	The name is easily familiar to those who read about early medieval India. Though not an Indian figure, the persona of Mahmud of Ghazni (997 – 1030 CE) is of immense importance to the contours of Indian history. Mahmud of Ghazni started out in the world as a constant war companion to his father, Abu Mansur Sabuktigin. He thus inherited his father’s spirit as well as his martial ability. Succeeding the throne at the age of 30, Mahmud of Ghazni launched a number of raids on the Indian subcontinent. The primary aim of these raids was to acquire wealth, to finance the campaigns in central Asia and to strengthen the empire. He conducted a total of as many as 17 raids in northern India between the years 1001 and 1027 CE. He thereby established a hold on what is the modern-day Punjab. Mahmud of Ghazni was the first Muslim conqueror to rule Afghanistan with an empire ranging from what in the present day would be north east of Iran, Afghanistan and north India. India became for Ghazni a target in particular, famous for its apparent wealth and splendour. What were raided specifically were temple towns of northern and western parts of India. The plundering and looting of wealth seem to have been the main aim instead of conquest at this stage. After a number of raids, all held in close succession to each other, there appeared to have been a further motive: to go beyond the Punjab area and reach the heart of the subcontinent. In 1017 CE, a raid was held and led to the city of Mathura. Known then as a vaishnavite city, the city’s wealth was looted and shrines plundered. The conquest, so to speak, went in further and took Kannauj as well. There are many stories associated with him, his most famous raid was on the Somnath temple in Gujarat, where among things to be conquered was the mighty Thar desert. His last exploits took place around 1027 CE against Jats who had attacked the army on return from Somnath. Ghazni died finally in 1030 CE, due to a prolonged ilness, after a life strewn with war, plunder and weariness. 3,331 total views, 8 views today	496	ENGLISH	1
Hernando de Soto and his army passed through Gainesville in August 1539 towards the beginning of their four-year exploration of what is now the southeastern United States, the third village where they stayed, Utinamocharra, having been in the dense cluster east of Moon Lake at the northwestern edge of present-day Gainesville. The Native Americans, having little resistance to diseases introduced from Europe, declined significantly in number after the arrival of Europeans, and Spanish suppression of native revolts further reduced the population. The remaining Timucua were converted to Roman Catholicism and organized into missions overseen by Franciscan priests. The Mission San Francisco de Potano, the first doctrina (a mission with a resident priest) in Florida west of the St. Johns River, was founded in 1606 at the south edge of present-day San Felasco Hammock Preserve State Park. In or adjacent to present-day Gainesville were two other missions (each named for the saint’s day the first Mass was said in it, Santa Ana and San Miguel, which were south of and within a day’s walk from San Francisco, and are thought to be in the cluster east of Moon Lake where Spanish and Indian artifacts from the Mission-period have been found. The earliest missions were apparently established adjacent to native villages visited by De Soto’s expedition; Santa Ana is thought to be located where Utinamocharra lay, and in 1606 the friar who served as the priest was told of cruelties that the chief, when a boy, had suffered from De Soto’s men. Chief Potano’s town was relocated in the colonial period to the vicinity of the Devil’s Millhopper, which is now inside the Gainesville city limits, from the western shore of Orange Lake. In the first decade of the 18th century, however, colonial soldiers from the Province of Carolina and their Yamasee Indian allies had killed or carried off nearly all the remaining native inhabitants (10,000 ? 12,000 native Floridians were taken as slaves, according to the governor of Spanish Florida) and the few remaining Timucua fled and ended up living in the vicinity of St. Augustine. Spanish colonists began cattle ranching in the Paynes Prairie area using Timucua labor, and the largest hacienda (ranch) became known as La Chua (which combines the Spanish article La with the Timucuan word Chua, meaning “sinkhole”). Although La Chua was destroyed by the above-mentioned raiders from Carolina, the ranch nevertheless gave its name to the Alachua band of the Seminole tribe who settled in the region in the 18th century under the leadership of the great chief Ahaya the Cowkeeper. Gainesville was founded to place the Alachua County seat on the proposed route of the Florida Railroad Company’s line stretching from Cedar Key to Fernandina Beach. County residents decided to move the county seat from Newnansville (and chose the name Gainesville) in 1853, as the proposed railroad would bypass Newnansville. A site on Black Oak Ridge where the railroad was expected to cross it was selected in 1854. It is generally accepted that the new settlement was named for General Edmund P. Gaines, commander of U.S. Army troops in Florida early in the Second Seminole War. The railroad was completed from Fernandina to Gainesville in 1859, passing six blocks south of the courthouse. It is claimed that Gainesville was originally named Hogtown; however, Hogtown was actually an early 19th-century settlement in and around what is now Westside Park (in the northeast corner of the intersection of NW 8th Avenue and 34th Street) where a historical marker notes Hogtown’s location at that site. Hogtown is the eponymous village of the adjacent Hogtown Creek which flows 5.7 miles (9.2 km) through Gainesville. Hogtown continued to exist until after Gainesville was founded, as evidenced on a map showing both towns which was published in 1864 based on surveys from 1855. Two residents of Hogtown played a prominent role in establishing Gainesville. William Lewis, who owned a plantation in Hogtown, delivered 20 votes pledged to him to create a new town on the expected route of the railroad, in an attempt to have the new town named Lewisville. Tillman Ingram, who also owned a plantation and a sawmill in Hogtown, helped swing the vote to move the county seat to the new town by offering to build a new courthouse at a low price. Residents of Newnansville, disgruntled at losing the county seat, called the site chosen for the new town “Hog Wallow”, because of its location between Hogtown and Paynes Prairie. The former site of Hogtown was annexed by the City of Gainesville in 1961. A town site of 103.25 acres (41.78 ha) was purchased for $642.51. The County Commission ordered the public sale of lots in the town site in 1854, but no deeds were recorded until 1856. A courthouse was constructed in Gainesville in 1856, and the county seat was then officially moved from Newnansville. A jail was built in 1857, and a well was dug and a pump for public use installed the same year. Property values rose quickly. A city block on the edge of town purchased for $14.57 in 1857 sold for $100 in 1858. The railroad from Fernandina reached Gainesville in 1859, and connected to Cedar Key the next year. By that time, there were eight or nine stores and three hotels surrounding the courthouse square. In the 1850s secessionist sentiment was strong in Gainesville. Half of the white residents in Gainesville had been born in South Carolina (where secessionist sentiments were very strong), or had parents who had been born in that state. Aside from a few foreign-born residents, the other whites in town had also been born in Florida or other Southern states. Another factor was fear of blacks. Blacks, mostly slaves, were a majority of the population in Alachua County (although there were few in Gainesville itself). John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859 frightened the whites in Gainesville, leading them to organize a militia company called the Gainesville Minute Men. The Gainesville Minute Men were incorporated into the First Florida Regiment soon after Florida seceded from the Union. Several more companies were recruited in Gainesville and Alachua County during the Civil War. During the war Gainesville served as a depot for food requisitioned by the Confederate government from the surrounding area. A small post on the east side of Gainesville called Fort Lee was an induction point for men entering the Confederate States Army. Fighting on a small scale reached Gainesville twice. On February 15, 1864, a small Union raiding party occupied Gainesville. Elements of the Second Florida Cavalry attempted to drive the Union force from the town but were defeated in a street battle. The raiding party was associated with a larger Union invasion of Florida that was defeated at the Battle of Olustee five days later. The Union troops did not seize or destroy any property on this raid, but did distribute food stores to the residents, who were suffering from shortages. Six months later, early in the morning of August 17, 1864, 265 Union troops and 15 “loyal Floridians” reached Gainesville. The troops stopped just east of town to prepare breakfast and care for their horses. A small home guard of 30 to 40 old men and boys attacked the Union camp, and were easily driven off. The Union troops then broke ranks and started looting the town. While the Union troops were scattered throughout the town a large number of Confederate troops were spotted approaching. The Union troops resisted the Confederate advance for an hour and a half, but were finally driven from Gainesville with heavy casualties. For several months following the Civil War, the 3rd United States Colored Troops were stationed in Gainesville, which encouraged freed men to settle there. At the same time black farm laborers were recruited from Georgia and South Carolina to help harvest what was expected to be a very large cotton crop, but heavy rain ruined the cotton, and the recently arrived blacks were left without work. Black residents soon outnumbered whites in Gainesville, which had had 223 white residents in 1860. Vagrancy and theft became major problems in Gainesville, and large numbers of blacks were arrested by federal troops. White residents resumed political life in Florida immediately after the end of the Civil War. Gainesville incorporated as a city in 1866, but the city government was weak and the council did not maintain a regular schedule of meetings. With military control asserted over Florida in 1867 as part of Reconstruction, the reconstituted Florida legislature required all cities to re-incorporate, and Gainesville did so in 1869. During Reconstruction Gainesville blacks were elected to a number of state and local offices. Blacks had largely been disenfranchised by the 1890s, however. Downtown Gainesville on Alachua Avenue (now University Avenue) circa 1883 Following the Civil War, the city prospered as an important cotton shipping facility. Florida produced more Sea Island Cotton in the 1880s than any other state, and Gainesville was the leading shipping point for cotton in Florida. Two more railroads had reached Gainesville by the 1880s, and citrus and vegetables had become important local crops. However, the citrus industry ended when the great freezes of 1894?95 and 1899 destroyed the crops, and citrus growing was largely abandoned in the area. Phosphate mining and lumbering became important parts of the local economy. A manufacturing area grew up south of downtown, near the railroads. The first school for blacks in Gainesville, the Union Academy, was established in 1866 by the Freedmen’s Bureau to educate freed slaves. White residents of Gainesville were opposed to education for blacks and treated the teachers at the school badly, including incidents of boys throwing “missiles” into the classrooms. By 1898 the school served 500 students, and it continued in operation until 1929. White students had only private schools available before 1869, including the East Florida Seminary, which moved from Ocala in 1866 and merged with the Gainesville Academy (founded in 1856). Even after a public school system had been established in Alachua County, most white children who went to school did so at private schools, and the Union Academy was in session for a larger part of the year, and its teachers were better paid, than was the case for the public schools. Public education remained underfunded into the 1880s, classes having to meet in abandoned houses or rented rooms. The school year for public schools was as short as three months for some years. The first public school building was built in 1885. The Gainesville Graded and High School, with twelve classrooms and an auditorium, opened in 1900, and most of the private schools closed soon after. The county school board also provided some funds for upkeep of the Union Academy. There was no dedicated church building in Gainesville in the first years of its existence. A church built in 1859 by the Presbyterians was shared by itinerant preachers of several denominations until 1874. The Methodist mission to Gainesville lapsed during the Civil War, and a church they had built was used by a black congregation after the war. Several white Protestant denominations organized congregations and built churches in the 1870s. Catholics, who had been holding services in private homes for 25 years, built a church in 1887. Jewish families began moving to Gainesville in the late 1860s. Although a Jewish cemetery was established in 1872, there was no synagogue in Gainesville until 1924. Gainesville was a rough town after the Civil War and into the early 20th century. Whites and blacks commonly carried firearms, and gunshots were often heard at night. Killings and serious injuries were frequent. Some of the violence was racial. Young Mens Democratic Clubs (usually a cover name for the Ku Klux Klan), formed in the late 1860s to fight political domination by Republican northerners and blacks, reportedly burned the homes of many Republicans and killed nineteen people, including five blacks. A black man was taken from the jail and lynched in 1871. In 1891 a black man and a white man, members of a dreaded gang, were also taken from the jail and lynched. Later that year a black man accused of giving shelter to Harmon Murray, another member of that gang, was also taken from the jail and lynched. The city had only a single police officer until well into the 20th century, which was inadequate to deal with the violence. A posse authorized by the city council also did little to stem the violence. Punishments for crime included public executions, the pillory, lashes and fines. The Charter for the First National Bank of Gainesville was granted on June 1, 1888. In the 1930’s the bank became affiliated with the Atlantic National Bank of Jacksonville, later changing its title to the Atlantic First National Bank of Gainesville. 31 large and 34 small size notes are known on this first chartered Gainesville Bank. Signed by Charles A. Faircloth, cashier and Wm. R. Steckert as vice president. Signed by W.H. Burdick, cashier and T.W. Shands as president. The Gainesville National Bank received its charter on July of 1907 and to facilitate a merger the bank was voluntarily liquidated on December 27, 1918. Only 4 notes are known on this Gainesville rarest chartered bank. The Florida Bank of Gainesville was converted into the Florida National Bank of Gainesville and was issued its charter on January 9, 1913. The bank was eventually liquidated on August 19, 1922. On August 21, 1922, the Florida National reorganized under the state law as the Florida Bank and Trust Co. of Gainesville. Only 15 notes known on this charter #10310, six of which make up the only complete set known of all types and denominations are featured in this collection. - Recent Acquisitions - Mr. and Mrs. Youngerman attend the inagural “The Value of Money” exhibit - Collecting Florida National Bank Notes - Florida Currency Museum Open Showcasing The William Youngerman Collection - Browse Videos of Florida’s Historical Towns and Banks Notes & Currency - 18__ Fernandina $3 Obsolete Note - 1882 $50 Jacksonville Note Charter #3869 - 1902 $10 Punta Gorda Note Charter #10512 - 1882 $5 Palatka Note Charter #3223 - 1902 $5 Key West Note Charter #7942	<urn:uuid:ed72694e-b243-4a3f-9c6f-d2372dc19291>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hometowncurrency.org/gainesville/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00369.warc.gz	en	0.982436	3,060	3.515625	4	[ 0.03663795813918114, -0.04575108736753464, 0.3966478109359741, 0.0137392058968544, 0.0753788948059082, -0.03176286071538925, -0.22160053253173828, 0.3125242590904236, -0.09957345575094223, 0.0020024310797452927, -0.03204307705163956, -0.19792614877223969, 0.028425205498933792, 0.2371711879...	1	Hernando de Soto and his army passed through Gainesville in August 1539 towards the beginning of their four-year exploration of what is now the southeastern United States, the third village where they stayed, Utinamocharra, having been in the dense cluster east of Moon Lake at the northwestern edge of present-day Gainesville. The Native Americans, having little resistance to diseases introduced from Europe, declined significantly in number after the arrival of Europeans, and Spanish suppression of native revolts further reduced the population. The remaining Timucua were converted to Roman Catholicism and organized into missions overseen by Franciscan priests. The Mission San Francisco de Potano, the first doctrina (a mission with a resident priest) in Florida west of the St. Johns River, was founded in 1606 at the south edge of present-day San Felasco Hammock Preserve State Park. In or adjacent to present-day Gainesville were two other missions (each named for the saint’s day the first Mass was said in it, Santa Ana and San Miguel, which were south of and within a day’s walk from San Francisco, and are thought to be in the cluster east of Moon Lake where Spanish and Indian artifacts from the Mission-period have been found. The earliest missions were apparently established adjacent to native villages visited by De Soto’s expedition; Santa Ana is thought to be located where Utinamocharra lay, and in 1606 the friar who served as the priest was told of cruelties that the chief, when a boy, had suffered from De Soto’s men. Chief Potano’s town was relocated in the colonial period to the vicinity of the Devil’s Millhopper, which is now inside the Gainesville city limits, from the western shore of Orange Lake. In the first decade of the 18th century, however, colonial soldiers from the Province of Carolina and their Yamasee Indian allies had killed or carried off nearly all the remaining native inhabitants (10,000 ? 12,000 native Floridians were taken as slaves, according to the governor of Spanish Florida) and the few remaining Timucua fled and ended up living in the vicinity of St. Augustine. Spanish colonists began cattle ranching in the Paynes Prairie area using Timucua labor, and the largest hacienda (ranch) became known as La Chua (which combines the Spanish article La with the Timucuan word Chua, meaning “sinkhole”). Although La Chua was destroyed by the above-mentioned raiders from Carolina, the ranch nevertheless gave its name to the Alachua band of the Seminole tribe who settled in the region in the 18th century under the leadership of the great chief Ahaya the Cowkeeper. Gainesville was founded to place the Alachua County seat on the proposed route of the Florida Railroad Company’s line stretching from Cedar Key to Fernandina Beach. County residents decided to move the county seat from Newnansville (and chose the name Gainesville) in 1853, as the proposed railroad would bypass Newnansville. A site on Black Oak Ridge where the railroad was expected to cross it was selected in 1854. It is generally accepted that the new settlement was named for General Edmund P. Gaines, commander of U.S. Army troops in Florida early in the Second Seminole War. The railroad was completed from Fernandina to Gainesville in 1859, passing six blocks south of the courthouse. It is claimed that Gainesville was originally named Hogtown; however, Hogtown was actually an early 19th-century settlement in and around what is now Westside Park (in the northeast corner of the intersection of NW 8th Avenue and 34th Street) where a historical marker notes Hogtown’s location at that site. Hogtown is the eponymous village of the adjacent Hogtown Creek which flows 5.7 miles (9.2 km) through Gainesville. Hogtown continued to exist until after Gainesville was founded, as evidenced on a map showing both towns which was published in 1864 based on surveys from 1855. Two residents of Hogtown played a prominent role in establishing Gainesville. William Lewis, who owned a plantation in Hogtown, delivered 20 votes pledged to him to create a new town on the expected route of the railroad, in an attempt to have the new town named Lewisville. Tillman Ingram, who also owned a plantation and a sawmill in Hogtown, helped swing the vote to move the county seat to the new town by offering to build a new courthouse at a low price. Residents of Newnansville, disgruntled at losing the county seat, called the site chosen for the new town “Hog Wallow”, because of its location between Hogtown and Paynes Prairie. The former site of Hogtown was annexed by the City of Gainesville in 1961. A town site of 103.25 acres (41.78 ha) was purchased for $642.51. The County Commission ordered the public sale of lots in the town site in 1854, but no deeds were recorded until 1856. A courthouse was constructed in Gainesville in 1856, and the county seat was then officially moved from Newnansville. A jail was built in 1857, and a well was dug and a pump for public use installed the same year. Property values rose quickly. A city block on the edge of town purchased for $14.57 in 1857 sold for $100 in 1858. The railroad from Fernandina reached Gainesville in 1859, and connected to Cedar Key the next year. By that time, there were eight or nine stores and three hotels surrounding the courthouse square. In the 1850s secessionist sentiment was strong in Gainesville. Half of the white residents in Gainesville had been born in South Carolina (where secessionist sentiments were very strong), or had parents who had been born in that state. Aside from a few foreign-born residents, the other whites in town had also been born in Florida or other Southern states. Another factor was fear of blacks. Blacks, mostly slaves, were a majority of the population in Alachua County (although there were few in Gainesville itself). John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859 frightened the whites in Gainesville, leading them to organize a militia company called the Gainesville Minute Men. The Gainesville Minute Men were incorporated into the First Florida Regiment soon after Florida seceded from the Union. Several more companies were recruited in Gainesville and Alachua County during the Civil War. During the war Gainesville served as a depot for food requisitioned by the Confederate government from the surrounding area. A small post on the east side of Gainesville called Fort Lee was an induction point for men entering the Confederate States Army. Fighting on a small scale reached Gainesville twice. On February 15, 1864, a small Union raiding party occupied Gainesville. Elements of the Second Florida Cavalry attempted to drive the Union force from the town but were defeated in a street battle. The raiding party was associated with a larger Union invasion of Florida that was defeated at the Battle of Olustee five days later. The Union troops did not seize or destroy any property on this raid, but did distribute food stores to the residents, who were suffering from shortages. Six months later, early in the morning of August 17, 1864, 265 Union troops and 15 “loyal Floridians” reached Gainesville. The troops stopped just east of town to prepare breakfast and care for their horses. A small home guard of 30 to 40 old men and boys attacked the Union camp, and were easily driven off. The Union troops then broke ranks and started looting the town. While the Union troops were scattered throughout the town a large number of Confederate troops were spotted approaching. The Union troops resisted the Confederate advance for an hour and a half, but were finally driven from Gainesville with heavy casualties. For several months following the Civil War, the 3rd United States Colored Troops were stationed in Gainesville, which encouraged freed men to settle there. At the same time black farm laborers were recruited from Georgia and South Carolina to help harvest what was expected to be a very large cotton crop, but heavy rain ruined the cotton, and the recently arrived blacks were left without work. Black residents soon outnumbered whites in Gainesville, which had had 223 white residents in 1860. Vagrancy and theft became major problems in Gainesville, and large numbers of blacks were arrested by federal troops. White residents resumed political life in Florida immediately after the end of the Civil War. Gainesville incorporated as a city in 1866, but the city government was weak and the council did not maintain a regular schedule of meetings. With military control asserted over Florida in 1867 as part of Reconstruction, the reconstituted Florida legislature required all cities to re-incorporate, and Gainesville did so in 1869. During Reconstruction Gainesville blacks were elected to a number of state and local offices. Blacks had largely been disenfranchised by the 1890s, however. Downtown Gainesville on Alachua Avenue (now University Avenue) circa 1883 Following the Civil War, the city prospered as an important cotton shipping facility. Florida produced more Sea Island Cotton in the 1880s than any other state, and Gainesville was the leading shipping point for cotton in Florida. Two more railroads had reached Gainesville by the 1880s, and citrus and vegetables had become important local crops. However, the citrus industry ended when the great freezes of 1894?95 and 1899 destroyed the crops, and citrus growing was largely abandoned in the area. Phosphate mining and lumbering became important parts of the local economy. A manufacturing area grew up south of downtown, near the railroads. The first school for blacks in Gainesville, the Union Academy, was established in 1866 by the Freedmen’s Bureau to educate freed slaves. White residents of Gainesville were opposed to education for blacks and treated the teachers at the school badly, including incidents of boys throwing “missiles” into the classrooms. By 1898 the school served 500 students, and it continued in operation until 1929. White students had only private schools available before 1869, including the East Florida Seminary, which moved from Ocala in 1866 and merged with the Gainesville Academy (founded in 1856). Even after a public school system had been established in Alachua County, most white children who went to school did so at private schools, and the Union Academy was in session for a larger part of the year, and its teachers were better paid, than was the case for the public schools. Public education remained underfunded into the 1880s, classes having to meet in abandoned houses or rented rooms. The school year for public schools was as short as three months for some years. The first public school building was built in 1885. The Gainesville Graded and High School, with twelve classrooms and an auditorium, opened in 1900, and most of the private schools closed soon after. The county school board also provided some funds for upkeep of the Union Academy. There was no dedicated church building in Gainesville in the first years of its existence. A church built in 1859 by the Presbyterians was shared by itinerant preachers of several denominations until 1874. The Methodist mission to Gainesville lapsed during the Civil War, and a church they had built was used by a black congregation after the war. Several white Protestant denominations organized congregations and built churches in the 1870s. Catholics, who had been holding services in private homes for 25 years, built a church in 1887. Jewish families began moving to Gainesville in the late 1860s. Although a Jewish cemetery was established in 1872, there was no synagogue in Gainesville until 1924. Gainesville was a rough town after the Civil War and into the early 20th century. Whites and blacks commonly carried firearms, and gunshots were often heard at night. Killings and serious injuries were frequent. Some of the violence was racial. Young Mens Democratic Clubs (usually a cover name for the Ku Klux Klan), formed in the late 1860s to fight political domination by Republican northerners and blacks, reportedly burned the homes of many Republicans and killed nineteen people, including five blacks. A black man was taken from the jail and lynched in 1871. In 1891 a black man and a white man, members of a dreaded gang, were also taken from the jail and lynched. Later that year a black man accused of giving shelter to Harmon Murray, another member of that gang, was also taken from the jail and lynched. The city had only a single police officer until well into the 20th century, which was inadequate to deal with the violence. A posse authorized by the city council also did little to stem the violence. Punishments for crime included public executions, the pillory, lashes and fines. The Charter for the First National Bank of Gainesville was granted on June 1, 1888. In the 1930’s the bank became affiliated with the Atlantic National Bank of Jacksonville, later changing its title to the Atlantic First National Bank of Gainesville. 31 large and 34 small size notes are known on this first chartered Gainesville Bank. Signed by Charles A. Faircloth, cashier and Wm. R. Steckert as vice president. Signed by W.H. Burdick, cashier and T.W. Shands as president. The Gainesville National Bank received its charter on July of 1907 and to facilitate a merger the bank was voluntarily liquidated on December 27, 1918. Only 4 notes are known on this Gainesville rarest chartered bank. The Florida Bank of Gainesville was converted into the Florida National Bank of Gainesville and was issued its charter on January 9, 1913. The bank was eventually liquidated on August 19, 1922. On August 21, 1922, the Florida National reorganized under the state law as the Florida Bank and Trust Co. of Gainesville. Only 15 notes known on this charter #10310, six of which make up the only complete set known of all types and denominations are featured in this collection. - Recent Acquisitions - Mr. and Mrs. Youngerman attend the inagural “The Value of Money” exhibit - Collecting Florida National Bank Notes - Florida Currency Museum Open Showcasing The William Youngerman Collection - Browse Videos of Florida’s Historical Towns and Banks Notes & Currency - 18__ Fernandina $3 Obsolete Note - 1882 $50 Jacksonville Note Charter #3869 - 1902 $10 Punta Gorda Note Charter #10512 - 1882 $5 Palatka Note Charter #3223 - 1902 $5 Key West Note Charter #7942	3,306	ENGLISH	1
attended the conference “Frontiers in Education FIE2014” and wanted to share part of the conversations that we had with other people interested in education coming from 48 different countries. One of the things that was discussed the most was how to promote welcoming and effective learning environments that are appealing to the new generations but that also maintain the development of the required contend knowledge, as well as, the desired skills. One thing that was common in different topics and presentations was the use of attractive (or interesting) assignments. I think it was really interesting to see how many investigators from different disciplines, countries, and cultures, were repeating the same thing: “we need to spend some time developing interesting assignments.” It has been demonstrated in several research projects that assignment that are challenging, entertaining, and relate to students interests can be a very strong factor to motivate students in the learning process. One of the strategies proposed to create effective and attractive assignments it’s the use of gaming. One advantage of developing games so students can “play” when doing their assignments is that they have to discover what it is that they are being assessed, they are not being told what lesson they are responding to, they need to figure it out being able to see the big picture. In addition, students learn that there is a specific goal to learn when playing, that translates in finding the applicability of knowledge to solve a problem rather than memorizing. Another advantage of using games is that games are fun, people when gaming is more able to be collaborative. They need to work together to solve the game, without collaboration is very complicated to come to a solution, therefore the classroom is more inclusive to minorities. Finally, another advantage regarding using games as assignments is that students learn that it is ok to fail. Failure sometimes is seen, especially in engineering as a bad thing, or as something to avoid under any circumstance. By gaming, students understand that failure is an option, and can prepare to face it. A lesson that will help them when they need to face the real world. I invite you to check out this website that have a lot of valuable information regarding how to develop games with pedagogical purposes.	<urn:uuid:2a748b4e-ba1e-489e-b8ad-ed9cd93c5784>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.lt.vt.edu/hmurzi/frontiers-in-education-2014/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00470.warc.gz	en	0.981543	449	3.296875	3	[ -0.18584094941616058, 0.14028552174568176, 0.3738957643508911, -0.3825126886367798, -0.10473852604627609, 0.08977577835321426, -0.03808154538273811, 0.28494182229042053, 0.15231485664844513, -0.21794383227825165, -0.057136744260787964, -0.1861606240272522, 0.2302255779504776, 0.33138465881...	6	attended the conference “Frontiers in Education FIE2014” and wanted to share part of the conversations that we had with other people interested in education coming from 48 different countries. One of the things that was discussed the most was how to promote welcoming and effective learning environments that are appealing to the new generations but that also maintain the development of the required contend knowledge, as well as, the desired skills. One thing that was common in different topics and presentations was the use of attractive (or interesting) assignments. I think it was really interesting to see how many investigators from different disciplines, countries, and cultures, were repeating the same thing: “we need to spend some time developing interesting assignments.” It has been demonstrated in several research projects that assignment that are challenging, entertaining, and relate to students interests can be a very strong factor to motivate students in the learning process. One of the strategies proposed to create effective and attractive assignments it’s the use of gaming. One advantage of developing games so students can “play” when doing their assignments is that they have to discover what it is that they are being assessed, they are not being told what lesson they are responding to, they need to figure it out being able to see the big picture. In addition, students learn that there is a specific goal to learn when playing, that translates in finding the applicability of knowledge to solve a problem rather than memorizing. Another advantage of using games is that games are fun, people when gaming is more able to be collaborative. They need to work together to solve the game, without collaboration is very complicated to come to a solution, therefore the classroom is more inclusive to minorities. Finally, another advantage regarding using games as assignments is that students learn that it is ok to fail. Failure sometimes is seen, especially in engineering as a bad thing, or as something to avoid under any circumstance. By gaming, students understand that failure is an option, and can prepare to face it. A lesson that will help them when they need to face the real world. I invite you to check out this website that have a lot of valuable information regarding how to develop games with pedagogical purposes.	438	ENGLISH	1
One: The Peopling of the World The first attempt humans had to explore the world took approximately a million years to only get only as far east as China. Humans then did not have all of the same wants that we as humans have. They were not out to colonize and populate the world. The first humans that did venture out, eventually died. The only way that humans today can identify what happened in those seven million years is by the few fossils, tools, and the DNA of people still living today. Over these millions of years very few things happened, but those very few thing were huge on the grand scale of homo-sapiens. Everything from learning to make fire to learning how to make tools happened in the millions of years. Since it was so long ago and so spaced out it is too hard for us humans today to pin point exactly when individual things happened. Whereas today technology is changing vastly in each decade. Scientist believe that the evolution of homo-sapiens started approximately seven million years ago with a species of a skull found nicknamed “Toumai”. This species had facial features a lot like humans but their brain was around the same size of a chimps and their body structure was small statured as well. They believe this species was the first of the bipedal species. In 1975 anthropologist found the remains of “Lucy”. Lucy was found in modern day Ethiopia, while she had flexible and very useful thumbs, her brain was only around the size of a softball. Lucy is believed to be from approximately 3.2 million years ago. In the past several years scientist have also found more fossils in Ethiopia. One of the fossils being a full fossil of what they believe to be a small child. This fossil showed scientist that they had gorilla like structures for scavenging and escaping predators but also had a lot of features similar to modern day humans. Even though today we often see the Neanderthals as brute, ugly creatures, fossils and technology proves that they were actually a lot like todays humans but short and muscular. Their brains were on average the same size as ours. Even though they lived in caves, they controlled fire, worked together for food, and buried their dead with valuables, which make scientist think that they believed in some kind of afterlife. They also helped care for their sick and injured, as fossils show us that they lived for months to years after breaking bones and being injured. They also migrated with the weather. For the last millions of years they earth has been going through long periods of time in ice ages then only 10 to 20 thousands of years where it is warm enough to melt the glaciers. When these glaciers are frozen it makes the land bridges, which the early hominins used to travel between continents, appear. Without there being these ice ages hominins would have never discovered other lands even though today many do not look at them as being intelligent, all of these scientific finding prove them wrong. This chapter shows that even though we lack a vast amount of evidence about the first hominins that they very slowly made the first big changes to make the world the way it is in the simplest way. At the beginning they did not have fire or the basic tool to survive and make what they needed. They did not have the knowledge to build houses with fireplaces nor to make simple tools for millions of years. Everything that we take for granted is because of the advances that they made.	<urn:uuid:e968e73d-bc5b-4ce1-b2a3-5fead1ae5a2d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://houghtonlakeboard.org/name-is-too-hard-for-us-humans-today/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00316.warc.gz	en	0.980596	764	3.28125	3	[ -0.4768272936344147, 0.21063348650932312, 0.33273208141326904, 0.026613324880599976, -0.23794296383857727, 0.10912328958511353, 0.300615519285202, 0.20236080884933472, 0.10711853206157684, 0.29604122042655945, 0.6644324064254761, -0.2983132004737854, 0.15256430208683014, 0.2405114024877548...	2	One: The Peopling of the World The first attempt humans had to explore the world took approximately a million years to only get only as far east as China. Humans then did not have all of the same wants that we as humans have. They were not out to colonize and populate the world. The first humans that did venture out, eventually died. The only way that humans today can identify what happened in those seven million years is by the few fossils, tools, and the DNA of people still living today. Over these millions of years very few things happened, but those very few thing were huge on the grand scale of homo-sapiens. Everything from learning to make fire to learning how to make tools happened in the millions of years. Since it was so long ago and so spaced out it is too hard for us humans today to pin point exactly when individual things happened. Whereas today technology is changing vastly in each decade. Scientist believe that the evolution of homo-sapiens started approximately seven million years ago with a species of a skull found nicknamed “Toumai”. This species had facial features a lot like humans but their brain was around the same size of a chimps and their body structure was small statured as well. They believe this species was the first of the bipedal species. In 1975 anthropologist found the remains of “Lucy”. Lucy was found in modern day Ethiopia, while she had flexible and very useful thumbs, her brain was only around the size of a softball. Lucy is believed to be from approximately 3.2 million years ago. In the past several years scientist have also found more fossils in Ethiopia. One of the fossils being a full fossil of what they believe to be a small child. This fossil showed scientist that they had gorilla like structures for scavenging and escaping predators but also had a lot of features similar to modern day humans. Even though today we often see the Neanderthals as brute, ugly creatures, fossils and technology proves that they were actually a lot like todays humans but short and muscular. Their brains were on average the same size as ours. Even though they lived in caves, they controlled fire, worked together for food, and buried their dead with valuables, which make scientist think that they believed in some kind of afterlife. They also helped care for their sick and injured, as fossils show us that they lived for months to years after breaking bones and being injured. They also migrated with the weather. For the last millions of years they earth has been going through long periods of time in ice ages then only 10 to 20 thousands of years where it is warm enough to melt the glaciers. When these glaciers are frozen it makes the land bridges, which the early hominins used to travel between continents, appear. Without there being these ice ages hominins would have never discovered other lands even though today many do not look at them as being intelligent, all of these scientific finding prove them wrong. This chapter shows that even though we lack a vast amount of evidence about the first hominins that they very slowly made the first big changes to make the world the way it is in the simplest way. At the beginning they did not have fire or the basic tool to survive and make what they needed. They did not have the knowledge to build houses with fireplaces nor to make simple tools for millions of years. Everything that we take for granted is because of the advances that they made.	757	ENGLISH	1
We are discussing The Ox and The House in stages in class - the story of written language. This article was so well timed. We learnt how Elizabeth 1st was a scholar in her own right but her written language was so terribly messy - she was Queen and it was the job. of everyone else to understand what she had written! The children loved this! In an attempt to counteract such a regal example (!), we have also looked at the beauty of some of medieval manuscripts and are beginning our own attempts at calligraphy. The children are marvelling at how just 26 letters can produce all they see, in English, in books, magazines, comics, instructions, internet articles, posters, directions, libraries, CD covers - the list is endless	<urn:uuid:7c28628d-54fd-4237-92fe-b7062ebe894c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.montessorielementary.co.uk/single-post/2019/11/21/Excuses-excuses	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00100.warc.gz	en	0.983284	153	3.3125	3	[ -0.31374624371528625, 0.2108478993177414, 0.5114799737930298, -0.025875234976410866, -0.37579503655433655, 0.16656415164470673, -0.3225943446159363, -0.024517230689525604, -0.12566600739955902, -0.12548843026161194, 0.09847615659236908, -0.0004410759429447353, 0.17559188604354858, 0.141707...	7	We are discussing The Ox and The House in stages in class - the story of written language. This article was so well timed. We learnt how Elizabeth 1st was a scholar in her own right but her written language was so terribly messy - she was Queen and it was the job. of everyone else to understand what she had written! The children loved this! In an attempt to counteract such a regal example (!), we have also looked at the beauty of some of medieval manuscripts and are beginning our own attempts at calligraphy. The children are marvelling at how just 26 letters can produce all they see, in English, in books, magazines, comics, instructions, internet articles, posters, directions, libraries, CD covers - the list is endless	155	ENGLISH	1
- Steam dummy Steam dummies had some popularity in the first decades of railroading in the U.S., from the 1830s but passed from favor after the Civil War. It was thought that the more familiar appearance of a coach presented by a steam dummy, as compared to a conventional engine, would be less likely to frighten horses when these trains had to operate in city streets. Later it was discovered that it was actually the noise and motion of the operating gear of a steam engine that frightened horses, rather than the unfamiliar outlines of a steam engine. Many steam dummies were simply locomotives enclosed in coach's clothing, but some combined an actual railroad coach in the same body with the locomotive, creating an all-in-one vehicle that was a predecessor of later self-propelled rail cars, usually powered by electricity or petrol. This steam locomotive-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.	<urn:uuid:c0549d0f-0555-4a60-a50e-65061be2de9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://enwiki.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/510835	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00436.warc.gz	en	0.986547	194	3.53125	4	[ -0.22334349155426025, -0.054582253098487854, 0.7045238018035889, -0.08137758821249008, 0.14967353641986847, 0.13423511385917664, 0.03351184353232384, 0.07748884707689285, -0.12696747481822968, -0.24462975561618805, 0.01966029964387417, -0.05927110090851784, -0.07352194935083389, 0.01408504...	1	- Steam dummy Steam dummies had some popularity in the first decades of railroading in the U.S., from the 1830s but passed from favor after the Civil War. It was thought that the more familiar appearance of a coach presented by a steam dummy, as compared to a conventional engine, would be less likely to frighten horses when these trains had to operate in city streets. Later it was discovered that it was actually the noise and motion of the operating gear of a steam engine that frightened horses, rather than the unfamiliar outlines of a steam engine. Many steam dummies were simply locomotives enclosed in coach's clothing, but some combined an actual railroad coach in the same body with the locomotive, creating an all-in-one vehicle that was a predecessor of later self-propelled rail cars, usually powered by electricity or petrol. This steam locomotive-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.	190	ENGLISH	1
Share This On: Did you know when the construction of the Central Library was first discussed in 1909 it was the subject of much political debate? Deciding on where the library was to be built was so contentious it became the fundamental issue in what turned out to be the first election campaign, in which a direct appeal was made to the electorate in Castries. Andrew Carnegie of the Carnegie Foundation offered a grant of £2,500 for the construction of a free public library in Castries. The Town Board had to locate a site, but since the site had to be purchased, some board members suggested erecting the library in a corner of the Columbus Square so as to save money. Others opposed it, saying it would be an eyesore and deny citizens of an open space for fresh air. That issue created a stalemate and was referred to the attorney general for an opinion on “whether the Town Board is legally entitled to erect a building within Columbus Square.” Carnegie’s grant came with some stipulations – The purchase price for a site would not be deducted from the grant and that government and the board would continue to provide an annual grant for the Library Trustees. This issue caused more conflict between members of the town board and also divided the citizens of Castries into two camps – The Squarites and the Anti-Squarites. The library issue became the number one election topic for the elections to the Town Board which was held in December 1909. The final meeting before the election became the first in which opposing candidates were on the same platform to put an issue to the masses. If one had to attend those indoor meetings, one had to have a ticket sent by the town clerk to all qualified voters. (A qualified voter was one who owned property in Castries.) There were plenty of arguments and discontent between the Squarites and the Anti-Squarites. Robert G. McHugh, Editor of the Voice Newspaper and Secretary of the Agricultural Society, along with the Squarites, demanded that the library be built in the most conspicuous place in the town as proof of appreciation for Carnegie’s generosity. The Squarites went on to win the Town Board election. The library controversy continued all into 1921 when some members of the Town Board complained that while a piece of land was purchased for £500 for the erection of the library, it remained vacant and was an “eyesore.” The controversy was revived again; this time iT was about the type of building. The town planners had one type of building in mind and the Carnegie team had another type. Several architectural styles were suggested but they were rejected by both sides. Did you know the controversy was eventually settled 14 years after Carnegie made his first offer? The cornerstone was laid down on May 15, 1923. The library was completed in June 1924 and it was called the Carnegie Free Library. The first building miraculously escaped the 1927 Castries fire, but the 1948 Castries fire gutted the building and over 20,000 books were destroyed. After the fire, the library was rebuilt using the same old walls. Today, the Central Library retains much of its original external features with more space added for reading and meetings. The Central Library is not only a historic landmark in the city of Castries, but it is also a landmark in the political history of the city and St. Lucia. This feature runs every Tuesday and Thursday. It is written by daughter of the soil Anselma Aimable, a former agricultural officer and former correspondent for Caribbean Net News, who has a deep interest in local culture and history. Send ideas and tips to [email protected] More Did You Know Stories - DID YOU KNOW? April 25, 2019	<urn:uuid:ebc1b482-88e6-4978-aaba-3d3b0bc0062a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stlucianewsonline.com/did-you-know-controversy-over-central-library/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00328.warc.gz	en	0.987218	761	3.265625	3	[ -0.21630164980888367, 0.08183561265468597, -0.24166640639305115, -0.00945720449090004, -0.2082195281982422, 0.19388875365257263, -0.1462128758430481, 0.14092883467674255, -0.2685393691062927, 0.25097328424453735, -0.11446856707334518, 0.0072223409079015255, 0.233602836728096, 0.33508452773...	1	Share This On: Did you know when the construction of the Central Library was first discussed in 1909 it was the subject of much political debate? Deciding on where the library was to be built was so contentious it became the fundamental issue in what turned out to be the first election campaign, in which a direct appeal was made to the electorate in Castries. Andrew Carnegie of the Carnegie Foundation offered a grant of £2,500 for the construction of a free public library in Castries. The Town Board had to locate a site, but since the site had to be purchased, some board members suggested erecting the library in a corner of the Columbus Square so as to save money. Others opposed it, saying it would be an eyesore and deny citizens of an open space for fresh air. That issue created a stalemate and was referred to the attorney general for an opinion on “whether the Town Board is legally entitled to erect a building within Columbus Square.” Carnegie’s grant came with some stipulations – The purchase price for a site would not be deducted from the grant and that government and the board would continue to provide an annual grant for the Library Trustees. This issue caused more conflict between members of the town board and also divided the citizens of Castries into two camps – The Squarites and the Anti-Squarites. The library issue became the number one election topic for the elections to the Town Board which was held in December 1909. The final meeting before the election became the first in which opposing candidates were on the same platform to put an issue to the masses. If one had to attend those indoor meetings, one had to have a ticket sent by the town clerk to all qualified voters. (A qualified voter was one who owned property in Castries.) There were plenty of arguments and discontent between the Squarites and the Anti-Squarites. Robert G. McHugh, Editor of the Voice Newspaper and Secretary of the Agricultural Society, along with the Squarites, demanded that the library be built in the most conspicuous place in the town as proof of appreciation for Carnegie’s generosity. The Squarites went on to win the Town Board election. The library controversy continued all into 1921 when some members of the Town Board complained that while a piece of land was purchased for £500 for the erection of the library, it remained vacant and was an “eyesore.” The controversy was revived again; this time iT was about the type of building. The town planners had one type of building in mind and the Carnegie team had another type. Several architectural styles were suggested but they were rejected by both sides. Did you know the controversy was eventually settled 14 years after Carnegie made his first offer? The cornerstone was laid down on May 15, 1923. The library was completed in June 1924 and it was called the Carnegie Free Library. The first building miraculously escaped the 1927 Castries fire, but the 1948 Castries fire gutted the building and over 20,000 books were destroyed. After the fire, the library was rebuilt using the same old walls. Today, the Central Library retains much of its original external features with more space added for reading and meetings. The Central Library is not only a historic landmark in the city of Castries, but it is also a landmark in the political history of the city and St. Lucia. This feature runs every Tuesday and Thursday. It is written by daughter of the soil Anselma Aimable, a former agricultural officer and former correspondent for Caribbean Net News, who has a deep interest in local culture and history. Send ideas and tips to [email protected] More Did You Know Stories - DID YOU KNOW? April 25, 2019	785	ENGLISH	1
(CNN) -- Researchers have uncovered three ceramic, spouted vessels believed to be prehistoric baby bottles. They were found in child graves in Bavaria, two from an Iron Age cemetery dated between 450 and 800 BC and another from a Bronze Age necropolis dated between 800 and 1200 BC, according to a new study. In the past, small clay vessels have been found that are footed or shaped like animals. Researchers believed they could be baby bottles or used to feed those who were sick. But for the first time, an analysis of three of these vessels revealed residue associated with animal milk, suggesting these bowls acted like baby bottles used during the weaning process. The study of the bottles published Wednesday in the journal Nature. These bottles were between 2 and 4 inches across and featured very narrow spouts. They were found in child graves, placed next to the remains of children who were between the ages of infants and 6 years old. The tiny openings of the spouts on previous vessels thought to be used for children made it difficult to test the residue of their contents. But these three vessels featured open bowls, which allowed for chemical and isotopic analysis. The residue contained palmitic and stearic fatty acids associated with animal fat, as well as short-chain fatty acids that are rarely detected in old pottery, according to the study. These acids are usually associated with fresh milk fat. Isotopic analysis also revealed that breast milk was potentially mixed with dairy milk. The researchers believe the animal milk used came from domesticated cattle, goats or sheep. This suggests that the children were being fed animal milk instead of breast milk or being weaned off of breast milk. "These very small, evocative, vessels give us valuable information on how and what babies were fed thousands of years ago, providing a real connection to mothers and infants in the past," said Julie Dunne, lead study author at the University of Bristol's School of Chemistry. "Similar vessels, although rare, do appear in other prehistoric cultures (such as Rome and ancient Greece) across the world. Ideally, we'd like to carry out a larger geographic study and investigate whether they served the same purpose." Usually, historic evidence of weaning can only be seen in the teeth of infant remains -- and even then, it's difficult to tell what they were consuming. "This is a striking example of how robust biomolecular information, properly integrated with the archeology of these rare objects, has provided a fascinating insight into an aspect of prehistoric human life so familiar to us today," said Richard Evershed, study co-author and Fellow of the Royal Society leading the University of Bristol's Organic Geochemistry Unit. The researchers actually recreated one of the vessels to test how they worked. They asked a professional potter to make an exact replica and tested it on Noah, just over a year old. Noah is the baby of one of the researchers, Katharina Rebay-Salisbury. "What surprised us most was how much he absolutely loved it," Dunne said in an email. "It seemed very intuitive for him to cup it within his hands and then lift to his mouth to drink/suckle. We put apple juice in it as that was his favorite drink. I think it is interesting that although the forms change tremendously -- the vessels are very individual -- they do seem to retain a basic bowl/cup shape that fits perfectly within a baby's cupped hands. I would also say I think this shows us the love and care these prehistoric people had for their babies. They are almost toys as well as baby bottles and surely would have make the infants laugh." The idea that these children were consuming animal milk provides a bigger picture of prehistoric societies and how they cared for their babies. Previous research has suggested that babies in hunter-gatherer communities breastfed for years, according to the study. But the rise of agriculture, specifically domesticating dairy animals, shortened this period by introducing the availability of animal milk and even cereal grain. The study cited previous research that babies living from the Neolithic to the Iron Age in Central Europe were given supplementary food beginning at 6 months old and were weaned by two to 3 years old. "This ultimately led to the so-called 'Neolithic demographic transition' where the widespread use of animal milk to feed babies, or as a supplementary weaning food, led to improved nutrition and contributed to an increased birth rate, with shorter interbirth intervals, which resulted in significant growth in human population and ultimately led to the growth of cities and the rise of urbanisation that we see today," Dunne wrote in an email. However, if the animal milk was mishandled, the babies also could have been victim to pathogens, infection, contamination, bacteria and even malnutrition. And these vessels, which were hard to clean, might have led to disease, according to Siân Halcrow, a bioarchaeologist at the University of Otago in New Zealand. The bottles could have actually led to poor health in some infants, Halcrow said. Future research about the rate of infant and child mortality, as well as looking for signs of nutritional or infectious disease, could fill in the gaps. "Bringing up babies in prehistory was not an easy task," said Katharina Rebay-Salisbury, a project partner from the Institute for Oriental and European Archaeology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. "We are interested in researching cultural practices of mothering, which had profound implications for the survival of babies. It is fascinating to be able to see, for the first time, which foods these vessels contained."	<urn:uuid:440ab1c7-cea2-4dbe-93e1-65fa8c966c72>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wqad.com/2019/09/26/prehistoric-baby-bottles-found-in-child-graves-in-bavaria/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00057.warc.gz	en	0.981394	1,151	3.515625	4	[ -0.06480900943279266, -0.12169575691223145, 0.24109357595443726, -0.12815935909748077, 0.20235148072242737, -0.045102618634700775, 0.06116825342178345, 0.20444796979427338, -0.3821890950202942, 0.10554653406143188, -0.023061491549015045, -0.7289249300956726, -0.09733013063669205, 0.3629142...	2	(CNN) -- Researchers have uncovered three ceramic, spouted vessels believed to be prehistoric baby bottles. They were found in child graves in Bavaria, two from an Iron Age cemetery dated between 450 and 800 BC and another from a Bronze Age necropolis dated between 800 and 1200 BC, according to a new study. In the past, small clay vessels have been found that are footed or shaped like animals. Researchers believed they could be baby bottles or used to feed those who were sick. But for the first time, an analysis of three of these vessels revealed residue associated with animal milk, suggesting these bowls acted like baby bottles used during the weaning process. The study of the bottles published Wednesday in the journal Nature. These bottles were between 2 and 4 inches across and featured very narrow spouts. They were found in child graves, placed next to the remains of children who were between the ages of infants and 6 years old. The tiny openings of the spouts on previous vessels thought to be used for children made it difficult to test the residue of their contents. But these three vessels featured open bowls, which allowed for chemical and isotopic analysis. The residue contained palmitic and stearic fatty acids associated with animal fat, as well as short-chain fatty acids that are rarely detected in old pottery, according to the study. These acids are usually associated with fresh milk fat. Isotopic analysis also revealed that breast milk was potentially mixed with dairy milk. The researchers believe the animal milk used came from domesticated cattle, goats or sheep. This suggests that the children were being fed animal milk instead of breast milk or being weaned off of breast milk. "These very small, evocative, vessels give us valuable information on how and what babies were fed thousands of years ago, providing a real connection to mothers and infants in the past," said Julie Dunne, lead study author at the University of Bristol's School of Chemistry. "Similar vessels, although rare, do appear in other prehistoric cultures (such as Rome and ancient Greece) across the world. Ideally, we'd like to carry out a larger geographic study and investigate whether they served the same purpose." Usually, historic evidence of weaning can only be seen in the teeth of infant remains -- and even then, it's difficult to tell what they were consuming. "This is a striking example of how robust biomolecular information, properly integrated with the archeology of these rare objects, has provided a fascinating insight into an aspect of prehistoric human life so familiar to us today," said Richard Evershed, study co-author and Fellow of the Royal Society leading the University of Bristol's Organic Geochemistry Unit. The researchers actually recreated one of the vessels to test how they worked. They asked a professional potter to make an exact replica and tested it on Noah, just over a year old. Noah is the baby of one of the researchers, Katharina Rebay-Salisbury. "What surprised us most was how much he absolutely loved it," Dunne said in an email. "It seemed very intuitive for him to cup it within his hands and then lift to his mouth to drink/suckle. We put apple juice in it as that was his favorite drink. I think it is interesting that although the forms change tremendously -- the vessels are very individual -- they do seem to retain a basic bowl/cup shape that fits perfectly within a baby's cupped hands. I would also say I think this shows us the love and care these prehistoric people had for their babies. They are almost toys as well as baby bottles and surely would have make the infants laugh." The idea that these children were consuming animal milk provides a bigger picture of prehistoric societies and how they cared for their babies. Previous research has suggested that babies in hunter-gatherer communities breastfed for years, according to the study. But the rise of agriculture, specifically domesticating dairy animals, shortened this period by introducing the availability of animal milk and even cereal grain. The study cited previous research that babies living from the Neolithic to the Iron Age in Central Europe were given supplementary food beginning at 6 months old and were weaned by two to 3 years old. "This ultimately led to the so-called 'Neolithic demographic transition' where the widespread use of animal milk to feed babies, or as a supplementary weaning food, led to improved nutrition and contributed to an increased birth rate, with shorter interbirth intervals, which resulted in significant growth in human population and ultimately led to the growth of cities and the rise of urbanisation that we see today," Dunne wrote in an email. However, if the animal milk was mishandled, the babies also could have been victim to pathogens, infection, contamination, bacteria and even malnutrition. And these vessels, which were hard to clean, might have led to disease, according to Siân Halcrow, a bioarchaeologist at the University of Otago in New Zealand. The bottles could have actually led to poor health in some infants, Halcrow said. Future research about the rate of infant and child mortality, as well as looking for signs of nutritional or infectious disease, could fill in the gaps. "Bringing up babies in prehistory was not an easy task," said Katharina Rebay-Salisbury, a project partner from the Institute for Oriental and European Archaeology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. "We are interested in researching cultural practices of mothering, which had profound implications for the survival of babies. It is fascinating to be able to see, for the first time, which foods these vessels contained."	1,145	ENGLISH	1
Leader of the great religious revolt of the sixteenth century in Germany ; born at Eisleben, 10 November, ; died at Eisleben, 18 February, His father, Hans, was a miner, a rugged, stern, irascible character. In the opinion of many of his biographers, it was an expression of uncontrolled rage, an evident congenital inheritance transmitted to his oldest son, that compelled him to flee from Mohra, the family seat, to escape the penalty or odium of homicide. Anne-Marie moved back to her parents' house in Meudonwhere she raised Sartre with help from her father Charles Schweitzer, a teacher of German who taught Sartre mathematics and introduced him to classical literature at a very early age. An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness. Role and Nature"] was supervised by Henri Delacroix. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisienannounced the event on 25 May. Thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous. He took it a second time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place, with Beauvoir second. It was during this period of confinement that Sartre read Martin Heidegger 's Being and Timelater to become a major influence on his own essay on phenomenological ontology. Because of poor health he claimed that his poor eyesight and exotropia affected his balance Sartre was released in April According to other sources, he escaped after a medical visit to the ophthalmologist. Sartre third from left and other French journalists visit General George C. However, both Gide and Malraux were undecided, and this may have been the cause of Sartre's disappointment and discouragement. He then wrote Being and NothingnessThe Fliesand No Exitnone of which were censored by the Germans, and also contributed to both legal and illegal literary magazines. In his essay "Paris under the Occupation", Sartre wrote about the "correct" behavior of the Germans had entrapped too many Parisians into complicity with the occupation, accepting what was unnatural as natural, writing: The Germans did not stride, revolver in hand, through the streets. They did not force civilians to make way for them on the pavement. They would offer seats to old ladies on the Metro. They showed great fondness for children and would pat them on the cheek. They had been told to behave correctly and being well-disciplined, they tried shyly and conscientiously to do so. Some of them even displayed a naive kindness which could find no practical expression. Sartre himself always found it difficult when a Wehrmacht soldier asked him for directions, usually saying he did not know where it was that the soldier wanted to go, but still felt uncomfortable as the very act of speaking to the Wehrmacht meant he had been complicit in the Occupation. They were emblematic of how the dilemmas of the Occupation presented themselves in daily life". Cut off from the rest of the world, fed only through the pity or some ulterior motive, the town led a purely abstract and symbolic life". One day you might phone a friend and the phone would ring for a long time in an empty flat. You would go round and ring the doorbell, but no-one would answer it. If the concierge forced the door, you would find two chairs standing close together in the hall with the fag-ends of German cigarettes on the floor between their legs. If the wife or mother of the man who had vanished had been present at his arrest, she would tell you that he had been taken away by very polite Germans, like those who asked the way in the street. And when she went to ask what had happened to them at the offices in the Avenue Foch or the Rue des Saussaies she would be politely received and sent away with comforting words" [No. In the book he tries to explain the etiology of "hate" by analyzing antisemitic hate. Sartre was a very active contributor to Combata newspaper created during the clandestine period by Albert Camusa philosopher and author who held similar beliefs. Sartre and de Beauvoir remained friends with Camus untilwith the publication of Camus's The Rebel. Later, while Sartre was labeled by some authors as a resistant, the French philosopher and resistant Vladimir Jankelevitch criticized Sartre's lack of political commitment during the German occupation, and interpreted his further struggles for liberty as an attempt to redeem himself. According to Camus, Sartre was a writer who resisted; not a resister who wrote. Inafter the war ended, Sartre moved to an apartment on the rue Bonaparte which was where he was to produce most of his subsequent work, and where he lived until It was from there that he helped establish a quarterly literary and political reviewLes Temps modernes Modern Timesin part to popularize his thought. Cold War politics and anticolonialism[ edit ] Jean-Paul Sartre middle and Simone de Beauvoir left meeting with Che Guevara right in Cuba, The first period of Sartre's career, defined in large part by Being and Nothingnessgave way to a second period—when the world was perceived as split into communist and capitalist blocs—of highly publicized political involvement.The electronic edition is a part of the UNC-Chapel Hill digitization project, Documenting the American South. Any hyphens occurring in line breaks have been removed, and the trailing part of a word has been joined to the preceding line. Collection Overview. Slaves and the Courts, , presents pamphlets and books documenting legal cases argued in courts in the United States and Great Britain on the issue of metin2sell.comed are accounts and analyses of cases and the court decisions for . The Indian Rebellion of was a major uprising in India during –58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The event is known by many names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of , the Indian. Sartre (–) is arguably the best known philosopher of the twentieth century. His indefatigable pursuit of philosophical reflection, literary creativity and, in the second half of his life, active political commitment gained him worldwide renown, if not admiration. Erich Fromm was born on March 23, , at Frankfurt am Main, the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents. He started his academic studies in at the University of Frankfurt am Main with two semesters of metin2sell.com the summer semester of , Fromm studied at the University of Heidelberg, where he began studying sociology under Alfred Weber (brother of the better known School: Continental philosophy, Frankfurt School critical theory, psychoanalysis, humanistic Judaism. A city in which people and things you think about dwell. Create therefore an effective and efficient licensing office in the city of your thought that will ensure that the right people and things live there.	<urn:uuid:755cfbc6-39ab-4fde-a2ce-8d2121db204b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mujegyf.metin2sell.com/the-characters-in-friels-play-the-freedom-of-the-city-are-as-much-condemned-by-the-circumstances-of-26617km.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00125.warc.gz	en	0.980062	1,530	3.34375	3	[ 0.12665006518363953, 0.5715505480766296, -0.13842731714248657, -0.1467593014240265, 0.06428177654743195, 0.24618564546108246, -0.0699453353881836, 0.18555530905723572, -0.25466543436050415, -0.17707717418670654, -0.2202812284231186, -0.09583121538162231, 0.1617097556591034, 0.3803506195545...	1	Leader of the great religious revolt of the sixteenth century in Germany ; born at Eisleben, 10 November, ; died at Eisleben, 18 February, His father, Hans, was a miner, a rugged, stern, irascible character. In the opinion of many of his biographers, it was an expression of uncontrolled rage, an evident congenital inheritance transmitted to his oldest son, that compelled him to flee from Mohra, the family seat, to escape the penalty or odium of homicide. Anne-Marie moved back to her parents' house in Meudonwhere she raised Sartre with help from her father Charles Schweitzer, a teacher of German who taught Sartre mathematics and introduced him to classical literature at a very early age. An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness. Role and Nature"] was supervised by Henri Delacroix. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisienannounced the event on 25 May. Thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous. He took it a second time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place, with Beauvoir second. It was during this period of confinement that Sartre read Martin Heidegger 's Being and Timelater to become a major influence on his own essay on phenomenological ontology. Because of poor health he claimed that his poor eyesight and exotropia affected his balance Sartre was released in April According to other sources, he escaped after a medical visit to the ophthalmologist. Sartre third from left and other French journalists visit General George C. However, both Gide and Malraux were undecided, and this may have been the cause of Sartre's disappointment and discouragement. He then wrote Being and NothingnessThe Fliesand No Exitnone of which were censored by the Germans, and also contributed to both legal and illegal literary magazines. In his essay "Paris under the Occupation", Sartre wrote about the "correct" behavior of the Germans had entrapped too many Parisians into complicity with the occupation, accepting what was unnatural as natural, writing: The Germans did not stride, revolver in hand, through the streets. They did not force civilians to make way for them on the pavement. They would offer seats to old ladies on the Metro. They showed great fondness for children and would pat them on the cheek. They had been told to behave correctly and being well-disciplined, they tried shyly and conscientiously to do so. Some of them even displayed a naive kindness which could find no practical expression. Sartre himself always found it difficult when a Wehrmacht soldier asked him for directions, usually saying he did not know where it was that the soldier wanted to go, but still felt uncomfortable as the very act of speaking to the Wehrmacht meant he had been complicit in the Occupation. They were emblematic of how the dilemmas of the Occupation presented themselves in daily life". Cut off from the rest of the world, fed only through the pity or some ulterior motive, the town led a purely abstract and symbolic life". One day you might phone a friend and the phone would ring for a long time in an empty flat. You would go round and ring the doorbell, but no-one would answer it. If the concierge forced the door, you would find two chairs standing close together in the hall with the fag-ends of German cigarettes on the floor between their legs. If the wife or mother of the man who had vanished had been present at his arrest, she would tell you that he had been taken away by very polite Germans, like those who asked the way in the street. And when she went to ask what had happened to them at the offices in the Avenue Foch or the Rue des Saussaies she would be politely received and sent away with comforting words" [No. In the book he tries to explain the etiology of "hate" by analyzing antisemitic hate. Sartre was a very active contributor to Combata newspaper created during the clandestine period by Albert Camusa philosopher and author who held similar beliefs. Sartre and de Beauvoir remained friends with Camus untilwith the publication of Camus's The Rebel. Later, while Sartre was labeled by some authors as a resistant, the French philosopher and resistant Vladimir Jankelevitch criticized Sartre's lack of political commitment during the German occupation, and interpreted his further struggles for liberty as an attempt to redeem himself. According to Camus, Sartre was a writer who resisted; not a resister who wrote. Inafter the war ended, Sartre moved to an apartment on the rue Bonaparte which was where he was to produce most of his subsequent work, and where he lived until It was from there that he helped establish a quarterly literary and political reviewLes Temps modernes Modern Timesin part to popularize his thought. Cold War politics and anticolonialism[ edit ] Jean-Paul Sartre middle and Simone de Beauvoir left meeting with Che Guevara right in Cuba, The first period of Sartre's career, defined in large part by Being and Nothingnessgave way to a second period—when the world was perceived as split into communist and capitalist blocs—of highly publicized political involvement.The electronic edition is a part of the UNC-Chapel Hill digitization project, Documenting the American South. Any hyphens occurring in line breaks have been removed, and the trailing part of a word has been joined to the preceding line. Collection Overview. Slaves and the Courts, , presents pamphlets and books documenting legal cases argued in courts in the United States and Great Britain on the issue of metin2sell.comed are accounts and analyses of cases and the court decisions for . The Indian Rebellion of was a major uprising in India during –58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The event is known by many names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of , the Indian. Sartre (–) is arguably the best known philosopher of the twentieth century. His indefatigable pursuit of philosophical reflection, literary creativity and, in the second half of his life, active political commitment gained him worldwide renown, if not admiration. Erich Fromm was born on March 23, , at Frankfurt am Main, the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents. He started his academic studies in at the University of Frankfurt am Main with two semesters of metin2sell.com the summer semester of , Fromm studied at the University of Heidelberg, where he began studying sociology under Alfred Weber (brother of the better known School: Continental philosophy, Frankfurt School critical theory, psychoanalysis, humanistic Judaism. A city in which people and things you think about dwell. Create therefore an effective and efficient licensing office in the city of your thought that will ensure that the right people and things live there.	1,499	ENGLISH	1
There are quantifiers that either quantify inherently plural nouns (e.g. people), or countable nouns in the plural (e.g. presents). The most important member of this group of quantifiers is many: (1) There were many people at the show. (2) She gave them many presents. Note, by the way, that example (1) shows that the predicate verb (were) agrees with the postponed subject (many people). There are also quantifiers that can only be used to quantify uncountable nouns (sometimes also referred to as "singular nouns"). The core member of this category is much: (3) He gave them much advice. The most important fact to remember when it comes to the use of quantifiers in English is this difference between much and many, that is, that much is used to quantify uncountable nouns and that many is used to quantify countable nouns.	<urn:uuid:1686571b-4637-4839-bf29-798936598aa9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://awelu.srv.lu.se/grammar-and-words/common-problems-and-how-to-avoid-them/many-or-much-on-the-use-of-quantifiers/many-vs-much/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00014.warc.gz	en	0.982797	198	3.53125	4	[ 0.0837758406996727, -0.39667820930480957, 0.06414671242237091, -0.38626158237457275, -0.18737675249576569, -0.20379748940467834, 0.7568331360816956, 0.13476862013339996, 0.3017451763153076, -0.08430761098861694, 0.24353493750095367, -0.3858732581138611, 0.058488551527261734, 0.184866860508...	8	There are quantifiers that either quantify inherently plural nouns (e.g. people), or countable nouns in the plural (e.g. presents). The most important member of this group of quantifiers is many: (1) There were many people at the show. (2) She gave them many presents. Note, by the way, that example (1) shows that the predicate verb (were) agrees with the postponed subject (many people). There are also quantifiers that can only be used to quantify uncountable nouns (sometimes also referred to as "singular nouns"). The core member of this category is much: (3) He gave them much advice. The most important fact to remember when it comes to the use of quantifiers in English is this difference between much and many, that is, that much is used to quantify uncountable nouns and that many is used to quantify countable nouns.	183	ENGLISH	1
On December 5th, 1922, Governor Harry L. Davis dedicated 20,000 acres to become a game and reforestation preserve. He named the preserve after Theodore Roosevelt, who had set aside land for national parks during his presidency. Part of the preserve became a state park and was renamed the Portsmouth State Park. In the 1970s, it became the Shawnee State Park, named after the local Native Americans that once lived in the region. The Theodore Roosevelt Preserve was established to encourage the replenishment of natural resources that had been depleted in Ohio’s past. The site of the park had previously been hunting grounds for the Shawnee before they were displaced by settlers. In 1922, 15,000 of the acres were bought by way of hunting license fees, and the other 5,000 acres were bought by state agricultural extension division. The state had to pay only five dollars per acre. The preserve housed ring-necked pheasants, wild turkeys, deer, partridges, and other animals that had often been hunted for sport. In 1934, 400 acres of the preserve were set aside to serve as a park, originally named for Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt became the 26th U.S. president in September 1901 after the assassination of William McKinley. During that time, he showed his aptitude for the job, and he was elected for another term in 1904. Some of the major milestones of his presidency include work on the Panama Canal, winning a Nobel Peace Prize for helping to end the Russo-Japanese War, and setting aside 200 million acres for national forests, reserves, and wildlife refuges. After being renamed the Portsmouth State Park in the 1970s, the park became the Shawnee State Park. The Shawnee were an Algonquian-speaking group that once lived throughout the Ohio Valley. They were a major force during the Northwest Indian War of the 1790s. The Shawnee allied themselves with the French to push back the British. One of the most famous Shawnee people was Tecumseh, a veteran of the Battle of Falling Timbers who helped unite the Native American peoples west of the Appalachian Mountains against the United States.	<urn:uuid:9d03f9f1-620e-4007-8624-c2bcff06b458>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/58294	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00250.warc.gz	en	0.987435	439	3.765625	4	[ -0.1970607340335846, 0.5571751594543457, 0.38965699076652527, -0.16457101702690125, 0.19374799728393555, 0.09282421320676804, 0.11478716880083084, -0.1644287258386612, -0.27091848850250244, 0.30913808941841125, 0.12122052907943726, -0.5759866237640381, 0.25292521715164185, 0.55565249919891...	1	On December 5th, 1922, Governor Harry L. Davis dedicated 20,000 acres to become a game and reforestation preserve. He named the preserve after Theodore Roosevelt, who had set aside land for national parks during his presidency. Part of the preserve became a state park and was renamed the Portsmouth State Park. In the 1970s, it became the Shawnee State Park, named after the local Native Americans that once lived in the region. The Theodore Roosevelt Preserve was established to encourage the replenishment of natural resources that had been depleted in Ohio’s past. The site of the park had previously been hunting grounds for the Shawnee before they were displaced by settlers. In 1922, 15,000 of the acres were bought by way of hunting license fees, and the other 5,000 acres were bought by state agricultural extension division. The state had to pay only five dollars per acre. The preserve housed ring-necked pheasants, wild turkeys, deer, partridges, and other animals that had often been hunted for sport. In 1934, 400 acres of the preserve were set aside to serve as a park, originally named for Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt became the 26th U.S. president in September 1901 after the assassination of William McKinley. During that time, he showed his aptitude for the job, and he was elected for another term in 1904. Some of the major milestones of his presidency include work on the Panama Canal, winning a Nobel Peace Prize for helping to end the Russo-Japanese War, and setting aside 200 million acres for national forests, reserves, and wildlife refuges. After being renamed the Portsmouth State Park in the 1970s, the park became the Shawnee State Park. The Shawnee were an Algonquian-speaking group that once lived throughout the Ohio Valley. They were a major force during the Northwest Indian War of the 1790s. The Shawnee allied themselves with the French to push back the British. One of the most famous Shawnee people was Tecumseh, a veteran of the Battle of Falling Timbers who helped unite the Native American peoples west of the Appalachian Mountains against the United States.	482	ENGLISH	1
Shiloh, Illinois . . . History . . . Under the Red & White Tower by Brenda Kern, Village Clerk Shiloh was originally called Three Springs by the Indians who camped near this location and used the “three springs” as a source of water. Shiloh named its park on Frank Scott Parkway “Three Springs Park” to acknowledge this part of its history. The community of Shiloh got its start with Methodist camp meetings held at Three Springs. Settlers were first recorded in the area about 1785. In 1793, Joseph Lillard, the first Methodist preacher to visit the area, formed a class and appointed Captain Joseph Ogle, an area Methodist and pioneer (arriving in 1785), to lead it. This class was the first Methodist class in Illinois, although not considered an organized church. The group met in homes in the winter and in the summer in the grove known as Three Springs. On June 10th, 1807 the group (19 settlers) met at Ogle’s home and voted to erect a “meeting house” in the grove. Paul Kingston donated the land. The group then cut and hauled logs for the church and used them for the platform and seats to host an 11-day revival camp meeting which began on July 26, 1807. After the assembly, on August 10th and 11th, 1807, construction began on the 18 x 22 log Meeting House which became the first Methodist church in the county and second in the Illinois Country. This meeting house was also the start of what was to be the longest-organized United Methodist Church in the state of Illinois. The church was named Shiloh Church, because of ancient Jewish and Christian translations of the word “Shiloh” interpreted to be the Messiah.* The log church was replaced 3 more times, the current church being erected in 1875. During the dedication of the original log cabin Bishop McKendree reminded church members, “Do not forget your anti-slavery pledge, but labor for and encourage the cause of freedom for all men by means of kind words and orderly methods.” Three members of this church played significant roles in State government in the effort to prevent slaveholding from gaining a foothold in Illinois. An early historian noted that the first hooped skirt and first lampshade ever used in Illinois were results of an incident at a Methodist organizational meeting in 1807. He wrote, “One evening there were no lights to be had on the campgrounds, and it was very windy. An elderly lady volunteered to meet the difficulty. Accordingly, she stepped aside and doffed her white cotton skirt which she suspended as a lampshade. Then she caused it to be expanded by means of a twig bent in a circular form, a suggestion of hoops, which had not been thought of in that early day. Then, for the light, she scooped out a large turnip, which she filled with lard. She twisted a wick of cotton and, rubbing it in the lard, set fire to it after it had been suspended inside the hooped skirt. By this light Jesse Walker was able to preach that evening.” The name “Shiloh” began being used to describe the Village and Township that grew up around the Shiloh Church. In 1802, three brothers and their spouses settled in Shiloh. They were James & Sarah Scott, William Jr. & Mississippi Scott and Joseph & Nancy Scott. Note: All three had come to the area with their father William Sr. who settled in what was called Turkey Hill (the old radar site on Rentchler Road.) Joseph Scott erected a small grist and powder mill on a branch of Silver Creek. It was a log building and was propelled by an undershot water-wheel. For a number of years, he continued the manufacture of fine quality of powder procuring the nitre in the caves on the Gasconade River in Missouri (which was hostile Indian territory at that time.) This was undoubtedly the first powder mill in the State. Mr. Scott furnished the rangers, hunters and sporting men of St. Louis with powder but never sold to the Indians. The first schoolhouse in St. Clair County was a one-story log house established in Shiloh in 1811 behind the Shiloh Methodist Church. The windows were greased paper to admit light. A large fireplace extended across the rear of the room, to warm it on cold days. The benches were made of logs that were split in half and mounted on wooden pegs for legs. There were no maps, charts, globes, nor blackboards in the schoolroom. The writing was done with goose quills. The Shiloh Cemetery on Main Street has graves dating back to the 1814’s. See footnote. Shiloh was home to some of the first German immigrants in the State. In 1833, German Revolutionaries who attempted to rebel against the German Confederation to create unity and freedom for their country became outlaws in Germany. They fled to the U.S. Four of the individuals, Gustav Bunsen, George Engelmann, his brother Theodore Engelmann and Gustave Koerner, came to live in Shiloh on the property along Shiloh Station Road. They originally planned to settle in Missouri, but they stopped in Kentucky and saw the evils of slavery and decided they could not live in a slave state. When they arrived in St. Louis they contacted earlier German scouts who convinced them to live in what is now Shiloh.* Frierdich Engelmann purchased the farm property in 1833, establishing the Engelmann Farm. This was not just another farm producing corn and other crops. The farm became known as “the refuge of righteousness on the Mississippi River” because those German exiles would resupply and rest there while en route to settle the American frontier. Theodore Engelmann published the first newspaper in Illinois. George Engelmann, was a renowned botanist. He helped to develop the Missouri Botanical Garden using plants that he grew on the farm in Shiloh. This acreage today represents the last “old growth” forest in Shiloh Valley. Gustave Koerner married Sophie Engelmann (Frierdich’s daughter); he became Illinois Supreme Court judge and lieutenant governor of the State. Gustave Koerner’s family is believed to have brought the first Christmas Tree to the area. Mr. Koerner wrote in his journal in 1833 that “his daughters took the top of a sassafras tree which still had some leaves on it . . . dressed it with waxed candles, ribbon and bits of colored paper and the like and hung it with little red apples and nuts and all sorts of confections made by their Aunt Caroline and decorated it for the Christmas season. Perhaps this was the first Christmas tree that was ever lighted on the banks of the Mississippi.” Today, the Engelmann property is a St. Clair County Park. The County bought it to preserve its history. Besides its unspoiled habitat, there are two historic homes on the property as well as the Engelmann family cemetery. In 1834, Dr. Adolph Reuss emigrated to the US and purchased a 200-acre farm in Shiloh, Illinois. Dr. Reuss was a physician and zoologist, known for his work in the fields of herpetology and arachnology. He worked as a farmer and maintained a successful medical practice (making all of his calls to the sick on horseback.) His home was often used as a hospital. His estate grew to 450 acres. Shiloh had the first library in the area. On August 14, 1836, it started with a collection of ninety-three volumes. By the end of the year, it had grown to 346 books. On February 22, 1839, the library was incorporated by the General Assembly of Illinois with papers signed by Governor Theo Carlin. By this time the collection had grown to 1,906 volumes. In 1853, the books were moved to Belleville to create a larger library, creating Belleville’s current library, which is the oldest library in Illinois. In 1845, Jacob Haege came to Shiloh from Germany with his parents when he was 21 years old. While in Germany, he acquired a liberal education and learned the blacksmith’s trade. In Shiloh, he operated a blacksmith and wagon shop, as well as a sawmill. Jacob Haege also acquired a reputation as an inventor as well as a mechanic. He invented and patented among other things a gang and the walking plow, cultivators and other horsepower machinery. He also perfected a fire escape. Many of these items were manufactured and sold in his own shop. He was said to have made a considerable fortune from these endeavors, but he was generous and loaned much of his surplus to his friends and therefore lost a small fortune. He moved to Western Kansas in 1878. In 1845, the first home was built in what is considered the original portion of what was to become Shiloh. It was just south of the Methodist Church. This home was followed by a store, a blacksmith shop and a steam sawmill. In 1848, the Village was platted and recorded in the St. Clair County Courthouse. Shiloh Village School’s first building was built in 1850 and was located on the same site as today’s school (125 Diamond Court.) This building was replaced in 1950. The current school has had several additions and a Middle School was built on Wildcat Drive. Because of annexations outside the original Shiloh area, there are also students that attend Whiteside Elementary & Middle School, Central Elementary School, and Wingate (Mascoutah) Schools. Public High School includes O’Fallon, Belleville East & Mascoutah. In 1850, the Shiloh Post Office was established but was moved to O’Fallon in 1854. The Shiloh Post Office was re-established in 1858. In 1911, the Post Office was closed again with residents getting rural delivery out of O’Fallon. Today, Shiloh has 4 zip codes in its corporate limits – 62269, 62221, 62226 & 62225. Built around 1860, Shiloh’s Glen Addie Mansion on Lebanon Avenue was believed to be a stop on the Underground Railroad. Colonel James L. Morrison, a Civil War Army Colonel, who sympathized with the slaves, built his $60,000 mansion in honor of his wife. This mansion, containing 26 rooms, 12 fireplaces, and an enormous ballroom was later turned into St. John’s Orphanage. In 1952, the mansion was torn down. Two brick houses next to each other, on top of a hill, on Green Mount Road were also believed to be used to hide slaves. Little was documented about the location of underground stations because the railroad was illegal and any printed information could have incriminated an abolitionist. Gustave Koerner presided over the 1860 Illinois Republican Convention that nominated Abraham Lincoln; he garnered German support for Lincoln as the Republican nominee for President. In 1862, in the basement of the Shiloh Methodist Church, General Ulysses S. Grant recruited for the Co. 1, 117th Regiment, Illinois Volunteer Infantry for the Civil War (1862-1865.) By 1880, Shiloh had two shoe shops, two general stores, two hotels, a blacksmith shop and a sawmill. Shiloh Valley School was built on Shiloh Station Road in 1880 (This building is now gone.) There were no school districts at that time so the schools gave students a choice of where they wanted to attend. In 1886, a toll gate was erected on the newly “paved” road between Lebanon Avenue and Hartman Lane (Belleville to Shiloh.) A homeowner at the location passed a bucket out the window for the tolls. On June 20, 1905, Shiloh was organized as a Village. It had 51 residents – 47 voted for incorporation and 4 voted against. Much of the land in Shiloh has or had coal underneath it. There have been at least four coal mines in Shiloh or its immediate area. Rentchler Mine was at Rentchler Station, the Davis Mine (which was along Illinois 161 – 1938-1968.) Little Oak Mine (by the Southern Railroad – 1903-1948) & the Shiloh Coal Mine (was on Shiloh Station Road – 1900-1932.) Today, there are few traces of the coal mines and railroads which originally led to Shiloh being incorporated as a Village in 1905. (Note: A seam of coal mined in what is now known as Shiloh was first discovered by the French Explorer, LaSalle in 1679. He was the first recorded explorer to use it for fuel during his trip on the Mississippi River. And, Silver Creek which drains the eastern part of Shiloh was named for the silver ore found there by Phillip Renault in 1719. The mine was later abandoned because of hostile Indians.) In 1913, Shiloh’s second church, Corpus Christi Catholic Church, was constructed. In the years since eight more churches have made their home in Shiloh. In June 1917, the War Department selected a square mile near Shiloh for training aviators. Ten thousand dollars was appropriated by Congress for construction and 2,000 laborers and carpenters immediately went to work constructing an installation. The field was named in honor of Corporal Frank S. Scott who was the first enlisted person to die in an aircraft accident, and the only Air Force Base named for an enlisted member. In September 1917, the first four airplanes arrived. Captain Jack W. Heard was the first commanding officer. By 1919, Scott Field had trained approximately 500 pilots for WWI. That same year, the War Department purchased Scott Field and by 1921, the installation was approved to become a lighter-than-air station. Today, parts of Scott Air Force Base are in the corporate limits of the Village. In 1978, the Shiloh Water Tower was built. It stands 145 ft. tall and is also on one of the highest points in St. Clair County. Many think it resembles a giant red-and-white-striped peppermint candy. The FAA chose its color scheme for flight safety reasons because of its close proximity to Scott Air Force Base. It is the most recognizable symbol of the Village. In the late 1980’s Shiloh began annexing property mostly to its west making it the size we know today. Today, the Village is approximately 11 square miles. A significant archaeological find was discovered at the Frank Scott Parkway East Extension in Shiloh in 2000. The traces of twenty-two houses and quite a few huts are believed to date back the Mississippian era. The era occurred between 1000 A.D. to 1400 A.D. Broken pots, stone tools and animal bones were found at the site. In 2001, Shiloh’s first shopping development was built at the corner of Frank Scott Crossing and Green Mount Road. In 2004, at the entrance of the Shiloh Community Park, a September 11 Memorial was constructed. This monument tells of the many different people and professions that helped in the aftermath of the tragic attacks on September 11, 2001. Each side of the memorial represents a different group of people, including police, firefighters, EMS personnel and military personnel, as well as lost loved ones. In 2016, Shiloh welcomed Memorial Hospital East to the Village. It is a 94-bed state of the art facility located on Cross Street. Shiloh’s history is alive and growing – always looking forward. Out of the world of today, will come the history of tomorrow. Origin of the name Shiloh: Genesis 49:10 (NASB) “The scepter will not depart from Judah, Nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet, Until Shiloh comes, And to him shall be the obedience of the peoples.” 1 Samuel 3:21 (NASB) “And the LORD appeared again at Shiloh, because the LORD revealed Himself to Samuel at Shiloh by the word of the LORD.” Buried in the Cemetery: Veterans: 98 recorded. Some dating back to the Revolutionary & Civil Wars. Famous Entertainers buried in the Cemetery: 1. Mary Wicks (Wickenhauser), who died in 1995. Born in 1910 and died in 1995. She played roles in many films, including “White Christmas,” “Music Man,” “Little Women,” “Sister Act,” “Sister Act II,” and “Postcards from the Edge.” Also, on TV shows such as “I Love Lucy,” “The Father Dowling Mysteries,” and “Murder She Wrote.” 2. Russell (Russ\Rus) Conklin. Born in 1909 and died in 1983. He played in the Lone Ranger, Ten Commandments, & Unconquered to name a few of the 30 roles he played during a 15-year career. **Information taken from the book “Wanderers Between Two Worlds: German Rebels in the American West, 1830-1860” by Douglas Hale, Ph.D. The 2010 Census shows Shiloh having 12,651 residents. Demographics are not yet available. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 10.1 square miles, of which, 10.1 square miles (26.0 sq. km.) of it is land and 0.04 square miles of it is water. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,643 people, 2,778 households, and 2,080 families residing in the village. The population density was 760.2 people per square mile. There were 2,928 housing units at an average density of 291.2/sq mi. The racial makeup of the village was 82.14% White, 13.32% African American, 0.27% Native American, 1.79% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.75% from other races, and 1.65% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.62% of the population. There were 2,778 households out of which 40.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.8% were married couples living together, 10.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.1% were non-families. 20.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.05. In the village the population was spread out with 27.7% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 34.6% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 6.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 102.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.0 males. The median income for a household in the village was $57,692, and the median income for a family was $67,054. Males had a median income of $42,083 versus $30,843 for females. The per capita income for the village was $25,550. About 6.1% of families and 7.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.1% of those under age 18 and 1.6% of those age 65 or over. A special annual event for residents of Shiloh is the Shiloh Homecoming. The Homecoming is a two-day celebration with various amusements and rides, held the first Friday and Saturday after Labor Day every year. The end of the Friday celebration is marked by a fireworks display. At the entrance of the Shiloh Park and Police Station is a September 11 memorial. This monument tells of the many different people and professions that helped in the aftermath of the tragic attacks on September 11, 2001. It is a memorial of those who were born to live, lived to help, and helped to live. To commemorate the date that the 2004 Shiloh Homecoming Picnic fell on, members of the Village’s Improvement Association organized a special event for all those lost during the terrorist attacks on the U.S. on Sept. 11, 2001. A 9-11 memorial was unveiled during a ceremony on September 11 at 4 p.m. near the entrance to Park Drive. During Picnic planning meetings, Shiloh resident, Wes Kern, suggested constructing a 9-11 Memorial. Doug Karius, a member of the Shiloh Village Improvement Association, responded by coming up with an idea for the monuments’ design. It features a pentagonal-shaped brick memorial to represent the Pentagon, and two lights on both sides for the World Trade Center’s twin towers. The landscaping that surround it represents the Pennsylvania field where one of the high-jacked planes crashed that dreadful day. Each side of the memorial represents a different group of people, including police, firefighters, EMS personnel and military personnel, as well as lost loved ones. In the future, the association hopes to add benches so people can be seated while reflecting on the memorial. Click here to view photos of the memorial dedication. For more information on purchasing a plaque, call us at (618) 632-1022 or stop by Shiloh Village Hall.	<urn:uuid:1c5de48c-8981-4f75-b8f0-bf4ff63b071c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shilohil.org/residents/about-shiloh/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00541.warc.gz	en	0.98052	4,603	3.265625	3	[ -0.030636388808488846, -0.10238361358642578, -0.06779420375823975, 0.058478862047195435, -0.35808438062667847, 0.16450278460979462, 0.048031583428382874, -0.15511378645896912, -0.36718881130218506, -0.1682695895433426, 0.11991757154464722, -0.13684649765491486, -0.24474337697029114, 0.3842...	1	Shiloh, Illinois . . . History . . . Under the Red & White Tower by Brenda Kern, Village Clerk Shiloh was originally called Three Springs by the Indians who camped near this location and used the “three springs” as a source of water. Shiloh named its park on Frank Scott Parkway “Three Springs Park” to acknowledge this part of its history. The community of Shiloh got its start with Methodist camp meetings held at Three Springs. Settlers were first recorded in the area about 1785. In 1793, Joseph Lillard, the first Methodist preacher to visit the area, formed a class and appointed Captain Joseph Ogle, an area Methodist and pioneer (arriving in 1785), to lead it. This class was the first Methodist class in Illinois, although not considered an organized church. The group met in homes in the winter and in the summer in the grove known as Three Springs. On June 10th, 1807 the group (19 settlers) met at Ogle’s home and voted to erect a “meeting house” in the grove. Paul Kingston donated the land. The group then cut and hauled logs for the church and used them for the platform and seats to host an 11-day revival camp meeting which began on July 26, 1807. After the assembly, on August 10th and 11th, 1807, construction began on the 18 x 22 log Meeting House which became the first Methodist church in the county and second in the Illinois Country. This meeting house was also the start of what was to be the longest-organized United Methodist Church in the state of Illinois. The church was named Shiloh Church, because of ancient Jewish and Christian translations of the word “Shiloh” interpreted to be the Messiah.* The log church was replaced 3 more times, the current church being erected in 1875. During the dedication of the original log cabin Bishop McKendree reminded church members, “Do not forget your anti-slavery pledge, but labor for and encourage the cause of freedom for all men by means of kind words and orderly methods.” Three members of this church played significant roles in State government in the effort to prevent slaveholding from gaining a foothold in Illinois. An early historian noted that the first hooped skirt and first lampshade ever used in Illinois were results of an incident at a Methodist organizational meeting in 1807. He wrote, “One evening there were no lights to be had on the campgrounds, and it was very windy. An elderly lady volunteered to meet the difficulty. Accordingly, she stepped aside and doffed her white cotton skirt which she suspended as a lampshade. Then she caused it to be expanded by means of a twig bent in a circular form, a suggestion of hoops, which had not been thought of in that early day. Then, for the light, she scooped out a large turnip, which she filled with lard. She twisted a wick of cotton and, rubbing it in the lard, set fire to it after it had been suspended inside the hooped skirt. By this light Jesse Walker was able to preach that evening.” The name “Shiloh” began being used to describe the Village and Township that grew up around the Shiloh Church. In 1802, three brothers and their spouses settled in Shiloh. They were James & Sarah Scott, William Jr. & Mississippi Scott and Joseph & Nancy Scott. Note: All three had come to the area with their father William Sr. who settled in what was called Turkey Hill (the old radar site on Rentchler Road.) Joseph Scott erected a small grist and powder mill on a branch of Silver Creek. It was a log building and was propelled by an undershot water-wheel. For a number of years, he continued the manufacture of fine quality of powder procuring the nitre in the caves on the Gasconade River in Missouri (which was hostile Indian territory at that time.) This was undoubtedly the first powder mill in the State. Mr. Scott furnished the rangers, hunters and sporting men of St. Louis with powder but never sold to the Indians. The first schoolhouse in St. Clair County was a one-story log house established in Shiloh in 1811 behind the Shiloh Methodist Church. The windows were greased paper to admit light. A large fireplace extended across the rear of the room, to warm it on cold days. The benches were made of logs that were split in half and mounted on wooden pegs for legs. There were no maps, charts, globes, nor blackboards in the schoolroom. The writing was done with goose quills. The Shiloh Cemetery on Main Street has graves dating back to the 1814’s. See footnote. Shiloh was home to some of the first German immigrants in the State. In 1833, German Revolutionaries who attempted to rebel against the German Confederation to create unity and freedom for their country became outlaws in Germany. They fled to the U.S. Four of the individuals, Gustav Bunsen, George Engelmann, his brother Theodore Engelmann and Gustave Koerner, came to live in Shiloh on the property along Shiloh Station Road. They originally planned to settle in Missouri, but they stopped in Kentucky and saw the evils of slavery and decided they could not live in a slave state. When they arrived in St. Louis they contacted earlier German scouts who convinced them to live in what is now Shiloh.* Frierdich Engelmann purchased the farm property in 1833, establishing the Engelmann Farm. This was not just another farm producing corn and other crops. The farm became known as “the refuge of righteousness on the Mississippi River” because those German exiles would resupply and rest there while en route to settle the American frontier. Theodore Engelmann published the first newspaper in Illinois. George Engelmann, was a renowned botanist. He helped to develop the Missouri Botanical Garden using plants that he grew on the farm in Shiloh. This acreage today represents the last “old growth” forest in Shiloh Valley. Gustave Koerner married Sophie Engelmann (Frierdich’s daughter); he became Illinois Supreme Court judge and lieutenant governor of the State. Gustave Koerner’s family is believed to have brought the first Christmas Tree to the area. Mr. Koerner wrote in his journal in 1833 that “his daughters took the top of a sassafras tree which still had some leaves on it . . . dressed it with waxed candles, ribbon and bits of colored paper and the like and hung it with little red apples and nuts and all sorts of confections made by their Aunt Caroline and decorated it for the Christmas season. Perhaps this was the first Christmas tree that was ever lighted on the banks of the Mississippi.” Today, the Engelmann property is a St. Clair County Park. The County bought it to preserve its history. Besides its unspoiled habitat, there are two historic homes on the property as well as the Engelmann family cemetery. In 1834, Dr. Adolph Reuss emigrated to the US and purchased a 200-acre farm in Shiloh, Illinois. Dr. Reuss was a physician and zoologist, known for his work in the fields of herpetology and arachnology. He worked as a farmer and maintained a successful medical practice (making all of his calls to the sick on horseback.) His home was often used as a hospital. His estate grew to 450 acres. Shiloh had the first library in the area. On August 14, 1836, it started with a collection of ninety-three volumes. By the end of the year, it had grown to 346 books. On February 22, 1839, the library was incorporated by the General Assembly of Illinois with papers signed by Governor Theo Carlin. By this time the collection had grown to 1,906 volumes. In 1853, the books were moved to Belleville to create a larger library, creating Belleville’s current library, which is the oldest library in Illinois. In 1845, Jacob Haege came to Shiloh from Germany with his parents when he was 21 years old. While in Germany, he acquired a liberal education and learned the blacksmith’s trade. In Shiloh, he operated a blacksmith and wagon shop, as well as a sawmill. Jacob Haege also acquired a reputation as an inventor as well as a mechanic. He invented and patented among other things a gang and the walking plow, cultivators and other horsepower machinery. He also perfected a fire escape. Many of these items were manufactured and sold in his own shop. He was said to have made a considerable fortune from these endeavors, but he was generous and loaned much of his surplus to his friends and therefore lost a small fortune. He moved to Western Kansas in 1878. In 1845, the first home was built in what is considered the original portion of what was to become Shiloh. It was just south of the Methodist Church. This home was followed by a store, a blacksmith shop and a steam sawmill. In 1848, the Village was platted and recorded in the St. Clair County Courthouse. Shiloh Village School’s first building was built in 1850 and was located on the same site as today’s school (125 Diamond Court.) This building was replaced in 1950. The current school has had several additions and a Middle School was built on Wildcat Drive. Because of annexations outside the original Shiloh area, there are also students that attend Whiteside Elementary & Middle School, Central Elementary School, and Wingate (Mascoutah) Schools. Public High School includes O’Fallon, Belleville East & Mascoutah. In 1850, the Shiloh Post Office was established but was moved to O’Fallon in 1854. The Shiloh Post Office was re-established in 1858. In 1911, the Post Office was closed again with residents getting rural delivery out of O’Fallon. Today, Shiloh has 4 zip codes in its corporate limits – 62269, 62221, 62226 & 62225. Built around 1860, Shiloh’s Glen Addie Mansion on Lebanon Avenue was believed to be a stop on the Underground Railroad. Colonel James L. Morrison, a Civil War Army Colonel, who sympathized with the slaves, built his $60,000 mansion in honor of his wife. This mansion, containing 26 rooms, 12 fireplaces, and an enormous ballroom was later turned into St. John’s Orphanage. In 1952, the mansion was torn down. Two brick houses next to each other, on top of a hill, on Green Mount Road were also believed to be used to hide slaves. Little was documented about the location of underground stations because the railroad was illegal and any printed information could have incriminated an abolitionist. Gustave Koerner presided over the 1860 Illinois Republican Convention that nominated Abraham Lincoln; he garnered German support for Lincoln as the Republican nominee for President. In 1862, in the basement of the Shiloh Methodist Church, General Ulysses S. Grant recruited for the Co. 1, 117th Regiment, Illinois Volunteer Infantry for the Civil War (1862-1865.) By 1880, Shiloh had two shoe shops, two general stores, two hotels, a blacksmith shop and a sawmill. Shiloh Valley School was built on Shiloh Station Road in 1880 (This building is now gone.) There were no school districts at that time so the schools gave students a choice of where they wanted to attend. In 1886, a toll gate was erected on the newly “paved” road between Lebanon Avenue and Hartman Lane (Belleville to Shiloh.) A homeowner at the location passed a bucket out the window for the tolls. On June 20, 1905, Shiloh was organized as a Village. It had 51 residents – 47 voted for incorporation and 4 voted against. Much of the land in Shiloh has or had coal underneath it. There have been at least four coal mines in Shiloh or its immediate area. Rentchler Mine was at Rentchler Station, the Davis Mine (which was along Illinois 161 – 1938-1968.) Little Oak Mine (by the Southern Railroad – 1903-1948) & the Shiloh Coal Mine (was on Shiloh Station Road – 1900-1932.) Today, there are few traces of the coal mines and railroads which originally led to Shiloh being incorporated as a Village in 1905. (Note: A seam of coal mined in what is now known as Shiloh was first discovered by the French Explorer, LaSalle in 1679. He was the first recorded explorer to use it for fuel during his trip on the Mississippi River. And, Silver Creek which drains the eastern part of Shiloh was named for the silver ore found there by Phillip Renault in 1719. The mine was later abandoned because of hostile Indians.) In 1913, Shiloh’s second church, Corpus Christi Catholic Church, was constructed. In the years since eight more churches have made their home in Shiloh. In June 1917, the War Department selected a square mile near Shiloh for training aviators. Ten thousand dollars was appropriated by Congress for construction and 2,000 laborers and carpenters immediately went to work constructing an installation. The field was named in honor of Corporal Frank S. Scott who was the first enlisted person to die in an aircraft accident, and the only Air Force Base named for an enlisted member. In September 1917, the first four airplanes arrived. Captain Jack W. Heard was the first commanding officer. By 1919, Scott Field had trained approximately 500 pilots for WWI. That same year, the War Department purchased Scott Field and by 1921, the installation was approved to become a lighter-than-air station. Today, parts of Scott Air Force Base are in the corporate limits of the Village. In 1978, the Shiloh Water Tower was built. It stands 145 ft. tall and is also on one of the highest points in St. Clair County. Many think it resembles a giant red-and-white-striped peppermint candy. The FAA chose its color scheme for flight safety reasons because of its close proximity to Scott Air Force Base. It is the most recognizable symbol of the Village. In the late 1980’s Shiloh began annexing property mostly to its west making it the size we know today. Today, the Village is approximately 11 square miles. A significant archaeological find was discovered at the Frank Scott Parkway East Extension in Shiloh in 2000. The traces of twenty-two houses and quite a few huts are believed to date back the Mississippian era. The era occurred between 1000 A.D. to 1400 A.D. Broken pots, stone tools and animal bones were found at the site. In 2001, Shiloh’s first shopping development was built at the corner of Frank Scott Crossing and Green Mount Road. In 2004, at the entrance of the Shiloh Community Park, a September 11 Memorial was constructed. This monument tells of the many different people and professions that helped in the aftermath of the tragic attacks on September 11, 2001. Each side of the memorial represents a different group of people, including police, firefighters, EMS personnel and military personnel, as well as lost loved ones. In 2016, Shiloh welcomed Memorial Hospital East to the Village. It is a 94-bed state of the art facility located on Cross Street. Shiloh’s history is alive and growing – always looking forward. Out of the world of today, will come the history of tomorrow. Origin of the name Shiloh: Genesis 49:10 (NASB) “The scepter will not depart from Judah, Nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet, Until Shiloh comes, And to him shall be the obedience of the peoples.” 1 Samuel 3:21 (NASB) “And the LORD appeared again at Shiloh, because the LORD revealed Himself to Samuel at Shiloh by the word of the LORD.” Buried in the Cemetery: Veterans: 98 recorded. Some dating back to the Revolutionary & Civil Wars. Famous Entertainers buried in the Cemetery: 1. Mary Wicks (Wickenhauser), who died in 1995. Born in 1910 and died in 1995. She played roles in many films, including “White Christmas,” “Music Man,” “Little Women,” “Sister Act,” “Sister Act II,” and “Postcards from the Edge.” Also, on TV shows such as “I Love Lucy,” “The Father Dowling Mysteries,” and “Murder She Wrote.” 2. Russell (Russ\Rus) Conklin. Born in 1909 and died in 1983. He played in the Lone Ranger, Ten Commandments, & Unconquered to name a few of the 30 roles he played during a 15-year career. **Information taken from the book “Wanderers Between Two Worlds: German Rebels in the American West, 1830-1860” by Douglas Hale, Ph.D. The 2010 Census shows Shiloh having 12,651 residents. Demographics are not yet available. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 10.1 square miles, of which, 10.1 square miles (26.0 sq. km.) of it is land and 0.04 square miles of it is water. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,643 people, 2,778 households, and 2,080 families residing in the village. The population density was 760.2 people per square mile. There were 2,928 housing units at an average density of 291.2/sq mi. The racial makeup of the village was 82.14% White, 13.32% African American, 0.27% Native American, 1.79% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.75% from other races, and 1.65% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.62% of the population. There were 2,778 households out of which 40.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.8% were married couples living together, 10.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.1% were non-families. 20.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.05. In the village the population was spread out with 27.7% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 34.6% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 6.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 102.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.0 males. The median income for a household in the village was $57,692, and the median income for a family was $67,054. Males had a median income of $42,083 versus $30,843 for females. The per capita income for the village was $25,550. About 6.1% of families and 7.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.1% of those under age 18 and 1.6% of those age 65 or over. A special annual event for residents of Shiloh is the Shiloh Homecoming. The Homecoming is a two-day celebration with various amusements and rides, held the first Friday and Saturday after Labor Day every year. The end of the Friday celebration is marked by a fireworks display. At the entrance of the Shiloh Park and Police Station is a September 11 memorial. This monument tells of the many different people and professions that helped in the aftermath of the tragic attacks on September 11, 2001. It is a memorial of those who were born to live, lived to help, and helped to live. To commemorate the date that the 2004 Shiloh Homecoming Picnic fell on, members of the Village’s Improvement Association organized a special event for all those lost during the terrorist attacks on the U.S. on Sept. 11, 2001. A 9-11 memorial was unveiled during a ceremony on September 11 at 4 p.m. near the entrance to Park Drive. During Picnic planning meetings, Shiloh resident, Wes Kern, suggested constructing a 9-11 Memorial. Doug Karius, a member of the Shiloh Village Improvement Association, responded by coming up with an idea for the monuments’ design. It features a pentagonal-shaped brick memorial to represent the Pentagon, and two lights on both sides for the World Trade Center’s twin towers. The landscaping that surround it represents the Pennsylvania field where one of the high-jacked planes crashed that dreadful day. Each side of the memorial represents a different group of people, including police, firefighters, EMS personnel and military personnel, as well as lost loved ones. In the future, the association hopes to add benches so people can be seated while reflecting on the memorial. Click here to view photos of the memorial dedication. For more information on purchasing a plaque, call us at (618) 632-1022 or stop by Shiloh Village Hall.	4,913	ENGLISH	1
In words are influenced by his newly-risen In the soliloquy, “Tis now the very witching time of night,” Hamlet reveals the underlying tension caused by the discord between his duty and his true feelings. Externally, he professes the desire to avenge his father’s murder, but his words are contradicted by his inability to take action due to his love for his mother. Prior to the soliloquy, Hamlet’s suspicions of the ghost have been allayed, as he has perceived Polonius’s reaction to the scene imitating his father’s death. Polonius’s sudden exit from the play proves his guilt, thereby necessitating that Hamlet obey the ghost and avenge his father’s murder, as his duty as a son requires him to do. At the beginning of his soliloquy, Hamlet prepares himself to take revenge, claiming, ” ‘Tis now the very witching time of night, When churchyards yawn, and hell itself breathes out” (3.2. 360-362). Hamlet’s words “witching,” “churchyards yawning,” and “hell… breathing out” refer to the dead rising, as witches raise corpses from their graves, churchyards contain cemeteries filled with dead bodies, and ghosts rise from hell. His descriptions reveal that his words are influenced by his newly-risen dead father, or more specifically, the duty to avenge his father. Hamlet claims to be capable of this vengeance: “Now could I drink hot blood, And do such business as the bitter day Would quake to look on” (3.2. 362-364). Hamlet claims that he is capable of “drinking hot blood,” ingesting the foulness of “witching” and doing whatever is necessary to avenge his father. He also claims that the “day,” associated with light and purity, “would quake,” or tremble with fear, if it observed Hamlet’s deeds. Hamlet’s words align with his perceived duty, as he professes his willingness to commit even the foulest of deeds in order to avenge his father’s death. His words therefore reflect how he thinks he should act after discovering his father’s murder. However, when Hamlet next thinks of his mother, he reveals an inner conflict between the duty to avenge his father and his inability to fully act on this perceived duty due to his love for his mother. As he contemplates his plan to confront his mother, Hamlet develops a conflicted tone: “O heart, lose not thy nature!” (3.2.365-367). Immediately after proclaiming the foul endeavors he is capable and willing to complete, Hamlet exclaims that he does not want to “lose” the true “nature” of his “heart,” implying that his professed intentions for revenge are at odds with his true feelings. Consequently, Hamlet resolves to carry out vengeance by “speaking daggers” to his mother, but he refuses to physically “use” the daggers (3.2.368). This decision contradicts Hamlet’s previous claim that he is capable of murderous “business” that would make the “day” “quake” in order to avenge his father; he cannot bring himself to physically hurt his mother. He acknowledges this inner conflict, claiming, “My tongue and soul in this be hypocrites” (3.2.369). By stating that his “tongue,” or his words, and his “soul,” or his true feelings, contradict, Hamlet implies that he truly does not hate his mother, but must be “cruel” in order to fulfill his duty (3.2.367). He concludes his soliloquy saying, “How in my words soever she be shent, To give them seals never my soul consent” (3.2.370-371). In this final statement, Hamlet claims that his “soul” will never allow him to act on the harsh “words” that “shent,” or berate, his mother, revealing a discord between his true feelings and the role of a son dutifully committing even the foulest of deeds to avenge his father’s murder.	<urn:uuid:2159c5d0-c086-40b6-b18c-5d7e7073ea91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/in-words-are-influenced-by-his-newly-risen/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00433.warc.gz	en	0.986977	960	3.453125	3	[ -0.04231932386755943, 0.22647841274738312, 0.27158650755882263, -0.01357623003423214, -0.030004095286130905, -0.0024842037819325924, 0.87845379114151, 0.20434147119522095, 0.06664182245731354, -0.3360782861709595, -0.1238461583852768, 0.07721727341413498, -0.3843938708305359, 0.14563296735...	1	In words are influenced by his newly-risen In the soliloquy, “Tis now the very witching time of night,” Hamlet reveals the underlying tension caused by the discord between his duty and his true feelings. Externally, he professes the desire to avenge his father’s murder, but his words are contradicted by his inability to take action due to his love for his mother. Prior to the soliloquy, Hamlet’s suspicions of the ghost have been allayed, as he has perceived Polonius’s reaction to the scene imitating his father’s death. Polonius’s sudden exit from the play proves his guilt, thereby necessitating that Hamlet obey the ghost and avenge his father’s murder, as his duty as a son requires him to do. At the beginning of his soliloquy, Hamlet prepares himself to take revenge, claiming, ” ‘Tis now the very witching time of night, When churchyards yawn, and hell itself breathes out” (3.2. 360-362). Hamlet’s words “witching,” “churchyards yawning,” and “hell… breathing out” refer to the dead rising, as witches raise corpses from their graves, churchyards contain cemeteries filled with dead bodies, and ghosts rise from hell. His descriptions reveal that his words are influenced by his newly-risen dead father, or more specifically, the duty to avenge his father. Hamlet claims to be capable of this vengeance: “Now could I drink hot blood, And do such business as the bitter day Would quake to look on” (3.2. 362-364). Hamlet claims that he is capable of “drinking hot blood,” ingesting the foulness of “witching” and doing whatever is necessary to avenge his father. He also claims that the “day,” associated with light and purity, “would quake,” or tremble with fear, if it observed Hamlet’s deeds. Hamlet’s words align with his perceived duty, as he professes his willingness to commit even the foulest of deeds in order to avenge his father’s death. His words therefore reflect how he thinks he should act after discovering his father’s murder. However, when Hamlet next thinks of his mother, he reveals an inner conflict between the duty to avenge his father and his inability to fully act on this perceived duty due to his love for his mother. As he contemplates his plan to confront his mother, Hamlet develops a conflicted tone: “O heart, lose not thy nature!” (3.2.365-367). Immediately after proclaiming the foul endeavors he is capable and willing to complete, Hamlet exclaims that he does not want to “lose” the true “nature” of his “heart,” implying that his professed intentions for revenge are at odds with his true feelings. Consequently, Hamlet resolves to carry out vengeance by “speaking daggers” to his mother, but he refuses to physically “use” the daggers (3.2.368). This decision contradicts Hamlet’s previous claim that he is capable of murderous “business” that would make the “day” “quake” in order to avenge his father; he cannot bring himself to physically hurt his mother. He acknowledges this inner conflict, claiming, “My tongue and soul in this be hypocrites” (3.2.369). By stating that his “tongue,” or his words, and his “soul,” or his true feelings, contradict, Hamlet implies that he truly does not hate his mother, but must be “cruel” in order to fulfill his duty (3.2.367). He concludes his soliloquy saying, “How in my words soever she be shent, To give them seals never my soul consent” (3.2.370-371). In this final statement, Hamlet claims that his “soul” will never allow him to act on the harsh “words” that “shent,” or berate, his mother, revealing a discord between his true feelings and the role of a son dutifully committing even the foulest of deeds to avenge his father’s murder.	893	ENGLISH	1
Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы Langston Hughs Essay, Research Paper LANGSTON HUGHES: TEARS CRIED FOR OUR RACE In the vast history of our world, there have been many great artists who have had an adverse influence on the field of art that they were concentrated in. William Shakespeare, Homer, Leonardo Da Vinci, Vincent Van Gogh, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Amadeus Mozart, to just name a few, are some of the most influential writers, painters, and musicians of their times. The works of the aforementioned pioneers in their prospective fields of the arts still have a great influence on the many different artists of today. In the literary field of art, there is such a large pool of great poet laureate’s, authors, and playwrights that the list goes back almost to the beginning of time and the birth of what we know as communication through words and speech. One of the greatest poets of the 20th century (and, in my opinion, that has ever graced the Earth) was Langston Hughes. Possessing an intelligence and brilliance which, according to the white supremacist dominated world of the early 20th century, wasn’t supposed to be bestowed onto the lowly ranks of the black race, Hughes put his heart, soul, mind, body, and spirit onto the paper when he wrote. All of the fears, the hardships, the pain, and the hopes of the black community were told as vibrant stories that drew you into in his poetry. He embodied the true meaning of what it was to be a Negro in America in each of his poems, and invited each reader to get a taste of the Negro experience in his words. To truly understand the depths of his soul and the millions of souls of his slave ancestors that he traversed in order to get the inspiration for his powerful poetry, we must first look at the life that he lived. James Langston Hughes was born on February 1, 1902 in Joplin, Missouri, the second of two sons born to James Nathaniel Hughes and Carrie Mercer Langston (his brother perished soon after birth almost two years to the day of his birth on February 8th, 1900). A man whose poetry spoke the words embodied by his race s fight for freedom and racial equality, he was born into a family of abolitionists, with the prominent freedom fighter and politician, Charles Henry Langston, as his grandfather; John Mercer Langston, African-American congressman from Virginia and later the United States Minister to Haiti, as his great-uncle; and Lewis Sheridan Leary, who was killed fighting with John Brown to free a group of slaves in the famous raid on Harpers Ferry, as his grandfather (his grandmother married Charles Langston after his death). His parents, sadly, separated when he was a small child, with his father leaving the family to live in Mexico City in search of a better life (although he left his family back in America, mainly because his wife didn t see the reason why he was leaving all that they knew behind, he still sent them money). Langston then moved in with his maternal grandmother Mary Sampson Patterson Langston at the tender age of six-years-old, and until her death when he was only 12, she was his main caretaker. Langston himself noted that his grandmother made sure to instill a very deep sense of pride for his family and his heritage in him every chance that she could, from telling him stories of triumph in the struggle for civil and equal rights for the black race in America to telling him of his proud heritage of abolitionist grandparents and his linkage to the great statesman Henry Clay (his father s grandfather, also named James Hughes, was a relative of the Clay family). When his grandmother sadly passed away, Langston then loved in with some of his mother s close friends for a time, and from there met up again with his mother, her new husband Homer Clark, and his new little step-brother Gwyn (10 years his minor; lovingly called Kit by his family) in Lincoln, Ohio, from which they all moved to Cleveland in search of better jobs and more money. As can already be seen, Langston did not ever truly have a stable home environment to live in when he was young, which can somewhat help to explain the lack of any long-term romantic relationships throughout his adult life or ever get married or have any children. His mother depended on him for more affection, love, and emotional and financial stability than she was ever capable of giving him, and his biological father was not an easy man, and from him Langston received even less emotionally than he had derived from the time that he had spent with his mother. He moved around about 7 different cities while he was young, and even as an adult never truly found a place that he could call home. By the time that he was only a junior in high school, Langston was living on his own in Cleveland. It was around this time that he really started writing poetry, and it was his skill at his art that actually persuaded his father to pay for him to attend Columbia University in New York City (his father originally wanted him to become a successful businessman like himself and go to college in Switzerland to become a mining engineer, but after the wide publication of his poem The Negro Speaks Of Rivers, the elder Hughes conceded with his son s wishes to attend Columbia). Although Langston had yearned to go to Columbia so passionately (mainly for the reason of being able to live in New York and be near Harlem and it s large black community), after a year of schooling Langston decided to leave the university. In the short time that he attended Columbia University, though, Langston had many of his works published in The Crisis, the NAACP magazine started by W.E.B. DuBois, and through the friendships and acquaintances that he made (mainly with Carl van Vechten, a well known white writer who was also a key player in the Harlem Renaissance who showed Langston s work to his publisher Alfred A. Knopf, and got Langston s first book of poetry, The Weary Blues, published when he was only twenty-four) broke into the world of mainstream poetry. After traveling overseas to broaden his horizons in Africa, France, and Italy, Langston, on the scholarship provided by a rich elderly white lady that he became an acquaintance with while in New York he attended and graduated from Lincoln University with a B.A. Throughout his life, Hughes was not only known as an exceptional poet (who was nicknamed the poet laureate of Harlem ), but also as an accomplished writer who wrote short stories, novels, and plays as well as poems. His poems from his developmental years as a writer emphasized the many hardships that the black community had been put through ever since the beginning of time, as in his dramatically compelling poem Negro. This poem is so gripping that even though it isn t one the poems that I am analyzing for my project I felt that I must include it for the benefit of passing on it s message of the timelessness of racism in American and abroad and what all people of African descent have had to go through for hundreds of years. It also spoke of the many ignored accomplishments that the black race has made all across the globe. I am a Negro: Black as the night is black Black like the depths of My Africa I ve been a slave: Caesar told me to keep his doorsteps clean I brushed the boots of Washington I ve been a worker: Under my hand the pyramids arose I made mortar for the Woolworth building I ve been a singer: All the way from Africa to Georgia I carried my sorrows songs I made ragtime I ve been a victim: The Belgian s cut off my hands in the Congo They lynch me now in Texas I am a Negro: Black as the night is black Black like the depths of My Africa In his latter years, Hughes poetry was mainly concerned with the ongoing racism that the black community in America was facing and the many civil rights efforts that were going on to hopefully someday remedy the dire situation. In one of the poems that he wrote shortly before his death named Floatsam, though, he gave the impression that he didn t feel that he had truly made any contribution to the fight for civil rights and didn t know what was so exceptional about his work: On the shoals of Nowhere Cast-up my boat Bow all broken No longer afloat On the shoals of Nowhere Wasted my song- Yet taken by the sea wind And blown along. Little did he know how much of an influence that his career had on not only the Harlem Renaissance of which he spearheaded and is the most notable poet to come from that great period in literary history, but also for telling the stories of what his entire race has had to endure for so long to generations and generations of African-Americans to come. His many works include: Not Without Laughter (1930); The Big Sea (1940); I Wonder As I Wander” (1956); The Weary Blues (1926); The Negro Mother and other Dramatic Recitations (1931); The Dream Keeper (1932); Shakespeare In Harlem (1942); Fields of Wonder (1947); One Way Ticket (1947); The First Book of Jazz (1955); Tambourines To Glory (1958); and Selected Poems (1959); The Best of Simple (1961). He also played a part in editing several anthologies in an attempt to help popularize black authors and their works. Some of these were: An African Treasury (1960); Poems from Black Africa (1963); New Negro Poets: USA (1964) and The Best Short Stories by Negro Writers (1967). Sadly, his career only spanned four decades or so, for Langston Hughes died at only sixty-seven years of age on May 22nd, 1967 of heart problems and a prostate infection in his beloved Harlem. He was cremated, and his funeral was not a sad one but rather a celebration of his life with all of the many friends that he had made over the years attending. Langston even had a jazz band play at his funeral, and I Dream A World , taken from the libretto of the opera Troubled Island was read: I dream of a world where man Whatever race you be No other man will scorn Will share the bounties of the earth Where love will bless the earth And every man is free And peace it s paths adorn. Where wretchedness will hang it s head , I dream a world where all and joy, like a pearl, Will know sweet freedom s way. Attend all the needs of all mankind. Where greed no longer caps the soul Of such I dream Nor avarice blights our day Our world! A world I dream where black or white This excerpt and the final paragraph of the biographical account The Life of Langston Hughes: Always Moving On, written by James S. Haskins, embody the heart and soul that was behind Langston Hughes as the poet laureate and Langston Hughes the man: There were no family members to mourn Langston. He never married or had children. He never even had a long term love relationship with another person. The lack of love he had received from his parents when he was a child seems to have prevented him from developing the ability to either give or receive it as an adult. But Langston was able to love a people-his people-and the words he wrote out of love for black people will live forever. One reason why Langston Hughes poetry was so compelling was that it was straight to the point and went instantly for your heart, soul, and mind. The topics of his poems weren t extremely complex, but at the same time caused you to ask questions, think, and delve into the workings of your very soul. Also, another thing that set Langston Hughes apart from any other poet in the Harlem Renaissance was that he never had a specific voice or a set writing style or rhythm. Every new poem from him that you read introduced you to a new part of not only his soul, but yours as well, for you could never be sure whether it was Langston himself talking, one of his many interesting characters (Madam Alberta K., Simple, etc.) telling you their story, or your own heart telling you what it truly feels regarding the subjects covered in the poems. Some of his poems were short and sweet; some were long and took the form of a story; some took on the form of a good old warbling blues tune; and even more still took on the form of a good old Sunday morning church sermon down South. With Langston Hughes, each new poem was a welcome surprise. In his poem Theme For English B, which starts off seemingly simplistically with a professor giving him an assignment for his English class at Columbia, he makes the point that although there is rampant racism plaguing the world which is mainly based on the ignorant long standing myth of black inferiority and white superiority, we are all human beings with a lot of the same likes and dislikes, basically similar hopes and dreams, and we all possess the same types of emotions and feelings. My favorite part of the poem is towards the end when he starts talking about the connection that we all share with one another, even if we hardly ever truly admit it, because it drives the point home that no matter what race we are, where we come from, or what religion we are associated with, we all share the same planet, the same life force, the same society, and this unity transcends all age, gender, and racial barriers. Here is the excerpt: I guess being colored doesn’t make me not like the same things other folks like who are other races. So will my page be colored that I write? Being me, it will not be white. But it will be a part of you, instructor. You are white– yet a part of me, as I am a part of you. Sometimes perhaps you don’t want to be a part of me. Nor do I often want to be a part of you. But we are, that’s true! As I learn from you, I guess you learn from me– although you’re older–and white– and somewhat more free. This is my page for English B. In another one of his great poems dealing with the racially oppressive society in America, Let America Be America Again, Hughes speaks of the duplicity of America. He dissects the hypocrisy of the morals that America was built on, and expels all of the many lies that America was truly built on. From the first stanza on ( Let America be America again, Let it be the dream it used to be. Let it be the pioneer on the plain Seeking a home where he himself is free.), he not only talks about the harsh social realities that the black race in America has had to face for so long, but also about the many hardships that the many other races have had to endure, including poor whites and Caucasian immigrants who came to our country from abroad. Basically, Let America Be America Again speaks of the America that never was, and, by the state of our society now, the America that will never be; Langston s dream for the nation that he could never truly call his home nor would except him as it s own during his lifetime-or mine for that matter. The passage of Let America Be America Again that I felt best summed up Langston s feelings toward the racial situation in America and the true shape of American society is the one that I included below. Although he spoke in four different voices (that of a Negro, that of a poor White man, that of an Native-American, and that of an immigrant that has just come over) in this stanza, I really think that this, along with the poem The Negro Speaks of Rivers, is an example of his true voice, for he is not only stating what the Negro has to go through, but also all the other races that he calls brothers and their many trials and tribulations. I am the poor white, fooled and pushed apart, I am the Negro bearing slavery’s scars. I am the red man driven from the land, I am the immigrant clutching the hope I seek– And finding only the same old stupid plan Of dog eat dog, of mighty crush the weak. There are said to be seven crucial and integral parts of modernism: response to social breakdown; fragmentation; remote/detached point of view; allusions; poems like riddles; purpose of art; and an elitist attitude. In this case, Langston Hughes wasn t a modernist in the true sense of the word. He wasn t concerned too much with allusions or the purpose of art, and he didn t possess an elitist attitude (unlike the renowned late great modernist poets T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, and Ezra Pound). From when I was 5 years old until I was ten years old I attended P.S. 161 in Brooklyn, New York. I live in Crown Heights, a heavily Jewish populated neighborhood, but my elementary school had many children from many different races. Sadly, in my entire six years there I only had one black teacher, and the thing that I most remember out of all the things that she taught me was to have great pride in my African-American heritage and never be ashamed no matter what obstacles came in my path. Mrs. Alexis was her name, and for the entirety of my 5th grade school year she made just about everyday a day celebrating the greatness of the black race and it s many prominent members, with Langston Hughes as one of the many great African-American writers that she taught us about. She told our class that he was her favorite poet because he never bit his tongue about the evils of racism and although he showed his love for all of the races, he always placed his own race at the top of the heap. He promoted self-love-something that seems so simple that it is almost always neglected, but was sadly lost to some African-Americans of his time who grew to despise themselves due to their dire racial situation. Hughes wanted his poems to be able to reach out and touch everyone s heart and soul, and therefore wrote in a style that could be understood and comprehended by just about anybody, not just college educated and wealthy elites. He also didn t concentrate his message towards one race or one class of society, although the majority of his poems did reflect the thoughts, hardships, dreams, fears, doubts, worries, and pain of the African-American race. Hughes wanted to touch all of the races, for he truly believed in his heart that all of the races are united in brotherhood, even though by the many evil actions that have been carried out against each other we have forgotten where we all came from. Langston Hughes poetry spoke volumes of his dedication and passion towards the goal of attaining social and racial equality for his race. Although he didn t lead any marches or start any boycotts or sit-ins, Hughes kept alive the most important part of the civil rights movement in each and every one of his writings: the spirit. He embodied the heart and soul of the civil rights movement and in his poems he brought to life in bright and vivid intensity the realities that have always plagued not only his African race across the globe but also American society as a whole. He never asked for much from the country that his ancestors had no choice in being taken to after they were raped from their homeland; the nation that went to such great lengths to impede the progress of an entire race as to uphold blatantly racist practices in the highest courts and legislatures in the land; the land and the people that drained the life force from an entire race just so that they may excel and prosper when it was that same race that they are killing that helped to build the foundation for their treasured prosperity. All Langston yearned for was the same thing that each and every living, breathing human being wants in life: freedom-the one thing that America has deemed the cornerstone of it s foundation for so long but has denied so many for so long. Langston Hughes didn t address any radical ideas or mean to cause any serious controversy with his poetry, but he did want to get his message across that America needed to repay it s debt of freedom and equality to the races. The messages embodied in Langston Hughes poetry transcend all ages and societies, and will be preserved in the hearts and minds of each and every lucky reader of his work until time without end. - Langston Huges Essay, Research Paper Langston Hughes Langston Hughes was born on February 1, 1902 ... was Carrie Mercer Langston Hughes. His grandfather was Charles Langston, an Ohio ... Simple” series. In his lifetime, Langston Hughes won several awards. In 1925 ... - Biography Of Langston Hughes Essay, Research Paper Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri, ... Jean Toomer, and of course, Langston Hughes. Ultimately, the Depression, unemployment, ... position of the two races. Langston Hughes explained it this way: “ ... - Langston Hughes Essay, Research Paper "Hughes’ efforts to create a poetry that ... even when only breezing through Langston Hughes’ works. Langston Hughes, "one of the most ... and rambling existence as Langston Hughes" (Smith 363). Hughes also started writing ... - Langston Hughs Essay, Research Paper ? He was called ? Shakespeare in ... dispersal and enslavement of America? (M.R.L) Langston Hughes utilizes his personal experience of ... past. His grandmother, Mary Langston, raised Langston Hughes until he was thirteen years ... - Langston Hughes Essay, Research Paper The Harlem Renaissance ... many great writers. Langston Hughes although, may be ... to each and every culture. -A Brief History of Langston Hughes. ... 2, 2000 7:20 pm -Langston Hughes, Bibliographical summary from The Health ...	<urn:uuid:9f88a0e0-875e-406e-a553-1a5ea4b7cc6b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://works.doklad.ru/view/TqCXkXUCwJI.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00481.warc.gz	en	0.983499	4,617	3.671875	4	[ -0.10114778578281403, 0.27488890290260315, 0.39597028493881226, 0.3172580599784851, -0.22376446425914764, 0.1868424415588379, 0.4193136692047119, -0.2115837037563324, -0.3086514472961426, -0.24946942925453186, -0.07930873334407806, 0.12386623024940491, 0.08747043460607529, 0.26991346478462...	2	Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы Langston Hughs Essay, Research Paper LANGSTON HUGHES: TEARS CRIED FOR OUR RACE In the vast history of our world, there have been many great artists who have had an adverse influence on the field of art that they were concentrated in. William Shakespeare, Homer, Leonardo Da Vinci, Vincent Van Gogh, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Amadeus Mozart, to just name a few, are some of the most influential writers, painters, and musicians of their times. The works of the aforementioned pioneers in their prospective fields of the arts still have a great influence on the many different artists of today. In the literary field of art, there is such a large pool of great poet laureate’s, authors, and playwrights that the list goes back almost to the beginning of time and the birth of what we know as communication through words and speech. One of the greatest poets of the 20th century (and, in my opinion, that has ever graced the Earth) was Langston Hughes. Possessing an intelligence and brilliance which, according to the white supremacist dominated world of the early 20th century, wasn’t supposed to be bestowed onto the lowly ranks of the black race, Hughes put his heart, soul, mind, body, and spirit onto the paper when he wrote. All of the fears, the hardships, the pain, and the hopes of the black community were told as vibrant stories that drew you into in his poetry. He embodied the true meaning of what it was to be a Negro in America in each of his poems, and invited each reader to get a taste of the Negro experience in his words. To truly understand the depths of his soul and the millions of souls of his slave ancestors that he traversed in order to get the inspiration for his powerful poetry, we must first look at the life that he lived. James Langston Hughes was born on February 1, 1902 in Joplin, Missouri, the second of two sons born to James Nathaniel Hughes and Carrie Mercer Langston (his brother perished soon after birth almost two years to the day of his birth on February 8th, 1900). A man whose poetry spoke the words embodied by his race s fight for freedom and racial equality, he was born into a family of abolitionists, with the prominent freedom fighter and politician, Charles Henry Langston, as his grandfather; John Mercer Langston, African-American congressman from Virginia and later the United States Minister to Haiti, as his great-uncle; and Lewis Sheridan Leary, who was killed fighting with John Brown to free a group of slaves in the famous raid on Harpers Ferry, as his grandfather (his grandmother married Charles Langston after his death). His parents, sadly, separated when he was a small child, with his father leaving the family to live in Mexico City in search of a better life (although he left his family back in America, mainly because his wife didn t see the reason why he was leaving all that they knew behind, he still sent them money). Langston then moved in with his maternal grandmother Mary Sampson Patterson Langston at the tender age of six-years-old, and until her death when he was only 12, she was his main caretaker. Langston himself noted that his grandmother made sure to instill a very deep sense of pride for his family and his heritage in him every chance that she could, from telling him stories of triumph in the struggle for civil and equal rights for the black race in America to telling him of his proud heritage of abolitionist grandparents and his linkage to the great statesman Henry Clay (his father s grandfather, also named James Hughes, was a relative of the Clay family). When his grandmother sadly passed away, Langston then loved in with some of his mother s close friends for a time, and from there met up again with his mother, her new husband Homer Clark, and his new little step-brother Gwyn (10 years his minor; lovingly called Kit by his family) in Lincoln, Ohio, from which they all moved to Cleveland in search of better jobs and more money. As can already be seen, Langston did not ever truly have a stable home environment to live in when he was young, which can somewhat help to explain the lack of any long-term romantic relationships throughout his adult life or ever get married or have any children. His mother depended on him for more affection, love, and emotional and financial stability than she was ever capable of giving him, and his biological father was not an easy man, and from him Langston received even less emotionally than he had derived from the time that he had spent with his mother. He moved around about 7 different cities while he was young, and even as an adult never truly found a place that he could call home. By the time that he was only a junior in high school, Langston was living on his own in Cleveland. It was around this time that he really started writing poetry, and it was his skill at his art that actually persuaded his father to pay for him to attend Columbia University in New York City (his father originally wanted him to become a successful businessman like himself and go to college in Switzerland to become a mining engineer, but after the wide publication of his poem The Negro Speaks Of Rivers, the elder Hughes conceded with his son s wishes to attend Columbia). Although Langston had yearned to go to Columbia so passionately (mainly for the reason of being able to live in New York and be near Harlem and it s large black community), after a year of schooling Langston decided to leave the university. In the short time that he attended Columbia University, though, Langston had many of his works published in The Crisis, the NAACP magazine started by W.E.B. DuBois, and through the friendships and acquaintances that he made (mainly with Carl van Vechten, a well known white writer who was also a key player in the Harlem Renaissance who showed Langston s work to his publisher Alfred A. Knopf, and got Langston s first book of poetry, The Weary Blues, published when he was only twenty-four) broke into the world of mainstream poetry. After traveling overseas to broaden his horizons in Africa, France, and Italy, Langston, on the scholarship provided by a rich elderly white lady that he became an acquaintance with while in New York he attended and graduated from Lincoln University with a B.A. Throughout his life, Hughes was not only known as an exceptional poet (who was nicknamed the poet laureate of Harlem ), but also as an accomplished writer who wrote short stories, novels, and plays as well as poems. His poems from his developmental years as a writer emphasized the many hardships that the black community had been put through ever since the beginning of time, as in his dramatically compelling poem Negro. This poem is so gripping that even though it isn t one the poems that I am analyzing for my project I felt that I must include it for the benefit of passing on it s message of the timelessness of racism in American and abroad and what all people of African descent have had to go through for hundreds of years. It also spoke of the many ignored accomplishments that the black race has made all across the globe. I am a Negro: Black as the night is black Black like the depths of My Africa I ve been a slave: Caesar told me to keep his doorsteps clean I brushed the boots of Washington I ve been a worker: Under my hand the pyramids arose I made mortar for the Woolworth building I ve been a singer: All the way from Africa to Georgia I carried my sorrows songs I made ragtime I ve been a victim: The Belgian s cut off my hands in the Congo They lynch me now in Texas I am a Negro: Black as the night is black Black like the depths of My Africa In his latter years, Hughes poetry was mainly concerned with the ongoing racism that the black community in America was facing and the many civil rights efforts that were going on to hopefully someday remedy the dire situation. In one of the poems that he wrote shortly before his death named Floatsam, though, he gave the impression that he didn t feel that he had truly made any contribution to the fight for civil rights and didn t know what was so exceptional about his work: On the shoals of Nowhere Cast-up my boat Bow all broken No longer afloat On the shoals of Nowhere Wasted my song- Yet taken by the sea wind And blown along. Little did he know how much of an influence that his career had on not only the Harlem Renaissance of which he spearheaded and is the most notable poet to come from that great period in literary history, but also for telling the stories of what his entire race has had to endure for so long to generations and generations of African-Americans to come. His many works include: Not Without Laughter (1930); The Big Sea (1940); I Wonder As I Wander” (1956); The Weary Blues (1926); The Negro Mother and other Dramatic Recitations (1931); The Dream Keeper (1932); Shakespeare In Harlem (1942); Fields of Wonder (1947); One Way Ticket (1947); The First Book of Jazz (1955); Tambourines To Glory (1958); and Selected Poems (1959); The Best of Simple (1961). He also played a part in editing several anthologies in an attempt to help popularize black authors and their works. Some of these were: An African Treasury (1960); Poems from Black Africa (1963); New Negro Poets: USA (1964) and The Best Short Stories by Negro Writers (1967). Sadly, his career only spanned four decades or so, for Langston Hughes died at only sixty-seven years of age on May 22nd, 1967 of heart problems and a prostate infection in his beloved Harlem. He was cremated, and his funeral was not a sad one but rather a celebration of his life with all of the many friends that he had made over the years attending. Langston even had a jazz band play at his funeral, and I Dream A World , taken from the libretto of the opera Troubled Island was read: I dream of a world where man Whatever race you be No other man will scorn Will share the bounties of the earth Where love will bless the earth And every man is free And peace it s paths adorn. Where wretchedness will hang it s head , I dream a world where all and joy, like a pearl, Will know sweet freedom s way. Attend all the needs of all mankind. Where greed no longer caps the soul Of such I dream Nor avarice blights our day Our world! A world I dream where black or white This excerpt and the final paragraph of the biographical account The Life of Langston Hughes: Always Moving On, written by James S. Haskins, embody the heart and soul that was behind Langston Hughes as the poet laureate and Langston Hughes the man: There were no family members to mourn Langston. He never married or had children. He never even had a long term love relationship with another person. The lack of love he had received from his parents when he was a child seems to have prevented him from developing the ability to either give or receive it as an adult. But Langston was able to love a people-his people-and the words he wrote out of love for black people will live forever. One reason why Langston Hughes poetry was so compelling was that it was straight to the point and went instantly for your heart, soul, and mind. The topics of his poems weren t extremely complex, but at the same time caused you to ask questions, think, and delve into the workings of your very soul. Also, another thing that set Langston Hughes apart from any other poet in the Harlem Renaissance was that he never had a specific voice or a set writing style or rhythm. Every new poem from him that you read introduced you to a new part of not only his soul, but yours as well, for you could never be sure whether it was Langston himself talking, one of his many interesting characters (Madam Alberta K., Simple, etc.) telling you their story, or your own heart telling you what it truly feels regarding the subjects covered in the poems. Some of his poems were short and sweet; some were long and took the form of a story; some took on the form of a good old warbling blues tune; and even more still took on the form of a good old Sunday morning church sermon down South. With Langston Hughes, each new poem was a welcome surprise. In his poem Theme For English B, which starts off seemingly simplistically with a professor giving him an assignment for his English class at Columbia, he makes the point that although there is rampant racism plaguing the world which is mainly based on the ignorant long standing myth of black inferiority and white superiority, we are all human beings with a lot of the same likes and dislikes, basically similar hopes and dreams, and we all possess the same types of emotions and feelings. My favorite part of the poem is towards the end when he starts talking about the connection that we all share with one another, even if we hardly ever truly admit it, because it drives the point home that no matter what race we are, where we come from, or what religion we are associated with, we all share the same planet, the same life force, the same society, and this unity transcends all age, gender, and racial barriers. Here is the excerpt: I guess being colored doesn’t make me not like the same things other folks like who are other races. So will my page be colored that I write? Being me, it will not be white. But it will be a part of you, instructor. You are white– yet a part of me, as I am a part of you. Sometimes perhaps you don’t want to be a part of me. Nor do I often want to be a part of you. But we are, that’s true! As I learn from you, I guess you learn from me– although you’re older–and white– and somewhat more free. This is my page for English B. In another one of his great poems dealing with the racially oppressive society in America, Let America Be America Again, Hughes speaks of the duplicity of America. He dissects the hypocrisy of the morals that America was built on, and expels all of the many lies that America was truly built on. From the first stanza on ( Let America be America again, Let it be the dream it used to be. Let it be the pioneer on the plain Seeking a home where he himself is free.), he not only talks about the harsh social realities that the black race in America has had to face for so long, but also about the many hardships that the many other races have had to endure, including poor whites and Caucasian immigrants who came to our country from abroad. Basically, Let America Be America Again speaks of the America that never was, and, by the state of our society now, the America that will never be; Langston s dream for the nation that he could never truly call his home nor would except him as it s own during his lifetime-or mine for that matter. The passage of Let America Be America Again that I felt best summed up Langston s feelings toward the racial situation in America and the true shape of American society is the one that I included below. Although he spoke in four different voices (that of a Negro, that of a poor White man, that of an Native-American, and that of an immigrant that has just come over) in this stanza, I really think that this, along with the poem The Negro Speaks of Rivers, is an example of his true voice, for he is not only stating what the Negro has to go through, but also all the other races that he calls brothers and their many trials and tribulations. I am the poor white, fooled and pushed apart, I am the Negro bearing slavery’s scars. I am the red man driven from the land, I am the immigrant clutching the hope I seek– And finding only the same old stupid plan Of dog eat dog, of mighty crush the weak. There are said to be seven crucial and integral parts of modernism: response to social breakdown; fragmentation; remote/detached point of view; allusions; poems like riddles; purpose of art; and an elitist attitude. In this case, Langston Hughes wasn t a modernist in the true sense of the word. He wasn t concerned too much with allusions or the purpose of art, and he didn t possess an elitist attitude (unlike the renowned late great modernist poets T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, and Ezra Pound). From when I was 5 years old until I was ten years old I attended P.S. 161 in Brooklyn, New York. I live in Crown Heights, a heavily Jewish populated neighborhood, but my elementary school had many children from many different races. Sadly, in my entire six years there I only had one black teacher, and the thing that I most remember out of all the things that she taught me was to have great pride in my African-American heritage and never be ashamed no matter what obstacles came in my path. Mrs. Alexis was her name, and for the entirety of my 5th grade school year she made just about everyday a day celebrating the greatness of the black race and it s many prominent members, with Langston Hughes as one of the many great African-American writers that she taught us about. She told our class that he was her favorite poet because he never bit his tongue about the evils of racism and although he showed his love for all of the races, he always placed his own race at the top of the heap. He promoted self-love-something that seems so simple that it is almost always neglected, but was sadly lost to some African-Americans of his time who grew to despise themselves due to their dire racial situation. Hughes wanted his poems to be able to reach out and touch everyone s heart and soul, and therefore wrote in a style that could be understood and comprehended by just about anybody, not just college educated and wealthy elites. He also didn t concentrate his message towards one race or one class of society, although the majority of his poems did reflect the thoughts, hardships, dreams, fears, doubts, worries, and pain of the African-American race. Hughes wanted to touch all of the races, for he truly believed in his heart that all of the races are united in brotherhood, even though by the many evil actions that have been carried out against each other we have forgotten where we all came from. Langston Hughes poetry spoke volumes of his dedication and passion towards the goal of attaining social and racial equality for his race. Although he didn t lead any marches or start any boycotts or sit-ins, Hughes kept alive the most important part of the civil rights movement in each and every one of his writings: the spirit. He embodied the heart and soul of the civil rights movement and in his poems he brought to life in bright and vivid intensity the realities that have always plagued not only his African race across the globe but also American society as a whole. He never asked for much from the country that his ancestors had no choice in being taken to after they were raped from their homeland; the nation that went to such great lengths to impede the progress of an entire race as to uphold blatantly racist practices in the highest courts and legislatures in the land; the land and the people that drained the life force from an entire race just so that they may excel and prosper when it was that same race that they are killing that helped to build the foundation for their treasured prosperity. All Langston yearned for was the same thing that each and every living, breathing human being wants in life: freedom-the one thing that America has deemed the cornerstone of it s foundation for so long but has denied so many for so long. Langston Hughes didn t address any radical ideas or mean to cause any serious controversy with his poetry, but he did want to get his message across that America needed to repay it s debt of freedom and equality to the races. The messages embodied in Langston Hughes poetry transcend all ages and societies, and will be preserved in the hearts and minds of each and every lucky reader of his work until time without end. - Langston Huges Essay, Research Paper Langston Hughes Langston Hughes was born on February 1, 1902 ... was Carrie Mercer Langston Hughes. His grandfather was Charles Langston, an Ohio ... Simple” series. In his lifetime, Langston Hughes won several awards. In 1925 ... - Biography Of Langston Hughes Essay, Research Paper Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri, ... Jean Toomer, and of course, Langston Hughes. Ultimately, the Depression, unemployment, ... position of the two races. Langston Hughes explained it this way: “ ... - Langston Hughes Essay, Research Paper "Hughes’ efforts to create a poetry that ... even when only breezing through Langston Hughes’ works. Langston Hughes, "one of the most ... and rambling existence as Langston Hughes" (Smith 363). Hughes also started writing ... - Langston Hughs Essay, Research Paper ? He was called ? Shakespeare in ... dispersal and enslavement of America? (M.R.L) Langston Hughes utilizes his personal experience of ... past. His grandmother, Mary Langston, raised Langston Hughes until he was thirteen years ... - Langston Hughes Essay, Research Paper The Harlem Renaissance ... many great writers. Langston Hughes although, may be ... to each and every culture. -A Brief History of Langston Hughes. ... 2, 2000 7:20 pm -Langston Hughes, Bibliographical summary from The Health ...	4,589	ENGLISH	1
The story of the Church’s and Christianity’s rise to prominence in the Roman Empire is a remarkable one but also blurry one. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar (27 BCE-14 CE) became the first emperor of Rome and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (476 CE). Christianity as a religion faced many years of persecution and punishments, and even death. But, over the course of a few hundred years, despite all of this, the small persecuted religion of Christianity rose to become the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Although Jesus had died, his message had not. Word of his teachings spread to Jewish communities across the empire. This was helped by energetic apostles, such as Paul and by the modern communications of the Roman Empire. Over 30 years, Paul travelled around 10,000 miles, traveling across the Roman Empire. He preached in some of the empire’s most important cities. Although places like Ephesus, Philippi, Corinth and Athens looked magnificent, they were also home to tens of thousands of poor, desperate people who were the perfect audience for the Christian message of eternal life. The reason that the church developed so quickly and so successfully in the Roman Empire was because it appealed to the masses of the Roman Empire or basically the poor people in the Roman empire. (The poor people were called the masses because they made up most of the empire’s population.) The religion appealed to the poor people because they did not have to be rich to follow the religion. They did not have to sacrifice cows or their food unlike the roman religion where they had to sacrifice animals or food but they were rich so it did not really matter. It did matter to the poor because they probably did not even have food and of course not a herd of animals that the person could just sacrifice all day long. In the Christian religion, they did not have to sacrifice their food which saved them a lot because they could actually live and not starve. Like Jesus, Paul spoke to people in their homes and synagogues. But he went beyond Jesus, who had only preached to Jews. Paul believed his message should also be taken to gentiles – the non-Jews. This meant taking a more relaxed approach to ancient Jewish laws about food and circumcision. It was a slap in the face for Jewish tradition, but it was also the central reason for the rapid spread of Christianity. As the Christian movement began to accept non-Jewish members, it moved further away from the strict rules imposed on Jews. In so doing, it gradually became a new and separate religion. This made the roman government mad and scared because they thought that the Christians were going to become one very big mass and take over the Roman Empire. It made them mad because they were opposing the roman religion which was thought to be opposing the roman government. Despite its growing popularity, Christianity was sometimes misunderstood and membership could bring enormous risks. Widely criticised after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, the Emperor Nero tried to divert attention away from his own failings by providing an easy scapegoat: the Christians. Also, during the time, the Pax Romana was crumbling and the Christians were blamed for it or scapegoat. They did not really cause the crumbling of the Pax Romana. They just happened to be there at the time. Although the followers of Jesus were working hard to spread the message, there were still very few Christians in Rome. They were regarded with suspicion. Some important Christian rituals were mistaken as cannibalism, others as incest. Christians became an easy target. Nero wasted no time. He arrested and tortured all the Christians in Rome, before executing them with lavish publicity. Some were crucified, some were thrown to wild animals and others were burned alive as living torches. Despite this, Nero’s persecution of the new Christian sect was brief and, in the first century at least, was not repeated in other parts of the empire. Over time, the Christian church and faith grew more organised. The religion Christianity was then revived in the time of Constantine. In 313 AD, the Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which accepted Christianity: 10 years later, it had become the official religion of the Roman Empire. Constantine also passed a Roman Law that the Christians were not allowed to be persecuted ever again. Therefore, Constantine is basically the saviour of Christianity because if he did not promote Christianity, the church would not exist now. The road for Christianity from a small Jewish sect to the official religion of the Roman Empire was a long and deadly one paved with the loves of many a Christian, starting with the life of Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus start out with the goal of spreading the news that there was only one God and that he was a loving, forgiving, and faithful God. Roman authorities from first learning of Christianity, sought to destroy it. They wanted no part of a cult that didn’t bend to their will because they could not control them. Many Roman’s thought that by threatening and then following through with killing Christians, they would renounce their faith in their God. But, they didn’t. It took a very long time and many, many deaths and persecutions for one Roman emperor to stand on the side of the Christians. Had it not been for Constantine and his vision, Christianity may not have gotten to where it is today. It is not only to official Roman Empire’s religion it has become the most well known and most practiced religion among the western world to date. And it all leads back to one man who died on the cross for my sins.	<urn:uuid:85c3cc87-e648-44ad-ad88-5e27c7091e59>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightinvisiblegreen.com/the-story-of-the-churchs-and-christianitys-rise-to-prominence-in-the-roman-empire-is-a-remarkable-one-but-also-blurry-one/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00549.warc.gz	en	0.986613	1,156	3.84375	4	[ 0.07820618152618408, 0.5387986302375793, 0.2998657822608948, -0.07944762706756592, -0.3006771206855774, -0.1518852412700653, -0.42702341079711914, 0.2877831757068634, 0.34348806738853455, -0.07268252968788147, -0.01606910303235054, 0.06058243662118912, -0.11739081144332886, 0.1822552084922...	4	The story of the Church’s and Christianity’s rise to prominence in the Roman Empire is a remarkable one but also blurry one. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar (27 BCE-14 CE) became the first emperor of Rome and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (476 CE). Christianity as a religion faced many years of persecution and punishments, and even death. But, over the course of a few hundred years, despite all of this, the small persecuted religion of Christianity rose to become the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Although Jesus had died, his message had not. Word of his teachings spread to Jewish communities across the empire. This was helped by energetic apostles, such as Paul and by the modern communications of the Roman Empire. Over 30 years, Paul travelled around 10,000 miles, traveling across the Roman Empire. He preached in some of the empire’s most important cities. Although places like Ephesus, Philippi, Corinth and Athens looked magnificent, they were also home to tens of thousands of poor, desperate people who were the perfect audience for the Christian message of eternal life. The reason that the church developed so quickly and so successfully in the Roman Empire was because it appealed to the masses of the Roman Empire or basically the poor people in the Roman empire. (The poor people were called the masses because they made up most of the empire’s population.) The religion appealed to the poor people because they did not have to be rich to follow the religion. They did not have to sacrifice cows or their food unlike the roman religion where they had to sacrifice animals or food but they were rich so it did not really matter. It did matter to the poor because they probably did not even have food and of course not a herd of animals that the person could just sacrifice all day long. In the Christian religion, they did not have to sacrifice their food which saved them a lot because they could actually live and not starve. Like Jesus, Paul spoke to people in their homes and synagogues. But he went beyond Jesus, who had only preached to Jews. Paul believed his message should also be taken to gentiles – the non-Jews. This meant taking a more relaxed approach to ancient Jewish laws about food and circumcision. It was a slap in the face for Jewish tradition, but it was also the central reason for the rapid spread of Christianity. As the Christian movement began to accept non-Jewish members, it moved further away from the strict rules imposed on Jews. In so doing, it gradually became a new and separate religion. This made the roman government mad and scared because they thought that the Christians were going to become one very big mass and take over the Roman Empire. It made them mad because they were opposing the roman religion which was thought to be opposing the roman government. Despite its growing popularity, Christianity was sometimes misunderstood and membership could bring enormous risks. Widely criticised after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, the Emperor Nero tried to divert attention away from his own failings by providing an easy scapegoat: the Christians. Also, during the time, the Pax Romana was crumbling and the Christians were blamed for it or scapegoat. They did not really cause the crumbling of the Pax Romana. They just happened to be there at the time. Although the followers of Jesus were working hard to spread the message, there were still very few Christians in Rome. They were regarded with suspicion. Some important Christian rituals were mistaken as cannibalism, others as incest. Christians became an easy target. Nero wasted no time. He arrested and tortured all the Christians in Rome, before executing them with lavish publicity. Some were crucified, some were thrown to wild animals and others were burned alive as living torches. Despite this, Nero’s persecution of the new Christian sect was brief and, in the first century at least, was not repeated in other parts of the empire. Over time, the Christian church and faith grew more organised. The religion Christianity was then revived in the time of Constantine. In 313 AD, the Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which accepted Christianity: 10 years later, it had become the official religion of the Roman Empire. Constantine also passed a Roman Law that the Christians were not allowed to be persecuted ever again. Therefore, Constantine is basically the saviour of Christianity because if he did not promote Christianity, the church would not exist now. The road for Christianity from a small Jewish sect to the official religion of the Roman Empire was a long and deadly one paved with the loves of many a Christian, starting with the life of Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus start out with the goal of spreading the news that there was only one God and that he was a loving, forgiving, and faithful God. Roman authorities from first learning of Christianity, sought to destroy it. They wanted no part of a cult that didn’t bend to their will because they could not control them. Many Roman’s thought that by threatening and then following through with killing Christians, they would renounce their faith in their God. But, they didn’t. It took a very long time and many, many deaths and persecutions for one Roman emperor to stand on the side of the Christians. Had it not been for Constantine and his vision, Christianity may not have gotten to where it is today. It is not only to official Roman Empire’s religion it has become the most well known and most practiced religion among the western world to date. And it all leads back to one man who died on the cross for my sins.	1,158	ENGLISH	1
A tale of two nations India became independent from British rule in 1947. Three years later, its constitution was formally approved. And further two years down the line, the first general elections to the Lok Sabha and the State Legislatures were conducted successfully. On the other hand, Pakistan's constitution could be approved only in 1956. Soon after that, General Ayub Khan assumed the control of the civilian leadership through a coup against President Iskander Mirza. After almost a decade, the General was replaced by another man in uniform, General Yahya Khan. Since then, civilian and military rule has been seen in alternation in the country. On the other hand, except for the brief space of two years, between 1975 and 1977, India has managed to retain a democratic structure (and that period too, was not military but rather a 'civilian' dictatorship). Obviously, it is possible to point out several limitations of Indian democracy. However, the very fact that we have remained a democracy while most other Asian and African former colonies have seen the light of democracy flicker and extinguish after a period is worthy of praise: praise which perhaps has not been showered adequately. Looking for reasons What was the factor which acted in the Indian but did not in the case of the other countries? Was it the strength of our constitution? Or was it the commitment of our leaders and the people towards democratic values? Or was it perhaps a combination of all these factors? On a thorough examination, we will see that the ordinary people of India and Pakistan were not all that different, at least at the time of independence. Both of these countries contained poor and illiterate people who had to equally bear the trauma of partition. The majority of people in both of these countries had practically zero experience in the working of democratic institutions. The Congress and the League One of the reasons why India survived as a democracy while Pakistan did not is related to one of the fundamental differences between the Muslim League and the Congress. While the League only had a handful of popular leaders like Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan, the Congress had a vibrant spectrum of leaders drawn from all ideologies and social groups. What also helped was that the people at the top of the Congress hierarchy, including Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Rajaji were all strongly committed to democratic values. It is logical that when the party in power is a strong one, there is practically no room for the military to meddle in civil administration. After Jinnah's death, the League simply could not hold out against the army. Political vibrancy What also helped in the Indian case was that India had a good number of powerful opposition parties even at the time of independence: perhaps a greater number of parties than most established democracies. When people would be disappointed with the performance of the Congress, they could go for the Communists, the Jana Sangh or the Socialists or parties like the Swatantra Party. The persons who led these opposition parties were also broadly in agreement with the values of a democratic polity. The presence of healthy opposition parties ensured that the dissatisfaction did not turn into space for the military to enter. Restructuring the army Perhaps what was most important was that the armed forces in India were restructured after independence in such a manner that a coup was not really possible. In India, there was a total separation between the civilian and the military leadership with the civilian leadership being made more powerful vis-à-vis the military. Three separate chiefs of staff were appointed (in place of the earlier provision of a Commander-in-Chief) in India. The paramilitary forces like CRPF were made responsible for internal security. Also, no one ethnic group was allowed to dominate the armed forces. All of these measures ensured that by 1970, the possibility of a coup in India was practically zero. Look at what happened in Pakistan in contrast. General Ayub Khan was the Defence Minister from 1953-1958. The Pakistani army was overwhelmingly Punjabi. The earlier system of Commander-in-Chief continued in Pakistan. Pakistan, in fact, continued to follow the earlier British system where the C-in-C was second in administration only to the Viceroy. The army and development An incident was recounted in an old article in Scroll (online news portal). During riots in Lahore in the 1950s, when the civilian administration failed in controlling the riots, the army stepped in. Not only were the riots controlled, the Pakistan army even undertook beautification of the city and accomplished something which the central, provincial or municipal government could not do in several years. This explains why there was little popular opposition during the 1958 coup. In India, although the government did fail in important aspects, the lack of development never became that big an issue that the army had to step into a political role. In India, the entire ethos of the Indian army was to follow the direction of the elected representatives, even during wartime. The army-men never felt the need to issue public statements or give speeches etc. When those in uniform criticised the government, it was generally looked upon with disfavour and suspicion (Field Marshall Cariappa's comments regarding India's economic situation in the 1950s were received with condemnation). And except for certain rare cases, former army officers were generally not inducted into political parties. A democratic mentality In its entire history as an independent nation, Pakistan only had one free and mostly fair election. That was the election when Sheikh Mujeeb's Awami League swept through East Pakistan and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto won a majority in the western half. The West Pakistan based leadership refused to accept this verdict. Instead, a reign of terror was imposed on the Bengali population on East Pakistan. The result was the split of the country into two. Contrast this with the General Elections in India, just six years after that. This election was held after two years of Emergency. Indira Gandhi was soundly defeated. Yet she did not try to hold onto power. Rather a smooth transition of power from Congress to the Janata Party proved to be a symbol of the maturity of India's democracy. Perhaps over the years, the democratic mentality which had evolved in India is completely different from the autocratic mentality prevailing in Pakistan. Nevertheless, with a relatively courageous media, increasing literacy and prevalence of human rights groups, maybe Pakistan might see actual democracy evolve in their country. This would perhaps bring in a greater possibility of peace in the region. A good analysis by the author and a nice sketch of what has happened in these two countries since independence. Any country where religious stubbornness resides over the directive principles cannot develop and progress and the democracy cannot survive there. For a country to progress there are certain vital elements like education, discipline, respect for the constitutional framework and think of nation first and give weight to one's culture, religion or beliefs only after that. Israel is one country which has kept aside its all the religious beliefs and has gone for compulsory military training for all the citizens whether women or men. Religion is not a national culture, it is something that a person observes personally in his house for peace and solace. Another thing is the opposition should critically oppose the ruling party in a constructive mode. If the opposition has only one agenda that is to topple the present regime and become the ruler themselves then the whole purpose of opposition in a democracy is lost and it is unfortunate that Pakistan is suffering from such undercurrents in its political system. The world is moving ahead fast with new inventions and technological growths but some countries are going to old barbaric days when communities just killed other communities because they belonged to another religion or philosophy.	<urn:uuid:7d5df871-f8f3-4bc7-950d-75a001cb5e34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/175956-Why-India-could-preserve-its-democracy-while-Pakistan-could-not.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00180.warc.gz	en	0.98015	1,552	3.421875	3	[ -0.40601080656051636, 0.30892258882522583, 0.21879836916923523, -0.34561172127723694, -0.35539406538009644, 0.10387258976697922, 0.5821421146392822, -0.00021370756439864635, 0.25636038184165955, 0.2725066840648651, 0.10934741795063019, 0.20848745107650757, 0.4392452836036682, 0.07649668306...	2	A tale of two nations India became independent from British rule in 1947. Three years later, its constitution was formally approved. And further two years down the line, the first general elections to the Lok Sabha and the State Legislatures were conducted successfully. On the other hand, Pakistan's constitution could be approved only in 1956. Soon after that, General Ayub Khan assumed the control of the civilian leadership through a coup against President Iskander Mirza. After almost a decade, the General was replaced by another man in uniform, General Yahya Khan. Since then, civilian and military rule has been seen in alternation in the country. On the other hand, except for the brief space of two years, between 1975 and 1977, India has managed to retain a democratic structure (and that period too, was not military but rather a 'civilian' dictatorship). Obviously, it is possible to point out several limitations of Indian democracy. However, the very fact that we have remained a democracy while most other Asian and African former colonies have seen the light of democracy flicker and extinguish after a period is worthy of praise: praise which perhaps has not been showered adequately. Looking for reasons What was the factor which acted in the Indian but did not in the case of the other countries? Was it the strength of our constitution? Or was it the commitment of our leaders and the people towards democratic values? Or was it perhaps a combination of all these factors? On a thorough examination, we will see that the ordinary people of India and Pakistan were not all that different, at least at the time of independence. Both of these countries contained poor and illiterate people who had to equally bear the trauma of partition. The majority of people in both of these countries had practically zero experience in the working of democratic institutions. The Congress and the League One of the reasons why India survived as a democracy while Pakistan did not is related to one of the fundamental differences between the Muslim League and the Congress. While the League only had a handful of popular leaders like Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan, the Congress had a vibrant spectrum of leaders drawn from all ideologies and social groups. What also helped was that the people at the top of the Congress hierarchy, including Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Rajaji were all strongly committed to democratic values. It is logical that when the party in power is a strong one, there is practically no room for the military to meddle in civil administration. After Jinnah's death, the League simply could not hold out against the army. Political vibrancy What also helped in the Indian case was that India had a good number of powerful opposition parties even at the time of independence: perhaps a greater number of parties than most established democracies. When people would be disappointed with the performance of the Congress, they could go for the Communists, the Jana Sangh or the Socialists or parties like the Swatantra Party. The persons who led these opposition parties were also broadly in agreement with the values of a democratic polity. The presence of healthy opposition parties ensured that the dissatisfaction did not turn into space for the military to enter. Restructuring the army Perhaps what was most important was that the armed forces in India were restructured after independence in such a manner that a coup was not really possible. In India, there was a total separation between the civilian and the military leadership with the civilian leadership being made more powerful vis-à-vis the military. Three separate chiefs of staff were appointed (in place of the earlier provision of a Commander-in-Chief) in India. The paramilitary forces like CRPF were made responsible for internal security. Also, no one ethnic group was allowed to dominate the armed forces. All of these measures ensured that by 1970, the possibility of a coup in India was practically zero. Look at what happened in Pakistan in contrast. General Ayub Khan was the Defence Minister from 1953-1958. The Pakistani army was overwhelmingly Punjabi. The earlier system of Commander-in-Chief continued in Pakistan. Pakistan, in fact, continued to follow the earlier British system where the C-in-C was second in administration only to the Viceroy. The army and development An incident was recounted in an old article in Scroll (online news portal). During riots in Lahore in the 1950s, when the civilian administration failed in controlling the riots, the army stepped in. Not only were the riots controlled, the Pakistan army even undertook beautification of the city and accomplished something which the central, provincial or municipal government could not do in several years. This explains why there was little popular opposition during the 1958 coup. In India, although the government did fail in important aspects, the lack of development never became that big an issue that the army had to step into a political role. In India, the entire ethos of the Indian army was to follow the direction of the elected representatives, even during wartime. The army-men never felt the need to issue public statements or give speeches etc. When those in uniform criticised the government, it was generally looked upon with disfavour and suspicion (Field Marshall Cariappa's comments regarding India's economic situation in the 1950s were received with condemnation). And except for certain rare cases, former army officers were generally not inducted into political parties. A democratic mentality In its entire history as an independent nation, Pakistan only had one free and mostly fair election. That was the election when Sheikh Mujeeb's Awami League swept through East Pakistan and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto won a majority in the western half. The West Pakistan based leadership refused to accept this verdict. Instead, a reign of terror was imposed on the Bengali population on East Pakistan. The result was the split of the country into two. Contrast this with the General Elections in India, just six years after that. This election was held after two years of Emergency. Indira Gandhi was soundly defeated. Yet she did not try to hold onto power. Rather a smooth transition of power from Congress to the Janata Party proved to be a symbol of the maturity of India's democracy. Perhaps over the years, the democratic mentality which had evolved in India is completely different from the autocratic mentality prevailing in Pakistan. Nevertheless, with a relatively courageous media, increasing literacy and prevalence of human rights groups, maybe Pakistan might see actual democracy evolve in their country. This would perhaps bring in a greater possibility of peace in the region. A good analysis by the author and a nice sketch of what has happened in these two countries since independence. Any country where religious stubbornness resides over the directive principles cannot develop and progress and the democracy cannot survive there. For a country to progress there are certain vital elements like education, discipline, respect for the constitutional framework and think of nation first and give weight to one's culture, religion or beliefs only after that. Israel is one country which has kept aside its all the religious beliefs and has gone for compulsory military training for all the citizens whether women or men. Religion is not a national culture, it is something that a person observes personally in his house for peace and solace. Another thing is the opposition should critically oppose the ruling party in a constructive mode. If the opposition has only one agenda that is to topple the present regime and become the ruler themselves then the whole purpose of opposition in a democracy is lost and it is unfortunate that Pakistan is suffering from such undercurrents in its political system. The world is moving ahead fast with new inventions and technological growths but some countries are going to old barbaric days when communities just killed other communities because they belonged to another religion or philosophy.	1,573	ENGLISH	1
How far was US foreign policy completely isolationist between 1919-41? At the end of World War One, the American public were completely against becoming entangled in another European war which would cost American soldier’s lives and be expensive to the economy; this was a feeling which also ran through Congress. The feeling became known as ‘isolationism’. An isolationist policy meant that it focused on domestic affairs and disregarded international issues. During the period, particularly as World War Two grew nearer, it became increasingly difficult for US foreign policy to avoid becoming involved with foreign situations. Despite this, much of foreign policy during the period could be considered isolationist; this essay will attempt to show how far it was completely isolation between 1919 and 1941. The first display of US isolationism was the rejection of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and the refusal to join the League of Nations. The then president Woodrow Wilson was a keen believer in internationalism, and was responsible for the creation of the League of Nations because of his Fourteen Points which he pushed for at the Paris Peace Conferences. However, the American Public and Congress saw the League of Nations as a way to permanently attach the US to the affairs of Europe, and they believed the League would call upon America above the other member nations as it was the strongest country militarily and economically after the First World War. Despite the refusal to join the League, there was strong support for membership of the World Court, in order to have a role in keeping peace; this meant the US would be able to prevent wars so they would not have to commit troops and finance into conflict. Throughout much of the 1920s, Charles Hughes and Herbert Hoover were the men in charge of US foreign policy. They both felt that diplomatic involvement was needed to maintain world peace; followed by economic involvement to support the recovery of struggling... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	<urn:uuid:d5363fd7-405d-4ee3-bd05-526057b44613>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/Us-Isolationism-1919-41-63708643.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00472.warc.gz	en	0.98395	389	3.484375	3	[ -0.017561988905072212, 0.198743537068367, -0.0879158303141594, -0.08429794758558273, 0.16640324890613556, 0.15697909891605377, -0.021697094663977623, 0.09229559451341629, 0.21915128827095032, -0.08676104247570038, 0.5374915599822998, 0.26925480365753174, 0.22089160978794098, 0.387160122394...	1	How far was US foreign policy completely isolationist between 1919-41? At the end of World War One, the American public were completely against becoming entangled in another European war which would cost American soldier’s lives and be expensive to the economy; this was a feeling which also ran through Congress. The feeling became known as ‘isolationism’. An isolationist policy meant that it focused on domestic affairs and disregarded international issues. During the period, particularly as World War Two grew nearer, it became increasingly difficult for US foreign policy to avoid becoming involved with foreign situations. Despite this, much of foreign policy during the period could be considered isolationist; this essay will attempt to show how far it was completely isolation between 1919 and 1941. The first display of US isolationism was the rejection of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and the refusal to join the League of Nations. The then president Woodrow Wilson was a keen believer in internationalism, and was responsible for the creation of the League of Nations because of his Fourteen Points which he pushed for at the Paris Peace Conferences. However, the American Public and Congress saw the League of Nations as a way to permanently attach the US to the affairs of Europe, and they believed the League would call upon America above the other member nations as it was the strongest country militarily and economically after the First World War. Despite the refusal to join the League, there was strong support for membership of the World Court, in order to have a role in keeping peace; this meant the US would be able to prevent wars so they would not have to commit troops and finance into conflict. Throughout much of the 1920s, Charles Hughes and Herbert Hoover were the men in charge of US foreign policy. They both felt that diplomatic involvement was needed to maintain world peace; followed by economic involvement to support the recovery of struggling... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	401	ENGLISH	1
In the quick video clip below, professor Lorna Roth (of Concordia University in Montreal), covers the who, what, why, where, and when film and camera technology began making strides in an effort to more accurately capture and portray the wide variety of skin tones that make up the human race. In the early days of color film, the color balance of the film’s processing chemicals were made with the primary consumer market in mind–which, at the time, was predominately light skinned individuals. “For many decades, chemicals that would bring out various reddish, yellow, and brown tones were largely left out,” explains the video’s narrator. Interestingly, what spurred a change in the industry was not a skin tone bias, but the fact the film would also inaccurately portray different types of wood grain. That’s right, wood grain–as in the grain of wooden furniture. In the 1970’s, “…companies that were marketing different kinds of wood furniture were complaining that Kodak film did not render the difference between dark grained wood and light grained wood.” Roth has studied the topic in depth, even writing a 26-page research paper in the Canadian Journal of Communication back in 2009. In the paper, Roth shares a plethora of her findings along with some rather interesting statements she collected from the various people she interviewed during her study, including this one from Earl Kage, a former manager for Kodak Research Studios, who says it wasn’t just wood grain that people were complaining about. “This was also about the same time that we got some interesting observations from chocolate manufacturers who, in displaying Whitman’s chocolate or whatever the names were in any case, the subtle variations between the dark and bittersweet and milk chocolates weren’t as discernible and so some modifications were tried and consequently my little department became quite fat with chocolate, because what was in the front of the camera was consumed at the end of the shoot.” If you have some free time, you can read her research in it’s entirety, here.	<urn:uuid:2c6d4998-edb3-4b60-b92e-cb1f5646815e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.diyphotography.net/history-of-how-film-camera-tech-evolved-to-expose-different-skin-tones-more-accurately/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00547.warc.gz	en	0.981489	441	3.375	3	[ -0.015364382416009903, 0.09680534899234772, -0.1611226201057434, 0.21656541526317596, 0.17897893488407135, 0.26892995834350586, 0.1706537902355194, 0.010365394875407219, -0.349852591753006, 0.13405080139636993, 0.18348386883735657, -0.4430118203163147, -0.29238083958625793, 0.6532467603683...	6	In the quick video clip below, professor Lorna Roth (of Concordia University in Montreal), covers the who, what, why, where, and when film and camera technology began making strides in an effort to more accurately capture and portray the wide variety of skin tones that make up the human race. In the early days of color film, the color balance of the film’s processing chemicals were made with the primary consumer market in mind–which, at the time, was predominately light skinned individuals. “For many decades, chemicals that would bring out various reddish, yellow, and brown tones were largely left out,” explains the video’s narrator. Interestingly, what spurred a change in the industry was not a skin tone bias, but the fact the film would also inaccurately portray different types of wood grain. That’s right, wood grain–as in the grain of wooden furniture. In the 1970’s, “…companies that were marketing different kinds of wood furniture were complaining that Kodak film did not render the difference between dark grained wood and light grained wood.” Roth has studied the topic in depth, even writing a 26-page research paper in the Canadian Journal of Communication back in 2009. In the paper, Roth shares a plethora of her findings along with some rather interesting statements she collected from the various people she interviewed during her study, including this one from Earl Kage, a former manager for Kodak Research Studios, who says it wasn’t just wood grain that people were complaining about. “This was also about the same time that we got some interesting observations from chocolate manufacturers who, in displaying Whitman’s chocolate or whatever the names were in any case, the subtle variations between the dark and bittersweet and milk chocolates weren’t as discernible and so some modifications were tried and consequently my little department became quite fat with chocolate, because what was in the front of the camera was consumed at the end of the shoot.” If you have some free time, you can read her research in it’s entirety, here.	416	ENGLISH	1
Wilhelm Grimm Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Wilhelm Carl Grimm was famous as the other half and the younger brother of The Brothers Grimm. He and his brother left a legacy in the world of literature by their collection of stories entitled Children’s Household Tales or known in their local German language as Kinder-und Hausmärchen. Many of their stories were later adapted into animation films by renowned animation studio Disney. Wilhelm Grimm was responsible for the editorial aspect of their work. In the course of his life, he co-authored about two dozen books with his brother. When he was 39, he married Henriette Dorothea Wild a little short before his fortieth birthday. The couple produced four children together. He died at the age of 73 in Berlin, Germany on December 16, 1859. The Lawyer’s Son’s Childhood and Education Born on February 24, 1786, as Wilhelm Carl Grimm on Hanau, Germany, he followed older brother Jacob in a bunch of six children. His parents were Philipp and Dorothea Grimm of which his father worked as a lawyer. However, due to his father’s untimely passing, he was raised by his aunt instead. Following the footsteps of his father, Wilhelm Grimm began attending the University of Marburg’s Law School alongside his older brother Jacob. However, Wilhelm struggled with health issues which led him to postpone law practice until 1814. He found employment in Kassel, Germany as a secretary in the royal library. The Birth of The Grimms’ Fairy Tales Jacob followed Wilhelm in Kassel in 1816 where the height of German Romanticism was at its peak. The brothers then grew interested in the subject and studied the manner of storytelling in their region, as a way of preserving the oral storytelling methods that were slowly being overrun by the introduction of technology. Their dedication towards the craft led to the publication of the first edition of Kinder-und Hausmärchen which was released in 1812. These stories were a consolidation of stories told by friends and family, as well as the village story-telling and also contained fairy tales which were previously printed beforehand. Their work was well-received by the public however they decided to appeal to younger audiences hence the work being published a second time in 1815. This time, it was known as The Grimms’ Fairy Tales where famous children’s stories were introduced to the book such as Snow White, Cinderella, and Little Red Riding Hood to name a few. Wilhelm served as the editor for this book, seeing to it that some of the endings were altered and revised the general language for easier understanding. Life After The Grimms’ Fairy Tales Fifteen years after the second publication of Kinder-und Hausmärchen, Wilhelm Grimm took the position of an assistant librarian at the University of Göttingen in 1830. The brothers resigned mid-year from being banished by the King of Hanover after the two protested against the king’s changes in the constitution. A decade later, the brothers became esteemed members of the Royal Academy of Science in 1840, finally taking residence in Berlin, Germany. As members of the Royal Academy, they were tasked to prepare a comprehensive dictionary of the German language, as well as serving as lecturers at the university. The complete dictionary reached its completion years after Wilhelm’s death in 1859. Oliver Wendell Holmes Harriet E. Wilson	<urn:uuid:1385c7e4-a302-4b09-9d7e-53bb49cacf97>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/wilhelm-grimm/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00195.warc.gz	en	0.986354	720	3.4375	3	[ 0.06864748150110245, 0.34125083684921265, 0.5614160299301147, -0.16863365471363068, 0.07877223938703537, 0.2814328372478485, -0.20676472783088684, 0.23714029788970947, -0.4644418954849243, 0.11909545212984085, -0.020368216559290886, 0.2615422010421753, 0.010184690356254578, 0.2096081972122...	1	Wilhelm Grimm Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Wilhelm Carl Grimm was famous as the other half and the younger brother of The Brothers Grimm. He and his brother left a legacy in the world of literature by their collection of stories entitled Children’s Household Tales or known in their local German language as Kinder-und Hausmärchen. Many of their stories were later adapted into animation films by renowned animation studio Disney. Wilhelm Grimm was responsible for the editorial aspect of their work. In the course of his life, he co-authored about two dozen books with his brother. When he was 39, he married Henriette Dorothea Wild a little short before his fortieth birthday. The couple produced four children together. He died at the age of 73 in Berlin, Germany on December 16, 1859. The Lawyer’s Son’s Childhood and Education Born on February 24, 1786, as Wilhelm Carl Grimm on Hanau, Germany, he followed older brother Jacob in a bunch of six children. His parents were Philipp and Dorothea Grimm of which his father worked as a lawyer. However, due to his father’s untimely passing, he was raised by his aunt instead. Following the footsteps of his father, Wilhelm Grimm began attending the University of Marburg’s Law School alongside his older brother Jacob. However, Wilhelm struggled with health issues which led him to postpone law practice until 1814. He found employment in Kassel, Germany as a secretary in the royal library. The Birth of The Grimms’ Fairy Tales Jacob followed Wilhelm in Kassel in 1816 where the height of German Romanticism was at its peak. The brothers then grew interested in the subject and studied the manner of storytelling in their region, as a way of preserving the oral storytelling methods that were slowly being overrun by the introduction of technology. Their dedication towards the craft led to the publication of the first edition of Kinder-und Hausmärchen which was released in 1812. These stories were a consolidation of stories told by friends and family, as well as the village story-telling and also contained fairy tales which were previously printed beforehand. Their work was well-received by the public however they decided to appeal to younger audiences hence the work being published a second time in 1815. This time, it was known as The Grimms’ Fairy Tales where famous children’s stories were introduced to the book such as Snow White, Cinderella, and Little Red Riding Hood to name a few. Wilhelm served as the editor for this book, seeing to it that some of the endings were altered and revised the general language for easier understanding. Life After The Grimms’ Fairy Tales Fifteen years after the second publication of Kinder-und Hausmärchen, Wilhelm Grimm took the position of an assistant librarian at the University of Göttingen in 1830. The brothers resigned mid-year from being banished by the King of Hanover after the two protested against the king’s changes in the constitution. A decade later, the brothers became esteemed members of the Royal Academy of Science in 1840, finally taking residence in Berlin, Germany. As members of the Royal Academy, they were tasked to prepare a comprehensive dictionary of the German language, as well as serving as lecturers at the university. The complete dictionary reached its completion years after Wilhelm’s death in 1859. Oliver Wendell Holmes Harriet E. Wilson	721	ENGLISH	1
Major military developments took place during the Thirty Years War – possibly more so than for many centuries before hand. Historians still debate whether a “military revolution” took place during the Thirty Years War, but what cannot be denied is the impact these military developments had and were to have over the next centuries. The Thirty Years War saw a change from ‘little wars’ to what was effectively total war. A nation’s economy was based around fighting in the war and sustaining that nation’s position within the Thirty Years War. Civilian populations were adversely affected in a way not seen before. The size of armies grew massively – as did the cost of keeping those armies in the field. Armies themselves saw the first smattering of what could be called “professionalism” in the approach of Gustavus Adolphus. The size of armies grew to sizes not seen before and they became more than a mere nuisance to the civilian population of Europe. These was made worse for the civilians in that armies tried to live off the land in an effort to reduce the cost of maintaining themselves – if that meant taking livestock and grain from civilians, there so be it. In an area where armies were temporarily based, they could decimate the land before moving on – though areas just 10 miles from a battleground or from where an army was based could be unaffected by an invading army. \|Size of armies\|\|Spain\|\|Holland\|\|France\|\|England\|\|Sweden\| As armies grew in size, control of them became more problematic. The biggest problem faced by commanders was communication between sections of an army while it was on the move. Successful armies, such as the Swedes under Gustavus, used smaller units of highly trained men within the army as a whole. A great deal of emphasis was put on the use of cavalry. The most common tactic used was the caracole – a combined cavalry charge assisted by firearms. Eventually this was replaced by a full scale cavalry charge. Such tactics needed well trained and disciplined troops. The Thirty Years War saw the development of professionalism within certain armies such as the Swedes. Successful attacks were sustained and offensive tactics became the norm leaving soldiers little time to pillage as had happened in previous centuries. Those armies that still had such an approach to warfare proved unsuccessful in this war. A quick offensive campaign gave the enemy little time to prepare its defences. Therefore, the Thirty Years War saw a move to campaigns based on professionalism, speed and offensive in nature. Gustavus ensured that his men were regularly paid and that locals were treated well. If Swedish soldiers needed local produce they had to pay for it rather than simply stealing it as had happened all too often in the past. Maurice of Orange is given a lot of credit for starting these reforms as is Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. \|“He (Gustavus) had a wider strategic vision; he took Maurice’s methods, added to them and improved them, and in so doing was to impose upon the art of war a pattern which it retained almost unmodified until the advent of the revolutionary armies of France.” (Roberts)\| Many military developments had also been learned during the Spanish-Dutch war. Great advances had been made in fortress warfare and the use of pioneers. But when the conflict restarted in 1621, few new innovations were hit upon. However, one development was the use of fewer ranks of soldiers making them less susceptible to artillery fire. Infantry had traditionally been held in the following formation This kept the men in units that were easier to command as they were less spread out but an accurate artillery/mortar shell on such a formation would be disastrous. A side-on cavalry charge could also inflict great damage as the target was that much larger. The move went to Though more difficult to command, this formation had greater protection against artillery fire. It was also a smaller target for a side-on cavalry attack. Any such attack in the rear of the formation could also lead to the attacking cavalry being engulfed by those not directly in line of attack. However, the success, or not, of such a formation depended on training and discipline. The war also saw an improvement in firearms – though this was not restricted to just one side. The muzzle-loading rifle came in. War put emphasis on development and armies had better standardisation in weapon design. Maps and field glasses were more commonly used and most troops got paid on a regular basis. Training manuals became more widely used especially those by Jacob de Gheyn and Jacob von Wallausen. The impact of Gustavus should not be underestimated. He intensified the fire power of his army by reforming formations and introducing lighter weapons. He also introduced lighter artillery which made it a lot more mobile and fitted in with Gustavus’s belief that armies should be offensive and ready to move at a moments notice and carry the necessary clout to defeat the enemy. Being able to hit your enemy hard should not compromise your mobility. Gustavus also encouraged his officers to be more self-reliant on their own command abilities. Time could only be wasted if an officer had to report back to a senior officer for permission to do something. Delay also compromised speed of action. An army waiting for orders was an army almost certainly idle. Gustavus also had to rely on mercenaries. The population of Sweden did not allow for a large army. At the Battle of Breitenfeld, only 20% of the Swede’s army was made up of Swedes. At the Battle of Lutzen, the figure was 18%. Mercenaries by their very nature were not reliable and they held money as their master. Mercenaries swopping sides in the lead up to a battle after being offered more money was not uncommon. The economic plight of Sweden after 1632, saw large numbers of mercenaries desert Sweden for better paid employment elsewhere. The reforms of Gustavus also had their failures. After his death, the senior generals in the Swedish army did away with smaller artillery guns in favour of larger ones. Smaller guns may have been more mobile but the impact of a large artillery gun was far greater especially in siege warfare. Towards the end of the war, armies got smaller. The sheer cost of keeping big armies in the field was beyond the economies of some nations. In 1631, Wallenstein had over 54 foot regiments and 75 cavalry regiments – over 100,000 men in all. However, military historians have concluded that this army was in fact 230,000 as it needed the extra 130,000 to keep 100,000 soldiers in the field. The 75 cavalry regiments would have needed a large number of blacksmiths alone to keep the horses shod. Wallenstein also agreed to raise an army but not to pay for it – this the Emperor Ferdinand had to do. The cost of the Thirty Years War for the Imperial treasury has been estimated at 250 million gulden. Spain’s contribution to her Habsburg’s cousin was a mere 1.9 million gulden while the pope, who saw the Emperor as the defender of Catholicism, provided just 900,000 gulden. Therefore, the people of the Holy Roman Empire had to foot the bill. One of the major developments of the Thirty Years War was the sheer cost of warfare itself and the implications this would have on nations within Europe. Was there a military revolution in the Thirty Years War? Historians still disagree on this. The growth in the size of armies, the use of new weapons, the development of professionalism and new tactics have pushed some into deciding that there was a revolution at a military level. The counter-argument to this is the fact that no single army or combination of armies had the ability to deliver a knockout blow that lead to victory. The Peace of Westphalia is also known as the Peace of Exhaustion – all sides in the war were exhausted by the mid-1640’s. Limm believes that armies were capable of fighting a series of ad hoc campaigns but of not being able to defeat the other side to such an extent that it had to surrender.	<urn:uuid:169564b5-dc1a-4649-b8a6-deea81276c4d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/the-thirty-years-war/military-developments-in-the-thirty-years-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00132.warc.gz	en	0.984156	1,665	4.03125	4	[ -0.43347349762916565, 0.4010884761810303, 0.264360636472702, -0.05198107659816742, 0.19023863971233368, 0.12014922499656677, -0.6209232807159424, 0.25523942708969116, -0.28233176469802856, -0.09574610739946365, 0.390169620513916, -0.04399260878562927, 0.2002810388803482, 0.1126635596156120...	8	Major military developments took place during the Thirty Years War – possibly more so than for many centuries before hand. Historians still debate whether a “military revolution” took place during the Thirty Years War, but what cannot be denied is the impact these military developments had and were to have over the next centuries. The Thirty Years War saw a change from ‘little wars’ to what was effectively total war. A nation’s economy was based around fighting in the war and sustaining that nation’s position within the Thirty Years War. Civilian populations were adversely affected in a way not seen before. The size of armies grew massively – as did the cost of keeping those armies in the field. Armies themselves saw the first smattering of what could be called “professionalism” in the approach of Gustavus Adolphus. The size of armies grew to sizes not seen before and they became more than a mere nuisance to the civilian population of Europe. These was made worse for the civilians in that armies tried to live off the land in an effort to reduce the cost of maintaining themselves – if that meant taking livestock and grain from civilians, there so be it. In an area where armies were temporarily based, they could decimate the land before moving on – though areas just 10 miles from a battleground or from where an army was based could be unaffected by an invading army. \|Size of armies\|\|Spain\|\|Holland\|\|France\|\|England\|\|Sweden\| As armies grew in size, control of them became more problematic. The biggest problem faced by commanders was communication between sections of an army while it was on the move. Successful armies, such as the Swedes under Gustavus, used smaller units of highly trained men within the army as a whole. A great deal of emphasis was put on the use of cavalry. The most common tactic used was the caracole – a combined cavalry charge assisted by firearms. Eventually this was replaced by a full scale cavalry charge. Such tactics needed well trained and disciplined troops. The Thirty Years War saw the development of professionalism within certain armies such as the Swedes. Successful attacks were sustained and offensive tactics became the norm leaving soldiers little time to pillage as had happened in previous centuries. Those armies that still had such an approach to warfare proved unsuccessful in this war. A quick offensive campaign gave the enemy little time to prepare its defences. Therefore, the Thirty Years War saw a move to campaigns based on professionalism, speed and offensive in nature. Gustavus ensured that his men were regularly paid and that locals were treated well. If Swedish soldiers needed local produce they had to pay for it rather than simply stealing it as had happened all too often in the past. Maurice of Orange is given a lot of credit for starting these reforms as is Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. \|“He (Gustavus) had a wider strategic vision; he took Maurice’s methods, added to them and improved them, and in so doing was to impose upon the art of war a pattern which it retained almost unmodified until the advent of the revolutionary armies of France.” (Roberts)\| Many military developments had also been learned during the Spanish-Dutch war. Great advances had been made in fortress warfare and the use of pioneers. But when the conflict restarted in 1621, few new innovations were hit upon. However, one development was the use of fewer ranks of soldiers making them less susceptible to artillery fire. Infantry had traditionally been held in the following formation This kept the men in units that were easier to command as they were less spread out but an accurate artillery/mortar shell on such a formation would be disastrous. A side-on cavalry charge could also inflict great damage as the target was that much larger. The move went to Though more difficult to command, this formation had greater protection against artillery fire. It was also a smaller target for a side-on cavalry attack. Any such attack in the rear of the formation could also lead to the attacking cavalry being engulfed by those not directly in line of attack. However, the success, or not, of such a formation depended on training and discipline. The war also saw an improvement in firearms – though this was not restricted to just one side. The muzzle-loading rifle came in. War put emphasis on development and armies had better standardisation in weapon design. Maps and field glasses were more commonly used and most troops got paid on a regular basis. Training manuals became more widely used especially those by Jacob de Gheyn and Jacob von Wallausen. The impact of Gustavus should not be underestimated. He intensified the fire power of his army by reforming formations and introducing lighter weapons. He also introduced lighter artillery which made it a lot more mobile and fitted in with Gustavus’s belief that armies should be offensive and ready to move at a moments notice and carry the necessary clout to defeat the enemy. Being able to hit your enemy hard should not compromise your mobility. Gustavus also encouraged his officers to be more self-reliant on their own command abilities. Time could only be wasted if an officer had to report back to a senior officer for permission to do something. Delay also compromised speed of action. An army waiting for orders was an army almost certainly idle. Gustavus also had to rely on mercenaries. The population of Sweden did not allow for a large army. At the Battle of Breitenfeld, only 20% of the Swede’s army was made up of Swedes. At the Battle of Lutzen, the figure was 18%. Mercenaries by their very nature were not reliable and they held money as their master. Mercenaries swopping sides in the lead up to a battle after being offered more money was not uncommon. The economic plight of Sweden after 1632, saw large numbers of mercenaries desert Sweden for better paid employment elsewhere. The reforms of Gustavus also had their failures. After his death, the senior generals in the Swedish army did away with smaller artillery guns in favour of larger ones. Smaller guns may have been more mobile but the impact of a large artillery gun was far greater especially in siege warfare. Towards the end of the war, armies got smaller. The sheer cost of keeping big armies in the field was beyond the economies of some nations. In 1631, Wallenstein had over 54 foot regiments and 75 cavalry regiments – over 100,000 men in all. However, military historians have concluded that this army was in fact 230,000 as it needed the extra 130,000 to keep 100,000 soldiers in the field. The 75 cavalry regiments would have needed a large number of blacksmiths alone to keep the horses shod. Wallenstein also agreed to raise an army but not to pay for it – this the Emperor Ferdinand had to do. The cost of the Thirty Years War for the Imperial treasury has been estimated at 250 million gulden. Spain’s contribution to her Habsburg’s cousin was a mere 1.9 million gulden while the pope, who saw the Emperor as the defender of Catholicism, provided just 900,000 gulden. Therefore, the people of the Holy Roman Empire had to foot the bill. One of the major developments of the Thirty Years War was the sheer cost of warfare itself and the implications this would have on nations within Europe. Was there a military revolution in the Thirty Years War? Historians still disagree on this. The growth in the size of armies, the use of new weapons, the development of professionalism and new tactics have pushed some into deciding that there was a revolution at a military level. The counter-argument to this is the fact that no single army or combination of armies had the ability to deliver a knockout blow that lead to victory. The Peace of Westphalia is also known as the Peace of Exhaustion – all sides in the war were exhausted by the mid-1640’s. Limm believes that armies were capable of fighting a series of ad hoc campaigns but of not being able to defeat the other side to such an extent that it had to surrender.	1,677	ENGLISH	1
“The story of Connecticut you are beginning to read has two parts, the place and the people. Either part can be studied alone, but to produce the whole story of Connecticut they must be put together. The story began before any people lived there… Nevertheless, most of our story will be about the people… The Land and Its Formation Back many thousands of years ago, when the world was young, the mountains of Connecticut rose thousands of feet into the air. As rain fell producing brooks and rivers, the flowing waters wore away the surface. Rapidly flowing water has a lot of power to wear away rocks, and it carries away small particles of them. When the speed of the water in a river slows down, these particles are dropped in the river bed. After any rainstorm you can see this happen. As the water flows rapidly down hill in the gutter of a street it sweeps everything along with it. But, where the ground becomes level, the water moves more slowly, and a pool of water forms. Here the sand and gravel fall to the bottom. After the water drains away or dries up you can see the kind of material that the water has been carrying spread out in thick layers of sand, mud, or gravel. If enough times passes, even high mountains will be worn down to a level surface. This was happening in Connecticut when a great event took place. A tremendous crack developed across the state, roughly north and south, from the sea to Massachusetts, and a big block of rock dropped down much like the diagram. Scientists call it a fault. After this happened a long period passed while the rains continued to fall. Much of the upland, the higher portions on both sides of the crack, was washed down into it, filling it with great layers of sand. From time to time, new cracks appeared in this big valley and volcanoes burst forth, throwing out red hot rock (lava) that spread in thick layers on top of the sand. Then the volcanoes would quiet down and very fine particles of clay, sand, and gravel would be washed down and spread out on top of the now cooled lava. A sort of sandwich with many layers was produced, as you see. The dark layers are called trap rock in Connecticut. They were once red hot and flowed like water. The lighter sections in the picture are layers of sand, gravel or clay. These three words mean different bits of material of different sizes. You all know what sand is like; gravel is made up of larger particles, but the particles of clay are so small you can hardly see them. Next a new force appeared. This was a squeeze that brought the sides of the valley closer together. If the rocks in the valley had been soft they would have crumpled up as you can crumple a piece of paper. Instead they were hard and they broke, one piece sliding up on top of the other as you see here. Of the three kinds of rock in the valley: the sandstone, shale made from clay, and the traprock, the sandstone was the most easily worn away under the influence of running water. Eventually the valley began to look the way you see it today. The rivers wore out their valleys in the soft sandstone and the trap rock was left standing up as a series of long hills. Some of their names are West Rock and East Rock in New Haven… There may be a trap rock ridge near to you. If so try to visit it and collect samples of sandstone, shale or trap rock. Notice how hard the trap rock is. It is used to make roads today… One other kind of rock is found in Western Connecticut. This is limestone. It is produced by limey materials deposited in the sea that once covered this area. Such rocks can be found from Danbury noth along the Housatonic River into Massachusetts. They are very useful. Blocks are cut out of the hills and used for building purposes or are ground up to make lime which is used in plastering the walls of our houses. Lime is also used in agriculture. The last big event in making the present land surface was the ice age. Many thousands of years ago the climate began to get colder. It became so cold that to the north in Canada, the snow that fell during the winter period did not all melt in the following summer. Year after year the snow piled up higher and higher. Finally in the lower levels the snow became ice by being squeezed together, much as you can squeeze a snowball into ice. When this happened the lower levels of the ice which were under great pressure began to move. You can understand how this happened if you remember the last time you put too much jelly in a sandwich. Then, when you bit into it, your teeth put pressure on the outside layers and the jelly was squeezed out. The ice was squeezed out in the same way. The ice moved very slowly, only a few feet a day, but it kept coming southward as more and more snow and ice piled up. As it came it rode up over the hills in its path. At its furthest point of advance, all of Connecticut was covered and the edge of the ice lay on Long Island. The ice pushed ahead of it or picked up all of the loose material in its path. Some rocks were frozen into its lowest levels and acted like a piece of very coarse sandpaper, smoothing down the rocky surface. Many times deep scratches were made that can be seen today. Although the glacier, as the ice sheet was called, did make some changes in the surface of Connecticut, all the larger hills and valleys were here before the glacier. Eventually the summers became warmer and the glacier began to melt. It took a long time for all of the ice to melt. Scientists think that it was perhaps 500-800 feet thick over Connecticut’s southern part and much thicker further north. As you could guess, melting produced great rivers of water which flowed from the ice sheet, carving the valleys deeper and carrying large quantities of clay and sand down to the sea. Some of it was dropped along the way in the lakes that filled most low spots in Connecticut after the glacier melted. Such deposits are widely scattered around the state. The clays are used in making bricks and are found at many locations in the Quinnipiac and Housatonic valley. Sand deposits are even more widely distributed. Many of them are being used today to supply sand and gravel used in building. If you can visit a sand deposit, you may see the several layers of sand that were laid down year after year as the ice sheet melted back. A visit to a brick yard will show you the yearly layers of clay that were deposited in what was once a lake. In addition to these deposits of clay and sand the larger rocks that the glacier had picked up and carried with it were dropped directly on the ground. Residents have wondered how these great rocks got to where they now stand. The answer is they were dropped by the glacier… When the ice sheet finally melted away the land lay bare of all vegetation; a great rocky, muddy region. This happened about 10,000 years ago. Soon seeds came in. Some were brought by birds and some were blown by the wind from… regions that were never covered with ice. Other seeds that had been buried by the ice and had slept during the long ice age began to grow with the warmer temperatures. In a few thousand years Connecticut again had a cover of plants, and the birds and animals came back… A low coastal strip only a few miles wide extends along the seacoast from New York to Rhode Island. It is the edge of the old rocky surface broken by many small rivers and three large ones, that have carved out valleys which today reach to the Sound. Some valleys form harbors… [such as] New Haven… Because the coastal area is relatively level it makes a smooth surface on which many of the first settlements were begun…” -Excerpt and (top) image courtesy of the Internet Archive, University of Connecticut Libraries, “The Connecticut story,” by Joseph Bixby Hoyt, 1961	<urn:uuid:22fa9077-5bc4-49b0-80aa-c48ec454c7da>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hyperionnewhaven.com/2019/12/16/the-landforms-of-connecticut-by-joseph-bixby-hoyt/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00288.warc.gz	en	0.982347	1,663	3.75	4	[ 0.3409082293510437, 0.07133615761995316, 0.3021487593650818, 0.12116572260856628, -0.5422261357307434, 0.4470013380050659, 0.2513038218021393, 0.07741984724998474, -0.1837628185749054, 0.13768091797828674, -0.1745152473449707, -0.2364189773797989, 0.31468233466148376, 0.21446338295936584, ...	13	“The story of Connecticut you are beginning to read has two parts, the place and the people. Either part can be studied alone, but to produce the whole story of Connecticut they must be put together. The story began before any people lived there… Nevertheless, most of our story will be about the people… The Land and Its Formation Back many thousands of years ago, when the world was young, the mountains of Connecticut rose thousands of feet into the air. As rain fell producing brooks and rivers, the flowing waters wore away the surface. Rapidly flowing water has a lot of power to wear away rocks, and it carries away small particles of them. When the speed of the water in a river slows down, these particles are dropped in the river bed. After any rainstorm you can see this happen. As the water flows rapidly down hill in the gutter of a street it sweeps everything along with it. But, where the ground becomes level, the water moves more slowly, and a pool of water forms. Here the sand and gravel fall to the bottom. After the water drains away or dries up you can see the kind of material that the water has been carrying spread out in thick layers of sand, mud, or gravel. If enough times passes, even high mountains will be worn down to a level surface. This was happening in Connecticut when a great event took place. A tremendous crack developed across the state, roughly north and south, from the sea to Massachusetts, and a big block of rock dropped down much like the diagram. Scientists call it a fault. After this happened a long period passed while the rains continued to fall. Much of the upland, the higher portions on both sides of the crack, was washed down into it, filling it with great layers of sand. From time to time, new cracks appeared in this big valley and volcanoes burst forth, throwing out red hot rock (lava) that spread in thick layers on top of the sand. Then the volcanoes would quiet down and very fine particles of clay, sand, and gravel would be washed down and spread out on top of the now cooled lava. A sort of sandwich with many layers was produced, as you see. The dark layers are called trap rock in Connecticut. They were once red hot and flowed like water. The lighter sections in the picture are layers of sand, gravel or clay. These three words mean different bits of material of different sizes. You all know what sand is like; gravel is made up of larger particles, but the particles of clay are so small you can hardly see them. Next a new force appeared. This was a squeeze that brought the sides of the valley closer together. If the rocks in the valley had been soft they would have crumpled up as you can crumple a piece of paper. Instead they were hard and they broke, one piece sliding up on top of the other as you see here. Of the three kinds of rock in the valley: the sandstone, shale made from clay, and the traprock, the sandstone was the most easily worn away under the influence of running water. Eventually the valley began to look the way you see it today. The rivers wore out their valleys in the soft sandstone and the trap rock was left standing up as a series of long hills. Some of their names are West Rock and East Rock in New Haven… There may be a trap rock ridge near to you. If so try to visit it and collect samples of sandstone, shale or trap rock. Notice how hard the trap rock is. It is used to make roads today… One other kind of rock is found in Western Connecticut. This is limestone. It is produced by limey materials deposited in the sea that once covered this area. Such rocks can be found from Danbury noth along the Housatonic River into Massachusetts. They are very useful. Blocks are cut out of the hills and used for building purposes or are ground up to make lime which is used in plastering the walls of our houses. Lime is also used in agriculture. The last big event in making the present land surface was the ice age. Many thousands of years ago the climate began to get colder. It became so cold that to the north in Canada, the snow that fell during the winter period did not all melt in the following summer. Year after year the snow piled up higher and higher. Finally in the lower levels the snow became ice by being squeezed together, much as you can squeeze a snowball into ice. When this happened the lower levels of the ice which were under great pressure began to move. You can understand how this happened if you remember the last time you put too much jelly in a sandwich. Then, when you bit into it, your teeth put pressure on the outside layers and the jelly was squeezed out. The ice was squeezed out in the same way. The ice moved very slowly, only a few feet a day, but it kept coming southward as more and more snow and ice piled up. As it came it rode up over the hills in its path. At its furthest point of advance, all of Connecticut was covered and the edge of the ice lay on Long Island. The ice pushed ahead of it or picked up all of the loose material in its path. Some rocks were frozen into its lowest levels and acted like a piece of very coarse sandpaper, smoothing down the rocky surface. Many times deep scratches were made that can be seen today. Although the glacier, as the ice sheet was called, did make some changes in the surface of Connecticut, all the larger hills and valleys were here before the glacier. Eventually the summers became warmer and the glacier began to melt. It took a long time for all of the ice to melt. Scientists think that it was perhaps 500-800 feet thick over Connecticut’s southern part and much thicker further north. As you could guess, melting produced great rivers of water which flowed from the ice sheet, carving the valleys deeper and carrying large quantities of clay and sand down to the sea. Some of it was dropped along the way in the lakes that filled most low spots in Connecticut after the glacier melted. Such deposits are widely scattered around the state. The clays are used in making bricks and are found at many locations in the Quinnipiac and Housatonic valley. Sand deposits are even more widely distributed. Many of them are being used today to supply sand and gravel used in building. If you can visit a sand deposit, you may see the several layers of sand that were laid down year after year as the ice sheet melted back. A visit to a brick yard will show you the yearly layers of clay that were deposited in what was once a lake. In addition to these deposits of clay and sand the larger rocks that the glacier had picked up and carried with it were dropped directly on the ground. Residents have wondered how these great rocks got to where they now stand. The answer is they were dropped by the glacier… When the ice sheet finally melted away the land lay bare of all vegetation; a great rocky, muddy region. This happened about 10,000 years ago. Soon seeds came in. Some were brought by birds and some were blown by the wind from… regions that were never covered with ice. Other seeds that had been buried by the ice and had slept during the long ice age began to grow with the warmer temperatures. In a few thousand years Connecticut again had a cover of plants, and the birds and animals came back… A low coastal strip only a few miles wide extends along the seacoast from New York to Rhode Island. It is the edge of the old rocky surface broken by many small rivers and three large ones, that have carved out valleys which today reach to the Sound. Some valleys form harbors… [such as] New Haven… Because the coastal area is relatively level it makes a smooth surface on which many of the first settlements were begun…” -Excerpt and (top) image courtesy of the Internet Archive, University of Connecticut Libraries, “The Connecticut story,” by Joseph Bixby Hoyt, 1961	1,651	ENGLISH	1
This red colour comes from madder (Rubia tinctorum) root. Madder is one of the most ancient dyes and was used by the early Egyptians, and the Greek and Romans. In Medieval times madder root was traded in markets all over Europe – especially in France and England. In York up to now exist part of city known as a „Madder Market”. Red colour from madder was loved by Vikings. Among them red clothes were wear even by kings, and often given as a precious gift. In the tenth century poem, Hrafnsmál, there is mention about the red cloaks of the court poets as a symbol of the king's favour. However madder reached height of its fame much after Middle Ages, when was used to produce colour known as a „Turkey Red”, used on the famous red coats of British Soldiers.	<urn:uuid:6bde9ed5-e145-4fa7-b1ed-91537f87752c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://medieval-colours.co.uk/products/copy-of-copy-of-copy-of-copy-of-embroidery-thread-weaving-yarn	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00083.warc.gz	en	0.984576	183	3.265625	3	[ -0.29226940870285034, 0.19491316378116608, -0.03434748202562332, -0.07752503454685211, 0.3202398419380188, -0.166201651096344, 0.24564798176288605, 0.35058310627937317, -0.38467642664909363, -0.42025139927864075, -0.10851489007472992, -0.660400390625, -0.27611103653907776, 0.08048204332590...	2	This red colour comes from madder (Rubia tinctorum) root. Madder is one of the most ancient dyes and was used by the early Egyptians, and the Greek and Romans. In Medieval times madder root was traded in markets all over Europe – especially in France and England. In York up to now exist part of city known as a „Madder Market”. Red colour from madder was loved by Vikings. Among them red clothes were wear even by kings, and often given as a precious gift. In the tenth century poem, Hrafnsmál, there is mention about the red cloaks of the court poets as a symbol of the king's favour. However madder reached height of its fame much after Middle Ages, when was used to produce colour known as a „Turkey Red”, used on the famous red coats of British Soldiers.	175	ENGLISH	1
Sarah Good was born to a prosperous innkeeper in 1653. However, her father's estate became entangled in litigation leaving Sarah Good in poverty. After the death of her first husband, she married William Good. The Goods lived a life of begging and poverty in Salem Village. Sarah was regarded as an unsavory person and has come to be regarded through literature as the stereotypical witch, a disreputable old hag. Good was among the first three women accused of witchcraft in 1692 and was the first to testify.She never confessed guilt, but, like Tituba, she did accuse Sarah Osborne, an act that was credited with validating the witchcraft trials and accusations. Good was hanged as a witch on Tuesday July 19, 1692, but not until after the imprisonment of her six year old child Dorcas, also accused of witchcraft, and the tragic death of her infant in prison. Important Persons in the Salem Court Records Salem Witch Trials, Univ. of Virginia	<urn:uuid:6aafaebd-ae07-4d11-af39-26c8854a41a4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.noblenet.org/salem/wiki/index.php/Good,_Sarah	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00112.warc.gz	en	0.984845	207	3.5	4	[ -0.16576914489269257, 0.2370966374874115, 0.2065524309873581, -0.15271113812923431, -0.21429945528507233, 0.09115032106637955, 0.5681880712509155, -0.33368349075317383, -0.18049247562885284, 0.47466376423835754, -0.19452519714832306, 0.006026874762028456, -0.7397998571395874, 0.14352266490...	1	Sarah Good was born to a prosperous innkeeper in 1653. However, her father's estate became entangled in litigation leaving Sarah Good in poverty. After the death of her first husband, she married William Good. The Goods lived a life of begging and poverty in Salem Village. Sarah was regarded as an unsavory person and has come to be regarded through literature as the stereotypical witch, a disreputable old hag. Good was among the first three women accused of witchcraft in 1692 and was the first to testify.She never confessed guilt, but, like Tituba, she did accuse Sarah Osborne, an act that was credited with validating the witchcraft trials and accusations. Good was hanged as a witch on Tuesday July 19, 1692, but not until after the imprisonment of her six year old child Dorcas, also accused of witchcraft, and the tragic death of her infant in prison. Important Persons in the Salem Court Records Salem Witch Trials, Univ. of Virginia	219	ENGLISH	1
Each basketball game has two or three officials. In every officiating crew, there is one head referee (sometimes called the crew chief). The remaining officials are called umpires. While there is a title difference between these officials, there are very few differences in their roles. To review, the titles of official, referee, and umpire are as follows: - Official is a broad term that includes referees and umpires - The referee is the head official, also known as the crew chief - Umpires are the other umpires that are not the referee Both the referee and umpires are allowed to call all types of fouls and have jurisdiction over all phases of the game. During play, the referee starts along the baseline, with the umpires taking the trail and center positions. This will change throughout the game, though. Every official is expected to be able to operate from every position on the court.	<urn:uuid:db88288b-62e0-46f6-a61a-95c91661ff07>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.rookieroad.com/basketball/referee-roles/umpire/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00386.warc.gz	en	0.984593	192	3.40625	3	[ -0.19486688077449799, 0.12392072379589081, 0.17940226197242737, -0.4624820351600647, 0.16957835853099823, 0.18477609753608704, 0.9253830313682556, 0.21295638382434845, -0.09427804499864578, 0.468384712934494, -0.22865495085716248, -0.07617507129907608, -0.13250616192817688, -0.332594752311...	1	Each basketball game has two or three officials. In every officiating crew, there is one head referee (sometimes called the crew chief). The remaining officials are called umpires. While there is a title difference between these officials, there are very few differences in their roles. To review, the titles of official, referee, and umpire are as follows: - Official is a broad term that includes referees and umpires - The referee is the head official, also known as the crew chief - Umpires are the other umpires that are not the referee Both the referee and umpires are allowed to call all types of fouls and have jurisdiction over all phases of the game. During play, the referee starts along the baseline, with the umpires taking the trail and center positions. This will change throughout the game, though. Every official is expected to be able to operate from every position on the court.	185	ENGLISH	1
This year marks the 150th anniversary of John Brown’s October 16, 1859 anti-slavery raid, during which he led 19 men in an attack on the Harpers Ferry Armory. He was charged with murder, conspiring with slaves to rebel, and treason against Virginia (West Virginia was not yet a state) and after a week-long trial was sentenced to death in early November. Brown was hanged on December 2nd (John Wilkes Booth snuck in to watch) and his body was afterward carried to North Elba in Essex County to “moulder in his grave.” Over the next several months I’ll be offering a series of posts on what John Brown was up to in his last days and why we should care. I’ll be tracking upcoming commemoration plans and pointing to resources to learn more about the life of, as historian David S. Reynolds put it, “the man who killed slavery, sparked the Civil War, and seeded Civil Rights.” Although the action itself ended in failure, John Brown’s Raid turned out to be the most successful slave revolt in American history – a history filled with slave rebellions. There were more then 250 slave uprisings or attempted uprisings in North America in the 17th and 18th centuries involving ten or more slaves and although there were many others in Virgina, John Brown’s Raid was the third major revolt in that state. An enslaved blacksmith named Gabriel (aided by two white men) led a large revolt in Richmond, Virgina in 1800. Future President and then Governor James Monroe called out the the state militia and Gabriel, along with 26 other slaves, were hanged. One of the bloodiest slave revolts in America however, also occurred in Virginia when Nat Turner led more then 50 slaves and free blacks on August 21, 1831. The group grew as Turner went from farm to farm freeing slaves (55 whites were killed in the process), but within 48 hours the upraising was suppressed. Turner was hanged, his body was flayed (his skin was cut away), he was beheaded, and then quartered. In the aftermath, some 200 blacks, many with no connection to the revolt, were beaten, tortured, and murdered by white mobs. John Brown was a part of this struggle against slavery and it was already well-established by 1859. He fought against pro-slavery forces in Bleeding Kansas, the Kansas-Missouri border war over slavery that raged between about 1854 and 1858. Brown was part of the well-organized Abolition movement, but felt that the movement was not doing enough to free the nearly four million slaves being held in America – almost one-third of all people in the South. Brown pushed abolitionist leaders like William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips toward a more radical movement – “These men are all talk. What we need is action – action!” he is reported to have said. According to David Reynolds’ 2005 biography, John Brown: Abolitionist, Brown persuaded Wendell Phillips to accept his vision of “a unified nation based on rights for people of all ethnicities.” Brown came to his beliefs in part from his Calvinist upbringing, but in large measure from the pro-slavery attacks such as that on Elijah P. Lovejoy. Lovejoy had been a anti-slavery journalist who had been run-out of St. Louis, Missouri in 1827 for writing against Judge Luke E. Lawless, who refused to charge members of a mob who lynched a free black man. Lovejoy moved to Alton, Illinois, and became editor of the Alton Observer. Three times his printing press was destroyed by pro-slavery mobs, and on November 7, 1837 he was killed defending his fourth. After his murder Brown publicly vowed: “Here, before God, in the presence of these witnesses, from this time, I consecrate my life to the destruction of slavery!” So it was that he found himself in in a secluded Maryland farm house in August 1859, owned by the heirs of Dr. Booth Kennedy. Brown moved in with his two sons, Owen and Oliver, and Jeremiah Goldsmith Anderson. Anderson had been with him in the border war, when he saw a man murdered on his own doorstep by pro-slavery Missourians. The farm soon became filled with compatriots Brown had been recruiting in the years leading up to the raid. According to David Reynolds, “to help with housekeeping, Brown’s daughter Anne and [his son] Oliver’s wife, Martha, both sixteen, came from North Elba in late July. Recruits arrived over the next month and a half. Early August saw the arrival of Watson Brown and William and Dauphin Thompson. The others trickled in: Tidd, Stevens, Leeman, Hazlett, Taylor, and Barclay and Edwin Coppoc… Later on, Osborne Perry Anderson, the African American printer… came, as did three other blacks: Dangerfield Newby, Lewis Sheridan Leary, and John A. Copeland.” The two-room farmhouse was hot and crowded. Boxes were used as seats and the men slept on the floor and ate at a makeshift dining table of rough boards. They debated religion, passed around a copy of Thomas Paine’s Age of Reason and read the news in the Baltimore Sun, which Brown subscribed to. Brown attended the local Dunker church; the Dunkers were a group of anti-slavery pacifists. Owen Brown spent much of his time befriending workers in Harpers Ferry, just five miles away, and quizzing them about local slaveholders. Photo: John Brown in about 1856.	<urn:uuid:52d941b3-136b-445f-8222-2e949d88f617>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.adirondackalmanack.com/2009/08/the-last-days-of-john-brown-august-1859.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00124.warc.gz	en	0.983829	1,197	3.515625	4	[ -0.6141260266304016, 0.48203495144844055, 0.32021182775497437, 0.23507685959339142, -0.009795006364583969, 0.11765248328447342, -0.06763167679309845, -0.09442584216594696, -0.3209097385406494, 0.3888629972934723, 0.21797332167625427, 0.16406965255737305, -0.48670899868011475, 0.42370653152...	3	This year marks the 150th anniversary of John Brown’s October 16, 1859 anti-slavery raid, during which he led 19 men in an attack on the Harpers Ferry Armory. He was charged with murder, conspiring with slaves to rebel, and treason against Virginia (West Virginia was not yet a state) and after a week-long trial was sentenced to death in early November. Brown was hanged on December 2nd (John Wilkes Booth snuck in to watch) and his body was afterward carried to North Elba in Essex County to “moulder in his grave.” Over the next several months I’ll be offering a series of posts on what John Brown was up to in his last days and why we should care. I’ll be tracking upcoming commemoration plans and pointing to resources to learn more about the life of, as historian David S. Reynolds put it, “the man who killed slavery, sparked the Civil War, and seeded Civil Rights.” Although the action itself ended in failure, John Brown’s Raid turned out to be the most successful slave revolt in American history – a history filled with slave rebellions. There were more then 250 slave uprisings or attempted uprisings in North America in the 17th and 18th centuries involving ten or more slaves and although there were many others in Virgina, John Brown’s Raid was the third major revolt in that state. An enslaved blacksmith named Gabriel (aided by two white men) led a large revolt in Richmond, Virgina in 1800. Future President and then Governor James Monroe called out the the state militia and Gabriel, along with 26 other slaves, were hanged. One of the bloodiest slave revolts in America however, also occurred in Virginia when Nat Turner led more then 50 slaves and free blacks on August 21, 1831. The group grew as Turner went from farm to farm freeing slaves (55 whites were killed in the process), but within 48 hours the upraising was suppressed. Turner was hanged, his body was flayed (his skin was cut away), he was beheaded, and then quartered. In the aftermath, some 200 blacks, many with no connection to the revolt, were beaten, tortured, and murdered by white mobs. John Brown was a part of this struggle against slavery and it was already well-established by 1859. He fought against pro-slavery forces in Bleeding Kansas, the Kansas-Missouri border war over slavery that raged between about 1854 and 1858. Brown was part of the well-organized Abolition movement, but felt that the movement was not doing enough to free the nearly four million slaves being held in America – almost one-third of all people in the South. Brown pushed abolitionist leaders like William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips toward a more radical movement – “These men are all talk. What we need is action – action!” he is reported to have said. According to David Reynolds’ 2005 biography, John Brown: Abolitionist, Brown persuaded Wendell Phillips to accept his vision of “a unified nation based on rights for people of all ethnicities.” Brown came to his beliefs in part from his Calvinist upbringing, but in large measure from the pro-slavery attacks such as that on Elijah P. Lovejoy. Lovejoy had been a anti-slavery journalist who had been run-out of St. Louis, Missouri in 1827 for writing against Judge Luke E. Lawless, who refused to charge members of a mob who lynched a free black man. Lovejoy moved to Alton, Illinois, and became editor of the Alton Observer. Three times his printing press was destroyed by pro-slavery mobs, and on November 7, 1837 he was killed defending his fourth. After his murder Brown publicly vowed: “Here, before God, in the presence of these witnesses, from this time, I consecrate my life to the destruction of slavery!” So it was that he found himself in in a secluded Maryland farm house in August 1859, owned by the heirs of Dr. Booth Kennedy. Brown moved in with his two sons, Owen and Oliver, and Jeremiah Goldsmith Anderson. Anderson had been with him in the border war, when he saw a man murdered on his own doorstep by pro-slavery Missourians. The farm soon became filled with compatriots Brown had been recruiting in the years leading up to the raid. According to David Reynolds, “to help with housekeeping, Brown’s daughter Anne and [his son] Oliver’s wife, Martha, both sixteen, came from North Elba in late July. Recruits arrived over the next month and a half. Early August saw the arrival of Watson Brown and William and Dauphin Thompson. The others trickled in: Tidd, Stevens, Leeman, Hazlett, Taylor, and Barclay and Edwin Coppoc… Later on, Osborne Perry Anderson, the African American printer… came, as did three other blacks: Dangerfield Newby, Lewis Sheridan Leary, and John A. Copeland.” The two-room farmhouse was hot and crowded. Boxes were used as seats and the men slept on the floor and ate at a makeshift dining table of rough boards. They debated religion, passed around a copy of Thomas Paine’s Age of Reason and read the news in the Baltimore Sun, which Brown subscribed to. Brown attended the local Dunker church; the Dunkers were a group of anti-slavery pacifists. Owen Brown spent much of his time befriending workers in Harpers Ferry, just five miles away, and quizzing them about local slaveholders. Photo: John Brown in about 1856.	1,208	ENGLISH	1
Lenin Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, later known as Lenin was a key figure in European history. Lenin led the Bolsheviks (which later became known as communists) to overthrow the Russian Tsar, and to bring socialism to Russia. Lenin introduced Communism to Russia. This changed the history for Russia as well as the rest of Europe, and to this day has had a huge effect on the Russian economy. Lenin’s impact on Europe and Russia consisted of him applying Marxist ideas, which later led to complete Communism, and a threat to Europe and the rest of world. In developing his plan of socialism in Russia, Lenin followed the examples of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the original developers of the communist theory. The main aspect of any kind of government, and especially socialism, is its economic structure. Lenin explained that in his economic theory, called Imperialism, the first step was to gradually move into a joined monopoly – capitalist phase, which later would become communism. Lenin went on to say that based on the disproportion between economic development of the monopoly stage, which is the beginning of full socialism, and capitalism, which is the meaning of a private life and freedom from others. The only problem with that theory is that a Monopoly and Capitalism are complete opposites of each other, and were bound to cause problems.(http://venus.spaceports.com/~theory/economy_1.htm) Lenin knew of this problem, but considered it a stepping stone in the right direction. He predicted problems, but thought in due time his economic machine would operate with great success, and make Russia into a world mega power. Lenin’s plan of communism for Russia was supposed to be great. People were supposed to get free education, free medical care, everybody makes the same amount of money, working equally as hard, and everybody was supposed to get the same advantage in life. But it would never work out quite as planed. On October 25, 1917 (November 7th according to the new Gregorian calendar), Lenin led the Bolsheviks in a Socialist Revolution that would lead Lenin in charge of Russia. Everything that had been set in stone about the life and culture of Russian over the past centuries, would change during the course of one night. People were expecting great things, Lenin and others associated with his party, made Karl Marx’s ideas about Communism sound great. Once Lenin came to power and tried to execute his plans towards his nation things went terribly wrong for the people of Russia. The problems started with the working class or the proletariat, the people that Lenin put in charge of the nation. As common knowledge, proletariats are not the most educated people, with no knowledge of how to help run a Socialist government. So the proletariats started making decisions that would hurt the common man in Russia. Decease, hunger and even cannibalism struck over some parts of the nation, where as before in the Monarchy rule under Tsar Nicholas II, Russia was as rich in agriculture as any other country in the world.(Shinskaya) Another promise that Lenin kept was that he gave the peasants more land. Also, he forced the peasants to move to collective farms, called “Kalhoz” (Russian). The peasants didn’t have any privacy, all their personal belongings were taken and put to public use in their collective farms. An example of the changes going on in the work force, on socialistic collective farm, was farmers, one farmer has two cows, the other had none. In a communistic government, where everybody is completely equal, Lenin would make the two farmers coexist and work with each other, and make the farmer with two cows share with the farmer with no cows at all. Allowing the farmer with no cows to free load off the farmer with two cows. That is Communism; unfair, but too bad, you can’t do anything about it. The peasants became outraged and started to strike. Bolshevik at first sight of resistance began to shoot down innocent people fighting for their freedom, all by the order of Lenin.(Isayevich 98) The problems didn’t end there. Back in the old days of Monarch Russia, the Russian people had a great belief of the church. In one of Karl Marx’s publishing’s about communism, he replies “Religion is opium for the common man.”(Isayevich 135) When Lenin took over he forbid religion, destroyed all the churches, and murdered all the priests, turning great national landmarks built by the blood and sweat of the Russian man into rubble. Anybody who tried to believe in something besides communism was murdered with out justice or a right to a trial by the authority of Vladimer Ilyich, Lenin. Lenin didn’t want anyone to try to bring back the old Monarchy ways of Russia. He had the Bolshevik army murder Tsar Nicholas II, his wife, all his children and anybody who was associated with the Tsar.(Service 78) Lenin’s Bolshevik army, also known as the Red Army, went to a civil war with the peasants and the opposers of the socialist regime, which was the White Army. Russia was going through a turbulent time, fighting opposing nations, and a civil war that happened for eight months in the year 1918, and going through hunger, despair and decease.(Liberman) The plans of a world wide socialist revolution was now wide spread among neighboring nations. Based on their conclusions from Russia and how they handled the change and the horrible crimes that were committed against humanity on the part of the socialist party. Other countries around Europe wanted no part of communism, and considered it a serious threat to their existence.	<urn:uuid:bdb0b53a-94a5-4b63-baf4-e9fdc3e51209>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essay.ua-referat.com/VI_Lenin	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00502.warc.gz	en	0.982606	1,161	3.515625	4	[ -0.5919638872146606, -0.3198605179786682, 0.39682698249816895, 0.10905982553958893, 0.021174199879169464, -0.09911671280860901, 0.09728799760341644, 0.28749948740005493, -0.16890490055084229, 0.26337242126464844, 0.3889538645744324, 0.4801495373249054, 0.06636364758014679, 0.04800517857074...	3	Lenin Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, later known as Lenin was a key figure in European history. Lenin led the Bolsheviks (which later became known as communists) to overthrow the Russian Tsar, and to bring socialism to Russia. Lenin introduced Communism to Russia. This changed the history for Russia as well as the rest of Europe, and to this day has had a huge effect on the Russian economy. Lenin’s impact on Europe and Russia consisted of him applying Marxist ideas, which later led to complete Communism, and a threat to Europe and the rest of world. In developing his plan of socialism in Russia, Lenin followed the examples of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the original developers of the communist theory. The main aspect of any kind of government, and especially socialism, is its economic structure. Lenin explained that in his economic theory, called Imperialism, the first step was to gradually move into a joined monopoly – capitalist phase, which later would become communism. Lenin went on to say that based on the disproportion between economic development of the monopoly stage, which is the beginning of full socialism, and capitalism, which is the meaning of a private life and freedom from others. The only problem with that theory is that a Monopoly and Capitalism are complete opposites of each other, and were bound to cause problems.(http://venus.spaceports.com/~theory/economy_1.htm) Lenin knew of this problem, but considered it a stepping stone in the right direction. He predicted problems, but thought in due time his economic machine would operate with great success, and make Russia into a world mega power. Lenin’s plan of communism for Russia was supposed to be great. People were supposed to get free education, free medical care, everybody makes the same amount of money, working equally as hard, and everybody was supposed to get the same advantage in life. But it would never work out quite as planed. On October 25, 1917 (November 7th according to the new Gregorian calendar), Lenin led the Bolsheviks in a Socialist Revolution that would lead Lenin in charge of Russia. Everything that had been set in stone about the life and culture of Russian over the past centuries, would change during the course of one night. People were expecting great things, Lenin and others associated with his party, made Karl Marx’s ideas about Communism sound great. Once Lenin came to power and tried to execute his plans towards his nation things went terribly wrong for the people of Russia. The problems started with the working class or the proletariat, the people that Lenin put in charge of the nation. As common knowledge, proletariats are not the most educated people, with no knowledge of how to help run a Socialist government. So the proletariats started making decisions that would hurt the common man in Russia. Decease, hunger and even cannibalism struck over some parts of the nation, where as before in the Monarchy rule under Tsar Nicholas II, Russia was as rich in agriculture as any other country in the world.(Shinskaya) Another promise that Lenin kept was that he gave the peasants more land. Also, he forced the peasants to move to collective farms, called “Kalhoz” (Russian). The peasants didn’t have any privacy, all their personal belongings were taken and put to public use in their collective farms. An example of the changes going on in the work force, on socialistic collective farm, was farmers, one farmer has two cows, the other had none. In a communistic government, where everybody is completely equal, Lenin would make the two farmers coexist and work with each other, and make the farmer with two cows share with the farmer with no cows at all. Allowing the farmer with no cows to free load off the farmer with two cows. That is Communism; unfair, but too bad, you can’t do anything about it. The peasants became outraged and started to strike. Bolshevik at first sight of resistance began to shoot down innocent people fighting for their freedom, all by the order of Lenin.(Isayevich 98) The problems didn’t end there. Back in the old days of Monarch Russia, the Russian people had a great belief of the church. In one of Karl Marx’s publishing’s about communism, he replies “Religion is opium for the common man.”(Isayevich 135) When Lenin took over he forbid religion, destroyed all the churches, and murdered all the priests, turning great national landmarks built by the blood and sweat of the Russian man into rubble. Anybody who tried to believe in something besides communism was murdered with out justice or a right to a trial by the authority of Vladimer Ilyich, Lenin. Lenin didn’t want anyone to try to bring back the old Monarchy ways of Russia. He had the Bolshevik army murder Tsar Nicholas II, his wife, all his children and anybody who was associated with the Tsar.(Service 78) Lenin’s Bolshevik army, also known as the Red Army, went to a civil war with the peasants and the opposers of the socialist regime, which was the White Army. Russia was going through a turbulent time, fighting opposing nations, and a civil war that happened for eight months in the year 1918, and going through hunger, despair and decease.(Liberman) The plans of a world wide socialist revolution was now wide spread among neighboring nations. Based on their conclusions from Russia and how they handled the change and the horrible crimes that were committed against humanity on the part of the socialist party. Other countries around Europe wanted no part of communism, and considered it a serious threat to their existence.	1,159	ENGLISH	1
Rice is a staple food crop of 20 percent of the world's population. It's also grown on every continent except Antarctica. While it's an important part of our diets, new research shows that rice plants can be used in a different way, too: to clean runoff from farms before it gets into rivers, lakes, and streams. This idea came to Matt Moore, a USDA research ecologist, because he, himself, comes from a family of farmers. He was trying to figure out a way to address the unintended issue of runoff. As water drains from agricultural fields, the pesticides used on those fields can be carried along. Moore wanted to stop pesticides from getting into water outside the farm in a way that was easy and cost-efficient for farmers. "We wanted something that was common, that could be applied in a lot of different places, but something that's non-invasive," said Moore, who works in the USDA-Agricultural Research Service's Water Ecology and Ecology Research Unit in Oxford, Mississippi. The idea came to Moore while he was driving to his family's farm in northeast Arkansas. "We're big rice farmers. Cheesy as it sounds, I was driving around trying to look for some inspiration and it just hit me: What about rice?" So researchers planted four fields, two with and two without rice. They then flooded those fields with a mix of three kinds of pesticides plus water that together is a lot like runoff during a storm. They did this for two years in a row. They found that the levels of all three pesticides were lower in fields where they'd planted rice. How much it dropped ranged from 85 percent to 97 percent, depending on which pesticide they measured. Rice can do this through phytoremediation--using plants and their roots to clean up water (though they can also clean soil and air). That's what researchers say happened here. Instead of those chemicals being in the runoff water, they were captured in the rice plants. In real life, this pesticide-cleaning ability of rice could be used in a few ways. To start, farmers could plant rice in drainage ditches already on their farms, which would "let rice clean off water that runs off into your field before it runs into a river, lake, or stream," Moore said. "Dreaming big, eventually we could get to the point where you could use rice fields as constructed wetlands," diverting runoff into rice fields so they naturally take those pesticides out of the water. One big question Moore hopes additional research can answer is whether or not those chemicals end up in the edible part of the rice plant--the rice grain--itself. If it doesn't, rice could be that natural water cleaner while also being a food source. "It's potentially huge for developing countries to be able to use this as a crop and water cleaning technology," he said. For now, though, Moore is excited about the potential of a humble, popular crop that even his own family has been growing for generations. "We're just trying to use simple techniques that are easy for the farmer, that are economical, that are still environmentally friendly," he said. "Farming seems like a not-for-profit business these days, which I full-well understand. How can farmers use the landscape that's already there? How can they maximize that while helping the environment and their bottom line? Rice could be it." Read more about this research in the Journal of Environmental Quality. The U.S. Department of Agriculture funded this project.	<urn:uuid:1c30446d-caa0-4b01-b1d9-43dffc0df824>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-12/asoa-crf120318.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00540.warc.gz	en	0.9807	728	3.671875	4	[ -0.04724256694316864, 0.08436501026153564, 0.06568778306245804, -0.04641125723719597, 0.6779850125312805, -0.06156567856669426, 0.15620437264442444, -0.00042764004319906235, -0.15581241250038147, -0.043831609189510345, -0.0023035614285618067, -0.2703591287136078, 0.1606123298406601, 0.0765...	3	Rice is a staple food crop of 20 percent of the world's population. It's also grown on every continent except Antarctica. While it's an important part of our diets, new research shows that rice plants can be used in a different way, too: to clean runoff from farms before it gets into rivers, lakes, and streams. This idea came to Matt Moore, a USDA research ecologist, because he, himself, comes from a family of farmers. He was trying to figure out a way to address the unintended issue of runoff. As water drains from agricultural fields, the pesticides used on those fields can be carried along. Moore wanted to stop pesticides from getting into water outside the farm in a way that was easy and cost-efficient for farmers. "We wanted something that was common, that could be applied in a lot of different places, but something that's non-invasive," said Moore, who works in the USDA-Agricultural Research Service's Water Ecology and Ecology Research Unit in Oxford, Mississippi. The idea came to Moore while he was driving to his family's farm in northeast Arkansas. "We're big rice farmers. Cheesy as it sounds, I was driving around trying to look for some inspiration and it just hit me: What about rice?" So researchers planted four fields, two with and two without rice. They then flooded those fields with a mix of three kinds of pesticides plus water that together is a lot like runoff during a storm. They did this for two years in a row. They found that the levels of all three pesticides were lower in fields where they'd planted rice. How much it dropped ranged from 85 percent to 97 percent, depending on which pesticide they measured. Rice can do this through phytoremediation--using plants and their roots to clean up water (though they can also clean soil and air). That's what researchers say happened here. Instead of those chemicals being in the runoff water, they were captured in the rice plants. In real life, this pesticide-cleaning ability of rice could be used in a few ways. To start, farmers could plant rice in drainage ditches already on their farms, which would "let rice clean off water that runs off into your field before it runs into a river, lake, or stream," Moore said. "Dreaming big, eventually we could get to the point where you could use rice fields as constructed wetlands," diverting runoff into rice fields so they naturally take those pesticides out of the water. One big question Moore hopes additional research can answer is whether or not those chemicals end up in the edible part of the rice plant--the rice grain--itself. If it doesn't, rice could be that natural water cleaner while also being a food source. "It's potentially huge for developing countries to be able to use this as a crop and water cleaning technology," he said. For now, though, Moore is excited about the potential of a humble, popular crop that even his own family has been growing for generations. "We're just trying to use simple techniques that are easy for the farmer, that are economical, that are still environmentally friendly," he said. "Farming seems like a not-for-profit business these days, which I full-well understand. How can farmers use the landscape that's already there? How can they maximize that while helping the environment and their bottom line? Rice could be it." Read more about this research in the Journal of Environmental Quality. The U.S. Department of Agriculture funded this project.	712	ENGLISH	1
Every epoch heroes reflect their major beliefs, which can be clearly traced when analyzing literary works. Sophocles’ Oedipus The King and Shakespeare’s Othello are quite different dramatic pieces of writing in terms of their historical and cultural background but they share the common pattern of a tragic hero. However, because of the epochs’ different beliefs, the nature of tragedy is revealed by the authors in different ways, which is reflected in the following statement: “The Downfall of Oedipus is the Work of the Gods; the Downfall of Othello is Self-inflicted”. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Speaking about Oedipus as a character of Sophocles’ tragedy, it is worth saying that he is not a self-standing hero, unlike Othello and other characters typical for the modern literature. First of all, he is deeply rooted in the ancient mythology and old plots, which were quite familiar to the Greek audience. Thus, when writing a tragedy to stage, it was not a task of Sophocles to tell a totally new story to the audience or to surprise them in any way. On the contrary, he had to tell the old story with a character which was known by all spectators but to do this in the way to capture them by tragic spirit. Oedipus’ link to previous epochs and mythology is an important touch because it helps to understand what role this character has according to Sophocles. In fact, the author’s aim was to place the hero into a universal paradigm outside of time and place, and to tell the story about the laws of the Universe and place of humanity in this paradigm. Hence, even when the play begins, the audience already knows the further fate of Oedipus, and this knowledge helps them to treat it exactly as fate not ruled by a human but exclusively by the gods. As a researcher puts it, “common sense reality and our ethical priorities are illusory: dark fate lies heavily over them” ( Raphos, p.4). Thus, it is known from the character’s birth that he has to kill his father and get married to his mother, and his future life is a struggle to live a life which would be different from the prophecy. He challenges the gods’ will demonstrating his strength as a human but he is not able to change the fate according to the beliefs, which are expressed in the play. In contrast Shakespeare’s Othello is a product of Renaissance, which has a completely different vision of people’s place on the earth. Renaissance came after gloomy Middle Ages, which proposed an idea of a small human whose life is totally in the hands of severe God. In fact, it is medieval vision, that looks close to the one offered by Sophocles. However, the Renaissance values are completely different. First of all, the Renaissance ideals are focused on a human as God’s the most perfect creature. Because of this, people are believed to have a variety of talents and opportunities, and to be empowered by God to make their choices on their own. Of course, there is a certain social determination about the characters’ actions in Othello. Thus, because the hero is a moor, a representative of a different race, Desdemona’s father is against his daughter’s marriage to the man, so they have to elope. Thus, it is clear from the very beginning that there are some dark forces that play against Othello, yet he is able to take his own choices about his life. It is remarkable tht a secret marriage is a rebellion, which is not approved by society, but not so much as in the epoch described in Oedipus. On the contrary, Renaissance authors were quite sympathetic about rebellion (Paradise Lost can be given as an example to illustrate the point). Hence, despite some social resistance, Othello is empowered to take his own decisions, and no direct connection with God’s anger can be traced. Returning to Oedipus, it is made clear that human range of choices is limited. Several characters address oracles to find out their fate, and are told the tragic truth. However, all of them refuse to accept their lot and struggle to change it. Sophocles, as a representative of his culture, reveals an idea that people are punished by gods for their self-confidence and pride. It was a man’s decision to let Oedipus die as a child but because the gods have different plans about him, he does not die at this stage. Despite his power and royal origin, he is just a toy in the gods’ hands, and this what makes the situation tragic. When considering Oedipus as a tragic hero, it would be useful to address to the classical definition given by Aristotle: “the protagonist, the hero or chief character of the tragedy, is a person of high estate, apparently a king or queen or other member of a royal family… It is the nature of tragedy that the protagonist must fall from power and from happiness; his high estate gives him a place of dignity to fall from and perhaps makes his fall seem all the more a calamity in that it involves an entire nation” (Kennedy, p. 856). Because the fate of Oedipus is known to the audience and partially to him, the only thing to blame him for is his blindness. It is not accidental that he chooses to blind himself to punish himself for not seeing how the truth came true. Even though both he and Jocasta know some information, they do not want to believe it. Jocasta persuades Oedipus not to worry: “So don’t concern yourself with prophecies./ Whatever gods intend to bring about/ they themselves make known quite easily” (Sophocles). Thus, it is possible to say that Oedipus’ fall is planned by gods and that he should not be blamed by it but vice versa respected for his attempts to change his lot. He says in the end “But wherever my fate leads, just let it go” (Sophocles). Even that it might seem that Oedipus demonstrates a belief that he cannot escape the fate, he does not hope for it: “Is Oedipus a coward? Does he not show that impetuous, arrogant bravery which may seem the cause of his downfall? Yes, and many times. But his prideful drive, facing up to enemies and obstacles in his way, is no more than a shell, a shield covering what all the while moves him and shapes his character: the choice of fearful flight with no expected refuge, the choice to sever himself off from the inseparable, to run away from that which in running is still carried along - his self to be, his own future” (Adamczewski, p. 44). Discussing Othello in the same context, it is worth saying that he does not completely match the above mentioned definition of tragic hero as understood by Aristotle. Yes, he is a person of high rank, a brave military commander, which partially is in line with Aristotle’s vision about falling from high position. On the other hand, it is made clear by Shakespeare that the tragedy is created by his own haands. Indeed, he has enemies around who plot against him and make the situation look false and unbearable to him. However, not divine forces but his own vices and passions cause the situation in which he cannot control himself and kills his wife for the betrayal that she has never committed. Othello’s enemies like Iago see his flaws and use them in their own interests. Unless he had them, no one would be able to manipulate him and make him believe that Desdemona is unfaithful. A critic speaks about Othello’s “inherent weakness…Othello lives all his life by faith, not by sight” (Bhattacharyya, p. 35). Shakespeare reveals an idea that fate might partially affect people’s lives, however a lot depends on one’s own personality. Iago, the antagonist, knows that Othello’s internal enemies will destroy him sooner than anyone from his surroundings. O, beware, my lord, of jealousy; It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock The meat it feeds on; (3.3.15) Thus, as a representative of modern literature, Shakespeare treats his hero as an individual in the first place, which means that he bears responsibility for his actions. If Sophocles focuses on the external laws of fate and gods’ will, Shakespeare is more interested in the character’s psychology, in his inner demons that rule his life and his deeds. In a way, the situation of Othello and other characters of modern literature is more tragic than of those from ancient tragedies because they have no one but themselves to blame for their unhappiness. One can say for sure that their loneliness and misery is devastating because of the fact that they will always remember that they are the cause of tragedy. Utter freedom causes utter bitterness. Yet, as a critic points out, the characters of Othello speak much about fate and in fact are not always sure about the origin of their feelings and ideas. Thus, they are still not completely ready for the responsibility attached to the freedom: “Yet, their very confusions painfully underline and intensify our own difficulty in maintaining any clear-cut distinction between the “fated” and the “free” aspects of the self… Are the feeling we cannot help having really “fated” to us?” (Adamson, p.8). However, despite the fact that once in a while Othello seems to be doomed by his passions and emotions, his reactions are private, they do not work like part of a larger force like in Sophocles’ tragedy. To conclude, it is worth saying that Othello and Oedipus have much in common as tragic characters despite belonging to different epochs. However, there is a significant difference between an ancient Greek perception of a tragedy and more modern Renaissance literature. Sophocles’ society believed that a person’s life is totally controlled by the gods, which found its reflection in the tragedy. Awareness of fate and its inevitability makes the story tragic because however hard he tries, the character cannot change his fate. In contrast, Othello is not a slave of gods but of his own emotions, including extreme jealousy. This is why despite the fact that his enemies created the tragic situation, he was the one to make a final choice, thus his downfall is self-inflicted. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:7746ed5c-4645-46ac-a371-b382e21c3d33>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essays-expert.com/essays/literary-analysis/the-downfall-of-oedipus-is-the-work-of-the-gods.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00401.warc.gz	en	0.981102	2,286	3.6875	4	[ 0.08034534752368927, 0.2442418336868286, 0.2706657350063324, -0.24824130535125732, -0.18091103434562683, -0.23402495682239532, 0.41652965545654297, 0.4133419990539551, 0.0833655297756195, -0.32082605361938477, 0.03448936343193054, -0.20376119017601013, -0.022042740136384964, 0.247046157717...	1	Every epoch heroes reflect their major beliefs, which can be clearly traced when analyzing literary works. Sophocles’ Oedipus The King and Shakespeare’s Othello are quite different dramatic pieces of writing in terms of their historical and cultural background but they share the common pattern of a tragic hero. However, because of the epochs’ different beliefs, the nature of tragedy is revealed by the authors in different ways, which is reflected in the following statement: “The Downfall of Oedipus is the Work of the Gods; the Downfall of Othello is Self-inflicted”. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Speaking about Oedipus as a character of Sophocles’ tragedy, it is worth saying that he is not a self-standing hero, unlike Othello and other characters typical for the modern literature. First of all, he is deeply rooted in the ancient mythology and old plots, which were quite familiar to the Greek audience. Thus, when writing a tragedy to stage, it was not a task of Sophocles to tell a totally new story to the audience or to surprise them in any way. On the contrary, he had to tell the old story with a character which was known by all spectators but to do this in the way to capture them by tragic spirit. Oedipus’ link to previous epochs and mythology is an important touch because it helps to understand what role this character has according to Sophocles. In fact, the author’s aim was to place the hero into a universal paradigm outside of time and place, and to tell the story about the laws of the Universe and place of humanity in this paradigm. Hence, even when the play begins, the audience already knows the further fate of Oedipus, and this knowledge helps them to treat it exactly as fate not ruled by a human but exclusively by the gods. As a researcher puts it, “common sense reality and our ethical priorities are illusory: dark fate lies heavily over them” ( Raphos, p.4). Thus, it is known from the character’s birth that he has to kill his father and get married to his mother, and his future life is a struggle to live a life which would be different from the prophecy. He challenges the gods’ will demonstrating his strength as a human but he is not able to change the fate according to the beliefs, which are expressed in the play. In contrast Shakespeare’s Othello is a product of Renaissance, which has a completely different vision of people’s place on the earth. Renaissance came after gloomy Middle Ages, which proposed an idea of a small human whose life is totally in the hands of severe God. In fact, it is medieval vision, that looks close to the one offered by Sophocles. However, the Renaissance values are completely different. First of all, the Renaissance ideals are focused on a human as God’s the most perfect creature. Because of this, people are believed to have a variety of talents and opportunities, and to be empowered by God to make their choices on their own. Of course, there is a certain social determination about the characters’ actions in Othello. Thus, because the hero is a moor, a representative of a different race, Desdemona’s father is against his daughter’s marriage to the man, so they have to elope. Thus, it is clear from the very beginning that there are some dark forces that play against Othello, yet he is able to take his own choices about his life. It is remarkable tht a secret marriage is a rebellion, which is not approved by society, but not so much as in the epoch described in Oedipus. On the contrary, Renaissance authors were quite sympathetic about rebellion (Paradise Lost can be given as an example to illustrate the point). Hence, despite some social resistance, Othello is empowered to take his own decisions, and no direct connection with God’s anger can be traced. Returning to Oedipus, it is made clear that human range of choices is limited. Several characters address oracles to find out their fate, and are told the tragic truth. However, all of them refuse to accept their lot and struggle to change it. Sophocles, as a representative of his culture, reveals an idea that people are punished by gods for their self-confidence and pride. It was a man’s decision to let Oedipus die as a child but because the gods have different plans about him, he does not die at this stage. Despite his power and royal origin, he is just a toy in the gods’ hands, and this what makes the situation tragic. When considering Oedipus as a tragic hero, it would be useful to address to the classical definition given by Aristotle: “the protagonist, the hero or chief character of the tragedy, is a person of high estate, apparently a king or queen or other member of a royal family… It is the nature of tragedy that the protagonist must fall from power and from happiness; his high estate gives him a place of dignity to fall from and perhaps makes his fall seem all the more a calamity in that it involves an entire nation” (Kennedy, p. 856). Because the fate of Oedipus is known to the audience and partially to him, the only thing to blame him for is his blindness. It is not accidental that he chooses to blind himself to punish himself for not seeing how the truth came true. Even though both he and Jocasta know some information, they do not want to believe it. Jocasta persuades Oedipus not to worry: “So don’t concern yourself with prophecies./ Whatever gods intend to bring about/ they themselves make known quite easily” (Sophocles). Thus, it is possible to say that Oedipus’ fall is planned by gods and that he should not be blamed by it but vice versa respected for his attempts to change his lot. He says in the end “But wherever my fate leads, just let it go” (Sophocles). Even that it might seem that Oedipus demonstrates a belief that he cannot escape the fate, he does not hope for it: “Is Oedipus a coward? Does he not show that impetuous, arrogant bravery which may seem the cause of his downfall? Yes, and many times. But his prideful drive, facing up to enemies and obstacles in his way, is no more than a shell, a shield covering what all the while moves him and shapes his character: the choice of fearful flight with no expected refuge, the choice to sever himself off from the inseparable, to run away from that which in running is still carried along - his self to be, his own future” (Adamczewski, p. 44). Discussing Othello in the same context, it is worth saying that he does not completely match the above mentioned definition of tragic hero as understood by Aristotle. Yes, he is a person of high rank, a brave military commander, which partially is in line with Aristotle’s vision about falling from high position. On the other hand, it is made clear by Shakespeare that the tragedy is created by his own haands. Indeed, he has enemies around who plot against him and make the situation look false and unbearable to him. However, not divine forces but his own vices and passions cause the situation in which he cannot control himself and kills his wife for the betrayal that she has never committed. Othello’s enemies like Iago see his flaws and use them in their own interests. Unless he had them, no one would be able to manipulate him and make him believe that Desdemona is unfaithful. A critic speaks about Othello’s “inherent weakness…Othello lives all his life by faith, not by sight” (Bhattacharyya, p. 35). Shakespeare reveals an idea that fate might partially affect people’s lives, however a lot depends on one’s own personality. Iago, the antagonist, knows that Othello’s internal enemies will destroy him sooner than anyone from his surroundings. O, beware, my lord, of jealousy; It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock The meat it feeds on; (3.3.15) Thus, as a representative of modern literature, Shakespeare treats his hero as an individual in the first place, which means that he bears responsibility for his actions. If Sophocles focuses on the external laws of fate and gods’ will, Shakespeare is more interested in the character’s psychology, in his inner demons that rule his life and his deeds. In a way, the situation of Othello and other characters of modern literature is more tragic than of those from ancient tragedies because they have no one but themselves to blame for their unhappiness. One can say for sure that their loneliness and misery is devastating because of the fact that they will always remember that they are the cause of tragedy. Utter freedom causes utter bitterness. Yet, as a critic points out, the characters of Othello speak much about fate and in fact are not always sure about the origin of their feelings and ideas. Thus, they are still not completely ready for the responsibility attached to the freedom: “Yet, their very confusions painfully underline and intensify our own difficulty in maintaining any clear-cut distinction between the “fated” and the “free” aspects of the self… Are the feeling we cannot help having really “fated” to us?” (Adamson, p.8). However, despite the fact that once in a while Othello seems to be doomed by his passions and emotions, his reactions are private, they do not work like part of a larger force like in Sophocles’ tragedy. To conclude, it is worth saying that Othello and Oedipus have much in common as tragic characters despite belonging to different epochs. However, there is a significant difference between an ancient Greek perception of a tragedy and more modern Renaissance literature. Sophocles’ society believed that a person’s life is totally controlled by the gods, which found its reflection in the tragedy. Awareness of fate and its inevitability makes the story tragic because however hard he tries, the character cannot change his fate. In contrast, Othello is not a slave of gods but of his own emotions, including extreme jealousy. This is why despite the fact that his enemies created the tragic situation, he was the one to make a final choice, thus his downfall is self-inflicted. Most popular orders	2,202	ENGLISH	1
Some of the links in this post may be affiliate links. If make a purchase through these links, we receive a commission at no extra cost to you. Please see our disclosure for more info. Martin Luther King Jr. was born in Atlanta, Georgia on January 15th, 1929. He was a pivotal advocate for African Americans during the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. King experienced racism from an early age, and those events stayed with and eventually brought him to a life of activism. After graduating college with a doctorate degree in theology, King became a pastor in Alabama. He began a series of peaceful protests in the south that eventually changed many laws dealing with the equality of African Americans. King gave hundreds of moving speeches across the country, and in 1964 was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. On April 4th, 1968, Dr. King was shot and killed while in Memphis, Tennessee. Although his life ended that day, the work that he had accomplished changed the nation. King will be remembered not only for his commitment to the cause of equality for African Americans but also for his profound speeches that moved so many. MLK Jr.’s words were spoken with hope that the future for African Americans would be brighter and that they would finally be given the equality they deserved. The following 123 Martin Luther King Jr. quotes on life, love, progress, and freedom helped shape the progressive world we live in today. - Martin Luther King Jr. skipped two grades in high school, 9th and 11th, and entered college (Morehouse College) at the age of 15 in 1944. By 19, he received a bachelor’s degree in sociology. - His honeymoon was spent at a funeral parlor. This was not because someone died, simply because a friend owned the parlor and offered to let him use it for his honeymoon. - His house was once bombed. This was during the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which lasted 385 days. - Martin Luther King Jr.’s autopsy revealed that stress had taken a major toll on his body. Despite being only 39 when he passed away, one of his doctors noted that he had “the heart of a 60 year old”. - Today over 700 streets in the Unites States are named after Martin Luther King Jr. There is one such street in almost every major city. - King’s “I Have a Dream” speech was not his first at the Lincoln Memorial. - King narrowly escaped an assassination attempt a decade before his death. - Members of King’s family did not believe James Earl Ray acted alone. - King’s mother was also slain by a bullet in 1974. - George Washington and Abraham Lincoln are the only other Americans to have had their birthdays observed as a national holiday (now combined as Presidents Day). Martin Luther King Jr. inspired the human race to strive for harmony among all people. His tragic death shocked the nation, but his words and his dedication to equality continue to inspire younger generations. We hope these famous Martin Luther King Jr. quotes lift your heart and spirit.	<urn:uuid:2d765e2e-d608-449e-9b00-48a6f654631e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.keepinspiring.me/martin-luther-king-jr-quotes/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00004.warc.gz	en	0.983482	642	3.71875	4	[ -0.2689093053340912, 0.6847588419914246, 0.4525296986103058, -0.2313753068447113, -0.43061745166778564, 0.19189417362213135, 0.15861807763576508, -0.006714842282235622, -0.13353103399276733, 0.4432029128074646, 0.14263415336608887, 0.4227355122566223, 0.14145013689994812, -0.33091032505035...	7	Some of the links in this post may be affiliate links. If make a purchase through these links, we receive a commission at no extra cost to you. Please see our disclosure for more info. Martin Luther King Jr. was born in Atlanta, Georgia on January 15th, 1929. He was a pivotal advocate for African Americans during the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. King experienced racism from an early age, and those events stayed with and eventually brought him to a life of activism. After graduating college with a doctorate degree in theology, King became a pastor in Alabama. He began a series of peaceful protests in the south that eventually changed many laws dealing with the equality of African Americans. King gave hundreds of moving speeches across the country, and in 1964 was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. On April 4th, 1968, Dr. King was shot and killed while in Memphis, Tennessee. Although his life ended that day, the work that he had accomplished changed the nation. King will be remembered not only for his commitment to the cause of equality for African Americans but also for his profound speeches that moved so many. MLK Jr.’s words were spoken with hope that the future for African Americans would be brighter and that they would finally be given the equality they deserved. The following 123 Martin Luther King Jr. quotes on life, love, progress, and freedom helped shape the progressive world we live in today. - Martin Luther King Jr. skipped two grades in high school, 9th and 11th, and entered college (Morehouse College) at the age of 15 in 1944. By 19, he received a bachelor’s degree in sociology. - His honeymoon was spent at a funeral parlor. This was not because someone died, simply because a friend owned the parlor and offered to let him use it for his honeymoon. - His house was once bombed. This was during the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which lasted 385 days. - Martin Luther King Jr.’s autopsy revealed that stress had taken a major toll on his body. Despite being only 39 when he passed away, one of his doctors noted that he had “the heart of a 60 year old”. - Today over 700 streets in the Unites States are named after Martin Luther King Jr. There is one such street in almost every major city. - King’s “I Have a Dream” speech was not his first at the Lincoln Memorial. - King narrowly escaped an assassination attempt a decade before his death. - Members of King’s family did not believe James Earl Ray acted alone. - King’s mother was also slain by a bullet in 1974. - George Washington and Abraham Lincoln are the only other Americans to have had their birthdays observed as a national holiday (now combined as Presidents Day). Martin Luther King Jr. inspired the human race to strive for harmony among all people. His tragic death shocked the nation, but his words and his dedication to equality continue to inspire younger generations. We hope these famous Martin Luther King Jr. quotes lift your heart and spirit.	649	ENGLISH	1
Victoria—Under the Southern Cross I N the days of King George III. there was a great sailor called Captain Cook. He made many voyages into unknown seas and discovered new lands. Among these lands were the islands of Australia and New Zealand. It was in April 1770 A.D. that Captain Cook first landed in Australia, in a bay which he called Botany Bay, because there were so many plants of all kinds there. At that time the island was inhabited only by wild, black savages, and Captain Cook took possession of the whole eastern coast in the name of King George, calling it New South Wales. While America was a British colony, wicked people, instead of being sent to prison for punishment, as they are now, were sent to work on the cotton plantations or farms there. After America was lost, convicts, as these wicked people are called, could no longer be sent there, and British statesmen began to look round for some other country to which they could be sent. Then it was that Australia was thought of. It was decided to form a convict colony there. It was hoped that free people would go too, and that soon Australia would become as great a colony as America had been. So there sailed out from England a little fleet of ships, carrying Captain Philip as the Governor of the new colony, and nearly a thousand people, of whom more than seven hundred were prisoners; the rest were officers and marines to guard the prisoners. They took with them food and clothes enough to last two years, also tools for building houses, and ploughs and everything needed for farm work. As the ships passed the Cape of Good Hope, they stopped there to take in more food, and also animals with which to stock the farms which the British hoped to make in Australia. They took so many animals on board that the ships looked more like Noah's arks than anything else. When the ships reached Australia, Captain Philip landed, a flagstaff was planted, and soon the Union Jack floated out to the sound of British cheers. The health of the King was drunk, and then Captain Philip made a speech to the convicts. He told them that now, in this new country, they had another chance to forget their wicked ways, and to become again good British subjects. It was the first speech which had ever been made in the English language in that far land, and, when he had finished, the silence of the lonely shore was again broken by the sound of British cheers. So the town of Sydney was founded. Governor Philip and his strange company of rough, bad men soon set to work. Everything had to be done. Trees had to be felled, and stones quarried and broken for the building of houses, and the making of roads and harbours. There was so much to do that little time was left for farm work, and the settlers in this new colony nearly starved. It seemed as if the people at home had forgotten them, for the food which they had promised to send never came. Day by day eager eyes looked out vainly over the blue sea, straining for the sight of a white sail. But no ship came. Prisoners and warders alike grew gaunt and pale. Nearly all their food was gone. The Governor even gave up some sacks of flour which were his own. "I do not wish," he said, "to have anything which others cannot have. If any convict complains, he may come and see that at Government House we are no better off than he is." Still no help came. Little work could be done by men who were starving, and the weary days dragged slowly past for the handful of white people who, utterly cut off from all others, were ignorant of what was happening in the great world, which lay beyond the blue waves. But even in the darkest hour, they never forgot that they were Britons. "Our distress did not make us forget that this was the birthday of our beloved King," wrote one. "In the morning flags were displayed, and at noon three volleys of musketry were fired as an acknowledgment that we were Britons, who, however distant and distressed, revered their King, and loved their country." At last, after three years, a sail was seen. Oh, what joy! Help at last, and news at last from home! But alas! the new ship brought little food, and many more convicts. It brought, however, the assurance that the little colony was not forgotten. Other ships had been sent with food, but they had been wrecked on the way. A fortnight later another ship arrived, then another and another. The colony was saved for the time at least, although famine threatened them again more than once. At one time things were so bad that when any one was asked to dine at Government House, he was requested to bring his own bread with him. In a few years, free settlers began to come to Australia. They were farmers, and soon corn was grown in such quantities that the colony was freed from all fear of famine. Later still, a gentleman brought wool-bearing sheep to Australia, that is, sheep which have fine fleeces, and now the rearing of sheep for their wool is one of the chief industries of Australia. As the free settlers increased in number, they objected to having convicts sent among them, for, because of these wild, bad men, the colony began to have an evil name. When gold was discovered in Australia, many more people flocked there. Then Queen Victoria and her government decided at last that it was not a good thing to send convicts to the colonies, and so in 1867 A.D. the last convict ship set out for Australia. After that the British shut up those who did wrong in strong prisons at home. Australia has grown quickly into a great and wealthy country. I cannot tell you the history of it here, but although it is now called the Commonwealth of Australia, and has a Parliament of its own, it is still part of the Empire of Greater Britain. Australia lies quite at the other side of the world from Britain, and when it is day in the one it is night in the other. And when Australians look up to the sky at night they see the stars of the Southern Cross, instead of the Pole Star and the Plough which the British see. Yet the people in the two islands are friends and brothers, and ties of love draw them together across the ocean waves.	<urn:uuid:6505076d-9fb1-4715-8122-2a72b9a227cd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=southern	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00486.warc.gz	en	0.992489	1,331	3.4375	3	[ -0.16248393058776855, 0.29342007637023926, 0.24144291877746582, -0.24083979427814484, -0.029670557007193565, -0.0038062743842601776, 0.1847865730524063, -0.10485994070768356, -0.35663101077079773, 0.18571963906288147, 0.35484692454338074, -0.6116039752960205, -0.08421015739440918, 0.372610...	1	Victoria—Under the Southern Cross I N the days of King George III. there was a great sailor called Captain Cook. He made many voyages into unknown seas and discovered new lands. Among these lands were the islands of Australia and New Zealand. It was in April 1770 A.D. that Captain Cook first landed in Australia, in a bay which he called Botany Bay, because there were so many plants of all kinds there. At that time the island was inhabited only by wild, black savages, and Captain Cook took possession of the whole eastern coast in the name of King George, calling it New South Wales. While America was a British colony, wicked people, instead of being sent to prison for punishment, as they are now, were sent to work on the cotton plantations or farms there. After America was lost, convicts, as these wicked people are called, could no longer be sent there, and British statesmen began to look round for some other country to which they could be sent. Then it was that Australia was thought of. It was decided to form a convict colony there. It was hoped that free people would go too, and that soon Australia would become as great a colony as America had been. So there sailed out from England a little fleet of ships, carrying Captain Philip as the Governor of the new colony, and nearly a thousand people, of whom more than seven hundred were prisoners; the rest were officers and marines to guard the prisoners. They took with them food and clothes enough to last two years, also tools for building houses, and ploughs and everything needed for farm work. As the ships passed the Cape of Good Hope, they stopped there to take in more food, and also animals with which to stock the farms which the British hoped to make in Australia. They took so many animals on board that the ships looked more like Noah's arks than anything else. When the ships reached Australia, Captain Philip landed, a flagstaff was planted, and soon the Union Jack floated out to the sound of British cheers. The health of the King was drunk, and then Captain Philip made a speech to the convicts. He told them that now, in this new country, they had another chance to forget their wicked ways, and to become again good British subjects. It was the first speech which had ever been made in the English language in that far land, and, when he had finished, the silence of the lonely shore was again broken by the sound of British cheers. So the town of Sydney was founded. Governor Philip and his strange company of rough, bad men soon set to work. Everything had to be done. Trees had to be felled, and stones quarried and broken for the building of houses, and the making of roads and harbours. There was so much to do that little time was left for farm work, and the settlers in this new colony nearly starved. It seemed as if the people at home had forgotten them, for the food which they had promised to send never came. Day by day eager eyes looked out vainly over the blue sea, straining for the sight of a white sail. But no ship came. Prisoners and warders alike grew gaunt and pale. Nearly all their food was gone. The Governor even gave up some sacks of flour which were his own. "I do not wish," he said, "to have anything which others cannot have. If any convict complains, he may come and see that at Government House we are no better off than he is." Still no help came. Little work could be done by men who were starving, and the weary days dragged slowly past for the handful of white people who, utterly cut off from all others, were ignorant of what was happening in the great world, which lay beyond the blue waves. But even in the darkest hour, they never forgot that they were Britons. "Our distress did not make us forget that this was the birthday of our beloved King," wrote one. "In the morning flags were displayed, and at noon three volleys of musketry were fired as an acknowledgment that we were Britons, who, however distant and distressed, revered their King, and loved their country." At last, after three years, a sail was seen. Oh, what joy! Help at last, and news at last from home! But alas! the new ship brought little food, and many more convicts. It brought, however, the assurance that the little colony was not forgotten. Other ships had been sent with food, but they had been wrecked on the way. A fortnight later another ship arrived, then another and another. The colony was saved for the time at least, although famine threatened them again more than once. At one time things were so bad that when any one was asked to dine at Government House, he was requested to bring his own bread with him. In a few years, free settlers began to come to Australia. They were farmers, and soon corn was grown in such quantities that the colony was freed from all fear of famine. Later still, a gentleman brought wool-bearing sheep to Australia, that is, sheep which have fine fleeces, and now the rearing of sheep for their wool is one of the chief industries of Australia. As the free settlers increased in number, they objected to having convicts sent among them, for, because of these wild, bad men, the colony began to have an evil name. When gold was discovered in Australia, many more people flocked there. Then Queen Victoria and her government decided at last that it was not a good thing to send convicts to the colonies, and so in 1867 A.D. the last convict ship set out for Australia. After that the British shut up those who did wrong in strong prisons at home. Australia has grown quickly into a great and wealthy country. I cannot tell you the history of it here, but although it is now called the Commonwealth of Australia, and has a Parliament of its own, it is still part of the Empire of Greater Britain. Australia lies quite at the other side of the world from Britain, and when it is day in the one it is night in the other. And when Australians look up to the sky at night they see the stars of the Southern Cross, instead of the Pole Star and the Plough which the British see. Yet the people in the two islands are friends and brothers, and ties of love draw them together across the ocean waves.	1,324	ENGLISH	1
On October 26, 1942, the last U.S. carrier manufactured before America’s entry into World War II, the Hornet, is damaged so extensively by Japanese war planes in the Battle of Santa Cruz that it must be abandoned. The battle for Guadalcanal was the first American offensive against the Japanese, an attempt to prevent the Axis power from taking yet another island in the Solomon chain and gaining more ground in its race for Australia. On this day, in the vicinity of the Santa Cruz Islands, two American naval task forces had to stop a superior Japanese fleet, which was on its way to Guadalcanal with reinforcements. As was the case in the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942, the engagement at Santa Cruz was fought exclusively by aircraft taking off from carriers of the respective forces; the ships themselves were not in range to fire at one another. Japanese aerial fire damaged the USS Enterprise, the battleship South Dakota, and finally the Hornet. In fact, the explosions wrought by the Japanese bombs that rained down on the Hornet were so great that two of the Japanese bombers were themselves crippled by the blasts, and the pilots chose to dive-bomb their planes into the deck of the American carrier, which was finally abandoned and left to burn. The Hornet, which weighed 20,000 tons, had seen battle during the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo (its commander at the time, Marc Mitscher, was promoted to admiral and would be a significant player in the victory over Japan) and the Battle of Midway. While the United States losses at Santa Cruz were heavy, the cost in aircraft to the Japanese was so extensive—more than 100, including 25 of the 27 bombers that attacked the Hornet—that they were unable finally to reinforce their troops at Guadalcanal, paving the way for an American victory.	<urn:uuid:a7e195d6-8d0a-4345-9602-a91e084b32c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-united-states-loses-the-hornet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00509.warc.gz	en	0.984185	379	3.640625	4	[ 0.18323837220668793, 0.07594621181488037, -0.17838437855243683, -0.4081754982471466, 0.21181070804595947, 0.3093825876712799, -0.11617784947156906, 0.4751150608062744, 0.034528110176324844, -0.35501933097839355, 0.13502615690231323, -0.2025853991508484, -0.021861743181943893, 0.81076288223...	18	On October 26, 1942, the last U.S. carrier manufactured before America’s entry into World War II, the Hornet, is damaged so extensively by Japanese war planes in the Battle of Santa Cruz that it must be abandoned. The battle for Guadalcanal was the first American offensive against the Japanese, an attempt to prevent the Axis power from taking yet another island in the Solomon chain and gaining more ground in its race for Australia. On this day, in the vicinity of the Santa Cruz Islands, two American naval task forces had to stop a superior Japanese fleet, which was on its way to Guadalcanal with reinforcements. As was the case in the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942, the engagement at Santa Cruz was fought exclusively by aircraft taking off from carriers of the respective forces; the ships themselves were not in range to fire at one another. Japanese aerial fire damaged the USS Enterprise, the battleship South Dakota, and finally the Hornet. In fact, the explosions wrought by the Japanese bombs that rained down on the Hornet were so great that two of the Japanese bombers were themselves crippled by the blasts, and the pilots chose to dive-bomb their planes into the deck of the American carrier, which was finally abandoned and left to burn. The Hornet, which weighed 20,000 tons, had seen battle during the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo (its commander at the time, Marc Mitscher, was promoted to admiral and would be a significant player in the victory over Japan) and the Battle of Midway. While the United States losses at Santa Cruz were heavy, the cost in aircraft to the Japanese was so extensive—more than 100, including 25 of the 27 bombers that attacked the Hornet—that they were unable finally to reinforce their troops at Guadalcanal, paving the way for an American victory.	393	ENGLISH	1
In the deep snows of March 1838, fourteen Crows on a horse-stealing mission were camped on the Shell (N.Platte) River, when a hunter from a nearby Oglala village out deer hunting discovered them. Hurrying back home with the news, the Lakota started out the following morning to intercept the Crows. Keeping to the low hills to the south of the Shell River and covered by a severe snow storm, the Lakota were able to close in on the Crows just as they were entering the Duck (Laramie) River valley. The Lakota warriors charged over the hill in the attack. The Crows, who were all on foot, didn’t have a chance. Weakened from the cold and snow, and knowing their situation was hopeless, they decided to accept their fate. The Crows drew their blankets over their heads, dropped down into the snow and waited for the inevitable. Red Cloud, later to become one of the most famous Oglala headmen but now not yet seventeen years old, was one of the first to arrive on the scene. Riding through the prostrate Crows he struck three of them with his bow. By not killing any of them, Red Cloud demonstrated the highest act of bravery with his coups. Right after, the advancing Lakota shot and killed all fourteen Crows where they lay.	<urn:uuid:62fa9fc9-745f-432b-91ae-7724896baebb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://amertribes.proboards.com/thread/780/red-clouds-coups	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00397.warc.gz	en	0.982459	283	3.34375	3	[ -0.25784748792648315, -0.10056532174348831, -0.03939427435398102, 0.10655127465724945, 0.13217793405056, -0.20487314462661743, 0.2794107496738434, 0.3264091908931732, -0.4199482798576355, 0.14971980452537537, 0.013525898568332195, -0.3081413805484772, 0.06519978493452072, 0.067801259458065...	3	In the deep snows of March 1838, fourteen Crows on a horse-stealing mission were camped on the Shell (N.Platte) River, when a hunter from a nearby Oglala village out deer hunting discovered them. Hurrying back home with the news, the Lakota started out the following morning to intercept the Crows. Keeping to the low hills to the south of the Shell River and covered by a severe snow storm, the Lakota were able to close in on the Crows just as they were entering the Duck (Laramie) River valley. The Lakota warriors charged over the hill in the attack. The Crows, who were all on foot, didn’t have a chance. Weakened from the cold and snow, and knowing their situation was hopeless, they decided to accept their fate. The Crows drew their blankets over their heads, dropped down into the snow and waited for the inevitable. Red Cloud, later to become one of the most famous Oglala headmen but now not yet seventeen years old, was one of the first to arrive on the scene. Riding through the prostrate Crows he struck three of them with his bow. By not killing any of them, Red Cloud demonstrated the highest act of bravery with his coups. Right after, the advancing Lakota shot and killed all fourteen Crows where they lay.	282	ENGLISH	1
Is The Crucible an appropriate title for Arthur Miller's play? A crucible, in science, is an item that holds materials, like gold, for instance, over a flame in order to create a phase or chemical change. In the play, several of the characters are "held to the flame" and show who and what they really are. That is the connection to the other definition mentioned above--a difficult test or trial. It is not just about the Witchcraft trials, however. John Proctor has to hold himself to the flame and come to terms with his indiscretion. He may have done wrong, but he refused to allow others to suffer for his sins. He is the man Arthur Miller wrote to represent himself- to examine his role in the events of his life and the Communist hearings in the 1950s. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:987ec491-2c48-40a6-a395-b7739b467127>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/crucible-an-appropriate-title-arthur-millers-play-283081?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00051.warc.gz	en	0.980341	176	3.34375	3	[ -0.4905957877635956, 0.3033653199672699, 0.26083287596702576, 0.10120372474193573, -0.031219808384776115, 0.15676790475845337, 0.6851010918617249, 0.2905292510986328, -0.5309292078018188, -0.1725776344537735, -0.41752007603645325, -0.2316773533821106, -0.38004791736602783, 0.18056525290012...	1	Is The Crucible an appropriate title for Arthur Miller's play? A crucible, in science, is an item that holds materials, like gold, for instance, over a flame in order to create a phase or chemical change. In the play, several of the characters are "held to the flame" and show who and what they really are. That is the connection to the other definition mentioned above--a difficult test or trial. It is not just about the Witchcraft trials, however. John Proctor has to hold himself to the flame and come to terms with his indiscretion. He may have done wrong, but he refused to allow others to suffer for his sins. He is the man Arthur Miller wrote to represent himself- to examine his role in the events of his life and the Communist hearings in the 1950s. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	176	ENGLISH	1
The Third to Sixth Dynasties make up the Old Kingdom. The king’s power continued to grow during this period. The early-Third Dynasty King Djoser built an even grander tomb, this time back in Saqqara. He intended to built a mastaba tomb like the kings of the First and Second Dynasties. This was gradually expanded, and five successive mastabas were built on top of one another, resulting in Egypt’s first pyramid and oldest fully stone structure, the Step Pyramid. The attempted step pyramids of the other kings of the Third Dynasty were never completed, presumably due to a succession of short reigns. Little is known of the first ruler of the Fourth Dynasty, Huni. The reign of the second king, Snefru (c.2613–2589 BC), was immensely prosperous and successful. Three massive pyramids were built during his reign alone. The first, in Meidum, was begun as a Step Pyramid, and later completed as a true pyramid. The second, the so-called Bent Pyramid in Dahshur, was the first pyramid to have been intended as a true pyramid, but structural flaws meant that this could not be achieved. With his third pyramid, the Red Pyramid, also in Dahshur, Egypt’s first true pyramid was completed, paving the way for the building of the perfect pyramid. This was achieved in the immediately succeeding reign of King Khufu (c.2589–2566 BC), who built the largest and most ambitious pyramid and pyramid complex. The Great Pyramid, with its original height of 146.5 meters, was the tallest structure in the world for 3,800 years. Khufu’s brother and successor, Djedefre (c.2566–2558 BC), did not finish his pyramid. He was succeeded by Khufu’s son, Khafre (c.2558–2532 BC), who constructed the Great Sphinx, and a pyramid very nearly as large as his father’s. The two temples associated with his pyramid were larger and more elaborate than those of his predecessors. The pyramid of Khafre’s son, Menkaure (c.2532–2503 BC), is considered to mark the beginning of a downward trend in royal power. Although his pyramid is indeed substantially smaller, at least a quarter of its height was encased in granite, a much harder stone that is obtained from Aswan, Egypt’s southern border. Furthermore, the temples adjacent to his temple are proportionally larger than those of his predecessors, suggesting a shift in the king’s priorities, from his tomb to his cult that would be practiced in these temples. This trend grew more pronounced in the Fifth (c.2494–2487 BC) and Sixth (c.2345–2181 BC) Dynasties. The last king of the Fifth Dynasty, Unas, had the interior of his pyramid in Saqqara decorated with the Pyramid Texts, the precursors to the more famous so-called Book of the Dead. The purpose of these texts was to help the king successfully reach the afterlife and achieve godhood. By the Sixth Dynasty, it is clear that the king’s power had decreased. This, in combination with a range of other factors, meant that, by the end of the long reign of its final king, Pepy II (c.2278–2184 BC), the central government was no longer in firm control of the entirety of Egypt.	<urn:uuid:a29ce51c-c13f-42a6-85b4-fbd07ef8bd4b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://egymonuments.gov.eg/en/historical-periods/old-kingdom	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00263.warc.gz	en	0.983183	732	3.8125	4	[ -0.2733760476112366, 0.7659927606582642, 0.21419364213943481, -0.16787496209144592, -0.5645765066146851, -0.06563660502433777, -0.4141007661819458, -0.35368597507476807, -0.09361612796783447, 0.13140955567359924, 0.29104921221733093, -0.630793571472168, 0.07027293741703033, -0.228083193302...	23	The Third to Sixth Dynasties make up the Old Kingdom. The king’s power continued to grow during this period. The early-Third Dynasty King Djoser built an even grander tomb, this time back in Saqqara. He intended to built a mastaba tomb like the kings of the First and Second Dynasties. This was gradually expanded, and five successive mastabas were built on top of one another, resulting in Egypt’s first pyramid and oldest fully stone structure, the Step Pyramid. The attempted step pyramids of the other kings of the Third Dynasty were never completed, presumably due to a succession of short reigns. Little is known of the first ruler of the Fourth Dynasty, Huni. The reign of the second king, Snefru (c.2613–2589 BC), was immensely prosperous and successful. Three massive pyramids were built during his reign alone. The first, in Meidum, was begun as a Step Pyramid, and later completed as a true pyramid. The second, the so-called Bent Pyramid in Dahshur, was the first pyramid to have been intended as a true pyramid, but structural flaws meant that this could not be achieved. With his third pyramid, the Red Pyramid, also in Dahshur, Egypt’s first true pyramid was completed, paving the way for the building of the perfect pyramid. This was achieved in the immediately succeeding reign of King Khufu (c.2589–2566 BC), who built the largest and most ambitious pyramid and pyramid complex. The Great Pyramid, with its original height of 146.5 meters, was the tallest structure in the world for 3,800 years. Khufu’s brother and successor, Djedefre (c.2566–2558 BC), did not finish his pyramid. He was succeeded by Khufu’s son, Khafre (c.2558–2532 BC), who constructed the Great Sphinx, and a pyramid very nearly as large as his father’s. The two temples associated with his pyramid were larger and more elaborate than those of his predecessors. The pyramid of Khafre’s son, Menkaure (c.2532–2503 BC), is considered to mark the beginning of a downward trend in royal power. Although his pyramid is indeed substantially smaller, at least a quarter of its height was encased in granite, a much harder stone that is obtained from Aswan, Egypt’s southern border. Furthermore, the temples adjacent to his temple are proportionally larger than those of his predecessors, suggesting a shift in the king’s priorities, from his tomb to his cult that would be practiced in these temples. This trend grew more pronounced in the Fifth (c.2494–2487 BC) and Sixth (c.2345–2181 BC) Dynasties. The last king of the Fifth Dynasty, Unas, had the interior of his pyramid in Saqqara decorated with the Pyramid Texts, the precursors to the more famous so-called Book of the Dead. The purpose of these texts was to help the king successfully reach the afterlife and achieve godhood. By the Sixth Dynasty, it is clear that the king’s power had decreased. This, in combination with a range of other factors, meant that, by the end of the long reign of its final king, Pepy II (c.2278–2184 BC), the central government was no longer in firm control of the entirety of Egypt.	741	ENGLISH	1

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