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The ‘First Fleet’ sails for New South Wales – 31 May 1787 In September 1786 Captain Arthur Phillip was chosen to head an expedition to establish a convict colony and the first white settlement on the east coast of New Holland, which part of what is now known as Australia had been claimed and named New South Wales by Captain James Cook in 1770 during his first voyage of exploration. For remaining there as governor, Phillip would receive a salary of 500 guineas, whilst his second in command, an officer originally intended to be of master and commander rank, would receive a salary of 300 guineas as the lieutenant-governor. Approaching his fiftieth year, Captain Phillip had seen service in a non-commissioned role during the Seven Years War, and after being promoted lieutenant had long lived the life of a country gentleman in Hampshire. A five year spell in the Portuguese Navy during the mid 1770?s had preceded a return to British colours and the command of a fireship in 1779, before at the relative old age of 43 he had been posted captain in 1781. Having become a trusted advisor to the new home and colonial secretary, Thomas Townsend, Phillip had then advocated and joined an expedition to attack the Spanish possessions in South America, although the dispersal of the squadron in a storm had forced the abandonment of that enterprise. Following the peace he had undertaken field intelligence work in the south of France, whereupon his patron Townsend, the now ennobled Viscount Sydney, had chosen him to lead the expedition to New Holland despite the opposition of the first lord of the Admiralty, Admiral Lord Howe, who considered Phillip insufficiently qualified. The officer selected as Phillip?s deputy and lieutenant-governor, John Hunter, had seen far more action, but due to his humble origins had been even less fortunate with his own career progression, although he was a favourite of Howe?s. Joining the Navy in 1754, he had obtained a wealth of experience in all aspects of seamanship, which supplementing his fertile mind and versatile practicality had seen him appointed a sailing master by the exacting Commodore Samuel Hood in the late 1760?s. Such was his growing reputation that when Lord Howe had taken over the command of the North American station in 1776 he had requested that Hunter join him aboard the flagship Eagle, and he had soon been accorded the honorary title of master of the fleet. Political machinations against Howe had delayed Hunter?s deserved promotion to a commissioned role, but with his patron?s return to favour following the fall of the government in 1782 Hunter had eventually been promoted to the rank of commander at the end of that year. On 15 December 1786, with his part in the expedition to New Holland secured, Hunter was posted captain by Howe, and at the beginning of January 1787 Phillip was accorded the honour of an audience with the King at St. James? Palace to celebrate his own appointment. By now the ex-Indiaman Sirius 24 had been nominated as Phillip?s pennant ship for the expedition, and with Hunter holding her command Lieutenants William Bradley, Philip Gidley King and George William Maxwell were appointed to serve under him. The small tender Supply under the command of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball has also been commissioned to join the expedition. Early in February it was reported from Portsmouth that the Sirius and Supply were off the port, and that Commodore Phillip was merely awaiting the bill for the management of the new colony to receive its royal assent before departing. Meanwhile back in London groups of convicts had been removed from Newgate Prison to a lighter at Blackfriars Bridge for conveyance to the prison hulks off Greenwich, prior to their eventual departure for Portsmouth and transportation to New South Wales. Also being despatched to the vessels that would make up the first fleet were all number of supplies and provisions that would enable the colony to survive in the short term, together with agricultural tools and numerous seeds and roots which would allow the settlers to begin planting, growing and harvesting their own food. The fact that the latter included a feed of a plant intriguingly named Mungol Wargell, or the Root of Scarcity, suggested that nothing was being left to chance. Finally on 18 April the King?s commission appointing Phillip as governor and captain-general of the new colony arrived, and it seemed that all that the expedition required to sail was a fair wind. Even so there were further delays, with Phillip only reaching Portsmouth on 9 May, and thus it was not until the early morning of the 13th that the fleet departed the Motherbank for the Antipodes. In total there were eleven ships in the fleet, with the Sirius and Supply being joined by three storeships and six transports carrying eight hundred convicts, of which a quarter were women. A guard of one hundred and sixty marines had been placed upon the transports, and many of those men were taking their families out to the new settlement. An escort out of British waters was provided by the Hyaena 20, Captain Hon. Michael de Courcy. The character of the men being transported soon became evident when a plan by the prisoners to seize the convict ship Countess of Scarborough was discovered. Having dealt with that distraction Phillip continued with the voyage, and after watering at Tenerife in early June the fleet spent most of August at Rio de Janeiro, where repairs were effected and fresh provisions purchased. Leaving the Brazils on 4 September, the ships reached the Cape of Good Hope on 13 October and additional livestock and fresh provisions were taken aboard before their departure for the Indian Ocean on 12 November. Two weeks later Phillip shifted his broad pennant into the Supply in order to sail ahead of the main party with three of the faster convict vessels, but foul weather meant that when he did reach Botany Bay on 18 January 1788 it was only a couple of days before he was joined by the remainder of the fleet. Upon the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had sailed with Cook on his first voyage, Botany Bay had been intended as the site of any settlement, but as soon as the first fleet arrived it became apparent to Phillip that this location was not feasible. He therefore sailed around to Port Jackson four days later with a small party including Captain Hunter, and here fresh water, fertile soil and a sound anchorage held out a greater promise. On returning to Botany Bay to gather the rest of the fleet Phillip was astonished to find two further vessels off the coast, and these were soon established to be those of a French expedition led by Jean Fran?ois de Galaup, the Comte de Lap?rouse, who clearly had knowledge of the British intention to create a colony and had expected to be able to purchase supplies. In this he was to be disappointed, and after hanging around for the better part of two and a half weeks, during which time the two parties treated each other courteously, the French departed. Sadly they were never seen again, and later investigations would conclude that the two ships had foundered on Vanikoro Island in the Santa Cruz group. In the meantime the British expedition had sailed around to Port Jackson where, on 26 January 1788, the new colony was named Sydney in honour of the secretary of state, Viscount Sydney. On the 7 February a government was formed, but it soon became apparent that the local soil was still insufficiently fertile to guarantee a satisfactory crop that would sustain the thousand or so members of the settlement, and so in October the Sirius was despatched under Hunter to the Cape for supplies, a voyage he would undertake via Cape Horn. Within the colony prospects remained bleak, and matters were little helped by the convicts? apathy towards their new lifestyle and their inherent laziness. The situation barely improved following the return of the Sirius and the arrival of other vessels laden with provisions in May 1789, and with no news from England, the marines in a state of almost open mutiny, and everybody on half rations, it took all of Phillip?s immense character and humanity to keep order in the colony throughout the winter. Although the following September saw an improvement in the food supply, the subsistence of the colony took up the majority of Phillip?s time, and apart from a second visit to Botany Bay in March 1788 it was not until April 1791 that further explorations could begin in earnest. Meanwhile in early 1790 Captain Hunter had been sent to form a settlement on Norfolk Island, some nine hundred miles to the east, it having been reported by Lieutenant King that the environment there was more conducive to providing subsistence for the Europeans. With Hunter sailed over two hundred convicts, a detachment of marines, and the Supply, but having disembarked the human cargo but not their provisions on 13 March disaster struck when the Sirius was blown out to sea and then driven onto a reef and bilged whilst trying to regain the bay six days later. By ingeniously floating a line ashore her crew were able to secure a substantial seven inch hawser to a tree and in groups of three or four they were hauled through the surf to safety. The provisions could not be recovered however, and although the Supply sailed away to secure extra supplies it was not until August that two relief vessels arrived from Port Jackson. Back at Sydney the colony was gradually prospering, but by December 1791 Captain Philip was himself in poor health. Contrary to the wishes of the government he demanded a return home, and the request being granted he eventually arrived at Falmouth in May 1793, having taken passage in the Atlantic commanded by a most promising young lieutenant, Richard Bowen. With him he brought four kangaroos and an aboriginal man and boy, although sadly the British climate took its toll on the latter and he did not survive to see his homeland again. Captain Hunter had previously arrived home in April 1792 aboard the brig Waakzaamheid, and although he later returned to New South Wales as the second governor in 1795 his tenure was cut short by a dispute with the military. After coming back to England in 1801 he saw active service at the beginning of the Napoleonic War, yet his greatest achievement was when he displayed his immense experience and seamanship in ensuring the safety of all of the crew of his command, the Venerable 74, after she had been wrecked off Paignton in 1804. Of the remaining four commissioned officers who sailed with the First Fleet, Lieutenant Bradley was to see active service throughout the next twenty years as a post captain until mental illness eventually led him to a minor defrauding of the post office, for which crime he received a death sentence that was commuted on appeal. Lieutenant King went home in 1790 but promptly sailed back to become the governor of Norfolk Island, and after returning to England again in 1796 he was appointed to succeed Hunter as the third governor of New South Wales in 1800, his successor six years later being the infamous Captain William Bligh. Lieutenant Maxwell also suffered a mental disintegration, and after being declared insane in 1789 he embarked with Captain Hunter on the Waakzaamheid in 1791, only to die at sea a few weeks later. Finally Lieutenant Ball returned to England in April 1792, was posted captain three years later, and eventually rose with seniority to become an admiral.	<urn:uuid:646c8b8c-de88-42dc-ad43-2c0c42d521af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://morethannelson.com/first-fleet-sails-new-south-wales-31-may-1787/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00077.warc.gz	en	0.988983	2,314	3.265625	3	[ -0.09452776610851288, 0.4554722011089325, 0.2938106060028076, -0.4382050633430481, -0.29425349831581116, -0.030637504532933235, 0.1805707812309265, 0.2022615373134613, -0.31573593616485596, -0.1411014199256897, 0.3250201642513275, -0.34289270639419556, -0.32031676173210144, 0.5683119297027...	1	The ‘First Fleet’ sails for New South Wales – 31 May 1787 In September 1786 Captain Arthur Phillip was chosen to head an expedition to establish a convict colony and the first white settlement on the east coast of New Holland, which part of what is now known as Australia had been claimed and named New South Wales by Captain James Cook in 1770 during his first voyage of exploration. For remaining there as governor, Phillip would receive a salary of 500 guineas, whilst his second in command, an officer originally intended to be of master and commander rank, would receive a salary of 300 guineas as the lieutenant-governor. Approaching his fiftieth year, Captain Phillip had seen service in a non-commissioned role during the Seven Years War, and after being promoted lieutenant had long lived the life of a country gentleman in Hampshire. A five year spell in the Portuguese Navy during the mid 1770?s had preceded a return to British colours and the command of a fireship in 1779, before at the relative old age of 43 he had been posted captain in 1781. Having become a trusted advisor to the new home and colonial secretary, Thomas Townsend, Phillip had then advocated and joined an expedition to attack the Spanish possessions in South America, although the dispersal of the squadron in a storm had forced the abandonment of that enterprise. Following the peace he had undertaken field intelligence work in the south of France, whereupon his patron Townsend, the now ennobled Viscount Sydney, had chosen him to lead the expedition to New Holland despite the opposition of the first lord of the Admiralty, Admiral Lord Howe, who considered Phillip insufficiently qualified. The officer selected as Phillip?s deputy and lieutenant-governor, John Hunter, had seen far more action, but due to his humble origins had been even less fortunate with his own career progression, although he was a favourite of Howe?s. Joining the Navy in 1754, he had obtained a wealth of experience in all aspects of seamanship, which supplementing his fertile mind and versatile practicality had seen him appointed a sailing master by the exacting Commodore Samuel Hood in the late 1760?s. Such was his growing reputation that when Lord Howe had taken over the command of the North American station in 1776 he had requested that Hunter join him aboard the flagship Eagle, and he had soon been accorded the honorary title of master of the fleet. Political machinations against Howe had delayed Hunter?s deserved promotion to a commissioned role, but with his patron?s return to favour following the fall of the government in 1782 Hunter had eventually been promoted to the rank of commander at the end of that year. On 15 December 1786, with his part in the expedition to New Holland secured, Hunter was posted captain by Howe, and at the beginning of January 1787 Phillip was accorded the honour of an audience with the King at St. James? Palace to celebrate his own appointment. By now the ex-Indiaman Sirius 24 had been nominated as Phillip?s pennant ship for the expedition, and with Hunter holding her command Lieutenants William Bradley, Philip Gidley King and George William Maxwell were appointed to serve under him. The small tender Supply under the command of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball has also been commissioned to join the expedition. Early in February it was reported from Portsmouth that the Sirius and Supply were off the port, and that Commodore Phillip was merely awaiting the bill for the management of the new colony to receive its royal assent before departing. Meanwhile back in London groups of convicts had been removed from Newgate Prison to a lighter at Blackfriars Bridge for conveyance to the prison hulks off Greenwich, prior to their eventual departure for Portsmouth and transportation to New South Wales. Also being despatched to the vessels that would make up the first fleet were all number of supplies and provisions that would enable the colony to survive in the short term, together with agricultural tools and numerous seeds and roots which would allow the settlers to begin planting, growing and harvesting their own food. The fact that the latter included a feed of a plant intriguingly named Mungol Wargell, or the Root of Scarcity, suggested that nothing was being left to chance. Finally on 18 April the King?s commission appointing Phillip as governor and captain-general of the new colony arrived, and it seemed that all that the expedition required to sail was a fair wind. Even so there were further delays, with Phillip only reaching Portsmouth on 9 May, and thus it was not until the early morning of the 13th that the fleet departed the Motherbank for the Antipodes. In total there were eleven ships in the fleet, with the Sirius and Supply being joined by three storeships and six transports carrying eight hundred convicts, of which a quarter were women. A guard of one hundred and sixty marines had been placed upon the transports, and many of those men were taking their families out to the new settlement. An escort out of British waters was provided by the Hyaena 20, Captain Hon. Michael de Courcy. The character of the men being transported soon became evident when a plan by the prisoners to seize the convict ship Countess of Scarborough was discovered. Having dealt with that distraction Phillip continued with the voyage, and after watering at Tenerife in early June the fleet spent most of August at Rio de Janeiro, where repairs were effected and fresh provisions purchased. Leaving the Brazils on 4 September, the ships reached the Cape of Good Hope on 13 October and additional livestock and fresh provisions were taken aboard before their departure for the Indian Ocean on 12 November. Two weeks later Phillip shifted his broad pennant into the Supply in order to sail ahead of the main party with three of the faster convict vessels, but foul weather meant that when he did reach Botany Bay on 18 January 1788 it was only a couple of days before he was joined by the remainder of the fleet. Upon the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had sailed with Cook on his first voyage, Botany Bay had been intended as the site of any settlement, but as soon as the first fleet arrived it became apparent to Phillip that this location was not feasible. He therefore sailed around to Port Jackson four days later with a small party including Captain Hunter, and here fresh water, fertile soil and a sound anchorage held out a greater promise. On returning to Botany Bay to gather the rest of the fleet Phillip was astonished to find two further vessels off the coast, and these were soon established to be those of a French expedition led by Jean Fran?ois de Galaup, the Comte de Lap?rouse, who clearly had knowledge of the British intention to create a colony and had expected to be able to purchase supplies. In this he was to be disappointed, and after hanging around for the better part of two and a half weeks, during which time the two parties treated each other courteously, the French departed. Sadly they were never seen again, and later investigations would conclude that the two ships had foundered on Vanikoro Island in the Santa Cruz group. In the meantime the British expedition had sailed around to Port Jackson where, on 26 January 1788, the new colony was named Sydney in honour of the secretary of state, Viscount Sydney. On the 7 February a government was formed, but it soon became apparent that the local soil was still insufficiently fertile to guarantee a satisfactory crop that would sustain the thousand or so members of the settlement, and so in October the Sirius was despatched under Hunter to the Cape for supplies, a voyage he would undertake via Cape Horn. Within the colony prospects remained bleak, and matters were little helped by the convicts? apathy towards their new lifestyle and their inherent laziness. The situation barely improved following the return of the Sirius and the arrival of other vessels laden with provisions in May 1789, and with no news from England, the marines in a state of almost open mutiny, and everybody on half rations, it took all of Phillip?s immense character and humanity to keep order in the colony throughout the winter. Although the following September saw an improvement in the food supply, the subsistence of the colony took up the majority of Phillip?s time, and apart from a second visit to Botany Bay in March 1788 it was not until April 1791 that further explorations could begin in earnest. Meanwhile in early 1790 Captain Hunter had been sent to form a settlement on Norfolk Island, some nine hundred miles to the east, it having been reported by Lieutenant King that the environment there was more conducive to providing subsistence for the Europeans. With Hunter sailed over two hundred convicts, a detachment of marines, and the Supply, but having disembarked the human cargo but not their provisions on 13 March disaster struck when the Sirius was blown out to sea and then driven onto a reef and bilged whilst trying to regain the bay six days later. By ingeniously floating a line ashore her crew were able to secure a substantial seven inch hawser to a tree and in groups of three or four they were hauled through the surf to safety. The provisions could not be recovered however, and although the Supply sailed away to secure extra supplies it was not until August that two relief vessels arrived from Port Jackson. Back at Sydney the colony was gradually prospering, but by December 1791 Captain Philip was himself in poor health. Contrary to the wishes of the government he demanded a return home, and the request being granted he eventually arrived at Falmouth in May 1793, having taken passage in the Atlantic commanded by a most promising young lieutenant, Richard Bowen. With him he brought four kangaroos and an aboriginal man and boy, although sadly the British climate took its toll on the latter and he did not survive to see his homeland again. Captain Hunter had previously arrived home in April 1792 aboard the brig Waakzaamheid, and although he later returned to New South Wales as the second governor in 1795 his tenure was cut short by a dispute with the military. After coming back to England in 1801 he saw active service at the beginning of the Napoleonic War, yet his greatest achievement was when he displayed his immense experience and seamanship in ensuring the safety of all of the crew of his command, the Venerable 74, after she had been wrecked off Paignton in 1804. Of the remaining four commissioned officers who sailed with the First Fleet, Lieutenant Bradley was to see active service throughout the next twenty years as a post captain until mental illness eventually led him to a minor defrauding of the post office, for which crime he received a death sentence that was commuted on appeal. Lieutenant King went home in 1790 but promptly sailed back to become the governor of Norfolk Island, and after returning to England again in 1796 he was appointed to succeed Hunter as the third governor of New South Wales in 1800, his successor six years later being the infamous Captain William Bligh. Lieutenant Maxwell also suffered a mental disintegration, and after being declared insane in 1789 he embarked with Captain Hunter on the Waakzaamheid in 1791, only to die at sea a few weeks later. Finally Lieutenant Ball returned to England in April 1792, was posted captain three years later, and eventually rose with seniority to become an admiral.	2,423	ENGLISH	1
We’re heading towards wrapping up the coursebook pre-Unit dealing with alphabet with my 3rd grade groups. Here is something I have prepared to revise, read, do some pronunciation work, and of course have the pleasure of viewing art. Seems we teachers have our own little moments of creative flow, too 🙂 Hope you enjoy it, and even think of some use for it with your younger learners. Let me know about it if so. Should you have any other ideas, I’d be glad to find out, too. This post reflects on a series of lessons I recently had with a group of 8 year-old 3rd graders. The lessons aimed at enriching alphabet and word learning with a visual literacy component. In the Greek state school, 3rd grade is when the formal EFL programme starts. It is formal in the sense that it aims at the development of students’ language proficiency. In the first two years of primary school, students are attending a curriculum which introduces them to the oral mode of foreign language and tries to develop their social literacies. It all started when we encountered letter F. In the coursebook, letters are presented as initials of particular words (e.g. F for fish and fishbowl) and there are rhymes that contain repetitions of the particular letter/sound relation in a meaningful or funny context. There is also visual input designed for each rhyme to facilitate comprehension and memorization. In the coursebook, letter F is dealt as follows: It was at that point when one of the students pointed enthusiastically to the classroom door saying: “A family of fish, like that!”. He had noticed an artwork on the classroom door. Then, another student noticed the birds while a third one thought the changing pattern in the fish as we move downwards was a sign of their aging. These interesting reactions gave me the idea of this lesson which was completed in three teaching sessions. Sky and water I The artwork on the classroom door is Sky and Water I a woodcut print, by the Dutch artist M.C. Escher, first printed in 1938. Birds and fish fit into each other like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Each element is alternately foreground or background, depending on whether the eye concentrates on light or dark elements. encourage early word identification and recognition (birds, water, sky, in the) practise saying a short rhyme related to the artwork watch an animated version of the artwork encourage body gesture to facilitate comprehension and memorization have students exposed to and observe carefully a series of other multimodal resources (word clouds, letter tessellations, logos) recognize previously taught words and letters in the word clouds and tessellations practise uncovering the hidden message in the logos complete a worksheet with relevant activities I first projected the artwork on the classroom board. They were happy to see it in a bigger size. I pointed at the different elements in the artwork and elicited the words ‘fish’ and ‘birds’. I wrote these on the board. We then added before each word ‘a family of’. Next, after each phrase (a family of fish/birds) was heard in the classroom, I asked ‘Where?’ and we came up with the words ‘water’ and ‘sky’. I also jotted these down as well as ‘in the’. We tried this four or five times alternating among whole class response, individual response, and then whole class response again. I reminded them of the little rhyme we had encountered in the coursebook during our previous class. I prompted them to adjust it to the artwork. Our new rhyme went like this: A family of fish, of fish in the water. A family of birds, of birds in the sky. We added some rhythmic clapping. By now they were all very excited. I then showed them a very nice short animation of the artwork. I divided the class into two groups: fish and birds. I turned the sound off. When each element appeared in the video, the relevant group chanted their part. The students enjoyed themselves enormously. I then asked them to chant it in a whispering mode. I also encouraged them to gesture accordingly, i.e. fish group pretended they were swimming, bird group pretended they were flying. Water was mimed by placing hands under our desks, sky by lifting them up. I gestured with them along the way. At the end of the animation we said ‘Goodbye birds, fly! Goodbye fish, swim!’ Students improvised gestures for ‘fly’ and ‘swim’. We had a great time. Students asked if they could watch the animation for a second time and repeat the activity. I turned sound on and we repeated the activity. Enthusiasm led us to a third time, too. Tessellations, word clouds and logos with a hidden message I then projected the artwork again and asked students to carefully observe its details. They noticed that there was no space between the fish and bird shapes. Escher’s work consists of geometric shapes that fill the plane with congruent forms in rhythmic repetition without leaving any void. These formations are called tessellations. Escher liked to play with positive and negative shapes. In Sky and Water I the birds at the top appear as positive space (a main subject), yet its shape is echoed in the dark negative shapes between the fish. Likewise, the positive shape of the fish at the bottom has its shape repeated in the white spaces between the birds. I invited a couple of students to the board and had them outline the fish or bird shape hiding in the negative spaces. I also showed them some letter tessellations. They identified the letters, we talked about the colours, how the letters appeared face downwards and face upwards covering all the surface. We then had a look at two word clouds. I invited individual students to the board to trace the words in them. In every slide we repeated the relevant part of our rhyme. To end the first session we had a look at a selection of logos with a hidden message. Apart from the last logo, these were of products found in the Greek market. In the Toblerone logo some students saw a fish and a bird. I initially thought they were influenced by the previous activity so I invited these students to the board to trace the shape they had seen. Then, the first student traced the left leg of the bear and it did look like a fish swimming upwards while the second student traced the little shape right next to it which again did look like a bird flying. I told them they were right about the shapes and prompted them to look again carefully in case they could see something bigger. It was then that some of the students saw the bear hiding in Toblerone’s logo. I told them the story behind this logo. Most of the students ‘saw’ the face hiding in LG’s logo. One of them said ‘it’s Pacman’ while another said ‘Life is good’. Many students said that had LG products at home. Another student wanted to draw the full face so I invited him to the board. He added the other eye and two little dots under L to indicate the nostrils. Almost all the students saw the child looking up to an adult hiding behind the ‘Hope for African Children Initiative’ logo. I was initially taken by surprise since when I first looked at it I focussed on the map of Africa. But then I thought that my young learners were not familiar with world maps so they immediately focussed on the shapes of the people. Some students recognized the word Africa(n) in the logo and one said children are hungry and suffer there. We talked a bit about the need to protect children in that place and the message of the logo. At the end of the first session students were given a worksheet to complete as homework activity (see downloadable material below). My hidden message or image In the second session, I asked students to reflect on the previous class, work in groups and: create an image with a hidden message, or form a word cloud using words we had already encountered. In the third session groups presented their images to their classmates who tried to guess the hidden image or message. They described and explained what they had created. L1 was used by the students for the descriptions. L2 was used for single items in their images that the students knew the English word for. For every image, I offered and asked them to repeat new key words while we revisited words we already knew. My aims during these two sessions were to encourage students’ visual literacy micro-skills (visual thinking, and visual representing) through selecting and creating an image to convey meaning encourage their creative non verbal expression recycle previously taught vocabulary encourage oral vocabulary acquisition through students’ work practise repeating single words spoken slowly and clearly The students worked in groups. When ready, the groups showed their images to their classmates who tried to guess the hidden image or message. They described and explained what it was and why they had made it. For every image, I offered and asked them to repeat new key words while we revisited words we already knew. The group who had made this wanted to convey the message that fish should not be kept in fishbowls. They had asked me for the word ‘free’ as they were working on their image. (new key word: free – known words: fish, fishbowl) This is a sad mountain, students said. It’s sad because the water at its foot is dirty. Their answer to why this is so was that people throw rubbish in it. (new key words: mountain, sad, brown, rubbish – known word: water) A snake-cow hat This is a hat, but if you look carefully it’s also a snake that has swallowed a cow, students said. They had asked for the word hat while working. (new key words: snake, cow, hat, green) The shark who has eaten too much This is a shark who has eaten fish, grass, birds, rabbits, grandpa, a family. A very big shark with many things in his belly, students explained. (new key words: shark, grandpa, rabbit, grass – known words: bird, fish, family) Mrs Nature is happy when there are flowers and trees and sad when there is nothing. Students said that people make Mrs Nature sad when they destroy trees and flowers. (new key words: happy, flowers, trees) A word cloud for letter C Students in this group created their own impression of a word cloud based on one of the previous letters we had learned (C) and a relevant short rhyme about a cat on a computer. Wrapping it up This series of lessons is a step beyond my comfort zone, a departure from my work with older primary school students which dominates the posts on this site. It signals an attempt to expand my experimentation, insight and knowledge of themes that are very close to my heart, i.e art, visual literacy, making meaning, and creativity in the English language classroom. Language input, activity design, appropriacy and variation all had to be viewed under a new light taking into consideration a group of very young learners whose needs are very different from my usual older students. I feel really happy to have tried it and to share my insight here because it has been a new learning experience for me, as well. During these sessions I was struck by the children’s enthusiasm and engagement upon their exposure to a variety of multimodal ensembles (the artwork, the animated video, the letter tessellations, the word clouds, the logos, the written text) and activities. This echoes relevant literature that variation is a sine qua non when working with very young learners. I was also fascinated to observe how 8 year olds hone their viewing, analyzing and decoding skills as the visual, the verbal, and the gestural interweave and how all these are in a direct conversation with memorization and comprehension. I was finally struck by their readiness to embark on a creative process. As their visual thinking and visual representation were put into force, they further built an understanding of the meaning behind their images through perception and imagination. It was interesting that in half of the groups a social awareness thread could be identified (free fish, sad mountain, Mrs Nature) and how they chose to relate their images to the social environment. It was also a surprise to see humour in their work (the shark who has eaten too much). The experience has certainly whetted my appetite for further exploration of this approach. How about you? Have you ever tried anything similar with your very young learners? I would love to hear about it. I had come across a 3 minute animation showing extracts from the graphic biography of Anne Frank that I wanted to show students, but I thought that language might be a bit difficult for them. The research, sharing, visually organizing, and writing activities that we first worked on, and that I wrote about in the previous post, paved the ground for stepping smoothly into watching the animation. The Anne Frank animation – ordering the events I prepared a worksheet with 10 events from the video and jumbled them up. This is an activity drawn from Kieran Donaghy’s excellent resource Film in Action. Students watched the video twice and they ordered the events as they appeared in the animation. Representing: my image of Anne Frank’s story On finishing the lesson, I asked students to choose the most important thing from Anne’s story and communicate their ideas in both verbal and non-verbal ways. A wealth of hand made drawings and digital work was brought in class. Many students chose to draw Anne’s diary associating it with her life events and her writings about the war. Others drew Anne herself writing in her diary and the importance of what she wrote not only for herself, but also for us, as future generations. A student drew Anne with a “Jew” badge on her chest the moment she was arrested by the Nazis. There was also a group of students who had chosen to work on this collaboratively and came up with a series of 4 portraits of Anne capturing all the important events in her life. These portraits were inspired by the imagery in the animation and were linked to four relevant life moments. Each portrait was related to her state and feelings starting from birth when she was free, moving to her receiving the diary (happy), hiding and writing in the Annex (sad, angry) and finally being arrested (scared). Sentence-phrase-word: what speaks to me The last activity on this topic involved being exposed to Anne’s writing. I was lucky enough to trace the definitive edition online and made a worksheet with 3 excerpts. I first read the excerpts to the students and we worked on language they did not know. Then, we worked on the sentence, phrase, word routine. I asked them to choose: that were important, meaningful, powerful or moved them. I also encouraged them to justify their choices. Some students chose their sentence, phrase, word from the first excerpt, some from the second, while some from the third. Some others tried choosing from more than one excerpts and some made one choice from each excerpt. Finally, some students chose only one or two of the stems (sentence or phrase or word). I realize that this activity requires a deep, personal insight into a topic which is not an easy one, let alone when you have to express yourself in another language. Students’ answers were touching and showed an admirable effort to offer their personal interpretations on Anne’s writing. Some responses for excerpt 1 for excerpt 2 for excerpt 3 and mixed responses By the time, we reached the end of our work, Anne Frank and her diary had become a topic of everyday discussion whether we had a class together or not. I can even say that I was slighlty surprised by the impact it had on the students. Books bought were brought in class, others had already been ordered, excerpts from their Greek language textbook on Anne Frank were discovered and they asked their Greek language teacher to work on them; students were sharing among themselves youtube addresses where they could watch and find out more about her. It was great to see the resonance of her story with the children. Some diary excerpts from previous decades that were in our coursebook sparked the idea of dealing with the most widely read diary: the diary of Anne Frank. Not a happy ending story, yet one that I felt is important for my young sixth graders (A2, eleven year-olds) to know. It can trigger thinking about injustice and discrimination, about where hate can lead, and stimulate empathy for others through a real story of a girl close to their age. I first showed them a screenshot from an animation on Anne Frank and we worked on the see-think-wonder routine. They observed silently and answered 3 questions: What do you see? What do you think about it? What does it make you wonder? They took notes of their ideas. I went round the classroom and offered help with language when needed. Some asked for words like “wires”, “torn”, “borders”, “bent” (shoulders). One needed help clarifying between “die” and “kill”. We shared our ideas in class. They fact that the girl in the image was writing a diary was a prominent answer among most of the students. They identified the feeling of sadness in the girl’s face and made associations with a war situation. Two of the students straightly associated the image with World War II because the shape of the airplane reminded them of similar airplanes they had seen from that period. A student used the word “cloudy” to describe her thoughts about the girl and word choice made me smile. I found it creative and unexpected. They also hypothesized about the relationship between the two female figures. Some thought the woman at the back was the girl’s mother, others her grandmother. A couple of them thought that the people were refugees trying to cross the borders because of the wired fence at the back and their torn clothes. Students’ questions embraced all the who, where, what and why relevant to the topic: Who are these people? What is the girl writing? Why is this war happening? Why are they sad? Where are they? I took some notes of their ideas on the board and encouraged students to do the same in their notebooks. By the end of the session they were more than curious to find out who the girl in the image was. I revealed her name and wrote it on the board: Anne Frank. Some of them went bright-eyed. Two had the Greek translation of the book at home, but had never read it. One said he was a member of an amateur theatre club and he remembered once talking about staging a performance of this play, but not doing it in the end. A fourth one had been to the theatre with her parents and had attended a professional performance based on Anne Frank’s life. A vague familiarity with the cloudy girl in the image began to spread in the classroom. I asked them what they knew about Anne Frank and three things came up: she was writing in her diary about the war, she lived in Germany, she was a Jew (that was a word that they knew in Greek, and I provided them with the English equivalent). When they asked what Jew means, I explained in simple terms that it is a religion. At the end of this first session, I asked them as a follow-up to: Write a short paragraph about the lesson, based on their notes and class discussion. Research, read about Anne Frank (reading could be done in either L1 or L2) and come back next time with 4-5 sentences about what struck them as most interesting. Organising Anne’s story visually Skills: reading, listening, speaking, note-taking, story building Until our next session, I was pleasantly surprised and happy to see students come and find me before the morning assembly or during breaks to report either that they had started reading the book or that they had asked their parents for a copy. Those who had started reading it were amazed to find out how many things Anne could not do because she was a Jew. In our second session on the topic, individual students initially read their paragraphs and some feedback was given. Then, they started sharing their choices of sentences. I knew that not all students would come up with the same things. I trusted that from the multitude of sentences we would manage to create an as complete as possible picture of Anne’s story. I also had in mind of asking them at the end of the session for a writing assignment that would incorporate all the elements shared in class. I decided to organise the information into a more visual form to illustrate the connections and relationships between various aspects of what we were discussing. I hoped to enable students to refer to, relate between information, and help the writing process. The diagramme was built around the first 4 sentences that were read in class, namely that she was born in Germany, she was a Jew, she wrote a diary and that she died in 1945. From thereon I intervened at times and facilitated building the story by asking some questions and seeing whether students had written a relevant sentence. For example, I asked “What was happening in Germany at the time Anne was born?” and a student had written a sentence about Adolph Hitler and the Nazis coming to power. That’s how the left part of the diagramme started being formed. The next question was “Why was this important for Anne?” and someone else had written that the Nazis discriminated against the Jews and made life difficult for them. I went on by asking “So, what did Anne’s family do?” and we found out that they moved to the Netherlands. “Were they safe there?” was the next question to get the answer that “no” because “persecutions against the Jews intensified”. We finally reached the point where the family hid in the Secret Annex with four other friends. The Secret Annex was linked to her writing the diary and the people were linked to the aftermath i.e that the Nazis arrested them, and they were taken to a concentration camp where Anne died. Which brought us back to one of the first four sentences. While writing on the board, I used colour coding: blue for the information, black to highlight verbs used, red for things of importance, and finally a green contour around new language. This was language students had included in their sentences, but other students were not familiar with since each one had come up with different sentences. At the end of the session, I asked students to draw on the diagramme and retell the story. We did this as a relay race. One would start, I would say stop, another student would take up from that point and go on with the story. We tried this two or three times and it went well. Students left the class to do their writing assignment feeling quite confident about it. I left thinking about the next stage of the topic which is still going on and I hope to write about it in a next post. This post reports on how we worked some time ago with a group of fifth graders (A1 level students, 10 years old) using Norman Rockwell’s “The problem we all live with”. The aims were to: collaboratively build a story with prompts raise awareness of intolerance and racism practise Past tenses (Past Simple, Past Progressive) develop viewing, observing and description skills link to Art, History, and Geography “The problem we all live with” is an iconic image of the Civil Rights Movement in the USA. It depicts Ruby Bridges. She was the first African-American child to attend the all-white William Frantz Elementary School in Louisiana during the New Orleans school desegregation crisis in 1960. Building the story I framed the procedure as a viewing/describing activity towards collaboratively building a story with prompts. For the prompts I used the typical journalistic questions: Who? What? Where? How? Why? I first introduced the painting by saying: Well, this is Ruby…,and then invited the children to go on with the story, prompting them to respond by providing full answers to my questions: Who was she? What was she doing/carrying/wearing? Where do you think she was going? How did she look? Was she alone? Who was with her? The students were speaking, they listened to their classmates’ ideas and took notes. As the story was gradually built, individual students narrated it, adding each time the new elements, so that they could get an as good as possible grasp of it. They came up with descriptive pieces of writing based on their notes and class discussion. Students were very happy with Ruby’s story. They liked the painting and they also liked this beautiful little black girl. They thought that the four policemen were walking with Ruby and protecting her because she was an important person. They made associations with the former USA president. What more can we find? Ruby’s real story unfolds Then I started drawing their attention to other details in the painting by asking: Look carefully, what more can we find? We started developing the real story. They first noticed the tomato splash on the wall and the tomato on the ground. I asked them: What do you think about that? What was happening? Students were surprised to realise that “Oh! people were throwing tomatoes”. Then they noticed the word Nigger on the wall above Ruby and they asked: “What is a Nigger?” I explained in simple terms that this is a racist word to talk about black people. They finally noticed the letters KKK on the top left corner of the painting and again they wanted to know what these stand for. I said that it is an organization in the USA that terrorizes black people. All this was added to our initial notes about Ruby. It was at this moment that the students were shocked, sad and angry. They had grown to like Ruby so much that when the actual story unfolded in front of their eyes, they felt it was unfair. It was an apt moment to ask: Why do you think that people were reacting like that? It came very natural to children to say that this had happened because she wasn’t white, she was different. I then provided them with the geographical and historical context of the incident. We also moved from racial intolerance in general to the racism of our everyday life. I asked them to look at each other and notice how different we are, whether that means height, weight, whether we are strong or less strong, and the things we like. We are all different. It was about raising awareness of intolerance towards difference: the more “different” the other is perceived, the stronger the fears and negative feelings tend to be. Interactive work on Ruby’s story Following classroom work on Ruby’s story, I developed a course presentation with interactive slides to give students the chance to further practise vocabulary and grammatical structures involved in the lesson. It comprises of 12 micro-activities, each one dealt with in a different slide: drag and drop vocabulary activity reading, part i reading quiz- answer 5 questions reading part ii reading comprehension gap fill focus on language structures: Past Progressive identification focus on language structures: Past Simple & Past Progressive gap fill Interactive video (hotspots with questions and information): Ruby Bridges talks about herself and the painting. Choose one of the following 2 activities: Work in groups of 3. One of you must get in the shoes of Ruby, one in the shoes of a US Marshal, and one in the shoes of one of the people in the crowd. From your point of view, answer the questions: What do you think? How do you feel? What do you care about? These questions build understanding of multiple perspectives. Watch the trailer from a film about Ruby Bridges. Answer the questions: How is the trailer similar to the painting? How is it different? How do you feel? Why? What new things did you learn about Ruby’s story? Choose one of the following 2 activities: Visit GoogleEarth – Louisiana (make sure you open your browser in Google Chrome). Prepare a word doc or a ppt presentation about 3 things that you find interesting about Louisiana. Prepare a word doc or a ppt presentation about Norman Rockwell. Ruby’s story triggered students’ curiosity and evoked self-initiated work and further research. They made little booklets with illustrations, handmade word clouds, little posters. I think what happened to Ruby spoke highly to children’s hearts and minds. Note: The interactive work was created using H5P, an online tool for creating, sharing and reusing interactive HTML5 content. Last weekend the Image Conference took place. This is the annual event of the Visual Arts Circle. VAC is an innovative and collaborative project which seeks to explore the possibilities of film, video and images in language teaching and learning. The conference is held in a different city every year. This year it was its seventh edition and it took place in Athens, hosted and co-organized by New York College. There was also a strand of the conference being run by GISIG (Global Issues Special Interest Group). The event was very stimulating and focused which is something I really like. I find an add-on the fact that this year, apart from the overarching theme of images and video, there was also a focus on the migrant and refugee crisis. This offered a new perspective to the conference. It was mainly dealt with in the sessions of the GISIG strand. I have however the overall impression that many of the teaching approaches presented in other sessions, too, showed a heightened awareness of global issues and this is really interesting and important. I feel very honoured to have been asked by Kieran Donaghy and Sylvia Karastathi to give one of the plenary sessions during the Conference. My session focused on the use of paintings and how they can be linked to social topics. I reflected on work we have done with the students and discussed activities that nurture the development of thinking dispositions, meaningful language, visual literacy and social awareness through examples and insights from my classroom practice. Here is the link to the slides I used in my plenary session. The 2019 Image Conference will take place in Brussels and it will be hosted by the Belgian English Language Teaching Association (BELTA). The 21st of March is the International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. We worked with eleven-year-old primary school students on the topic of racism, not only on that day, but also during the following week. Here is an account focusing on two of the resources we used and the activities we worked on. Racism Explained to My Daughterby Tahar Ben Jelloun Tahar Ben Jelloun is a Morrocan writer whose entire work is written in French although his first language is Arabic. Racism Explained to My Daughter is a wonderful book which involves a compelling dialogue between the author and his ten-year-old daughter on the difficult topic of racism in an admirably straightforward and understandable way. There were three main activites that guided our way through the excerpt we worked with: I described this in the previous post. It is a thinking routine that provides learners with a structure for identifying key ideas and committing them to memory. It can be used after reading a text, watching a movie, or being presented with new information or ideas. Students are asked to a) recall and note (a list of key ideas), b) exchange notes with classmates, read others’ ideas and add one new thing to the list, and c) review their returned notes with all the additions from their classmates and maybe add any new ideas they have picked up from reading others’ notes. The way we tried it in class was slightly adapted since recalling from memory would be difficult for the students’ language level. I let them have a look at the excerpt whenever they felt they needed to. Make note is a routine that enhances students’ memory of and engagement with ideas by focusing on capturing the heart and distilling key issues and questions. After a film, reading or discussion we ask students to make a note of ONE of the following: What is the most important point? What do you find difficult to understand? What question would you most like to discuss? What is something you found intesting? A final activity that we tried with the same text was the sentence-phrase-word routine. Students chose a sentence, a phrase and a word that they thought was powerful, important or moving and justified their choices. The children offered a wealth of ideas highlighting diverse aspects of the issue. Some choices and explanations offered: Murder at Sharpeville by Godfrey Rubens This painting by the painter and photographer Godfrey Rubens portrays the massacre in the town of Sharpeville, South Africa, which took place on the 21st of March, 1960. The incident in which 69 unarmed black African people were shot dead during a peaceful protest against apartheid’s pass-books system marked a turning point. It is the reason that today this day is commemorated as the Universal Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. See, think, wonder We first worked with the see, think, wonder routine. The children wrote and shared interesting ideas and thoughts and were very curious to know what, where, and why this happened. The story behind the painting This high curiosity level led us to look at the historical facts behind the painting. I wanted to avoid developing another reading text since we had already worked with the excerpt from Tahar Ben Jelloun’s book. I decided to frame it as a listening activity. I started telling the story using simplified language to ensure understanding. At the same time I was writing key points on the board. Students were listening and taking notes. From time to time I asked them questions or invited them to ask me questions. I also paused regularly and asked individual students to repeat the story so far. Little by little we built a diagram with the story behind the painting on the board. When we finished that session I asked them to study the diagram at home and be prepared to talk about it next time. In the lesson that followed children practised speaking about the incident by drawing on the diagram. We tried this a few times, students took turns among them each narrating a part of the story and then another would take up and continue. Their confidence gradually grew. During this stage, we added two more clouds to the diagram. In the first one we included the verbs they used (base form) while in the second some other words and phrases they needed to refine their story-telling. The final diagram served as their blueprint for stepping into writing the story. We started that in class and they finalized it at home. Although it was one of the longest texts the children have written so far, it worked really well. I asked them in the following lesson how they coped with writing the story and they said that having the diagram with the key points, verbs and extra words was very helpful. Some of them also said that having talked about it in class made writing easy because they “had it in their minds”. We spent a small part of that session narrating the incident again and after having told, retold and writing about it there was a very satisfying, smooth speaking flow. I remember that when we started working on this topic, I had asked students if they knew what we celebrate on the 21st of March. They had come up with the answer: the world day of sleep. It did not come as a surprise. After all, World Sleep Day was quite prominent on tv those days, and I myself had seen a surge of tv commercials for furniture, mattresses and other relevant products. The children had probably seen them, too. I think it’s good that they now know it is the day against racial discrimination.	<urn:uuid:c94bc094-1e42-48bb-baea-67a0db05b1b3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://chrysapapalazarou.wordpress.com/tag/elt/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00472.warc.gz	en	0.980882	7,590	3.359375	3	[ -0.01266690157353878, -0.33327919244766235, 0.15805655717849731, -0.17837685346603394, -0.17275750637054443, 0.24859225749969482, -0.2702634632587433, 0.14966732263565063, -0.06461523473262787, -0.13795608282089233, -0.058129649609327316, -0.17567527294158936, 0.14722812175750732, -0.16665...	1	We’re heading towards wrapping up the coursebook pre-Unit dealing with alphabet with my 3rd grade groups. Here is something I have prepared to revise, read, do some pronunciation work, and of course have the pleasure of viewing art. Seems we teachers have our own little moments of creative flow, too 🙂 Hope you enjoy it, and even think of some use for it with your younger learners. Let me know about it if so. Should you have any other ideas, I’d be glad to find out, too. This post reflects on a series of lessons I recently had with a group of 8 year-old 3rd graders. The lessons aimed at enriching alphabet and word learning with a visual literacy component. In the Greek state school, 3rd grade is when the formal EFL programme starts. It is formal in the sense that it aims at the development of students’ language proficiency. In the first two years of primary school, students are attending a curriculum which introduces them to the oral mode of foreign language and tries to develop their social literacies. It all started when we encountered letter F. In the coursebook, letters are presented as initials of particular words (e.g. F for fish and fishbowl) and there are rhymes that contain repetitions of the particular letter/sound relation in a meaningful or funny context. There is also visual input designed for each rhyme to facilitate comprehension and memorization. In the coursebook, letter F is dealt as follows: It was at that point when one of the students pointed enthusiastically to the classroom door saying: “A family of fish, like that!”. He had noticed an artwork on the classroom door. Then, another student noticed the birds while a third one thought the changing pattern in the fish as we move downwards was a sign of their aging. These interesting reactions gave me the idea of this lesson which was completed in three teaching sessions. Sky and water I The artwork on the classroom door is Sky and Water I a woodcut print, by the Dutch artist M.C. Escher, first printed in 1938. Birds and fish fit into each other like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Each element is alternately foreground or background, depending on whether the eye concentrates on light or dark elements. encourage early word identification and recognition (birds, water, sky, in the) practise saying a short rhyme related to the artwork watch an animated version of the artwork encourage body gesture to facilitate comprehension and memorization have students exposed to and observe carefully a series of other multimodal resources (word clouds, letter tessellations, logos) recognize previously taught words and letters in the word clouds and tessellations practise uncovering the hidden message in the logos complete a worksheet with relevant activities I first projected the artwork on the classroom board. They were happy to see it in a bigger size. I pointed at the different elements in the artwork and elicited the words ‘fish’ and ‘birds’. I wrote these on the board. We then added before each word ‘a family of’. Next, after each phrase (a family of fish/birds) was heard in the classroom, I asked ‘Where?’ and we came up with the words ‘water’ and ‘sky’. I also jotted these down as well as ‘in the’. We tried this four or five times alternating among whole class response, individual response, and then whole class response again. I reminded them of the little rhyme we had encountered in the coursebook during our previous class. I prompted them to adjust it to the artwork. Our new rhyme went like this: A family of fish, of fish in the water. A family of birds, of birds in the sky. We added some rhythmic clapping. By now they were all very excited. I then showed them a very nice short animation of the artwork. I divided the class into two groups: fish and birds. I turned the sound off. When each element appeared in the video, the relevant group chanted their part. The students enjoyed themselves enormously. I then asked them to chant it in a whispering mode. I also encouraged them to gesture accordingly, i.e. fish group pretended they were swimming, bird group pretended they were flying. Water was mimed by placing hands under our desks, sky by lifting them up. I gestured with them along the way. At the end of the animation we said ‘Goodbye birds, fly! Goodbye fish, swim!’ Students improvised gestures for ‘fly’ and ‘swim’. We had a great time. Students asked if they could watch the animation for a second time and repeat the activity. I turned sound on and we repeated the activity. Enthusiasm led us to a third time, too. Tessellations, word clouds and logos with a hidden message I then projected the artwork again and asked students to carefully observe its details. They noticed that there was no space between the fish and bird shapes. Escher’s work consists of geometric shapes that fill the plane with congruent forms in rhythmic repetition without leaving any void. These formations are called tessellations. Escher liked to play with positive and negative shapes. In Sky and Water I the birds at the top appear as positive space (a main subject), yet its shape is echoed in the dark negative shapes between the fish. Likewise, the positive shape of the fish at the bottom has its shape repeated in the white spaces between the birds. I invited a couple of students to the board and had them outline the fish or bird shape hiding in the negative spaces. I also showed them some letter tessellations. They identified the letters, we talked about the colours, how the letters appeared face downwards and face upwards covering all the surface. We then had a look at two word clouds. I invited individual students to the board to trace the words in them. In every slide we repeated the relevant part of our rhyme. To end the first session we had a look at a selection of logos with a hidden message. Apart from the last logo, these were of products found in the Greek market. In the Toblerone logo some students saw a fish and a bird. I initially thought they were influenced by the previous activity so I invited these students to the board to trace the shape they had seen. Then, the first student traced the left leg of the bear and it did look like a fish swimming upwards while the second student traced the little shape right next to it which again did look like a bird flying. I told them they were right about the shapes and prompted them to look again carefully in case they could see something bigger. It was then that some of the students saw the bear hiding in Toblerone’s logo. I told them the story behind this logo. Most of the students ‘saw’ the face hiding in LG’s logo. One of them said ‘it’s Pacman’ while another said ‘Life is good’. Many students said that had LG products at home. Another student wanted to draw the full face so I invited him to the board. He added the other eye and two little dots under L to indicate the nostrils. Almost all the students saw the child looking up to an adult hiding behind the ‘Hope for African Children Initiative’ logo. I was initially taken by surprise since when I first looked at it I focussed on the map of Africa. But then I thought that my young learners were not familiar with world maps so they immediately focussed on the shapes of the people. Some students recognized the word Africa(n) in the logo and one said children are hungry and suffer there. We talked a bit about the need to protect children in that place and the message of the logo. At the end of the first session students were given a worksheet to complete as homework activity (see downloadable material below). My hidden message or image In the second session, I asked students to reflect on the previous class, work in groups and: create an image with a hidden message, or form a word cloud using words we had already encountered. In the third session groups presented their images to their classmates who tried to guess the hidden image or message. They described and explained what they had created. L1 was used by the students for the descriptions. L2 was used for single items in their images that the students knew the English word for. For every image, I offered and asked them to repeat new key words while we revisited words we already knew. My aims during these two sessions were to encourage students’ visual literacy micro-skills (visual thinking, and visual representing) through selecting and creating an image to convey meaning encourage their creative non verbal expression recycle previously taught vocabulary encourage oral vocabulary acquisition through students’ work practise repeating single words spoken slowly and clearly The students worked in groups. When ready, the groups showed their images to their classmates who tried to guess the hidden image or message. They described and explained what it was and why they had made it. For every image, I offered and asked them to repeat new key words while we revisited words we already knew. The group who had made this wanted to convey the message that fish should not be kept in fishbowls. They had asked me for the word ‘free’ as they were working on their image. (new key word: free – known words: fish, fishbowl) This is a sad mountain, students said. It’s sad because the water at its foot is dirty. Their answer to why this is so was that people throw rubbish in it. (new key words: mountain, sad, brown, rubbish – known word: water) A snake-cow hat This is a hat, but if you look carefully it’s also a snake that has swallowed a cow, students said. They had asked for the word hat while working. (new key words: snake, cow, hat, green) The shark who has eaten too much This is a shark who has eaten fish, grass, birds, rabbits, grandpa, a family. A very big shark with many things in his belly, students explained. (new key words: shark, grandpa, rabbit, grass – known words: bird, fish, family) Mrs Nature is happy when there are flowers and trees and sad when there is nothing. Students said that people make Mrs Nature sad when they destroy trees and flowers. (new key words: happy, flowers, trees) A word cloud for letter C Students in this group created their own impression of a word cloud based on one of the previous letters we had learned (C) and a relevant short rhyme about a cat on a computer. Wrapping it up This series of lessons is a step beyond my comfort zone, a departure from my work with older primary school students which dominates the posts on this site. It signals an attempt to expand my experimentation, insight and knowledge of themes that are very close to my heart, i.e art, visual literacy, making meaning, and creativity in the English language classroom. Language input, activity design, appropriacy and variation all had to be viewed under a new light taking into consideration a group of very young learners whose needs are very different from my usual older students. I feel really happy to have tried it and to share my insight here because it has been a new learning experience for me, as well. During these sessions I was struck by the children’s enthusiasm and engagement upon their exposure to a variety of multimodal ensembles (the artwork, the animated video, the letter tessellations, the word clouds, the logos, the written text) and activities. This echoes relevant literature that variation is a sine qua non when working with very young learners. I was also fascinated to observe how 8 year olds hone their viewing, analyzing and decoding skills as the visual, the verbal, and the gestural interweave and how all these are in a direct conversation with memorization and comprehension. I was finally struck by their readiness to embark on a creative process. As their visual thinking and visual representation were put into force, they further built an understanding of the meaning behind their images through perception and imagination. It was interesting that in half of the groups a social awareness thread could be identified (free fish, sad mountain, Mrs Nature) and how they chose to relate their images to the social environment. It was also a surprise to see humour in their work (the shark who has eaten too much). The experience has certainly whetted my appetite for further exploration of this approach. How about you? Have you ever tried anything similar with your very young learners? I would love to hear about it. I had come across a 3 minute animation showing extracts from the graphic biography of Anne Frank that I wanted to show students, but I thought that language might be a bit difficult for them. The research, sharing, visually organizing, and writing activities that we first worked on, and that I wrote about in the previous post, paved the ground for stepping smoothly into watching the animation. The Anne Frank animation – ordering the events I prepared a worksheet with 10 events from the video and jumbled them up. This is an activity drawn from Kieran Donaghy’s excellent resource Film in Action. Students watched the video twice and they ordered the events as they appeared in the animation. Representing: my image of Anne Frank’s story On finishing the lesson, I asked students to choose the most important thing from Anne’s story and communicate their ideas in both verbal and non-verbal ways. A wealth of hand made drawings and digital work was brought in class. Many students chose to draw Anne’s diary associating it with her life events and her writings about the war. Others drew Anne herself writing in her diary and the importance of what she wrote not only for herself, but also for us, as future generations. A student drew Anne with a “Jew” badge on her chest the moment she was arrested by the Nazis. There was also a group of students who had chosen to work on this collaboratively and came up with a series of 4 portraits of Anne capturing all the important events in her life. These portraits were inspired by the imagery in the animation and were linked to four relevant life moments. Each portrait was related to her state and feelings starting from birth when she was free, moving to her receiving the diary (happy), hiding and writing in the Annex (sad, angry) and finally being arrested (scared). Sentence-phrase-word: what speaks to me The last activity on this topic involved being exposed to Anne’s writing. I was lucky enough to trace the definitive edition online and made a worksheet with 3 excerpts. I first read the excerpts to the students and we worked on language they did not know. Then, we worked on the sentence, phrase, word routine. I asked them to choose: that were important, meaningful, powerful or moved them. I also encouraged them to justify their choices. Some students chose their sentence, phrase, word from the first excerpt, some from the second, while some from the third. Some others tried choosing from more than one excerpts and some made one choice from each excerpt. Finally, some students chose only one or two of the stems (sentence or phrase or word). I realize that this activity requires a deep, personal insight into a topic which is not an easy one, let alone when you have to express yourself in another language. Students’ answers were touching and showed an admirable effort to offer their personal interpretations on Anne’s writing. Some responses for excerpt 1 for excerpt 2 for excerpt 3 and mixed responses By the time, we reached the end of our work, Anne Frank and her diary had become a topic of everyday discussion whether we had a class together or not. I can even say that I was slighlty surprised by the impact it had on the students. Books bought were brought in class, others had already been ordered, excerpts from their Greek language textbook on Anne Frank were discovered and they asked their Greek language teacher to work on them; students were sharing among themselves youtube addresses where they could watch and find out more about her. It was great to see the resonance of her story with the children. Some diary excerpts from previous decades that were in our coursebook sparked the idea of dealing with the most widely read diary: the diary of Anne Frank. Not a happy ending story, yet one that I felt is important for my young sixth graders (A2, eleven year-olds) to know. It can trigger thinking about injustice and discrimination, about where hate can lead, and stimulate empathy for others through a real story of a girl close to their age. I first showed them a screenshot from an animation on Anne Frank and we worked on the see-think-wonder routine. They observed silently and answered 3 questions: What do you see? What do you think about it? What does it make you wonder? They took notes of their ideas. I went round the classroom and offered help with language when needed. Some asked for words like “wires”, “torn”, “borders”, “bent” (shoulders). One needed help clarifying between “die” and “kill”. We shared our ideas in class. They fact that the girl in the image was writing a diary was a prominent answer among most of the students. They identified the feeling of sadness in the girl’s face and made associations with a war situation. Two of the students straightly associated the image with World War II because the shape of the airplane reminded them of similar airplanes they had seen from that period. A student used the word “cloudy” to describe her thoughts about the girl and word choice made me smile. I found it creative and unexpected. They also hypothesized about the relationship between the two female figures. Some thought the woman at the back was the girl’s mother, others her grandmother. A couple of them thought that the people were refugees trying to cross the borders because of the wired fence at the back and their torn clothes. Students’ questions embraced all the who, where, what and why relevant to the topic: Who are these people? What is the girl writing? Why is this war happening? Why are they sad? Where are they? I took some notes of their ideas on the board and encouraged students to do the same in their notebooks. By the end of the session they were more than curious to find out who the girl in the image was. I revealed her name and wrote it on the board: Anne Frank. Some of them went bright-eyed. Two had the Greek translation of the book at home, but had never read it. One said he was a member of an amateur theatre club and he remembered once talking about staging a performance of this play, but not doing it in the end. A fourth one had been to the theatre with her parents and had attended a professional performance based on Anne Frank’s life. A vague familiarity with the cloudy girl in the image began to spread in the classroom. I asked them what they knew about Anne Frank and three things came up: she was writing in her diary about the war, she lived in Germany, she was a Jew (that was a word that they knew in Greek, and I provided them with the English equivalent). When they asked what Jew means, I explained in simple terms that it is a religion. At the end of this first session, I asked them as a follow-up to: Write a short paragraph about the lesson, based on their notes and class discussion. Research, read about Anne Frank (reading could be done in either L1 or L2) and come back next time with 4-5 sentences about what struck them as most interesting. Organising Anne’s story visually Skills: reading, listening, speaking, note-taking, story building Until our next session, I was pleasantly surprised and happy to see students come and find me before the morning assembly or during breaks to report either that they had started reading the book or that they had asked their parents for a copy. Those who had started reading it were amazed to find out how many things Anne could not do because she was a Jew. In our second session on the topic, individual students initially read their paragraphs and some feedback was given. Then, they started sharing their choices of sentences. I knew that not all students would come up with the same things. I trusted that from the multitude of sentences we would manage to create an as complete as possible picture of Anne’s story. I also had in mind of asking them at the end of the session for a writing assignment that would incorporate all the elements shared in class. I decided to organise the information into a more visual form to illustrate the connections and relationships between various aspects of what we were discussing. I hoped to enable students to refer to, relate between information, and help the writing process. The diagramme was built around the first 4 sentences that were read in class, namely that she was born in Germany, she was a Jew, she wrote a diary and that she died in 1945. From thereon I intervened at times and facilitated building the story by asking some questions and seeing whether students had written a relevant sentence. For example, I asked “What was happening in Germany at the time Anne was born?” and a student had written a sentence about Adolph Hitler and the Nazis coming to power. That’s how the left part of the diagramme started being formed. The next question was “Why was this important for Anne?” and someone else had written that the Nazis discriminated against the Jews and made life difficult for them. I went on by asking “So, what did Anne’s family do?” and we found out that they moved to the Netherlands. “Were they safe there?” was the next question to get the answer that “no” because “persecutions against the Jews intensified”. We finally reached the point where the family hid in the Secret Annex with four other friends. The Secret Annex was linked to her writing the diary and the people were linked to the aftermath i.e that the Nazis arrested them, and they were taken to a concentration camp where Anne died. Which brought us back to one of the first four sentences. While writing on the board, I used colour coding: blue for the information, black to highlight verbs used, red for things of importance, and finally a green contour around new language. This was language students had included in their sentences, but other students were not familiar with since each one had come up with different sentences. At the end of the session, I asked students to draw on the diagramme and retell the story. We did this as a relay race. One would start, I would say stop, another student would take up from that point and go on with the story. We tried this two or three times and it went well. Students left the class to do their writing assignment feeling quite confident about it. I left thinking about the next stage of the topic which is still going on and I hope to write about it in a next post. This post reports on how we worked some time ago with a group of fifth graders (A1 level students, 10 years old) using Norman Rockwell’s “The problem we all live with”. The aims were to: collaboratively build a story with prompts raise awareness of intolerance and racism practise Past tenses (Past Simple, Past Progressive) develop viewing, observing and description skills link to Art, History, and Geography “The problem we all live with” is an iconic image of the Civil Rights Movement in the USA. It depicts Ruby Bridges. She was the first African-American child to attend the all-white William Frantz Elementary School in Louisiana during the New Orleans school desegregation crisis in 1960. Building the story I framed the procedure as a viewing/describing activity towards collaboratively building a story with prompts. For the prompts I used the typical journalistic questions: Who? What? Where? How? Why? I first introduced the painting by saying: Well, this is Ruby…,and then invited the children to go on with the story, prompting them to respond by providing full answers to my questions: Who was she? What was she doing/carrying/wearing? Where do you think she was going? How did she look? Was she alone? Who was with her? The students were speaking, they listened to their classmates’ ideas and took notes. As the story was gradually built, individual students narrated it, adding each time the new elements, so that they could get an as good as possible grasp of it. They came up with descriptive pieces of writing based on their notes and class discussion. Students were very happy with Ruby’s story. They liked the painting and they also liked this beautiful little black girl. They thought that the four policemen were walking with Ruby and protecting her because she was an important person. They made associations with the former USA president. What more can we find? Ruby’s real story unfolds Then I started drawing their attention to other details in the painting by asking: Look carefully, what more can we find? We started developing the real story. They first noticed the tomato splash on the wall and the tomato on the ground. I asked them: What do you think about that? What was happening? Students were surprised to realise that “Oh! people were throwing tomatoes”. Then they noticed the word Nigger on the wall above Ruby and they asked: “What is a Nigger?” I explained in simple terms that this is a racist word to talk about black people. They finally noticed the letters KKK on the top left corner of the painting and again they wanted to know what these stand for. I said that it is an organization in the USA that terrorizes black people. All this was added to our initial notes about Ruby. It was at this moment that the students were shocked, sad and angry. They had grown to like Ruby so much that when the actual story unfolded in front of their eyes, they felt it was unfair. It was an apt moment to ask: Why do you think that people were reacting like that? It came very natural to children to say that this had happened because she wasn’t white, she was different. I then provided them with the geographical and historical context of the incident. We also moved from racial intolerance in general to the racism of our everyday life. I asked them to look at each other and notice how different we are, whether that means height, weight, whether we are strong or less strong, and the things we like. We are all different. It was about raising awareness of intolerance towards difference: the more “different” the other is perceived, the stronger the fears and negative feelings tend to be. Interactive work on Ruby’s story Following classroom work on Ruby’s story, I developed a course presentation with interactive slides to give students the chance to further practise vocabulary and grammatical structures involved in the lesson. It comprises of 12 micro-activities, each one dealt with in a different slide: drag and drop vocabulary activity reading, part i reading quiz- answer 5 questions reading part ii reading comprehension gap fill focus on language structures: Past Progressive identification focus on language structures: Past Simple & Past Progressive gap fill Interactive video (hotspots with questions and information): Ruby Bridges talks about herself and the painting. Choose one of the following 2 activities: Work in groups of 3. One of you must get in the shoes of Ruby, one in the shoes of a US Marshal, and one in the shoes of one of the people in the crowd. From your point of view, answer the questions: What do you think? How do you feel? What do you care about? These questions build understanding of multiple perspectives. Watch the trailer from a film about Ruby Bridges. Answer the questions: How is the trailer similar to the painting? How is it different? How do you feel? Why? What new things did you learn about Ruby’s story? Choose one of the following 2 activities: Visit GoogleEarth – Louisiana (make sure you open your browser in Google Chrome). Prepare a word doc or a ppt presentation about 3 things that you find interesting about Louisiana. Prepare a word doc or a ppt presentation about Norman Rockwell. Ruby’s story triggered students’ curiosity and evoked self-initiated work and further research. They made little booklets with illustrations, handmade word clouds, little posters. I think what happened to Ruby spoke highly to children’s hearts and minds. Note: The interactive work was created using H5P, an online tool for creating, sharing and reusing interactive HTML5 content. Last weekend the Image Conference took place. This is the annual event of the Visual Arts Circle. VAC is an innovative and collaborative project which seeks to explore the possibilities of film, video and images in language teaching and learning. The conference is held in a different city every year. This year it was its seventh edition and it took place in Athens, hosted and co-organized by New York College. There was also a strand of the conference being run by GISIG (Global Issues Special Interest Group). The event was very stimulating and focused which is something I really like. I find an add-on the fact that this year, apart from the overarching theme of images and video, there was also a focus on the migrant and refugee crisis. This offered a new perspective to the conference. It was mainly dealt with in the sessions of the GISIG strand. I have however the overall impression that many of the teaching approaches presented in other sessions, too, showed a heightened awareness of global issues and this is really interesting and important. I feel very honoured to have been asked by Kieran Donaghy and Sylvia Karastathi to give one of the plenary sessions during the Conference. My session focused on the use of paintings and how they can be linked to social topics. I reflected on work we have done with the students and discussed activities that nurture the development of thinking dispositions, meaningful language, visual literacy and social awareness through examples and insights from my classroom practice. Here is the link to the slides I used in my plenary session. The 2019 Image Conference will take place in Brussels and it will be hosted by the Belgian English Language Teaching Association (BELTA). The 21st of March is the International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. We worked with eleven-year-old primary school students on the topic of racism, not only on that day, but also during the following week. Here is an account focusing on two of the resources we used and the activities we worked on. Racism Explained to My Daughterby Tahar Ben Jelloun Tahar Ben Jelloun is a Morrocan writer whose entire work is written in French although his first language is Arabic. Racism Explained to My Daughter is a wonderful book which involves a compelling dialogue between the author and his ten-year-old daughter on the difficult topic of racism in an admirably straightforward and understandable way. There were three main activites that guided our way through the excerpt we worked with: I described this in the previous post. It is a thinking routine that provides learners with a structure for identifying key ideas and committing them to memory. It can be used after reading a text, watching a movie, or being presented with new information or ideas. Students are asked to a) recall and note (a list of key ideas), b) exchange notes with classmates, read others’ ideas and add one new thing to the list, and c) review their returned notes with all the additions from their classmates and maybe add any new ideas they have picked up from reading others’ notes. The way we tried it in class was slightly adapted since recalling from memory would be difficult for the students’ language level. I let them have a look at the excerpt whenever they felt they needed to. Make note is a routine that enhances students’ memory of and engagement with ideas by focusing on capturing the heart and distilling key issues and questions. After a film, reading or discussion we ask students to make a note of ONE of the following: What is the most important point? What do you find difficult to understand? What question would you most like to discuss? What is something you found intesting? A final activity that we tried with the same text was the sentence-phrase-word routine. Students chose a sentence, a phrase and a word that they thought was powerful, important or moving and justified their choices. The children offered a wealth of ideas highlighting diverse aspects of the issue. Some choices and explanations offered: Murder at Sharpeville by Godfrey Rubens This painting by the painter and photographer Godfrey Rubens portrays the massacre in the town of Sharpeville, South Africa, which took place on the 21st of March, 1960. The incident in which 69 unarmed black African people were shot dead during a peaceful protest against apartheid’s pass-books system marked a turning point. It is the reason that today this day is commemorated as the Universal Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. See, think, wonder We first worked with the see, think, wonder routine. The children wrote and shared interesting ideas and thoughts and were very curious to know what, where, and why this happened. The story behind the painting This high curiosity level led us to look at the historical facts behind the painting. I wanted to avoid developing another reading text since we had already worked with the excerpt from Tahar Ben Jelloun’s book. I decided to frame it as a listening activity. I started telling the story using simplified language to ensure understanding. At the same time I was writing key points on the board. Students were listening and taking notes. From time to time I asked them questions or invited them to ask me questions. I also paused regularly and asked individual students to repeat the story so far. Little by little we built a diagram with the story behind the painting on the board. When we finished that session I asked them to study the diagram at home and be prepared to talk about it next time. In the lesson that followed children practised speaking about the incident by drawing on the diagram. We tried this a few times, students took turns among them each narrating a part of the story and then another would take up and continue. Their confidence gradually grew. During this stage, we added two more clouds to the diagram. In the first one we included the verbs they used (base form) while in the second some other words and phrases they needed to refine their story-telling. The final diagram served as their blueprint for stepping into writing the story. We started that in class and they finalized it at home. Although it was one of the longest texts the children have written so far, it worked really well. I asked them in the following lesson how they coped with writing the story and they said that having the diagram with the key points, verbs and extra words was very helpful. Some of them also said that having talked about it in class made writing easy because they “had it in their minds”. We spent a small part of that session narrating the incident again and after having told, retold and writing about it there was a very satisfying, smooth speaking flow. I remember that when we started working on this topic, I had asked students if they knew what we celebrate on the 21st of March. They had come up with the answer: the world day of sleep. It did not come as a surprise. After all, World Sleep Day was quite prominent on tv those days, and I myself had seen a surge of tv commercials for furniture, mattresses and other relevant products. The children had probably seen them, too. I think it’s good that they now know it is the day against racial discrimination.	7,307	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 24/03/2010) It is believed that the Gaudas lived on the sea shore and in the state of Bengal. It has been recorded in history that Karnasuvarna was a Gauda king, the great rival of Rajyavardhana and Harsavardhana, the kings of Thanesvar. The fight with the Maukharis seems to have brought the Gaudas into the forefront of Eastern Indian politics. After the death of Sasanka, the Gaudas seem to have faded out from history for a time; but in the first half of the eighth century they again appear on the stage, and a Gauda king had occupied the throne of Magadha About the Gaudas it can be said that the Gaudas continued in their work of destruction until they were annihilated by the army. Even in the time of Kalhana that is in the twelfth century A.D. the Ramasvami temple was empty, and the heroism of the Gaudas was sung all over the valley. The Pala kings of Bengal are often described as 'Lords of Gauda' as well as ' Vangapati', in the contemporary epigraphic records. His sons Kesavasena and Visvaripasena are also referred to as lords of Gauda. The kingdom of Gauda had as far as Allahabad at the confluence of the Ganges. It has been recorded in history that the Gaudas were humiliated by Krishna III. And after the Pala kings the Gauda country had passed into the hands of the Senas. Ivaksmanasena has been referred as Gaudesvara. Vijayasena one of the early kings of the Sena dynasty had defeated Nanya, Vira, and the kings of Gauda, Kamarupa, and Kalinga.And during the rule of the Senas the Gauda kingdom had been attacked several times. It has been said that the Gaudas at one time or another used to inhabit other countries and localities than the region with which they were primarily associated. Sometimes several references have said that Gauda must have been lying to the north of Kosiala and to the north-west of Mithila. Presently the ruins of the ancient city of the Gaudas, which was situated at the junction of the Ganges and the Mahananda, can still be seen near Malda in North Bengal.	<urn:uuid:83f32606-5555-419a-96e3-9a5e488be217>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/46/gauda_tribe.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00192.warc.gz	en	0.986292	521	3.734375	4	[ 0.10680054128170013, 0.44157862663269043, 0.09571634978055954, -0.02263462543487549, -0.06558474898338318, -0.15255339443683624, 0.22132937610149384, -0.06938674300909042, -0.007744444999843836, 0.06994248926639557, -0.3158893287181854, -0.6301040649414062, -0.10794419050216675, 0.38436558...	3	(Last Updated on : 24/03/2010) It is believed that the Gaudas lived on the sea shore and in the state of Bengal. It has been recorded in history that Karnasuvarna was a Gauda king, the great rival of Rajyavardhana and Harsavardhana, the kings of Thanesvar. The fight with the Maukharis seems to have brought the Gaudas into the forefront of Eastern Indian politics. After the death of Sasanka, the Gaudas seem to have faded out from history for a time; but in the first half of the eighth century they again appear on the stage, and a Gauda king had occupied the throne of Magadha About the Gaudas it can be said that the Gaudas continued in their work of destruction until they were annihilated by the army. Even in the time of Kalhana that is in the twelfth century A.D. the Ramasvami temple was empty, and the heroism of the Gaudas was sung all over the valley. The Pala kings of Bengal are often described as 'Lords of Gauda' as well as ' Vangapati', in the contemporary epigraphic records. His sons Kesavasena and Visvaripasena are also referred to as lords of Gauda. The kingdom of Gauda had as far as Allahabad at the confluence of the Ganges. It has been recorded in history that the Gaudas were humiliated by Krishna III. And after the Pala kings the Gauda country had passed into the hands of the Senas. Ivaksmanasena has been referred as Gaudesvara. Vijayasena one of the early kings of the Sena dynasty had defeated Nanya, Vira, and the kings of Gauda, Kamarupa, and Kalinga.And during the rule of the Senas the Gauda kingdom had been attacked several times. It has been said that the Gaudas at one time or another used to inhabit other countries and localities than the region with which they were primarily associated. Sometimes several references have said that Gauda must have been lying to the north of Kosiala and to the north-west of Mithila. Presently the ruins of the ancient city of the Gaudas, which was situated at the junction of the Ganges and the Mahananda, can still be seen near Malda in North Bengal.	519	ENGLISH	1
Jefferson spoke eloquently on the evils of the peculiar institution, especially in his Notes on the State of Virginia, his only book. Washington said less about slavery, and what he said was expressed privately. There is no reason to think that either man thought that Africans, if free and given opportunities to advance, could have become the intellectual equals of whites. The early death of his father when he was 11 eliminated the possibility of schooling in England, and his mother rejected attempts to place him in the Royal Navy. Washington played a key role in the outbreak of the French and Indian Warand then led the defense of Virginia between and as colonel of the Virginia Regiment. Although Washington never received a commission in the British Army, he gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills, and received significant public exposure in the colonies and abroad. He demonstrated his toughness and courage in the most difficult situations, including disasters and retreats. He developed a command presence—given his size, strength, stamina, and bravery in battle, he appeared to soldiers to be a natural leader and they followed him without question. From his observations, readings and conversations with professional officers, he learned the basics of battlefield tactics, as well as a good understanding of problems of organization and logistics. Although he expressed opposition to the Stamp Actthe first direct tax on the colonies, he did not take a leading role in the growing colonial resistance until protests of the Townshend Acts enacted in became widespread. In MayWashington introduced a proposal, drafted by his friend George Masoncalling for Virginia to boycott British goods until the Acts were repealed. However, Washington regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in as "an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges". The goal was always independence. When France entered the war, he worked closely with the soldiers it sent--they were decisive in the great victory at Yorktown in Washington worked hard to develop a successful espionage system to detect British locations and plans. In it discovered Benedict Arnold was a traitor. In JuneCongress made its first attempt at running the war effort with the committee known as "Board of War and Ordnance", succeeded by the Board of War in Julya committee which eventually included members of the military. The results of his general staff were mixed, as some of his favorites never mastered the art of command, such as John Sullivan. Eventually, he found capable officers such as Nathanael GreeneDaniel MorganHenry Knox chief of artilleryand Alexander Hamilton chief of staff. The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at BostonSaratogaand Yorktown came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops. There was never nearly enough. His long-term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times, and eventually this strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal. Furthermore, he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won, rather than declaring himself monarch. He also helped to overcome the distrust of a standing army by his constant reiteration that well-disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as poorly trained and led militias. He utilized agents behind enemy lines, recruited both Tory and Patriot sources, interrogated travelers for intelligence information, and launched scores of agents on both intelligence and counterintelligence missions. He was adept at deception operations and tradecraft and was a skilled propagandist. He also practiced sound operational security. He emphasized his desire for receiving written, rather than verbal, reports. He demanded repeatedly that intelligence reports be expedited, reminding his officers of those bits of intelligence he had received which had become valueless because of delay in getting them to him. He also recognized the need for developing many different sources so that their reports could be cross-checked, and so that the compromise of one source would not cut off the flow of intelligence from an important area. In accounting for the sums in his journals, he did not identify the recipients: Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in a military uniform, signaling that he was prepared for war.George Washington – first American president, commander of the Continental Army, president of the Constitutional Convention, and gentleman planter. Learn more about the many varied roles that George Washington excelled in and tremendous legacy that he left for America and the World. George. George Washington was in charge of the Continental Army in the American Revolution. Many of the troops only joined the army because they trusted and admired Washington. On Dec ember 25, , Washington's troops rowed across the Delaware River to New Jersey where they attacked the Hessians at Trenton. George Washington was the first president of the United States, Commanding General during the American Revolution and remains as one of the most influential and famous figures in American history. His contribution extends far beyond perhaps any other in the history of the United States. During the Revolution, buying American products became a patriotic gesture. Housewives used their purchasing power to support the Patriot cause by refusing to buy British goods for use in their homes. In George Washington received a letter from Edward Rushton, a prominent English antislavery advocate. It was hardly the polite, respectful missive that the . The Marquis de Lafayette first met George Washington in Philadelphia in the summer of At 19, the marquis had left his wife and baby in France to pursue his heroic dream of helping to win America’s freedom. From almost his first meeting with Washington, Lafayette claimed the general as the father he had never known.	<urn:uuid:ae0d820c-38e2-433e-ac12-29eb6f566d05>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nobuwafodohece.timberdesignmag.com/the-role-of-george-washington-in-the-american-revolution-16595ft.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00405.warc.gz	en	0.982877	1,169	3.578125	4	[ -0.5636968016624451, 0.6359313726425171, 0.1840074062347412, -0.30357685685157776, -0.14048399031162262, 0.10891332477331161, 0.3102920949459076, 0.03444672003388405, 0.17849507927894592, 0.10988369584083557, 0.17208141088485718, 0.10715658217668533, 0.03153972700238228, 0.2645992338657379...	2	Jefferson spoke eloquently on the evils of the peculiar institution, especially in his Notes on the State of Virginia, his only book. Washington said less about slavery, and what he said was expressed privately. There is no reason to think that either man thought that Africans, if free and given opportunities to advance, could have become the intellectual equals of whites. The early death of his father when he was 11 eliminated the possibility of schooling in England, and his mother rejected attempts to place him in the Royal Navy. Washington played a key role in the outbreak of the French and Indian Warand then led the defense of Virginia between and as colonel of the Virginia Regiment. Although Washington never received a commission in the British Army, he gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills, and received significant public exposure in the colonies and abroad. He demonstrated his toughness and courage in the most difficult situations, including disasters and retreats. He developed a command presence—given his size, strength, stamina, and bravery in battle, he appeared to soldiers to be a natural leader and they followed him without question. From his observations, readings and conversations with professional officers, he learned the basics of battlefield tactics, as well as a good understanding of problems of organization and logistics. Although he expressed opposition to the Stamp Actthe first direct tax on the colonies, he did not take a leading role in the growing colonial resistance until protests of the Townshend Acts enacted in became widespread. In MayWashington introduced a proposal, drafted by his friend George Masoncalling for Virginia to boycott British goods until the Acts were repealed. However, Washington regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in as "an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges". The goal was always independence. When France entered the war, he worked closely with the soldiers it sent--they were decisive in the great victory at Yorktown in Washington worked hard to develop a successful espionage system to detect British locations and plans. In it discovered Benedict Arnold was a traitor. In JuneCongress made its first attempt at running the war effort with the committee known as "Board of War and Ordnance", succeeded by the Board of War in Julya committee which eventually included members of the military. The results of his general staff were mixed, as some of his favorites never mastered the art of command, such as John Sullivan. Eventually, he found capable officers such as Nathanael GreeneDaniel MorganHenry Knox chief of artilleryand Alexander Hamilton chief of staff. The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at BostonSaratogaand Yorktown came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops. There was never nearly enough. His long-term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times, and eventually this strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal. Furthermore, he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won, rather than declaring himself monarch. He also helped to overcome the distrust of a standing army by his constant reiteration that well-disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as poorly trained and led militias. He utilized agents behind enemy lines, recruited both Tory and Patriot sources, interrogated travelers for intelligence information, and launched scores of agents on both intelligence and counterintelligence missions. He was adept at deception operations and tradecraft and was a skilled propagandist. He also practiced sound operational security. He emphasized his desire for receiving written, rather than verbal, reports. He demanded repeatedly that intelligence reports be expedited, reminding his officers of those bits of intelligence he had received which had become valueless because of delay in getting them to him. He also recognized the need for developing many different sources so that their reports could be cross-checked, and so that the compromise of one source would not cut off the flow of intelligence from an important area. In accounting for the sums in his journals, he did not identify the recipients: Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in a military uniform, signaling that he was prepared for war.George Washington – first American president, commander of the Continental Army, president of the Constitutional Convention, and gentleman planter. Learn more about the many varied roles that George Washington excelled in and tremendous legacy that he left for America and the World. George. George Washington was in charge of the Continental Army in the American Revolution. Many of the troops only joined the army because they trusted and admired Washington. On Dec ember 25, , Washington's troops rowed across the Delaware River to New Jersey where they attacked the Hessians at Trenton. George Washington was the first president of the United States, Commanding General during the American Revolution and remains as one of the most influential and famous figures in American history. His contribution extends far beyond perhaps any other in the history of the United States. During the Revolution, buying American products became a patriotic gesture. Housewives used their purchasing power to support the Patriot cause by refusing to buy British goods for use in their homes. In George Washington received a letter from Edward Rushton, a prominent English antislavery advocate. It was hardly the polite, respectful missive that the . The Marquis de Lafayette first met George Washington in Philadelphia in the summer of At 19, the marquis had left his wife and baby in France to pursue his heroic dream of helping to win America’s freedom. From almost his first meeting with Washington, Lafayette claimed the general as the father he had never known.	1,153	ENGLISH	1
The Feast of the Life-giving Spring which is kept on the Friday of Bright Week has its origins in the 5th century. It is the feast that commemorates the consecration of the Church of the Life-giving Spring outside of Constantinople. The very large and beautiful church named in honor of the Theotokos of the Life-giving Spring was built about the middle of the fifth century by the Emperor Leo the Great (457-474 AD), outside of Constantinople. Emperor Leo was a pious man (he is commemorated on January 20th) and before he became Emperor, he had encountered a blind man, who being tormented with thirst asked him to help him find water. Leo felt compassion for him and went in search of a source of water, but found none. As he was about to cease his search, he heard a voice telling him there was water nearby. He looked again, and found none. Then he heard the voice again, this time calling him “Emperor” and telling him that he would find muddy water in the densely wooded place nearby; he was to take some water and anoint the blind man’s eyes with it. When he had done this, the blind man received his sight. After Leo became Emperor, as the Most Holy Theotokos had prophesied, he raised up a church temple over the spring, whose waters worked many healings, as well as resurrections from the dead, through the intercessions of the Theotokos. From this, it came to be called the “Life-giving Spring.” Justinian the Great (527-565 AD) was also cured by the waters of “The Life-giving Spring” and in gratitude built a new church temple, larger than the first. It was destroyed by earthquakes and rebuilt by grateful emperors. After the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, this church temple was razed to the ground and the materials from it were used for building the mosque of Sultan Beyazıt. Nothing remained of that church’s ancient beauty, except for a small chapel, almost completely buried in the ruins. This chapel had twenty-five steps going down into it, and a transom window on the roof, from which it received a little light. Toward the western side of the chapel was the holy Spring, fenced about with a railing. In 1821 even that little remnant was destroyed. The sacred Spring was buried with it and disappeared altogether. But in the days of Sultan Mahmud, when those subject to him were rejoicing in their freedom to practice their religion, permission was sought by the Orthodox Christian community to rebuild at least the chapel. Permission was granted to build a church temple and it was consecrated on Bright Friday in 1835. But on the night of September 6-7, 1955, it along with 73 other Orthodox churches in Istanbul, was desecrated and burned to the ground by the Turks. The church has been restored yet once again, but not anywhere its former magnificence. O Most Holy Theotokos of the Life-giving Spring, save us! Apolytikion: Third Tone, Awed by the beauty A life-giving fount, thou didst conceive the Dew * that is transcendent in essence, O Virgin Maid, * and thou hast welled for our sakes the nectar of joy eternal, * which doth pour forth from thy fount * with the water that springeth up * unto everlasting life * in unending and mighty streams; * wherein, taking delight, we all cry out: Rejoice, O thou Spring of life for all men. Kontakion: Plagal of Fourth Tone, To thee, the Champion Leader From thine unfailing fount, O Maid supremely graced of God, * thou dost reward me by the flow of the unending streams * of thy grace that doth surpass human understanding. * And since thou didst bear the Word incomprehensibly, * I entreat thee to refresh me with thy grace divine,* that I may cry to thee:* Rejoice, O Water of salvation.	<urn:uuid:366f4911-df21-436c-8232-a75195bdda5a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.sentiericona.it/public/icone/?p=7041	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00481.warc.gz	en	0.982624	860	3.40625	3	[ -0.02985347807407379, 0.5077040195465088, 0.16073809564113617, 0.08415215462446213, -0.1676941215991974, -0.382087767124176, 0.05738745257258415, 0.4606228172779083, -0.012698665261268616, -0.22104820609092712, -0.20889483392238617, -0.03113001212477684, 0.04981882497668266, 0.282172799110...	2	The Feast of the Life-giving Spring which is kept on the Friday of Bright Week has its origins in the 5th century. It is the feast that commemorates the consecration of the Church of the Life-giving Spring outside of Constantinople. The very large and beautiful church named in honor of the Theotokos of the Life-giving Spring was built about the middle of the fifth century by the Emperor Leo the Great (457-474 AD), outside of Constantinople. Emperor Leo was a pious man (he is commemorated on January 20th) and before he became Emperor, he had encountered a blind man, who being tormented with thirst asked him to help him find water. Leo felt compassion for him and went in search of a source of water, but found none. As he was about to cease his search, he heard a voice telling him there was water nearby. He looked again, and found none. Then he heard the voice again, this time calling him “Emperor” and telling him that he would find muddy water in the densely wooded place nearby; he was to take some water and anoint the blind man’s eyes with it. When he had done this, the blind man received his sight. After Leo became Emperor, as the Most Holy Theotokos had prophesied, he raised up a church temple over the spring, whose waters worked many healings, as well as resurrections from the dead, through the intercessions of the Theotokos. From this, it came to be called the “Life-giving Spring.” Justinian the Great (527-565 AD) was also cured by the waters of “The Life-giving Spring” and in gratitude built a new church temple, larger than the first. It was destroyed by earthquakes and rebuilt by grateful emperors. After the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, this church temple was razed to the ground and the materials from it were used for building the mosque of Sultan Beyazıt. Nothing remained of that church’s ancient beauty, except for a small chapel, almost completely buried in the ruins. This chapel had twenty-five steps going down into it, and a transom window on the roof, from which it received a little light. Toward the western side of the chapel was the holy Spring, fenced about with a railing. In 1821 even that little remnant was destroyed. The sacred Spring was buried with it and disappeared altogether. But in the days of Sultan Mahmud, when those subject to him were rejoicing in their freedom to practice their religion, permission was sought by the Orthodox Christian community to rebuild at least the chapel. Permission was granted to build a church temple and it was consecrated on Bright Friday in 1835. But on the night of September 6-7, 1955, it along with 73 other Orthodox churches in Istanbul, was desecrated and burned to the ground by the Turks. The church has been restored yet once again, but not anywhere its former magnificence. O Most Holy Theotokos of the Life-giving Spring, save us! Apolytikion: Third Tone, Awed by the beauty A life-giving fount, thou didst conceive the Dew * that is transcendent in essence, O Virgin Maid, * and thou hast welled for our sakes the nectar of joy eternal, * which doth pour forth from thy fount * with the water that springeth up * unto everlasting life * in unending and mighty streams; * wherein, taking delight, we all cry out: Rejoice, O thou Spring of life for all men. Kontakion: Plagal of Fourth Tone, To thee, the Champion Leader From thine unfailing fount, O Maid supremely graced of God, * thou dost reward me by the flow of the unending streams * of thy grace that doth surpass human understanding. * And since thou didst bear the Word incomprehensibly, * I entreat thee to refresh me with thy grace divine,* that I may cry to thee:* Rejoice, O Water of salvation.	871	ENGLISH	1
Edward IV.—The Story of Queen Margaret and the Robbers I T was in 1461 A.D. that the people chose Edward IV. as their King, and so there were two kings in England—Henry VI. the head of the Red Rose, and Edward IV. the head of the White Rose party. There could be no peace in the country so long as there were two kings each claiming the throne, so, without waiting to be crowned, Edward marched to meet the Red Rose army and to fight for the crown. On a cold, bleak day in March the two forces met at Towton in Yorkshire, and fought amid a wild storm of wind and snow. For ten hours the battle raged. The white snow was stained and the river which flowed near ran red with blood, till it seemed as if the earth and the sky had taken sides with the red and white roses. Never since Hastings had such a terrible battle been fought on English ground. The White Rose was victorious. Henry's cause seemed utterly lost and he and his wife and their little son fled to Scotland. If Henry had been left to himself he would have given up fighting for the crown, for he loved quiet and peace. But Queen Margaret loved power and would not rest until she had again won the kingdom. She got help from the French king and in three years was back in England once more. But Edward and the great Earl of Warwick, who had helped to put Edward upon the throne, were too strong for Margaret, and she was utterly defeated. Without a single friend or servant, Margaret and her little son, who was now about eleven years old, fled into the forest to hide. The night came on, it grew dark, and they lost their way among the winding paths. Hungry and tired, they did not know which way to turn. Afraid to stop, afraid to go on, starting and shrinking at every sound, they clung to each other trembling. Presently they heard men's voices and saw the glimmer of a fire. Margaret whispered to her little son to be very, very still, as they crept near to find out who these people were, whether friends or enemies. Hidden by the trees, the Queen and her little boy came quite close to the fire and stood listening and watching. In a few minutes they found out that these men were robbers. Holding the Prince tight by the hand, Queen Margaret made ready to run away. But suddenly one of the robbers looked towards them. He saw the glitter of jewels in the firelight. With a cry he made a spring at the Queen and, in spite of her screams and struggles, she was dragged into the circle round the fire. "Ah, ah, what have we here?" cried one robber. "A fine prize, truly," said another. "Here is gold enough," said a third, roughly pulling at the chain round Margaret's neck. "Come, lady, we will have all these things," he went on, pointing to her jewels. The Queen began to take off her rings and jewels, for she was very much afraid. But one robber pushed the other aside. "Let be," he said, "the prize is mine. I took her." "Nay, nay, share and share alike." "It is mine, I say." "I took her, I say, it is mine." So the robbers began to quarrel fiercely about the treasure, and while they quarrelled, Margaret took the Prince in her arms and ran away. Where she ran she did not know. On and on she went, stumbling through the dark forest. At last, breathless and weary, unable to go another step, she sank down on a grassy bank. Scarcely had she done so when another robber appeared. Seeing no escape, Margaret went towards this robber, and putting the little Prince into his arms, "Friend," she said, "take care of him, he is the son of your true King." The hard, rough man, accustomed only to murder and rob, felt sorry for the poor, tired lady and her little boy. He held the Prince in his arms saying, "Lady, I will not hurt you. Come with me and I will show you where you can rest safely." The robber led the Queen and Prince through the forest till he came to his secret cave. There he fed them and kept them safe for some days, and at last took them to the shore, where they found a ship in which to sail over the sea. But King Henry was not so fortunate. He escaped and hid in various places for nearly a year, but he was discovered at last and taken prisoner to London. As he rode a prisoner into the city, he was met by the Earl of Warwick, and the poor unfortunate King was made to ride through the streets like a common criminal, with his feet tied under his horse. Then he was shut up in the Tower of London.	<urn:uuid:044653cd-e353-4767-9215-001fa256e00a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=robbers	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00183.warc.gz	en	0.989013	1,026	3.515625	4	[ -0.5456447601318359, -0.036607734858989716, -0.051953963935375214, 0.17596770823001862, -0.12955060601234436, -0.19123883545398712, 0.4193071126937866, -0.09764449298381805, 0.2797977924346924, 0.23265378177165985, -0.04072905331850052, -0.24081459641456604, 0.11895184218883514, -0.0781317...	1	Edward IV.—The Story of Queen Margaret and the Robbers I T was in 1461 A.D. that the people chose Edward IV. as their King, and so there were two kings in England—Henry VI. the head of the Red Rose, and Edward IV. the head of the White Rose party. There could be no peace in the country so long as there were two kings each claiming the throne, so, without waiting to be crowned, Edward marched to meet the Red Rose army and to fight for the crown. On a cold, bleak day in March the two forces met at Towton in Yorkshire, and fought amid a wild storm of wind and snow. For ten hours the battle raged. The white snow was stained and the river which flowed near ran red with blood, till it seemed as if the earth and the sky had taken sides with the red and white roses. Never since Hastings had such a terrible battle been fought on English ground. The White Rose was victorious. Henry's cause seemed utterly lost and he and his wife and their little son fled to Scotland. If Henry had been left to himself he would have given up fighting for the crown, for he loved quiet and peace. But Queen Margaret loved power and would not rest until she had again won the kingdom. She got help from the French king and in three years was back in England once more. But Edward and the great Earl of Warwick, who had helped to put Edward upon the throne, were too strong for Margaret, and she was utterly defeated. Without a single friend or servant, Margaret and her little son, who was now about eleven years old, fled into the forest to hide. The night came on, it grew dark, and they lost their way among the winding paths. Hungry and tired, they did not know which way to turn. Afraid to stop, afraid to go on, starting and shrinking at every sound, they clung to each other trembling. Presently they heard men's voices and saw the glimmer of a fire. Margaret whispered to her little son to be very, very still, as they crept near to find out who these people were, whether friends or enemies. Hidden by the trees, the Queen and her little boy came quite close to the fire and stood listening and watching. In a few minutes they found out that these men were robbers. Holding the Prince tight by the hand, Queen Margaret made ready to run away. But suddenly one of the robbers looked towards them. He saw the glitter of jewels in the firelight. With a cry he made a spring at the Queen and, in spite of her screams and struggles, she was dragged into the circle round the fire. "Ah, ah, what have we here?" cried one robber. "A fine prize, truly," said another. "Here is gold enough," said a third, roughly pulling at the chain round Margaret's neck. "Come, lady, we will have all these things," he went on, pointing to her jewels. The Queen began to take off her rings and jewels, for she was very much afraid. But one robber pushed the other aside. "Let be," he said, "the prize is mine. I took her." "Nay, nay, share and share alike." "It is mine, I say." "I took her, I say, it is mine." So the robbers began to quarrel fiercely about the treasure, and while they quarrelled, Margaret took the Prince in her arms and ran away. Where she ran she did not know. On and on she went, stumbling through the dark forest. At last, breathless and weary, unable to go another step, she sank down on a grassy bank. Scarcely had she done so when another robber appeared. Seeing no escape, Margaret went towards this robber, and putting the little Prince into his arms, "Friend," she said, "take care of him, he is the son of your true King." The hard, rough man, accustomed only to murder and rob, felt sorry for the poor, tired lady and her little boy. He held the Prince in his arms saying, "Lady, I will not hurt you. Come with me and I will show you where you can rest safely." The robber led the Queen and Prince through the forest till he came to his secret cave. There he fed them and kept them safe for some days, and at last took them to the shore, where they found a ship in which to sail over the sea. But King Henry was not so fortunate. He escaped and hid in various places for nearly a year, but he was discovered at last and taken prisoner to London. As he rode a prisoner into the city, he was met by the Earl of Warwick, and the poor unfortunate King was made to ride through the streets like a common criminal, with his feet tied under his horse. Then he was shut up in the Tower of London.	1,008	ENGLISH	1
Diplodocus was one of the longest dinosaurs to ever live. It lived during the Jurassic period around 155-145 million years ago. It belonged to a group of dinosaurs called sauropods. Sauropods were huge plant-eating dinosaurs with long necks and tails and pillar-like legs. Some Diplodocus measured 98ft (30m) long which is longer than a tennis court! Most of its length was taken up by its neck and tail. Diplodocus weighed around 22,000-35,000 pounds (10-16 tonnes) but its head was only small. Its nostrils were located on top of its head. Because of this, scientists initially believed it might have lived underwater and breathed similar to dolphins. However, this was unlikely and most scientists today think it would have been impossible for it to breathe underwater because of its massive size. Diplodocus walked on four legs with its feet forward like an elephant, not sideways like a lizard. Its front legs were shorter than its back legs and it had 5 fingers on its feet. It didn’t have claws except on the first finger of its back feet. Diplodocus was a slow animal that travelled in herds. It laid eggs and was a herbivore (plant-eater). It had small, peg-like teeth in the front of its mouth. It probably swallowed small stones to help grind up the plants in its stomach. It replaced its teeth every 35 days. One of the strangest things about Diplodocus is that its neck was made up of 15 bones. Most animals today (even the giraffe) only have 7 neck bones. Many scientists believe that it couldn’t lift up its neck very high at all, but instead held it parallel to the ground and ate low-lying ferns. Diplodocus had bones running along the underside of its tail, suggesting it might have used its tail as a weapon. Some scientists think that Diplodocus could stand up on its back legs to reach food from the treetops and that it used its tail as an extra leg to lean back on. Did you know? - Diplodocus lived in what is now North America. - The first Diplodocus fossil was found in 1878 and was named Diplodocus Longus meaning 'long double-beam'. This was because of the double-beamed bones in the underside of its tail. - Many Diplodocus fossils have been found but the skull is usually missing, so scientists don’t know what it looked like exactly. Skulls of dinosaurs similar to Diplodocus have been found which has helped scientists have a better understanding.	<urn:uuid:39234ab3-7cd0-4df1-81ac-b1d4d0f2915d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/diplodocus	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00077.warc.gz	en	0.987689	562	3.96875	4	[ -0.19697096943855286, 0.02967783249914646, 0.30297166109085083, 0.062417495995759964, -0.23238171637058258, -0.18588364124298096, 0.5640124082565308, 0.3493245840072632, -0.17273357510566711, -0.0558236762881279, 0.2664119005203247, -0.6787372827529907, 0.08212301135063171, 0.3235181272029...	3	Diplodocus was one of the longest dinosaurs to ever live. It lived during the Jurassic period around 155-145 million years ago. It belonged to a group of dinosaurs called sauropods. Sauropods were huge plant-eating dinosaurs with long necks and tails and pillar-like legs. Some Diplodocus measured 98ft (30m) long which is longer than a tennis court! Most of its length was taken up by its neck and tail. Diplodocus weighed around 22,000-35,000 pounds (10-16 tonnes) but its head was only small. Its nostrils were located on top of its head. Because of this, scientists initially believed it might have lived underwater and breathed similar to dolphins. However, this was unlikely and most scientists today think it would have been impossible for it to breathe underwater because of its massive size. Diplodocus walked on four legs with its feet forward like an elephant, not sideways like a lizard. Its front legs were shorter than its back legs and it had 5 fingers on its feet. It didn’t have claws except on the first finger of its back feet. Diplodocus was a slow animal that travelled in herds. It laid eggs and was a herbivore (plant-eater). It had small, peg-like teeth in the front of its mouth. It probably swallowed small stones to help grind up the plants in its stomach. It replaced its teeth every 35 days. One of the strangest things about Diplodocus is that its neck was made up of 15 bones. Most animals today (even the giraffe) only have 7 neck bones. Many scientists believe that it couldn’t lift up its neck very high at all, but instead held it parallel to the ground and ate low-lying ferns. Diplodocus had bones running along the underside of its tail, suggesting it might have used its tail as a weapon. Some scientists think that Diplodocus could stand up on its back legs to reach food from the treetops and that it used its tail as an extra leg to lean back on. Did you know? - Diplodocus lived in what is now North America. - The first Diplodocus fossil was found in 1878 and was named Diplodocus Longus meaning 'long double-beam'. This was because of the double-beamed bones in the underside of its tail. - Many Diplodocus fossils have been found but the skull is usually missing, so scientists don’t know what it looked like exactly. Skulls of dinosaurs similar to Diplodocus have been found which has helped scientists have a better understanding.	558	ENGLISH	1
The delicate and silky structure of hair has always fascinated people. Countless superstitions, myths and legends surround it. In the past, hair length was associated with social and religious significance. It is still very important to today’s women how they can best bring out their hair. For special occasions or themed parties, medieval hairstyles are more popular than ever. They are characterized by many wicker accents and elaborate details. This results in a wealth of ideas whose implementation requires a little skill. This always creates something new and no hairstyle looks like another equal. Medieval hairstyles – The importance of hair in the Middle Ages The medieval people were very important to the hair. It was a symbol of strength and authority, and the biggest degradation was losing your hair. Both women and men wore their hair long. The kings had long hair and beards and the nobles under their authority wore them shorter. In combat, they tied her up in a knot on her head to look bigger and more terrible. The women’s hair went to their knees, sometimes even longer. The slaves and the prisoners were shaved as a sign of submission. The Catholic Church had a great influence on how men and women should look. For example, men had to shave their beards to become better Christians and the women had to wear a veil. Medieval Hairstyles – Men For men in the Middle Ages, short hair was anything but a sign of freedom. They were forced to build a real hierarchy based on hair length . As a complete disqualification was the cutting of the hair. Only the priests in the monastery wore the so-called tonsure, in which the upper part of the head was shaved. The “page hairstyle” became very popular at that time. The hair was bent over the ears to the nape and with a pony on the forehead. The whole face was neatly shaved. Only those who owned land or were noble could grow their hair. Centuries later it was considered a special sign to wear a wig with a long braid. And in the late Middle Ages, the hairstyles of the nobility were even more unusual and braided to artful structures that were kept in shape with hairnet. Medieval hairstyles – women Until the 11th century, women wore their hair very long – to their knees or longer. Mostly they were tied in two long pigtails or tied in knots. The forehead was considered an important part of the face at that time and it remained uncovered. She was adorned with precious jewelry, flowers or hairbands, but never with hair. Even the hair around it was often shaved to make the forehead appear larger. The married women had to wear their hair tied and covered with a veil or with a Rise (a flat hood made of cotton fabric, the hair, head, ears and neck hidden). Because the hair was considered a possession of the man and were felt as seductive. At this time, the most popular hairstyle was a braid tied in a knot or two, which were held over the two ears with a golden or silk ribbon. However, most of them remained under cover and invisible to the public. During this period the women wore big hats and bonnets when they went to church or visited public places. The public showing of hair was uncommon and perceived as inappropriate and disrespectful. Nevertheless, the hair should be cared for and kept healthy. In a book for health and body care there were recommendations and recipes for hair care. With special formulas, the coloring of hair was possible – for example, in blond with peanuts and alum. All noble women wore their hair very long. In the 13th or 14th century they braided them in 3 or 4 braids, which they held at the back of the head and decorated with jewelery. Of course, these elaborate hairstyles took hours. Meanwhile, what was originally only in the women’s bedroom and in a very small circle, has become a kind of vocation. Medieval hairstyles for long hair – “ram’s horn” Since the women wore their hair very long in the Middle Ages, most medieval hairstyles are more suitable for a long mane. The long hair is split in the middle and each side braided into a single long braid. Now the braid is wound into a kind of bun or snail over the ear. Finally, one or more hairpins are used for attachment. Simple medieval hairstyles Likewise, two braids are braided on both sides and then run together over the head. In between, a golden net grid can be attached. Basically, it was uncommon for noble ladies with long, free-falling hair to perform in public. For everyday life, they usually prefer to put on simple long braids or a straightforward variation of the ram’s horn style. The accent was accompanied by a hoop or a diadem. Accessories for medieval hairstyles Women have always adorned their hair with ribbons, beads, towels and others. Unmarried girls adorned their hair with gemstones, artificial gold flowers and jewels. Medieval hairstyles for DIY Medieval hairstyles are possible in many different variants and are considered especially very sumptuous and elaborate. Nevertheless, it is possible to make yourself a beautiful braided hairstyle in the medieval style. With a little patience and a few tricks that we will betray soon, a very complex braiding is easily conjured up. Here is a very simple guide. Medieval hairstyles braiding – instructions for long hair At first glance, this medieval-inspired braided hairstyle seems to be very complex. But if you take a closer look at the manual, you will notice that only one braid is braided. The rest of the hair is simply twisted and inserted into this braid, then perhaps discreetly fastened with hairpins. So that the hairstyle lasts longer, it is advisable to wash the hair at least one day before, as with other elaborate hairstylings. In order to achieve the relaxed look and at the same time good adhesion, a grippy hair structure should be present. For this one can bring slight waves into the hair, if it is not naturally curly or wavy. Medieval hairstyles for short hair With shoulder-length or short hair, it is difficult to create medieval hairstyles, because they need a certain hair length. Braided details and accents, which look very noble and medieval, can be done with a little skill, however. Medieval hairstyles interpreted in a modern way	<urn:uuid:630df5b8-181d-401c-b2d8-599e9b782709>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.hair-styles.xyz/new-hairstyles-2017/medieval-hairstyles-15-magnificent-looks-and-elaborate-braiding-hairstyles.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00382.warc.gz	en	0.982494	1,348	3.28125	3	[ 0.011042509227991104, 0.4179038405418396, 0.0826592743396759, -0.017189569771289825, -0.08955150842666626, 0.09476199746131897, 0.13921695947647095, -0.18073970079421997, 0.10260999202728271, -0.1414164900779724, 0.07724322378635406, -0.10556487739086151, 0.21808451414108276, 0.09408771246...	1	The delicate and silky structure of hair has always fascinated people. Countless superstitions, myths and legends surround it. In the past, hair length was associated with social and religious significance. It is still very important to today’s women how they can best bring out their hair. For special occasions or themed parties, medieval hairstyles are more popular than ever. They are characterized by many wicker accents and elaborate details. This results in a wealth of ideas whose implementation requires a little skill. This always creates something new and no hairstyle looks like another equal. Medieval hairstyles – The importance of hair in the Middle Ages The medieval people were very important to the hair. It was a symbol of strength and authority, and the biggest degradation was losing your hair. Both women and men wore their hair long. The kings had long hair and beards and the nobles under their authority wore them shorter. In combat, they tied her up in a knot on her head to look bigger and more terrible. The women’s hair went to their knees, sometimes even longer. The slaves and the prisoners were shaved as a sign of submission. The Catholic Church had a great influence on how men and women should look. For example, men had to shave their beards to become better Christians and the women had to wear a veil. Medieval Hairstyles – Men For men in the Middle Ages, short hair was anything but a sign of freedom. They were forced to build a real hierarchy based on hair length . As a complete disqualification was the cutting of the hair. Only the priests in the monastery wore the so-called tonsure, in which the upper part of the head was shaved. The “page hairstyle” became very popular at that time. The hair was bent over the ears to the nape and with a pony on the forehead. The whole face was neatly shaved. Only those who owned land or were noble could grow their hair. Centuries later it was considered a special sign to wear a wig with a long braid. And in the late Middle Ages, the hairstyles of the nobility were even more unusual and braided to artful structures that were kept in shape with hairnet. Medieval hairstyles – women Until the 11th century, women wore their hair very long – to their knees or longer. Mostly they were tied in two long pigtails or tied in knots. The forehead was considered an important part of the face at that time and it remained uncovered. She was adorned with precious jewelry, flowers or hairbands, but never with hair. Even the hair around it was often shaved to make the forehead appear larger. The married women had to wear their hair tied and covered with a veil or with a Rise (a flat hood made of cotton fabric, the hair, head, ears and neck hidden). Because the hair was considered a possession of the man and were felt as seductive. At this time, the most popular hairstyle was a braid tied in a knot or two, which were held over the two ears with a golden or silk ribbon. However, most of them remained under cover and invisible to the public. During this period the women wore big hats and bonnets when they went to church or visited public places. The public showing of hair was uncommon and perceived as inappropriate and disrespectful. Nevertheless, the hair should be cared for and kept healthy. In a book for health and body care there were recommendations and recipes for hair care. With special formulas, the coloring of hair was possible – for example, in blond with peanuts and alum. All noble women wore their hair very long. In the 13th or 14th century they braided them in 3 or 4 braids, which they held at the back of the head and decorated with jewelery. Of course, these elaborate hairstyles took hours. Meanwhile, what was originally only in the women’s bedroom and in a very small circle, has become a kind of vocation. Medieval hairstyles for long hair – “ram’s horn” Since the women wore their hair very long in the Middle Ages, most medieval hairstyles are more suitable for a long mane. The long hair is split in the middle and each side braided into a single long braid. Now the braid is wound into a kind of bun or snail over the ear. Finally, one or more hairpins are used for attachment. Simple medieval hairstyles Likewise, two braids are braided on both sides and then run together over the head. In between, a golden net grid can be attached. Basically, it was uncommon for noble ladies with long, free-falling hair to perform in public. For everyday life, they usually prefer to put on simple long braids or a straightforward variation of the ram’s horn style. The accent was accompanied by a hoop or a diadem. Accessories for medieval hairstyles Women have always adorned their hair with ribbons, beads, towels and others. Unmarried girls adorned their hair with gemstones, artificial gold flowers and jewels. Medieval hairstyles for DIY Medieval hairstyles are possible in many different variants and are considered especially very sumptuous and elaborate. Nevertheless, it is possible to make yourself a beautiful braided hairstyle in the medieval style. With a little patience and a few tricks that we will betray soon, a very complex braiding is easily conjured up. Here is a very simple guide. Medieval hairstyles braiding – instructions for long hair At first glance, this medieval-inspired braided hairstyle seems to be very complex. But if you take a closer look at the manual, you will notice that only one braid is braided. The rest of the hair is simply twisted and inserted into this braid, then perhaps discreetly fastened with hairpins. So that the hairstyle lasts longer, it is advisable to wash the hair at least one day before, as with other elaborate hairstylings. In order to achieve the relaxed look and at the same time good adhesion, a grippy hair structure should be present. For this one can bring slight waves into the hair, if it is not naturally curly or wavy. Medieval hairstyles for short hair With shoulder-length or short hair, it is difficult to create medieval hairstyles, because they need a certain hair length. Braided details and accents, which look very noble and medieval, can be done with a little skill, however. Medieval hairstyles interpreted in a modern way	1,302	ENGLISH	1
URING the time of Augustus Caesar, Emperor of Rome, there reigned in England (which was then called Britain) a king whose name was Cymbeline. Cymbeline's first wife died when his three children (two sons and a daughter) were very young. Imogen, the eldest of these children, was brought up in her father's court; but by a strange chance the two sons of Cymbeline were stolen out of their nursery when the eldest was but three years of age and the youngest quite an infant; and Cymbeline could never discover what was become of them or by whom they were conveyed away. Cymbeline was twice married. His second wife was a wicked, plotting woman, and a cruel stepmother to Imogen, Cymbeline's daughter by his first wife. The queen, though she hated Imogen, yet wished her to marry a son of her own by a former husband (she also having been twice married), for by this means she hoped upon the death of Cymbeline to place the crown of Britain upon the head of her son Cloten; for she knew that, if the king's sons were not found, the Princess Imogen must be the king's heir. But this design was prevented by Imogen herself, who married without the consent or even knowledge of her father or the queen. Posthumus (for that was the name of Imogen's husband) was the best scholar and most accomplished gentleman of that age. His father died fighting in the wars for Cymbeline, and soon after his birth his mother died also for grief at the loss of her husband. Cymbeline, pitying the helpless state of this orphan, took Posthumus (Cymbeline having given him that name because he was born after his father's death), and educated him in his own court. Imogen and Posthumus were both taught by the same masters, and were playfellows from their infancy; they loved each other tenderly when they were children, and, their affection continuing to increase with their years, when they grew up they privately married. The disappointed queen soon learned this secret, for she kept spies constantly in watch upon the actions of her stepdaughter, and she immediately told the king of the marriage of Imogen with Posthumus. Nothing could exceed the wrath of Cymbeline when he heard that his daughter had been so forgetful of her high dignity as to marry a subject. He commanded Posthumus to leave Britain and banished him from his native country forever. The queen, who pretended to pity Imogen for the grief she suffered at losing her husband, offered to procure them a private meeting before Posthumus set out on his journey to Rome, which place he had chosen for his residence in his banishment. This seeming kindness she showed the better to succeed in her future designs in regard to her son Cloten, for she meant to persuade Imogen, when her husband was gone, that her marriage was not lawful, being contracted without the consent of the king. Imogen and Posthumus took a most affectionate leave of each other. Imogen gave her husband a diamond ring which had been her mother's, and Posthumus promised never to part with the ring; and he fastened a bracelet on the arm of his wife, which he begged she would preserve with great care, as a token of his love; they then bade each other farewell, with many vows of everlasting love and fidelity. Imogen remained a solitary and dejected lady in her father's court, and Posthumus arrived at Rome, the place he had chosen for his banishment. Posthumus fell into company at Rome with some gay young men of different nations, who were talking freely of ladies, each one praising the ladies of his own country and his own mistress. Posthumus, who had ever his own dear lady in his mind, affirmed that his wife, the fair Imogen, was the most virtuous, wise, and constant lady in the world. One of those gentlemen, whose name was Iachimo, being offended that a lady of Britain should be so praised above the Roman ladies, his country-women, provoked Posthumus by seeming to doubt the constancy of his so highly praised wife; and at length, after much altercation, Posthumus consented to a proposal of Iachimo's that he (Iachimo) should go to Britain and endeavor to gain the love of the married Imogen. They then laid a wager that if Iachimo did not succeed in this wicked design he was to forfeit a large sum of money; but if he could win Imogen's favor, and prevail upon her to give him the bracelet which Posthumus had so earnestly desired she would keep as a token of his love, then the wager was to terminate with Posthumus giving to Iachimo the ring which was Imogen's love present when she parted with her husband. Such firm faith had Posthumus in the fidelity of Imogen that he thought he ran no hazard in this trial of her honor. Iachimo, on his arrival in Britain, gained admittance and a courteous welcome from Imogen, as a friend of her husband; but when he began to make professions of love to her she repulsed him with disdain, and he soon found that he could have no hope of succeeding in his dishonorable design. The desire Iachimo had to win the wager made him now have recourse to a stratagem to impose upon Posthumus, and for this purpose he bribed some of Imogen's attendants and was by them conveyed into her bedchamber, concealed in a large trunk, where he remained shut up till Imogen was retired to rest and had fallen asleep; and then, getting out of the trunk, he examined the chamber with great attention, and wrote down everything he saw there, and particularly noticed a mole which he observed upon Imogen's neck, and then softly unloosing the bracelet from her arm, which Posthumus had given to her, he retired into the chest again; and the next day he set off for Rome with great expedition, and boasted to Posthumus that Imogen had given him the bracelet, and likewise permitted him to pass a night in her chamber. And in this manner Iachimo told his false tale: "Her bedchamber," said he, "was hung with tapestry of silk and silver, the story was the proud Cleopatra when she met her Anthony, a piece of work most bravely wrought." "This is true," said Posthumus; "but this you might have heard spoken of without seeing." "Then the chimney," said Iachimo, "is south of the chamber, and the chimneypiece is Diana bathing; never saw I figures livelier expressed." "This is a thing you might have likewise heard," said Posthumus; "for it is much talked of." Iachimo as accurately described the roof of the chamber; and added, "I had almost forgot her andirons; they were two winking Cupids made of silver, each on one foot standing." He then took out the bracelet, and said: "Know you this jewel, sir? She gave me this. She took it from her arm. I see her yet; her pretty action did outsell her gift, and yet enriched it, too. She gave it me, and said, she prized it once." He last of all described the mole he had observed upon her neck. Posthumus, who had heard the whole of this artful recital in an agony of doubt, now broke out into the most passionate exclamations against Imogen. He delivered up the diamond ring to Iachimo which he had agreed to forfeit to him if he obtained the bracelet from Imogen. Posthumus then in a jealous rage wrote to Pisanio, a gentleman of Britain, who was one of Imogen's attendants, and had long been a faithful friend to Posthumus; and after telling him what proof he had of his wife's disloyalty, he desired Pisanio would take Imogen to Milford Haven, a seaport of Wales, and there kill her. And at the same time he wrote a deceitful letter to Imogen, desiring her to go with Pisanio, for that, finding he could live no longer without seeing her, though he was forbidden upon pain of death to return to Britain, he would come to Milford Haven, at which place he begged she would meet him. She, good, unsuspecting lady, who loved her husband above all things, and desired more than her life to see him, hastened her departure with Pisanio, and the same night she received the letter she set out. When their journey was nearly at an end, Pisanio, who, though faithful to Posthumus, was not faithful to serve him in an evil deed, disclosed to Imogen the cruel order he had received. Imogen, who, instead of meeting a loving and beloved husband, found herself doomed by that husband to suffer death, was afflicted beyond measure. Pisanio persuaded her to take comfort and wait with patient fortitude for the time when Posthumus should see and repent his injustice. In the mean time, as she refused in her distress to return to her father's court, he advised her to dress herself in boy's clothes for more security in traveling; to which advice she agreed, and thought in that disguise she would go over to Rome and see her husband, whom, though he had used her so barbarously, she could not forget to love. When Pisanio had provided her with her new apparel he left her to her uncertain fortune, being obliged to return to court; but before he departed he gave her a vial of cordial, which he said the queen had given him as a sovereign remedy in all disorders. The queen, who hated Pisanio because he was a friend to Imogen and Posthumus, gave him this vial, which she supposed contained poison, she having ordered her physician to give her some poison, to try its effects (as she said) upon animals; but the physician, knowing her malicious disposition, would not trust her with real poison, but gave her a drug which would do no other mischief than causing a person to sleep with every appearance of death for a few hours. This mixture, which Pisanio thought a choice cordial, he gave to Imogen, desiring her, if she found herself ill upon the road, to take it; and so, with blessings and prayers for her safety and happy deliverance from her undeserved troubles, he left her. Providence strangely directed Imogen's steps to the dwelling of her two brothers who had been stolen away in their infancy. Bellarius, who stole them away, was a lord in the court of Cymbeline, and, having been falsely accused to the king of treason and banished from the court, in revenge he stole away the two sons of Cymbeline and brought them up in a forest, where he lived concealed in a cave. He stole them through revenge, but he soon loved them as tenderly as if they had been his own children, educated them carefully, and they grew up fine youths, their princely spirits leading them to bold and daring actions; and as they subsisted by hunting, they were active and hardy, and were always pressing their supposed father to let them seek their fortune in the wars. At the cave where these youths dwelt it was Imogen's fortune to arrive. She had lost her way in a large forest through which .her road lay to Milford Haven (from which she meant to embark for Rome); and being unable to find any place where she could purchase food, she was, with weariness and hunger, almost dying; for it is not merely putting on a man's apparel that will enable a young lady, tenderly brought up, to bear the fatigue of wandering about lonely forests like a man. Seeing this cave, she entered, hoping to find some one within of whom she could procure food. She found the cave empty, but, looking about, she discovered some cold meat, and her hunger was so pressing that she could not wait for an invitation, but sat down and began to eat. "Ah," said she, talking to herself, "I see a man's life is a tedious one. How tired am I! For two nights together I have made the ground my bed. My resolution helps me, or I should be sick. When Pisanio showed me Milford Haven from the mountain-top, how near it seemed!" Then the thoughts of her husband and his cruel mandate came across her, and she said, "My dear Posthumus, thou art a false one!" The two brothers of Imogen, who had been hunting with their reputed father, Bellarius, were by this time returned home. Bellarius had given them the names of Polydore and Cadwal, and they knew no better, but supposed that Bellarius was their father; but the real names of these princes were Guiderius and Arviragus. Bellarius entered the cave first, and, seeing Imogen, stopped them, saying: "Come not in yet. It eats our victuals, or I should think it was a fairy." "What is the matter, sir?" said the young men. "By Jupiter!" said Bellarius, again, "there is an angel in the cave, or if not, an earthly paragon." So beautiful did Imogen look in her boy's apparel. She, hearing the sound of voices, came forth from the cave and addressed them in these words: "Good masters, do not harm me. Before I entered your cave I had thought to have begged or bought what I have eaten. Indeed, I have stolen nothing, nor would I, though I had found gold strewed on the floor. Here is money for my meat, which I would have left on the board when I had made my meal, and parted with prayers for the provider." They refused her money with great earnestness. "I see you are angry with me," said the timid Imogen; "but, sirs, if you kill me for my fault, know that I should have died if I had not made it." "Whither are you bound," asked Bellarius, "and what is your name?" "Fidele is my name," answered Imogen. "I have a kinsman who is bound for Italy; he embarked at Milford Haven, to whom being going, almost spent with hunger, I am fallen into this offense." "Prithee, fair youth," said old Bellarius, "do not think us churls, nor measure our good minds by this rude place we live in. You are well encountered; it is almost night. You shall have better cheer before you depart, and thanks to stay and eat it. Boys, bid him welcome." The gentle youths, her brothers, then welcomed Imogen to their cave with many kind expressions, saying they would love her (or, as they said, him) as a brother; and they entered the cave, where (they having killed venison when they were hunting) Imogen delighted them with her neat housewifery, assisting them in preparing their supper; for, though it is not the custom now for young women of high birth to understand cookery, it was then, and Imogen excelled in this useful art; and, as her brothers prettily expressed it, Fidele cut their roots in characters, and sauced their broth, as if Juno had been sick and Fidele were her dieter. "And then," said Polydore to his brother, "how angel-like he sings!" They also remarked to each other that though Fidele smiled so sweetly, yet so sad a melancholy did overcloud his lovely face, as if grief and patience had together taken possession of him. For these her gentle qualities (or perhaps it was their near relationship, though they knew it not) Imogen (or, as the boys called her, Fidele) became the doting-piece of her brothers, and she scarcely less loved them, thinking that but for the memory of her dear Posthumus she could live and die in the cave with these wild forest youths; and she gladly consented to stay with them till she was enough rested from the fatigue of traveling to pursue her way to Milford Haven. When the venison they had taken was all eaten and they were going out to hunt for more, Fidele could not accompany them because she was unwell. Sorrow, no doubt, for her husband's cruel usage, as well as the fatigue of wandering in the forest, was the cause of her illness. They then bid her farewell, and went to their hunt, praising all the way the noble parts and graceful demeanor of the youth Fidele. Imogen was no sooner left alone than she recollected the cordial Pisanio had given her, and drank it off, and presently fell into a sound and deathlike sleep. When Bellarius and her brothers returned from hunting, Polydore went first into the cave, and, supposing her asleep, pulled off his heavy shoes, that he might tread softly and not awake her (so did true gentleness spring up in the minds of these princely foresters); but he soon discovered that she could not be awakened by any noise, and concluded her to be dead, and Polydore lamented over her with dear and brotherly regret, as if they had never from their infancy been parted. Bellarius also proposed to carry her out into the forest, and there celebrate her funeral with songs and solemn dirges, as was then the custom. Imogen's two brothers then carried her to a shady covert, and there, laying her gently on the grass, they sang repose to her departed spirit, and, covering her over with leaves and flowers, Polydore said: "While summer lasts and I live here, Fidele, I will daily strew thy grave. The pale primrose, that flower most like thy face; the bluebell, like thy clear veins; and the leaf of eglantine, which is not sweeter than was thy breath—all these will I strew over thee. Yea, and the furred moss in winter, when there are no flowers to cover thy sweet corse." When they had finished her funeral obsequies they departed, very sorrowful. Imogen had not been long left alone when, the effect of the sleepy drug going off, she awaked, and easily shaking off the slight covering of leaves and flowers they had thrown over her, she arose, and, imagining she had been dreaming, she said: "I thought I was a cave-keeper and cook to honest creatures. How came I here covered with flowers?" Not being able to find her way back to the cave, and seeing nothing of her new companions, she concluded it was certainly all a dream; and once more Imogen set out on her weary pilgrimage, hoping at last she should find her way to Milford Haven, and thence get a passage in some ship bound for Italy; for all her thoughts were still with her husband, Posthumus, whom she intended to seek in the disguise of a page. But great events were happening at this time, of which Imogen knew nothing; for a war had suddenly broken out between the Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar and Cymbeline, the King of Britain; and a Roman army had landed to invade Britain, and was advanced into the very forest over which Imogen was journeying. With this army came Posthumus. Though Posthumus came over to Britain with the Roman army, he did not mean to fight on their side against his own countrymen, but intended to join the army of Britain and fight in the cause of his king who had banished him. He still believed Imogen false to him; yet the death of her he had so fondly loved, and by his own orders, too (Pisanio having written him a letter to say he had obeyed his command, and that Imogen was dead), sat heavy on his heart, and therefore he returned to Britain, desiring either to be slain in battle or to be put to death by Cymbeline for returning home from banishment. Imogen, before she reached Milford Haven, fell into the hands of the Roman army, and, her presence and deportment recommending her, she was made a page to Lucius, the Roman general. Cymbeline's army now advanced to meet the enemy, and when they entered this forest Polydore and Cadwal joined the king's army. The young men were eager to engage in acts of valor, though they little thought they were going to fight for their own royal father; and old Bellarius went with them to the battle. He had long since repented of the injury he had done to Cymbeline in carrying away his sons; and, having been a warrior in his youth, he gladly joined the army to fight for the king he had so injured. And now a great battle commenced between the two armies, and the Britons would have been defeated, and Cymbeline himself killed, but for the extraordinary valor of Posthumus and Bellarius and the two sons of Cymbeline. They rescued the king and saved his life, and so entirely turned the fortune of the day that the Britons gained the victory. When the battle was over, Posthumus, who had not found the death he sought for, surrendered himself up to one of the officers of Cymbeline, willing to suffer the death which was to be his punishment if he returned from banishment. Imogen and the master she served were taken prisoners and brought before Cymbeline, as was also her old enemy, Iachimo, who was an officer in the Roman army. And when these prisoners were before the king, Posthumus was brought in to receive his sentence of death; and at this strange juncture of time Bellarius with Polydore and Cadwal were also brought before Cymbeline, to receive the rewards due to the great services they had by their valor done for the king. Pisanio, being one of the king's attendants, was likewise present. Therefore there were now standing in the king's presence (but with very different hopes and fears) Posthumus and Imogen, with her new master the Roman general; the faithful servant Pisanio and the false friend Iachimo; and likewise the two lost sons of Cymbeline, with Bellarius, who had stolen them away. The Roman general was the first who spoke; the rest stood silent before the king, though there was many a beating heart among them. Imogen saw Posthumus, and knew him, though he was in the disguise of a peasant; but he did not know her in her male attire. And she knew Iachimo, and she saw a ring on his finger which she perceived to be her own, but she did not know him as yet to have been the author of all her troubles; and she stood before her own father a prisoner of war. Pisanio knew Imogen, for it was he who had dressed her in the garb of a boy. "It is my mistress," thought he. "Since she is living, let the time run on to good or bad." Bellarius knew her, too, and softly said to Cadwal, "Is not this boy revived from death?" "One sand," replied Cadwal, "does not more resemble another than that sweet, rosy lad is like the dead Fidele." "The same dead thing alive," said Polydore. "Peace, peace," said Bellarius. "If it were he, I am sure he would have spoken to us." "But we saw him dead," again whispered Polydore. "Be silent," replied Bellarius. Posthumus waited in silence to hear the welcome sentence of his own death; and he resolved not to disclose to the king that he had saved his life in the battle, lest that should move Cymbeline to pardon him. Lucius, the Roman general, who had taken Imogen under his protection as his page, was the first (as has been before said) who spoke to the king. He was a man of high courage and noble dignity and this was his speech to the king: "I hear you take no ransom for your prisoners, but doom them all to death. I am a Roman, and with a Roman heart will suffer, death. But there is one thing for which I would entreat." Then bringing Imogen before the king, he said: "This boy is a Briton born. Let him be ransomed. He is my page. Never master had a page so kind, so duteous, so diligent on all occasions, so true, so nurselike. He hath done no Briton wrong, though he hath served a Roman. Save him, if you spare no one beside." Cymbeline looked earnestly on his daughter Imogen. He knew her not in that disguise; but it seemed that all-powerful Nature spake in his heart, for he said: "I have surely seen him; his face appears familiar to me. I know not why or wherefore I say, live, boy, but I give you your life; and ask of me what boon you will and I will grant it you. Yea, even though it be the life of the noblest prisoner I have." "I humbly thank your Highness," said Imogen. What was then called granting a boon was the same as a promise to give any one thing, whatever it might be, that the person on whom that favor was conferred chose to ask for. They all were attentive to hear what thing the page would ask for; and Lucius, her master, said to her: "I do not beg my life, good lad, but I know that is what you will ask for." "No, no, alas!" said Imogen. "I have other work in hand, good master. Your life I cannot ask for." This seeming want of gratitude in the boy astonished the Roman general. Imogen then, fixing her eye on Iachimo, demanded no other boon than this: that Iachimo should be made to confess whence he had the ring he wore on his finger. Cymbeline granted her this boon, and threatened Iachimo with the torture if he did not confess how he came by the diamond ring on his finger. Iachimo then made a full acknowledgment of all his villainy, in telling, as has been before related, the whole story of his wager with Posthumus and how he had succeeded in imposing upon his credulity. What Posthumus felt at hearing this proof of the innocence of his lady cannot be expressed. He instantly came forward and confessed to Cymbeline the cruel sentence which he had enjoined Pisanio to execute upon the princess, exclaiming, wildly: "O Imogen, my queen, my life, my wife! O Imogen, Imogen, Imogen!" Imogen could not see her beloved husband in this distress without discovering herself, to the unutterable joy of Posthumus, who was thus relieved from a weight of guilt and woe, and restored to the good graces of the dear lady he had so cruelly treated. Cymbeline, almost as much overwhelmed as he with joy, at finding his lost daughter so strangely recovered, received her to her former place in his fatherly affection, and not only gave her husband Posthumus his life, but consented to acknowledge him for his son-in-law. Bellarius chose this time of joy and reconciliation to make his confession. He presented Polydore and Cadwal to the king, telling him they were his two lost sons, Guiderius and Arviragus. Cymbeline forgave old Bellarius; for who could think of punishments at a season of such universal happiness? To find his daughter living, and his lost sons in the persons of his young deliverers, that he had seen so bravely fight in his defense, was unlooked-for joy indeed! Imogen was now at leisure to perform good services for her late master, the Roman general, Lucius, whose life the king, her father, readily granted at her request; and by the mediation of the same Lucius a peace was concluded between the Romans and the Britons which was kept inviolate many years. How Cymbeline's wicked queen, through despair of bringing her projects to pass, and touched with remorse of conscience, sickened and died, having first lived to see her foolish son Cloten slain in a quarrel which he had provoked, are events too tragical to interrupt this happy conclusion by more than merely touching upon. It is sufficient that all were made happy who were deserving; and even the treacherous Iachimo, in consideration of his villainy having missed its final aim, was dismissed without punishment.	<urn:uuid:b2023106-6030-444b-bf11-2739f739a8eb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=lamb&book=shakespeare&story=cymbeline	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00111.warc.gz	en	0.991147	6,087	3.421875	3	[ -0.46923136711120605, 0.500688910484314, 0.47276806831359863, 0.05889364704489708, -0.33355188369750977, -0.19922037422657013, 0.2752709984779358, 0.14552181959152222, 0.5826866626739502, -0.004374906420707703, 0.004674889147281647, -0.31475090980529785, 0.23600931465625763, 0.089725293219...	4	URING the time of Augustus Caesar, Emperor of Rome, there reigned in England (which was then called Britain) a king whose name was Cymbeline. Cymbeline's first wife died when his three children (two sons and a daughter) were very young. Imogen, the eldest of these children, was brought up in her father's court; but by a strange chance the two sons of Cymbeline were stolen out of their nursery when the eldest was but three years of age and the youngest quite an infant; and Cymbeline could never discover what was become of them or by whom they were conveyed away. Cymbeline was twice married. His second wife was a wicked, plotting woman, and a cruel stepmother to Imogen, Cymbeline's daughter by his first wife. The queen, though she hated Imogen, yet wished her to marry a son of her own by a former husband (she also having been twice married), for by this means she hoped upon the death of Cymbeline to place the crown of Britain upon the head of her son Cloten; for she knew that, if the king's sons were not found, the Princess Imogen must be the king's heir. But this design was prevented by Imogen herself, who married without the consent or even knowledge of her father or the queen. Posthumus (for that was the name of Imogen's husband) was the best scholar and most accomplished gentleman of that age. His father died fighting in the wars for Cymbeline, and soon after his birth his mother died also for grief at the loss of her husband. Cymbeline, pitying the helpless state of this orphan, took Posthumus (Cymbeline having given him that name because he was born after his father's death), and educated him in his own court. Imogen and Posthumus were both taught by the same masters, and were playfellows from their infancy; they loved each other tenderly when they were children, and, their affection continuing to increase with their years, when they grew up they privately married. The disappointed queen soon learned this secret, for she kept spies constantly in watch upon the actions of her stepdaughter, and she immediately told the king of the marriage of Imogen with Posthumus. Nothing could exceed the wrath of Cymbeline when he heard that his daughter had been so forgetful of her high dignity as to marry a subject. He commanded Posthumus to leave Britain and banished him from his native country forever. The queen, who pretended to pity Imogen for the grief she suffered at losing her husband, offered to procure them a private meeting before Posthumus set out on his journey to Rome, which place he had chosen for his residence in his banishment. This seeming kindness she showed the better to succeed in her future designs in regard to her son Cloten, for she meant to persuade Imogen, when her husband was gone, that her marriage was not lawful, being contracted without the consent of the king. Imogen and Posthumus took a most affectionate leave of each other. Imogen gave her husband a diamond ring which had been her mother's, and Posthumus promised never to part with the ring; and he fastened a bracelet on the arm of his wife, which he begged she would preserve with great care, as a token of his love; they then bade each other farewell, with many vows of everlasting love and fidelity. Imogen remained a solitary and dejected lady in her father's court, and Posthumus arrived at Rome, the place he had chosen for his banishment. Posthumus fell into company at Rome with some gay young men of different nations, who were talking freely of ladies, each one praising the ladies of his own country and his own mistress. Posthumus, who had ever his own dear lady in his mind, affirmed that his wife, the fair Imogen, was the most virtuous, wise, and constant lady in the world. One of those gentlemen, whose name was Iachimo, being offended that a lady of Britain should be so praised above the Roman ladies, his country-women, provoked Posthumus by seeming to doubt the constancy of his so highly praised wife; and at length, after much altercation, Posthumus consented to a proposal of Iachimo's that he (Iachimo) should go to Britain and endeavor to gain the love of the married Imogen. They then laid a wager that if Iachimo did not succeed in this wicked design he was to forfeit a large sum of money; but if he could win Imogen's favor, and prevail upon her to give him the bracelet which Posthumus had so earnestly desired she would keep as a token of his love, then the wager was to terminate with Posthumus giving to Iachimo the ring which was Imogen's love present when she parted with her husband. Such firm faith had Posthumus in the fidelity of Imogen that he thought he ran no hazard in this trial of her honor. Iachimo, on his arrival in Britain, gained admittance and a courteous welcome from Imogen, as a friend of her husband; but when he began to make professions of love to her she repulsed him with disdain, and he soon found that he could have no hope of succeeding in his dishonorable design. The desire Iachimo had to win the wager made him now have recourse to a stratagem to impose upon Posthumus, and for this purpose he bribed some of Imogen's attendants and was by them conveyed into her bedchamber, concealed in a large trunk, where he remained shut up till Imogen was retired to rest and had fallen asleep; and then, getting out of the trunk, he examined the chamber with great attention, and wrote down everything he saw there, and particularly noticed a mole which he observed upon Imogen's neck, and then softly unloosing the bracelet from her arm, which Posthumus had given to her, he retired into the chest again; and the next day he set off for Rome with great expedition, and boasted to Posthumus that Imogen had given him the bracelet, and likewise permitted him to pass a night in her chamber. And in this manner Iachimo told his false tale: "Her bedchamber," said he, "was hung with tapestry of silk and silver, the story was the proud Cleopatra when she met her Anthony, a piece of work most bravely wrought." "This is true," said Posthumus; "but this you might have heard spoken of without seeing." "Then the chimney," said Iachimo, "is south of the chamber, and the chimneypiece is Diana bathing; never saw I figures livelier expressed." "This is a thing you might have likewise heard," said Posthumus; "for it is much talked of." Iachimo as accurately described the roof of the chamber; and added, "I had almost forgot her andirons; they were two winking Cupids made of silver, each on one foot standing." He then took out the bracelet, and said: "Know you this jewel, sir? She gave me this. She took it from her arm. I see her yet; her pretty action did outsell her gift, and yet enriched it, too. She gave it me, and said, she prized it once." He last of all described the mole he had observed upon her neck. Posthumus, who had heard the whole of this artful recital in an agony of doubt, now broke out into the most passionate exclamations against Imogen. He delivered up the diamond ring to Iachimo which he had agreed to forfeit to him if he obtained the bracelet from Imogen. Posthumus then in a jealous rage wrote to Pisanio, a gentleman of Britain, who was one of Imogen's attendants, and had long been a faithful friend to Posthumus; and after telling him what proof he had of his wife's disloyalty, he desired Pisanio would take Imogen to Milford Haven, a seaport of Wales, and there kill her. And at the same time he wrote a deceitful letter to Imogen, desiring her to go with Pisanio, for that, finding he could live no longer without seeing her, though he was forbidden upon pain of death to return to Britain, he would come to Milford Haven, at which place he begged she would meet him. She, good, unsuspecting lady, who loved her husband above all things, and desired more than her life to see him, hastened her departure with Pisanio, and the same night she received the letter she set out. When their journey was nearly at an end, Pisanio, who, though faithful to Posthumus, was not faithful to serve him in an evil deed, disclosed to Imogen the cruel order he had received. Imogen, who, instead of meeting a loving and beloved husband, found herself doomed by that husband to suffer death, was afflicted beyond measure. Pisanio persuaded her to take comfort and wait with patient fortitude for the time when Posthumus should see and repent his injustice. In the mean time, as she refused in her distress to return to her father's court, he advised her to dress herself in boy's clothes for more security in traveling; to which advice she agreed, and thought in that disguise she would go over to Rome and see her husband, whom, though he had used her so barbarously, she could not forget to love. When Pisanio had provided her with her new apparel he left her to her uncertain fortune, being obliged to return to court; but before he departed he gave her a vial of cordial, which he said the queen had given him as a sovereign remedy in all disorders. The queen, who hated Pisanio because he was a friend to Imogen and Posthumus, gave him this vial, which she supposed contained poison, she having ordered her physician to give her some poison, to try its effects (as she said) upon animals; but the physician, knowing her malicious disposition, would not trust her with real poison, but gave her a drug which would do no other mischief than causing a person to sleep with every appearance of death for a few hours. This mixture, which Pisanio thought a choice cordial, he gave to Imogen, desiring her, if she found herself ill upon the road, to take it; and so, with blessings and prayers for her safety and happy deliverance from her undeserved troubles, he left her. Providence strangely directed Imogen's steps to the dwelling of her two brothers who had been stolen away in their infancy. Bellarius, who stole them away, was a lord in the court of Cymbeline, and, having been falsely accused to the king of treason and banished from the court, in revenge he stole away the two sons of Cymbeline and brought them up in a forest, where he lived concealed in a cave. He stole them through revenge, but he soon loved them as tenderly as if they had been his own children, educated them carefully, and they grew up fine youths, their princely spirits leading them to bold and daring actions; and as they subsisted by hunting, they were active and hardy, and were always pressing their supposed father to let them seek their fortune in the wars. At the cave where these youths dwelt it was Imogen's fortune to arrive. She had lost her way in a large forest through which .her road lay to Milford Haven (from which she meant to embark for Rome); and being unable to find any place where she could purchase food, she was, with weariness and hunger, almost dying; for it is not merely putting on a man's apparel that will enable a young lady, tenderly brought up, to bear the fatigue of wandering about lonely forests like a man. Seeing this cave, she entered, hoping to find some one within of whom she could procure food. She found the cave empty, but, looking about, she discovered some cold meat, and her hunger was so pressing that she could not wait for an invitation, but sat down and began to eat. "Ah," said she, talking to herself, "I see a man's life is a tedious one. How tired am I! For two nights together I have made the ground my bed. My resolution helps me, or I should be sick. When Pisanio showed me Milford Haven from the mountain-top, how near it seemed!" Then the thoughts of her husband and his cruel mandate came across her, and she said, "My dear Posthumus, thou art a false one!" The two brothers of Imogen, who had been hunting with their reputed father, Bellarius, were by this time returned home. Bellarius had given them the names of Polydore and Cadwal, and they knew no better, but supposed that Bellarius was their father; but the real names of these princes were Guiderius and Arviragus. Bellarius entered the cave first, and, seeing Imogen, stopped them, saying: "Come not in yet. It eats our victuals, or I should think it was a fairy." "What is the matter, sir?" said the young men. "By Jupiter!" said Bellarius, again, "there is an angel in the cave, or if not, an earthly paragon." So beautiful did Imogen look in her boy's apparel. She, hearing the sound of voices, came forth from the cave and addressed them in these words: "Good masters, do not harm me. Before I entered your cave I had thought to have begged or bought what I have eaten. Indeed, I have stolen nothing, nor would I, though I had found gold strewed on the floor. Here is money for my meat, which I would have left on the board when I had made my meal, and parted with prayers for the provider." They refused her money with great earnestness. "I see you are angry with me," said the timid Imogen; "but, sirs, if you kill me for my fault, know that I should have died if I had not made it." "Whither are you bound," asked Bellarius, "and what is your name?" "Fidele is my name," answered Imogen. "I have a kinsman who is bound for Italy; he embarked at Milford Haven, to whom being going, almost spent with hunger, I am fallen into this offense." "Prithee, fair youth," said old Bellarius, "do not think us churls, nor measure our good minds by this rude place we live in. You are well encountered; it is almost night. You shall have better cheer before you depart, and thanks to stay and eat it. Boys, bid him welcome." The gentle youths, her brothers, then welcomed Imogen to their cave with many kind expressions, saying they would love her (or, as they said, him) as a brother; and they entered the cave, where (they having killed venison when they were hunting) Imogen delighted them with her neat housewifery, assisting them in preparing their supper; for, though it is not the custom now for young women of high birth to understand cookery, it was then, and Imogen excelled in this useful art; and, as her brothers prettily expressed it, Fidele cut their roots in characters, and sauced their broth, as if Juno had been sick and Fidele were her dieter. "And then," said Polydore to his brother, "how angel-like he sings!" They also remarked to each other that though Fidele smiled so sweetly, yet so sad a melancholy did overcloud his lovely face, as if grief and patience had together taken possession of him. For these her gentle qualities (or perhaps it was their near relationship, though they knew it not) Imogen (or, as the boys called her, Fidele) became the doting-piece of her brothers, and she scarcely less loved them, thinking that but for the memory of her dear Posthumus she could live and die in the cave with these wild forest youths; and she gladly consented to stay with them till she was enough rested from the fatigue of traveling to pursue her way to Milford Haven. When the venison they had taken was all eaten and they were going out to hunt for more, Fidele could not accompany them because she was unwell. Sorrow, no doubt, for her husband's cruel usage, as well as the fatigue of wandering in the forest, was the cause of her illness. They then bid her farewell, and went to their hunt, praising all the way the noble parts and graceful demeanor of the youth Fidele. Imogen was no sooner left alone than she recollected the cordial Pisanio had given her, and drank it off, and presently fell into a sound and deathlike sleep. When Bellarius and her brothers returned from hunting, Polydore went first into the cave, and, supposing her asleep, pulled off his heavy shoes, that he might tread softly and not awake her (so did true gentleness spring up in the minds of these princely foresters); but he soon discovered that she could not be awakened by any noise, and concluded her to be dead, and Polydore lamented over her with dear and brotherly regret, as if they had never from their infancy been parted. Bellarius also proposed to carry her out into the forest, and there celebrate her funeral with songs and solemn dirges, as was then the custom. Imogen's two brothers then carried her to a shady covert, and there, laying her gently on the grass, they sang repose to her departed spirit, and, covering her over with leaves and flowers, Polydore said: "While summer lasts and I live here, Fidele, I will daily strew thy grave. The pale primrose, that flower most like thy face; the bluebell, like thy clear veins; and the leaf of eglantine, which is not sweeter than was thy breath—all these will I strew over thee. Yea, and the furred moss in winter, when there are no flowers to cover thy sweet corse." When they had finished her funeral obsequies they departed, very sorrowful. Imogen had not been long left alone when, the effect of the sleepy drug going off, she awaked, and easily shaking off the slight covering of leaves and flowers they had thrown over her, she arose, and, imagining she had been dreaming, she said: "I thought I was a cave-keeper and cook to honest creatures. How came I here covered with flowers?" Not being able to find her way back to the cave, and seeing nothing of her new companions, she concluded it was certainly all a dream; and once more Imogen set out on her weary pilgrimage, hoping at last she should find her way to Milford Haven, and thence get a passage in some ship bound for Italy; for all her thoughts were still with her husband, Posthumus, whom she intended to seek in the disguise of a page. But great events were happening at this time, of which Imogen knew nothing; for a war had suddenly broken out between the Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar and Cymbeline, the King of Britain; and a Roman army had landed to invade Britain, and was advanced into the very forest over which Imogen was journeying. With this army came Posthumus. Though Posthumus came over to Britain with the Roman army, he did not mean to fight on their side against his own countrymen, but intended to join the army of Britain and fight in the cause of his king who had banished him. He still believed Imogen false to him; yet the death of her he had so fondly loved, and by his own orders, too (Pisanio having written him a letter to say he had obeyed his command, and that Imogen was dead), sat heavy on his heart, and therefore he returned to Britain, desiring either to be slain in battle or to be put to death by Cymbeline for returning home from banishment. Imogen, before she reached Milford Haven, fell into the hands of the Roman army, and, her presence and deportment recommending her, she was made a page to Lucius, the Roman general. Cymbeline's army now advanced to meet the enemy, and when they entered this forest Polydore and Cadwal joined the king's army. The young men were eager to engage in acts of valor, though they little thought they were going to fight for their own royal father; and old Bellarius went with them to the battle. He had long since repented of the injury he had done to Cymbeline in carrying away his sons; and, having been a warrior in his youth, he gladly joined the army to fight for the king he had so injured. And now a great battle commenced between the two armies, and the Britons would have been defeated, and Cymbeline himself killed, but for the extraordinary valor of Posthumus and Bellarius and the two sons of Cymbeline. They rescued the king and saved his life, and so entirely turned the fortune of the day that the Britons gained the victory. When the battle was over, Posthumus, who had not found the death he sought for, surrendered himself up to one of the officers of Cymbeline, willing to suffer the death which was to be his punishment if he returned from banishment. Imogen and the master she served were taken prisoners and brought before Cymbeline, as was also her old enemy, Iachimo, who was an officer in the Roman army. And when these prisoners were before the king, Posthumus was brought in to receive his sentence of death; and at this strange juncture of time Bellarius with Polydore and Cadwal were also brought before Cymbeline, to receive the rewards due to the great services they had by their valor done for the king. Pisanio, being one of the king's attendants, was likewise present. Therefore there were now standing in the king's presence (but with very different hopes and fears) Posthumus and Imogen, with her new master the Roman general; the faithful servant Pisanio and the false friend Iachimo; and likewise the two lost sons of Cymbeline, with Bellarius, who had stolen them away. The Roman general was the first who spoke; the rest stood silent before the king, though there was many a beating heart among them. Imogen saw Posthumus, and knew him, though he was in the disguise of a peasant; but he did not know her in her male attire. And she knew Iachimo, and she saw a ring on his finger which she perceived to be her own, but she did not know him as yet to have been the author of all her troubles; and she stood before her own father a prisoner of war. Pisanio knew Imogen, for it was he who had dressed her in the garb of a boy. "It is my mistress," thought he. "Since she is living, let the time run on to good or bad." Bellarius knew her, too, and softly said to Cadwal, "Is not this boy revived from death?" "One sand," replied Cadwal, "does not more resemble another than that sweet, rosy lad is like the dead Fidele." "The same dead thing alive," said Polydore. "Peace, peace," said Bellarius. "If it were he, I am sure he would have spoken to us." "But we saw him dead," again whispered Polydore. "Be silent," replied Bellarius. Posthumus waited in silence to hear the welcome sentence of his own death; and he resolved not to disclose to the king that he had saved his life in the battle, lest that should move Cymbeline to pardon him. Lucius, the Roman general, who had taken Imogen under his protection as his page, was the first (as has been before said) who spoke to the king. He was a man of high courage and noble dignity and this was his speech to the king: "I hear you take no ransom for your prisoners, but doom them all to death. I am a Roman, and with a Roman heart will suffer, death. But there is one thing for which I would entreat." Then bringing Imogen before the king, he said: "This boy is a Briton born. Let him be ransomed. He is my page. Never master had a page so kind, so duteous, so diligent on all occasions, so true, so nurselike. He hath done no Briton wrong, though he hath served a Roman. Save him, if you spare no one beside." Cymbeline looked earnestly on his daughter Imogen. He knew her not in that disguise; but it seemed that all-powerful Nature spake in his heart, for he said: "I have surely seen him; his face appears familiar to me. I know not why or wherefore I say, live, boy, but I give you your life; and ask of me what boon you will and I will grant it you. Yea, even though it be the life of the noblest prisoner I have." "I humbly thank your Highness," said Imogen. What was then called granting a boon was the same as a promise to give any one thing, whatever it might be, that the person on whom that favor was conferred chose to ask for. They all were attentive to hear what thing the page would ask for; and Lucius, her master, said to her: "I do not beg my life, good lad, but I know that is what you will ask for." "No, no, alas!" said Imogen. "I have other work in hand, good master. Your life I cannot ask for." This seeming want of gratitude in the boy astonished the Roman general. Imogen then, fixing her eye on Iachimo, demanded no other boon than this: that Iachimo should be made to confess whence he had the ring he wore on his finger. Cymbeline granted her this boon, and threatened Iachimo with the torture if he did not confess how he came by the diamond ring on his finger. Iachimo then made a full acknowledgment of all his villainy, in telling, as has been before related, the whole story of his wager with Posthumus and how he had succeeded in imposing upon his credulity. What Posthumus felt at hearing this proof of the innocence of his lady cannot be expressed. He instantly came forward and confessed to Cymbeline the cruel sentence which he had enjoined Pisanio to execute upon the princess, exclaiming, wildly: "O Imogen, my queen, my life, my wife! O Imogen, Imogen, Imogen!" Imogen could not see her beloved husband in this distress without discovering herself, to the unutterable joy of Posthumus, who was thus relieved from a weight of guilt and woe, and restored to the good graces of the dear lady he had so cruelly treated. Cymbeline, almost as much overwhelmed as he with joy, at finding his lost daughter so strangely recovered, received her to her former place in his fatherly affection, and not only gave her husband Posthumus his life, but consented to acknowledge him for his son-in-law. Bellarius chose this time of joy and reconciliation to make his confession. He presented Polydore and Cadwal to the king, telling him they were his two lost sons, Guiderius and Arviragus. Cymbeline forgave old Bellarius; for who could think of punishments at a season of such universal happiness? To find his daughter living, and his lost sons in the persons of his young deliverers, that he had seen so bravely fight in his defense, was unlooked-for joy indeed! Imogen was now at leisure to perform good services for her late master, the Roman general, Lucius, whose life the king, her father, readily granted at her request; and by the mediation of the same Lucius a peace was concluded between the Romans and the Britons which was kept inviolate many years. How Cymbeline's wicked queen, through despair of bringing her projects to pass, and touched with remorse of conscience, sickened and died, having first lived to see her foolish son Cloten slain in a quarrel which he had provoked, are events too tragical to interrupt this happy conclusion by more than merely touching upon. It is sufficient that all were made happy who were deserving; and even the treacherous Iachimo, in consideration of his villainy having missed its final aim, was dismissed without punishment.	5,981	ENGLISH	1
The Events of Palm Sunday, are recorded in all four of the Gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Huge crowds had journeyed to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. Passover is a spring festival which commences on the 15th of the Hebrew month of Nisan and lasts for either seven or eight days. Passover or Pesach in Hebrew was and still is an important Jewish holiday. It’s when the Jewish people celebrate God delivering them from slavery in Egypt. Passover commemorates the Exodus that took place around 1300 BC, or about 3,317 years ago. God helped the Children of Israel escape from their slavery in Egypt by inflicting ten plagues upon the ancient Egyptians before the Pharaoh would release his Israelite slaves; the tenth and worst of the plagues was the death of the Egyptian first-born. The Israelites were instructed to mark the doorposts of their homes with the blood of a slaughtered spring lamb and, upon seeing this, the spirit of the Lord knew to pass over the first-born in these homes, hence the English name of the holiday. Historically, together with Shavuot (“Pentecost”) and Sukkot (“Tabernacles”), Pesach, “Passover” is one of the three pilgrimage festivals (Shalosh Regalim) during which the entire population of the kingdom of Judah made a pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem. Can you imagine the huge crowds that had already arrived for the celebration of the Passover? It would have been an amazing site. So many people gathering in one place to celebrate, to remember what God had done for them. So many sights and sounds and probably smells too! I think it would have been exciting to be part of that crowd of pilgrims, young and old, rich and poor, all walking together to celebrate. Jews travelling from all over the known world and joining together to follow the route from the Mount of Olives, past the Garden of Gethsemane, across the Kidron Valley, then up to the Eastern gate of the city of Jerusalem. Passover was a special time, but there was something even more special about this specific Sunday. This was the day that would come to be known as Palm Sunday. There was a whisper in the crowds that day, a whisper that became a shout, He is on His way! He is coming! “JESUS IS COMING”. Jesus was on His way to Jerusalem and He was riding on a donkey’s colt in fulfillment of the words of the prophet Zechariah from Zechariah 9:9, “Rejoice, O people of Zion! Shout in triumph, O people of Jerusalem! Look, your king is coming to you. He is righteous and victorious, yet he is humble, riding on a donkey— riding on a donkey’s colt.” In the East, kings rode horses during times of war, and donkeys during times of peace. The donkey was considered to be a very noble animal. Kings, princes, & judges rode upon donkeys. Jesus fulfilled the prophecy of Zechariah He was righteous, victorious and humble and also riding on a donkey. Jesus was coming, the King was coming and a crowd of people ran to greet His arrival shouting “Hosanna” “Hosanna” it’s the Hebrew word for “Save now!” “Hosanna! Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord! Hosanna to the son of David!” Luke 19:36-38 describes it in this way. 36 As Jesus rode along, the crowds spread out their garments on the road ahead of Him. 37 When Jesus reached the place where the road started down the Mount of Olives, all of His followers began to shout and sing as they walked along, praising God for all the wonderful miracles they had seen. 38 “Blessings on the King who comes in the name of the Lord! Peace in heaven, and glory in highest heaven!” Can you imagine the scene? This was an important moment, a significant moment, riding towards the city on a donkey, a symbol of kingship, the crowds gathered all around Jesus, shouting, singing, praising, worshiping, and almost like today when we roll out a red carpet for someone important to walk on, the people were throwing their coats on the ground before Him. Maybe in the crowd there were some of the people Jesus had healed. Maybe in the crowd were some of the thousands He had fed with just 5 loaves of bread and a couple of fish. Maybe in the crowd were some who had seen some of the many other miracles Jesus had performed. Perhaps many in the crowd that day would have heard Jesus preach and teach before. Perhaps they had listened to Jesus and their lives had been changed. But, some people were not feeling the same way, some it seems, thought that the crowds were taking it a little too far, listen to Luke 19:39-40, 39 But some of the Pharisees among the crowd said, “Teacher, rebuke your followers for saying things like that!” 40 Jesus replied, “If they kept quiet, the stones along the road would burst into cheers!” Reminds me of Psalm 19:1&2, The heavens proclaim the glory of God. The skies display His craftsmanship. Day after day they continue to speak; night after night they make Him known. “If the people kept quiet, the stones along the road would burst into cheers!” There was joy in the crowd that day, it was a time of celebration, of shouting and singing and praising and worshipping, but... there is another but in the narrative, Luke 19:41-44, 41 But as Jesus came closer to Jerusalem and saw the city ahead, He began to weep. 42 “How I wish today that you of all people would understand the way to peace. But now it is too late, and peace is hidden from your eyes. 43 Before long your enemies will build ramparts against your walls and encircle you and close in on you from every side. 44 They will crush you into the ground, and your children with you. Your enemies will not leave a single stone in place, because you did not recognize it when God visited you. Here is Jesus heading towards the city, surrounded by a mostly cheerful, happy crowd, with all the singing, all the excitement, all the joy, yet He weeps. The Gospels tells us Jesus reacted to many things. When Jesus saw the sick, the poor, the hungry, “He had compassion for them”. There were only two occasions recorded when Jesus wept. Once was at the grave of Lazarus. Mary & Martha were crying and in His compassion, Jesus wept with them. The other occasion is here as Jesus looks out at the city of Jerusalem. Why did Jesus weep? I think He wept for many reasons. Jesus wept because He knew the future of Jerusalem. This prophecy was fulfilled forty years later in 70AD when the Romans invaded Jerusalem and killed more than a million Jews. Jesus wept because He knew that there would be those who would reject their opportunity for salvation. Jesus wept because He knew that there would be those who would not understand or accept Him - they did not understand the purpose of His coming. Jesus wept because He knew that there were those who would never believe that He was the Messiah. They had eyes, but they could not see the truth. They had ears, but would not listen to the truth. The people who were so busy waving palm branches really didn’t understand what the Jesus was about to do. Waving palm branches was what their great-grandparents had done after the Maccabees defeated the Syrian oppressors and reestablished worship in the temple. By waving palm branches the people were showing they expected Jesus to be a warrior Messiah who would lead them to victory from the Romans. Instead of praising Jesus for who He really was, they praised Jesus for what they thought He would do. As Jesus came closer... He began to weep, “How I wish today that you of all people would understand the way to peace.” Jesus had taught, He had preached, He had performed miracles, many people had believed in Him, many people had trusted Him, many people had been healed by Him, yet there were many who would continue to reject Him. Instead of choosing to follow Jesus, many would choose self, many would choose darkness, many would choose to follow lies, many would choose to die in their trespasses and sins. Jesus wept because He had come to bring eternal life to all who would repent and trust in Him and their Lord and Saviour, yet He knew many would choose death not life. Jesus wept because some of the crowd who were shouting “Blessings on the King who comes in the name of the Lord!” would in a few short days be shouting: “Crucify Him, crucify Him”, “We will take responsibility for his death—we and our children!” “His blood be on us and on our children!” Jesus wept because of those who would never understand the way to peace, real peace, eternal peace. Jesus wept because He knew that by rejecting Him, people were rejecting the only way, the only truth, the only life, the only one who could save them from their sins. Jesus wept because He loves those who were lost, He loved and loves you and me and He was willing to die on the cross so that we could be saved. Jesus sacrificed His life to give us eternal life. He was a willing sacrifice for all who would believe. But He has also given us freewill, He has given us choice, we can choose to accept him or choose to reject Him. As Jesus came closer... He began to weep, “How I wish today that you of all people would understand the way to peace.” I believe Jesus still weeps today for the lost. Jesus gave His life for you, He loves you with an everlasting love. It is easy for us to talk about the love of God. It is perhaps more difficult for us to accept God’s love. Jesus wept out of His love for you and for me. Jesus went willingly to Jerusalem for you and for me. Do you love Him? Have you given your life to Him? On that Palm Sunday as Jesus journey towards His destiny, I’m not convinced the Disciples knew at that time what God was about to do. The Disciples missed the real significance of that day. Later they would understand what was taking place. For them, the journey to Jerusalem to celebrate Passover would have been one that they had done many times over the years. For us, perhaps we think we are familiar with the events of Palm Sunday, the betrayal and arrest of Jesus in the Garden, the sham trial, the cruel crucifixion of Christ. Christ’s death and resurrection. The events of that week can become so familiar that we just go through the motions of celebrating Easter without allowing the truth of these events to touch us. Do we really get it? Do we really understand? Do we understand Jesus didn’t just weep for Jerusalem - in His compassion He wept for us, for you and for me. The crowds on that first Palm Sunday wanted a Warrior King who would bring victory over the Romans, but Jesus is the Saviour King, He came to die on the cross to bring victory over sin and death for all who would turn to Him as Lord and Saviour. The crowd that day ignored the truth, have you ignored the truth about Jesus too? Jesus is the Saviour King who has conquered death, hell and the grave. Jesus is Saviour, Healer, Baptiser in the Holy Spirit and the Coming King. The Bible is clear that there is day coming when Jesus will return, not humbly riding a donkey, He will return as the King of Kings and Lord of Lord’s. Jesus is the Messiah, He is the way, the truth and the life, He has paid the price for your sin at the Cross, He is your redeemer, He is the only one who can save you. Imagine for a moment that Jesus is standing over there, and instead of looking at Jerusalem He is looking at your life, looking at you. Now imagine Jesus taking a step closer to you. As Jesus comes closer... He begins to weep, and says: “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand the way to peace.” “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand I have a plan for you!” “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand I have a purpose for you!” “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand you don’t need to be afraid” Jesus looks at you with tears in His eyes and says I forgive your sin, I forgive your fear, I forgive your anger, I forgive your resentment, I forgive your prejudice! “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand I died for you!” “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand I love you!” Jesus stands before you this morning. What is your response to Him? Will you commit or recommit yourself to Him this morning? If you are outside of His kingdom this morning, choose to trust Him, follow Jesus, be changed and transformed by His love, His mercy and His grace. This Palm Sunday, may each of us truly say: Hosanna! Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord! Invite Him into your heart and into your life. Ask Him to forgive you and save you. Ask Him to lead you and guide you.	<urn:uuid:fe7d965f-d2d6-4555-a865-c426c343c593>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sermoncentral.com/sermons/print?sermonId=207951	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00366.warc.gz	en	0.981284	3,034	3.625	4	[ 0.24290239810943604, 0.5211440920829773, -0.015919845551252365, 0.023414580151438713, -0.134888157248497, 0.11083006113767624, 0.3307895064353943, -0.07221503555774689, 0.05428334325551987, -0.009148859418928623, -0.3831638991832733, 0.18868522346019745, 0.47396814823150635, 0.209885284304...	1	The Events of Palm Sunday, are recorded in all four of the Gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Huge crowds had journeyed to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. Passover is a spring festival which commences on the 15th of the Hebrew month of Nisan and lasts for either seven or eight days. Passover or Pesach in Hebrew was and still is an important Jewish holiday. It’s when the Jewish people celebrate God delivering them from slavery in Egypt. Passover commemorates the Exodus that took place around 1300 BC, or about 3,317 years ago. God helped the Children of Israel escape from their slavery in Egypt by inflicting ten plagues upon the ancient Egyptians before the Pharaoh would release his Israelite slaves; the tenth and worst of the plagues was the death of the Egyptian first-born. The Israelites were instructed to mark the doorposts of their homes with the blood of a slaughtered spring lamb and, upon seeing this, the spirit of the Lord knew to pass over the first-born in these homes, hence the English name of the holiday. Historically, together with Shavuot (“Pentecost”) and Sukkot (“Tabernacles”), Pesach, “Passover” is one of the three pilgrimage festivals (Shalosh Regalim) during which the entire population of the kingdom of Judah made a pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem. Can you imagine the huge crowds that had already arrived for the celebration of the Passover? It would have been an amazing site. So many people gathering in one place to celebrate, to remember what God had done for them. So many sights and sounds and probably smells too! I think it would have been exciting to be part of that crowd of pilgrims, young and old, rich and poor, all walking together to celebrate. Jews travelling from all over the known world and joining together to follow the route from the Mount of Olives, past the Garden of Gethsemane, across the Kidron Valley, then up to the Eastern gate of the city of Jerusalem. Passover was a special time, but there was something even more special about this specific Sunday. This was the day that would come to be known as Palm Sunday. There was a whisper in the crowds that day, a whisper that became a shout, He is on His way! He is coming! “JESUS IS COMING”. Jesus was on His way to Jerusalem and He was riding on a donkey’s colt in fulfillment of the words of the prophet Zechariah from Zechariah 9:9, “Rejoice, O people of Zion! Shout in triumph, O people of Jerusalem! Look, your king is coming to you. He is righteous and victorious, yet he is humble, riding on a donkey— riding on a donkey’s colt.” In the East, kings rode horses during times of war, and donkeys during times of peace. The donkey was considered to be a very noble animal. Kings, princes, & judges rode upon donkeys. Jesus fulfilled the prophecy of Zechariah He was righteous, victorious and humble and also riding on a donkey. Jesus was coming, the King was coming and a crowd of people ran to greet His arrival shouting “Hosanna” “Hosanna” it’s the Hebrew word for “Save now!” “Hosanna! Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord! Hosanna to the son of David!” Luke 19:36-38 describes it in this way. 36 As Jesus rode along, the crowds spread out their garments on the road ahead of Him. 37 When Jesus reached the place where the road started down the Mount of Olives, all of His followers began to shout and sing as they walked along, praising God for all the wonderful miracles they had seen. 38 “Blessings on the King who comes in the name of the Lord! Peace in heaven, and glory in highest heaven!” Can you imagine the scene? This was an important moment, a significant moment, riding towards the city on a donkey, a symbol of kingship, the crowds gathered all around Jesus, shouting, singing, praising, worshiping, and almost like today when we roll out a red carpet for someone important to walk on, the people were throwing their coats on the ground before Him. Maybe in the crowd there were some of the people Jesus had healed. Maybe in the crowd were some of the thousands He had fed with just 5 loaves of bread and a couple of fish. Maybe in the crowd were some who had seen some of the many other miracles Jesus had performed. Perhaps many in the crowd that day would have heard Jesus preach and teach before. Perhaps they had listened to Jesus and their lives had been changed. But, some people were not feeling the same way, some it seems, thought that the crowds were taking it a little too far, listen to Luke 19:39-40, 39 But some of the Pharisees among the crowd said, “Teacher, rebuke your followers for saying things like that!” 40 Jesus replied, “If they kept quiet, the stones along the road would burst into cheers!” Reminds me of Psalm 19:1&2, The heavens proclaim the glory of God. The skies display His craftsmanship. Day after day they continue to speak; night after night they make Him known. “If the people kept quiet, the stones along the road would burst into cheers!” There was joy in the crowd that day, it was a time of celebration, of shouting and singing and praising and worshipping, but... there is another but in the narrative, Luke 19:41-44, 41 But as Jesus came closer to Jerusalem and saw the city ahead, He began to weep. 42 “How I wish today that you of all people would understand the way to peace. But now it is too late, and peace is hidden from your eyes. 43 Before long your enemies will build ramparts against your walls and encircle you and close in on you from every side. 44 They will crush you into the ground, and your children with you. Your enemies will not leave a single stone in place, because you did not recognize it when God visited you. Here is Jesus heading towards the city, surrounded by a mostly cheerful, happy crowd, with all the singing, all the excitement, all the joy, yet He weeps. The Gospels tells us Jesus reacted to many things. When Jesus saw the sick, the poor, the hungry, “He had compassion for them”. There were only two occasions recorded when Jesus wept. Once was at the grave of Lazarus. Mary & Martha were crying and in His compassion, Jesus wept with them. The other occasion is here as Jesus looks out at the city of Jerusalem. Why did Jesus weep? I think He wept for many reasons. Jesus wept because He knew the future of Jerusalem. This prophecy was fulfilled forty years later in 70AD when the Romans invaded Jerusalem and killed more than a million Jews. Jesus wept because He knew that there would be those who would reject their opportunity for salvation. Jesus wept because He knew that there would be those who would not understand or accept Him - they did not understand the purpose of His coming. Jesus wept because He knew that there were those who would never believe that He was the Messiah. They had eyes, but they could not see the truth. They had ears, but would not listen to the truth. The people who were so busy waving palm branches really didn’t understand what the Jesus was about to do. Waving palm branches was what their great-grandparents had done after the Maccabees defeated the Syrian oppressors and reestablished worship in the temple. By waving palm branches the people were showing they expected Jesus to be a warrior Messiah who would lead them to victory from the Romans. Instead of praising Jesus for who He really was, they praised Jesus for what they thought He would do. As Jesus came closer... He began to weep, “How I wish today that you of all people would understand the way to peace.” Jesus had taught, He had preached, He had performed miracles, many people had believed in Him, many people had trusted Him, many people had been healed by Him, yet there were many who would continue to reject Him. Instead of choosing to follow Jesus, many would choose self, many would choose darkness, many would choose to follow lies, many would choose to die in their trespasses and sins. Jesus wept because He had come to bring eternal life to all who would repent and trust in Him and their Lord and Saviour, yet He knew many would choose death not life. Jesus wept because some of the crowd who were shouting “Blessings on the King who comes in the name of the Lord!” would in a few short days be shouting: “Crucify Him, crucify Him”, “We will take responsibility for his death—we and our children!” “His blood be on us and on our children!” Jesus wept because of those who would never understand the way to peace, real peace, eternal peace. Jesus wept because He knew that by rejecting Him, people were rejecting the only way, the only truth, the only life, the only one who could save them from their sins. Jesus wept because He loves those who were lost, He loved and loves you and me and He was willing to die on the cross so that we could be saved. Jesus sacrificed His life to give us eternal life. He was a willing sacrifice for all who would believe. But He has also given us freewill, He has given us choice, we can choose to accept him or choose to reject Him. As Jesus came closer... He began to weep, “How I wish today that you of all people would understand the way to peace.” I believe Jesus still weeps today for the lost. Jesus gave His life for you, He loves you with an everlasting love. It is easy for us to talk about the love of God. It is perhaps more difficult for us to accept God’s love. Jesus wept out of His love for you and for me. Jesus went willingly to Jerusalem for you and for me. Do you love Him? Have you given your life to Him? On that Palm Sunday as Jesus journey towards His destiny, I’m not convinced the Disciples knew at that time what God was about to do. The Disciples missed the real significance of that day. Later they would understand what was taking place. For them, the journey to Jerusalem to celebrate Passover would have been one that they had done many times over the years. For us, perhaps we think we are familiar with the events of Palm Sunday, the betrayal and arrest of Jesus in the Garden, the sham trial, the cruel crucifixion of Christ. Christ’s death and resurrection. The events of that week can become so familiar that we just go through the motions of celebrating Easter without allowing the truth of these events to touch us. Do we really get it? Do we really understand? Do we understand Jesus didn’t just weep for Jerusalem - in His compassion He wept for us, for you and for me. The crowds on that first Palm Sunday wanted a Warrior King who would bring victory over the Romans, but Jesus is the Saviour King, He came to die on the cross to bring victory over sin and death for all who would turn to Him as Lord and Saviour. The crowd that day ignored the truth, have you ignored the truth about Jesus too? Jesus is the Saviour King who has conquered death, hell and the grave. Jesus is Saviour, Healer, Baptiser in the Holy Spirit and the Coming King. The Bible is clear that there is day coming when Jesus will return, not humbly riding a donkey, He will return as the King of Kings and Lord of Lord’s. Jesus is the Messiah, He is the way, the truth and the life, He has paid the price for your sin at the Cross, He is your redeemer, He is the only one who can save you. Imagine for a moment that Jesus is standing over there, and instead of looking at Jerusalem He is looking at your life, looking at you. Now imagine Jesus taking a step closer to you. As Jesus comes closer... He begins to weep, and says: “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand the way to peace.” “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand I have a plan for you!” “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand I have a purpose for you!” “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand you don’t need to be afraid” Jesus looks at you with tears in His eyes and says I forgive your sin, I forgive your fear, I forgive your anger, I forgive your resentment, I forgive your prejudice! “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand I died for you!” “How I wish today that YOU of all people would understand I love you!” Jesus stands before you this morning. What is your response to Him? Will you commit or recommit yourself to Him this morning? If you are outside of His kingdom this morning, choose to trust Him, follow Jesus, be changed and transformed by His love, His mercy and His grace. This Palm Sunday, may each of us truly say: Hosanna! Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord! Invite Him into your heart and into your life. Ask Him to forgive you and save you. Ask Him to lead you and guide you.	2,836	ENGLISH	1
Comments Off on Year 7: May 16, You will be writing an assessment on the reasons why Duke William was able to win the battle and become King of England in This assessment is in place to help you meet your target level. The requirements for each level can be found in the following mark scheme. Monday, 1 November why did Harold lose the battle of Hastings? So, why did Harold lose the battle of Hastings? Well, scening as you asked so nicely i will tell you First of all, he was just really really unlucky. He had two competitors for the throne, they were both attacking and they were coming from different directions! So, with nature being as typical as it is: Harold's men weren't rested for the long journey back down as that was the decision that Harold made. And when people don't rest, they get tired; slower; less aware of things around you and all the rest of the yadayada that parents go on to their kids about after a late night of drinking, messing about and having fun which is what the soldiers did, i don't expect anyone under the specific age of 21 to be drinking! Harold couldn't control his troops. On the hill at Hastings, Harold's troops were so spread out that orders could not be heard, by sound or by word. So, in consequence to that, some of Harold's troops that were in the supposedly unbreakable 'shield wall' formation along the left hand side of the broke off and started chasing a smaller group of Normans. But it was a trap! Harold had the lesser battle experience. Harold had only just took the throne, and that was by taking the crown off dead Ed's head but on the contrast: William had been in many battles and was ready for almost anything people threw at him. Will was an overall better leader because of his: Strategy; Experience; Numbers and was an Inspiration for his men. If you have an argumentative point then please send me them and your email so i can get back to you. William had a better claim to the throne. There was a claim from will that stated that he had the better claim to the throne because 'apparantly' Harold Godwinson and Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne of England in Harold had the fact that the council of England wanted him in, he was the most powerful man in England and that he was Edward the Confessor's brother in-law. Harold Godwinson was a ruler who wanted more than his share. He made mistakes but did not see that the consequences were that high as he was only a beginner at ruling a country. William was an overall better leader as his troops admired him, he was better at making decisions and seeing the outcome than Harold, he had more experience and he had more troops that were less tired and quite possibly less drunk than the Englishmen. I hope that this helped you. I will be posting these on my site if i find out how to!Why did the Normans win the Battle of Hastings? There are three main reasons why the Normans won the Battle of Hastings. The first reason was that King Harold was not ready when the Normans attacked. The secondly, Duke William of Normandy prepared well before the battle. The final reason was that William was exceptionally lucky. Originally Answered: Why did William win the Battle of Hastings? Because his army was well equipped and better trained than the AngloSaxon one. Moreover, King Harold of England committed an unforgivable error: previously, he had been fighting in the North of England against Harald, the Danish king who had claimed the English throne for himself. In this essay I will be writing about how William of Normandy won the battle of Hastings, the events leading up to the battle e.g. the battle of Stamford Bridge, Harold and Williams’s preparation etc and the overall conclusion of how he won and what contributed to him winning. The Battle of Hastings - Why Did William Win? On the 14th of October , Duke William of Normandy defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. His win could be summed up by the fact that William was a better leader. In this essay I will explain further how William won the Battle of Hastings in One reason the Normans won was due to long-term causes. Duke William of Normandy won the battle because was well prepared and had a good army. William won the Battle of Hastings in He won because of his planning and leadership as well luck and having a big and strong army.	<urn:uuid:73f4d200-fd45-4ed3-9c94-444f366178b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dazujunyqixaf.heartoftexashop.com/why-did-william-win-the-battle-of-hastings-essay-plan-8107np.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00036.warc.gz	en	0.992386	930	3.609375	4	[ -0.7083492279052734, 0.6704329252243042, 0.060036227107048035, -0.1463068574666977, -0.26663535833358765, -0.01812845468521118, 0.42632168531417847, 0.19878043234348297, 0.016647838056087494, 0.054855599999427795, 0.07626786828041077, -0.3484380841255188, 0.25019386410713196, 0.32579144835...	1	Comments Off on Year 7: May 16, You will be writing an assessment on the reasons why Duke William was able to win the battle and become King of England in This assessment is in place to help you meet your target level. The requirements for each level can be found in the following mark scheme. Monday, 1 November why did Harold lose the battle of Hastings? So, why did Harold lose the battle of Hastings? Well, scening as you asked so nicely i will tell you First of all, he was just really really unlucky. He had two competitors for the throne, they were both attacking and they were coming from different directions! So, with nature being as typical as it is: Harold's men weren't rested for the long journey back down as that was the decision that Harold made. And when people don't rest, they get tired; slower; less aware of things around you and all the rest of the yadayada that parents go on to their kids about after a late night of drinking, messing about and having fun which is what the soldiers did, i don't expect anyone under the specific age of 21 to be drinking! Harold couldn't control his troops. On the hill at Hastings, Harold's troops were so spread out that orders could not be heard, by sound or by word. So, in consequence to that, some of Harold's troops that were in the supposedly unbreakable 'shield wall' formation along the left hand side of the broke off and started chasing a smaller group of Normans. But it was a trap! Harold had the lesser battle experience. Harold had only just took the throne, and that was by taking the crown off dead Ed's head but on the contrast: William had been in many battles and was ready for almost anything people threw at him. Will was an overall better leader because of his: Strategy; Experience; Numbers and was an Inspiration for his men. If you have an argumentative point then please send me them and your email so i can get back to you. William had a better claim to the throne. There was a claim from will that stated that he had the better claim to the throne because 'apparantly' Harold Godwinson and Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne of England in Harold had the fact that the council of England wanted him in, he was the most powerful man in England and that he was Edward the Confessor's brother in-law. Harold Godwinson was a ruler who wanted more than his share. He made mistakes but did not see that the consequences were that high as he was only a beginner at ruling a country. William was an overall better leader as his troops admired him, he was better at making decisions and seeing the outcome than Harold, he had more experience and he had more troops that were less tired and quite possibly less drunk than the Englishmen. I hope that this helped you. I will be posting these on my site if i find out how to!Why did the Normans win the Battle of Hastings? There are three main reasons why the Normans won the Battle of Hastings. The first reason was that King Harold was not ready when the Normans attacked. The secondly, Duke William of Normandy prepared well before the battle. The final reason was that William was exceptionally lucky. Originally Answered: Why did William win the Battle of Hastings? Because his army was well equipped and better trained than the AngloSaxon one. Moreover, King Harold of England committed an unforgivable error: previously, he had been fighting in the North of England against Harald, the Danish king who had claimed the English throne for himself. In this essay I will be writing about how William of Normandy won the battle of Hastings, the events leading up to the battle e.g. the battle of Stamford Bridge, Harold and Williams’s preparation etc and the overall conclusion of how he won and what contributed to him winning. The Battle of Hastings - Why Did William Win? On the 14th of October , Duke William of Normandy defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. His win could be summed up by the fact that William was a better leader. In this essay I will explain further how William won the Battle of Hastings in One reason the Normans won was due to long-term causes. Duke William of Normandy won the battle because was well prepared and had a good army. William won the Battle of Hastings in He won because of his planning and leadership as well luck and having a big and strong army.	921	ENGLISH	1
It refers to the equal treatment of people across genders. Before the era of settled agriculture, gender equality was practiced, with leaders coming from either gender. This however changed after settled agriculture where in most cultures, women have been depicted as a weaker sex in all aspects, and in very few places this feeling has vanished completely. However, with the rigorous campaigns and legislations across the countries, there is a hope for all people to be treated equally. Traditionally, there were different roles that were played by either gender and it was seen as a sin when another person from another gender attempted to perform the same duties. For instance, women were looked at as the agents of generation continuity, hence obliged to give birth and take care of the young children. As a result, they would spend most of their time at home stuck with household chores. Although men also worked within their homes in the preindustrial era, chores were divided and women would take care of children. They assumed the role of caregiver of the society because they would take care of home, children and even run errands on behalf of their husbands. The industrialization era created gender inequality because as men rushed to work in industries, women stuck with children and household chores. Eventually, women were not given similar exposure as men and this would translate to their miss in opportunities, such as education, leadership, employment among others. Today, this trend is present in most societies, although others have done well to shed it off. After a long struggle, women started to gain a place in the society (Murata, 2005, 270). They started movements and groups that would push for their agenda. They started to push for their position to get involved during decision making processes, even on issues that were regarded as sensitive. One key area that they had been exempted was the process of voting for leaders. In history, voting for leaders was left for men and it was not until the late 19th century that the first country, New Zealand allowed their women fraternity to vote (Murata, 2005). This was in 1893 and was followed by the United States in 1920, then the United Kingdom in 1928. Japan, Italy and France granted women suffrage in 1945. The same was not allowed in Switzerland till 1971. Due to the pressure from human rights activists, as well as women groups, countries, such as the United States have opened up opportunities for women. However, there are many other countries that have upheld the traditional beliefs that women are inferior to men. The main objective of this research paper will be to determine the extent, to which legislation has changed the gender inequality in Japan, with respect to children birth rate and women involvement in employment opportunities. Other objectives will be: - To determine the effects of gender inequality in Japan - To analyze the laws on gender equality - To evaluate the effectiveness of policies on gender equality - To generate relevant recommendations Buy Gender Inequality in Japan essay paper online In order to meet the objectives set out in the paper, secondary sources will be used to determine the extent, through which legislation in Japan has improved the status of gender inequality. A qualitative analysis of these laws will be made, then the extent of their success will be determined. Since all these laws are geared towards ensuring that the country remains the top economic state, it will look into the data that scholars have put across in previous studies, then determine whether there is any change that the legislation has brought to the women fraternity and consequently their effects on the economy and the Japanese society at large. More research from other data will be determined and the reasons for the trends that will be obtained will be determined, after which recommendations on what the government should do to make the situation better will be brought forward. Gender Equality in Japan Japan is ranked among the largest and competitive world economies. Among the key notable aspects in the development and support of the economy is the absence of women in distinct careers. In the recent years, this void has been addressed and economists have identified that for the economy to improve, women involvement must be increased from where they are today as casual laborers and move to managerial positions. This gender imbalance has been very consequential and the government has been forced to consider the involvement of women in the economic development. Looking down upon women has resulted into many problems and shortcomings to the economy. The two main negative effects of the seclusion are discussed. Slow Birth Rate Over the last few decades, the rate of birth in Japan has declined sharply. In 2004, IPSS reported that Total Fertility Rate (TFR) stood at 1.36 in 2000, compared to 1.75 in 1980 and 3.60 in 1950. Ishii-Kuntz (2003, 205) noted that this was a major concern to the government because today’s poor birth rate would translate into a very lean workforce in future. It would, therefore, mean that labor in future would be expensive and scarce, thus a slow economy (Morley, 1999). It would be a very important pointer into the sustainability of the economy. The Japanese government believes that the inclusion of women into the production process would fill the gap of diminishing labor as well as give them opportunities to feel socially appreciated. While other economies admit women between the age of 30 and 55 years to get involved in production, the Japanese government does not. Only about 55% of women at their prime age of about 40 years work (Sugimoto, 2003). They work until they get married when they retire to their homes and start looking after their children and husbands. This is opposed to the women in other countries, such as the United States, where starting a family does not require a woman to leave her job. For women to continue working, therefore, they have to forego giving birth or getting married, which explains the low birth rate. Wasted Human Resource Japanese women are among the most educated in the world. They, therefore, are among the most economically and socially productive (Araki, 2002). Studies have shown that they often do better than their male compatriots and make better workers and managers if given the chance to exercise their ability. However, their involvement is highly opposed by the cultural and social barriers that require women to remain at home. This explains why there are few women working in offices in Japan than in the U.S., despite Japanese women being more educated. In a study carried out by Sugimooto (2003), it was noted that the jobs done by high school graduates in 1970s and 1980s, which included serving tea, answering phone calls among other simple office chores are today held by the well educated people, many of them having graduated from the universities after 4 year courses. This is a very curious trend as compared to other developed states, where university graduates are offered jobs in managerial positions. The government, therefore, needs to come up with the strategies that will tap the human resource that is highly educated, instead of brushing them off on the basis of being women (Araki, 2002). They have worked exemplarily as translators, surpassing their male counterparts, meaning that they can be as good as, or even better than men are. Another factor that has led to the development of current situation apart from the cultural and social aspects is the tax system. Currently, the system is well carved to depict the women as caregivers, and men as breadwinners. Women, who do not work or do not achieve a wage total of 1,030,000 yen, annually are not only allowed to have free health insurance cover and receive pension, but also have their husbands get a 380000 yen tax deduction. This is a system that despite taking care of a family budget goes ahead to reduce the motivation of women to go out and work in formal settings, where they would be treated as men (Araki, 2002). The system allows them to go out for casual labor, which limits their contribution to the economy. Japanese Legislations on Gender Equality The Japanese government has realized that there is dire need to ensure that the trends of low birth rate and low women participation in economic production are reversed. As a result, it has formulated policies that would encourage women to move out of their social and cultural cocoons and join the bandwagon of economic productivity. Further, these policies are formulated to ensure that women empowerment does not jeopardize the social obligation of giving birth and taking care of children. One of the laws is the Equal Employment Opportunity Law (EEOL) that was first used in 1986. Suzukki (1996, 57) explains this law that required all private and public corporations to ensure impartiality with regard to gender during the process of recruiting new crew. Promotions and placement were to be done on merit, and gender should not take precedence of qualifications. All employees were to be treated in the same manner. This legislation was faced with many challenges because women are not ready to quit the traditional system. They prefer to raise their children other than leave them with employees at home. This means that they would not have similar treatments as men by default because they would be required to leave their jobs to carry out another social responsibility that is giving birth. The society does not forgive them from raising their children and they take it upon themselves to be the pillars of their young babies. Equal Employment Opportunity Law (EEOL) was, therefore, not very popular even among women as they saw no chance of getting continuous lifetime employment as men do. They are always prepared to have a break, where they would quit working after sometime, then come back later after they raise their children to a certain age. Few women benefit from this legislation as a result of this discontinuous working pattern. The other law was the Childcare Leave Law that was enacted in 1992. This law aimed at ensuring that men were involved in the process of ensuring that the country developed economically at no expense of the social status by enhancing high birth rate. It was developed after the first was unable to fully address the issues that faced the country. This law gave parents the option of taking a full year leave to look after the young babies, with a reassurance that they would return to the same position that they held before the leave (Morley, 1999, 23). Its main implementation problem was the lack of punitive measures to employers who failed to honor it. Despite the law enactment, a government survey in 1999 indicated that husbands only spend 17 minutes a day with their parents on average (Yim, 2000, 13). The law has been designed with an assumption that men would carry some of the burden of childcare and allow women to go out and work as they look after the children. This was, however, very unsuccessful because a study carried out by the government in 2002 showed that only 0.33% of men took the leave (Gender Equality Bureau, 2004, 72). This was an indication that it had failed to meet the objectives it was meant to address. Its failure can be adequately placed on the cultural beliefs and practices where male masculinity is an important factor in determining one’s social situation. Employees, who take the leave, are often harassed when they get back to work because they are considered weak and non-masculine. Men could also leave their jobs to look after children. A case was reported, where an employee was quickly transferred to work in China after he had returned from the childcare leave, in order to save him from embarrassment from fellow employees (Ishii-Kuntz, 2003, 214). This shows that despite the defiance of employers to follow this law, employees themselves were not supportive of its enactment. The Basic-Law for a Gender-Equal Society of 1999 was formulated to create guidelines and responsibilities on the groups and people that work for private sector or for the public sector. It aimed at creating the society that would consider both men and women equally, and give them opportunities to perform their duties equally in all fields and within a level environment. Responsibilities would be shared equally, as well as any benefits realized (Araki 2002, 47). Further, the law on prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims was then passed to ensure that there was no discrimination on the basis of any criteria. This law increased the punishment for violation of the law by increasing the restrain period from two weeks to two months. In 2003, there were over two thousand rape cases, in most of which husbands raped their wives with the assistance of another person. Gang rape would attract a minimum jail period of four years. The law later included the anonymity of the victims, which was strengthened in the restructuring of the victim protection law. The restructured law would address the issues of cultural victimization of people, whether men or women. It addressed punitive measures for the cases, where an employee would be mocked or punished for asking for the childcare leave, which was traditionally intolerable, despite being allowed by the law (Ishii-Kuntz, 2003, 201). Later, the International Labor Organization introduced the law on labor standards that attempted to exclude children in employment and agreement situations. The law was clear on ages and the Japanese adopted the age of 15 as an underage, and it was prohibited to work for anyone, who was below the age of 18 as a special case, who required special types of job that was not risky. Limitations to the Equality Legislations Despite the above laws being put in place and their implementation well pointed out, their objective to increase birth rate and increase the number of professional women in workplaces has not been significantly improved. They seem to have failed in meeting the objectives they were set to. Figures show that only about 60% of women in the working age are actually working, in contrast to men’s 80%. One of the main factors that have hindered this success is the cultural background of the Japanese community (Brinton, 1993). The tradition has in its deep roots the belief that men are superior and the duty to bring up children belongs to women. Men believe that they are not supposed to be involved in the process of bringing up a family, taking into account that they are culturally supposed to exercise the role of the family breadwinner. When a man tries to deviate from this path to help the wife raise a good family, the society and people they live with start mocking and looking down upon them. They are, therefore, left with no peace and their lives become a misery. This accounts for the reason why the contact between men and their families lies at only seventeen minutes per day (Brinton, 1993, 60). It also explains why the law that gave me the option to join their wives to go and look after children failed to materialize, with less than one percent taking the childcare leave. This aspect of the society is known as Masculinity in Japanese males. It could be seen by examining the positions that men hold, most notably the parliament, which had over ninety percent of the lawmakers in 2001 being men. Business female managers were only 0.3% and all these held low positions in the organizations they worked for. Few of these held the position of the departmental heads. The Japanese culture has equally withheld women from achieving their full potential. Women believe that there is no better means to raise a child than raising them by themselves, which they enjoy doing. They do not trust other people and would prefer leaving their jobs and raising the children to employing house help (Brinton, 1993, 112). This would eventually translate into women failing to seize the opportunities that have been created by the law. Despite being highly educated, lauded for their intelligence in places, where they work, they still believe that they have another responsibility to bring up a family. They cannot raise a family and at the same time go to work (Huen, 2007, 367). They always have to make a sacrifice on whether they would go out and work or whether they would get married and get children. Studies have shown that they do not believe that they can achieve both simultaneously. This belief is very different from that in other countries, where women take a short maternity leave and then get back to work after a few months. They work until late into the pregnancy and get back to work only months after the birth of their children. Japanese women would look after the children until they attain the age of going to school. The one thing that does not go in line with this trend is that despite the women having so much attachment to raising their children, the birth rate remains relatively low same as the number of women in various professions. This indicates the social stage that Japan is at the moment, one that most developed countries were in the early 1990s. The situation in Japan indicates that the country is only following the usual trend in development where women’s’ involvement in formal employment is accepted because of social pressure. From the study, the effects of gender inequality cannot be sidelined during the process of formulating both social and economic policies in Japan. The slow birth rate and lack of women participation in economic development are issues that are highly attributed to gender inequality. The Japanese economy would perform even better if women were included. As the current population ages, there is a labor problem that could even grow bigger in future. The legislations have failed to bring the desired outcomes, with culture taking precedence in the social milieu. Despite the continuous encouragement from the government and its agencies for men to take responsibilities in child care, it has not worked and it should be improved. The government has even tried to articulate the domestic policies with those adopted internationally, but the void persists. The governmental economic policies are very different from those in other countries that have equal economic power as Japan. Little use and employment of women in big decision making positions both in public and private sectors, despite being relatively more learned and more informed, shows that the government is not utilizing the potential of its citizens (Huen, 2007, 369). It invests a lot of money in educating women, yet the environment is not fit enough to allow the educated women to utilize their education and productivity. Instead, the society erodes their ego and any effort to overturn this trend is always frustrated. It would, therefore, be very important that the government takes enough measures to ensure that the future labor force is not jeopardized by the current trends. It cannot be disputed that though the society has placed women lowly in the society, to remain in the house and give birth, this plan is not working at all, because the birth rate remains low, while at the same time the inclusion of women into economic development remains low. The main question that the government and the Japanese society should try to answer is how relevant women are to them, because they do not have any effect on the economy or on the population. A better treatment and approach to the whole issue could prove vital to ensure that women remain relevant both in giving birth to children, while at the same time offering their hand and expertise in economic development. The Japanese government needs to ensure that these two trends are reversed as quickly as possible. More women managers are supposed to be included into the management of the government as well as private businesses. Further, restrictions on when and how they should be working should be well spelt out and their involvement in the process of development placed unrelated with the family responsibilities. The current perception and social push that a working woman cannot have children should be reversed. A report by the labor ministry showed that less than 1% women are managers, 73 of whom do not have children (Sugimoto, 2003, 157). Sugimoto also showed that women had a very big role in the economic development of Japan, accounting for over half of the total workforce. However, it was notable that the half works as part time as they dedicate more of their time to looking after their families. Working as part time employees leave them with little to enjoy as they are exempted from pensions, allowances among other benefits. Most of these women resume work after their children go to school. They are, therefore, surpassed by men, whom they worked with, because while they stopped to go out and look for their children, men continued with their work, leaving the women lagging in experience. This measure of competence is often misleading because the ground is not level for every worker. Policies shape up the society (Huen, 2007, 372). They delegate the roles of the people within the society and provide guidelines on how each of these roles should be carried out. Every society has its values and need to put them into consideration during the formulation of their policies. The Japanese government has failed to successfully articulate the cultural background of the society and their policies, which can be attributed to the past failure of these policies. New policies that are relevant and practical within the society should be enacted and enforced. Copying policies from other countries will always be unsuccessful due to differences in beliefs and practices (Huen, 2007, 370). Most Japanese women chose to do the secretariat and un jobs. They feel that the managerial positions would not accommodate them, especially when looking at the behavior of men in these positions. The men work for long hours and later go out to drink. This is something that women feel that they cannot manage and prefer to take the simple secretariat jobs that would not require a lot of their commitment. They look down upon themselves and do not believe that they can take up all these pressures and manage to raise families. However, the few that decide to follow their careers are faced with a quagmire to decide whether they should continue with their careers or should go back home and raise families. Most decide to follow the former and discard the latter. The government and other willing agencies should empower these women and make them realize that they can do both managerial and household obligations. They do not need to work longer than necessary or even drink after work. New structures that would accommodate the needs of women and their responsibilities within the society should be carved and enacted. The structures should be friendly to both men and women. Related Free Ethics Essays - Approaches to Ethical Dilemmas - The Physician Assisted-Suicide - Code of Ethics Research - Business Ethics and Multiple Intelligences in International Human Resource Management - Gender Identity Issue - Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals - Stereotype and Prejudicein Social Psychology - Gender Roles Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:b20c909c-8752-4cc3-a791-82bec2a79fd6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/ethics/gender-inequality-in-japan.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00119.warc.gz	en	0.981734	4,517	4.625	5	[ 0.05030302703380585, 0.2538597285747528, 0.09182465076446533, -0.013913971371948719, -0.22400987148284912, 0.4404345452785492, 0.13411208987236023, -0.008800992742180824, 0.2041548192501068, 0.15170207619667053, 0.2770085334777832, -0.15374425053596497, 0.2909407615661621, 0.13554361462593...	1	It refers to the equal treatment of people across genders. Before the era of settled agriculture, gender equality was practiced, with leaders coming from either gender. This however changed after settled agriculture where in most cultures, women have been depicted as a weaker sex in all aspects, and in very few places this feeling has vanished completely. However, with the rigorous campaigns and legislations across the countries, there is a hope for all people to be treated equally. Traditionally, there were different roles that were played by either gender and it was seen as a sin when another person from another gender attempted to perform the same duties. For instance, women were looked at as the agents of generation continuity, hence obliged to give birth and take care of the young children. As a result, they would spend most of their time at home stuck with household chores. Although men also worked within their homes in the preindustrial era, chores were divided and women would take care of children. They assumed the role of caregiver of the society because they would take care of home, children and even run errands on behalf of their husbands. The industrialization era created gender inequality because as men rushed to work in industries, women stuck with children and household chores. Eventually, women were not given similar exposure as men and this would translate to their miss in opportunities, such as education, leadership, employment among others. Today, this trend is present in most societies, although others have done well to shed it off. After a long struggle, women started to gain a place in the society (Murata, 2005, 270). They started movements and groups that would push for their agenda. They started to push for their position to get involved during decision making processes, even on issues that were regarded as sensitive. One key area that they had been exempted was the process of voting for leaders. In history, voting for leaders was left for men and it was not until the late 19th century that the first country, New Zealand allowed their women fraternity to vote (Murata, 2005). This was in 1893 and was followed by the United States in 1920, then the United Kingdom in 1928. Japan, Italy and France granted women suffrage in 1945. The same was not allowed in Switzerland till 1971. Due to the pressure from human rights activists, as well as women groups, countries, such as the United States have opened up opportunities for women. However, there are many other countries that have upheld the traditional beliefs that women are inferior to men. The main objective of this research paper will be to determine the extent, to which legislation has changed the gender inequality in Japan, with respect to children birth rate and women involvement in employment opportunities. Other objectives will be: - To determine the effects of gender inequality in Japan - To analyze the laws on gender equality - To evaluate the effectiveness of policies on gender equality - To generate relevant recommendations Buy Gender Inequality in Japan essay paper online In order to meet the objectives set out in the paper, secondary sources will be used to determine the extent, through which legislation in Japan has improved the status of gender inequality. A qualitative analysis of these laws will be made, then the extent of their success will be determined. Since all these laws are geared towards ensuring that the country remains the top economic state, it will look into the data that scholars have put across in previous studies, then determine whether there is any change that the legislation has brought to the women fraternity and consequently their effects on the economy and the Japanese society at large. More research from other data will be determined and the reasons for the trends that will be obtained will be determined, after which recommendations on what the government should do to make the situation better will be brought forward. Gender Equality in Japan Japan is ranked among the largest and competitive world economies. Among the key notable aspects in the development and support of the economy is the absence of women in distinct careers. In the recent years, this void has been addressed and economists have identified that for the economy to improve, women involvement must be increased from where they are today as casual laborers and move to managerial positions. This gender imbalance has been very consequential and the government has been forced to consider the involvement of women in the economic development. Looking down upon women has resulted into many problems and shortcomings to the economy. The two main negative effects of the seclusion are discussed. Slow Birth Rate Over the last few decades, the rate of birth in Japan has declined sharply. In 2004, IPSS reported that Total Fertility Rate (TFR) stood at 1.36 in 2000, compared to 1.75 in 1980 and 3.60 in 1950. Ishii-Kuntz (2003, 205) noted that this was a major concern to the government because today’s poor birth rate would translate into a very lean workforce in future. It would, therefore, mean that labor in future would be expensive and scarce, thus a slow economy (Morley, 1999). It would be a very important pointer into the sustainability of the economy. The Japanese government believes that the inclusion of women into the production process would fill the gap of diminishing labor as well as give them opportunities to feel socially appreciated. While other economies admit women between the age of 30 and 55 years to get involved in production, the Japanese government does not. Only about 55% of women at their prime age of about 40 years work (Sugimoto, 2003). They work until they get married when they retire to their homes and start looking after their children and husbands. This is opposed to the women in other countries, such as the United States, where starting a family does not require a woman to leave her job. For women to continue working, therefore, they have to forego giving birth or getting married, which explains the low birth rate. Wasted Human Resource Japanese women are among the most educated in the world. They, therefore, are among the most economically and socially productive (Araki, 2002). Studies have shown that they often do better than their male compatriots and make better workers and managers if given the chance to exercise their ability. However, their involvement is highly opposed by the cultural and social barriers that require women to remain at home. This explains why there are few women working in offices in Japan than in the U.S., despite Japanese women being more educated. In a study carried out by Sugimooto (2003), it was noted that the jobs done by high school graduates in 1970s and 1980s, which included serving tea, answering phone calls among other simple office chores are today held by the well educated people, many of them having graduated from the universities after 4 year courses. This is a very curious trend as compared to other developed states, where university graduates are offered jobs in managerial positions. The government, therefore, needs to come up with the strategies that will tap the human resource that is highly educated, instead of brushing them off on the basis of being women (Araki, 2002). They have worked exemplarily as translators, surpassing their male counterparts, meaning that they can be as good as, or even better than men are. Another factor that has led to the development of current situation apart from the cultural and social aspects is the tax system. Currently, the system is well carved to depict the women as caregivers, and men as breadwinners. Women, who do not work or do not achieve a wage total of 1,030,000 yen, annually are not only allowed to have free health insurance cover and receive pension, but also have their husbands get a 380000 yen tax deduction. This is a system that despite taking care of a family budget goes ahead to reduce the motivation of women to go out and work in formal settings, where they would be treated as men (Araki, 2002). The system allows them to go out for casual labor, which limits their contribution to the economy. Japanese Legislations on Gender Equality The Japanese government has realized that there is dire need to ensure that the trends of low birth rate and low women participation in economic production are reversed. As a result, it has formulated policies that would encourage women to move out of their social and cultural cocoons and join the bandwagon of economic productivity. Further, these policies are formulated to ensure that women empowerment does not jeopardize the social obligation of giving birth and taking care of children. One of the laws is the Equal Employment Opportunity Law (EEOL) that was first used in 1986. Suzukki (1996, 57) explains this law that required all private and public corporations to ensure impartiality with regard to gender during the process of recruiting new crew. Promotions and placement were to be done on merit, and gender should not take precedence of qualifications. All employees were to be treated in the same manner. This legislation was faced with many challenges because women are not ready to quit the traditional system. They prefer to raise their children other than leave them with employees at home. This means that they would not have similar treatments as men by default because they would be required to leave their jobs to carry out another social responsibility that is giving birth. The society does not forgive them from raising their children and they take it upon themselves to be the pillars of their young babies. Equal Employment Opportunity Law (EEOL) was, therefore, not very popular even among women as they saw no chance of getting continuous lifetime employment as men do. They are always prepared to have a break, where they would quit working after sometime, then come back later after they raise their children to a certain age. Few women benefit from this legislation as a result of this discontinuous working pattern. The other law was the Childcare Leave Law that was enacted in 1992. This law aimed at ensuring that men were involved in the process of ensuring that the country developed economically at no expense of the social status by enhancing high birth rate. It was developed after the first was unable to fully address the issues that faced the country. This law gave parents the option of taking a full year leave to look after the young babies, with a reassurance that they would return to the same position that they held before the leave (Morley, 1999, 23). Its main implementation problem was the lack of punitive measures to employers who failed to honor it. Despite the law enactment, a government survey in 1999 indicated that husbands only spend 17 minutes a day with their parents on average (Yim, 2000, 13). The law has been designed with an assumption that men would carry some of the burden of childcare and allow women to go out and work as they look after the children. This was, however, very unsuccessful because a study carried out by the government in 2002 showed that only 0.33% of men took the leave (Gender Equality Bureau, 2004, 72). This was an indication that it had failed to meet the objectives it was meant to address. Its failure can be adequately placed on the cultural beliefs and practices where male masculinity is an important factor in determining one’s social situation. Employees, who take the leave, are often harassed when they get back to work because they are considered weak and non-masculine. Men could also leave their jobs to look after children. A case was reported, where an employee was quickly transferred to work in China after he had returned from the childcare leave, in order to save him from embarrassment from fellow employees (Ishii-Kuntz, 2003, 214). This shows that despite the defiance of employers to follow this law, employees themselves were not supportive of its enactment. The Basic-Law for a Gender-Equal Society of 1999 was formulated to create guidelines and responsibilities on the groups and people that work for private sector or for the public sector. It aimed at creating the society that would consider both men and women equally, and give them opportunities to perform their duties equally in all fields and within a level environment. Responsibilities would be shared equally, as well as any benefits realized (Araki 2002, 47). Further, the law on prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims was then passed to ensure that there was no discrimination on the basis of any criteria. This law increased the punishment for violation of the law by increasing the restrain period from two weeks to two months. In 2003, there were over two thousand rape cases, in most of which husbands raped their wives with the assistance of another person. Gang rape would attract a minimum jail period of four years. The law later included the anonymity of the victims, which was strengthened in the restructuring of the victim protection law. The restructured law would address the issues of cultural victimization of people, whether men or women. It addressed punitive measures for the cases, where an employee would be mocked or punished for asking for the childcare leave, which was traditionally intolerable, despite being allowed by the law (Ishii-Kuntz, 2003, 201). Later, the International Labor Organization introduced the law on labor standards that attempted to exclude children in employment and agreement situations. The law was clear on ages and the Japanese adopted the age of 15 as an underage, and it was prohibited to work for anyone, who was below the age of 18 as a special case, who required special types of job that was not risky. Limitations to the Equality Legislations Despite the above laws being put in place and their implementation well pointed out, their objective to increase birth rate and increase the number of professional women in workplaces has not been significantly improved. They seem to have failed in meeting the objectives they were set to. Figures show that only about 60% of women in the working age are actually working, in contrast to men’s 80%. One of the main factors that have hindered this success is the cultural background of the Japanese community (Brinton, 1993). The tradition has in its deep roots the belief that men are superior and the duty to bring up children belongs to women. Men believe that they are not supposed to be involved in the process of bringing up a family, taking into account that they are culturally supposed to exercise the role of the family breadwinner. When a man tries to deviate from this path to help the wife raise a good family, the society and people they live with start mocking and looking down upon them. They are, therefore, left with no peace and their lives become a misery. This accounts for the reason why the contact between men and their families lies at only seventeen minutes per day (Brinton, 1993, 60). It also explains why the law that gave me the option to join their wives to go and look after children failed to materialize, with less than one percent taking the childcare leave. This aspect of the society is known as Masculinity in Japanese males. It could be seen by examining the positions that men hold, most notably the parliament, which had over ninety percent of the lawmakers in 2001 being men. Business female managers were only 0.3% and all these held low positions in the organizations they worked for. Few of these held the position of the departmental heads. The Japanese culture has equally withheld women from achieving their full potential. Women believe that there is no better means to raise a child than raising them by themselves, which they enjoy doing. They do not trust other people and would prefer leaving their jobs and raising the children to employing house help (Brinton, 1993, 112). This would eventually translate into women failing to seize the opportunities that have been created by the law. Despite being highly educated, lauded for their intelligence in places, where they work, they still believe that they have another responsibility to bring up a family. They cannot raise a family and at the same time go to work (Huen, 2007, 367). They always have to make a sacrifice on whether they would go out and work or whether they would get married and get children. Studies have shown that they do not believe that they can achieve both simultaneously. This belief is very different from that in other countries, where women take a short maternity leave and then get back to work after a few months. They work until late into the pregnancy and get back to work only months after the birth of their children. Japanese women would look after the children until they attain the age of going to school. The one thing that does not go in line with this trend is that despite the women having so much attachment to raising their children, the birth rate remains relatively low same as the number of women in various professions. This indicates the social stage that Japan is at the moment, one that most developed countries were in the early 1990s. The situation in Japan indicates that the country is only following the usual trend in development where women’s’ involvement in formal employment is accepted because of social pressure. From the study, the effects of gender inequality cannot be sidelined during the process of formulating both social and economic policies in Japan. The slow birth rate and lack of women participation in economic development are issues that are highly attributed to gender inequality. The Japanese economy would perform even better if women were included. As the current population ages, there is a labor problem that could even grow bigger in future. The legislations have failed to bring the desired outcomes, with culture taking precedence in the social milieu. Despite the continuous encouragement from the government and its agencies for men to take responsibilities in child care, it has not worked and it should be improved. The government has even tried to articulate the domestic policies with those adopted internationally, but the void persists. The governmental economic policies are very different from those in other countries that have equal economic power as Japan. Little use and employment of women in big decision making positions both in public and private sectors, despite being relatively more learned and more informed, shows that the government is not utilizing the potential of its citizens (Huen, 2007, 369). It invests a lot of money in educating women, yet the environment is not fit enough to allow the educated women to utilize their education and productivity. Instead, the society erodes their ego and any effort to overturn this trend is always frustrated. It would, therefore, be very important that the government takes enough measures to ensure that the future labor force is not jeopardized by the current trends. It cannot be disputed that though the society has placed women lowly in the society, to remain in the house and give birth, this plan is not working at all, because the birth rate remains low, while at the same time the inclusion of women into economic development remains low. The main question that the government and the Japanese society should try to answer is how relevant women are to them, because they do not have any effect on the economy or on the population. A better treatment and approach to the whole issue could prove vital to ensure that women remain relevant both in giving birth to children, while at the same time offering their hand and expertise in economic development. The Japanese government needs to ensure that these two trends are reversed as quickly as possible. More women managers are supposed to be included into the management of the government as well as private businesses. Further, restrictions on when and how they should be working should be well spelt out and their involvement in the process of development placed unrelated with the family responsibilities. The current perception and social push that a working woman cannot have children should be reversed. A report by the labor ministry showed that less than 1% women are managers, 73 of whom do not have children (Sugimoto, 2003, 157). Sugimoto also showed that women had a very big role in the economic development of Japan, accounting for over half of the total workforce. However, it was notable that the half works as part time as they dedicate more of their time to looking after their families. Working as part time employees leave them with little to enjoy as they are exempted from pensions, allowances among other benefits. Most of these women resume work after their children go to school. They are, therefore, surpassed by men, whom they worked with, because while they stopped to go out and look for their children, men continued with their work, leaving the women lagging in experience. This measure of competence is often misleading because the ground is not level for every worker. Policies shape up the society (Huen, 2007, 372). They delegate the roles of the people within the society and provide guidelines on how each of these roles should be carried out. Every society has its values and need to put them into consideration during the formulation of their policies. The Japanese government has failed to successfully articulate the cultural background of the society and their policies, which can be attributed to the past failure of these policies. New policies that are relevant and practical within the society should be enacted and enforced. Copying policies from other countries will always be unsuccessful due to differences in beliefs and practices (Huen, 2007, 370). Most Japanese women chose to do the secretariat and un jobs. They feel that the managerial positions would not accommodate them, especially when looking at the behavior of men in these positions. The men work for long hours and later go out to drink. This is something that women feel that they cannot manage and prefer to take the simple secretariat jobs that would not require a lot of their commitment. They look down upon themselves and do not believe that they can take up all these pressures and manage to raise families. However, the few that decide to follow their careers are faced with a quagmire to decide whether they should continue with their careers or should go back home and raise families. Most decide to follow the former and discard the latter. The government and other willing agencies should empower these women and make them realize that they can do both managerial and household obligations. They do not need to work longer than necessary or even drink after work. New structures that would accommodate the needs of women and their responsibilities within the society should be carved and enacted. The structures should be friendly to both men and women. Related Free Ethics Essays - Approaches to Ethical Dilemmas - The Physician Assisted-Suicide - Code of Ethics Research - Business Ethics and Multiple Intelligences in International Human Resource Management - Gender Identity Issue - Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals - Stereotype and Prejudicein Social Psychology - Gender Roles Most popular orders	4,739	ENGLISH	1
Lehi and his Family Leave Jerusalem Items needed: a small container of water, one piece of paper, envelopes, and a picture of the living prophet (this can be found at www.lds.org/church leaders). Prepare the following for the activity: Draw a map of the room where you will teach the lesson onto a sheet of paper. Label the different parts of the room on the map such as the windows, doors, tables, chairs, etc. Draw a dot on each of the locations you will hide clues. You will need to hide at least one clue per each child. Choose a wall where you will place the sign “Eternal Salvation”. That will be the end of the hunt. Mark that as X on your map. Starting at the X, connect the dots with a line. Do not crisscross the line. Number each dot in order, ending at the X. Cut the map up into a puzzle having one numbered dot on each piece. Put each piece into an envelope, and number the upper outer corner of each envelope with the puzzle piece number. On the front of each envelope paste a quote from the living prophet of something he has asked us to do. These can be found in the Ensigns at www.lds.org/general conference Hide the envelopes sometime before the lesson, leaving out envelope number one. Number one would be the first clue and it should lead to where clue number two is hid. Each following clue should also lead to its next numbered clue. Ask the children if they remember what is being studied this year. Hold up a copy of the Book of Mormon as a reminder. The Book of Mormon tells about three groups of people the Lord led to the Americas. The beginning of the Book of Mormon tells of one of these groups. We learn about the other two groups later. Direct the children to open their scriptures to chapter one in “The First Book of Nephi.” Explain that a prophet named Nephi wrote the “The First Book of Nephi.” Nephi informs us that he engraved his history onto plates made of ore (1 Nephi 19:1). The plates were like a book, but each page was a thin sheet made of metal. The words were written by pushing a sharp tool into the metal. - Why were some ancient records written on metal plates? (Take a piece of paper, tear it, and pour a little water on it.) Explain that during ancient times, the people used other materials than paper for written communications, but those materials could also be easily damaged and could decompose and disintegrates over time. Some ancient historians used metal if they had an important message that they wanted to endure for a long period of time. Have the children find the date on the bottom right hand side of the first page of “The First Book of Nephi.” Explain that this date tells the approximate time period the events on that page occurred. Have them flip through other pages so that they will see that the date is on the bottom of each page. Explain that B.C. means before Christ’s birth. In the “First Book of Nephi” we learn that Nephi’s father was a prophet. When Nephi was a youth, his father Lehi was commanded of the Lord to take his family and leave the city Jerusalem. Teach the following scripture story of the prophet Lehi and his family leaving Jerusalem. Show the numbered picture that corresponds with each part. 1. In Jerusalem 600 B.C. the people were wicked. They were dishonest, they worshiped idols, and they did many other evil things. Prophets were sent to tell the people to repent or be destroyed. The people were so wicked that they imprisoned, cast out, or killed the prophets that were sent to warn them. 2. Lehi was concerned and prayed for the people. A pillar of fire appeared as Lehi prayed, and God told and showed Lehi many things. 3. Lehi returned home and collapsed on his bed overcome with what he had seen. As he was lying on his bed, Lehi was shown a vision. One of the things he saw was that Jerusalem would be destroyed. 4. Lehi told the people what he had seen and heard. He told them that Jerusalem would be destroyed. He also preached and testified of Jesus whom he had seen in his vision. Lehi preached to the people even though he knew it was dangerous. - Why do you think Lehi preached to the people even though he knew it was dangerous? 5. The people wouldn’t listen to Lehi’s warnings. They mocked him and made fun of him. They didn’t believe that Jerusalem would be destroyed. They thought they were God’s chosen people. - Were the people in Jerusalem God’s chosen people? When a people become wicked they are no longer a select people. 6. The people became angry and wanted to kill Lehi because of his preachings. 7. In a dream, the Lord warned Lehi of the danger and told him to take his family and leave Jerusalem. 8. Lehi and his family packed provisions for the journey. They left their house and their possessions behind. They traveled three days past the Red Sea, which is about a two week journey from Jerusalem. Display the two category titles “Trip Provisions” and “Items Left Behind” on a display board. Show the children the list of items that are taped to the 8 ½-by-11 paper. Have them take turns choosing an item and then deciding if the item would be something Lehi and his family would have taken with them or something they would have left behind. Have them place the item under the category they think it belongs in. Ask the children to explain their reason. Answers might include: item not needed for the journey, item too bulky, or item too heavy to carry, etc. - Do you think it was hard for Nephi and his family to leave behind their home and most of their possessions? If you had to leave your home and only take a few necessary items, what things would you have a hard time leaving behind? (Have the children take turns sharing their ideas.) 9. After traveling for about two weeks in the wilderness, Lehi and his family came to a valley that had a river running through it. They set up their tents and camped there. Lehi built an altar of stones and gave thanks to the Lord. 10. Lehi had four sons; their names were Laman, Lemuel, Sam, and Nephi. The two older brothers, Laman and Lemuel, murmured and complained about leaving Jerusalem and leaving behind their possessions. They didn’t believe Jerusalem would be destroyed. They were wicked like the people in Jerusalem. - The Lord told Lehi that he and his family were to travel to a promised land (the American Continent). Why do you think that Laman and Lemuel were spared from the destruction of Jerusalem and allowed to go to the promised land if they were so rebellious and wicked? (See 1 Nephi 2:22-24) 11. Nephi, the youngest brother, instead of complaining, decided to find out for himself if the things his father had seen were true. He prayed and the Lord Jesus Christ appeared to him. He learned that his father’s words were true. 12. Nephi told his brothers what he had learned. Sam believed him, but Nephi could not convince Laman and Lemuel. - Why is it important to listen to and obey the prophet? The prophet tells us what Heavenly Father wants us to know and do. Heavenly Father wants us to know and do the things that will help us be happy in this life and throughout all eternity. The people in Jerusalem would not listen to the warnings of the prophets. They would not do the things that would help keep them safe and happy. Because of their wickedness, they had to suffer the results and consequences of their sins and choices, and they were eventually destroyed by the Babylonians. - Show the picture of the living prophet and ask, “Who is this person?” Inform the children that they are going to read some quotes from the living prophet concerning things he has asked us to do. Show the envelope that is labeled number one. Reveal that there are several other envelopes hidden around the room, and on the front of each envelope is a statement from our current prophet. On the inside of the envelope is a puzzle clue that will help them locate the next envelope. If all the directions are followed correctly, they will end up at the sign that says “Eternal Salvation.” (Put the sign on the wall.) Give the first clue to a volunteer. That person then reads the prophet’s statement out loud to the class. Have the volunteer tell how they can follow the prophet’s direction regarding the statement they read. After they do that, they can open the envelope and follow the clue’s directions to the next envelope. After the next clue has been found, have another volunteer follow the same pattern. Putting the puzzle pieces together will help each volunteer locate the clues. Continue on until all the clues have been found. Tell the children that when we follow the prophet’s directions we are guided down the pathway to eternal salvation (eternal life- the kind of life Heavenly Father lives). Weekly Reading Assignment Remind the children to do their scripture reading assignment for this week – 1 Nephi 1:1-20 and 1 Nephi 2:1-24. Resources: Scripture story visual aids – Book of Mormon Stories.	<urn:uuid:c8cbd0a2-bc5e-4365-bd20-f30e75ff65f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://teachldschildren.com/category/prophet-lessons/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00360.warc.gz	en	0.981712	2,014	3.828125	4	[ -0.32952284812927246, 0.07923506945371628, -0.04172120243310928, -0.21862652897834778, -0.15338823199272156, 0.09722267091274261, 0.28503164649009705, 0.1335492879152298, -0.20819063484668732, 0.2373950481414795, -0.01893019676208496, 0.33845990896224976, 0.4220423102378845, -0.01062653586...	6	Lehi and his Family Leave Jerusalem Items needed: a small container of water, one piece of paper, envelopes, and a picture of the living prophet (this can be found at www.lds.org/church leaders). Prepare the following for the activity: Draw a map of the room where you will teach the lesson onto a sheet of paper. Label the different parts of the room on the map such as the windows, doors, tables, chairs, etc. Draw a dot on each of the locations you will hide clues. You will need to hide at least one clue per each child. Choose a wall where you will place the sign “Eternal Salvation”. That will be the end of the hunt. Mark that as X on your map. Starting at the X, connect the dots with a line. Do not crisscross the line. Number each dot in order, ending at the X. Cut the map up into a puzzle having one numbered dot on each piece. Put each piece into an envelope, and number the upper outer corner of each envelope with the puzzle piece number. On the front of each envelope paste a quote from the living prophet of something he has asked us to do. These can be found in the Ensigns at www.lds.org/general conference Hide the envelopes sometime before the lesson, leaving out envelope number one. Number one would be the first clue and it should lead to where clue number two is hid. Each following clue should also lead to its next numbered clue. Ask the children if they remember what is being studied this year. Hold up a copy of the Book of Mormon as a reminder. The Book of Mormon tells about three groups of people the Lord led to the Americas. The beginning of the Book of Mormon tells of one of these groups. We learn about the other two groups later. Direct the children to open their scriptures to chapter one in “The First Book of Nephi.” Explain that a prophet named Nephi wrote the “The First Book of Nephi.” Nephi informs us that he engraved his history onto plates made of ore (1 Nephi 19:1). The plates were like a book, but each page was a thin sheet made of metal. The words were written by pushing a sharp tool into the metal. - Why were some ancient records written on metal plates? (Take a piece of paper, tear it, and pour a little water on it.) Explain that during ancient times, the people used other materials than paper for written communications, but those materials could also be easily damaged and could decompose and disintegrates over time. Some ancient historians used metal if they had an important message that they wanted to endure for a long period of time. Have the children find the date on the bottom right hand side of the first page of “The First Book of Nephi.” Explain that this date tells the approximate time period the events on that page occurred. Have them flip through other pages so that they will see that the date is on the bottom of each page. Explain that B.C. means before Christ’s birth. In the “First Book of Nephi” we learn that Nephi’s father was a prophet. When Nephi was a youth, his father Lehi was commanded of the Lord to take his family and leave the city Jerusalem. Teach the following scripture story of the prophet Lehi and his family leaving Jerusalem. Show the numbered picture that corresponds with each part. 1. In Jerusalem 600 B.C. the people were wicked. They were dishonest, they worshiped idols, and they did many other evil things. Prophets were sent to tell the people to repent or be destroyed. The people were so wicked that they imprisoned, cast out, or killed the prophets that were sent to warn them. 2. Lehi was concerned and prayed for the people. A pillar of fire appeared as Lehi prayed, and God told and showed Lehi many things. 3. Lehi returned home and collapsed on his bed overcome with what he had seen. As he was lying on his bed, Lehi was shown a vision. One of the things he saw was that Jerusalem would be destroyed. 4. Lehi told the people what he had seen and heard. He told them that Jerusalem would be destroyed. He also preached and testified of Jesus whom he had seen in his vision. Lehi preached to the people even though he knew it was dangerous. - Why do you think Lehi preached to the people even though he knew it was dangerous? 5. The people wouldn’t listen to Lehi’s warnings. They mocked him and made fun of him. They didn’t believe that Jerusalem would be destroyed. They thought they were God’s chosen people. - Were the people in Jerusalem God’s chosen people? When a people become wicked they are no longer a select people. 6. The people became angry and wanted to kill Lehi because of his preachings. 7. In a dream, the Lord warned Lehi of the danger and told him to take his family and leave Jerusalem. 8. Lehi and his family packed provisions for the journey. They left their house and their possessions behind. They traveled three days past the Red Sea, which is about a two week journey from Jerusalem. Display the two category titles “Trip Provisions” and “Items Left Behind” on a display board. Show the children the list of items that are taped to the 8 ½-by-11 paper. Have them take turns choosing an item and then deciding if the item would be something Lehi and his family would have taken with them or something they would have left behind. Have them place the item under the category they think it belongs in. Ask the children to explain their reason. Answers might include: item not needed for the journey, item too bulky, or item too heavy to carry, etc. - Do you think it was hard for Nephi and his family to leave behind their home and most of their possessions? If you had to leave your home and only take a few necessary items, what things would you have a hard time leaving behind? (Have the children take turns sharing their ideas.) 9. After traveling for about two weeks in the wilderness, Lehi and his family came to a valley that had a river running through it. They set up their tents and camped there. Lehi built an altar of stones and gave thanks to the Lord. 10. Lehi had four sons; their names were Laman, Lemuel, Sam, and Nephi. The two older brothers, Laman and Lemuel, murmured and complained about leaving Jerusalem and leaving behind their possessions. They didn’t believe Jerusalem would be destroyed. They were wicked like the people in Jerusalem. - The Lord told Lehi that he and his family were to travel to a promised land (the American Continent). Why do you think that Laman and Lemuel were spared from the destruction of Jerusalem and allowed to go to the promised land if they were so rebellious and wicked? (See 1 Nephi 2:22-24) 11. Nephi, the youngest brother, instead of complaining, decided to find out for himself if the things his father had seen were true. He prayed and the Lord Jesus Christ appeared to him. He learned that his father’s words were true. 12. Nephi told his brothers what he had learned. Sam believed him, but Nephi could not convince Laman and Lemuel. - Why is it important to listen to and obey the prophet? The prophet tells us what Heavenly Father wants us to know and do. Heavenly Father wants us to know and do the things that will help us be happy in this life and throughout all eternity. The people in Jerusalem would not listen to the warnings of the prophets. They would not do the things that would help keep them safe and happy. Because of their wickedness, they had to suffer the results and consequences of their sins and choices, and they were eventually destroyed by the Babylonians. - Show the picture of the living prophet and ask, “Who is this person?” Inform the children that they are going to read some quotes from the living prophet concerning things he has asked us to do. Show the envelope that is labeled number one. Reveal that there are several other envelopes hidden around the room, and on the front of each envelope is a statement from our current prophet. On the inside of the envelope is a puzzle clue that will help them locate the next envelope. If all the directions are followed correctly, they will end up at the sign that says “Eternal Salvation.” (Put the sign on the wall.) Give the first clue to a volunteer. That person then reads the prophet’s statement out loud to the class. Have the volunteer tell how they can follow the prophet’s direction regarding the statement they read. After they do that, they can open the envelope and follow the clue’s directions to the next envelope. After the next clue has been found, have another volunteer follow the same pattern. Putting the puzzle pieces together will help each volunteer locate the clues. Continue on until all the clues have been found. Tell the children that when we follow the prophet’s directions we are guided down the pathway to eternal salvation (eternal life- the kind of life Heavenly Father lives). Weekly Reading Assignment Remind the children to do their scripture reading assignment for this week – 1 Nephi 1:1-20 and 1 Nephi 2:1-24. Resources: Scripture story visual aids – Book of Mormon Stories.	1,941	ENGLISH	1
Conditioned Emotional Reactions by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner is one of the most influential, infamous and iconic research articles ever published in the history of psychology. Commonly referred to as "The Case of Little Albert" this psychology classic attempted to show how fear could be induced in an infant through classical conditioning. Originally published in 1920, Conditioned Emotional Reactions remains among the most frequently cited journal articles in introductory psychology courses and textbooks. If you like this website please support my Patreon page so that I can continue to create free content and resources for psychology students and educators; like making this classic psychology article freely available. In recent literature various speculations have been entered into concerning the possibility of conditioning various types of emotional response, but direct experimental evidence in support of such a view has been lacking. If the theory advanced by Watson and Morgan to the effect that in infancy the original emotional reaction patterns are few, consisting so far as observed of fear, rage and love, then there must be some simple method by means of which the range of stimuli which can call out these emotions and their compounds is greatly increased. Otherwise, complexity in adult response could not be accounted for. These authors without adequate experimental evidence advanced the view that this range was increased by means of conditioned reflex factors. It was suggested there that the early home life of the child furnishes a laboratory situation for establishing conditioned emotional responses. The present authors have recently put the whole matter to an experimental test. Experimental work had been done so far on only one child, Albert B. This infant was reared almost from birth in a hospital environment; his mother was a wet nurse in the Harriet Lane Home for Invalid Children. Albert's life was normal: he was healthy from birth and one of the best developed youngsters ever brought to the hospital, weighing twenty-one pounds at nine months of age. He was on the whole stolid and unemotional. His stability was one of the principal reasons for using him as a subject in this test. We felt that we could do him relatively little harm by carrying out such experiments as those outlined below. At approximately nine months of age we ran him through the emotional tests that have become a part of our regular routine in determining whether fear reactions can be called out by other stimuli than sharp noises and the sudden removal of support. Tests of this type have been described by the senior author in another place. In brief, the infant was confronted suddenly and for the first time successively with a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, with masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers, etc. A permanent record of Albert's reactions to these objects and situations has been preserved in a motion picture study. Manipulation was the most usual reaction called out. At no time did this infant ever show fear in any situation. These experimental records were confirmed by the casual observations of the mother and hospital attendants. No one had ever seen him in a state of fear and rage. The infant practically never cried. Up to approximately nine months of age we had not tested him with loud sounds. The test to determine whether a fear reaction could be called out by a loud sound was made when he was eight months, twenty-six days of age. The sound was that made by striking a hammer upon a suspended steel bar four feet in length and three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The laboratory notes are as follows: One of the two experimenters caused the child to turn its head and fixate her moving hand; the other stationed back of the child, struck the steel bar a sharp blow. The child started violently, his breathing was checked and the arms were raised in a characteristic manner. On the second stimulation the same thing occurred, and in addition the lips began to pucker and tremble. On the third stimulation the child broke into a sudden crying fit. This is the first time an emotional situation in the laboratory has produced any fear or even crying in Albert. We had expected just these results on account of our work with other infants brought up under similar conditions. It is worth while to call attention to the fact that removal of support (dropping and jerking the blanket upon which the infant was lying) was tried exhaustively upon this infant on the same occasion. It was not effective in producing the fear response. This stimulus is effective in younger children. At what age such stimuli lose their potency in producing fear is not known. Nor is it known whether less placid children ever lose their fear of them. This probably depends upon the training the child gets. It is well known that children eagerly run to be tossed into the air and caught. On the other hand it is equally well known that in the adult fear responses are called out quite clearly by the sudden removal of support, if the individual is walking across a bridge, walking out upon a beam, etc. There is a wide field of study here which is aside from our present point. The sound stimulus, thus, at nine months of age, gives us the means of testing several important factors. I. Can we condition fear of an animal, e.g., a white rat, by visually presenting it and simultaneously striking a steel bar? II. If such a conditioned emotional response can be established, will there be a transfer to other animals or other objects? III. What is the effect of time upon such conditioned emotional responses? IV. If after a reasonable period such emotional responses have not died out, what laboratory methods can be devised for their removal? I. The establishment of conditioned emotional responses. At first there was considerable hesitation upon our part in making the attempt to set up fear reactions experimentally. A certain responsibility attaches to such a procedure. We decided finally to make the attempt, comforting ourselves by the reflection that such attachments would arise anyway as soon as the child left the sheltered environment of the nursery for the rough and tumble of the home. We did not begin this work until Albert was eleven months, three days of age. Before attempting to set up a conditioned response we, as before, put him through all of the regular emotional tests. Not the slightest sign of a fear response was obtained in any situation. The steps taken to condition emotional responses are shown in our laboratory notes. 11 Months 3 Days 1. White rat suddenly taken from the basket and presented to Albert. He began to reach for rat with left hand. Just as his hand touched the animal the bar was struck immediately behind his head. The infant jumped violently and fell forward, burying his face in the mattress. He did not cry, however. 2. Just as the right hand touched the rat the bar was again struck. Again the infant jumped violently, fell forward and began to whimper. In order not to disturb the child too seriously no further tests were given for one week. 11 Months 10 Days 1. Rat presented suddenly without sound. There was steady fixation but no tendency at first to reach for it. The rat was then placed nearer, whereupon tentative reaching movements began with the right hand. When the rat nosed the infant's left hand, the hand was immediately withdrawn. He started to reach for the head of the animal with the forefinger of the left hand, but withdrew it suddenly before contact. It is thus seen that the two joint stimulations given the previous week were not without effect. He was tested with his blocks immediately afterwards to see if they shared in the process of conditioning. He began immediately to pick them up, dropping them, pounding them, etc. In the remainder of the tests the blocks were given frequently to quiet him and to test his general emotional state. They were always removed from sight when the process of conditioning was under way. 2. Joint stimulation with rat and sound. Started, then fell over immediately to right side No crying. 3. Joint stimulation. Fell to right side and rested upon hands, with head turned away from rat. No crying. 4. Joint stimulation. Same reaction. 5. Rat suddenly presented alone. Puckered face, whimpered and withdrew body sharply to the left. 6. Joint stimulation. Fell over immediately to right side and began to whimper. 7. Joint stimulation. Started violently and cried, but did not fall over. 8. Rat alone. The instant the rat was shown the baby began to cry. Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over on left side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl away so rapidly that he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edge of the table. This was as convincing a case of a completely conditioned fear response as could have been theoretically pictured. In all seven joint stimulations were given to bring about the complete reaction. It is not unlikely had the sound been of greater intensity or of a more complex clang character that the number of joint stimulations might have been materially reduced. Experiments designed to define the nature of the sounds that will serve best as emotional stimuli are under way. II. When a conditioned emotional response has been established for one object, is there a transfer? Five days later Albert was again brought back into the laboratory and tested as follows: 11 Months 15 Days 1. Tested first with blocks. He reached readily for them, playing with them as usual. This shows that there has been no general transfer to the room, table, blocks, etc. 2. Rat alone. Whimpered immediately, withdrew right hand and turned head and trunk away. 3. Blocks again offered. Played readily with them, smiling and gurgling. 4. Rat alone. Leaned over to the left side as far away from the rat as possible, then fell over, getting up on all fours and scurrying away as rapidly as possible. 5. Blocks again offered. Reached immediately for them, smiling and laughing as before. The above preliminary test shows that the conditioned response to the rat had carried over completely for the five days in which no tests were given. The question as to whether or not there is a transfer was next taken up. 6. Rabbit alone. The rabbit was suddenly placed on the mattress in front of him. The reaction was pronounced. Negative responses began at once. He leaned as far away from the animal as possible, whimpered, then burst into tears. When the rabbit was placed in contact with him he buried his face in the mattress, then got up on all fours and crawled away, crying as he went. This was a most convincing test. 7. The blocks were next given him, after an interval. He played with them as before. It was observed by four people that he played far more energetically with them than ever before. The blocks were raised high over his head and slammed down with a great deal of force. 8. Dog alone. The dog did not produce as violent a reaction as the rabbit. The moment fixation occurred the child shrank back and as the animal came nearer he attempted to get on all fours but did not cry at first. As soon as the dog passed out of his range of vision he became quiet. The dog was then made to approach the infant's head (he was lying down at the moment). Albert straightened up immediately, fell over to the opposite side and turned his head away. He then began to cry. 9. The blocks were again presented. He began immediately to play with them. 10. Fur coat (seal). Withdrew immediately to the left side and began to fret. Coat put close to him on the left side, he turned immediately, began to cry and tried to crawl away on all fours. 11. Cotton wool. The wool was presented in a paper package. At the end the cotton was not covered by the paper. It was placed first on his feet. He kicked it away but did not touch it with his hands. When his hand was laid on the wool he immediately withdrew it but did not show the shock that the animals or fur coat produced in him. He then began to play with the paper, avoiding contact with the wool itself. He finally, under the impulse of the manipulative instinct, lost some of his negativism to the wool. 12. Just in play W. put his head down to see if Albert would play with his hair. Albert was completely negative. Two other observers did the same thing. He began immediately to play with their hair. W. then brought the Santa Claus mask and presented it to Albert. He was again pronouncedly negative. 11 Months 20 Days 1. Blocks alone. Played with them as usual. 2. Rat alone. Withdrawal of the whole body, bending over to left side, no crying. Fixation and following with eyes. The response was much less marked than on first presentation the previous week. It was thought best to freshen up the reaction by another joint stimulation. 3. Just as the rat was placed on his hand the rod was struck. Reaction violent. 4. Rat alone. Fell over at once to left side. Reaction practically as strong as on former occasion but no crying. 5. Rat alone. Fell over to left side, got up on all fours and started to crawl away. On this occasion there was no crying, but strange to say, as he started away he began to gurgle and coo, even while leaning far over to the left side to avoid the rat. 6. Rabbit alone. Leaned over to left side as far as possible. Did not fall over. Began to whimper but reaction not so violent as on former occasions. 7. Blocks again offered. He reached for them immediately and began to play. All of these tests so far discussed were carried out upon a table supplied with a mattress, located in a small, well-lighted dark-room. We wished to test next whether conditioned fear responses so set up would appear if the situation were markedly altered. We thought it best before making this test to freshen the reaction both to the rabbit and to the dog by showing them at the moment the steel bar was struck. It will be recalled that this was the first time any effort had been made to directly condition response to the dog and rabbit. The experimental notes are as follows: 8. The rabbit at first was given alone. The reaction was exactly as given in test (6) above. When the rabbit was left on Albert's knees for a long time he began tentatively to reach out and manipulate its fur with forefingers. While doing this the steel rod was struck. A violent fear reaction resulted. 9. Rabbit alone. Reaction wholly similar to that on trial (6) above. 10. Rabbit alone. Started immediately to whimper, holding hands far up, but did not cry. Conflicting tendency to manipulate very evident. 11. Dog alone. Began to whimper, shaking head from side to side, holding hands as far away from the animal as possible. 12. Dog and sound. The rod was struck just as the animal touched him. A violent negative reaction appeared. He began to whimper, turned to one side, fell over and started to get up on all fours. 13. Blocks. Played with them immediately and readily. On this same day and immediately after the above experiment Albert was taken into the large well-lighted lecture room belonging to the laboratory. He was placed on a table in the center of the room immediately under the skylight. Four people were present. The situation was thus very different from that which obtained in the small dark room. 1. Rat alone. No sudden fear reaction appeared at first. The hands, however, were held up and away from the animal. No positive manipulatory reactions appeared. 2. Rabbit alone. Fear reaction slight. Turned to left and kept face away from the animal but the reaction was never pronounced. 3. Dog alone. Turned away but did not fall over. Cried. Hands moved as far away from the animal as possible. Whimpered as long as the dog was present. 4. Rat alone. Slight negative reaction. 5. Rat and sound. It was thought best to freshen the reaction to the rat. The sound was given just as the rat was presented. Albert jumped violently but did not cry. 6. Rat alone. At first he did not show any negative reaction. When rat was placed nearer he began to show negative reaction by drawing back his body, raising his hands, whimpering, etc. 7. Blocks. Played with them immediately. 8. Rat alone. Pronounced withdrawal of body and whimpering. 9. Blocks. Played with them as before. 10. Rabbit alone. Pronounced reaction. Whimpered with arms held high, fell over backward and had to be caught. 11. Dog alone. At first the dog did not produce the pronounced reaction. The hands were held high over the head, breathing was checked, but there was no crying. Just at this moment the dog, which had not barked before, barked three times loudly when only about six inches from the baby's face. Albert immediately fell over and broke into a wail that continued until the dog was removed. The sudden barking of the hitherto quiet dog produced a marked fear response in the adult observers! From the above results it would seem that emotional transfers do take place. Furthermore it would seem that the number of transfers resulting from an experimentally produced conditioned emotional reaction may be very large. In our observations we had no means of testing the complete number of transfers which may have resulted. III. The effect of time upon conditioned emotional responses. We have already shown that the conditioned emotional response will continue for a period of one week. It was desired to make the time test longer. In view of the imminence of Albert's departure from the hospital we could not make the interval longer than one month. Accordingly no further emotional experimentation was entered into for thirty-one days after the above test. During the month, however, Albert was brought weekly to the laboratory for tests upon right and left-handedness, imitation, general development, etc. No emotional tests whatever were given and during the whole month his regular nursery routine was maintained in the Harriet Lane Home. The notes on the test given at the end of this period are as follows: 1 Year 21 Days 1. Santa Claus mask. Withdrawal, gurgling, then slapped at it without touching. When his hand was forced to touch it, he whimpered and cried. His hand was forced to touch it two more times. He whimpered and cried on both tests. He finally cried at the mere visual stimulus of the mask. 2. Fur coat. Wrinkled his nose and withdrew both hands, drew back his whole body and began to whimper as the coat was put nearer. Again there was the strife between withdrawal and the tendency to manipulate. Reached tentatively with left hand but drew back before contact had been made. In moving his body to one side his hand accidentally touched the coat. He began to cry at once, nodding his head in a very peculiar manner (this reaction was an entirely new one). Both hands were withdrawn as far as possible from the coat. The coat was then laid on his lap and he continued nodding his head and whimpering, withdrawing his body as far as possible, pushing the while at the coat with his feet but never touching it with his hands. 3. Fur coat. The coat was taken out of his sight and presented again at the end of a minute. He began immediately to fret, withdrawing his body and nodding his head as before. 4. Blocks. He began to play with them as usual. 5. The rat. He allowed the rat to crawl towards him without withdrawing. He sat very still and fixated it intently. Rat then touched his hand. Albert withdrew it immediately, then leaned back as far as possible but did not cry. When the rat was placed on his arm he withdrew his body and began to fret, nodding his head. The rat was then allowed to crawl against his chest. He first began to fret and then covered his eyes with both hands. 6. Blocks. Reaction normal. 7. The rabbit. The animal was placed directly in front of him. It was very quiet. Albert showed no avoiding reactions at first. After a few seconds he puckered up his face, began to nod his head and to look intently at the experimenter. He next began to push the rabbit away with his feet, withdrawing his body at the same time. Then as the rabbit came nearer he began pulling his feet away, nodding his head, and wailing "da da". After about a minute he reached out tentatively and slowly and touched the rabbit's ear with his right hand, finally manipulating it. The rabbit was again placed in his lap. Again he began to fret and withdrew his hands. He reached out tentatively with his left hand and touched the animal, shuddered and withdrew the whole body. The experimenter then took hold of his left hand and laid it on the rabbit's back. Albert immediately withdrew his hand and began to suck his thumb. Again the rabbit was laid in his lap. He began to cry, covering his face with both hands. 8. Dog. The dog was very active. Albert fixated it intensely for a few seconds, sitting very still. He began to cry but did not fall over backwards as on his last contact with the dog. When the dog was pushed closer to him he at first sat motionless, then began to cry, putting both hands over his face. These experiments would seem to show conclusively that directly conditioned emotional responses as well as those conditioned by transfer persist, although with a certain loss in the intensity of the reaction, for a longer period than one month. Our view is that they persist and modify personality throughout life. It should be recalled again that Albert was of an extremely phlegmatic type. Had he been emotionally unstable probably both the directly conditioned response and those transferred would have persisted throughout the month unchanged in form. IV. "Detachment" or removal of conditioned emotional responses. Unfortunately Albert was taken from the hospital the day the above tests were made. Hence the opportunity of building up an experimental technique by means of which we could remove the conditioned emotional responses was denied us. Our own view, expressed above, which is possibly not very well grounded, is that these responses in the home environment are likely to persist indefinitely, unless an accidental method for removing them is hit upon. The importance of establishing some method must be apparent to all. Had the opportunity been at hand we should have tried out several methods, some of which we may mention. (I) Constantly confronting the child with those stimuli which called out the responses in the hopes that habituation would come in corresponding to "fatigue" of reflex when differential reactions are to be set up. (2) By trying to "recondition" by showing objects calling out fear responses (visual) and simultaneously stimulating the erogenous zones (tactual). We should try first the lips, then the nipples and as a final resort the sex organs. (3) By trying to "recondition" by feeding the subject candy or other food just as the animal is shown. This method calls for the food control of the subject. (4) By building up "constructive" activities around the object by imitation and by putting the hand through the motions of manipulation. At this age imitation of overt motor activity is strong, as our present but unpublished experimentation has shown. (a) Thumb sucking as a compensatory device for blocking fear and noxious stimuli. During the course of these experiments, especially in the final test, it was noticed that whenever Albert was on the verge of tears or emotionally upset generally he would continually thrust his thumb into his mouth. The moment the hand reached the mouth he became impervious to the stimuli producing fear. Again and again while the motion pictures were being made at the end of the thirty-day period, we had to remove the thumb from his mouth before the conditioned response could be obtained. This method of blocking noxious and emotional stimuli (fear and rage) through erogenous stimulation seems to persist from birth onward. Very often in our experiments upon the work adders with infants under ten days of age the same reaction appeared. When at work upon the adders both of the infants arms are under slight restraint. Often rage appears. They begin to cry, thrashing their arms and legs about. If the finger gets into the mouth crying ceases at once. The organism thus apparently from birth, when under the influence of love stimuli is blocked to all others. This resort to sex stimulation when under the influence of noxious and emotional situations, or when the individual is restless and idle, persists throughout adolescent and adult life. Albert, at any rate, did not resort to thumb sucking except in the presence of such stimuli. Thumb sucking could immediately be checked by offering him his blocks. These invariably called out active manipulation instincts. It is worth while here to call attention to the fact that Freud's conception of the stimulation of erogenous zones as being the expression of an original "pleasure" seeking principle may be turned about and possibly better described as a compensatory (and often conditioned) device for the blockage of noxious and fear and rage producing stimuli. (b) Equal primacy of fear, love and possibly rage. While in general the results of our experiment offer no particular points of conflict with Freudian concepts, one fact out of harmony with them should be emphasized. According to proper Freudians sex (or in our terminology, love) is the principal emotion in which conditioned responses arise which later limit and distort personality. We wish to take sharp issue with this view on the basis of the experimental evidence we have gathered. Fear is as primal a factor as love in influencing personality. Fear does not gather its potency in any derived manner from love. It belongs to the original and inherited nature of man. Probably the same may be true of rage although at present we are not so sure of this. The Freudians twenty years from now, unless their hypotheses change, when they come to analyze Albert's fear of a seal skin coat - assuming that he comes to analysis at that age - will probably tease from him the recital of a dream which upon their analysis will show that Albert at three years of age attempted to play with the pubic hair of the mother and was scolded violently for it. (We are by no means denying that this might in some other case condition it). If the analyst has sufficiently prepared Albert to accept such a dream when found as an explanation of his avoiding tendencies, and if the analyst has the authority and personality to put it over, Albert may be fully convinced that the dream was a true revealer of the factors which brought about the fear. It is probable that many of the phobias in psychopathology are true conditioned emotional reactions either of the direct or the transferred type. One may possibly have to believe that such persistence of early conditioned responses will be found only in persons who are constitutionally inferior. Our argument is meant to be constructive. Emotional disturbances in adults cannot be traced back to sex alone. They must be retraced along at least three collateral lines - to conditioned and transferred responses set up in infancy and early youth in all three of the fundamental human emotions. Jan 17, 20 10:19 AM A collection of the very best psychology related podcasts. Jan 09, 20 04:31 AM Great article for anybody considering a career as a life coach. Jan 09, 20 02:39 AM Thought-provoking article by Dr. Kate Ratliff and Dr. Colin Smith from Florida University.	<urn:uuid:fdb77a40-37c2-4dc6-bab4-10f04bd14d91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.all-about-psychology.com/conditioned-emotional-reactions.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00057.warc.gz	en	0.985529	5,697	3.34375	3	[ -0.09386426955461502, 0.40339434146881104, 0.24030086398124695, 0.556789755821228, -0.03974895179271698, 0.3293108344078064, 0.20308849215507507, -0.16233927011489868, 0.10826179385185242, -0.361167848110199, 0.4124962389469147, 0.0471082478761673, 0.10238903760910034, 0.3218761682510376, ...	1	Conditioned Emotional Reactions by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner is one of the most influential, infamous and iconic research articles ever published in the history of psychology. Commonly referred to as "The Case of Little Albert" this psychology classic attempted to show how fear could be induced in an infant through classical conditioning. Originally published in 1920, Conditioned Emotional Reactions remains among the most frequently cited journal articles in introductory psychology courses and textbooks. If you like this website please support my Patreon page so that I can continue to create free content and resources for psychology students and educators; like making this classic psychology article freely available. In recent literature various speculations have been entered into concerning the possibility of conditioning various types of emotional response, but direct experimental evidence in support of such a view has been lacking. If the theory advanced by Watson and Morgan to the effect that in infancy the original emotional reaction patterns are few, consisting so far as observed of fear, rage and love, then there must be some simple method by means of which the range of stimuli which can call out these emotions and their compounds is greatly increased. Otherwise, complexity in adult response could not be accounted for. These authors without adequate experimental evidence advanced the view that this range was increased by means of conditioned reflex factors. It was suggested there that the early home life of the child furnishes a laboratory situation for establishing conditioned emotional responses. The present authors have recently put the whole matter to an experimental test. Experimental work had been done so far on only one child, Albert B. This infant was reared almost from birth in a hospital environment; his mother was a wet nurse in the Harriet Lane Home for Invalid Children. Albert's life was normal: he was healthy from birth and one of the best developed youngsters ever brought to the hospital, weighing twenty-one pounds at nine months of age. He was on the whole stolid and unemotional. His stability was one of the principal reasons for using him as a subject in this test. We felt that we could do him relatively little harm by carrying out such experiments as those outlined below. At approximately nine months of age we ran him through the emotional tests that have become a part of our regular routine in determining whether fear reactions can be called out by other stimuli than sharp noises and the sudden removal of support. Tests of this type have been described by the senior author in another place. In brief, the infant was confronted suddenly and for the first time successively with a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, with masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers, etc. A permanent record of Albert's reactions to these objects and situations has been preserved in a motion picture study. Manipulation was the most usual reaction called out. At no time did this infant ever show fear in any situation. These experimental records were confirmed by the casual observations of the mother and hospital attendants. No one had ever seen him in a state of fear and rage. The infant practically never cried. Up to approximately nine months of age we had not tested him with loud sounds. The test to determine whether a fear reaction could be called out by a loud sound was made when he was eight months, twenty-six days of age. The sound was that made by striking a hammer upon a suspended steel bar four feet in length and three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The laboratory notes are as follows: One of the two experimenters caused the child to turn its head and fixate her moving hand; the other stationed back of the child, struck the steel bar a sharp blow. The child started violently, his breathing was checked and the arms were raised in a characteristic manner. On the second stimulation the same thing occurred, and in addition the lips began to pucker and tremble. On the third stimulation the child broke into a sudden crying fit. This is the first time an emotional situation in the laboratory has produced any fear or even crying in Albert. We had expected just these results on account of our work with other infants brought up under similar conditions. It is worth while to call attention to the fact that removal of support (dropping and jerking the blanket upon which the infant was lying) was tried exhaustively upon this infant on the same occasion. It was not effective in producing the fear response. This stimulus is effective in younger children. At what age such stimuli lose their potency in producing fear is not known. Nor is it known whether less placid children ever lose their fear of them. This probably depends upon the training the child gets. It is well known that children eagerly run to be tossed into the air and caught. On the other hand it is equally well known that in the adult fear responses are called out quite clearly by the sudden removal of support, if the individual is walking across a bridge, walking out upon a beam, etc. There is a wide field of study here which is aside from our present point. The sound stimulus, thus, at nine months of age, gives us the means of testing several important factors. I. Can we condition fear of an animal, e.g., a white rat, by visually presenting it and simultaneously striking a steel bar? II. If such a conditioned emotional response can be established, will there be a transfer to other animals or other objects? III. What is the effect of time upon such conditioned emotional responses? IV. If after a reasonable period such emotional responses have not died out, what laboratory methods can be devised for their removal? I. The establishment of conditioned emotional responses. At first there was considerable hesitation upon our part in making the attempt to set up fear reactions experimentally. A certain responsibility attaches to such a procedure. We decided finally to make the attempt, comforting ourselves by the reflection that such attachments would arise anyway as soon as the child left the sheltered environment of the nursery for the rough and tumble of the home. We did not begin this work until Albert was eleven months, three days of age. Before attempting to set up a conditioned response we, as before, put him through all of the regular emotional tests. Not the slightest sign of a fear response was obtained in any situation. The steps taken to condition emotional responses are shown in our laboratory notes. 11 Months 3 Days 1. White rat suddenly taken from the basket and presented to Albert. He began to reach for rat with left hand. Just as his hand touched the animal the bar was struck immediately behind his head. The infant jumped violently and fell forward, burying his face in the mattress. He did not cry, however. 2. Just as the right hand touched the rat the bar was again struck. Again the infant jumped violently, fell forward and began to whimper. In order not to disturb the child too seriously no further tests were given for one week. 11 Months 10 Days 1. Rat presented suddenly without sound. There was steady fixation but no tendency at first to reach for it. The rat was then placed nearer, whereupon tentative reaching movements began with the right hand. When the rat nosed the infant's left hand, the hand was immediately withdrawn. He started to reach for the head of the animal with the forefinger of the left hand, but withdrew it suddenly before contact. It is thus seen that the two joint stimulations given the previous week were not without effect. He was tested with his blocks immediately afterwards to see if they shared in the process of conditioning. He began immediately to pick them up, dropping them, pounding them, etc. In the remainder of the tests the blocks were given frequently to quiet him and to test his general emotional state. They were always removed from sight when the process of conditioning was under way. 2. Joint stimulation with rat and sound. Started, then fell over immediately to right side No crying. 3. Joint stimulation. Fell to right side and rested upon hands, with head turned away from rat. No crying. 4. Joint stimulation. Same reaction. 5. Rat suddenly presented alone. Puckered face, whimpered and withdrew body sharply to the left. 6. Joint stimulation. Fell over immediately to right side and began to whimper. 7. Joint stimulation. Started violently and cried, but did not fall over. 8. Rat alone. The instant the rat was shown the baby began to cry. Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over on left side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl away so rapidly that he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edge of the table. This was as convincing a case of a completely conditioned fear response as could have been theoretically pictured. In all seven joint stimulations were given to bring about the complete reaction. It is not unlikely had the sound been of greater intensity or of a more complex clang character that the number of joint stimulations might have been materially reduced. Experiments designed to define the nature of the sounds that will serve best as emotional stimuli are under way. II. When a conditioned emotional response has been established for one object, is there a transfer? Five days later Albert was again brought back into the laboratory and tested as follows: 11 Months 15 Days 1. Tested first with blocks. He reached readily for them, playing with them as usual. This shows that there has been no general transfer to the room, table, blocks, etc. 2. Rat alone. Whimpered immediately, withdrew right hand and turned head and trunk away. 3. Blocks again offered. Played readily with them, smiling and gurgling. 4. Rat alone. Leaned over to the left side as far away from the rat as possible, then fell over, getting up on all fours and scurrying away as rapidly as possible. 5. Blocks again offered. Reached immediately for them, smiling and laughing as before. The above preliminary test shows that the conditioned response to the rat had carried over completely for the five days in which no tests were given. The question as to whether or not there is a transfer was next taken up. 6. Rabbit alone. The rabbit was suddenly placed on the mattress in front of him. The reaction was pronounced. Negative responses began at once. He leaned as far away from the animal as possible, whimpered, then burst into tears. When the rabbit was placed in contact with him he buried his face in the mattress, then got up on all fours and crawled away, crying as he went. This was a most convincing test. 7. The blocks were next given him, after an interval. He played with them as before. It was observed by four people that he played far more energetically with them than ever before. The blocks were raised high over his head and slammed down with a great deal of force. 8. Dog alone. The dog did not produce as violent a reaction as the rabbit. The moment fixation occurred the child shrank back and as the animal came nearer he attempted to get on all fours but did not cry at first. As soon as the dog passed out of his range of vision he became quiet. The dog was then made to approach the infant's head (he was lying down at the moment). Albert straightened up immediately, fell over to the opposite side and turned his head away. He then began to cry. 9. The blocks were again presented. He began immediately to play with them. 10. Fur coat (seal). Withdrew immediately to the left side and began to fret. Coat put close to him on the left side, he turned immediately, began to cry and tried to crawl away on all fours. 11. Cotton wool. The wool was presented in a paper package. At the end the cotton was not covered by the paper. It was placed first on his feet. He kicked it away but did not touch it with his hands. When his hand was laid on the wool he immediately withdrew it but did not show the shock that the animals or fur coat produced in him. He then began to play with the paper, avoiding contact with the wool itself. He finally, under the impulse of the manipulative instinct, lost some of his negativism to the wool. 12. Just in play W. put his head down to see if Albert would play with his hair. Albert was completely negative. Two other observers did the same thing. He began immediately to play with their hair. W. then brought the Santa Claus mask and presented it to Albert. He was again pronouncedly negative. 11 Months 20 Days 1. Blocks alone. Played with them as usual. 2. Rat alone. Withdrawal of the whole body, bending over to left side, no crying. Fixation and following with eyes. The response was much less marked than on first presentation the previous week. It was thought best to freshen up the reaction by another joint stimulation. 3. Just as the rat was placed on his hand the rod was struck. Reaction violent. 4. Rat alone. Fell over at once to left side. Reaction practically as strong as on former occasion but no crying. 5. Rat alone. Fell over to left side, got up on all fours and started to crawl away. On this occasion there was no crying, but strange to say, as he started away he began to gurgle and coo, even while leaning far over to the left side to avoid the rat. 6. Rabbit alone. Leaned over to left side as far as possible. Did not fall over. Began to whimper but reaction not so violent as on former occasions. 7. Blocks again offered. He reached for them immediately and began to play. All of these tests so far discussed were carried out upon a table supplied with a mattress, located in a small, well-lighted dark-room. We wished to test next whether conditioned fear responses so set up would appear if the situation were markedly altered. We thought it best before making this test to freshen the reaction both to the rabbit and to the dog by showing them at the moment the steel bar was struck. It will be recalled that this was the first time any effort had been made to directly condition response to the dog and rabbit. The experimental notes are as follows: 8. The rabbit at first was given alone. The reaction was exactly as given in test (6) above. When the rabbit was left on Albert's knees for a long time he began tentatively to reach out and manipulate its fur with forefingers. While doing this the steel rod was struck. A violent fear reaction resulted. 9. Rabbit alone. Reaction wholly similar to that on trial (6) above. 10. Rabbit alone. Started immediately to whimper, holding hands far up, but did not cry. Conflicting tendency to manipulate very evident. 11. Dog alone. Began to whimper, shaking head from side to side, holding hands as far away from the animal as possible. 12. Dog and sound. The rod was struck just as the animal touched him. A violent negative reaction appeared. He began to whimper, turned to one side, fell over and started to get up on all fours. 13. Blocks. Played with them immediately and readily. On this same day and immediately after the above experiment Albert was taken into the large well-lighted lecture room belonging to the laboratory. He was placed on a table in the center of the room immediately under the skylight. Four people were present. The situation was thus very different from that which obtained in the small dark room. 1. Rat alone. No sudden fear reaction appeared at first. The hands, however, were held up and away from the animal. No positive manipulatory reactions appeared. 2. Rabbit alone. Fear reaction slight. Turned to left and kept face away from the animal but the reaction was never pronounced. 3. Dog alone. Turned away but did not fall over. Cried. Hands moved as far away from the animal as possible. Whimpered as long as the dog was present. 4. Rat alone. Slight negative reaction. 5. Rat and sound. It was thought best to freshen the reaction to the rat. The sound was given just as the rat was presented. Albert jumped violently but did not cry. 6. Rat alone. At first he did not show any negative reaction. When rat was placed nearer he began to show negative reaction by drawing back his body, raising his hands, whimpering, etc. 7. Blocks. Played with them immediately. 8. Rat alone. Pronounced withdrawal of body and whimpering. 9. Blocks. Played with them as before. 10. Rabbit alone. Pronounced reaction. Whimpered with arms held high, fell over backward and had to be caught. 11. Dog alone. At first the dog did not produce the pronounced reaction. The hands were held high over the head, breathing was checked, but there was no crying. Just at this moment the dog, which had not barked before, barked three times loudly when only about six inches from the baby's face. Albert immediately fell over and broke into a wail that continued until the dog was removed. The sudden barking of the hitherto quiet dog produced a marked fear response in the adult observers! From the above results it would seem that emotional transfers do take place. Furthermore it would seem that the number of transfers resulting from an experimentally produced conditioned emotional reaction may be very large. In our observations we had no means of testing the complete number of transfers which may have resulted. III. The effect of time upon conditioned emotional responses. We have already shown that the conditioned emotional response will continue for a period of one week. It was desired to make the time test longer. In view of the imminence of Albert's departure from the hospital we could not make the interval longer than one month. Accordingly no further emotional experimentation was entered into for thirty-one days after the above test. During the month, however, Albert was brought weekly to the laboratory for tests upon right and left-handedness, imitation, general development, etc. No emotional tests whatever were given and during the whole month his regular nursery routine was maintained in the Harriet Lane Home. The notes on the test given at the end of this period are as follows: 1 Year 21 Days 1. Santa Claus mask. Withdrawal, gurgling, then slapped at it without touching. When his hand was forced to touch it, he whimpered and cried. His hand was forced to touch it two more times. He whimpered and cried on both tests. He finally cried at the mere visual stimulus of the mask. 2. Fur coat. Wrinkled his nose and withdrew both hands, drew back his whole body and began to whimper as the coat was put nearer. Again there was the strife between withdrawal and the tendency to manipulate. Reached tentatively with left hand but drew back before contact had been made. In moving his body to one side his hand accidentally touched the coat. He began to cry at once, nodding his head in a very peculiar manner (this reaction was an entirely new one). Both hands were withdrawn as far as possible from the coat. The coat was then laid on his lap and he continued nodding his head and whimpering, withdrawing his body as far as possible, pushing the while at the coat with his feet but never touching it with his hands. 3. Fur coat. The coat was taken out of his sight and presented again at the end of a minute. He began immediately to fret, withdrawing his body and nodding his head as before. 4. Blocks. He began to play with them as usual. 5. The rat. He allowed the rat to crawl towards him without withdrawing. He sat very still and fixated it intently. Rat then touched his hand. Albert withdrew it immediately, then leaned back as far as possible but did not cry. When the rat was placed on his arm he withdrew his body and began to fret, nodding his head. The rat was then allowed to crawl against his chest. He first began to fret and then covered his eyes with both hands. 6. Blocks. Reaction normal. 7. The rabbit. The animal was placed directly in front of him. It was very quiet. Albert showed no avoiding reactions at first. After a few seconds he puckered up his face, began to nod his head and to look intently at the experimenter. He next began to push the rabbit away with his feet, withdrawing his body at the same time. Then as the rabbit came nearer he began pulling his feet away, nodding his head, and wailing "da da". After about a minute he reached out tentatively and slowly and touched the rabbit's ear with his right hand, finally manipulating it. The rabbit was again placed in his lap. Again he began to fret and withdrew his hands. He reached out tentatively with his left hand and touched the animal, shuddered and withdrew the whole body. The experimenter then took hold of his left hand and laid it on the rabbit's back. Albert immediately withdrew his hand and began to suck his thumb. Again the rabbit was laid in his lap. He began to cry, covering his face with both hands. 8. Dog. The dog was very active. Albert fixated it intensely for a few seconds, sitting very still. He began to cry but did not fall over backwards as on his last contact with the dog. When the dog was pushed closer to him he at first sat motionless, then began to cry, putting both hands over his face. These experiments would seem to show conclusively that directly conditioned emotional responses as well as those conditioned by transfer persist, although with a certain loss in the intensity of the reaction, for a longer period than one month. Our view is that they persist and modify personality throughout life. It should be recalled again that Albert was of an extremely phlegmatic type. Had he been emotionally unstable probably both the directly conditioned response and those transferred would have persisted throughout the month unchanged in form. IV. "Detachment" or removal of conditioned emotional responses. Unfortunately Albert was taken from the hospital the day the above tests were made. Hence the opportunity of building up an experimental technique by means of which we could remove the conditioned emotional responses was denied us. Our own view, expressed above, which is possibly not very well grounded, is that these responses in the home environment are likely to persist indefinitely, unless an accidental method for removing them is hit upon. The importance of establishing some method must be apparent to all. Had the opportunity been at hand we should have tried out several methods, some of which we may mention. (I) Constantly confronting the child with those stimuli which called out the responses in the hopes that habituation would come in corresponding to "fatigue" of reflex when differential reactions are to be set up. (2) By trying to "recondition" by showing objects calling out fear responses (visual) and simultaneously stimulating the erogenous zones (tactual). We should try first the lips, then the nipples and as a final resort the sex organs. (3) By trying to "recondition" by feeding the subject candy or other food just as the animal is shown. This method calls for the food control of the subject. (4) By building up "constructive" activities around the object by imitation and by putting the hand through the motions of manipulation. At this age imitation of overt motor activity is strong, as our present but unpublished experimentation has shown. (a) Thumb sucking as a compensatory device for blocking fear and noxious stimuli. During the course of these experiments, especially in the final test, it was noticed that whenever Albert was on the verge of tears or emotionally upset generally he would continually thrust his thumb into his mouth. The moment the hand reached the mouth he became impervious to the stimuli producing fear. Again and again while the motion pictures were being made at the end of the thirty-day period, we had to remove the thumb from his mouth before the conditioned response could be obtained. This method of blocking noxious and emotional stimuli (fear and rage) through erogenous stimulation seems to persist from birth onward. Very often in our experiments upon the work adders with infants under ten days of age the same reaction appeared. When at work upon the adders both of the infants arms are under slight restraint. Often rage appears. They begin to cry, thrashing their arms and legs about. If the finger gets into the mouth crying ceases at once. The organism thus apparently from birth, when under the influence of love stimuli is blocked to all others. This resort to sex stimulation when under the influence of noxious and emotional situations, or when the individual is restless and idle, persists throughout adolescent and adult life. Albert, at any rate, did not resort to thumb sucking except in the presence of such stimuli. Thumb sucking could immediately be checked by offering him his blocks. These invariably called out active manipulation instincts. It is worth while here to call attention to the fact that Freud's conception of the stimulation of erogenous zones as being the expression of an original "pleasure" seeking principle may be turned about and possibly better described as a compensatory (and often conditioned) device for the blockage of noxious and fear and rage producing stimuli. (b) Equal primacy of fear, love and possibly rage. While in general the results of our experiment offer no particular points of conflict with Freudian concepts, one fact out of harmony with them should be emphasized. According to proper Freudians sex (or in our terminology, love) is the principal emotion in which conditioned responses arise which later limit and distort personality. We wish to take sharp issue with this view on the basis of the experimental evidence we have gathered. Fear is as primal a factor as love in influencing personality. Fear does not gather its potency in any derived manner from love. It belongs to the original and inherited nature of man. Probably the same may be true of rage although at present we are not so sure of this. The Freudians twenty years from now, unless their hypotheses change, when they come to analyze Albert's fear of a seal skin coat - assuming that he comes to analysis at that age - will probably tease from him the recital of a dream which upon their analysis will show that Albert at three years of age attempted to play with the pubic hair of the mother and was scolded violently for it. (We are by no means denying that this might in some other case condition it). If the analyst has sufficiently prepared Albert to accept such a dream when found as an explanation of his avoiding tendencies, and if the analyst has the authority and personality to put it over, Albert may be fully convinced that the dream was a true revealer of the factors which brought about the fear. It is probable that many of the phobias in psychopathology are true conditioned emotional reactions either of the direct or the transferred type. One may possibly have to believe that such persistence of early conditioned responses will be found only in persons who are constitutionally inferior. Our argument is meant to be constructive. Emotional disturbances in adults cannot be traced back to sex alone. They must be retraced along at least three collateral lines - to conditioned and transferred responses set up in infancy and early youth in all three of the fundamental human emotions. Jan 17, 20 10:19 AM A collection of the very best psychology related podcasts. Jan 09, 20 04:31 AM Great article for anybody considering a career as a life coach. Jan 09, 20 02:39 AM Thought-provoking article by Dr. Kate Ratliff and Dr. Colin Smith from Florida University.	5,639	ENGLISH	1
For a long time streets were either dirt or macadam – metal (small stones) laid and held together with clay cement. Grading or levelling was often limited, and some roads were crossed by streams or ran through swampy ground. Where possible, some improvements were carried out, such as bridges to cross streams. In winter streets were muddy and dangerous, often filled with slush composed of horse dung and grit. Auckland got a street sweeping machine as early as 1876, but most dung was still picked up with pans and brooms. In summer dust was a severe nuisance, and water carts had to be used to minimise it. Early advances in street building Forming, metalling, kerbing and channelling streets was the main focus in the late 19th century. The majority of streets constructed until the early 1900s were macadam, and were eminently suitable for horse-drawn vehicles. Asphalt and wood-block paving were two other methods for forming streets. Wood-block paving was slightly cheaper as it did not require the same skill to lay and repair as asphalt. It could be installed by local authorities, whereas asphalt often had to be laid by skilled contractors. Both materials were an improvement over macadam for strength and durability. Although many cities began to use these new methods, the majority of streets in cities and towns up to the 1920s remained macadam. Wellington got its first steam-driven road roller in 1887. It was so noisy and hard to stop that a roadman with a red flag was required to walk 27 metres in front of it to warn other traffic. But the lumbering machine startled a tramcar horse, which took fright, pulling its car about 3 metres off the rails. The vehicle was thenceforth restricted to night-time use. With the advent and rapid growth of motor traffic by the 1920s many centres were forced to look for some more permanent form of road surfacing. The need was for dust-free streets, capable of providing a smooth ride at far higher speeds than a horse-drawn vehicle could travel. Stronger road surfaces were also required to reduce the damage done by faster, heavier vehicles. The most common material adopted was asphalt or bitumen, used widely from the 1920s. It was strong, and quieter for traffic than wood blocks or macadam. It also eliminated the dust nuisance. Over the next decade many local authorities raised loans and carried out programmes for repaving the principal streets in cities. Paving projects that started in the 1920s slowed in the 1930s as a result of the economic depression. The depression also had an impact on street construction when work was created for the unemployed making new streets. Street works slowed again with the outbreak of the Second World War. With limited staff, funds and resources, most local authorities had to suspend paving programmes and limit street maintenance. The 1950s saw a period of significant investment and upgrading of streets. Many centres faced a growing need to improve streets that had seen little maintenance since the late 1930s. New town-planning legislation led to the need for major street reconstruction in cities. Modern motorised machinery such as graders, asphalt layers and road rollers replaced horse-drawn equipment and increased street-building efficiency – although the shovel remained an essential tool. Motorised street sweepers and water tankers also became common for cleaning. Once this backlog of road construction and maintenance was met, attention turned to maintenance and the provision of high-quality surfacing. In 2009 asphalt was the material predominantly used on New Zealand streets. Research was looking to develop asphalt that was quieter to drive on, smoother and more durable, with increased skid resistance and less splash and spray in wet weather.	<urn:uuid:e4273147-4da8-4bed-94c8-2ad973435d68>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teara.govt.nz/en/streets-and-lighting/page-3	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00441.warc.gz	en	0.983498	761	3.46875	3	[ -0.09671549499034882, -0.016667572781443596, 0.3928375840187073, 0.4266342222690582, -0.3388194143772125, 0.23888924717903137, -0.19993990659713745, -0.03845768794417381, -0.29093125462532043, 0.11269024014472961, 0.047450240701436996, -0.26332348585128784, 0.223005473613739, 0.28699114918...	12	For a long time streets were either dirt or macadam – metal (small stones) laid and held together with clay cement. Grading or levelling was often limited, and some roads were crossed by streams or ran through swampy ground. Where possible, some improvements were carried out, such as bridges to cross streams. In winter streets were muddy and dangerous, often filled with slush composed of horse dung and grit. Auckland got a street sweeping machine as early as 1876, but most dung was still picked up with pans and brooms. In summer dust was a severe nuisance, and water carts had to be used to minimise it. Early advances in street building Forming, metalling, kerbing and channelling streets was the main focus in the late 19th century. The majority of streets constructed until the early 1900s were macadam, and were eminently suitable for horse-drawn vehicles. Asphalt and wood-block paving were two other methods for forming streets. Wood-block paving was slightly cheaper as it did not require the same skill to lay and repair as asphalt. It could be installed by local authorities, whereas asphalt often had to be laid by skilled contractors. Both materials were an improvement over macadam for strength and durability. Although many cities began to use these new methods, the majority of streets in cities and towns up to the 1920s remained macadam. Wellington got its first steam-driven road roller in 1887. It was so noisy and hard to stop that a roadman with a red flag was required to walk 27 metres in front of it to warn other traffic. But the lumbering machine startled a tramcar horse, which took fright, pulling its car about 3 metres off the rails. The vehicle was thenceforth restricted to night-time use. With the advent and rapid growth of motor traffic by the 1920s many centres were forced to look for some more permanent form of road surfacing. The need was for dust-free streets, capable of providing a smooth ride at far higher speeds than a horse-drawn vehicle could travel. Stronger road surfaces were also required to reduce the damage done by faster, heavier vehicles. The most common material adopted was asphalt or bitumen, used widely from the 1920s. It was strong, and quieter for traffic than wood blocks or macadam. It also eliminated the dust nuisance. Over the next decade many local authorities raised loans and carried out programmes for repaving the principal streets in cities. Paving projects that started in the 1920s slowed in the 1930s as a result of the economic depression. The depression also had an impact on street construction when work was created for the unemployed making new streets. Street works slowed again with the outbreak of the Second World War. With limited staff, funds and resources, most local authorities had to suspend paving programmes and limit street maintenance. The 1950s saw a period of significant investment and upgrading of streets. Many centres faced a growing need to improve streets that had seen little maintenance since the late 1930s. New town-planning legislation led to the need for major street reconstruction in cities. Modern motorised machinery such as graders, asphalt layers and road rollers replaced horse-drawn equipment and increased street-building efficiency – although the shovel remained an essential tool. Motorised street sweepers and water tankers also became common for cleaning. Once this backlog of road construction and maintenance was met, attention turned to maintenance and the provision of high-quality surfacing. In 2009 asphalt was the material predominantly used on New Zealand streets. Research was looking to develop asphalt that was quieter to drive on, smoother and more durable, with increased skid resistance and less splash and spray in wet weather.	785	ENGLISH	1
Queen Christina is undoubtedly one of the most fascinating characters from history. Her parents’ only child, she became queen at the age of 6 when her father, Gustavus Adolphus, was killed in battle. She was raised to rule and had a passion for work, habitually rising early and studying late into the night. Highly educated and intellectually curious, Christina considered herself not an example of what women could accomplish but rather an exception; she considered women generally weak, ruled by passions, and unfit to rule. Christina attained her majority in 1644, just as the Congress of Westphalia was beginning. She became involved in a power struggle with Axel Oxenstierna, the chancellor of the realm since 1612 and the person most responsible for Christina’s own education. They quarrelled over the best policy to adopt, with Christina generally favouring one more sympathetic to French interests. The appointment of Pierre Chanut as French ambassador to Sweden proved a turning point in Christina’s life. She became close friends with Chanut and was introduced to leading currents in French thought. It was probably around this time that she conceived the idea of converting to Catholicism. Christina developed a distaste for marriage in which she conceived the woman’s role as passive and subordinate. However, without marriage she could not conceive a legitimate heir, which was a primary duty of any monarch. Eventually she decided to designate her cousin, Charles Gustav, as heir and to abdicate the throne. Soon after leaving Sweden, she converted to Catholicism and travelled to Rome, where she lived for most of the rest of her life. Christina’s role in the negotiations at Westphalia was ambiguous. She was generally less hard-line than Oxenstierna, and certainly had less interest in orthodox Lutheranism or supporting Lutheran estates in the Empire. More important than any specific policy, however, was the fact that Christina favoured the plenipotentiary Johan Adler Salvius and corresponded separately with him, while Axel Oxenstierna did the same with his son, Johan, who was also present in Osnabrück. This division at the court exacerbated the conflict in Westphalia and made it difficult for Sweden to pursue a completely coherent policy.	<urn:uuid:e3cae434-8dac-49d6-a1b8-eda176c657d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://peaceofwestphalia.org/?page_id=478	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00206.warc.gz	en	0.983566	467	3.59375	4	[ -0.3643477261066437, 0.6760262846946716, 0.322991281747818, -0.15019553899765015, -0.2610548734664917, 0.025932861492037773, -0.1525164544582367, 0.12834040820598602, 0.3883344531059265, -0.020838266238570213, -0.03687997907400131, -0.09798707067966461, -0.14303624629974365, 0.004401015583...	3	Queen Christina is undoubtedly one of the most fascinating characters from history. Her parents’ only child, she became queen at the age of 6 when her father, Gustavus Adolphus, was killed in battle. She was raised to rule and had a passion for work, habitually rising early and studying late into the night. Highly educated and intellectually curious, Christina considered herself not an example of what women could accomplish but rather an exception; she considered women generally weak, ruled by passions, and unfit to rule. Christina attained her majority in 1644, just as the Congress of Westphalia was beginning. She became involved in a power struggle with Axel Oxenstierna, the chancellor of the realm since 1612 and the person most responsible for Christina’s own education. They quarrelled over the best policy to adopt, with Christina generally favouring one more sympathetic to French interests. The appointment of Pierre Chanut as French ambassador to Sweden proved a turning point in Christina’s life. She became close friends with Chanut and was introduced to leading currents in French thought. It was probably around this time that she conceived the idea of converting to Catholicism. Christina developed a distaste for marriage in which she conceived the woman’s role as passive and subordinate. However, without marriage she could not conceive a legitimate heir, which was a primary duty of any monarch. Eventually she decided to designate her cousin, Charles Gustav, as heir and to abdicate the throne. Soon after leaving Sweden, she converted to Catholicism and travelled to Rome, where she lived for most of the rest of her life. Christina’s role in the negotiations at Westphalia was ambiguous. She was generally less hard-line than Oxenstierna, and certainly had less interest in orthodox Lutheranism or supporting Lutheran estates in the Empire. More important than any specific policy, however, was the fact that Christina favoured the plenipotentiary Johan Adler Salvius and corresponded separately with him, while Axel Oxenstierna did the same with his son, Johan, who was also present in Osnabrück. This division at the court exacerbated the conflict in Westphalia and made it difficult for Sweden to pursue a completely coherent policy.	457	ENGLISH	1
Greek Revival Style Greek Revival is an architectural and design style marked by an affinity for ancient Greek designs in buildings and home furnishings. Its features include an emphasis on bold, clean lines perhaps best represented by the Grecian-style columns that adorn the fronts of many buildings built in the style. In North America, Greek Revival style first took root in Philadelphia with such buildings as the Second Bank of the United States, and its influence can also be seen in the familiar Southern Colonial houses found in many states in the American South. Greek Revival-style buildings are often symmetrically shaped, have low-pitched triangular roofs, and feature simple but well-defined moldings. The style first became popular around the world in the early 1800s, when curiosity about ancient Greek was being fueled by a series of archaeological discoveries that captivated the public.	<urn:uuid:5a137d7e-b229-4f77-864f-4d35dfdf56b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.century21.com/glossary/definition/greek-revival-style	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00087.warc.gz	en	0.981714	171	3.484375	3	[ 0.09789928048849106, -0.07408376038074493, 0.4550270438194275, 0.01984557881951332, -0.268860399723053, -0.16759730875492096, -0.6220035552978516, 0.5964617729187012, -0.4452076852321625, -0.2032383680343628, -0.4097083508968353, 0.06915018707513809, -0.38465917110443115, 0.214512780308723...	7	Greek Revival Style Greek Revival is an architectural and design style marked by an affinity for ancient Greek designs in buildings and home furnishings. Its features include an emphasis on bold, clean lines perhaps best represented by the Grecian-style columns that adorn the fronts of many buildings built in the style. In North America, Greek Revival style first took root in Philadelphia with such buildings as the Second Bank of the United States, and its influence can also be seen in the familiar Southern Colonial houses found in many states in the American South. Greek Revival-style buildings are often symmetrically shaped, have low-pitched triangular roofs, and feature simple but well-defined moldings. The style first became popular around the world in the early 1800s, when curiosity about ancient Greek was being fueled by a series of archaeological discoveries that captivated the public.	172	ENGLISH	1
By: RACHEL GEISSLER Unsung heroine of the civil rights movement and lifelong champion of human rights, Anna Pauline “Pauli” Murray penned the words to her poem “Prophecy” in 1969. As a black woman born in America in 1910, she battled barriers to education and inclusion at every turn. For Murray, the decision to challenge oppression and dedicate her life to social justice liberated her mind and gave her hope for the future. Undaunted by obstacles, she became an activist, lawyer, teacher, writer and priest. Her trailblazing legacy remains an inspiration to others seeking equality. Murray grew up in Durham, North Carolina, where she was raised by relatives after having been orphaned at a young age. Frustrated by the many restrictions placed on her life by Jim Crow segregation in the South, she attended a college in New York City, where she befriended Langston Hughes and had the opportunity to learn from black activists and thinkers like W. E. B. Du Bois. In 1938, after working for a few years as a teacher, she submitted an application to the social work program at the University of North Carolina, but was denied admission on account of her race. She shifted course and enrolled in law school at Howard University. After graduating first in her class, she applied for a fellowship at Harvard Law, usually guaranteed for Howard’s top graduate. This time she was denied on account of her gender. Exasperated, she replied to this denial with a dry letter asking the Harvard admissions committee members to please reconsider, since a change of heart on their part would be much simpler than a change of gender on hers. They were unmoved by her plea, or her sense of humor. Instead, she pursued masters and doctorate level degrees at UC Berkley and Yale. A brilliant legal scholar, Murray wrote about gender discrimination and segregation. The lawyers at the NAACP responsible for winning Brown v. Board of Education relied heavily on a book she had written about state laws on race. To explain the overlapping discrimination that she and other black women faced on account of both their race and gender, she coined the phrase “Jane Crow,” one of the first articulations of the concept of intersectionality, which feminist legal scholars have continued to develop in the last few decades. Despite Murray’s academic credentials, she was denied a faculty position at Cornell in the 1950s because her references –Thurgood Marshall and Eleanor Roosevelt – were considered too radical in an era of anticommunist panic. Beyond her writing, Murray was an organizer. President John F. Kennedy appointed her to the President’s Commission on the Status of Women and she worked alongside Martin Luther King Jr. to plan some of the most important nonviolent actions of the 1960s. Though she celebrated the gains of the movement, she was discouraged by how little recognition black women were receiving for their efforts. From Murray’s perspective, black men seemed to be taking the leadership positions, elbowing out women who were working equally hard for the cause. In a speech delivered soon after the March on Washington in 1963, Murray predicted that the civil rights revolution would never be successful without the “full participation and leadership of Negro women.” As a solution, Murray co-founded the National Organization for Women, which she intended to be a NAACP for women, advancing their legal rights. But Murray still did not rest. As a 62-year-old, she returned to school yet again, leaving a job as a law professor to begin a Masters in Divinity. A few years later, she became the first black woman to be ordained a priest in the Episcopal Church. Through all of her years of activism and advocacy, Murray’s talent as a creative writer and poet simmered below the surface and sustained her. She would often say that while a lawyer’s job is to identify the facts, a poet’s job is to speak the truth. In her poem, she wrote: “I have been enslaved, yet my spirit is unbound. I have been cast aside, but I sparkle in the darkness. I have been slain but live on in the river of history.” These words of “Prophecy” are pieces of Murray’s truth. At the time she wrote them, she had already spent a lifetime breaking down barriers, and she felt empowered by the changes she had witnessed. But she knew there was more work to be done. She situated her struggle in the “river of history,” alongside the many others who fought and would fight for equality and inclusion. Murray passed away in 1985, but her own autobiographical, poetic and scholarly writings, in addition to the numerous books and articles written about her in the last several years, have kept the story of a one-woman civil rights movement alive.	<urn:uuid:c7e84e18-2e14-4227-ae81-fdbeac3748c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.traffickinginstitute.org/incontext-pauli-murray/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00319.warc.gz	en	0.98304	1,004	3.609375	4	[ -0.26985692977905273, 0.1858293116092682, -0.07383335381746292, 0.47433626651763916, -0.32110658288002014, 0.49833154678344727, 0.022163182497024536, 0.004810460843145847, -0.08895686268806458, 0.2761121988296509, -0.1079305112361908, 0.25081151723861694, -0.005461323074996471, -0.09385444...	7	By: RACHEL GEISSLER Unsung heroine of the civil rights movement and lifelong champion of human rights, Anna Pauline “Pauli” Murray penned the words to her poem “Prophecy” in 1969. As a black woman born in America in 1910, she battled barriers to education and inclusion at every turn. For Murray, the decision to challenge oppression and dedicate her life to social justice liberated her mind and gave her hope for the future. Undaunted by obstacles, she became an activist, lawyer, teacher, writer and priest. Her trailblazing legacy remains an inspiration to others seeking equality. Murray grew up in Durham, North Carolina, where she was raised by relatives after having been orphaned at a young age. Frustrated by the many restrictions placed on her life by Jim Crow segregation in the South, she attended a college in New York City, where she befriended Langston Hughes and had the opportunity to learn from black activists and thinkers like W. E. B. Du Bois. In 1938, after working for a few years as a teacher, she submitted an application to the social work program at the University of North Carolina, but was denied admission on account of her race. She shifted course and enrolled in law school at Howard University. After graduating first in her class, she applied for a fellowship at Harvard Law, usually guaranteed for Howard’s top graduate. This time she was denied on account of her gender. Exasperated, she replied to this denial with a dry letter asking the Harvard admissions committee members to please reconsider, since a change of heart on their part would be much simpler than a change of gender on hers. They were unmoved by her plea, or her sense of humor. Instead, she pursued masters and doctorate level degrees at UC Berkley and Yale. A brilliant legal scholar, Murray wrote about gender discrimination and segregation. The lawyers at the NAACP responsible for winning Brown v. Board of Education relied heavily on a book she had written about state laws on race. To explain the overlapping discrimination that she and other black women faced on account of both their race and gender, she coined the phrase “Jane Crow,” one of the first articulations of the concept of intersectionality, which feminist legal scholars have continued to develop in the last few decades. Despite Murray’s academic credentials, she was denied a faculty position at Cornell in the 1950s because her references –Thurgood Marshall and Eleanor Roosevelt – were considered too radical in an era of anticommunist panic. Beyond her writing, Murray was an organizer. President John F. Kennedy appointed her to the President’s Commission on the Status of Women and she worked alongside Martin Luther King Jr. to plan some of the most important nonviolent actions of the 1960s. Though she celebrated the gains of the movement, she was discouraged by how little recognition black women were receiving for their efforts. From Murray’s perspective, black men seemed to be taking the leadership positions, elbowing out women who were working equally hard for the cause. In a speech delivered soon after the March on Washington in 1963, Murray predicted that the civil rights revolution would never be successful without the “full participation and leadership of Negro women.” As a solution, Murray co-founded the National Organization for Women, which she intended to be a NAACP for women, advancing their legal rights. But Murray still did not rest. As a 62-year-old, she returned to school yet again, leaving a job as a law professor to begin a Masters in Divinity. A few years later, she became the first black woman to be ordained a priest in the Episcopal Church. Through all of her years of activism and advocacy, Murray’s talent as a creative writer and poet simmered below the surface and sustained her. She would often say that while a lawyer’s job is to identify the facts, a poet’s job is to speak the truth. In her poem, she wrote: “I have been enslaved, yet my spirit is unbound. I have been cast aside, but I sparkle in the darkness. I have been slain but live on in the river of history.” These words of “Prophecy” are pieces of Murray’s truth. At the time she wrote them, she had already spent a lifetime breaking down barriers, and she felt empowered by the changes she had witnessed. But she knew there was more work to be done. She situated her struggle in the “river of history,” alongside the many others who fought and would fight for equality and inclusion. Murray passed away in 1985, but her own autobiographical, poetic and scholarly writings, in addition to the numerous books and articles written about her in the last several years, have kept the story of a one-woman civil rights movement alive.	989	ENGLISH	1
But the study confirms contemporary accounts of his death in battle. “Richard’s injuries represent a sustained attack or an attack by several assailants with weapons from the later medieval period,” said Sarah Hainsworth, a professor at the University of Leicester and a co-author of the study. “The wounds to the skull suggest that he was not wearing a helmet, and the absence of defensive wounds on his arms and hands indicate that he was otherwise still armored at the time of his death,” she said in a statement describing the extensive study. The king’s skeleton was found underneath a parking lot in 2012. The new study, published in the Lancet, used computer scans and other forensic techniques to examine Richard’s head, saying he suffered 11 wounds. The injuries were caused by weapons such as daggers, swords and a long metal pole with an axe and hook used to pull riders from their horses. Hainsworth, a professor of materials engineering, said the king was probably attacked by numerous assailants after getting off of his horse: “Medieval battle was bloody and brutal…. Richard was probably in quite a lot of pain at the end.” Richard died at the Battle of Bosworth on Aug. 22, 1485, fighting an army led by Henry Tudor, who would become Henry VII. He was surrounded by enemy forces, according to one account, after his horse got stuck in a marsh. Of the injuries found in the study, nine were to the head, including a puncture from a sword. The wounds suggest the king either lost his helmet or took it off during battle. Defensive wounds to his arms and hands suggest he was otherwise armored. According to a video released by the Lancet, the blows to the skull most likely happened from above while Richard was kneeling or prone. Though the researchers were unable to identify the order of the injuries, they concluded that only three had the potential to cause death — two to the skull and one to the pelvis. According to the video released by the Lancet, a number of the wounds to the cranium, jaw and 10th rib were consistent with wounds from a dagger. Because of the armor used in Richard’s time, some were most likely inflicted postmortem after the armor was removed. The video also suggests that Richard’s body was slung over a horse. “Medieval battlefields saw an array of weapons used, from swords, battle hammers, maces, arrows and even early firearms,” Robert Woosnam-Savage, curator of European edged weapons at the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds, told the BBC. “Richard probably got within a few yards of Henry before his horse probably became stuck in marshy ground or was killed from underneath him. On foot, with foot soldiers closing in, the fight becomes a close infantry melee.” Heather Bonney, an expert on human remains at London’s Natural History Museum who was not involved with the study, cautioned in a statement about coming to conclusions about Richard’s death. She told NBC that such findings should “always be approached with caution, particularly when the remains are those of a prominent historical figure…. It appears somewhat unorthodox to publish the analysis of the remains before unequivocally identifying them.” Even with such caveats, Bonney said the study is “a compelling account, giving tantalizing glimpses into the validity of the historic accounts of Richard III’s death, which were heavily edited by the Tudors in the following 200 years.”	<urn:uuid:2a3cef79-1977-410f-a5b3-2a6a6b5898e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/09/17/king-richard-iii-died-a-painful-death-according-to-a-new-study/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00452.warc.gz	en	0.983916	729	3.453125	3	[ -0.7590051889419556, 0.6001976132392883, 0.1354076862335205, 0.11063601076602936, -0.2620934545993805, 0.07199564576148987, 0.43299639225006104, 0.3896748721599579, -0.18083877861499786, -0.18006794154644012, -0.24778810143470764, -0.20111173391342163, 0.15935897827148438, 0.36279118061065...	4	But the study confirms contemporary accounts of his death in battle. “Richard’s injuries represent a sustained attack or an attack by several assailants with weapons from the later medieval period,” said Sarah Hainsworth, a professor at the University of Leicester and a co-author of the study. “The wounds to the skull suggest that he was not wearing a helmet, and the absence of defensive wounds on his arms and hands indicate that he was otherwise still armored at the time of his death,” she said in a statement describing the extensive study. The king’s skeleton was found underneath a parking lot in 2012. The new study, published in the Lancet, used computer scans and other forensic techniques to examine Richard’s head, saying he suffered 11 wounds. The injuries were caused by weapons such as daggers, swords and a long metal pole with an axe and hook used to pull riders from their horses. Hainsworth, a professor of materials engineering, said the king was probably attacked by numerous assailants after getting off of his horse: “Medieval battle was bloody and brutal…. Richard was probably in quite a lot of pain at the end.” Richard died at the Battle of Bosworth on Aug. 22, 1485, fighting an army led by Henry Tudor, who would become Henry VII. He was surrounded by enemy forces, according to one account, after his horse got stuck in a marsh. Of the injuries found in the study, nine were to the head, including a puncture from a sword. The wounds suggest the king either lost his helmet or took it off during battle. Defensive wounds to his arms and hands suggest he was otherwise armored. According to a video released by the Lancet, the blows to the skull most likely happened from above while Richard was kneeling or prone. Though the researchers were unable to identify the order of the injuries, they concluded that only three had the potential to cause death — two to the skull and one to the pelvis. According to the video released by the Lancet, a number of the wounds to the cranium, jaw and 10th rib were consistent with wounds from a dagger. Because of the armor used in Richard’s time, some were most likely inflicted postmortem after the armor was removed. The video also suggests that Richard’s body was slung over a horse. “Medieval battlefields saw an array of weapons used, from swords, battle hammers, maces, arrows and even early firearms,” Robert Woosnam-Savage, curator of European edged weapons at the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds, told the BBC. “Richard probably got within a few yards of Henry before his horse probably became stuck in marshy ground or was killed from underneath him. On foot, with foot soldiers closing in, the fight becomes a close infantry melee.” Heather Bonney, an expert on human remains at London’s Natural History Museum who was not involved with the study, cautioned in a statement about coming to conclusions about Richard’s death. She told NBC that such findings should “always be approached with caution, particularly when the remains are those of a prominent historical figure…. It appears somewhat unorthodox to publish the analysis of the remains before unequivocally identifying them.” Even with such caveats, Bonney said the study is “a compelling account, giving tantalizing glimpses into the validity of the historic accounts of Richard III’s death, which were heavily edited by the Tudors in the following 200 years.”	710	ENGLISH	1
This term we have done some observational drawings of a poppy. Firstly, the children drew a sketch using 'lines', then they drew it again, but they used crayons to colour it in. After this, they drew another poppy and they used felt tip pens to help give their picture 'form'. We talked about how this helps to make the picture look 3D rather than 2D or flat. Lastly, they used charcoal to draw and shade their poppy. We used smudging to help us with this. Today the children painted a poppy, holding a paintbrush in their hand (as normal). Then they tried to paint another poppy. This time they were only allowed use their feet to hold the paintbrush. The determination and perseverance was amazing! Thoroughly enjoyed by everyone. During our Science Investigation. We introduced the terminology... predict/ prediction and explored what this means. The children were asked what they thought would happen to the pine cones when 1 was left in a jug of air, another placed in a container of cold water and the last one in a container of warm water. We had to use the conjunction 'because' to help us think about and explain why we thought our prediction would happen. Once the predictions were completed, we did our experiment to find out. Checking the pine cones every 10 minutes and discussing any changes that we could see. We had some very good predictions ranging from ' it will melt because it is wet', 'they will lose their seeds because they are upside down' to 'it will grow because it is wet.. The children wrote some very detailed explanations of what happened as well. We are VERY proud of them because this is tricky and they all approached this activity with maturity and a natural curiosity. They genuinely were intrigued to find out what happened and why. We found out that the ones in water closed up tight, with the pine cone in the cold water remaining closed for the longest afterwards. This week we have been comparing groups of objects using the vocabulary 'greater than', 'less than' and 'equal to'. Hello everyone and thank you for looking at our class page. I would like to welcome you and your child to our amazing class and school! I feel very lucky to be able to support your child through their learning journey, in Year 1. My name is Mrs Pellatt and I am supported by Mrs Freeston and Mrs Wroblewska. When I am out of class; preparing exciting learning opportunities for your child, Mrs Stones supports Mrs Wroblewska and this is on a Friday afternoon. Our spelling day is a Wednesday. Each week, your child will bring home a folder with their spellings inside. Please encourage your child to practice their spellings every week as this really does have an amazing effect on their learning. They will also have a small yellow book inside their folder. This is for you to see how your child did in their test. Please do not allow your child to write in this book outside of school, as these are only for their spelling tests. Can the spelling folders be kept inside your child's book bag. Our P.E. day is a Tuesday afternoon. Please ensure that all items of their P.E. kit is labelled. The P.E. kits will need to stay in school until the end of each small term. If your child has earrings in, we will carefully put tape around them during a P.E. lesson. Reading books and Reading Records will need to come to school everyday. We value and read parental comments in the records. It allows us to understand how well your child is doing with their reading whilst at home. We place children on a book band, which is pitched to their phonic and reading comprehension ability. Reading is very important to children's development. Without this skill, they will find the rest of the curriculum difficult to access. Thank you, please contact myself or the classes supporting staff, for any further information.	<urn:uuid:15417c91-46a5-4bf9-8d21-bcfde2509c44>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.hawthorntree.co.uk/year-1-mrs-pellatt/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00519.warc.gz	en	0.98006	808	3.953125	4	[ -0.18218672275543213, -0.16400295495986938, 0.27951663732528687, 0.006310734432190657, 0.09761014580726624, 0.27923107147216797, 0.32123473286628723, 0.1487460434436798, 0.0739276185631752, 0.2202213853597641, -0.08966153115034103, -0.2225526124238968, -0.2683602571487427, 0.33895787596702...	2	This term we have done some observational drawings of a poppy. Firstly, the children drew a sketch using 'lines', then they drew it again, but they used crayons to colour it in. After this, they drew another poppy and they used felt tip pens to help give their picture 'form'. We talked about how this helps to make the picture look 3D rather than 2D or flat. Lastly, they used charcoal to draw and shade their poppy. We used smudging to help us with this. Today the children painted a poppy, holding a paintbrush in their hand (as normal). Then they tried to paint another poppy. This time they were only allowed use their feet to hold the paintbrush. The determination and perseverance was amazing! Thoroughly enjoyed by everyone. During our Science Investigation. We introduced the terminology... predict/ prediction and explored what this means. The children were asked what they thought would happen to the pine cones when 1 was left in a jug of air, another placed in a container of cold water and the last one in a container of warm water. We had to use the conjunction 'because' to help us think about and explain why we thought our prediction would happen. Once the predictions were completed, we did our experiment to find out. Checking the pine cones every 10 minutes and discussing any changes that we could see. We had some very good predictions ranging from ' it will melt because it is wet', 'they will lose their seeds because they are upside down' to 'it will grow because it is wet.. The children wrote some very detailed explanations of what happened as well. We are VERY proud of them because this is tricky and they all approached this activity with maturity and a natural curiosity. They genuinely were intrigued to find out what happened and why. We found out that the ones in water closed up tight, with the pine cone in the cold water remaining closed for the longest afterwards. This week we have been comparing groups of objects using the vocabulary 'greater than', 'less than' and 'equal to'. Hello everyone and thank you for looking at our class page. I would like to welcome you and your child to our amazing class and school! I feel very lucky to be able to support your child through their learning journey, in Year 1. My name is Mrs Pellatt and I am supported by Mrs Freeston and Mrs Wroblewska. When I am out of class; preparing exciting learning opportunities for your child, Mrs Stones supports Mrs Wroblewska and this is on a Friday afternoon. Our spelling day is a Wednesday. Each week, your child will bring home a folder with their spellings inside. Please encourage your child to practice their spellings every week as this really does have an amazing effect on their learning. They will also have a small yellow book inside their folder. This is for you to see how your child did in their test. Please do not allow your child to write in this book outside of school, as these are only for their spelling tests. Can the spelling folders be kept inside your child's book bag. Our P.E. day is a Tuesday afternoon. Please ensure that all items of their P.E. kit is labelled. The P.E. kits will need to stay in school until the end of each small term. If your child has earrings in, we will carefully put tape around them during a P.E. lesson. Reading books and Reading Records will need to come to school everyday. We value and read parental comments in the records. It allows us to understand how well your child is doing with their reading whilst at home. We place children on a book band, which is pitched to their phonic and reading comprehension ability. Reading is very important to children's development. Without this skill, they will find the rest of the curriculum difficult to access. Thank you, please contact myself or the classes supporting staff, for any further information.	801	ENGLISH	1
London: Children who watched a cooking show featuring healthy food were nearly three times more likely to make a healthy food choice than those who watched a different episode showing unhealthy dishes, a study says. Researchers, including those from Tilburg University in the Netherlands, asked 125 children between the ages of 10 and 12 to watch 10 minutes of a Dutch public television cooking program designed for children. As a reward for participating, the kids were offered a snack, which they could choose from a set of options — some which were healthier than the others. The findings, revealed that Children who watched the healthy program were far more likely to choose one of the healthy snack options — an apple, or a few pieces of cucumber — than one of the unhealthy options — a handful of chips, or a handful of salted mini-pretzels. “The findings from this study indicate cooking programs can be a promising tool for promoting positive changes in children’s food-related preferences, attitudes, and behaviours,” said study lead author Frans Folkvord from Tilburg University. Earlier studies had found that children were more likely to eat nutrient-rich foods if they were involved in preparing the dish, but the availability of ready-prepared foods, and a lack of training to prepare fresh foods led to a drop in cooking skills among kids, the researchers said.	<urn:uuid:fb691cbe-2461-4a70-b74c-c98b00a25460>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://in.style.yahoo.com/parents-let-kids-watch-cooking-153306757.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00339.warc.gz	en	0.980685	274	3.421875	3	[ -0.12354440242052078, 0.10228116810321808, 0.20356020331382751, -0.2646421194076538, 0.10454963892698288, 0.4878251850605011, -0.22325268387794495, 0.05732562765479088, -0.2086661458015442, 0.12085241079330444, -0.046496253460645676, -0.2036798745393753, -0.13739626109600067, 0.37658807635...	4	London: Children who watched a cooking show featuring healthy food were nearly three times more likely to make a healthy food choice than those who watched a different episode showing unhealthy dishes, a study says. Researchers, including those from Tilburg University in the Netherlands, asked 125 children between the ages of 10 and 12 to watch 10 minutes of a Dutch public television cooking program designed for children. As a reward for participating, the kids were offered a snack, which they could choose from a set of options — some which were healthier than the others. The findings, revealed that Children who watched the healthy program were far more likely to choose one of the healthy snack options — an apple, or a few pieces of cucumber — than one of the unhealthy options — a handful of chips, or a handful of salted mini-pretzels. “The findings from this study indicate cooking programs can be a promising tool for promoting positive changes in children’s food-related preferences, attitudes, and behaviours,” said study lead author Frans Folkvord from Tilburg University. Earlier studies had found that children were more likely to eat nutrient-rich foods if they were involved in preparing the dish, but the availability of ready-prepared foods, and a lack of training to prepare fresh foods led to a drop in cooking skills among kids, the researchers said.	272	ENGLISH	1
Qin Dynasty was the first unified, multi-national and power-centralized state in the Chinese history. It lasted from 221 BC to 207 BC and laid the foundation for 21 centuries of imperial rule.. Although surviving only 15 years, the dynasty held an important role in Chinese history and it exerted great influence on the following dynasties. Only two emperors, Yingzheng - Emperor Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor in the Chinese history, and his son Hu Hai ever ruled the state, which was finally overthrown by the people's uprising. The Qin rulers conquered all the other states and some surrounding regions. However, their dynastic rule from 221-206 BC was the shortest in the region's history. Their empire fell apart after only 15 years. In only 9 years in successive wars from 230 to 221, the Qin conquered every other region of the former Zhou Empire. Then the Qin conquered outlying regions to the south all the way to Vietnam and to the north towards Korea. They had the biggest empire in the region's history until then. He contributed much to the development of his country. However, during the late period of his reign, he was cruel and oppressive to his people, and caused dissatisfaction. The society was very centralized to the point that every dissenter against the rule of the court was killed, tortured, or sent for forced labor, and most literature was destroyed. The people were enslaved for wars and great construction projects. After he died, Hu Hai succeeded him. However, he was so fatuous that caused the uprising led by peasants, Chen Sheng and Wu Guang. Later the insurgency was led by Xiang Yu and Liu Bang. In 207 BC, Xiang Yu's army defeated the Army of Qin and Liu Bang swept into the capital which finally ended the Qin Dynasty. Great Construction Projects Major projects that strengthened the state were the Wei Canal that was completed in 246 BC and Dujiangyan that allowed irrigation of the Sichuan plain that was built in 256. They used the labor of millions of slaves to produce the Great Wall and the Qin Mausoleum that includes the Terracotta Warriors. The first Qin emperor called Qin Shi Huang exiled even his own son who would have been the prince to work on the Great Wall. It was said someone died for every foot of the wall that they built. The emperor wanted the high wall as a fortification to keep out northern tribes such as the Xiongnu. The Qin Mausoleum is a huge tomb complex that was constructed near present day Xi'an. It was the mausoleum for the new emperor. It is said that most of it remains unexcavated and that only a small portion has been uncovered. The small part that has been uncovered called the Terracotta. To Burn the Books and Bury the Scholars Alive Emperor Qin was a tyrant despite his contributions to the country. To prevent his people to think freely, he burnt many books which he feared would affect people's thinking. Worse, in his second year, after he learnt some scholars' discussions about his arrogance, he buried 460 of them alive. In history, these two events are called 'To Burn the Books and Bury the Scholars Alive'. In 207 BC, the army led by Liu Bang conquered the troops of the Qin Dynasty (221 - 207BC) at Julu (currently Hebei Province) and in 206 BC he seized Xianyang (the capital city of the Qin Dynasty), thus ending the rule of Qin. In the same year, he defeated his rival, Xiang Yu, and established the Han Dynasty (206BC - 220AD). Chang'an (the present Xi'an) was made its capital city in 202BC. In Chinese history, Han consisted of two dynasties: the Western Han (206 BC - 24 AD) and the Eastern Han (25 - 220). During the period there were 24 emperors on the throne. Many were excellent contributing to the prosperity of the country with Emperors Gaozu, Wen, Jing and Wu among them. As many wise emperors took effective measures during their reign, the Han Dynasty was a period of peace and prosperity. China expanded its territory and trade, and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism developed. It was a World power at that time with interests in literature, arts, culture and technology with this dynasty achieving numerous unparalleled and praiseworthy successes. Some of the achievements at that time still influence the lives of the Chinese people today. People's lifestyles during the Western Han were improved significantly thanks to the economic and social stability.For the rich landlords and nobles, who lived in the city, they had power,gained priority to wear silk, and were well educated.For the Confucian scholars, who were respected in society, they had priority to be on the government staff in court. Religions and Philosophy The Silk Road trade caused cultural changes. The Silk Road route went through territories where Buddhism was the main religion. The Yuezhi people introduced a new version called Mahayana Buddhism to the northern part of the empire when they went to Chang'an and taught about Buddhism around the year 1 BC. The religious legacy of the 400-year Han era was the development of Confucianism and Daoism, and the acceptance of Mahayana Buddhism. During the Western Han era, the religion of Daoism developed and became China's major indigenous religion. Confucianism was revived and mixed with Legalist ideas to forma long enduring political philosophy and religion. Records of the Grand Historian The most famous cultural achievement of the Han Dynasty was the Records of the Grand Historian written by Sima Qian between about 109 and 91 BC.It was the first biographical book in Chinese history, which records the history from the age of the legendary Yellow Emperor to the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han.	<urn:uuid:9cf02071-0fff-4848-a085-4dfe6c1afd8d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.chinaexpeditiontours.com/china-guide/qin-dynasty-and-han-dynasty	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00211.warc.gz	en	0.983308	1,208	3.984375	4	[ -0.48241740465164185, 0.5988936424255371, 0.565907895565033, -0.20125338435173035, -0.3707793951034546, 0.0017736160662025213, -0.06996728479862213, -0.17529083788394928, 0.20917271077632904, 0.28952842950820923, 0.2922341823577881, -0.5303078293800354, 0.4424283802509308, -0.0081468606367...	13	Qin Dynasty was the first unified, multi-national and power-centralized state in the Chinese history. It lasted from 221 BC to 207 BC and laid the foundation for 21 centuries of imperial rule.. Although surviving only 15 years, the dynasty held an important role in Chinese history and it exerted great influence on the following dynasties. Only two emperors, Yingzheng - Emperor Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor in the Chinese history, and his son Hu Hai ever ruled the state, which was finally overthrown by the people's uprising. The Qin rulers conquered all the other states and some surrounding regions. However, their dynastic rule from 221-206 BC was the shortest in the region's history. Their empire fell apart after only 15 years. In only 9 years in successive wars from 230 to 221, the Qin conquered every other region of the former Zhou Empire. Then the Qin conquered outlying regions to the south all the way to Vietnam and to the north towards Korea. They had the biggest empire in the region's history until then. He contributed much to the development of his country. However, during the late period of his reign, he was cruel and oppressive to his people, and caused dissatisfaction. The society was very centralized to the point that every dissenter against the rule of the court was killed, tortured, or sent for forced labor, and most literature was destroyed. The people were enslaved for wars and great construction projects. After he died, Hu Hai succeeded him. However, he was so fatuous that caused the uprising led by peasants, Chen Sheng and Wu Guang. Later the insurgency was led by Xiang Yu and Liu Bang. In 207 BC, Xiang Yu's army defeated the Army of Qin and Liu Bang swept into the capital which finally ended the Qin Dynasty. Great Construction Projects Major projects that strengthened the state were the Wei Canal that was completed in 246 BC and Dujiangyan that allowed irrigation of the Sichuan plain that was built in 256. They used the labor of millions of slaves to produce the Great Wall and the Qin Mausoleum that includes the Terracotta Warriors. The first Qin emperor called Qin Shi Huang exiled even his own son who would have been the prince to work on the Great Wall. It was said someone died for every foot of the wall that they built. The emperor wanted the high wall as a fortification to keep out northern tribes such as the Xiongnu. The Qin Mausoleum is a huge tomb complex that was constructed near present day Xi'an. It was the mausoleum for the new emperor. It is said that most of it remains unexcavated and that only a small portion has been uncovered. The small part that has been uncovered called the Terracotta. To Burn the Books and Bury the Scholars Alive Emperor Qin was a tyrant despite his contributions to the country. To prevent his people to think freely, he burnt many books which he feared would affect people's thinking. Worse, in his second year, after he learnt some scholars' discussions about his arrogance, he buried 460 of them alive. In history, these two events are called 'To Burn the Books and Bury the Scholars Alive'. In 207 BC, the army led by Liu Bang conquered the troops of the Qin Dynasty (221 - 207BC) at Julu (currently Hebei Province) and in 206 BC he seized Xianyang (the capital city of the Qin Dynasty), thus ending the rule of Qin. In the same year, he defeated his rival, Xiang Yu, and established the Han Dynasty (206BC - 220AD). Chang'an (the present Xi'an) was made its capital city in 202BC. In Chinese history, Han consisted of two dynasties: the Western Han (206 BC - 24 AD) and the Eastern Han (25 - 220). During the period there were 24 emperors on the throne. Many were excellent contributing to the prosperity of the country with Emperors Gaozu, Wen, Jing and Wu among them. As many wise emperors took effective measures during their reign, the Han Dynasty was a period of peace and prosperity. China expanded its territory and trade, and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism developed. It was a World power at that time with interests in literature, arts, culture and technology with this dynasty achieving numerous unparalleled and praiseworthy successes. Some of the achievements at that time still influence the lives of the Chinese people today. People's lifestyles during the Western Han were improved significantly thanks to the economic and social stability.For the rich landlords and nobles, who lived in the city, they had power,gained priority to wear silk, and were well educated.For the Confucian scholars, who were respected in society, they had priority to be on the government staff in court. Religions and Philosophy The Silk Road trade caused cultural changes. The Silk Road route went through territories where Buddhism was the main religion. The Yuezhi people introduced a new version called Mahayana Buddhism to the northern part of the empire when they went to Chang'an and taught about Buddhism around the year 1 BC. The religious legacy of the 400-year Han era was the development of Confucianism and Daoism, and the acceptance of Mahayana Buddhism. During the Western Han era, the religion of Daoism developed and became China's major indigenous religion. Confucianism was revived and mixed with Legalist ideas to forma long enduring political philosophy and religion. Records of the Grand Historian The most famous cultural achievement of the Han Dynasty was the Records of the Grand Historian written by Sima Qian between about 109 and 91 BC.It was the first biographical book in Chinese history, which records the history from the age of the legendary Yellow Emperor to the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han.	1,262	ENGLISH	1
After a run of mild winters, December 1939 came as a shock. The month started pleasantly enough, then the thermometer started to drop, surprising meteorologists. “The present century has been marked by such a widespread tendency towards mild winters that the ‘old-fashioned winters’, of which one had heard so much, seemed to have gone for ever,” remarked AJ Drummond of the Royal Meteorological Society. December was 2C below average; then it got colder. Eight miles of the Thames were frozen, along with the entire length of the Grand Union Canal. Ice covered stretches of the Mersey, Humber and Severn. The sea froze at Bognor Regis; Folkestone and Southampton harbours were iced over. Although later eclipsed in memory by the epic winter of 1947, this was the coldest winter for forty-five years, the first of a series of bad winters. Some people assumed that this worsening of the weather was related to the war, which had started a few months earlier. The blame was put particularly on exhausts from the vastly increased naval activity in the North Sea. Recent studies suggest that the massed bomber raids of 1944 did really influence local conditions, as their collective contrails reflected sunlight and brought cooler temperatures. However, any impact by the war on the winter of 1939-40 remains speculative.	<urn:uuid:443ee434-fa9f-4fd5-a651-762f04a2fc22>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://uk.news.yahoo.com/weatherwatch-war-brought-bitter-winter-213052549.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00031.warc.gz	en	0.981793	277	3.390625	3	[ -0.11639492213726044, 0.4012821912765503, 0.41058117151260376, -0.19062918424606323, 0.5536022186279297, 0.03410344570875168, -0.05103394389152527, -0.01549915038049221, -0.27995046973228455, -0.22049902379512787, 0.017472999170422554, -0.07945098727941513, 0.46391162276268005, 0.533397257...	2	After a run of mild winters, December 1939 came as a shock. The month started pleasantly enough, then the thermometer started to drop, surprising meteorologists. “The present century has been marked by such a widespread tendency towards mild winters that the ‘old-fashioned winters’, of which one had heard so much, seemed to have gone for ever,” remarked AJ Drummond of the Royal Meteorological Society. December was 2C below average; then it got colder. Eight miles of the Thames were frozen, along with the entire length of the Grand Union Canal. Ice covered stretches of the Mersey, Humber and Severn. The sea froze at Bognor Regis; Folkestone and Southampton harbours were iced over. Although later eclipsed in memory by the epic winter of 1947, this was the coldest winter for forty-five years, the first of a series of bad winters. Some people assumed that this worsening of the weather was related to the war, which had started a few months earlier. The blame was put particularly on exhausts from the vastly increased naval activity in the North Sea. Recent studies suggest that the massed bomber raids of 1944 did really influence local conditions, as their collective contrails reflected sunlight and brought cooler temperatures. However, any impact by the war on the winter of 1939-40 remains speculative.	285	ENGLISH	1
Lisa del Giocondo June 15, 1479 Via Maggio, Republic of Florence \|Died\|\|July 15, 1542 \| Convent of Saint Orsola, Duchy of Florence \|Known for\|\|Subject of Mona Lisa\| \|Spouse(s)\|\|Francesco di Bartolomeo di Zanobi del Giocondo\| \|Parent(s)\|\|Antonmaria di Noldo Gherardini\| Lucrezia del Caccia Lisa del Giocondo (Italian pronunciation: [ˈliːza del dʒoˈkondo]; née Gherardini [ɡerarˈdiːni]; June 15, 1479 – July 15, 1542) was an Italian noblewoman and member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany. Her name was given to the Mona Lisa, her portrait commissioned by her husband and painted by Leonardo da Vinci during the Italian Renaissance. Little is known about Lisa's life. Born in Florence and married in her teens to a cloth and silk merchant who later became a local official, she was a mother to five children and led what is thought to have been a comfortable and ordinary middle-class life. Lisa outlived her husband, who was considerably her senior. Centuries after Lisa's death, the Mona Lisa became the world's most famous painting and took on a life separate from Lisa, the woman. Speculation by scholars and hobbyists made the work of art a globally recognized icon and an object of commercialization. In 2005, Lisa was definitively identified as the model for the Mona Lisa. Lisa's Florentine family was old and aristocratic but over time had lost their influence. They were well off but not wealthy, and lived on farm income in a city that was among the largest in Europe. While economically successful, there were great disparities in wealth among Florence's inhabitants. Antonmaria di Noldo Gherardini, Lisa's father, lost two wives, Lisa di Giovanni Filippo de' Carducci, whom he married in 1465, and Caterina di Mariotto Rucellai, whom he married in 1473. Both died in childbirth. Lisa's mother was Lucrezia del Caccia, daughter of Piera Spinelli, and Gherardini's wife by his third marriage in 1476. Gherardini at one time owned or rented six farms in Chianti that produced wheat, wine and olive oil and where livestock was raised. Lisa was born in Florence on June 15, 1479, on Via Maggio, although for many years it was thought she was born on Villa Vignamaggio just outside Greve, one of the family's rural properties. She is named for Lisa, a wife of her paternal grandfather. The eldest of seven children, Lisa had three sisters, one of whom was named Ginevra, and three brothers, Giovangualberto, Francesco, and Noldo. The family lived in Florence, originally near Santa Trinita and later in rented space near Santo Spirito, most likely because they were not able to afford repairs when their first house was damaged. Lisa's family moved to what today is called Via dei Pepi, and then near Santa Croce, where they lived near Ser Piero da Vinci, Leonardo's father. They also owned a small country home in St. Donato in the village of Poggio about 32 kilometres (20 mi) south of the city. Noldo, Gherardini's father and Lisa's grandfather, had bequeathed a farm in Chianti to the Santa Maria Nuova hospital. Gherardini secured a lease for another of the hospital's farms and, so that he could oversee the wheat harvest, the family spent summers there at the house named Ca' di Pesa. On March 5, 1495, 15-year-old Lisa married Francesco di Bartolomeo di Zanobi del Giocondo, a modestly successful cloth and silk merchant, becoming his third wife. Lisa's dowry was 170 florins and the San Silvestro farm near her family's country home, which lies between Castellina and San Donato in Poggio, near two farms later owned by Michelangelo. The modest dowry may be a sign that the Gherardini family was not wealthy at the time and lends reason to think she and her husband loved each other. Neither poor nor among the most well-to-do in Florence, the couple lived a middle-class life. Lisa's marriage may have increased her social status because her husband's family may have been richer than her own. Francesco is thought to have benefited because Gherardini is an "old name". They lived in shared accommodation until March 5, 1503, when Francesco was able to buy a house next door to his family's old home in the Via della Stufa. Leonardo is thought to have begun painting Lisa's portrait the same year. Lisa and Francesco had five children: Piero, Camilla, Andrea, Giocondo, and Marietta, four of them between 1496 and 1507. Lisa lost a baby daughter in 1499. Lisa also raised Bartolomeo, the son of Francesco and his first wife Camilla di Mariotto Rucellai, who was about a year old when his mother died. The second wife of Lisa's father, Caterina di Mariotto Rucellai, and Francesco's first wife were sisters, members of the prominent Rucellai family. Camilla and Marietta became Catholic nuns. Camilla took the name Suor Beatrice and entered the convent of San Domenico di Cafaggio, where she was entrusted to the care of Antonmaria's sister Suor Albiera and Lisa's sisters Suor Camilla (who was acquitted in a scandalous visitation by four men at the convent) and Suor Alessandra. Beatrice died at age 18 and was buried in the Basilica di Santa Maria Novella. Lisa developed a relationship with Sant'Orsola, a convent held in high regard in Florence, where she was able to place Marietta in 1521. Marietta took the name Suor Ludovica and became a respected member of the convent in a position of some responsibility. Francesco became an official in Florence. He was elected to the Dodici Buonomini in 1499 and to the Signoria in 1512, where he was confirmed as a Priori in 1524. He may have had ties to Medici family political or business interests. In 1512 when the government of Florence feared the return of the Medici from exile, Francesco was imprisoned and fined 1,000 florins. He was released in September when the Medici returned. In June 1537 in his will among many provisions, Francesco returned Lisa's dowry to her, gave her personal clothing and jewelry and provided for her future. Upon entrusting her care to their daughter Ludovica and, should she be incapable, his son Bartolomeo, Francesco wrote, "Given the affection and love of the testator towards Mona Lisa, his beloved wife; in consideration of the fact that Lisa has always acted with a noble spirit and as a faithful wife; wishing that she shall have all she needs…". In one account, Francesco died in the plague of 1538. Lisa fell ill and was taken by her daughter Ludovica to the convent of Sant'Orsola, where she died on July 15, 1542, at the age of 63. In a scholarly account of their lives, Francesco was nearly 80 years old when he died, and Lisa may have lived until at least 1551, when she would have been 71 or 72. Like other Florentines of their financial means, Francesco's family members were art lovers and patrons. His son Bartolomeo asked Antonio di Donnino Mazzieri to paint a fresco at the family's burial site in the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata di Firenze. Andrea del Sarto painted a Madonna for another member of his family. Francesco gave commissions to Leonardo for a portrait of his wife and to Domenico Puligo for a painting of Saint Francis of Assisi. He is thought to have commissioned Lisa's portrait to celebrate both Andrea's birth and the purchase of the family's home. The Mona Lisa fulfilled 15th- and early 16th century requirements for portraying a woman of virtue. Lisa is portrayed as a faithful wife through gesture—her right hand rests over her left. Leonardo also presented Lisa as fashionable and successful, perhaps more well-off than she was. Her dark garments and black veil were Spanish-influenced high fashion; they are not a depiction of mourning for her first daughter, as some scholars have proposed. The portrait is strikingly large; its size is equal to that of commissions acquired by wealthier art patrons of the time. This extravagance has been explained as a sign of Francesco and Lisa's social aspiration. During the spring of 1503, Leonardo had no income source, which may in part explain his interest in a private portrait. But later that year, he most likely had to delay his work on Mona Lisa when he received payment for starting The Battle of Anghiari, which was a more valuable commission and one he was contracted to complete by February 1505. In 1506 Leonardo considered the portrait unfinished. He was not paid for the work and did not deliver it to his client. The artist's paintings traveled with him throughout his life, and he may have completed the Mona Lisa many years later in France, in one estimation by 1516. The painting's title dates to 1550. An acquaintance of at least some of Francesco's family, Giorgio Vasari, wrote, "Leonardo undertook to paint, for Francesco del Giocondo, the portrait of Mona Lisa, his wife" (Italian: Prese Lionardo a fare per Francesco del Giocondo il ritratto di mona Lisa sua moglie.). The portrait's Italian name La Gioconda is the feminine form of her married name. In French it is known by the variant La Joconde. Though derived from Lisa's married name there is the added significance that the name derives from the word for "happy" (in English, "jocund") or "the happy one". Speculation assigned Lisa's name to at least four different paintings and her identity to at least ten different people. By the end of the 20th century, the painting was a global icon that had been used in more than 300 other paintings and in 2,000 advertisements, appearing at an average of one new advertisement each week. In 2005, an expert at the University Library of Heidelberg discovered a margin note in the library's collection that established with certainty the traditional view that the sitter was Lisa. The note, written by Agostino Vespucci in 1503, states that Leonardo was working on a portrait of Lisa del Giocondo. The Mona Lisa has been in custody of France since the 16th century, when it was acquired by King Francis I; after the French Revolution, it became the property of the French Republic itself. Today about six million people visit the painting each year at the Louvre in Paris, where it is part of a French national collection.	<urn:uuid:71927a2a-f8dd-404a-9953-8a232f0fdadf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikiredia.info/wiki/Lisa_del_Giocondo	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00453.warc.gz	en	0.982024	2,386	3.46875	3	[ -0.4687110185623169, -0.038901180028915405, 0.29384151101112366, 0.2674298584461212, -0.4003492593765259, 0.07776101678609848, 0.2142156958580017, 0.1860235631465912, 0.07797174900770187, -0.2979578375816345, -0.07872088998556137, -0.35770297050476074, 0.1283060610294342, 0.136877238750457...	1	Lisa del Giocondo June 15, 1479 Via Maggio, Republic of Florence \|Died\|\|July 15, 1542 \| Convent of Saint Orsola, Duchy of Florence \|Known for\|\|Subject of Mona Lisa\| \|Spouse(s)\|\|Francesco di Bartolomeo di Zanobi del Giocondo\| \|Parent(s)\|\|Antonmaria di Noldo Gherardini\| Lucrezia del Caccia Lisa del Giocondo (Italian pronunciation: [ˈliːza del dʒoˈkondo]; née Gherardini [ɡerarˈdiːni]; June 15, 1479 – July 15, 1542) was an Italian noblewoman and member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany. Her name was given to the Mona Lisa, her portrait commissioned by her husband and painted by Leonardo da Vinci during the Italian Renaissance. Little is known about Lisa's life. Born in Florence and married in her teens to a cloth and silk merchant who later became a local official, she was a mother to five children and led what is thought to have been a comfortable and ordinary middle-class life. Lisa outlived her husband, who was considerably her senior. Centuries after Lisa's death, the Mona Lisa became the world's most famous painting and took on a life separate from Lisa, the woman. Speculation by scholars and hobbyists made the work of art a globally recognized icon and an object of commercialization. In 2005, Lisa was definitively identified as the model for the Mona Lisa. Lisa's Florentine family was old and aristocratic but over time had lost their influence. They were well off but not wealthy, and lived on farm income in a city that was among the largest in Europe. While economically successful, there were great disparities in wealth among Florence's inhabitants. Antonmaria di Noldo Gherardini, Lisa's father, lost two wives, Lisa di Giovanni Filippo de' Carducci, whom he married in 1465, and Caterina di Mariotto Rucellai, whom he married in 1473. Both died in childbirth. Lisa's mother was Lucrezia del Caccia, daughter of Piera Spinelli, and Gherardini's wife by his third marriage in 1476. Gherardini at one time owned or rented six farms in Chianti that produced wheat, wine and olive oil and where livestock was raised. Lisa was born in Florence on June 15, 1479, on Via Maggio, although for many years it was thought she was born on Villa Vignamaggio just outside Greve, one of the family's rural properties. She is named for Lisa, a wife of her paternal grandfather. The eldest of seven children, Lisa had three sisters, one of whom was named Ginevra, and three brothers, Giovangualberto, Francesco, and Noldo. The family lived in Florence, originally near Santa Trinita and later in rented space near Santo Spirito, most likely because they were not able to afford repairs when their first house was damaged. Lisa's family moved to what today is called Via dei Pepi, and then near Santa Croce, where they lived near Ser Piero da Vinci, Leonardo's father. They also owned a small country home in St. Donato in the village of Poggio about 32 kilometres (20 mi) south of the city. Noldo, Gherardini's father and Lisa's grandfather, had bequeathed a farm in Chianti to the Santa Maria Nuova hospital. Gherardini secured a lease for another of the hospital's farms and, so that he could oversee the wheat harvest, the family spent summers there at the house named Ca' di Pesa. On March 5, 1495, 15-year-old Lisa married Francesco di Bartolomeo di Zanobi del Giocondo, a modestly successful cloth and silk merchant, becoming his third wife. Lisa's dowry was 170 florins and the San Silvestro farm near her family's country home, which lies between Castellina and San Donato in Poggio, near two farms later owned by Michelangelo. The modest dowry may be a sign that the Gherardini family was not wealthy at the time and lends reason to think she and her husband loved each other. Neither poor nor among the most well-to-do in Florence, the couple lived a middle-class life. Lisa's marriage may have increased her social status because her husband's family may have been richer than her own. Francesco is thought to have benefited because Gherardini is an "old name". They lived in shared accommodation until March 5, 1503, when Francesco was able to buy a house next door to his family's old home in the Via della Stufa. Leonardo is thought to have begun painting Lisa's portrait the same year. Lisa and Francesco had five children: Piero, Camilla, Andrea, Giocondo, and Marietta, four of them between 1496 and 1507. Lisa lost a baby daughter in 1499. Lisa also raised Bartolomeo, the son of Francesco and his first wife Camilla di Mariotto Rucellai, who was about a year old when his mother died. The second wife of Lisa's father, Caterina di Mariotto Rucellai, and Francesco's first wife were sisters, members of the prominent Rucellai family. Camilla and Marietta became Catholic nuns. Camilla took the name Suor Beatrice and entered the convent of San Domenico di Cafaggio, where she was entrusted to the care of Antonmaria's sister Suor Albiera and Lisa's sisters Suor Camilla (who was acquitted in a scandalous visitation by four men at the convent) and Suor Alessandra. Beatrice died at age 18 and was buried in the Basilica di Santa Maria Novella. Lisa developed a relationship with Sant'Orsola, a convent held in high regard in Florence, where she was able to place Marietta in 1521. Marietta took the name Suor Ludovica and became a respected member of the convent in a position of some responsibility. Francesco became an official in Florence. He was elected to the Dodici Buonomini in 1499 and to the Signoria in 1512, where he was confirmed as a Priori in 1524. He may have had ties to Medici family political or business interests. In 1512 when the government of Florence feared the return of the Medici from exile, Francesco was imprisoned and fined 1,000 florins. He was released in September when the Medici returned. In June 1537 in his will among many provisions, Francesco returned Lisa's dowry to her, gave her personal clothing and jewelry and provided for her future. Upon entrusting her care to their daughter Ludovica and, should she be incapable, his son Bartolomeo, Francesco wrote, "Given the affection and love of the testator towards Mona Lisa, his beloved wife; in consideration of the fact that Lisa has always acted with a noble spirit and as a faithful wife; wishing that she shall have all she needs…". In one account, Francesco died in the plague of 1538. Lisa fell ill and was taken by her daughter Ludovica to the convent of Sant'Orsola, where she died on July 15, 1542, at the age of 63. In a scholarly account of their lives, Francesco was nearly 80 years old when he died, and Lisa may have lived until at least 1551, when she would have been 71 or 72. Like other Florentines of their financial means, Francesco's family members were art lovers and patrons. His son Bartolomeo asked Antonio di Donnino Mazzieri to paint a fresco at the family's burial site in the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata di Firenze. Andrea del Sarto painted a Madonna for another member of his family. Francesco gave commissions to Leonardo for a portrait of his wife and to Domenico Puligo for a painting of Saint Francis of Assisi. He is thought to have commissioned Lisa's portrait to celebrate both Andrea's birth and the purchase of the family's home. The Mona Lisa fulfilled 15th- and early 16th century requirements for portraying a woman of virtue. Lisa is portrayed as a faithful wife through gesture—her right hand rests over her left. Leonardo also presented Lisa as fashionable and successful, perhaps more well-off than she was. Her dark garments and black veil were Spanish-influenced high fashion; they are not a depiction of mourning for her first daughter, as some scholars have proposed. The portrait is strikingly large; its size is equal to that of commissions acquired by wealthier art patrons of the time. This extravagance has been explained as a sign of Francesco and Lisa's social aspiration. During the spring of 1503, Leonardo had no income source, which may in part explain his interest in a private portrait. But later that year, he most likely had to delay his work on Mona Lisa when he received payment for starting The Battle of Anghiari, which was a more valuable commission and one he was contracted to complete by February 1505. In 1506 Leonardo considered the portrait unfinished. He was not paid for the work and did not deliver it to his client. The artist's paintings traveled with him throughout his life, and he may have completed the Mona Lisa many years later in France, in one estimation by 1516. The painting's title dates to 1550. An acquaintance of at least some of Francesco's family, Giorgio Vasari, wrote, "Leonardo undertook to paint, for Francesco del Giocondo, the portrait of Mona Lisa, his wife" (Italian: Prese Lionardo a fare per Francesco del Giocondo il ritratto di mona Lisa sua moglie.). The portrait's Italian name La Gioconda is the feminine form of her married name. In French it is known by the variant La Joconde. Though derived from Lisa's married name there is the added significance that the name derives from the word for "happy" (in English, "jocund") or "the happy one". Speculation assigned Lisa's name to at least four different paintings and her identity to at least ten different people. By the end of the 20th century, the painting was a global icon that had been used in more than 300 other paintings and in 2,000 advertisements, appearing at an average of one new advertisement each week. In 2005, an expert at the University Library of Heidelberg discovered a margin note in the library's collection that established with certainty the traditional view that the sitter was Lisa. The note, written by Agostino Vespucci in 1503, states that Leonardo was working on a portrait of Lisa del Giocondo. The Mona Lisa has been in custody of France since the 16th century, when it was acquired by King Francis I; after the French Revolution, it became the property of the French Republic itself. Today about six million people visit the painting each year at the Louvre in Paris, where it is part of a French national collection.	2,450	ENGLISH	1
Dịch văn bản sau: In this section you will find after the reading passage a number of questions of unfinished statements about the passage , each with four suggested answers or ways of finishing . You must choose the one which you think fits best (10 points) People usually sing because they like music or because they feel happy. They express their happiness by singing. When a bird sing, however, its song usually means much more than that the bird is happy. Birds have many reasons for singing. They sing to give information. Their songs are their language. The most beautiful songs are sung by male (cock) birds. They sing when they want to attract a female (hen) bird. It is their way of saying that they are looking for a wife. Birds also sing to tell other birds to keep away. To a bird, his tree or even a branch of tree, is his home. He does not want strangers to come near him, so he sings to warn them. If a bird cannot sing well, he usually has some other means of giving important information. Some birds dance, spread out their tails or make other sings. One bird has a most unusual way of finding a wife. It builds a small garden of shells and flowers.	<urn:uuid:e40d0655-35bd-4110-a7f0-ec3cf1773081>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://diendan.hocmai.vn/threads/dich-van-ban.763421/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00359.warc.gz	en	0.987475	260	3.671875	4	[ 0.30976396799087524, -0.1659417599439621, 0.009482957422733307, -0.22853639721870422, 0.03158934414386749, 0.1555483192205429, 0.6640833616256714, 0.06832332909107208, 0.39623841643333435, 0.019834019243717194, 0.051310136914253235, -0.5252087116241455, -0.18255020678043365, 0.129316002130...	1	Dịch văn bản sau: In this section you will find after the reading passage a number of questions of unfinished statements about the passage , each with four suggested answers or ways of finishing . You must choose the one which you think fits best (10 points) People usually sing because they like music or because they feel happy. They express their happiness by singing. When a bird sing, however, its song usually means much more than that the bird is happy. Birds have many reasons for singing. They sing to give information. Their songs are their language. The most beautiful songs are sung by male (cock) birds. They sing when they want to attract a female (hen) bird. It is their way of saying that they are looking for a wife. Birds also sing to tell other birds to keep away. To a bird, his tree or even a branch of tree, is his home. He does not want strangers to come near him, so he sings to warn them. If a bird cannot sing well, he usually has some other means of giving important information. Some birds dance, spread out their tails or make other sings. One bird has a most unusual way of finding a wife. It builds a small garden of shells and flowers.	250	ENGLISH	1
Ascribed status can be referred to a social status of someone who acquires it at birth or get it much later in life but involuntarily. The status is assigned and not earned, and it can remain permanent throughout an individual’s life. An example is if someone is born in a wealthy family, he will be associated with that wealth throughout his life. Achieved status is different because someone has really to put a lot of effort to get the status. It is acquired on merit and the position is earned and not assigned. An example is when someone works very hard in school and later learns to become a doctor or when one is born poor but works very hard to acquire wealth like investing in big companies. (Schaeffer, 2009). First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! As for my case, I will respect a person who becomes wealthy through his hard work and not the one born wealthy. This is because the person who becomes wealthy through hard work has gone through ups and downs to acquire the wealth. He knows the challenges involved in getting the wealth and so he deserves it. The person born wealthy does not know what one goes through before acquiring the wealth. Most of these people are very irresponsible in life because they do not know what it means to struggle. They are very careless and misuse this ascribed wealth because they do not understand its origin. Those who struggle to get their wealth are very responsible in life; they do not misuse their wealth because they understand the challenges and struggle that was involved in acquiring the wealth. In some cases, mixtures of achievement and ascription do occur. For example one can be born in a rich family but learns to become a professor. This is in most cases associated with open or social class societies (Schaeffer, 2009). Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:db56897e-1afc-4090-a5da-424bf5ecd8fd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/sociology/ascribed-versus-achieved-statuses.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00039.warc.gz	en	0.986047	410	3.265625	3	[ -0.06924199312925339, 0.24799813330173492, -0.20277704298496246, -0.2516079843044281, -0.30372002720832825, -0.13435471057891846, 0.9695004820823669, -0.12491268664598465, -0.06549718976020813, 0.029033033177256584, 0.7104851007461548, -0.38553759455680847, 0.2037319839000702, 0.2618268132...	1	Ascribed status can be referred to a social status of someone who acquires it at birth or get it much later in life but involuntarily. The status is assigned and not earned, and it can remain permanent throughout an individual’s life. An example is if someone is born in a wealthy family, he will be associated with that wealth throughout his life. Achieved status is different because someone has really to put a lot of effort to get the status. It is acquired on merit and the position is earned and not assigned. An example is when someone works very hard in school and later learns to become a doctor or when one is born poor but works very hard to acquire wealth like investing in big companies. (Schaeffer, 2009). First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! As for my case, I will respect a person who becomes wealthy through his hard work and not the one born wealthy. This is because the person who becomes wealthy through hard work has gone through ups and downs to acquire the wealth. He knows the challenges involved in getting the wealth and so he deserves it. The person born wealthy does not know what one goes through before acquiring the wealth. Most of these people are very irresponsible in life because they do not know what it means to struggle. They are very careless and misuse this ascribed wealth because they do not understand its origin. Those who struggle to get their wealth are very responsible in life; they do not misuse their wealth because they understand the challenges and struggle that was involved in acquiring the wealth. In some cases, mixtures of achievement and ascription do occur. For example one can be born in a rich family but learns to become a professor. This is in most cases associated with open or social class societies (Schaeffer, 2009). Most popular orders	411	ENGLISH	1
Broadcast 7 December 2005, the third instalment examines the spiders and others that produce silk. Attenborough visits New Zealand's Waitomo Caves, which are inhabited by fungus gnats whose illuminated larvae sit atop glistening, beaded filaments to lure their prey. The ability to spin silk developed early in the invertebrates' history, being first used as an adhesive. The female lacewing still applies it in this way, to suspend its eggs from plant stems. Spiders first employed it as a sensitive trip line to detect movement, and Attenborough illustrates this by encouraging a trapdoor spider. The speed with which it appears causes the presenter to jump in surprise. The webs spun by orb-weavers are complex and can comprise up to 60 metres of silk and 3,000 separate attachments. A time-lapse sequence reveals their intricate construction. The largest are made by Nephila and can be several metres across. The venomous redback spins three-dimensionally, and fixes vertical lines that suspend its unlucky meals in mid-air. Meanwhile, the bolas spider swings a length of silk with a sticky blob on the end, with which to snare passing moths. Argiope exemplifies the dangers of mating that are faced by some male spiders: unless they are careful, they can be consumed by the females. The courtship of the wolf spider, though less risky, is one of the more elaborate. Its nesting habits are discussed, along with the eventual birth of its young, which cling to their mother's back. Production of the series took around two years, during which time filming took place around the world, from the Amazonian rainforest to Costa Rica, Australia, Malaysia, Hungary, Switzerland and many more locations, including the United Kingdom. To follow and understand the various species looked at throughout the series, the production team consulted with some of the foremost experts on invertebrate life. In certain instances, their help proved invaluable, particularly when coming across particularly dangerous species or societies. In other instances, the specialists helped to provide some of their most recent discoveries, enabling the makers to showcase in rich detail the complex processes through which invertebrates may interact with their environment, as well as the regular processes of all animals in the wild, such as their mating rituals and hunt for food. Many of the creatures' interactions were not only filmed for the first time, but were also recorded with such extraordinary magnification that scientists who studied them were able to answer specific questions that observance with the naked eye had hitherto rendered impossible. Filming of mayflies was made possible by their appearance on the last day. As always, time and money constraints played a huge part. The filming schedules had to be arranged to fit in with expected dates of major events that were planned to be included, such as the emergence of the North American cicadas or the mass emergence of mayfly in Hungary. As is usual in the preparation of a nature documentary, not everything went to plan, due to the unpredictable nature of the subject matter. Although filming took place over several years, time constraints still meant that some scenes almost weren't filmed, and a few never materialised at all. For instance, the simultaneous mass emergence of the mayfly in Hungary did not occur until the deadline day for its filming, as David Attenborough had to be in Switzerland the very next day to film the mating of wood ants. Using expert advice, the team had come to film at the time of the annual emergence, but the problem of the unusually wet spring had delayed the event. Luckily, on the very last day conditions were perfect, and the mayfly emerged — apparently in one of the more impressive manifestations of recent times. Because of these kinds of occurrences being largely dependent on environmental factors such as temperature or moisture, it was nearly impossible to tell exactly when they would happen. Instead the producers had to rely on expert estimates, but even these could be completely unpredictable. So although the mayfly appearance was captured, others were missed, such as the advent of a type of moth in Arizona (despite the camera crew camping out in the area twice, two weeks at a time). Sometimes subjects were so small that it would have been impossible to film them in the wild. Instead, the construction of a complete habitat in a studio allowed easy pursuit of their actions, allowing the camera to capture them throughout their day. This technique was used on the wolf spider, for example, which provided some 200 hours of film — notably including its courting ritual. Despite the arm span of the grown spider being no more than 1cm, even the newborn arachnids are shown in tight close-up as they climb on to their mother's back. Filming also involved entering rough environments. To film the giant centipede, a team had to endure a dark cave whose floor was covered with guano, beetles and cockroaches.	<urn:uuid:5253b273-ce0a-489e-8834-3926d328aeac>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cosmolearning.org/documentaries/life-in-the-undergrowth-1122/3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00340.warc.gz	en	0.980712	995	3.375	3	[ 0.1709223985671997, -0.049235351383686066, -0.20383942127227783, -0.044106774032115936, 0.3489057421684265, -0.11041465401649475, -0.009401431307196617, 0.2253294140100479, -0.28871041536331177, 0.1517615020275116, 0.1804976761341095, -0.42230504751205444, 0.10224491357803345, 0.3688392639...	1	Broadcast 7 December 2005, the third instalment examines the spiders and others that produce silk. Attenborough visits New Zealand's Waitomo Caves, which are inhabited by fungus gnats whose illuminated larvae sit atop glistening, beaded filaments to lure their prey. The ability to spin silk developed early in the invertebrates' history, being first used as an adhesive. The female lacewing still applies it in this way, to suspend its eggs from plant stems. Spiders first employed it as a sensitive trip line to detect movement, and Attenborough illustrates this by encouraging a trapdoor spider. The speed with which it appears causes the presenter to jump in surprise. The webs spun by orb-weavers are complex and can comprise up to 60 metres of silk and 3,000 separate attachments. A time-lapse sequence reveals their intricate construction. The largest are made by Nephila and can be several metres across. The venomous redback spins three-dimensionally, and fixes vertical lines that suspend its unlucky meals in mid-air. Meanwhile, the bolas spider swings a length of silk with a sticky blob on the end, with which to snare passing moths. Argiope exemplifies the dangers of mating that are faced by some male spiders: unless they are careful, they can be consumed by the females. The courtship of the wolf spider, though less risky, is one of the more elaborate. Its nesting habits are discussed, along with the eventual birth of its young, which cling to their mother's back. Production of the series took around two years, during which time filming took place around the world, from the Amazonian rainforest to Costa Rica, Australia, Malaysia, Hungary, Switzerland and many more locations, including the United Kingdom. To follow and understand the various species looked at throughout the series, the production team consulted with some of the foremost experts on invertebrate life. In certain instances, their help proved invaluable, particularly when coming across particularly dangerous species or societies. In other instances, the specialists helped to provide some of their most recent discoveries, enabling the makers to showcase in rich detail the complex processes through which invertebrates may interact with their environment, as well as the regular processes of all animals in the wild, such as their mating rituals and hunt for food. Many of the creatures' interactions were not only filmed for the first time, but were also recorded with such extraordinary magnification that scientists who studied them were able to answer specific questions that observance with the naked eye had hitherto rendered impossible. Filming of mayflies was made possible by their appearance on the last day. As always, time and money constraints played a huge part. The filming schedules had to be arranged to fit in with expected dates of major events that were planned to be included, such as the emergence of the North American cicadas or the mass emergence of mayfly in Hungary. As is usual in the preparation of a nature documentary, not everything went to plan, due to the unpredictable nature of the subject matter. Although filming took place over several years, time constraints still meant that some scenes almost weren't filmed, and a few never materialised at all. For instance, the simultaneous mass emergence of the mayfly in Hungary did not occur until the deadline day for its filming, as David Attenborough had to be in Switzerland the very next day to film the mating of wood ants. Using expert advice, the team had come to film at the time of the annual emergence, but the problem of the unusually wet spring had delayed the event. Luckily, on the very last day conditions were perfect, and the mayfly emerged — apparently in one of the more impressive manifestations of recent times. Because of these kinds of occurrences being largely dependent on environmental factors such as temperature or moisture, it was nearly impossible to tell exactly when they would happen. Instead the producers had to rely on expert estimates, but even these could be completely unpredictable. So although the mayfly appearance was captured, others were missed, such as the advent of a type of moth in Arizona (despite the camera crew camping out in the area twice, two weeks at a time). Sometimes subjects were so small that it would have been impossible to film them in the wild. Instead, the construction of a complete habitat in a studio allowed easy pursuit of their actions, allowing the camera to capture them throughout their day. This technique was used on the wolf spider, for example, which provided some 200 hours of film — notably including its courting ritual. Despite the arm span of the grown spider being no more than 1cm, even the newborn arachnids are shown in tight close-up as they climb on to their mother's back. Filming also involved entering rough environments. To film the giant centipede, a team had to endure a dark cave whose floor was covered with guano, beetles and cockroaches.	1,002	ENGLISH	1
History has been made and the first African American presidential candidate from a major party has won the election to become the 44th President of the United States of America. What does this mean? “We hold these truths to be self evident that all men are created equal.” At the time those words were written, new Africans and blacks born in America were slaves, women could not vote and the native population were not even on the map. The black slaves were considered to be 3/5ths of a man. Much of the history of North America has been about actively preventing slaves, former slaves and their descendants from participating in the American society to the detriment of the country itself. Through law and custom, African Americans have been forced under threat of (and real) humiliation, imprisonment and violence to cower in front of white people, work for them, give way and defer to them. There were always those who fought to be included in the mass that was America, to have a voice and positively contribute to their country. They fought America’s wars, raised their children, cooked their food, cared for the sick and bore the brunt of hatred that a nation that would not let go of its free, servile labor for its own profit and pleasure at the cost of its soul. There were those whose deeds of defiance and words of eloquence sought to demonstrate that pigment was no barrier to a poet’s soul, a painter’s eye, a musician’s skill, a doctor’s touch, the inventor’s inquisitive mind, or a person’s heart to want and strive for a meaningful life. The pursuit of equality has been a goal of African Americans ever since they were brought to the land in chains. The hope and determination that America’s former slaves have shown – to be included in the country they help to found, built and defend – has been inspiring to the world. The words and deeds of millions have shown the world that good character, intelligence, artistic skills and a sound scientific mind are not limited by the colour of one’s skin. Obama’s victory is not just a win for African American citizens who have always been stopped at that final door to acceptance in eyes of the world. The popular media have often stated that “African leaders are corrupt!” (but nothing is said about those who are corrupting them). The African Americans who struggled to make their place in the world were always put in the same barrel as those who had not made the best choices and/or succumbed to violence and escapism to mask the terrible pain and shame they felt at being blocked from living the life they saw around them, or on the other side of the tracks. Obama’s victory is an American triumph over their past and proof that nothing is static. Hope, change and action are things that have driven progress in the world. It is hope that pushed people to work for their own and their children’s future. To get up in the morning to protest for justice knowing that they may suffer for it. Hope and the instinctive, deep seeded knowledge that individuals working together can change their circumstances, bring about change, heal old wounds and unify behind a common purpose, is what has driven mankind. Obama’s victory is about the average Jane, and Joe of America realizing that the country is more important than any one party. The policies of the GOP have been horrible for everyone, even investors. The military is overstretched by men who used their family’s influence to avoid military service. The economy has been broken by those who made horrible choices on investments based on fast, easy money and no accountability. The health care system is corrupt and weak after decades of lobbyists buying votes to keep Americans sick and poor, building an insurance industry that penalizes its citizens for getting sick. Innovation has fallen to perpetuate a status quo that states that less is bad, that everyone should drink more, eat more and burn fuel more than anyone else, everyday, all of the time. The auto industry is just one of the casualties of that philosophy. Obama’s victory is a win for common sense and a real opportunity for intelligence, good policy and respect to return to US politics. Under his Presidency, the US could truly once again influence the world, not with bombs or a barrel of a gun, but with strong, thoughtful leadership. It remains to be seen how it will all work out. Obama has demonstrated by including millions of Americans in the process to support the Democrats and his campaign that there was an untapped strength of a nation which has been neglected and wants to participate in the health and wealth of their own country. The power of optimism is that it inspires people to bring out the better parts of their nature, to improve their own lives and those of others. A person who can tap into that basic truth and help the nation focus to be strong, vibrant and helpful to its citizens is a real leader. For too long politicians have used their power to divide their country’s citizens against one another, while giving power and money to businesses at the expense of common sense and true prosperity. Obama’s win shows that the majority of people really do want to get along, live together and work together for a brighter future. They just need to be guided by a leader who wants everyone’s life to be better, not just a select few. The USA will be the better for it. As the rhetoric calms down and the nation heals, the world might end up being safer for it too. Good luck Obama, good luck USA, we’re all pulling for you.	<urn:uuid:2d9e18a6-92bb-4383-bba3-1ce40293600a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.winlandpost.com/?p=33	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00255.warc.gz	en	0.981999	1,160	3.359375	3	[ -0.5253804326057434, 0.6469356417655945, -0.07174095511436462, 0.2456531524658203, -0.4828134775161743, 0.5577102899551392, 0.048913925886154175, -0.22693991661071777, 0.05348764359951019, 0.33301684260368347, 0.37341856956481934, -0.01761232502758503, -0.1968916356563568, 0.14364793896675...	1	History has been made and the first African American presidential candidate from a major party has won the election to become the 44th President of the United States of America. What does this mean? “We hold these truths to be self evident that all men are created equal.” At the time those words were written, new Africans and blacks born in America were slaves, women could not vote and the native population were not even on the map. The black slaves were considered to be 3/5ths of a man. Much of the history of North America has been about actively preventing slaves, former slaves and their descendants from participating in the American society to the detriment of the country itself. Through law and custom, African Americans have been forced under threat of (and real) humiliation, imprisonment and violence to cower in front of white people, work for them, give way and defer to them. There were always those who fought to be included in the mass that was America, to have a voice and positively contribute to their country. They fought America’s wars, raised their children, cooked their food, cared for the sick and bore the brunt of hatred that a nation that would not let go of its free, servile labor for its own profit and pleasure at the cost of its soul. There were those whose deeds of defiance and words of eloquence sought to demonstrate that pigment was no barrier to a poet’s soul, a painter’s eye, a musician’s skill, a doctor’s touch, the inventor’s inquisitive mind, or a person’s heart to want and strive for a meaningful life. The pursuit of equality has been a goal of African Americans ever since they were brought to the land in chains. The hope and determination that America’s former slaves have shown – to be included in the country they help to found, built and defend – has been inspiring to the world. The words and deeds of millions have shown the world that good character, intelligence, artistic skills and a sound scientific mind are not limited by the colour of one’s skin. Obama’s victory is not just a win for African American citizens who have always been stopped at that final door to acceptance in eyes of the world. The popular media have often stated that “African leaders are corrupt!” (but nothing is said about those who are corrupting them). The African Americans who struggled to make their place in the world were always put in the same barrel as those who had not made the best choices and/or succumbed to violence and escapism to mask the terrible pain and shame they felt at being blocked from living the life they saw around them, or on the other side of the tracks. Obama’s victory is an American triumph over their past and proof that nothing is static. Hope, change and action are things that have driven progress in the world. It is hope that pushed people to work for their own and their children’s future. To get up in the morning to protest for justice knowing that they may suffer for it. Hope and the instinctive, deep seeded knowledge that individuals working together can change their circumstances, bring about change, heal old wounds and unify behind a common purpose, is what has driven mankind. Obama’s victory is about the average Jane, and Joe of America realizing that the country is more important than any one party. The policies of the GOP have been horrible for everyone, even investors. The military is overstretched by men who used their family’s influence to avoid military service. The economy has been broken by those who made horrible choices on investments based on fast, easy money and no accountability. The health care system is corrupt and weak after decades of lobbyists buying votes to keep Americans sick and poor, building an insurance industry that penalizes its citizens for getting sick. Innovation has fallen to perpetuate a status quo that states that less is bad, that everyone should drink more, eat more and burn fuel more than anyone else, everyday, all of the time. The auto industry is just one of the casualties of that philosophy. Obama’s victory is a win for common sense and a real opportunity for intelligence, good policy and respect to return to US politics. Under his Presidency, the US could truly once again influence the world, not with bombs or a barrel of a gun, but with strong, thoughtful leadership. It remains to be seen how it will all work out. Obama has demonstrated by including millions of Americans in the process to support the Democrats and his campaign that there was an untapped strength of a nation which has been neglected and wants to participate in the health and wealth of their own country. The power of optimism is that it inspires people to bring out the better parts of their nature, to improve their own lives and those of others. A person who can tap into that basic truth and help the nation focus to be strong, vibrant and helpful to its citizens is a real leader. For too long politicians have used their power to divide their country’s citizens against one another, while giving power and money to businesses at the expense of common sense and true prosperity. Obama’s win shows that the majority of people really do want to get along, live together and work together for a brighter future. They just need to be guided by a leader who wants everyone’s life to be better, not just a select few. The USA will be the better for it. As the rhetoric calms down and the nation heals, the world might end up being safer for it too. Good luck Obama, good luck USA, we’re all pulling for you.	1,109	ENGLISH	1
- Year Published: 1892 - Language: English - Country of Origin: United States of America - Source: Munroe, K. (1892). Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. - Flesch–Kincaid Level: 9.5 - Word Count: 1,782 Munroe, K. (1892). Chapter XXXI: “A Closely Guarded Camp”. Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades (Lit2Go Edition). Retrieved January 23, 2020, from Munroe, Kirk. "Chapter XXXI: “A Closely Guarded Camp”." Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades. Lit2Go Edition. 1892. Web. <>. January 23, 2020. Kirk Munroe, "Chapter XXXI: “A Closely Guarded Camp”," Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades, Lit2Go Edition, (1892), accessed January 23, 2020,. THE darkness, which comes so quickly after sunset in that far Southern country, with almost no intervening twilight, effectually prevented our explorers from seeing where they were going. They only knew from the stars that their general direction was east, or directly into the heart of the Everglades. They were even unable to Study the countenances, dress, or general appearance of the young Indians who, standing in the bow and stern of each canoe, drove it forward with unerring judgment and at a considerable speed by means of long push poles. These poles were quite slender; but each terminated at its lower end in an enlargement, formed by fastening a short bit of wood to either side that prevented it from sinking deeply into the sand or grass roots against which it was set. The canoes in which our voyagers were now traveling were as different from their own dainty craft as one boat can be from another. Nor did they bear the least resemblance to the bark canoes of Northern Indians, there being no Southern bark similar to that of the Northern birch, or suitable for canoe-building. They were simply dugouts, from twenty to twenty-five feet long by about three feet broad, hollowed with great skill from huge cypress logs. Their lines were fine, and, as our friends afterwards discovered, they are capital sailing craft in any wind, except dead ahead. When a Seminole decides to build one of these canoes, he first selects and fells his tree, cutting off a section of the required length, and free from knots or cracks. The upper surface of this is hewn smooth, with a slight sheer rise fore and aft. On this smooth surface a plan of the canoe is carefully outlined with charcoal, and then the outside is laboriously worked into shape with hatchets. The hollowing out of the inside is accomplished by fire and hatchets, and, considering the limited supply of tools at the builders’ disposal, the result is a triumph of marine architecture. Hatchets and knives are the only tools used in the making of the masts, spars, paddles, push poles, and spear handles that are needed for the equipment of each canoe. The ingenious builders also cut and sew their own sails, which they make of unbleached muslin bought from the trader on Biscayne Bay. Although they use no keels, centerboards, nor leeboards, they manage by holding their paddles firmly against the side of the canoe and deep in the water to sail closehauled, and to keep her up to the wind in a manner that is truly surprising. The Indians take great pride in their canoes and value them highly, for, as they are without horses, roads, or any considerable area of dry land, these are their sole means of transportation and communication between the different parts of the vast territory over which they roam. After traveling several miles, this first voyage of our explorers in Indian canoes ended at a heavily wooded islet, between the trees of which they could see the welcome glow of a campfire. To their great delight, as they reached the shore, they found their own canoes and the cruiser safely moored to it. In spite of their joy at again seeing these, they were too hungry and too impatient to visit the Indian village to do more just then than assure themselves that their own boats were all right. Then they hurried towards the fire. There was a roomy palmetto hut standing near it; but to their surprise the firelight disclosed only a single human figure, which, as they drew near, proved to be that of Quorum. He was hard at work cooking supper, and only acknowledged their presence with a grin, and the announcement that it would be ready in a few minutes. Turning to the hut, they saw that it had been recently erected, and that it Contained their own rolls of bedding, besides the little bags of toilet articles belonging to Lieutenant Carey and the boys, which Quorum had thoughtfully taken from the canoes and placed ready for their use. “I never realized the luxury of brushes and combs before!” exclaimed Worth, as he occupied the time before supper with making what was probably the most elaborate toilet ever seen in the Everglades. Meanwhile the Lieutenant was questioning Quorum as to the location of the Indian village, and was disappointed to find the negro as ignorant on the subject as himself. Quorum thought it must be on some other island, as this certainly was not the place to which he had been taken the night before. He said that on arriving there he had found the canoes and cruiser, the hut built, and the fire lighted. The young Indian who had brought him had helped carry the things up to the hut, and also given him some venison and vegetables in exchange for a small quantity of coffee and sugar. He had remained there until shortly before the arrival of the others, and Quorum had not noticed when he disappeared. Before leaving, he had told Quorum that, by the chief’s orders, the white men would remain on that island until the following evening. “Oh, we will, will we?” said Lieutenant Carey, whose pride chafed against receiving orders from an Indian, even if he was a chief. “With our own boats at hand, I don’t see what is to hinder us from leaving when we please. I wish that chief would hurry up and put in an appearance. I want to have a few words with him.” He now for the first time realized that the young Indians who had brought them there had not followed them to the camp, and he stepped down to the water’s edge to see what they were doing. To his dismay he found that they had not only disappeared, but had taken the canoes and cruiser with them. Greatly provoked at this, he returned to the camp in a very unpleasant frame of mind, mentally abusing the Indians, and regretting that, by accepting their conditions, he had so completely placed himself in their power. His good nature was somewhat restored by the supper, which was most bountiful and well cooked, and by the soothing pipe smoke that followed it; for among other things, Quorum had not neglected to bring up a plentiful supply of tobacco. After supper, as he and the boys lay outstretched on their blankets within the hut, the open side of which faced the fire, the Lieutenant acknowledged that their present position was a vast improvement on that of the night before. The boys agreed with him, though at the same time they were even more disappointed than he at not finding. themselves in an Indian village. That was one of the things they had most counted on seeing in the Everglades. Having finally decided to make the best of their situation, and to obtain the greatest possible amount of comfort and pleasure from it, they turned in, and slept soundly until morning. They were so thoroughly tired with their various hardships and labors of the two preceding days and nights that they slept late, and the sun had already been up for several hours before they answered the negro’s call to breakfast. He said that though he had been down to the shore several times after water, he had seen no signs of either canoes or Indians. Thus to all appearances they were not only the sole occupants of the island, but of the ’Glades as well. As they had nothing else to do, the Lieutenant proposed to the boys that they should explore this new island, and make such discoveries of other islands and the intervening ’Glades as could be seen from its shores. They readily agreed to this, and the three set forth. They had not gone more than a hundred yards from camp when they were suddenly confronted by a young Indian, armed with a rifle, which he pointed at them, at the same time making other signs to them to go back. At first they were greatly startled by his unexpected appearance. Then the Lieutenant undertook to remonstrate with him, and to explain that they only wanted to walk harmlessly about and view the landscape, but all in vain. The stolid-faced young savage either could not or would not understand. He only shook his head without uttering a word, but continued to make signs for them to go back. “This is one of the strangest and most irritating things that I ever heard of!” exclaimed Lieutenant Carey, after finding his efforts to communicate with the Indian unavailing. “If we only had our guns, I’d make that fellow let us pass or know the reason why. As we haven’t any, and he has one, the argument is too one-sided, and we might as well retire from it as gracefully as possible. Let us try another direction, and find out if that is also guarded.” They tried in two other places, only to be repulsed by other determined young guards who, mute as statues, were equally stolid and impervious to argument. There was nothing to do but to return to the hut and make the best of the situation. From there no signs of an Indian was to be seen; but let one of the inmates of the camp stroll beyond its limits in any direction, and the woods seemed to swarm with them, though the guards probably did not number more than half a dozen in all. The day was passed in eating, sleeping, and in discussing their peculiar situation. They were evidently prisoners, though to all appearances as free as air; but, as Lieutenant Carey said, there was no chance of their escaping from the island anyhow, so why they should be denied the privilege of walking about it he could not understand. Quorum was equally in the dark with the rest, and said that nothing of the kind had been intimated by the chiefs during their talk with him. It was finally decided that instead of being on a small island as they had supposed, they must be at one end of a large one that contained a village at the other, which, for some unknown reason, the Indians did not choose they should visit. With this solution of the problem they were forced to content themselves, and they waited with impatience the coming of night, when, according to what Ul-we had told Quorum, their journey was to be resumed.	<urn:uuid:97092b81-c84e-48e5-8895-8c7e976dee8d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/152/canoemates-a-story-of-the-florida-reef-and-everglades/2713/chapter-xxxi-a-closely-guarded-camp/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00372.warc.gz	en	0.988304	2,375	3.359375	3	[ -0.1960165649652481, -0.14348912239074707, 0.06315068900585175, -0.17319437861442566, -0.14798033237457275, -0.16157615184783936, 0.06604763865470886, 0.051262497901916504, 0.004249319434165955, -0.025363381952047348, 0.1820443868637085, -0.16827036440372467, -0.3045961558818817, 0.6233645...	1	- Year Published: 1892 - Language: English - Country of Origin: United States of America - Source: Munroe, K. (1892). Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. - Flesch–Kincaid Level: 9.5 - Word Count: 1,782 Munroe, K. (1892). Chapter XXXI: “A Closely Guarded Camp”. Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades (Lit2Go Edition). Retrieved January 23, 2020, from Munroe, Kirk. "Chapter XXXI: “A Closely Guarded Camp”." Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades. Lit2Go Edition. 1892. Web. <>. January 23, 2020. Kirk Munroe, "Chapter XXXI: “A Closely Guarded Camp”," Canoemates: A Story of the Florida Reef and Everglades, Lit2Go Edition, (1892), accessed January 23, 2020,. THE darkness, which comes so quickly after sunset in that far Southern country, with almost no intervening twilight, effectually prevented our explorers from seeing where they were going. They only knew from the stars that their general direction was east, or directly into the heart of the Everglades. They were even unable to Study the countenances, dress, or general appearance of the young Indians who, standing in the bow and stern of each canoe, drove it forward with unerring judgment and at a considerable speed by means of long push poles. These poles were quite slender; but each terminated at its lower end in an enlargement, formed by fastening a short bit of wood to either side that prevented it from sinking deeply into the sand or grass roots against which it was set. The canoes in which our voyagers were now traveling were as different from their own dainty craft as one boat can be from another. Nor did they bear the least resemblance to the bark canoes of Northern Indians, there being no Southern bark similar to that of the Northern birch, or suitable for canoe-building. They were simply dugouts, from twenty to twenty-five feet long by about three feet broad, hollowed with great skill from huge cypress logs. Their lines were fine, and, as our friends afterwards discovered, they are capital sailing craft in any wind, except dead ahead. When a Seminole decides to build one of these canoes, he first selects and fells his tree, cutting off a section of the required length, and free from knots or cracks. The upper surface of this is hewn smooth, with a slight sheer rise fore and aft. On this smooth surface a plan of the canoe is carefully outlined with charcoal, and then the outside is laboriously worked into shape with hatchets. The hollowing out of the inside is accomplished by fire and hatchets, and, considering the limited supply of tools at the builders’ disposal, the result is a triumph of marine architecture. Hatchets and knives are the only tools used in the making of the masts, spars, paddles, push poles, and spear handles that are needed for the equipment of each canoe. The ingenious builders also cut and sew their own sails, which they make of unbleached muslin bought from the trader on Biscayne Bay. Although they use no keels, centerboards, nor leeboards, they manage by holding their paddles firmly against the side of the canoe and deep in the water to sail closehauled, and to keep her up to the wind in a manner that is truly surprising. The Indians take great pride in their canoes and value them highly, for, as they are without horses, roads, or any considerable area of dry land, these are their sole means of transportation and communication between the different parts of the vast territory over which they roam. After traveling several miles, this first voyage of our explorers in Indian canoes ended at a heavily wooded islet, between the trees of which they could see the welcome glow of a campfire. To their great delight, as they reached the shore, they found their own canoes and the cruiser safely moored to it. In spite of their joy at again seeing these, they were too hungry and too impatient to visit the Indian village to do more just then than assure themselves that their own boats were all right. Then they hurried towards the fire. There was a roomy palmetto hut standing near it; but to their surprise the firelight disclosed only a single human figure, which, as they drew near, proved to be that of Quorum. He was hard at work cooking supper, and only acknowledged their presence with a grin, and the announcement that it would be ready in a few minutes. Turning to the hut, they saw that it had been recently erected, and that it Contained their own rolls of bedding, besides the little bags of toilet articles belonging to Lieutenant Carey and the boys, which Quorum had thoughtfully taken from the canoes and placed ready for their use. “I never realized the luxury of brushes and combs before!” exclaimed Worth, as he occupied the time before supper with making what was probably the most elaborate toilet ever seen in the Everglades. Meanwhile the Lieutenant was questioning Quorum as to the location of the Indian village, and was disappointed to find the negro as ignorant on the subject as himself. Quorum thought it must be on some other island, as this certainly was not the place to which he had been taken the night before. He said that on arriving there he had found the canoes and cruiser, the hut built, and the fire lighted. The young Indian who had brought him had helped carry the things up to the hut, and also given him some venison and vegetables in exchange for a small quantity of coffee and sugar. He had remained there until shortly before the arrival of the others, and Quorum had not noticed when he disappeared. Before leaving, he had told Quorum that, by the chief’s orders, the white men would remain on that island until the following evening. “Oh, we will, will we?” said Lieutenant Carey, whose pride chafed against receiving orders from an Indian, even if he was a chief. “With our own boats at hand, I don’t see what is to hinder us from leaving when we please. I wish that chief would hurry up and put in an appearance. I want to have a few words with him.” He now for the first time realized that the young Indians who had brought them there had not followed them to the camp, and he stepped down to the water’s edge to see what they were doing. To his dismay he found that they had not only disappeared, but had taken the canoes and cruiser with them. Greatly provoked at this, he returned to the camp in a very unpleasant frame of mind, mentally abusing the Indians, and regretting that, by accepting their conditions, he had so completely placed himself in their power. His good nature was somewhat restored by the supper, which was most bountiful and well cooked, and by the soothing pipe smoke that followed it; for among other things, Quorum had not neglected to bring up a plentiful supply of tobacco. After supper, as he and the boys lay outstretched on their blankets within the hut, the open side of which faced the fire, the Lieutenant acknowledged that their present position was a vast improvement on that of the night before. The boys agreed with him, though at the same time they were even more disappointed than he at not finding. themselves in an Indian village. That was one of the things they had most counted on seeing in the Everglades. Having finally decided to make the best of their situation, and to obtain the greatest possible amount of comfort and pleasure from it, they turned in, and slept soundly until morning. They were so thoroughly tired with their various hardships and labors of the two preceding days and nights that they slept late, and the sun had already been up for several hours before they answered the negro’s call to breakfast. He said that though he had been down to the shore several times after water, he had seen no signs of either canoes or Indians. Thus to all appearances they were not only the sole occupants of the island, but of the ’Glades as well. As they had nothing else to do, the Lieutenant proposed to the boys that they should explore this new island, and make such discoveries of other islands and the intervening ’Glades as could be seen from its shores. They readily agreed to this, and the three set forth. They had not gone more than a hundred yards from camp when they were suddenly confronted by a young Indian, armed with a rifle, which he pointed at them, at the same time making other signs to them to go back. At first they were greatly startled by his unexpected appearance. Then the Lieutenant undertook to remonstrate with him, and to explain that they only wanted to walk harmlessly about and view the landscape, but all in vain. The stolid-faced young savage either could not or would not understand. He only shook his head without uttering a word, but continued to make signs for them to go back. “This is one of the strangest and most irritating things that I ever heard of!” exclaimed Lieutenant Carey, after finding his efforts to communicate with the Indian unavailing. “If we only had our guns, I’d make that fellow let us pass or know the reason why. As we haven’t any, and he has one, the argument is too one-sided, and we might as well retire from it as gracefully as possible. Let us try another direction, and find out if that is also guarded.” They tried in two other places, only to be repulsed by other determined young guards who, mute as statues, were equally stolid and impervious to argument. There was nothing to do but to return to the hut and make the best of the situation. From there no signs of an Indian was to be seen; but let one of the inmates of the camp stroll beyond its limits in any direction, and the woods seemed to swarm with them, though the guards probably did not number more than half a dozen in all. The day was passed in eating, sleeping, and in discussing their peculiar situation. They were evidently prisoners, though to all appearances as free as air; but, as Lieutenant Carey said, there was no chance of their escaping from the island anyhow, so why they should be denied the privilege of walking about it he could not understand. Quorum was equally in the dark with the rest, and said that nothing of the kind had been intimated by the chiefs during their talk with him. It was finally decided that instead of being on a small island as they had supposed, they must be at one end of a large one that contained a village at the other, which, for some unknown reason, the Indians did not choose they should visit. With this solution of the problem they were forced to content themselves, and they waited with impatience the coming of night, when, according to what Ul-we had told Quorum, their journey was to be resumed.	2,344	ENGLISH	1
Spreading from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan, Buddhism has played a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and… General considerations The clan name of the historical figure referred to as the Buddha whose life is known largely through legend was Gautama in Sanskrit or Gotama in Paliand his given name was Siddhartha Sanskrit: The events of his life set forth in these texts cannot be regarded with confidence as historical, although his historical existence is accepted by scholars. He is said to have lived for 80 years, but there is considerable uncertainty concerning the date of his death. Scholarship in the 20th century limited this range considerably, with opinion generally divided between those who placed his death about bce and those who placed it as much as a century later. He was born as a royal prince in BC in a place called Lumbini, which was originally in northern India but is now part of Nepal. His parents gave him the name Siddhartha and there were many wonderful predictions about his future. In his early years he lived as a prince in his royal palace but when he was 29 years old he retired to the forest where he followed a spiritual life of meditation. He was subsequently requested to teach and as Venerable Geshe Kelsang says in Introduction to Buddhism: These teachings which include the Sutra of the Four Noble Truths and other discourses, are the principal source of the Hinayana, or Lesser Vehicle, of Buddhism. These teachings are the source of the Mahayana, or Great Vehicle, of Buddhism. In the Hinayana teachings Buddha explains how to attain liberation from suffering for oneself alone, and in the Mahayana teachings he explains how to attain full enlightenment, or Buddhahood, for the sake of others. Both traditions flourished in Asia, at first in India and then gradually in other surrounding countries, including Tibet. Now they are also beginning to flourish in the West. His intention in founding Buddhism was to lead living beings to permanent liberation from suffering. He realized temporary liberation from suffering and difficulties is not enough. Motivated by love and compassion his aim was to help living beings find lasting peace or nirvana.Buddha Statue: A Symbol of the Enlightened One The Buddha Statue signifies the "Enlightened One," the basic idol of Buddhism. Buddhism conveys the philosophy of self-perfection - its essentials are contained in the . "Buddha" is the term an individual receives when he or she fully comprehends the Four Noble Truths, sheds earthly ignorance and is fully awake, or enlightened. Buddhists do not believe a person is born a Buddha, but achieve it through his or her own spiritual work, and so becomes the "Enlightened One.". Oct 02, · The history of Buddhism is the story of one man's spiritual journey to Enlightenment, and of the teachings and ways of living that developed from it. Siddhartha Gautama - The Buddha By finding the path to Enlightenment, Siddhartha was led from the pain of suffering and rebirth towards the path of Enlightenment and became known as . "Buddha" is the term an individual receives when he or she fully comprehends the Four Noble Truths, sheds earthly ignorance and is fully awake, or enlightened. Buddhists do not believe a person is born a Buddha, but achieve it through his or her own spiritual work, and so becomes the "Enlightened. The Buddha, or "enlightened one," was born Siddhartha (which means "he who achieves his aim") Gautama to a large clan called the Shakyas in Lumbini, (today, modern Nepal) in the 6th century B.C. Oct 02, · The Buddha. The history of Buddhism is the story of one man's spiritual journey to Enlightenment, and of the teachings and ways of living that developed from it.	<urn:uuid:bb25015f-e92d-466b-bde3-dd67cb7e032b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://videsahaze.torosgazete.com/the-history-of-buddha-the-enlightened-one-15859yg.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00049.warc.gz	en	0.982477	804	3.28125	3	[ 0.16270029544830322, 0.30631959438323975, 0.18778231739997864, -0.37575915455818176, -0.4545155465602875, 0.14838987588882446, 0.7008176445960999, -0.4247826039791107, 0.16683156788349152, 0.17989015579223633, -0.012680714949965477, -0.19376236200332642, 0.3600899577140808, 0.4272095859050...	1	Spreading from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan, Buddhism has played a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and… General considerations The clan name of the historical figure referred to as the Buddha whose life is known largely through legend was Gautama in Sanskrit or Gotama in Paliand his given name was Siddhartha Sanskrit: The events of his life set forth in these texts cannot be regarded with confidence as historical, although his historical existence is accepted by scholars. He is said to have lived for 80 years, but there is considerable uncertainty concerning the date of his death. Scholarship in the 20th century limited this range considerably, with opinion generally divided between those who placed his death about bce and those who placed it as much as a century later. He was born as a royal prince in BC in a place called Lumbini, which was originally in northern India but is now part of Nepal. His parents gave him the name Siddhartha and there were many wonderful predictions about his future. In his early years he lived as a prince in his royal palace but when he was 29 years old he retired to the forest where he followed a spiritual life of meditation. He was subsequently requested to teach and as Venerable Geshe Kelsang says in Introduction to Buddhism: These teachings which include the Sutra of the Four Noble Truths and other discourses, are the principal source of the Hinayana, or Lesser Vehicle, of Buddhism. These teachings are the source of the Mahayana, or Great Vehicle, of Buddhism. In the Hinayana teachings Buddha explains how to attain liberation from suffering for oneself alone, and in the Mahayana teachings he explains how to attain full enlightenment, or Buddhahood, for the sake of others. Both traditions flourished in Asia, at first in India and then gradually in other surrounding countries, including Tibet. Now they are also beginning to flourish in the West. His intention in founding Buddhism was to lead living beings to permanent liberation from suffering. He realized temporary liberation from suffering and difficulties is not enough. Motivated by love and compassion his aim was to help living beings find lasting peace or nirvana.Buddha Statue: A Symbol of the Enlightened One The Buddha Statue signifies the "Enlightened One," the basic idol of Buddhism. Buddhism conveys the philosophy of self-perfection - its essentials are contained in the . "Buddha" is the term an individual receives when he or she fully comprehends the Four Noble Truths, sheds earthly ignorance and is fully awake, or enlightened. Buddhists do not believe a person is born a Buddha, but achieve it through his or her own spiritual work, and so becomes the "Enlightened One.". Oct 02, · The history of Buddhism is the story of one man's spiritual journey to Enlightenment, and of the teachings and ways of living that developed from it. Siddhartha Gautama - The Buddha By finding the path to Enlightenment, Siddhartha was led from the pain of suffering and rebirth towards the path of Enlightenment and became known as . "Buddha" is the term an individual receives when he or she fully comprehends the Four Noble Truths, sheds earthly ignorance and is fully awake, or enlightened. Buddhists do not believe a person is born a Buddha, but achieve it through his or her own spiritual work, and so becomes the "Enlightened. The Buddha, or "enlightened one," was born Siddhartha (which means "he who achieves his aim") Gautama to a large clan called the Shakyas in Lumbini, (today, modern Nepal) in the 6th century B.C. Oct 02, · The Buddha. The history of Buddhism is the story of one man's spiritual journey to Enlightenment, and of the teachings and ways of living that developed from it.	799	ENGLISH	1
Yawning is a bodily activity common in most of the vertebrates. It is also known as oscitation. In humans, it occurs as early as 20 weeks after conception. It also has been proved that it is contagious and we will most probably yawn when someone next to us does the same. It is even more contagious among people who are genetically or emotionally related. An average yawn lasts 5 to 6 seconds. There are many theories given by researchers to conclude why we yawn but the exact reason backed by proof has not been figured out yet. Quick Facts: – - Yawning is somehow related to how tired we are feeling at that particular moment. It also seems to increase with boredom. - Animals also yawn like we do. This physical phenomenon has been observed in primates. - According to a study it has been concluded that people are more likely to yawn during the winter. - This physical phenomenon becomes transmissible in the first 1 or 2 years of a person’s life. - A recent study found out that yawning is originated from primitive reflexes in the primary motor cortex. This area of brain is responsible for motor functions. - It sometimes allows us to think more clearly and have better ability to concentrate on things. - It brings more oxygen into our bloodstream and simultaneously cleanse it of carbon dioxide.	<urn:uuid:4953d7c3-b159-40ba-9c31-2efac1396c6c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://easyscienceforkids.com/all-about-yawning/?print=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00322.warc.gz	en	0.980768	274	3.9375	4	[ -0.04156731069087982, 0.04948534816503525, 0.6125003695487976, 0.1420029103755951, 0.1011979877948761, 0.342681348323822, 0.6479100584983826, 0.28650203347206116, 0.3283292055130005, 0.0253764595836401, -0.16400672495365143, -0.30228760838508606, 0.25723588466644287, 0.3916850686073303, ...	10	Yawning is a bodily activity common in most of the vertebrates. It is also known as oscitation. In humans, it occurs as early as 20 weeks after conception. It also has been proved that it is contagious and we will most probably yawn when someone next to us does the same. It is even more contagious among people who are genetically or emotionally related. An average yawn lasts 5 to 6 seconds. There are many theories given by researchers to conclude why we yawn but the exact reason backed by proof has not been figured out yet. Quick Facts: – - Yawning is somehow related to how tired we are feeling at that particular moment. It also seems to increase with boredom. - Animals also yawn like we do. This physical phenomenon has been observed in primates. - According to a study it has been concluded that people are more likely to yawn during the winter. - This physical phenomenon becomes transmissible in the first 1 or 2 years of a person’s life. - A recent study found out that yawning is originated from primitive reflexes in the primary motor cortex. This area of brain is responsible for motor functions. - It sometimes allows us to think more clearly and have better ability to concentrate on things. - It brings more oxygen into our bloodstream and simultaneously cleanse it of carbon dioxide.	272	ENGLISH	1
Michel had to fight several times with the Iroquois as a lieutenant and later as a captain of the militia. Militiamen in Montreal were present whenever their services were required and they were greatly appreciated. We think of the expedition of January 9, 1666, where 70 militiamen of Ville-Marie accompanied the soldiers and September 14, 1666 with 110 Montrealers, etc. Militiamen from Montreal had the reputation of being hard fighters and were feared warriors of the Iroquois. They said they would rather face two French from elsewhere rather than a guy from Montreal. His first captivity In the fall of 1654, Michael is in New France for 5 years. They leave the fort to clear the land. To protect themselves from enemy attacks which very common, the settlers decided to post a sentry to guard against any surprise attack. Clearing the land demand strong arms. Michel was fourteen, he does not have the strength of a man. They resolved to give him a weapon with the task of ensuring the protection of workers has a sentinal. To get a better view, he decided to post himself on a big tree stump. The hours passed, his attention is drawn to the forest and occasionally to workers. The enemy lurks. Iroquois slowly approaches the sentry whenever his gaze is directed towards the settlers. When Michel looks to the forest, the Iroquois remain motionless, hidden by a tree or bush. The Iroquois wait patiently for the right moment. at the right time, the Iroquois charges to grabb him by the legs and fled at full speed towards their accomplices. Our ancestor was ataken prisoner. Upon his cries, the settlers organized to try to snatch the teenager from the enemy. The noise attracts Lambert Closse who was in the fort. He sees an Iroquois captain named "La Barrique" haranguing his troops to attack the French. Lambert Closse asks his best shot to kill this man. He executed his shot perfectly. At the sight of their leader they believe dead, the Iroquois retreat bringing with them their prisoner. "La Barrique" will be taken to the fort, where the care of Jeanne Mance saves his life. This is the beginning of a long guerrilla war ending in June 1655 by the release of Michel. An exchange of prisoners is done. Many Iroquois were held in Ville-Marie. Disembarking their prisoners on the banks of St. Lawrence, they leave them to the first settlers there to get their prisoners. They rush to seek their fortunes strong brothers. Michel returns from captivity with other French men and Elizabeth Moyen who became the wife of Lambert Closse. The absence of Michel lasted roughly nine months. Elizabeth Moyen, this young 14 year old girl whose parents were killed by the Iroquois, was supported by Jeanne Mance. She was then assigned to the Messier family, with a good reputation, until her marriage with Lambert Closse. Second captivity of Michel On Thursday, March 24, 1661, near Ville-Marie, there was a strong fight. Many French were killed, others were taken prisoners. Michel is among them. On June 18, 1661, at the baptism of his daughter Jeanne, he is absent and in the register we do not know whether he is dead or alive. A few days later, ambassadors of peace for Iroquois appear in Ville-Marie. Charles Lemoyne, diplomat and interpreter inquires about the French prisoners. He places particular emphasis on the fate of his brother-in-law Michel Messier. Mohawk ambassadors tell him after the fights of March 24, they had traded prisoners and that Michel was in the hands of Onondaga to be burned. This is an outrage in Ville-Marie. Michel is well regarded and what's more he is allied with the main families of the area. He was also the boy that Maisonneuve, Jeanne Mance and other founders of Montreal knew him well. In the records of Ville-Marie of June 22, 1661, three months after it is made his death is registered Later, at an unspecified date, these words were added: "Since that time, we got some news that he is not dead." Where is Michel? Father de Jordy claims he escaped his tormentors before they put their plan into action. To support this thesis, he copied a text he found in the Jesuit Relations, replacing a "French" by "Michel Messier." I do not think French is the husband of Anne LeMoyne. The Iroquois, his jailers, have three choices of his fate: to kill now, be considered a slave or be adopted by a family. He will probably be spared being "adopted" by Indian custom, to replace a brother, a husband or a son killed in the war. It was often women who decide the fate of prisoners. Their clothes are destroyed and replaced by those worn by the Indians. His come back On August 29, 1661, Mr. Lemaitre, Sulpician, was killed and beheaded by the Iroquois. They wrapped his head in his handkerchief and brought the macabre package with them. In their village, they develop the parcel and surprise! The figure of the Sulpician appears printed on the handkerchief. Some French prisoners whose Michel Messier "trustworthy man" according to the testimony of Sister Marie Morin, Hospitalière of St. Joseph, saw the handkerchief. So late 1661, Michel is still a prisoner. Some believe that he is among his own, on August 31, 1662, when the Iroquois returned to Ville-Marie with some prisoners. Again, we must reject this hypothesis. On May 13, 1664, in Dieppe, Jean Assegond, notary instead, has a proxy Charles, Jacques and Jeanne and Anne Lemoyne about the succession of their parents. Attorney dated on September 4, 1662, five days after the arrival of the Iroquois. The document states that the husband of Anne Lemoyne is still a prisoner. Meanwhile the promised reinforcements, M. de Maisonneuve creates, on January 27, 1663, the militia of the Holy Family of Montreal to defend his enemies. Michel, who is still unavailable and therefore he is not with them. The reason is that he is still a prisoner. The following explanation is the most logical. In spring 1663, Michel joined other French to slip away from his capture. Taking advantage of a hunting party, he fled in the direction of Fort Orange (Albany), at Dutch people. His escape through the woods lasts nine days traveling at night and hiding during the day to avoid being taken. Having achieved his goal and with the complicity of his hosts, he won Manhattan (New York). Then with the help of the English, he heads to Boston. He is not alone in having distorted the vigilance of his captors. In Boston, he is with six other French people. The following scenario seems pretty close to the truth. With other French, Michel embarks on an English ship. The ship leaves Acadia in a boat where a French ship takes charge and leads them to Quebec. Certainly, on July 30, 1663, it was the arrival in Quebec French ship with the English boat that brought Michel and six other French. Did our ancestor leave immediately for Ville-Marie? On July 31, Father Lemoyne left Quebec for Montreal. Was Michel there with the group that accompanied the father Lemoyne? On November 3, 1663, in Montreal, he is present at the baptism of Marie Anne Picard. Third captivity of Michel In spring 1692, the Iroquois are present in the eastern part of Ontario and a convoy of Michilimackinac was expected. Governor Frontenac asked Mr. De Callière to send some travelers to the West. They are escorted by three boats, one commanded by Michel Messier, arrived at the Chats on the Ottawa River, Michel drops to Montreal. On his return, he notices traces of Iroquois. He made his report to M. de Callière, worried, he sends forty men commanded by Michel with a mission to search the river. He went to the Island of Calumets without notice. He returned to Montreal where he made his report to Mr de Frontenac, who had orders to be transmitted to the commander of Michilimackinac. The Governor therefore gave documents to Michel who took the path to go back. To the Portage des Chats, the Iroquois are out in force. He should turn back before being spotted. About sixty "Ball Heads" are in Montreal. They are asking the Governor to get an escort to the mouth of the Lievre River. Michel offers to drive. They gave him thirty men and three officers. These Indians are not warriors. Arrived at the Long Sault, they must make a portage to avoid the rapids. The tour group was surprised by the enemy. A discharge kills and injures several Frenchmen. In a glance, the "Heads Ball" vanish into the forest. As related by Michel to Father Charlevoix, the French defend themselves with bravery which would have saved them if their savages had not forsaken them. They try to escape in a canoe. By misfortune, that of Michel and the two of Hertel capsize. The enemy is one hundred and forty men and about sixty women and children. The French are knocked out and Michel was captured a third time, it is still in Onondaga, with their leader "Boiler Black" which boasts of being able to shake the earth. This time, his imprisonment will be shorter. When the Sovereign Council meets on October 6, 1692, to judge a case where Michel is involved, it is said that he is dead. A few days later, on October 13, there is another meeting of the Supreme Council. This time they say that he is not dead but a prisoner. He is being held at the Iroquois headquarters. In July 1693, after giving his captors the slip, he returned to Montreal after walking 25 days through the woods. He informed the authorities that the English built a fort of eight bastions double fence in Onnontagué. Now, the Iroquois headquarters is located near Syracuse NY, Maybe, it serve as a refuge for Iroquois when attacking the French. Michel also says martyrdom has had to undergo Onnontagué woman named Françoise. She decided to be a Christian and remain in Sault St. Louis, opposite Lachine. At this point, she is kidnapped by his own and returned to her family. The story of his torments, narrated by our ancestor made many Montrealers cry. Even his eyes were covered with tears when he described this event. On August 26, 1693, he was in Montreal before the notary Adhemar. Text comes from the volume of Gilles Messier: Les Messier et leurs ancêtres, 700 ans d'histoire. Last update : August 9, 2014	<urn:uuid:475dba19-f102-48d7-8c6f-bc24db255753>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.famillemessierfamily.org/michel-captivity-e	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00400.warc.gz	en	0.98269	2,314	3.359375	3	[ -0.4802305996417999, 0.7079684734344482, 0.15801188349723816, 0.05419638380408287, -0.1934136152267456, -0.18625380098819733, 0.23366747796535492, 0.4557238817214966, 0.04657347872853279, 0.026256665587425232, 0.184169739484787, -0.07672009617090225, -0.1289789080619812, 0.3888667225837707...	6	Michel had to fight several times with the Iroquois as a lieutenant and later as a captain of the militia. Militiamen in Montreal were present whenever their services were required and they were greatly appreciated. We think of the expedition of January 9, 1666, where 70 militiamen of Ville-Marie accompanied the soldiers and September 14, 1666 with 110 Montrealers, etc. Militiamen from Montreal had the reputation of being hard fighters and were feared warriors of the Iroquois. They said they would rather face two French from elsewhere rather than a guy from Montreal. His first captivity In the fall of 1654, Michael is in New France for 5 years. They leave the fort to clear the land. To protect themselves from enemy attacks which very common, the settlers decided to post a sentry to guard against any surprise attack. Clearing the land demand strong arms. Michel was fourteen, he does not have the strength of a man. They resolved to give him a weapon with the task of ensuring the protection of workers has a sentinal. To get a better view, he decided to post himself on a big tree stump. The hours passed, his attention is drawn to the forest and occasionally to workers. The enemy lurks. Iroquois slowly approaches the sentry whenever his gaze is directed towards the settlers. When Michel looks to the forest, the Iroquois remain motionless, hidden by a tree or bush. The Iroquois wait patiently for the right moment. at the right time, the Iroquois charges to grabb him by the legs and fled at full speed towards their accomplices. Our ancestor was ataken prisoner. Upon his cries, the settlers organized to try to snatch the teenager from the enemy. The noise attracts Lambert Closse who was in the fort. He sees an Iroquois captain named "La Barrique" haranguing his troops to attack the French. Lambert Closse asks his best shot to kill this man. He executed his shot perfectly. At the sight of their leader they believe dead, the Iroquois retreat bringing with them their prisoner. "La Barrique" will be taken to the fort, where the care of Jeanne Mance saves his life. This is the beginning of a long guerrilla war ending in June 1655 by the release of Michel. An exchange of prisoners is done. Many Iroquois were held in Ville-Marie. Disembarking their prisoners on the banks of St. Lawrence, they leave them to the first settlers there to get their prisoners. They rush to seek their fortunes strong brothers. Michel returns from captivity with other French men and Elizabeth Moyen who became the wife of Lambert Closse. The absence of Michel lasted roughly nine months. Elizabeth Moyen, this young 14 year old girl whose parents were killed by the Iroquois, was supported by Jeanne Mance. She was then assigned to the Messier family, with a good reputation, until her marriage with Lambert Closse. Second captivity of Michel On Thursday, March 24, 1661, near Ville-Marie, there was a strong fight. Many French were killed, others were taken prisoners. Michel is among them. On June 18, 1661, at the baptism of his daughter Jeanne, he is absent and in the register we do not know whether he is dead or alive. A few days later, ambassadors of peace for Iroquois appear in Ville-Marie. Charles Lemoyne, diplomat and interpreter inquires about the French prisoners. He places particular emphasis on the fate of his brother-in-law Michel Messier. Mohawk ambassadors tell him after the fights of March 24, they had traded prisoners and that Michel was in the hands of Onondaga to be burned. This is an outrage in Ville-Marie. Michel is well regarded and what's more he is allied with the main families of the area. He was also the boy that Maisonneuve, Jeanne Mance and other founders of Montreal knew him well. In the records of Ville-Marie of June 22, 1661, three months after it is made his death is registered Later, at an unspecified date, these words were added: "Since that time, we got some news that he is not dead." Where is Michel? Father de Jordy claims he escaped his tormentors before they put their plan into action. To support this thesis, he copied a text he found in the Jesuit Relations, replacing a "French" by "Michel Messier." I do not think French is the husband of Anne LeMoyne. The Iroquois, his jailers, have three choices of his fate: to kill now, be considered a slave or be adopted by a family. He will probably be spared being "adopted" by Indian custom, to replace a brother, a husband or a son killed in the war. It was often women who decide the fate of prisoners. Their clothes are destroyed and replaced by those worn by the Indians. His come back On August 29, 1661, Mr. Lemaitre, Sulpician, was killed and beheaded by the Iroquois. They wrapped his head in his handkerchief and brought the macabre package with them. In their village, they develop the parcel and surprise! The figure of the Sulpician appears printed on the handkerchief. Some French prisoners whose Michel Messier "trustworthy man" according to the testimony of Sister Marie Morin, Hospitalière of St. Joseph, saw the handkerchief. So late 1661, Michel is still a prisoner. Some believe that he is among his own, on August 31, 1662, when the Iroquois returned to Ville-Marie with some prisoners. Again, we must reject this hypothesis. On May 13, 1664, in Dieppe, Jean Assegond, notary instead, has a proxy Charles, Jacques and Jeanne and Anne Lemoyne about the succession of their parents. Attorney dated on September 4, 1662, five days after the arrival of the Iroquois. The document states that the husband of Anne Lemoyne is still a prisoner. Meanwhile the promised reinforcements, M. de Maisonneuve creates, on January 27, 1663, the militia of the Holy Family of Montreal to defend his enemies. Michel, who is still unavailable and therefore he is not with them. The reason is that he is still a prisoner. The following explanation is the most logical. In spring 1663, Michel joined other French to slip away from his capture. Taking advantage of a hunting party, he fled in the direction of Fort Orange (Albany), at Dutch people. His escape through the woods lasts nine days traveling at night and hiding during the day to avoid being taken. Having achieved his goal and with the complicity of his hosts, he won Manhattan (New York). Then with the help of the English, he heads to Boston. He is not alone in having distorted the vigilance of his captors. In Boston, he is with six other French people. The following scenario seems pretty close to the truth. With other French, Michel embarks on an English ship. The ship leaves Acadia in a boat where a French ship takes charge and leads them to Quebec. Certainly, on July 30, 1663, it was the arrival in Quebec French ship with the English boat that brought Michel and six other French. Did our ancestor leave immediately for Ville-Marie? On July 31, Father Lemoyne left Quebec for Montreal. Was Michel there with the group that accompanied the father Lemoyne? On November 3, 1663, in Montreal, he is present at the baptism of Marie Anne Picard. Third captivity of Michel In spring 1692, the Iroquois are present in the eastern part of Ontario and a convoy of Michilimackinac was expected. Governor Frontenac asked Mr. De Callière to send some travelers to the West. They are escorted by three boats, one commanded by Michel Messier, arrived at the Chats on the Ottawa River, Michel drops to Montreal. On his return, he notices traces of Iroquois. He made his report to M. de Callière, worried, he sends forty men commanded by Michel with a mission to search the river. He went to the Island of Calumets without notice. He returned to Montreal where he made his report to Mr de Frontenac, who had orders to be transmitted to the commander of Michilimackinac. The Governor therefore gave documents to Michel who took the path to go back. To the Portage des Chats, the Iroquois are out in force. He should turn back before being spotted. About sixty "Ball Heads" are in Montreal. They are asking the Governor to get an escort to the mouth of the Lievre River. Michel offers to drive. They gave him thirty men and three officers. These Indians are not warriors. Arrived at the Long Sault, they must make a portage to avoid the rapids. The tour group was surprised by the enemy. A discharge kills and injures several Frenchmen. In a glance, the "Heads Ball" vanish into the forest. As related by Michel to Father Charlevoix, the French defend themselves with bravery which would have saved them if their savages had not forsaken them. They try to escape in a canoe. By misfortune, that of Michel and the two of Hertel capsize. The enemy is one hundred and forty men and about sixty women and children. The French are knocked out and Michel was captured a third time, it is still in Onondaga, with their leader "Boiler Black" which boasts of being able to shake the earth. This time, his imprisonment will be shorter. When the Sovereign Council meets on October 6, 1692, to judge a case where Michel is involved, it is said that he is dead. A few days later, on October 13, there is another meeting of the Supreme Council. This time they say that he is not dead but a prisoner. He is being held at the Iroquois headquarters. In July 1693, after giving his captors the slip, he returned to Montreal after walking 25 days through the woods. He informed the authorities that the English built a fort of eight bastions double fence in Onnontagué. Now, the Iroquois headquarters is located near Syracuse NY, Maybe, it serve as a refuge for Iroquois when attacking the French. Michel also says martyrdom has had to undergo Onnontagué woman named Françoise. She decided to be a Christian and remain in Sault St. Louis, opposite Lachine. At this point, she is kidnapped by his own and returned to her family. The story of his torments, narrated by our ancestor made many Montrealers cry. Even his eyes were covered with tears when he described this event. On August 26, 1693, he was in Montreal before the notary Adhemar. Text comes from the volume of Gilles Messier: Les Messier et leurs ancêtres, 700 ans d'histoire. Last update : August 9, 2014	2,415	ENGLISH	1
The origins of Morris dancing Morris dancing has been part of English life for at least 600 years and perhaps even longer. Its exact origins are unknown though some believe that it was brought back to England by the Crusaders who had seen it danced by the Moors’ hence the term ‘Moorish’ or Morris dancing. The style of dancing is particular to England but there are some similarities with Basque and Catalan dancing in Spain and the male traditional dances of some parts of North Africa. All these traditions involve dancing with bells attached to the shins, costumes which are predominantly white and the use of sticks or handkerchiefs. Research has revealed that Morris was a part of the Court entertainment during the early 16th century during the reign of Henry VIII. From here it seems to have spread out into the countryside and developed links with pagan rituals that sought to encourage the growing of crops. Morris was traditionally danced at Whitsuntide and became linked to village festivities and church ales. This usually involved a set of six dancers accompanied by a musician playing the pipe and tabor (later the fiddle) and the dancers often assumed traditional character roles to entertain the audience. These characters included the ‘fool’ (linked to the court jester perhaps?) and various animals often a hobby horse and Adderbury Village Morris Men (AVMM) are usually accompanied by both. It is thought that the elaborate costumes worn my Morris dancers were associated with fertility rites and some folklore points to the use of bells to ward off evil spirits. Even today, most Morris sides wear bells on their shins. In addition to the bells, crossed ribbons are usually worn and these are known as baldrics. To complete the attire, hats are often worn – either a bowler or a top hat as worn by AVMM. Morris dancing in Adderbury Different areas of the country developed their own variant of Morris dancing and by the nineteenth century, many villages in the Cotswolds were performing a version of Morris dancing now known as ‘Cotswold Morris’. Like many other villages in Oxfordshire, Adderbury had a thriving Morris tradition. At one time there were at least three separate sides and they danced in Adderbury and the surrounding villages in Whit week. They also danced regularly at Banbury Fair. The well know Banbury eccentric William Castle (‘Old Mettle’) was born in Adderbury and acted as ‘fool’ to one of the Adderbury sides. By the end of the nineteenth century Morris dancing appears to have declined in popularity and the Adderbury side stopped dancing during the 1880s. Morris dancing continued though in a few villages in Oxfordshire (for example, Bampton, Headington Quarry and Abingdon) but they were very much the exception. The reduction in rural populations as people migrated from agricultural work to better paid jobs in towns and cities seems to have been a major factor in the decline of rural traditions like Morris dancing. In the early part of the twentieth century a revival side was formed in Adderbury – apparently Morris dancing was taught in the village school and the side featured in the Empire Day celebrations in the village in 1908. Arising from this, a men’s side developed and continued to dance until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Most of the side left the village to join the armed forces and only one – Charlie Coleman returned to the village in 1918 and so the side never danced again. During the First World War, Janet Blunt, a village resident interested in folk traditions and apparently influenced by the folk archivist Cecil Sharp, began to note down the dances during conversations with two of the dancers from the old nineteenth century side (William and John Walton). Ms Blunt also introduced William Walton to Cecil Sharp who also documented the dances and tunes and later published them in his Morris book. During the Morris revival of the twentieth century, many sides began learning the Adderbury dances and some visited the village and performed the dances. Janet Blunt attempted on several occasions during the 1920s and 30s to revive the side in Adderbury without success. The modern revival in Adderbury In April 1975, following a 12 month period of extensive research and practice, a group of dancers based in Adderbury began to perform the Morris dances of Adderbury again in the village. They danced all day and in every part of the village, performing all the dances collected by Cecil Sharp and Janet Blunt. Every year since then the revival is celebrated in the same way on what has become known as ‘the day of dance’- normally held on the last Saturday in April. It has grown in popularity over the years and is now one of the most important events in the village calendar. Since April 1976, there have been two male teams of traditional Morris dancers based in Adderbury who perform on the day of dance – joined more recently by a female side. Forty years on, some of the revival side dancers and musicians are still performing and every year are joined by enthusiastic younger dancers and musicians who share a determination to keep the tradition alive in Adderbury. Past Squires: Bryan Sheppard; Jim Plester; Edd Frost; Dave Reed	<urn:uuid:e3fd48e1-226c-41bb-8c7c-3949467b30f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://adderburyvillagemorrismen.co.uk/history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00187.warc.gz	en	0.980599	1,080	3.59375	4	[ -0.24156241118907928, 0.04829173535108566, 0.43435966968536377, 0.2153249979019165, -0.2345559298992157, 0.27685195207595825, 0.021894458681344986, -0.17502723634243011, 0.21441954374313354, -0.15544700622558594, 0.11601445823907852, -0.06559621542692184, 0.07216480374336243, 0.07654013484...	3	The origins of Morris dancing Morris dancing has been part of English life for at least 600 years and perhaps even longer. Its exact origins are unknown though some believe that it was brought back to England by the Crusaders who had seen it danced by the Moors’ hence the term ‘Moorish’ or Morris dancing. The style of dancing is particular to England but there are some similarities with Basque and Catalan dancing in Spain and the male traditional dances of some parts of North Africa. All these traditions involve dancing with bells attached to the shins, costumes which are predominantly white and the use of sticks or handkerchiefs. Research has revealed that Morris was a part of the Court entertainment during the early 16th century during the reign of Henry VIII. From here it seems to have spread out into the countryside and developed links with pagan rituals that sought to encourage the growing of crops. Morris was traditionally danced at Whitsuntide and became linked to village festivities and church ales. This usually involved a set of six dancers accompanied by a musician playing the pipe and tabor (later the fiddle) and the dancers often assumed traditional character roles to entertain the audience. These characters included the ‘fool’ (linked to the court jester perhaps?) and various animals often a hobby horse and Adderbury Village Morris Men (AVMM) are usually accompanied by both. It is thought that the elaborate costumes worn my Morris dancers were associated with fertility rites and some folklore points to the use of bells to ward off evil spirits. Even today, most Morris sides wear bells on their shins. In addition to the bells, crossed ribbons are usually worn and these are known as baldrics. To complete the attire, hats are often worn – either a bowler or a top hat as worn by AVMM. Morris dancing in Adderbury Different areas of the country developed their own variant of Morris dancing and by the nineteenth century, many villages in the Cotswolds were performing a version of Morris dancing now known as ‘Cotswold Morris’. Like many other villages in Oxfordshire, Adderbury had a thriving Morris tradition. At one time there were at least three separate sides and they danced in Adderbury and the surrounding villages in Whit week. They also danced regularly at Banbury Fair. The well know Banbury eccentric William Castle (‘Old Mettle’) was born in Adderbury and acted as ‘fool’ to one of the Adderbury sides. By the end of the nineteenth century Morris dancing appears to have declined in popularity and the Adderbury side stopped dancing during the 1880s. Morris dancing continued though in a few villages in Oxfordshire (for example, Bampton, Headington Quarry and Abingdon) but they were very much the exception. The reduction in rural populations as people migrated from agricultural work to better paid jobs in towns and cities seems to have been a major factor in the decline of rural traditions like Morris dancing. In the early part of the twentieth century a revival side was formed in Adderbury – apparently Morris dancing was taught in the village school and the side featured in the Empire Day celebrations in the village in 1908. Arising from this, a men’s side developed and continued to dance until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Most of the side left the village to join the armed forces and only one – Charlie Coleman returned to the village in 1918 and so the side never danced again. During the First World War, Janet Blunt, a village resident interested in folk traditions and apparently influenced by the folk archivist Cecil Sharp, began to note down the dances during conversations with two of the dancers from the old nineteenth century side (William and John Walton). Ms Blunt also introduced William Walton to Cecil Sharp who also documented the dances and tunes and later published them in his Morris book. During the Morris revival of the twentieth century, many sides began learning the Adderbury dances and some visited the village and performed the dances. Janet Blunt attempted on several occasions during the 1920s and 30s to revive the side in Adderbury without success. The modern revival in Adderbury In April 1975, following a 12 month period of extensive research and practice, a group of dancers based in Adderbury began to perform the Morris dances of Adderbury again in the village. They danced all day and in every part of the village, performing all the dances collected by Cecil Sharp and Janet Blunt. Every year since then the revival is celebrated in the same way on what has become known as ‘the day of dance’- normally held on the last Saturday in April. It has grown in popularity over the years and is now one of the most important events in the village calendar. Since April 1976, there have been two male teams of traditional Morris dancers based in Adderbury who perform on the day of dance – joined more recently by a female side. Forty years on, some of the revival side dancers and musicians are still performing and every year are joined by enthusiastic younger dancers and musicians who share a determination to keep the tradition alive in Adderbury. Past Squires: Bryan Sheppard; Jim Plester; Edd Frost; Dave Reed	1,090	ENGLISH	1
At a Glance African American author James Baldwin, primarily explores issues of injustice and identity. His first novel, the semi-autobiographical Go Tell it On the Mountain (1953) and his essay collections, like Notes of a Native Son (1955) are among his better-known works. Born in 1924 in Harlem, Baldwin never knew his biological father, his mother was impoverished, and his stepfather was abusive. Baldwin himself was gay and had to live, oppressed not only by intolerance toward his skin color, but also toward his sexuality. To escape being pigeon-holed as a writer and as a person, Baldwin traveled to Europe in 1948, though still spent much of his life in the United States, for instance in 1957, while the Civil Rights Act was being debated in Congress. Facts and Trivia - Baldwin became a preacher at the age of fourteen and delivered sermons for three years, but he later left the church entirely. - Baldwin finished Go Tell It on the Mountain not in Harlem, the city of his upbringing and setting of the novel, but in Switzerland. - Baldwin was of great interest to the F.B.I., which purportedly held more than 1,750 files on his activities. - One of Baldwin’s most quoted maxims is “Children have never been very good at listening to their elders, but they have never failed to imitate them.” Article abstract: During the racial unrest in the United States in the 1960’s, Baldwin was the most visible and respected literary figure in the Civil Rights movement. His best work has focused on racial concerns and on homosexuality. James Baldwin, the son of Berdis Jones Baldwin and the stepson of David Baldwin, a Baptist preacher, was born and grew up in New York City’s black ghetto, Harlem; he was the oldest of nine children. By the time he was fourteen years old, Baldwin, then a student in New York’s De Witt Clinton High School, was preaching in Harlem’s Fireside Pentecostal Church. His earliest writing appeared in The Magpie, his high school’s student newspaper, to which he contributed three stories before becoming coeditor in chief, a job he shared with fellow student Richard Avedon. Upon graduation from high school in 1942, Baldwin, rejected for military service, took a job working for a railroad in New Jersey. He had just renounced the church and, although he never went back to it and scorned Christianity for what he perceived as its racism, much of the rhythm of black preaching and much of the drama of evangelical church services are found in most of his work. Baldwin sought refuge in the church during an uncertain period in his adolescence, but as he analyzed seriously his position as both a member of a racial minority and a homosexual, he found in literature more helpful solutions to the problems that plagued him than he had found in religion. Between 1942 and 1944, Baldwin held menial jobs, some of them in the thriving wartime defense industries. A turning point came for him in 1944, when, having moved to New York City’s Greenwich Village, he met Richard Wright, one of the leading black writers in the United States. Baldwin was working on his first novel, “In My Father’s House,” at that time. Although the novel remained unpublished, Wright arranged for Baldwin to receive the Eugene F. Saxton Memorial Trust so that he could concentrate on his writing. Baldwin first appeared in print in 1946 in The Nation, where he published a book review. He also wrote book reviews for The New Leader during the same year. In 1948, Baldwin, slight of stature and with a countenance that reflected both intensity and anguish, received the Rosenwald Fellowship. This award enabled him to move to Paris. That year, he also published an essay, “The Harlem Ghetto,” and a short story, “Previous Condition,” in Commentary. Baldwin was to live abroad for the next decade, in the middle of which his first novel, Go Tell It on the Mountain (1953), was published. (The entire section is 5,419 words.)	<urn:uuid:04f04357-8fdb-4ed0-9b98-d793f51bc9ed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/topics/james-baldwin?en_action=hh_answer_body_click&en_label=%2Fhomework-help%2Fwho-what-subject-fire-next-time-1218385%23answer-801266&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00451.warc.gz	en	0.987987	860	3.40625	3	[ -0.057896196842193604, 0.4210870862007141, 0.32305634021759033, 0.19171226024627686, -0.6352770328521729, 0.3284255862236023, 0.13153156638145447, -0.0692286267876625, -0.09793721139431, 0.12754133343696594, 0.05542819947004318, 0.1300382912158966, 0.09569205343723297, 0.10776792466640472,...	2	At a Glance African American author James Baldwin, primarily explores issues of injustice and identity. His first novel, the semi-autobiographical Go Tell it On the Mountain (1953) and his essay collections, like Notes of a Native Son (1955) are among his better-known works. Born in 1924 in Harlem, Baldwin never knew his biological father, his mother was impoverished, and his stepfather was abusive. Baldwin himself was gay and had to live, oppressed not only by intolerance toward his skin color, but also toward his sexuality. To escape being pigeon-holed as a writer and as a person, Baldwin traveled to Europe in 1948, though still spent much of his life in the United States, for instance in 1957, while the Civil Rights Act was being debated in Congress. Facts and Trivia - Baldwin became a preacher at the age of fourteen and delivered sermons for three years, but he later left the church entirely. - Baldwin finished Go Tell It on the Mountain not in Harlem, the city of his upbringing and setting of the novel, but in Switzerland. - Baldwin was of great interest to the F.B.I., which purportedly held more than 1,750 files on his activities. - One of Baldwin’s most quoted maxims is “Children have never been very good at listening to their elders, but they have never failed to imitate them.” Article abstract: During the racial unrest in the United States in the 1960’s, Baldwin was the most visible and respected literary figure in the Civil Rights movement. His best work has focused on racial concerns and on homosexuality. James Baldwin, the son of Berdis Jones Baldwin and the stepson of David Baldwin, a Baptist preacher, was born and grew up in New York City’s black ghetto, Harlem; he was the oldest of nine children. By the time he was fourteen years old, Baldwin, then a student in New York’s De Witt Clinton High School, was preaching in Harlem’s Fireside Pentecostal Church. His earliest writing appeared in The Magpie, his high school’s student newspaper, to which he contributed three stories before becoming coeditor in chief, a job he shared with fellow student Richard Avedon. Upon graduation from high school in 1942, Baldwin, rejected for military service, took a job working for a railroad in New Jersey. He had just renounced the church and, although he never went back to it and scorned Christianity for what he perceived as its racism, much of the rhythm of black preaching and much of the drama of evangelical church services are found in most of his work. Baldwin sought refuge in the church during an uncertain period in his adolescence, but as he analyzed seriously his position as both a member of a racial minority and a homosexual, he found in literature more helpful solutions to the problems that plagued him than he had found in religion. Between 1942 and 1944, Baldwin held menial jobs, some of them in the thriving wartime defense industries. A turning point came for him in 1944, when, having moved to New York City’s Greenwich Village, he met Richard Wright, one of the leading black writers in the United States. Baldwin was working on his first novel, “In My Father’s House,” at that time. Although the novel remained unpublished, Wright arranged for Baldwin to receive the Eugene F. Saxton Memorial Trust so that he could concentrate on his writing. Baldwin first appeared in print in 1946 in The Nation, where he published a book review. He also wrote book reviews for The New Leader during the same year. In 1948, Baldwin, slight of stature and with a countenance that reflected both intensity and anguish, received the Rosenwald Fellowship. This award enabled him to move to Paris. That year, he also published an essay, “The Harlem Ghetto,” and a short story, “Previous Condition,” in Commentary. Baldwin was to live abroad for the next decade, in the middle of which his first novel, Go Tell It on the Mountain (1953), was published. (The entire section is 5,419 words.)	869	ENGLISH	1
American printmaker and painter Mary Cassatt was born in 1844 in Pennsylvania, but most of her career took place in France, having spent time both in France and Germany with her family when she was young. She was renowned for being the only American artist to have exhibited in Paris with the Impressionists. Her family did not approve of her desire to be an artist, but regardless, at 15, she decided to attend the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia to formally study painting. Her subject matter often featured the lives of women, and frequently the bond between a child and its mother. Cassatt’s artistic skill was widely recognised by her contemporaries, including Edgar Degas, who later became her chief mentor. Cassatt travelled around studying art in Italy, Spain, Belgium and Holland, but finally settled in Paris in 1874, where she began to exhibit her work. In 1900, Cassatt’s failing eyesight negatively impacted her work and by 1904 she had stopped painting altogether. Cassatt in 1926 at her country home, Château de Beaufresne in Le Mesnil-Théribus, Oise. Her work has been the subject of postage stamps, string quartets, collectives of female artists and even a World War II liberty ship.	<urn:uuid:8c8b679c-2fe9-46d4-a853-6af8b020a528>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.printed-editions.com/artist/mary-cassatt/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00357.warc.gz	en	0.991546	262	3.421875	3	[ 0.5082842111587524, 0.1792173683643341, 0.12950938940048218, 0.39301055669784546, -0.286882609128952, 0.1306043267250061, -0.1965584009885788, 0.16112519800662994, -0.1655154526233673, -0.37455272674560547, -0.04818664863705635, -0.42457115650177, -0.06159016489982605, 0.3681311011314392, ...	10	American printmaker and painter Mary Cassatt was born in 1844 in Pennsylvania, but most of her career took place in France, having spent time both in France and Germany with her family when she was young. She was renowned for being the only American artist to have exhibited in Paris with the Impressionists. Her family did not approve of her desire to be an artist, but regardless, at 15, she decided to attend the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia to formally study painting. Her subject matter often featured the lives of women, and frequently the bond between a child and its mother. Cassatt’s artistic skill was widely recognised by her contemporaries, including Edgar Degas, who later became her chief mentor. Cassatt travelled around studying art in Italy, Spain, Belgium and Holland, but finally settled in Paris in 1874, where she began to exhibit her work. In 1900, Cassatt’s failing eyesight negatively impacted her work and by 1904 she had stopped painting altogether. Cassatt in 1926 at her country home, Château de Beaufresne in Le Mesnil-Théribus, Oise. Her work has been the subject of postage stamps, string quartets, collectives of female artists and even a World War II liberty ship.	277	ENGLISH	1
Prague History – Prague Communism Arrives Last Updated: 1302 views At the start of 1948, the Communist Minister of the Interior sacked eight non-Communist police officers. This move was protested by the democratic ministers in the government, but to no avail. As a stronger protest, they tendered their resignations – expecting that this would lead to the resignation and subsequent reorganisation of the entire government. However, much to their chagrin this was not to be. Instead, President Edward Benes accepted their resignations, and their positions were filled by Communist Party members or sympathisers. Thus, from February 25th 1948, all political power in the country was in the hands of the Communist leaders. In Communist propaganda, these events came to be known as “Victorious February” (Vitezny unor) today they are referred to as the “Communist Coup”. Almost immediately – with the parliamentary elections of May 1948 – the Communists became more openly hostile to normal democratic mechanisms. Non-Communists who attempted to campaign in the elections were persecuted by the police, and voters were only offered a list of candidates from the National Front – no opposition politicians were on the voting list. Yet even using these extreme measures, the Communists did not feel secure that their election victory was guaranteed. So, to make absolutely sure that things went as they wanted them to go, the Communists also falsified the election results. Thus the parties of the National Front were credited with winning an amazing 89.2 percent of the vote — which is still rather a modest majority when compared with later Communist election “victories,” which would see the National Front win 99.9 percent of the “vote”. On May 9, 1948, parliament had passed a new constitution guaranteeing a “leading role” for the Communist Party in political life. President Edward Benes refused to sign the new legislation, and so he was forced to resign on June 7, 1948. On June 14, the National Assembly elected Klement Gottwald Czechoslovakia’s new (and first ‘working-class’) president. On June 15, Czechoslovakia’s fifth post-war government was appointed with Antonin Zapotocky at its head. In April 1948, the Czechoslovak Parliament had passed legislation nationalising most companies that had more than 50 employees but many smaller companies were nationalized as a result of these laws. By the end of 1948, some 95 percent of the industrial workforce in Czechoslovakia were employees of the state. The next private sector to be eliminated were small tradesmen and shopkeepers. In 1949, the law on Standard Farming Cooperatives was approved, launching the forced collectivization of agriculture. Industry was reorganized to favour heavy machinery and military production and foreign trade was shifted away from western markets in favour of the Soviet Union and its satellites. To better coordinate the individual economies within the Soviet bloc, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) was established in 1949, with Czechoslovakia as one of its founding members. In addition to Comecon, the Soviet Union and its satellites were united by the military Warsaw Pact, which was founded on May 14, 1955. This “Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance” was signed by the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Albania. The Pact was concluded for 20 years and then prolonged every 10 years after that; in 1985, just a handful of years before it was to become defunct, it was renewed for 30 years. It was formally dissolved by a protocol which was signed in 1991. The first Soviet “advisors” arrived in Czechoslovakia in September 1949, to show the locals how best to search for class enemies. Not surprisingly, their first victims were Communists – and powerful ones. The high point of the Communist Party’s purges at this time was the “trial” against the Secretary General of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, Rudolf Slansky – allegedly the ringleader of a group of treasonous, counter-revolutionary conspirators. Many historians today say that this purge was just so much thinly-veiled, Soviet-style anti-semitism – as Slansky and most of the other accused were Jewish. The repression and show trials of 1948-53 did much to populate the forced labor camps – the most notorious of which was at the Jachymov uranium mines – and to decimate the anti-Communist opposition. Subsequent acts of resistance to the regime remained isolated and unorganized. It was during this dark and oppressive time that the writers and artists Jaroslav Seifert, Vitezslav Nezval, Josef Sudek, Leos Janacek, Bohuslav Martinu and Jan Zrzavy lived and worked. People caught listening to rock and roll and other foreign music or listening to foreign radio stations like Radio Netherlands were considered subversives and thrown in jail. It was at this time, too, that the authorities – for reasons which remain unexplained to this day – started to claim that the Americans did not liberate the westernmost part of Czechoslovakia after World War II. To those people who insisted they had seen them with their own eyes, the authorities explained that those people they had seen were really Russian soldiers dressed up in American uniforms. Czechoslovakia’s first “worker president,” Klement Gottwald, died in 1953, just 10 days after attending Stalin’s funeral. Some say he died of a broken heart; others claim he was the victim of a virus that he caught while visiting Moscow, still others are of the opinion that he drank himself to death. In a little-known chapter in Czech history, 1953 also saw active protests against the Communist regime, especially in Plzen and Ostrava, because of worsening economic conditions. These rebellions had to be put down by force, and the fact that they had taken place at all was suppressed by the Communist regime. The ringleaders were sent to hard labour camps like the one at Jachymov. After the death of President Antonin Zapotocky, Antonin Novotny – the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia – was elected President. For the first time, the top posts of both the state and the Party were in the hands of just one man. Later, it was learned that Novotny had been a spy for the Gestapo during the war. During his presidency, Novotny had a fish pond stocked with carp installed in the very formal Royal Gardens of Prague Castle so that he wouldn’t have far to go when he felt like going fishing. Well, time passed and in 1960, the Communists adopted a new constitution which officially changed the name of the country to “The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (CSSR)” because, as they said, a socialist society – the first step on the road to true communism – had already been achieved in the country. But even this spiffy new name did not help to slow the country’s rapid and alarming economic decline.	<urn:uuid:026420e5-f6cb-4718-82d3-2baaa7b8d308>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://livingprague.com/prague-history/prague-communism/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00529.warc.gz	en	0.985994	1,477	3.609375	4	[ -0.5175857543945312, 0.46032819151878357, -0.14807531237602234, -0.15434837341308594, 0.12435422092676163, 0.687010645866394, 0.01831195503473282, 0.09148311614990234, 0.014530117623507977, 0.2642786204814911, 0.34596699476242065, 0.20383362472057343, 0.25806692242622375, 0.135286688804626...	1	Prague History – Prague Communism Arrives Last Updated: 1302 views At the start of 1948, the Communist Minister of the Interior sacked eight non-Communist police officers. This move was protested by the democratic ministers in the government, but to no avail. As a stronger protest, they tendered their resignations – expecting that this would lead to the resignation and subsequent reorganisation of the entire government. However, much to their chagrin this was not to be. Instead, President Edward Benes accepted their resignations, and their positions were filled by Communist Party members or sympathisers. Thus, from February 25th 1948, all political power in the country was in the hands of the Communist leaders. In Communist propaganda, these events came to be known as “Victorious February” (Vitezny unor) today they are referred to as the “Communist Coup”. Almost immediately – with the parliamentary elections of May 1948 – the Communists became more openly hostile to normal democratic mechanisms. Non-Communists who attempted to campaign in the elections were persecuted by the police, and voters were only offered a list of candidates from the National Front – no opposition politicians were on the voting list. Yet even using these extreme measures, the Communists did not feel secure that their election victory was guaranteed. So, to make absolutely sure that things went as they wanted them to go, the Communists also falsified the election results. Thus the parties of the National Front were credited with winning an amazing 89.2 percent of the vote — which is still rather a modest majority when compared with later Communist election “victories,” which would see the National Front win 99.9 percent of the “vote”. On May 9, 1948, parliament had passed a new constitution guaranteeing a “leading role” for the Communist Party in political life. President Edward Benes refused to sign the new legislation, and so he was forced to resign on June 7, 1948. On June 14, the National Assembly elected Klement Gottwald Czechoslovakia’s new (and first ‘working-class’) president. On June 15, Czechoslovakia’s fifth post-war government was appointed with Antonin Zapotocky at its head. In April 1948, the Czechoslovak Parliament had passed legislation nationalising most companies that had more than 50 employees but many smaller companies were nationalized as a result of these laws. By the end of 1948, some 95 percent of the industrial workforce in Czechoslovakia were employees of the state. The next private sector to be eliminated were small tradesmen and shopkeepers. In 1949, the law on Standard Farming Cooperatives was approved, launching the forced collectivization of agriculture. Industry was reorganized to favour heavy machinery and military production and foreign trade was shifted away from western markets in favour of the Soviet Union and its satellites. To better coordinate the individual economies within the Soviet bloc, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) was established in 1949, with Czechoslovakia as one of its founding members. In addition to Comecon, the Soviet Union and its satellites were united by the military Warsaw Pact, which was founded on May 14, 1955. This “Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance” was signed by the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Albania. The Pact was concluded for 20 years and then prolonged every 10 years after that; in 1985, just a handful of years before it was to become defunct, it was renewed for 30 years. It was formally dissolved by a protocol which was signed in 1991. The first Soviet “advisors” arrived in Czechoslovakia in September 1949, to show the locals how best to search for class enemies. Not surprisingly, their first victims were Communists – and powerful ones. The high point of the Communist Party’s purges at this time was the “trial” against the Secretary General of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, Rudolf Slansky – allegedly the ringleader of a group of treasonous, counter-revolutionary conspirators. Many historians today say that this purge was just so much thinly-veiled, Soviet-style anti-semitism – as Slansky and most of the other accused were Jewish. The repression and show trials of 1948-53 did much to populate the forced labor camps – the most notorious of which was at the Jachymov uranium mines – and to decimate the anti-Communist opposition. Subsequent acts of resistance to the regime remained isolated and unorganized. It was during this dark and oppressive time that the writers and artists Jaroslav Seifert, Vitezslav Nezval, Josef Sudek, Leos Janacek, Bohuslav Martinu and Jan Zrzavy lived and worked. People caught listening to rock and roll and other foreign music or listening to foreign radio stations like Radio Netherlands were considered subversives and thrown in jail. It was at this time, too, that the authorities – for reasons which remain unexplained to this day – started to claim that the Americans did not liberate the westernmost part of Czechoslovakia after World War II. To those people who insisted they had seen them with their own eyes, the authorities explained that those people they had seen were really Russian soldiers dressed up in American uniforms. Czechoslovakia’s first “worker president,” Klement Gottwald, died in 1953, just 10 days after attending Stalin’s funeral. Some say he died of a broken heart; others claim he was the victim of a virus that he caught while visiting Moscow, still others are of the opinion that he drank himself to death. In a little-known chapter in Czech history, 1953 also saw active protests against the Communist regime, especially in Plzen and Ostrava, because of worsening economic conditions. These rebellions had to be put down by force, and the fact that they had taken place at all was suppressed by the Communist regime. The ringleaders were sent to hard labour camps like the one at Jachymov. After the death of President Antonin Zapotocky, Antonin Novotny – the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia – was elected President. For the first time, the top posts of both the state and the Party were in the hands of just one man. Later, it was learned that Novotny had been a spy for the Gestapo during the war. During his presidency, Novotny had a fish pond stocked with carp installed in the very formal Royal Gardens of Prague Castle so that he wouldn’t have far to go when he felt like going fishing. Well, time passed and in 1960, the Communists adopted a new constitution which officially changed the name of the country to “The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (CSSR)” because, as they said, a socialist society – the first step on the road to true communism – had already been achieved in the country. But even this spiffy new name did not help to slow the country’s rapid and alarming economic decline.	1,547	ENGLISH	1
The Viceroys were the heads of British administration in India. Read about the most important viceroys here. The viceroys were the officers British government appointed to oversee the governance in pre-independent India. There were numerous viceroys but I have listed a few important ones among them here. Lord Canning was the first British viceroy in India. He took charge in 1858. The Indian Penal Code (IPC) and Indian Council Act were passed during his tenure. It was also during his period the universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established. Lord Mayo assumed office in 1869. He was the one who carried out the decentralisaton of power. The Mayo College at Ajmer has been named after him. He took charge in 1876. Lord Lytton passed the Vernacular Press Act in 1878. He carried out a durbar in Delhi and proclaimed Queen Victoria as the Empress of India. The famous architect Edwin Luteyns was the son-in-law of Lord Lytton. He was one of the most efficient viceroys of India. He is known as the father of Local Self Governance in India. He passed Ilbert Bill, which allowed Indian judges to prosecute British people living in India. He also recommended to conduct the civil service examination in England and India at same time. Lord Curzon is perhaps most known for the notorious partition of Bengal, in 1903. It was also during his tenure, Queen Victoria expired. He also witnessed the rise of Swadesi movement in Bengal. Lord Minto II Lord Minto assumed office in 1905. Muslim League was formed during his tenure and the divide between Hindus and Muslims widened. He passed Indian Council Act which went on to be known as Minto- Morley reforms. Lord Hardinge II It was during the incumbency of Lord Hardinge, British king George V visited India. In 1911, the capital of India was shifted from Calcutta (Kolkata) to Delhi. His tenure was eventful, to say the least. He passed the India Government Act which was known as Montague- Chelmsford reforms in 1919. The same year, Jalianwala Bagh massacre happened and Rowlat Act was passed. The Simon Commission was formed during his period. He also witnessed the Dandi march and Salt Satyagraha. The Gandhi- Irwin pact was signed upon during his period. The second world war broke out during his tenure. The Cripps Mission arrived India in 1942 and the same year Quit India movement was formed. He was the last British viceroy in India and was the one who oversaw the formation of India and Pakistan. He was the first Governor General of Independent India as well. What were the important factors that Andres Bonifacio done in order to spark the Filipino Freedom fighters to achieve the Philippine Independence under the Spanish colonization of the country. . The second world war is generally thought to be the demise of the battleship . A battleship is a large warship with a tonnage of over 30,000. Traveling to a historical site such as a medieval fortress represents a great opportunity for me to immerse myself in the history of that place and to try to imagine to live in such a citadel during its glory days..	<urn:uuid:569a688a-4b39-4bf5-bafc-5a588f57631b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/important-british-viceroys-india	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00101.warc.gz	en	0.986456	688	4.0625	4	[ 0.05179483816027641, 0.062375880777835846, 0.4401046633720398, -0.4130377471446991, -0.23238226771354675, -0.32468560338020325, 0.8739620447158813, -0.2935025691986084, 0.029336947947740555, -0.0825406089425087, 0.030384976416826248, -0.4480160176753998, 0.12878713011741638, 0.361234903335...	1	The Viceroys were the heads of British administration in India. Read about the most important viceroys here. The viceroys were the officers British government appointed to oversee the governance in pre-independent India. There were numerous viceroys but I have listed a few important ones among them here. Lord Canning was the first British viceroy in India. He took charge in 1858. The Indian Penal Code (IPC) and Indian Council Act were passed during his tenure. It was also during his period the universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established. Lord Mayo assumed office in 1869. He was the one who carried out the decentralisaton of power. The Mayo College at Ajmer has been named after him. He took charge in 1876. Lord Lytton passed the Vernacular Press Act in 1878. He carried out a durbar in Delhi and proclaimed Queen Victoria as the Empress of India. The famous architect Edwin Luteyns was the son-in-law of Lord Lytton. He was one of the most efficient viceroys of India. He is known as the father of Local Self Governance in India. He passed Ilbert Bill, which allowed Indian judges to prosecute British people living in India. He also recommended to conduct the civil service examination in England and India at same time. Lord Curzon is perhaps most known for the notorious partition of Bengal, in 1903. It was also during his tenure, Queen Victoria expired. He also witnessed the rise of Swadesi movement in Bengal. Lord Minto II Lord Minto assumed office in 1905. Muslim League was formed during his tenure and the divide between Hindus and Muslims widened. He passed Indian Council Act which went on to be known as Minto- Morley reforms. Lord Hardinge II It was during the incumbency of Lord Hardinge, British king George V visited India. In 1911, the capital of India was shifted from Calcutta (Kolkata) to Delhi. His tenure was eventful, to say the least. He passed the India Government Act which was known as Montague- Chelmsford reforms in 1919. The same year, Jalianwala Bagh massacre happened and Rowlat Act was passed. The Simon Commission was formed during his period. He also witnessed the Dandi march and Salt Satyagraha. The Gandhi- Irwin pact was signed upon during his period. The second world war broke out during his tenure. The Cripps Mission arrived India in 1942 and the same year Quit India movement was formed. He was the last British viceroy in India and was the one who oversaw the formation of India and Pakistan. He was the first Governor General of Independent India as well. What were the important factors that Andres Bonifacio done in order to spark the Filipino Freedom fighters to achieve the Philippine Independence under the Spanish colonization of the country. . The second world war is generally thought to be the demise of the battleship . A battleship is a large warship with a tonnage of over 30,000. Traveling to a historical site such as a medieval fortress represents a great opportunity for me to immerse myself in the history of that place and to try to imagine to live in such a citadel during its glory days..	702	ENGLISH	1
This week all of the children in Kindergarten have been thinking of ideas for our new topic this term, which is all about ‘Exploring Space’. We had lots of different ideas from the children, telling us what they already know about space. Some of the ideas included: it’s dark, rockets go there, planets, stars, and the moon is in space. Once we had finished discovering out what the children already knew about space, we then asked the children to have a think about what they would like to learn while we study this topic. The children had great fun thinking of different ideas and came up with some fantastic questions. Kindergarten children have also been making their very own rocket! The children enjoyed painting and creating their rocket and cannot wait for the first mission to the moon, which is taking place on Monday 13 January! By having an input into making the rocket, it has promoted some fantastic space language and has inspired some of the children into thinking about how real rockets are made. Next week we cannot wait to explore the questions that the children have asked and find out more about space! To infinity and beyond!	<urn:uuid:56d3481b-4a1a-4639-9ae9-f8da7452a4ba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wisbechgrammar.com/2020/01/10/kindergarten-pupils-explore-space-to-infinity-and-beyond/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00375.warc.gz	en	0.981656	236	3.828125	4	[ -0.22662481665611267, -0.3921717703342438, -0.10236869752407074, -0.5547932386398315, -0.3763923943042755, 0.34769701957702637, -0.20568178594112396, 0.22520136833190918, -0.2675459086894989, -0.04600751772522926, 0.3439842164516449, -0.00528072752058506, -0.022741926833987236, 0.700120389...	13	This week all of the children in Kindergarten have been thinking of ideas for our new topic this term, which is all about ‘Exploring Space’. We had lots of different ideas from the children, telling us what they already know about space. Some of the ideas included: it’s dark, rockets go there, planets, stars, and the moon is in space. Once we had finished discovering out what the children already knew about space, we then asked the children to have a think about what they would like to learn while we study this topic. The children had great fun thinking of different ideas and came up with some fantastic questions. Kindergarten children have also been making their very own rocket! The children enjoyed painting and creating their rocket and cannot wait for the first mission to the moon, which is taking place on Monday 13 January! By having an input into making the rocket, it has promoted some fantastic space language and has inspired some of the children into thinking about how real rockets are made. Next week we cannot wait to explore the questions that the children have asked and find out more about space! To infinity and beyond!	227	ENGLISH	1
One of Charleston's oldest homes, this beautiful antebellum residence is located on the West Side directly across the street from Stonewall Jackson Middle School. It is possibly the only antebellum home with slave quarters still standing in the Kanawha Valley, a structure that is located directly behind the home and known as The Quarters. James Madison Laidley, a newspaper editor, politician, and prominent salt maker, had this home built in 1852 by William Preston.1 The material used for construction were available on the property or nearby. Wood was cut from the abundant timber standing, bricks were fired from clay found on the property, and the sandstone was taken from a nearby quarry. Brick used in construction is recorded as being 18 inches thick, or the thickness of three bricks. The exterior of this Greek Revival home is accented with a carved dentil cornice across the front. Sandstone block is used for the foundation. The Laidley family lived in a smaller four-room brick structure during the construction of Glenwood, This structure became the slave quarters, most likely for domestic slaves. There were smaller, less substantial structures throughout Glenwood's 366 acres for field slaves. Upon completion of the 12-room, two story home, Laidley named the home Glenwood for the nearby rock-strewn glen cut by a stream. This was a popular location during the summer for people in the area to visit as it was always cooler in temperature than elsewhere. In 1857, Judge George Summers purchased Glenwood.2 Summers was an active politician. He served as a representative to the 1850-51 Constitutional Convention in Richmond, ran for governor as a Whig in 1851, and in 1852 became a circuit judge in Kanawha County, a post he held when he purchased Glenwwod. George Summers and his wife, Amacetta, lived at Glenwood until their deaths in 1868 and 1867, respectively.	<urn:uuid:8e165a25-932e-4ce7-8022-5f9f16a9ae64>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/13914	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00250.warc.gz	en	0.983446	395	3.5625	4	[ -0.00011008931323885918, 0.1540101319551468, 0.397148072719574, 0.05184757336974144, -0.11100450158119202, 0.16226066648960114, -0.348566472530365, -0.18158043920993805, -0.14410129189491272, -0.23274987936019897, -0.059884436428546906, -0.41635456681251526, -0.14121539890766144, 0.4634627...	1	One of Charleston's oldest homes, this beautiful antebellum residence is located on the West Side directly across the street from Stonewall Jackson Middle School. It is possibly the only antebellum home with slave quarters still standing in the Kanawha Valley, a structure that is located directly behind the home and known as The Quarters. James Madison Laidley, a newspaper editor, politician, and prominent salt maker, had this home built in 1852 by William Preston.1 The material used for construction were available on the property or nearby. Wood was cut from the abundant timber standing, bricks were fired from clay found on the property, and the sandstone was taken from a nearby quarry. Brick used in construction is recorded as being 18 inches thick, or the thickness of three bricks. The exterior of this Greek Revival home is accented with a carved dentil cornice across the front. Sandstone block is used for the foundation. The Laidley family lived in a smaller four-room brick structure during the construction of Glenwood, This structure became the slave quarters, most likely for domestic slaves. There were smaller, less substantial structures throughout Glenwood's 366 acres for field slaves. Upon completion of the 12-room, two story home, Laidley named the home Glenwood for the nearby rock-strewn glen cut by a stream. This was a popular location during the summer for people in the area to visit as it was always cooler in temperature than elsewhere. In 1857, Judge George Summers purchased Glenwood.2 Summers was an active politician. He served as a representative to the 1850-51 Constitutional Convention in Richmond, ran for governor as a Whig in 1851, and in 1852 became a circuit judge in Kanawha County, a post he held when he purchased Glenwwod. George Summers and his wife, Amacetta, lived at Glenwood until their deaths in 1868 and 1867, respectively.	425	ENGLISH	1
According to a theory which is put forth by Armenian Historians, Armenians are members of Phrygians whose origins were Balkans. As a result of the invasions from Balkans in 6th century B.C., they immigrated to Eastern Anatolia and settled there. The name “Armenian” was firstly come across in 521 B.C in “I had beaten Armenians” statement in the Persian King Darius’ inscription of “Behistan”. The Armenian name was seen further after engaging of Anatolia and Rome. Especially at the time of Byzantine Empire, two Armenian Princedoms were settled in Van and Kars. After the invasion of the Princedom in Kars by Byzantine Empire in 1045, people of two regions were forced to immigrate to Urfa and Center Anatolia. Armenian-Turkish relations, which had started with the discovery rush of Anatolia of Çagri Bey from 1015 until 1021, continued with the Malazgirt victory of Alparslan in 1071 and the admittance of the Seljuks’ dominance by Armenians. Armenians, who were forced to be Greeks, saw the Seljuks as saviors. Armenians, who lived a pleased and comfortable life with Seljuks, survived under the Ottoman Empire as comfortably as they lived with Seljuks. Moreover, because of their loyalty to the Ottoman Empire, they were honored as “Millet-i Sadika”, which means “Loyal Nation” in Ottoman Turkish. Briefly; until the end of the 19th Century, Ottoman Empire had no Armenian issue. Moreover, Armenian people had no problem with Turkish Governors, too. After Greeks, European Imperialism began interesting in Armenians in 1838, in order to create a new market in Asian Part of Ottoman Empire. Therefore, Europe had close relations with Armenians. By the way, in a short period, The Armenian Traders became brokers of both Europe and English Industry in Ottoman Empire. Because of that, a group of people who were like mediators have arisen in order to exploit Ottoman Empire and assist people who serve European Imperialism. On the other hand, the reason that Europeans interested in Armenians was the strategic position of Eastern Anatolia where they live. In fact, the strategic position of this location, which is surrounded by Black Sea, Iskenderun and Arabian Gulf and gives opportunity to reach Center of Asia by Iran-Caucasian way, was important for Russian and British Imperialism, either. The Christian Community had considered Armenians as coreligionists in Ottoman Empire. According to the community; most of the Christians in Balkans had been saved. And it was Armenians’ turn who lived in Anatolia to have been saved. In fact, the Armenian Issue has begun after the invasion of many locations in Eastern Anatolia by Russians, who provoked Armenians, as a result of Ottoman Empire – Russia war in 1877-1878. Therefore; Russians are considered as the first government, who arose the Armenian Issue. Until many years, Armenian Journalists and Philosophers who lived in Russia have provoked Russian Armenians and Turkish Armenians against Turks, and insulted Muslims by publishing books and magazines. Because of these problems, an Armenian Problem has arisen. According to the scientific researches, the reason for arising of the artificial “Armenian Problem” was put as zealot Armenian terrorism groups. Today, it is stated by researchers that, the bloody events in 1876-1918 caused by Hunchak committee which was settled in Geneva, and by Armenian Revolutionary Federation which was settled in Tbilisi in 1890. The independence of Christians who live in Balkans has also become a model for Armenians. Besides, according to Ayestefanos (Yesilköy) and Berlin Pacts signed between Ottoman Empire and Tsarist Russia; Russians were authorized and named as “Patrons of Armenians”. After the war between Ottoman Empire and Russia in 1877-1878, although Armenians had demanded Ottoman Empire for autonomy by consulting Russia, Russia rejected their demand because of being a threatening model for Armenians living in Russia. According to the 61st statement of Berlin Pact; Ottoman Empire was supposed to take precautions in order to improve conditions of Armenians and inform great nations. These nations were also supposed to control Ottoman Empire about Armenian conditions. The centralist – revolutionist Hunchak Committee, which was founded in 1887 in Switzerland, was trying to take apart Eastern Anatolia from Turkey and join to Armenia. In 1890, The Armenian revolutionist Tashnak Committee which was founded by Russia in Tbilisi tried to achieve “United Armenian Nation” dream by organizing a group with the name of “The Union of Armenian Revolution Committees” in Anatolia. Besides, in many cities of Anatolia; local Armenian Communities were also founded. In 1878 “Dark Crucifix Community” in Van, in 1881 “Motherland Defenders Community” in Erzurum and in 1885 “Armenekan Party” were instance of local communities. With the joining of Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria in 1885, Armenian operations were started. Upon the provocation of Armenian Patriarch in 1878 in Van; The Armenian revolt was suppressed. With the provocation of Armenian Committees in Iran and Russia; another great Armenian revolt arisen in Sassoon. Therefore, The Ottoman Empire was obliged to take hard precautions. At the time of the Armenian revolt, England demanded Ottoman Empire for the independence of Armenians. But Russia was against the demand, because they were looking for an Armenian government which could be controlled by Russia. On the other hand, Armenians were demanding an independent Armenia including all Armenians in Russia, Iran and Ottoman Empire. Although Armenians’ demand was beneficial for England, it was against Russians’ expedience. After the Sassoon Uprising, Ottoman Empire continued rehabilitations on condition of Armenians. Because of few Armenians, who had started a campaign to Sublime Porte in Istanbul and attacked and also killed Ottoman soldiers, Ottoman Empire were obliged to take precautions against Armenians. European governments sent many naval forces to Istanbul in order to protect Armenians. Britons’ tough interference demand had been blocked by Germany and Russia. Although in 1896, Armenians had attacked on Ottoman Bank in Istanbul; this case was suppressed by Ottoman Empire because of the precautions. Some of Armenians died in this case. Although the Armenian Issue had appeared as an interior problem of Ottoman Empire until World War I; in fact it was about expediency and competition of great countries. The Armenian Issue was also a part of Eastern Question of Ottoman Empire. In World War I, the Armenian Issue became a different problem. It was not only terrorism, but also a betrayal against government. The Armenian Gangs, who made an agreement with Russian military in World War I, also tortured Turks cruelly and committed massacre on them. Therefore, over 700.000 Turkish People immigrated to Western Anatolia, and many people were massacred by Armenians as well. In history, it is stated that until World War I, Armenians couldn’t have found a state which had borders. And also they were not a majority in any part of the world. According to the statistics about Armenian population, it is obvious that Armenians could not have become a majority in any part of the Ottoman Empire as well. According to the western resources, although the Armenian population was about a million in nine cities of Ottoman Empire, Muslim population were about 5 million. Therefore, Armenians are admitted as a minority in Ottoman Empire. The official documents of Ottoman Empire state that only 7% of Ottoman Empire’s population is formed by Armenians. Hence, it is impossible to find a state in Anatolia where Armenians were majority. Because of Ottoman Empire’s taking part in World War I, Armenians started moving by declaring independence moment and using weapons which they have already equipped. They also rejected the proposal made by Committee of Union and Progress of Society. After Ottoman Empire had taken part in World War I, Armenians made an agreement with The Entente Powers. Hence, a new battle front was occurred. The Entente Powers were also looking for a victory in World War I by making the agreement. During the World War, first Armenian uprising arose in Zeytun, in 17th August 1914. When Armenians’ independent Armenian forces demand had been rejected by Ottoman Empire, Armenians started moving through Eastern Mountains for revolt. Armenian soldiers in Maras also participated in the same group. Armenians who started attacking villages also attacked government buildings and military posts. Armenian soldiers who were in Beyazit also escaped along with their weapons to Caucasians. A group of Armenians leaded by an Armenian congressman also started moving around Van and Bitlis. A group of Armenians also joined Russian Army against Ottoman Empire. In this case, Ottoman Empire was obliged to take some precautions such as “Emigration Law”. According to the law, people who revolt against Ottoman Empire should have migrated to safe zones. This law had been introduced because of the reasons given below: 1- The Entente Powers’ navy and soldiers had started moving to Çanakkale and also Ottoman Empire was sieged by enemies. 2- When Entente Powers had started an assailment in Çanakkale, Ottoman Empire Armenians started terrorist campaigns against Ottoman Empire by using Russians. 3- Leading by Russia, the Entente Powers armed Armenians in order to let them attack against Ottoman Empire. At the most important time of the World War I, in April, a great Armenian Uprising started in van. After many genocide and collision done by Armenians with the support of Russians, Armenians captured Van City. The Emigration Law was introduced after this event, in 14th May 1915. The law was not only for Armenians, but also for people who were tempted to revolt against Ottoman Empire. According to the law; people who were against Ottoman Empire would be moved into another Ottoman Empire zone and lived in there together. It can be clearly seen that this law was not actually for assimilating Armenians. The Emigration Law was introduced after Armenians Revolts. Besides, this law wasn’t applied in whole Ottoman Empire. For instance; this law was not valid for Armenians in Central Anatolia and East. It is fact that; many Armenian people died in collisions and immigration in Eastern Anatolia. It is the reason of the World War, Armenian Revolts and immigration. At the unsafe time of the World War, immigrating Armenians were attacked by small groups of people who were looking for revenge. The government tried to take precautions against these attacks as soon as they could and punished people who were considered as guilty. The Armenian Issue is propagated today by Armenian terrorist groups as “XX. Centuries’ First Genocide” because of the reason given above. It is stated in these falsified propagations that, approximately 1,5-2 million people died in these issues. In fact, there were a million of people in Ottoman Empire. Hence, this propagation can be considered as falsified. It was stated in last group meeting of Union and Progress of Society Party by Talat Pasha that; approximately 250000 Armenians could be considered as dead. Besides, the number of dead Armenian people stated by Talat Pasha was also stated by England and France. On the other hand, it is supposed to be stated that, the number of dead Turkish people killed by Armenians is much greater than the number of Armenian people died. In World War I, after the victory of Russian Forces in Sarikamis, Muslims were tortured by Armenian People in there. In 11th May 1918, Armenians massacred 12000 Turkish People in Erzurum. In recent days, mass Turkish graves were also revealed. Armenians also exterminated 3000 Turkish people only at a night in Yanikdere. Mustafa Kemal was worried about The massacre committed by Armenians in Eastern Anatolia and Caucasia, and also the future of the Turkish nation. Hence, Mustafa Kemal sent a diplomatic note to the allies, delegates of neutral countries and United States of America in Paris Peace Conference. Giving the Turkish cities as a bribe to Armenians by Entente Powers was highly considered as the beginning of “Dark Days” by Mustafa Kemal. Mustafa Kemal, who put the games played on Turkey, says: “History can never deny the presence of a nation.” A notification was published at the end of the Erzurum Congress leaded by Mustafa Kemal, who highlights the survival of Turkish nationalism. In this notification, the indivisible integrity of Turkish zones and Eastern Anatolia, where Armenians wanted to acquire; therefore, Turkish nation was supposed to defense and the future of Turkish nation written by this issue were mentioned. At the end of the war campaign in Eastern Anatolia done by Kazim Karabekir, Armenians looked for a ceasefire. Hence Gümrü Pact had been signed in 2nd and 3rd December, 1920. Therefore, Eastern Anatolia cities and Kars were joined to Turkish lands. The Armenian Issue had been disappeared with Lausanne Peace Pact in 24th July, 1924.	<urn:uuid:c7082eac-268d-45fd-86d8-c920e150e76f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.allegedarmeniangenocide.net/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00447.warc.gz	en	0.983116	2,750	3.5625	4	[ -0.2829936146736145, 0.3518238663673401, 0.2844308614730835, -0.06848062574863434, -0.3500822186470032, -0.49481701850891113, 0.1281982660293579, 0.4246548116207123, -0.2787436842918396, 0.0662250742316246, -0.17415904998779297, -0.30064940452575684, -0.15026608109474182, 0.328115165233612...	14	According to a theory which is put forth by Armenian Historians, Armenians are members of Phrygians whose origins were Balkans. As a result of the invasions from Balkans in 6th century B.C., they immigrated to Eastern Anatolia and settled there. The name “Armenian” was firstly come across in 521 B.C in “I had beaten Armenians” statement in the Persian King Darius’ inscription of “Behistan”. The Armenian name was seen further after engaging of Anatolia and Rome. Especially at the time of Byzantine Empire, two Armenian Princedoms were settled in Van and Kars. After the invasion of the Princedom in Kars by Byzantine Empire in 1045, people of two regions were forced to immigrate to Urfa and Center Anatolia. Armenian-Turkish relations, which had started with the discovery rush of Anatolia of Çagri Bey from 1015 until 1021, continued with the Malazgirt victory of Alparslan in 1071 and the admittance of the Seljuks’ dominance by Armenians. Armenians, who were forced to be Greeks, saw the Seljuks as saviors. Armenians, who lived a pleased and comfortable life with Seljuks, survived under the Ottoman Empire as comfortably as they lived with Seljuks. Moreover, because of their loyalty to the Ottoman Empire, they were honored as “Millet-i Sadika”, which means “Loyal Nation” in Ottoman Turkish. Briefly; until the end of the 19th Century, Ottoman Empire had no Armenian issue. Moreover, Armenian people had no problem with Turkish Governors, too. After Greeks, European Imperialism began interesting in Armenians in 1838, in order to create a new market in Asian Part of Ottoman Empire. Therefore, Europe had close relations with Armenians. By the way, in a short period, The Armenian Traders became brokers of both Europe and English Industry in Ottoman Empire. Because of that, a group of people who were like mediators have arisen in order to exploit Ottoman Empire and assist people who serve European Imperialism. On the other hand, the reason that Europeans interested in Armenians was the strategic position of Eastern Anatolia where they live. In fact, the strategic position of this location, which is surrounded by Black Sea, Iskenderun and Arabian Gulf and gives opportunity to reach Center of Asia by Iran-Caucasian way, was important for Russian and British Imperialism, either. The Christian Community had considered Armenians as coreligionists in Ottoman Empire. According to the community; most of the Christians in Balkans had been saved. And it was Armenians’ turn who lived in Anatolia to have been saved. In fact, the Armenian Issue has begun after the invasion of many locations in Eastern Anatolia by Russians, who provoked Armenians, as a result of Ottoman Empire – Russia war in 1877-1878. Therefore; Russians are considered as the first government, who arose the Armenian Issue. Until many years, Armenian Journalists and Philosophers who lived in Russia have provoked Russian Armenians and Turkish Armenians against Turks, and insulted Muslims by publishing books and magazines. Because of these problems, an Armenian Problem has arisen. According to the scientific researches, the reason for arising of the artificial “Armenian Problem” was put as zealot Armenian terrorism groups. Today, it is stated by researchers that, the bloody events in 1876-1918 caused by Hunchak committee which was settled in Geneva, and by Armenian Revolutionary Federation which was settled in Tbilisi in 1890. The independence of Christians who live in Balkans has also become a model for Armenians. Besides, according to Ayestefanos (Yesilköy) and Berlin Pacts signed between Ottoman Empire and Tsarist Russia; Russians were authorized and named as “Patrons of Armenians”. After the war between Ottoman Empire and Russia in 1877-1878, although Armenians had demanded Ottoman Empire for autonomy by consulting Russia, Russia rejected their demand because of being a threatening model for Armenians living in Russia. According to the 61st statement of Berlin Pact; Ottoman Empire was supposed to take precautions in order to improve conditions of Armenians and inform great nations. These nations were also supposed to control Ottoman Empire about Armenian conditions. The centralist – revolutionist Hunchak Committee, which was founded in 1887 in Switzerland, was trying to take apart Eastern Anatolia from Turkey and join to Armenia. In 1890, The Armenian revolutionist Tashnak Committee which was founded by Russia in Tbilisi tried to achieve “United Armenian Nation” dream by organizing a group with the name of “The Union of Armenian Revolution Committees” in Anatolia. Besides, in many cities of Anatolia; local Armenian Communities were also founded. In 1878 “Dark Crucifix Community” in Van, in 1881 “Motherland Defenders Community” in Erzurum and in 1885 “Armenekan Party” were instance of local communities. With the joining of Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria in 1885, Armenian operations were started. Upon the provocation of Armenian Patriarch in 1878 in Van; The Armenian revolt was suppressed. With the provocation of Armenian Committees in Iran and Russia; another great Armenian revolt arisen in Sassoon. Therefore, The Ottoman Empire was obliged to take hard precautions. At the time of the Armenian revolt, England demanded Ottoman Empire for the independence of Armenians. But Russia was against the demand, because they were looking for an Armenian government which could be controlled by Russia. On the other hand, Armenians were demanding an independent Armenia including all Armenians in Russia, Iran and Ottoman Empire. Although Armenians’ demand was beneficial for England, it was against Russians’ expedience. After the Sassoon Uprising, Ottoman Empire continued rehabilitations on condition of Armenians. Because of few Armenians, who had started a campaign to Sublime Porte in Istanbul and attacked and also killed Ottoman soldiers, Ottoman Empire were obliged to take precautions against Armenians. European governments sent many naval forces to Istanbul in order to protect Armenians. Britons’ tough interference demand had been blocked by Germany and Russia. Although in 1896, Armenians had attacked on Ottoman Bank in Istanbul; this case was suppressed by Ottoman Empire because of the precautions. Some of Armenians died in this case. Although the Armenian Issue had appeared as an interior problem of Ottoman Empire until World War I; in fact it was about expediency and competition of great countries. The Armenian Issue was also a part of Eastern Question of Ottoman Empire. In World War I, the Armenian Issue became a different problem. It was not only terrorism, but also a betrayal against government. The Armenian Gangs, who made an agreement with Russian military in World War I, also tortured Turks cruelly and committed massacre on them. Therefore, over 700.000 Turkish People immigrated to Western Anatolia, and many people were massacred by Armenians as well. In history, it is stated that until World War I, Armenians couldn’t have found a state which had borders. And also they were not a majority in any part of the world. According to the statistics about Armenian population, it is obvious that Armenians could not have become a majority in any part of the Ottoman Empire as well. According to the western resources, although the Armenian population was about a million in nine cities of Ottoman Empire, Muslim population were about 5 million. Therefore, Armenians are admitted as a minority in Ottoman Empire. The official documents of Ottoman Empire state that only 7% of Ottoman Empire’s population is formed by Armenians. Hence, it is impossible to find a state in Anatolia where Armenians were majority. Because of Ottoman Empire’s taking part in World War I, Armenians started moving by declaring independence moment and using weapons which they have already equipped. They also rejected the proposal made by Committee of Union and Progress of Society. After Ottoman Empire had taken part in World War I, Armenians made an agreement with The Entente Powers. Hence, a new battle front was occurred. The Entente Powers were also looking for a victory in World War I by making the agreement. During the World War, first Armenian uprising arose in Zeytun, in 17th August 1914. When Armenians’ independent Armenian forces demand had been rejected by Ottoman Empire, Armenians started moving through Eastern Mountains for revolt. Armenian soldiers in Maras also participated in the same group. Armenians who started attacking villages also attacked government buildings and military posts. Armenian soldiers who were in Beyazit also escaped along with their weapons to Caucasians. A group of Armenians leaded by an Armenian congressman also started moving around Van and Bitlis. A group of Armenians also joined Russian Army against Ottoman Empire. In this case, Ottoman Empire was obliged to take some precautions such as “Emigration Law”. According to the law, people who revolt against Ottoman Empire should have migrated to safe zones. This law had been introduced because of the reasons given below: 1- The Entente Powers’ navy and soldiers had started moving to Çanakkale and also Ottoman Empire was sieged by enemies. 2- When Entente Powers had started an assailment in Çanakkale, Ottoman Empire Armenians started terrorist campaigns against Ottoman Empire by using Russians. 3- Leading by Russia, the Entente Powers armed Armenians in order to let them attack against Ottoman Empire. At the most important time of the World War I, in April, a great Armenian Uprising started in van. After many genocide and collision done by Armenians with the support of Russians, Armenians captured Van City. The Emigration Law was introduced after this event, in 14th May 1915. The law was not only for Armenians, but also for people who were tempted to revolt against Ottoman Empire. According to the law; people who were against Ottoman Empire would be moved into another Ottoman Empire zone and lived in there together. It can be clearly seen that this law was not actually for assimilating Armenians. The Emigration Law was introduced after Armenians Revolts. Besides, this law wasn’t applied in whole Ottoman Empire. For instance; this law was not valid for Armenians in Central Anatolia and East. It is fact that; many Armenian people died in collisions and immigration in Eastern Anatolia. It is the reason of the World War, Armenian Revolts and immigration. At the unsafe time of the World War, immigrating Armenians were attacked by small groups of people who were looking for revenge. The government tried to take precautions against these attacks as soon as they could and punished people who were considered as guilty. The Armenian Issue is propagated today by Armenian terrorist groups as “XX. Centuries’ First Genocide” because of the reason given above. It is stated in these falsified propagations that, approximately 1,5-2 million people died in these issues. In fact, there were a million of people in Ottoman Empire. Hence, this propagation can be considered as falsified. It was stated in last group meeting of Union and Progress of Society Party by Talat Pasha that; approximately 250000 Armenians could be considered as dead. Besides, the number of dead Armenian people stated by Talat Pasha was also stated by England and France. On the other hand, it is supposed to be stated that, the number of dead Turkish people killed by Armenians is much greater than the number of Armenian people died. In World War I, after the victory of Russian Forces in Sarikamis, Muslims were tortured by Armenian People in there. In 11th May 1918, Armenians massacred 12000 Turkish People in Erzurum. In recent days, mass Turkish graves were also revealed. Armenians also exterminated 3000 Turkish people only at a night in Yanikdere. Mustafa Kemal was worried about The massacre committed by Armenians in Eastern Anatolia and Caucasia, and also the future of the Turkish nation. Hence, Mustafa Kemal sent a diplomatic note to the allies, delegates of neutral countries and United States of America in Paris Peace Conference. Giving the Turkish cities as a bribe to Armenians by Entente Powers was highly considered as the beginning of “Dark Days” by Mustafa Kemal. Mustafa Kemal, who put the games played on Turkey, says: “History can never deny the presence of a nation.” A notification was published at the end of the Erzurum Congress leaded by Mustafa Kemal, who highlights the survival of Turkish nationalism. In this notification, the indivisible integrity of Turkish zones and Eastern Anatolia, where Armenians wanted to acquire; therefore, Turkish nation was supposed to defense and the future of Turkish nation written by this issue were mentioned. At the end of the war campaign in Eastern Anatolia done by Kazim Karabekir, Armenians looked for a ceasefire. Hence Gümrü Pact had been signed in 2nd and 3rd December, 1920. Therefore, Eastern Anatolia cities and Kars were joined to Turkish lands. The Armenian Issue had been disappeared with Lausanne Peace Pact in 24th July, 1924.	2,806	ENGLISH	1
The rising consciousness for more equitable gender rights may help lower abusive behavior among teens. As per a press release by the University of Pittsburgh Schools of the Health Sciences, adolescent boys who see their peers abusing the females around them are more likely to show violent behavior than adolescents who are not exposed to such behavior. They also found that boys with more equitable gender attitudes are less likely to indulge in abusive behavior. Carried out by the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, this is the first time researchers gathered their data from a community-based data set rather than a clinical study. It also collected data on multiple levels of violence that included gender violence, peer role, and bullying. The team gathered their data from a sample size of 866 boys, aged 13 to 19 years. They were surveyed in community-based settings from lower-resource Pittsburgh neighborhoods. The researchers found that abusive behavior was quite common. Of the 619 boys who had dated, 1 in 3 had shown abusive behavior towards their date. Around 56 percent of the participants had engaged in sexual harassment and 68 percent had been in a physical fight. They found that boys had witnessed harmful physical, verbal or sexual behavior were 2 to 5 times more likely to engage in violent behavior. However, even teens with more gender positive attitudes were no less likely to indulge in homophobic teasing.	<urn:uuid:150a9cbf-22b0-4cd1-813a-8337ecd115e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.organicfacts.net/gender-teen	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00057.warc.gz	en	0.980196	277	3.296875	3	[ 0.06426680088043213, -0.023030037060379982, 0.18031947314739227, -0.3005666136741638, -0.29166379570961, 0.4898795187473297, -0.056172002106904984, 0.4737512171268463, 0.33082133531570435, 0.23708012700080872, 0.05105908587574959, -0.023995699360966682, 0.13687919080257416, -0.118517205119...	12	The rising consciousness for more equitable gender rights may help lower abusive behavior among teens. As per a press release by the University of Pittsburgh Schools of the Health Sciences, adolescent boys who see their peers abusing the females around them are more likely to show violent behavior than adolescents who are not exposed to such behavior. They also found that boys with more equitable gender attitudes are less likely to indulge in abusive behavior. Carried out by the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, this is the first time researchers gathered their data from a community-based data set rather than a clinical study. It also collected data on multiple levels of violence that included gender violence, peer role, and bullying. The team gathered their data from a sample size of 866 boys, aged 13 to 19 years. They were surveyed in community-based settings from lower-resource Pittsburgh neighborhoods. The researchers found that abusive behavior was quite common. Of the 619 boys who had dated, 1 in 3 had shown abusive behavior towards their date. Around 56 percent of the participants had engaged in sexual harassment and 68 percent had been in a physical fight. They found that boys had witnessed harmful physical, verbal or sexual behavior were 2 to 5 times more likely to engage in violent behavior. However, even teens with more gender positive attitudes were no less likely to indulge in homophobic teasing.	285	ENGLISH	1
Our opening hours are reduced on the Australia Day public holiday, Monday 27 January. More information › Many migrant women who travelled to Australia made the voyage alone. Some were married and came out to the colonies on their own to join their husbands. Wealthier women purchased cabin class passages and were often accompanied by relatives or companions. Although this afforded them more freedom than travelling as a single woman, they were often still restricted to their cabins, the saloon or the poop deck. Other, poorer, single or widowed women made the journey as steerage passengers. 'The [cabin class] Ladies had a kind of private entertainment in an adjoining cabin to the one we occupied. It also took place weekly but what the nature of it was remained a secret amongst themselves. That it was not a teatotal meeting we were convinced from the nature of the stores always conveyed there beforehand. Suffice is to say that as the evening progressed so the laughing became more frequent and louder, till bed hour, when this mysterious assembly broke up.' W.S.M., Our Voyage to Australia, DLMS 168 In the early 1800s, the colonial population was predominantly male, made up of convicts, soldiers, and agricultural workers. Recognising the need for more single women in Australia, the Emigration Commission began advertising for women in search of employment, marriage, or a new life. Initially, ships were chartered for the exclusive use of single women but later the Emigration Commission provided single women with assisted passage on standard government emigrant ships. Eligibility criteria varied, but the Commission usually only accepted single women aged between 18 and 35 who could prove their physical and moral soundness. On board, a matron was appointed to supervise and regulate the single women’s daily lives. Deck time was limited and compartments below deck were often cramped, dark and poorly ventilated. Most ships had only one bathroom for the single women, while others had none at all. To protect their moral character, and ensure no improper conduct during the voyage, the women were strictly segregated from the rest of the passengers at all times. How the women were separated varied between ships, but they were frequently held behind wooden barriers or ropes, and locked into their compartments at night. As a rule, the women were forbidden to talk to male passengers and crew, although some matrons allowed contact with male family members. Like other steerage passengers, single women were organised into messes before embarkation. Under the matron’s supervision, women would eat their meals and perform their chores with other members of their mess. The ‘girls’ had to prepare meals, wash dishes and their own clothing, keep their berths clean as well as sweep and scrub floors. Sometimes women in the cabin classes would hire a single woman from steerage to help look after their children. In their spare time the women could do needlework, read, write, take lessons, attend singing classes or take part in performances.	<urn:uuid:c7430fb4-f176-44be-82ea-95e6e3ffd3a8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/stories/shipboard-19th-century-emigrant-experience/female-emigration	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00381.warc.gz	en	0.989208	612	3.546875	4	[ 0.3992966413497925, 0.17101174592971802, 0.06042912229895592, 0.12934525310993195, -0.21896128356456757, 0.35758599638938904, -0.0752708911895752, 0.05572882294654846, -0.03333672881126404, -0.2102344036102295, 0.3021983504295349, -0.23200979828834534, -0.056886278092861176, 0.312649220228...	1	Our opening hours are reduced on the Australia Day public holiday, Monday 27 January. More information › Many migrant women who travelled to Australia made the voyage alone. Some were married and came out to the colonies on their own to join their husbands. Wealthier women purchased cabin class passages and were often accompanied by relatives or companions. Although this afforded them more freedom than travelling as a single woman, they were often still restricted to their cabins, the saloon or the poop deck. Other, poorer, single or widowed women made the journey as steerage passengers. 'The [cabin class] Ladies had a kind of private entertainment in an adjoining cabin to the one we occupied. It also took place weekly but what the nature of it was remained a secret amongst themselves. That it was not a teatotal meeting we were convinced from the nature of the stores always conveyed there beforehand. Suffice is to say that as the evening progressed so the laughing became more frequent and louder, till bed hour, when this mysterious assembly broke up.' W.S.M., Our Voyage to Australia, DLMS 168 In the early 1800s, the colonial population was predominantly male, made up of convicts, soldiers, and agricultural workers. Recognising the need for more single women in Australia, the Emigration Commission began advertising for women in search of employment, marriage, or a new life. Initially, ships were chartered for the exclusive use of single women but later the Emigration Commission provided single women with assisted passage on standard government emigrant ships. Eligibility criteria varied, but the Commission usually only accepted single women aged between 18 and 35 who could prove their physical and moral soundness. On board, a matron was appointed to supervise and regulate the single women’s daily lives. Deck time was limited and compartments below deck were often cramped, dark and poorly ventilated. Most ships had only one bathroom for the single women, while others had none at all. To protect their moral character, and ensure no improper conduct during the voyage, the women were strictly segregated from the rest of the passengers at all times. How the women were separated varied between ships, but they were frequently held behind wooden barriers or ropes, and locked into their compartments at night. As a rule, the women were forbidden to talk to male passengers and crew, although some matrons allowed contact with male family members. Like other steerage passengers, single women were organised into messes before embarkation. Under the matron’s supervision, women would eat their meals and perform their chores with other members of their mess. The ‘girls’ had to prepare meals, wash dishes and their own clothing, keep their berths clean as well as sweep and scrub floors. Sometimes women in the cabin classes would hire a single woman from steerage to help look after their children. In their spare time the women could do needlework, read, write, take lessons, attend singing classes or take part in performances.	606	ENGLISH	1
Battleship, Connect Four, Uno, Matching Games. I can expect that many of us grew up playing these games and many other “old fashion” games. I myself have spent countless hours around the table playing Uno with a deck that was probably twice my age with my grandma and my cousins. Did you know that playing board or card games can be used for more than just having fun? Scholastic, Inc. recently posted an article about the positive benefits of playing board games as a child. Everyday concepts like taking turns and accepting loss are important skills for kids to be exposed to. The same article also contained the following quote: “Strategy games are useful in helping the frontal lobes of the brain develop,” - Beatrice Tauber Prior, Psy.D., a clinical psychologist. The fifth-grade teachers have been working together to take the games that are tied to so many good memories and bringing them into the classroom. Students have gotten to learn how to play battleship while practicing place value. Individual math practice can become dull very quickly. We have found that when students are able to work as a team to complete a connect four challenge on the Promethean board, they were more engaged and were able to produce a high quantity of quality work. This process allows the students to show the teacher their current level of mastery of the content as well as build a team mentality. Math lends itself to being used in a game-like setting. By working in a group to complete problems there is both a level of accountability and a level of support for struggling students. In our classrooms, we have used generic game boards with different sets of cards that correlate to the needs of the standards currently being addressed. Math is not the only subject that can be applied to a traditional game set-up. The fifth-grade students have also had numerous opportunities to play an Uno like game that uses different Language Arts skills. Cards are color-coded and look similar to those who have played the game before. However, instead of having numbers, the cards may contain different types of figurative language. In order to play, a student must first realize the category that has been played and examine the card in his or her hand to find one that matches. Once again, by including the color-coded feature, this structure has built-in support for students that are not as confident or still mastering the skill. As the break approaches and the weather keeps many of us inside, I challenge you to play a board or card game with your student or family members. Happy Holidays and have fun! To read the article mentioned above you may click here.	<urn:uuid:63dc9731-4820-4335-8366-8c5bd1c36108>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.usd339.net/article/170149?org=usd-339	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00389.warc.gz	en	0.98131	545	3.40625	3	[ -0.33643871545791626, -0.2138390690088272, 0.24450981616973877, -0.4649991989135742, -0.554460883140564, 0.024072378873825073, 0.1736605167388916, 0.056522127240896225, -0.06202244013547897, -0.10680844634771347, 0.13301081955432892, 0.11321166157722473, 0.1635858565568924, 0.3205082416534...	7	Battleship, Connect Four, Uno, Matching Games. I can expect that many of us grew up playing these games and many other “old fashion” games. I myself have spent countless hours around the table playing Uno with a deck that was probably twice my age with my grandma and my cousins. Did you know that playing board or card games can be used for more than just having fun? Scholastic, Inc. recently posted an article about the positive benefits of playing board games as a child. Everyday concepts like taking turns and accepting loss are important skills for kids to be exposed to. The same article also contained the following quote: “Strategy games are useful in helping the frontal lobes of the brain develop,” - Beatrice Tauber Prior, Psy.D., a clinical psychologist. The fifth-grade teachers have been working together to take the games that are tied to so many good memories and bringing them into the classroom. Students have gotten to learn how to play battleship while practicing place value. Individual math practice can become dull very quickly. We have found that when students are able to work as a team to complete a connect four challenge on the Promethean board, they were more engaged and were able to produce a high quantity of quality work. This process allows the students to show the teacher their current level of mastery of the content as well as build a team mentality. Math lends itself to being used in a game-like setting. By working in a group to complete problems there is both a level of accountability and a level of support for struggling students. In our classrooms, we have used generic game boards with different sets of cards that correlate to the needs of the standards currently being addressed. Math is not the only subject that can be applied to a traditional game set-up. The fifth-grade students have also had numerous opportunities to play an Uno like game that uses different Language Arts skills. Cards are color-coded and look similar to those who have played the game before. However, instead of having numbers, the cards may contain different types of figurative language. In order to play, a student must first realize the category that has been played and examine the card in his or her hand to find one that matches. Once again, by including the color-coded feature, this structure has built-in support for students that are not as confident or still mastering the skill. As the break approaches and the weather keeps many of us inside, I challenge you to play a board or card game with your student or family members. Happy Holidays and have fun! To read the article mentioned above you may click here.	520	ENGLISH	1
Renowned British architect Herbert Baker, when designing the Pretoria Station 92 years ago, had a swastika inserted into the plasterwork above the clock in the tower, erected in the centre of the roof of the gracious building. This building was completed in 1910, but most of us associate the swastika with Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, so what’s this all about? There are conflicting views as to how Baker’s swastika – albeit a straight-up swastika instead of a tilted Nazi swastika - ended up above the clock in the building. One view says that Baker was fascinated by symbols, but they appeared more in his writings than in his buildings. Another says that what was originally intended for the building - a tableaux of a man, woman, elderly woman and child – didn't make it to the building, with a suggestion that money or time constraints led to the swastika replacing this symbol. Instead this tableaux ended up on Baker’s Union Buildings in Pretoria, completed in 1913. Still another view says that the four arms of the swastika were chosen to represent the four colonies, as a symbol of unification in the celebrations when South Africa became a union in 1910. We’ll never know which opinion is correct, but what we do know is that the symbol has been around since 3000 BC, found in images in Europe and Asia. Furthermore, the word swastika is Indian and is a symbol of prosperity and good fortune. It originally represented the revolving sun, fire or life. It was widely used in Mesopotamian coins, and in early Christian and Byzantium art, as well as South and Central American art. It is also believed to have been used by the Navajo Indians in North America. It is still used today in Buddhism and Hinduism. Last February the Station burnt down, or at least most of its roof burnt down, including the elegant clock tower. When the restoration process started last June, one of the first jobs was to restore the clock tower and its weathervane, and in the process the swastika was discovered. The red copper weathervane fell off in 1983 and was never found. It had a charming locomotive on its apex, and at a cost of R10 000, the weathervane and the locomotive now sit again at the very top of the building. The clock face, originally made of cast iron and 1.5 metres in diameter, has now been replaced. While the workers were up in the sky, the beautiful copper copula was cleaned and polished, for the first time in 92 years. The fire started last February as an indirect result of a signalling problem down the line from Pretoria. Commuters on the station became more and more impatient, and by 6.30pm, 6 000 commuters had been waiting for their connections for over an hour. It is believed that a small group – 12 have been charged with arson and vandalism – began attacking station property and staff. This group, after throwing bins onto the tracks, stones and fire extinguishers through windows, entered the waiting room and set fire to the curtains, carpets and chairs. While the crowds managed to leave the area via different exits, the fire quickly spread, moving up through two skylight wells on either side of the waiting room. It reached the roof and spread very quickly along the old eaves, destroying almost 100% of the roof, an area of 1 800 square metres. It took firemen with14 fire engines until 4am to put out the fire, and although most of the building was not damaged, the walls and floors were thoroughly drenched. In June contractors were appointed to restore the buildings, through a selection process based on previous work on fire damage, restoration of historical buildings and black empowerment credentials. “The first step in the restoration process was intensive research of what the building was and is at the moment,” says architect José Ferreira, of RFB Consulting Architects, one of the contractors. Baker’s initial drawings were found. Over the years the South African Railways had added internal structures and replaced the wooden parquet tiles in the entrance hall with klompie brick tiles. These had to be replaced, but Ferreira says it took quite a bit of research on Baker’s other buildings to establish his preferred patterns and shapes for the replacement tiles. These replacement quarry tiles are now in place, emulating the patterns of the parquet and completing the splendour of the tall, arched entrance hall. It was hoped that the restoration would be complete by December 2001 but this was delayed by several factors. Plaster on the walls and ceilings had fallen off and the porous bricks had to be given time to dry out. But in October and November Pretoria experienced heavy rains which meant the bricks needed longer to dry out. But even once the bricks were dry, re-applying the plaster proved difficult. The bricks are old and made from lime mortar, and modern cement plaster is not compatible with them. Experiments were done to establish the correct mix to make the bricks and plaster compatible. This was not the only problem. Over the years the upper part of the beautiful sandstone façade had been painted a pale sand colour to blend with the lower rough stone colour. Once restoration started, it was suggested that the paint be stripped and the original façade be restored, instead of another coat of paint being applied. The investigation revealed that in order to make the paint adhere to the stone, the painters had sealed the sandstone with an industrial sealant. This had subsequently seeped into the stone, causing the sand particles to separate. Furthermore, the sealant was of a non-breathing variety and prevented the natural process of evaporation of water. This water accumulates and over time causes deterioration of the stone, leading to a further separation of the stone particles. As a result, it was impossible to consider removing the paint and risking further deterioration. It was decided to renew the paint, this time using a breathable system which allows for moisture evaporation. Reconstruction of roof The reconstruction of the roof posed special problems, relating to Baker’s original design of the roof. The timber used for the original roof was Baltic deal or Scandinavian pine, and while efforts were made to replace the trusses with this timber, cost and time considerations made this impossible. Instead, local high-quality laminated pine was used. At the back of the building the roof curves. This meant that almost every truss inside the roof on the curved section had to be individually measured and cut to fit its particular place. Where possible, every effort was made to re-use the original roof timber. The roof tiles were also a challenge. A mould for them and a specialised cutting machine were imported from Italy, and the tiles had to be purpose-made. “Baker had skilled craftsmen to do this work, but we have had to study his drawings carefully and brief the builders and manufacturers precisely,” says Ferreira. A brickmaker from Italy was brought in to assist with the details. Several runs of the rounded red tiles were made before the correct colour was obtained, and now, says Ferreira, when the new tiles are compared with a section of tiles at the back that survived, “no one can tell the difference”. And now, with completion a mere two weeks away, has the restoration been successful? “Yes, we are very happy with what has been done, it looks stunning,” says Annette Lindeque, acting regional manager at Intersite Northern Gauteng. Intersite is the company that manages and develops all metropolitan railway stations on behalf of owners the South African Rail Commuter Corporation. “We were shocked and stunned when it happened but it has sparked the restoration process, which was necessary – the fire has provided opportunity,” adds Lindeque. The area opposite the station is also to be revamped. At present it is an attractive garden but will be re-designed, and is to be declared a maximum control area, which means that hawkers will not be allowed use the garden for trading. They are to be moved to another area and supplied with water, and lights and stalls. The road between the station and the garden is to be closed off and raised to enhance pedestrian safety. Parking will be constructed to the east of the garden, and land and buildings around the station will be developed, some for informal traders. A budget of R18-million has been carefully used for this restoration and although compromises had at times to be made, “the quality is great”, says Ferreira. Part of that budget was spent on a fire detention system that links directly to the city’s emergency systems, says Lindeque. The signalling systems down the line are to be upgraded as well. The Pretoria Station was the first public building Baker designed and built in South Africa - mostly he’d built houses and churches - and is believed to be a try-out for the techniques he used in designing and building the grand and gracious Union Buildings several kilometres from the Station. When South Africa was on the brink of becoming a union in 1910, it was decided to use excess funds that the Transvaal government had, instead of surrendering them to the new central government. A competition was held to find an architect for the Station. When none of the entries were approved, the competition was abandoned, and Baker, who was one of the competition judges, was awarded the commission. Baker began his sketches on 17 March 1909 and completed the drawings five months later, on 11 August. The Station replaced the old station which was built to receive the first steam trains into Pretoria, in 1893. The Station has some 70 000 passengers pass through its entrances every day, most to catch a train to work, some to take a coach out of town, some to board the luxurious Blue Train to Cape Town, many, it is hoped, to take the controversial R7-billion high-speed Gautrain when it’s completed in 2006. [the Gautrain eventually cost R26-billion, and hit the tracks in 2010] Commuters will shortly walk on beautiful quarry tiles through brand-new teak doorways, and station workers will open polished teak doors with brass knobs, and enjoy the high arches and shiny, new marble columns. They can enjoy coffee at the new coffee shop or buy a fresh croissant at Butterfields Bakery on the concourse.	<urn:uuid:1a4372a1-051b-4cf8-9987-d1e7aefde8b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lucilledavie.co.za/single-post/2002/03/19/A-swastika-Herbert-Baker-and-the-Pretoria-Station	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00074.warc.gz	en	0.980804	2,192	3.453125	3	[ -0.006229605060070753, 0.3978957235813141, -0.18689465522766113, 0.1637258529663086, -0.2500779330730438, 0.5445493459701538, -0.14385448396205902, 0.11395592987537384, -0.06999357044696808, 0.00313451886177063, -0.25018349289894104, -0.28006672859191895, 0.24671953916549683, 0.27616250514...	2	Renowned British architect Herbert Baker, when designing the Pretoria Station 92 years ago, had a swastika inserted into the plasterwork above the clock in the tower, erected in the centre of the roof of the gracious building. This building was completed in 1910, but most of us associate the swastika with Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, so what’s this all about? There are conflicting views as to how Baker’s swastika – albeit a straight-up swastika instead of a tilted Nazi swastika - ended up above the clock in the building. One view says that Baker was fascinated by symbols, but they appeared more in his writings than in his buildings. Another says that what was originally intended for the building - a tableaux of a man, woman, elderly woman and child – didn't make it to the building, with a suggestion that money or time constraints led to the swastika replacing this symbol. Instead this tableaux ended up on Baker’s Union Buildings in Pretoria, completed in 1913. Still another view says that the four arms of the swastika were chosen to represent the four colonies, as a symbol of unification in the celebrations when South Africa became a union in 1910. We’ll never know which opinion is correct, but what we do know is that the symbol has been around since 3000 BC, found in images in Europe and Asia. Furthermore, the word swastika is Indian and is a symbol of prosperity and good fortune. It originally represented the revolving sun, fire or life. It was widely used in Mesopotamian coins, and in early Christian and Byzantium art, as well as South and Central American art. It is also believed to have been used by the Navajo Indians in North America. It is still used today in Buddhism and Hinduism. Last February the Station burnt down, or at least most of its roof burnt down, including the elegant clock tower. When the restoration process started last June, one of the first jobs was to restore the clock tower and its weathervane, and in the process the swastika was discovered. The red copper weathervane fell off in 1983 and was never found. It had a charming locomotive on its apex, and at a cost of R10 000, the weathervane and the locomotive now sit again at the very top of the building. The clock face, originally made of cast iron and 1.5 metres in diameter, has now been replaced. While the workers were up in the sky, the beautiful copper copula was cleaned and polished, for the first time in 92 years. The fire started last February as an indirect result of a signalling problem down the line from Pretoria. Commuters on the station became more and more impatient, and by 6.30pm, 6 000 commuters had been waiting for their connections for over an hour. It is believed that a small group – 12 have been charged with arson and vandalism – began attacking station property and staff. This group, after throwing bins onto the tracks, stones and fire extinguishers through windows, entered the waiting room and set fire to the curtains, carpets and chairs. While the crowds managed to leave the area via different exits, the fire quickly spread, moving up through two skylight wells on either side of the waiting room. It reached the roof and spread very quickly along the old eaves, destroying almost 100% of the roof, an area of 1 800 square metres. It took firemen with14 fire engines until 4am to put out the fire, and although most of the building was not damaged, the walls and floors were thoroughly drenched. In June contractors were appointed to restore the buildings, through a selection process based on previous work on fire damage, restoration of historical buildings and black empowerment credentials. “The first step in the restoration process was intensive research of what the building was and is at the moment,” says architect José Ferreira, of RFB Consulting Architects, one of the contractors. Baker’s initial drawings were found. Over the years the South African Railways had added internal structures and replaced the wooden parquet tiles in the entrance hall with klompie brick tiles. These had to be replaced, but Ferreira says it took quite a bit of research on Baker’s other buildings to establish his preferred patterns and shapes for the replacement tiles. These replacement quarry tiles are now in place, emulating the patterns of the parquet and completing the splendour of the tall, arched entrance hall. It was hoped that the restoration would be complete by December 2001 but this was delayed by several factors. Plaster on the walls and ceilings had fallen off and the porous bricks had to be given time to dry out. But in October and November Pretoria experienced heavy rains which meant the bricks needed longer to dry out. But even once the bricks were dry, re-applying the plaster proved difficult. The bricks are old and made from lime mortar, and modern cement plaster is not compatible with them. Experiments were done to establish the correct mix to make the bricks and plaster compatible. This was not the only problem. Over the years the upper part of the beautiful sandstone façade had been painted a pale sand colour to blend with the lower rough stone colour. Once restoration started, it was suggested that the paint be stripped and the original façade be restored, instead of another coat of paint being applied. The investigation revealed that in order to make the paint adhere to the stone, the painters had sealed the sandstone with an industrial sealant. This had subsequently seeped into the stone, causing the sand particles to separate. Furthermore, the sealant was of a non-breathing variety and prevented the natural process of evaporation of water. This water accumulates and over time causes deterioration of the stone, leading to a further separation of the stone particles. As a result, it was impossible to consider removing the paint and risking further deterioration. It was decided to renew the paint, this time using a breathable system which allows for moisture evaporation. Reconstruction of roof The reconstruction of the roof posed special problems, relating to Baker’s original design of the roof. The timber used for the original roof was Baltic deal or Scandinavian pine, and while efforts were made to replace the trusses with this timber, cost and time considerations made this impossible. Instead, local high-quality laminated pine was used. At the back of the building the roof curves. This meant that almost every truss inside the roof on the curved section had to be individually measured and cut to fit its particular place. Where possible, every effort was made to re-use the original roof timber. The roof tiles were also a challenge. A mould for them and a specialised cutting machine were imported from Italy, and the tiles had to be purpose-made. “Baker had skilled craftsmen to do this work, but we have had to study his drawings carefully and brief the builders and manufacturers precisely,” says Ferreira. A brickmaker from Italy was brought in to assist with the details. Several runs of the rounded red tiles were made before the correct colour was obtained, and now, says Ferreira, when the new tiles are compared with a section of tiles at the back that survived, “no one can tell the difference”. And now, with completion a mere two weeks away, has the restoration been successful? “Yes, we are very happy with what has been done, it looks stunning,” says Annette Lindeque, acting regional manager at Intersite Northern Gauteng. Intersite is the company that manages and develops all metropolitan railway stations on behalf of owners the South African Rail Commuter Corporation. “We were shocked and stunned when it happened but it has sparked the restoration process, which was necessary – the fire has provided opportunity,” adds Lindeque. The area opposite the station is also to be revamped. At present it is an attractive garden but will be re-designed, and is to be declared a maximum control area, which means that hawkers will not be allowed use the garden for trading. They are to be moved to another area and supplied with water, and lights and stalls. The road between the station and the garden is to be closed off and raised to enhance pedestrian safety. Parking will be constructed to the east of the garden, and land and buildings around the station will be developed, some for informal traders. A budget of R18-million has been carefully used for this restoration and although compromises had at times to be made, “the quality is great”, says Ferreira. Part of that budget was spent on a fire detention system that links directly to the city’s emergency systems, says Lindeque. The signalling systems down the line are to be upgraded as well. The Pretoria Station was the first public building Baker designed and built in South Africa - mostly he’d built houses and churches - and is believed to be a try-out for the techniques he used in designing and building the grand and gracious Union Buildings several kilometres from the Station. When South Africa was on the brink of becoming a union in 1910, it was decided to use excess funds that the Transvaal government had, instead of surrendering them to the new central government. A competition was held to find an architect for the Station. When none of the entries were approved, the competition was abandoned, and Baker, who was one of the competition judges, was awarded the commission. Baker began his sketches on 17 March 1909 and completed the drawings five months later, on 11 August. The Station replaced the old station which was built to receive the first steam trains into Pretoria, in 1893. The Station has some 70 000 passengers pass through its entrances every day, most to catch a train to work, some to take a coach out of town, some to board the luxurious Blue Train to Cape Town, many, it is hoped, to take the controversial R7-billion high-speed Gautrain when it’s completed in 2006. [the Gautrain eventually cost R26-billion, and hit the tracks in 2010] Commuters will shortly walk on beautiful quarry tiles through brand-new teak doorways, and station workers will open polished teak doors with brass knobs, and enjoy the high arches and shiny, new marble columns. They can enjoy coffee at the new coffee shop or buy a fresh croissant at Butterfields Bakery on the concourse.	2,184	ENGLISH	1
The Wars of the Roses is the name given to a series of civil wars that occurred over a space of three decades in England during the Middle Ages. The Wars of the Roses were fought between two opposing houses, the House of Lancaster (also known as Lancastrians) and the House of York (also known as Yorkists). Many people that are first becoming familiar with the Wars or the Roses ask why this particular series of civil wars has been given such a glamorous name. The name ‘Wars of the Roses’ was adopted because of the crests (or badges) used by each group. The Lancastrians represented themselves with a red rose The Yorkists represented themselves with a white rose. Both the House of Lancaster and the House of York felt that were entitled to hold the title of King of England. There are a number of key individuals involved with the Wars of the Roses. Key Players Involved with the Wars of the Roses As the war involved two distinct houses, there are a number of individuals on each side that each played their own part in the Wars of the Roses. The Lancastrians included: Henry IV (1399 – 1413) Henry V (son of Henry IV - 1413 – 1422) Henry VI (son of Henry V - 1422 – 1461 & 1470 – 1471) The Yorkists included: Edward IV (1461 – 1483) Edward V and Richard (sons of Edward IV) Richard III (brother of Edward IV - 1483 – 1485) The civil conflict rose just two years after the end of the Hundred Years War; however there is no doubt that the causes for the Wars of the Roses had been bubbling since well before the war started. In fact the true causes had been in development during the Hundred Years War. Causes for the Wars of the Roses Edward III was the king who ruled England during much of the Hundred Years War. Edward III ruled from 1327 to 1377. Both the House of Lancaster and the House of York were factions that were made up of descendents, lords and nobles that each had their own vested interest in gaining the throne. Members of both houses were direct descendents of King Edward III, giving both parties a sense of entitlement for the throne. The ruling Lancastrian king of the time, Henry VI, often suffered with mental health issues, sometimes rendering him completely unfit to rule. He had also surrounded himself with nobles and individuals that were extremely unpopular, and the Hundred Years War had given rise to a number of powerful lords that had access to considerable resources, such as vast amounts of wealth and their own private armed forces. Finally, the Hundred Years War had brought about a considerable amount of civil unrest. The long war had been very expensive and it had cost the public dearly. High taxes had been used to fund the war and needless to say that had not gone down well with an impoverished society, especially as the early English victories began giving way to an endless stream of defeats by the French. England had been left economically devastated and morally damaged, and the last thing the country needed was an unfit king who could not rule. The House of Lancaster and the House of York were determined to make use of the opportunity and to solidify what was rightfully theirs. Battles Fought During the Wars of the Roses The first battle in the Wars of the Roses began with the Battle of First at St. Albans in 1455. It ended just over 30 years later with the Battle of Stoke in 1487. This is a brief overview of the dates and places of the battles, including the name of the victorious party. 1455 – St Albans I – Victory to House of York 1459 – Blore Heath – Victory to House of York 1459 – Ludford Bridge – Victory to House of Lancaster 1460 – Northampton – Victory to House of York 1460 – Wakefield – Victory to House of Lancaster 1461 – Mortimor’s Cross – Victory to House of York 1461 – St Albans II – Victory to House of Lancaster 1461 – Ferrybridge – Victory to House of York 1461 – Towton – Victory to House of York 1464 – Hedgley Moor – Victory to House of York 1464 – Hexham – Victory to House of York 1469 – Edgecote Moor – Victory to House of Lancaster 1470 – Losecote Field – Victory to House of York 1471 – Barnet – Victory to House of York 1471 – Tewkesbury – Victory to House of York 1485 – Bosworth – Victory to House of Tudor 1487 – Stoke – Victory to House of Tudor Key Battles and Events There are a number of key battles and events that played a critical part in the outcome of the Wars of the Roses. 1455 – The First Battle of St. Albans The first battle in the War of the Roses began with Henry VI as King of the English throne. Richard of York led an army of approximately 3,000 Yorkists towards London. Henry VI had an army of approximately 2,500 soldiers that he moved from London to intercept Richard and his men, and the two clashed at St.Albans. Richard successfully attacked, and Henry’s wife and son fled in exile. Battles and skirmishes were fought throughout England between the St. Albans battle and the next big battle at Northampton. These battles include: Blore Heath (1459 – Yorkist victory) Ludford Bridge (1459 – Lancastrian victory) 1460 – The Battle of Northampton The battle of Northampton included much bigger forces than those seen at St.Albans. Approximately 20,000 Yorkists and 10,000 Lancastrians stood ready to do battle. In June 1460, Richard Neville (earl of Warwick), his father (earl of Salisbury), and Edward (the future King Edward IV) sailed from France and landed at Sandwich while en-route to London. Warwick gave the order to march north, in order to attack the Lancastrian army that was marching south from Coventry. The Lancastrian caught wind of the plans and decided to stop at Northampton to build up a defensive position. The two forces once again met and did battle, and it was during this battle that Lord Grey, a commander in the King’s army, switched to the Yorkist cause. This sudden change of allegiance during battle helped the Yorkist army seize the victory. King Henry VI was captured by the Yorkists during this battle in the summer months. Henry VI suffered with his mental health during his captivity, and he agreed to appoint Richard as Regent of England. Many thought this would end the Wars of the Roses, however, the Queen, Henry’s wife, had been working on her own plan to assemble an army in Wales. The Battle of Wakefield just a couple of months later would prove to be the undoing of Richard of York. 1460 – The Battle of Wakefield The Battle of Wakefield is one of the most unusual battles within the Wars of the Roses, in the sense that the tactics are somewhat mystifying. Richard of York, having captured King Henry VI and practically securing his right the throne, travelled north with Richard Neville, the earl of Salisbury to tackle a large Lancastrian force that had chosen to assemble near the city of York. Richard had accumulated a force of around 8,000 Yorkists to help hem defend against the Lancastrian army. Richard, upon reaching the area, made the tactical decision to take up a defensive position at Sandal Castle. However, for some unknown reason, Richard then chose to leave his stronghold. He took his forces and directly attacked the Lancastrian force head on, even though at an estimated 18,000 troops the force was more than twice the size of his army. While Richard did his best and held out for some time, he was eventually overwhelmed and his forces were defeated by the Lancastrians. The battle cost Richard more than his position, it cost him his life. The earl of Salisbury and York's son were also captured and later executed by the Lancastrian forces. In February and March of 1461 a number of battles were fought, most of which were won by the Yorkist forces. As Richard of York had died, Edward of York was anointed King of England in March 1461. The Yorkist king remained in power for the next decade in what was a relatively peaceful time. A number of battles were fought, but the Yorkists were once again able to annihilate the Lancastrians. These battles included: Hedgley Moor (1464 – Yorkist victory) Hexham (1464 – Yorkist victory) Edgecote Moor (1469 – Lancastrian victory) 1470 was the year that saw a turn of events that changed the odds out of the favour in to the Yorkists and back into the favour of the Lancastrians. Warwick and Clarence were forced to flee to France, where they formed an allegiance with Margaret of Anjou. With the support of the French, this unlikely trio launched their own invasion in England. At the same time, Warwick’s brother, John Neville, changed his allegiance from the Yorkist to the Lancastrian army, forcing the King to flee and abandon his throne. The last Lancastrian king, Henry VI seized this opportunity to reclaim the throne for both himself and his house, and in October 1470 he took back the throne, albeit for a brief period. Only one battle was fought during 1470, and that was in early spring at Losecote Field, which proved to be another victory for the Yorkist army. 1471 – The Battle of Barnet In March King Edward IV returned back to England with his army. In April he then successfully fought the Battle of Barnet was fought. It’s unclear how many soldiers were involved in this fight, however, it is known that Warwick was killed during this battle. Between the Battle of Barnet and the Battle of Tewkesbury King Henry VI is captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London. 1471 – The Battle of Tewkesbury With King Henry locked away in the Tower of London Edward IV went on to secure and solidify his power and authority with a decisive battle at Tewkesbury. Following the defeat at the Battle of Barnet, the Lancastrian forces headed towards the Welsh border, led by the Duke of Somerset, in order to recruit more soldiers to the cause. Edward IV anticipated this uprising and moved his army towards the border with the intention of intercepting the Lancastrian forces. The Lancastrian army were the first to reach Tewkesbury, and Somerset decided to take advantage of the strong defensive position that the opportunity had afforded him. Edward IV reached Tewkesbury early in May and he immediately engaged the enemy, preventing the Lancastrians from gaining any more advantage. Somerset made the unfortunate mistake of thinking that he had identified a weakness in the Yorkist forces and gave the order to attack. The Yorkist army held off the attack and then quickly launched a damaging counter-attack. Edward, Prince of Wales died in the battle aged just 18 years old. Somerset was executed by the Yorkists and Queen Margaret was captured. This battle saw the end of the majority of the male bloodline within the Lancastrian house. Just a month later, King Henry VI’s body was found at the Tower of London. Through battle and bloodshed the Yorkist forces had managed to gain and retain control of the throne. In 1483 Edward IV died, leaving his brother Richard, in charge as Protector. It was his duty to ensure that Edward’s son, also Edward, would successfully complete his coronation and become King of England. However, once inside the Tower of London, the two young princes were betrayed by their uncle and Richard became Richard III. 1485 – The Battle of Bosworth Field The Battle of Bosworth was launched by a new house that wanted access to the throne, the Tudor house. Henry Tudor launched an attack against Richard III and succeeded, killing the king in the process. Henry’s army of approximately 5,000 men managed to overcome an army twice the size of his own, although once again two of Richard’s Yorkist allies lost their loyalty and switched sides during battle, which helped pave the way for Henry’s victory.	<urn:uuid:fedf35c5-cdbc-49ca-889b-4af37085710e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefinertimes.com/Middle-Ages/wars-of-the-roses.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00444.warc.gz	en	0.981273	2,613	3.8125	4	[ -0.31911230087280273, -0.018442168831825256, 0.43555909395217896, 0.30659422278404236, -0.07212959229946136, -0.5278053283691406, 0.36344999074935913, 0.04681627079844475, -0.02053348533809185, 0.07363635301589966, -0.26790958642959595, -0.010207700543105602, -0.014425260946154594, 0.17804...	1	The Wars of the Roses is the name given to a series of civil wars that occurred over a space of three decades in England during the Middle Ages. The Wars of the Roses were fought between two opposing houses, the House of Lancaster (also known as Lancastrians) and the House of York (also known as Yorkists). Many people that are first becoming familiar with the Wars or the Roses ask why this particular series of civil wars has been given such a glamorous name. The name ‘Wars of the Roses’ was adopted because of the crests (or badges) used by each group. The Lancastrians represented themselves with a red rose The Yorkists represented themselves with a white rose. Both the House of Lancaster and the House of York felt that were entitled to hold the title of King of England. There are a number of key individuals involved with the Wars of the Roses. Key Players Involved with the Wars of the Roses As the war involved two distinct houses, there are a number of individuals on each side that each played their own part in the Wars of the Roses. The Lancastrians included: Henry IV (1399 – 1413) Henry V (son of Henry IV - 1413 – 1422) Henry VI (son of Henry V - 1422 – 1461 & 1470 – 1471) The Yorkists included: Edward IV (1461 – 1483) Edward V and Richard (sons of Edward IV) Richard III (brother of Edward IV - 1483 – 1485) The civil conflict rose just two years after the end of the Hundred Years War; however there is no doubt that the causes for the Wars of the Roses had been bubbling since well before the war started. In fact the true causes had been in development during the Hundred Years War. Causes for the Wars of the Roses Edward III was the king who ruled England during much of the Hundred Years War. Edward III ruled from 1327 to 1377. Both the House of Lancaster and the House of York were factions that were made up of descendents, lords and nobles that each had their own vested interest in gaining the throne. Members of both houses were direct descendents of King Edward III, giving both parties a sense of entitlement for the throne. The ruling Lancastrian king of the time, Henry VI, often suffered with mental health issues, sometimes rendering him completely unfit to rule. He had also surrounded himself with nobles and individuals that were extremely unpopular, and the Hundred Years War had given rise to a number of powerful lords that had access to considerable resources, such as vast amounts of wealth and their own private armed forces. Finally, the Hundred Years War had brought about a considerable amount of civil unrest. The long war had been very expensive and it had cost the public dearly. High taxes had been used to fund the war and needless to say that had not gone down well with an impoverished society, especially as the early English victories began giving way to an endless stream of defeats by the French. England had been left economically devastated and morally damaged, and the last thing the country needed was an unfit king who could not rule. The House of Lancaster and the House of York were determined to make use of the opportunity and to solidify what was rightfully theirs. Battles Fought During the Wars of the Roses The first battle in the Wars of the Roses began with the Battle of First at St. Albans in 1455. It ended just over 30 years later with the Battle of Stoke in 1487. This is a brief overview of the dates and places of the battles, including the name of the victorious party. 1455 – St Albans I – Victory to House of York 1459 – Blore Heath – Victory to House of York 1459 – Ludford Bridge – Victory to House of Lancaster 1460 – Northampton – Victory to House of York 1460 – Wakefield – Victory to House of Lancaster 1461 – Mortimor’s Cross – Victory to House of York 1461 – St Albans II – Victory to House of Lancaster 1461 – Ferrybridge – Victory to House of York 1461 – Towton – Victory to House of York 1464 – Hedgley Moor – Victory to House of York 1464 – Hexham – Victory to House of York 1469 – Edgecote Moor – Victory to House of Lancaster 1470 – Losecote Field – Victory to House of York 1471 – Barnet – Victory to House of York 1471 – Tewkesbury – Victory to House of York 1485 – Bosworth – Victory to House of Tudor 1487 – Stoke – Victory to House of Tudor Key Battles and Events There are a number of key battles and events that played a critical part in the outcome of the Wars of the Roses. 1455 – The First Battle of St. Albans The first battle in the War of the Roses began with Henry VI as King of the English throne. Richard of York led an army of approximately 3,000 Yorkists towards London. Henry VI had an army of approximately 2,500 soldiers that he moved from London to intercept Richard and his men, and the two clashed at St.Albans. Richard successfully attacked, and Henry’s wife and son fled in exile. Battles and skirmishes were fought throughout England between the St. Albans battle and the next big battle at Northampton. These battles include: Blore Heath (1459 – Yorkist victory) Ludford Bridge (1459 – Lancastrian victory) 1460 – The Battle of Northampton The battle of Northampton included much bigger forces than those seen at St.Albans. Approximately 20,000 Yorkists and 10,000 Lancastrians stood ready to do battle. In June 1460, Richard Neville (earl of Warwick), his father (earl of Salisbury), and Edward (the future King Edward IV) sailed from France and landed at Sandwich while en-route to London. Warwick gave the order to march north, in order to attack the Lancastrian army that was marching south from Coventry. The Lancastrian caught wind of the plans and decided to stop at Northampton to build up a defensive position. The two forces once again met and did battle, and it was during this battle that Lord Grey, a commander in the King’s army, switched to the Yorkist cause. This sudden change of allegiance during battle helped the Yorkist army seize the victory. King Henry VI was captured by the Yorkists during this battle in the summer months. Henry VI suffered with his mental health during his captivity, and he agreed to appoint Richard as Regent of England. Many thought this would end the Wars of the Roses, however, the Queen, Henry’s wife, had been working on her own plan to assemble an army in Wales. The Battle of Wakefield just a couple of months later would prove to be the undoing of Richard of York. 1460 – The Battle of Wakefield The Battle of Wakefield is one of the most unusual battles within the Wars of the Roses, in the sense that the tactics are somewhat mystifying. Richard of York, having captured King Henry VI and practically securing his right the throne, travelled north with Richard Neville, the earl of Salisbury to tackle a large Lancastrian force that had chosen to assemble near the city of York. Richard had accumulated a force of around 8,000 Yorkists to help hem defend against the Lancastrian army. Richard, upon reaching the area, made the tactical decision to take up a defensive position at Sandal Castle. However, for some unknown reason, Richard then chose to leave his stronghold. He took his forces and directly attacked the Lancastrian force head on, even though at an estimated 18,000 troops the force was more than twice the size of his army. While Richard did his best and held out for some time, he was eventually overwhelmed and his forces were defeated by the Lancastrians. The battle cost Richard more than his position, it cost him his life. The earl of Salisbury and York's son were also captured and later executed by the Lancastrian forces. In February and March of 1461 a number of battles were fought, most of which were won by the Yorkist forces. As Richard of York had died, Edward of York was anointed King of England in March 1461. The Yorkist king remained in power for the next decade in what was a relatively peaceful time. A number of battles were fought, but the Yorkists were once again able to annihilate the Lancastrians. These battles included: Hedgley Moor (1464 – Yorkist victory) Hexham (1464 – Yorkist victory) Edgecote Moor (1469 – Lancastrian victory) 1470 was the year that saw a turn of events that changed the odds out of the favour in to the Yorkists and back into the favour of the Lancastrians. Warwick and Clarence were forced to flee to France, where they formed an allegiance with Margaret of Anjou. With the support of the French, this unlikely trio launched their own invasion in England. At the same time, Warwick’s brother, John Neville, changed his allegiance from the Yorkist to the Lancastrian army, forcing the King to flee and abandon his throne. The last Lancastrian king, Henry VI seized this opportunity to reclaim the throne for both himself and his house, and in October 1470 he took back the throne, albeit for a brief period. Only one battle was fought during 1470, and that was in early spring at Losecote Field, which proved to be another victory for the Yorkist army. 1471 – The Battle of Barnet In March King Edward IV returned back to England with his army. In April he then successfully fought the Battle of Barnet was fought. It’s unclear how many soldiers were involved in this fight, however, it is known that Warwick was killed during this battle. Between the Battle of Barnet and the Battle of Tewkesbury King Henry VI is captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London. 1471 – The Battle of Tewkesbury With King Henry locked away in the Tower of London Edward IV went on to secure and solidify his power and authority with a decisive battle at Tewkesbury. Following the defeat at the Battle of Barnet, the Lancastrian forces headed towards the Welsh border, led by the Duke of Somerset, in order to recruit more soldiers to the cause. Edward IV anticipated this uprising and moved his army towards the border with the intention of intercepting the Lancastrian forces. The Lancastrian army were the first to reach Tewkesbury, and Somerset decided to take advantage of the strong defensive position that the opportunity had afforded him. Edward IV reached Tewkesbury early in May and he immediately engaged the enemy, preventing the Lancastrians from gaining any more advantage. Somerset made the unfortunate mistake of thinking that he had identified a weakness in the Yorkist forces and gave the order to attack. The Yorkist army held off the attack and then quickly launched a damaging counter-attack. Edward, Prince of Wales died in the battle aged just 18 years old. Somerset was executed by the Yorkists and Queen Margaret was captured. This battle saw the end of the majority of the male bloodline within the Lancastrian house. Just a month later, King Henry VI’s body was found at the Tower of London. Through battle and bloodshed the Yorkist forces had managed to gain and retain control of the throne. In 1483 Edward IV died, leaving his brother Richard, in charge as Protector. It was his duty to ensure that Edward’s son, also Edward, would successfully complete his coronation and become King of England. However, once inside the Tower of London, the two young princes were betrayed by their uncle and Richard became Richard III. 1485 – The Battle of Bosworth Field The Battle of Bosworth was launched by a new house that wanted access to the throne, the Tudor house. Henry Tudor launched an attack against Richard III and succeeded, killing the king in the process. Henry’s army of approximately 5,000 men managed to overcome an army twice the size of his own, although once again two of Richard’s Yorkist allies lost their loyalty and switched sides during battle, which helped pave the way for Henry’s victory.	2,680	ENGLISH	1
persblog.be – The World in English suppl. – to MAIN PAGE persblog.be – Edition 2014.06.24 – One of the causes of the outbreak of the second world war was ‘The Treaty of Versailles’ settling how Germany had to pay for the damage caused during the war. “The Germans could not afford to pay the money and they voted to power a man who promised to rip up the Treaty. His name was Adolf Hitler.” Although the outbreak of the second world war was triggered by Germany’s invasion of Poland, the causes of the war are more complex. One of the causes was ‘The Treaty of Versailles‘. The leaders of England, France, Italy and the US met to discuss how Germany was made to pay for the damage the war had caused. They forced Germany to sign the disastrous treaty. According to historyonthenet.com: “The German people were very unhappy about the treaty and thought that it was too harsh. Germany could not afford to pay the money and during the 1920s the people in Germany were very poor. They voted to power a man who promised to rip up the Treaty. His name was Adolf Hitler.” The main terms of the ‘Treaty of Versailles’ were: the ‘War Guilt Clause’, stipulating Germany should accept the blame for starting WWI; payment of reparations for the damage caused by the war; disarmament and territorial clauses – The industrialized Rhineland had to stay neutral, and land was taken away from Germany and given to other countries. Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933. Almost immediately he began secretly building up Germany’s army and weapons. In 1934 he increased the size of the army, began building warships and created an air force. In 1936 Hitler ordered troops to enter the Rhineland. At this point his army was not very strong and could have been easily defeated. Yet neither France nor Britain was prepared to start another war. Post war era in Germany: the ‘Weimar Republic‘ Hitler’s next step was to begin taking back the land that had been taken away from Germany. In 1938, German troops marched into Austria. The Austrian leader asked Britain, France and Italy for aid. Hitler promised that Anschluss was the end of his expansionist aims and not wanting to risk war, the other countries did nothing. Hitler did not keep his word and six months later demanded that the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia be handed over to Germany. England let Hitler have it, provided that he promised not to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia. But in 1939 he invaded the rest of that country. Neither Britain nor France was prepared to take military action. Moreover, a growing fear of communism made its leaders hope that Germany would serve as a buffer to it. That same year German troops invaded Poland. Meanwhile German’s European ally, Italy, invaded Ethiopia in 1935 in the so-called ‘Second Abyssinian War’. Meanwhile in Asia, in 1931, Germany’s ally, Japan, invaded Manchuria in China, an area rich in minerals and resources. China appealed for help. The Japanese government were told to order the army to leave the Chinese region immediately. However, the army took no notice of the government and continued its conquest. A second world war was inevitable. Beside the disastrous ‘Treaty of Versailles’, the second world war was made possible due to the weakness of the European politicians and of the ‘League of Nations’ – predecessor of the United Nations – a growing fear of communism, ‘The Great Depression’…	<urn:uuid:79d1f7de-5d5f-4c9a-93e3-bc1ba3d0326e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://persblog.be/wwi-the-disastrous-treaty-of-versailles/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00121.warc.gz	en	0.982185	778	4.03125	4	[ -0.5859741568565369, 0.5208232402801514, -0.08276195824146271, -0.1351853907108307, 0.12533259391784668, -0.23731237649917603, -0.19563521444797516, 0.17371845245361328, 0.1295461654663086, -0.14679180085659027, 0.35610586404800415, -0.5684653520584106, 0.13351178169250488, 0.4732189178466...	2	persblog.be – The World in English suppl. – to MAIN PAGE persblog.be – Edition 2014.06.24 – One of the causes of the outbreak of the second world war was ‘The Treaty of Versailles’ settling how Germany had to pay for the damage caused during the war. “The Germans could not afford to pay the money and they voted to power a man who promised to rip up the Treaty. His name was Adolf Hitler.” Although the outbreak of the second world war was triggered by Germany’s invasion of Poland, the causes of the war are more complex. One of the causes was ‘The Treaty of Versailles‘. The leaders of England, France, Italy and the US met to discuss how Germany was made to pay for the damage the war had caused. They forced Germany to sign the disastrous treaty. According to historyonthenet.com: “The German people were very unhappy about the treaty and thought that it was too harsh. Germany could not afford to pay the money and during the 1920s the people in Germany were very poor. They voted to power a man who promised to rip up the Treaty. His name was Adolf Hitler.” The main terms of the ‘Treaty of Versailles’ were: the ‘War Guilt Clause’, stipulating Germany should accept the blame for starting WWI; payment of reparations for the damage caused by the war; disarmament and territorial clauses – The industrialized Rhineland had to stay neutral, and land was taken away from Germany and given to other countries. Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933. Almost immediately he began secretly building up Germany’s army and weapons. In 1934 he increased the size of the army, began building warships and created an air force. In 1936 Hitler ordered troops to enter the Rhineland. At this point his army was not very strong and could have been easily defeated. Yet neither France nor Britain was prepared to start another war. Post war era in Germany: the ‘Weimar Republic‘ Hitler’s next step was to begin taking back the land that had been taken away from Germany. In 1938, German troops marched into Austria. The Austrian leader asked Britain, France and Italy for aid. Hitler promised that Anschluss was the end of his expansionist aims and not wanting to risk war, the other countries did nothing. Hitler did not keep his word and six months later demanded that the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia be handed over to Germany. England let Hitler have it, provided that he promised not to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia. But in 1939 he invaded the rest of that country. Neither Britain nor France was prepared to take military action. Moreover, a growing fear of communism made its leaders hope that Germany would serve as a buffer to it. That same year German troops invaded Poland. Meanwhile German’s European ally, Italy, invaded Ethiopia in 1935 in the so-called ‘Second Abyssinian War’. Meanwhile in Asia, in 1931, Germany’s ally, Japan, invaded Manchuria in China, an area rich in minerals and resources. China appealed for help. The Japanese government were told to order the army to leave the Chinese region immediately. However, the army took no notice of the government and continued its conquest. A second world war was inevitable. Beside the disastrous ‘Treaty of Versailles’, the second world war was made possible due to the weakness of the European politicians and of the ‘League of Nations’ – predecessor of the United Nations – a growing fear of communism, ‘The Great Depression’…	764	ENGLISH	1
Frida Kahlo is arguably one of the most famous Mexican artists, known not only for her depictions of traditional Mexican culture within her art, but also her revolutionary feminist behaviour during the twentieth-century. Kahlo was born in a small village, Coyoacán, just outside Mexico City, in July 1907. She grew up with her three sisters, her German father and Mexican mother. At the age of eighteen, Frida was severely injured in a road accident, where her bus collided with a car. An iron-handrail pierced her pelvis and she spent the duration of her life, suffering the pain and illnesses that followed. The accident left her bed-bound, where she began to paint and experiment with art. The V&A museum in Knightsbridge, London, is the first place outside of Mexico where they held exhibitions from Frida Kahlo’s home. Locked away for fifty years after her death, Casa Azul has been opened, and her possessions have been discovered. The exhibition exposes the intimate details of her life, and makes her audiences feel as though they have been transported back to Mexico in the 1950s. The exhibition takes you through here personal struggles and relationships, not only depicting her as an artist but also as a revolutionary and as a feminist. Through various forms, she paints the casts, corsets, and prosthetic limbs, which she was forced to wear after the accident. The lighting throughout the exhibition is kept quite dark, attracting people towards the bright colours of her traditional Mexican dresses, and overall shade schemes of her artwork. One of the reasons Kahlo is seen as an iconic feminist of the twentieth-century, is her authentic and raw portrayal of womanhood. Many of her paintings reflect the hardships she faced throughout her lifetime, and through her choice of art, she brought light to important topics that are shared by women across the world. These issues explored in her work (and were prominent throughout the exhibition) included many taboo subjects of the time, such as: miscarriage, breastfeeding, birth, and abortion. Kahlo was unable to conceive after her accident in 1925, and it has remained a topic she often revisited in multiple interviews and paintings. She states that her paintings “are the frankest expression of [her]self”. Kahlo not only broke boundaries in the artistic world, but also created ideas of what it meant to be a woman. She wholly embraced herself and refused to shave her mono-brow and moustache, both features which were deemed as ‘un-feminine’. The exhibition will continue until the 18th November, and more information can be found on the V&A website.	<urn:uuid:b72fd94b-2c70-4229-8c14-657cb23daf22>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.inquiremedia.co.uk/single-post/2018/11/20/ART-REVIEW---Frida-Kahlo-exhibition---%E2%80%9CMaking-herself-up%E2%80%9D	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00323.warc.gz	en	0.988342	549	3.578125	4	[ 0.22104734182357788, 0.03238556534051895, 0.3890693187713623, 0.6748777627944946, 0.2855342924594879, 0.45526373386383057, 0.46750882267951965, 0.33452463150024414, -0.14766037464141846, -0.4621877670288086, 0.02308988943696022, -0.02435629442334175, 0.11191874742507935, 0.3633357286453247...	2	Frida Kahlo is arguably one of the most famous Mexican artists, known not only for her depictions of traditional Mexican culture within her art, but also her revolutionary feminist behaviour during the twentieth-century. Kahlo was born in a small village, Coyoacán, just outside Mexico City, in July 1907. She grew up with her three sisters, her German father and Mexican mother. At the age of eighteen, Frida was severely injured in a road accident, where her bus collided with a car. An iron-handrail pierced her pelvis and she spent the duration of her life, suffering the pain and illnesses that followed. The accident left her bed-bound, where she began to paint and experiment with art. The V&A museum in Knightsbridge, London, is the first place outside of Mexico where they held exhibitions from Frida Kahlo’s home. Locked away for fifty years after her death, Casa Azul has been opened, and her possessions have been discovered. The exhibition exposes the intimate details of her life, and makes her audiences feel as though they have been transported back to Mexico in the 1950s. The exhibition takes you through here personal struggles and relationships, not only depicting her as an artist but also as a revolutionary and as a feminist. Through various forms, she paints the casts, corsets, and prosthetic limbs, which she was forced to wear after the accident. The lighting throughout the exhibition is kept quite dark, attracting people towards the bright colours of her traditional Mexican dresses, and overall shade schemes of her artwork. One of the reasons Kahlo is seen as an iconic feminist of the twentieth-century, is her authentic and raw portrayal of womanhood. Many of her paintings reflect the hardships she faced throughout her lifetime, and through her choice of art, she brought light to important topics that are shared by women across the world. These issues explored in her work (and were prominent throughout the exhibition) included many taboo subjects of the time, such as: miscarriage, breastfeeding, birth, and abortion. Kahlo was unable to conceive after her accident in 1925, and it has remained a topic she often revisited in multiple interviews and paintings. She states that her paintings “are the frankest expression of [her]self”. Kahlo not only broke boundaries in the artistic world, but also created ideas of what it meant to be a woman. She wholly embraced herself and refused to shave her mono-brow and moustache, both features which were deemed as ‘un-feminine’. The exhibition will continue until the 18th November, and more information can be found on the V&A website.	545	ENGLISH	1
Africa is where culture and art first flourished under the skillful hands of the many different tribes that roamed the African savannahs. One of these many tribes were the Edo people. Living in vast lands of what is now known as modern Nigeria, the Edo people flourished until they decide to live together under the protection of the Ogiso or Kings of the Sky. For many years, the first Ogiso king ruled benevolently until his sons took over the reins. When the last Ogiso king died and the surviving prince returned to become the next king, the Kingdom of Benin was founded. For hundreds of years, the kingdom grew bigger until the 1700’s when the British empire started to wrestle control over trade in Africa from the Benin Kingdom. The Galway Treaty of 1892 further weakened the kingdom’s economic growth until the British started the Benin Expedition of 1897 in order to depose the last Benin king. It was during that expedition where the British soldiers destroyed and looted the Benin palace of beautiful bronze and metal plaques and statues from the Benin king’s castle. These are the Benin Bronzes; antique statues that showcased Benin art and were made from the skillful hands of the Edo people during the 13th century. The Benin Bronzes became prized among European art and statue collectors. They were awed over the fact that violent savages from Africa could actually create such beautiful and wonderful statues. The most beautiful was the Benin Bronze heads. These commemorative brass heads were made by the most skillful Benin metalworkers for the royal family members. These brass heads were supposedly placed on the altars of kings and were prized possessions by the obas or kings. The subject of the Benin bronze heads was to exalt or praise the king, the queen or any member of the royal family. Sometimes, famous army commanders and generals were also the subjects of the Benin bronze head. Experts believe that the bronze heads were made to commemorate an important event or as a reward after an important battle. Today, thousands of these Benin bronze heads and other Benin bronzes are protected as exhibits in several British museums. The other Benin bronzes that can be found in museums outside of the UK were brought. In fact, 200 Benin bronze plaques were recorded to have been looted from the Benin king’s castle by British soldiers. The same 200 plaques were sent by the British government to the British Museum as gifts. The most famous Benin bronze head can be found in the Ethnological Museum of Berlin in Germany. The memorial bust of the Benin king’s mother, Iyoba, is safely stored inside a glass container in one of Germany’s most popular museums. The museum supposedly paid a handsome amount of money for the said Benin bronze head. Today, there is pressure from both the Oba of Benin and several Nigerian governments to several museums that own Benin bronzes for the restitution of these prized metal artifacts. Negotiations are currently undergoing between the parties so that these treasures that once came from one of Africa’s greatest kingdoms to be returned to where they came.	<urn:uuid:7663d8d3-ad2a-4049-b7c1-ae315434ce49>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://luangisa.com/blogs/news-1/the-benin-bronze-head-glorious-remainder-of-africa-s-kingdom-of-benin	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00533.warc.gz	en	0.983184	655	3.296875	3	[ 0.09077192097902298, 0.7698061466217041, 0.7101655006408691, -0.36330097913742065, -0.28359538316726685, -0.007758044637739658, 0.47580668330192566, -0.3426801562309265, -0.20212066173553467, 0.055096060037612915, 0.06761053204536438, -0.5053963661193848, 0.2691308557987213, 0.184725746512...	13	Africa is where culture and art first flourished under the skillful hands of the many different tribes that roamed the African savannahs. One of these many tribes were the Edo people. Living in vast lands of what is now known as modern Nigeria, the Edo people flourished until they decide to live together under the protection of the Ogiso or Kings of the Sky. For many years, the first Ogiso king ruled benevolently until his sons took over the reins. When the last Ogiso king died and the surviving prince returned to become the next king, the Kingdom of Benin was founded. For hundreds of years, the kingdom grew bigger until the 1700’s when the British empire started to wrestle control over trade in Africa from the Benin Kingdom. The Galway Treaty of 1892 further weakened the kingdom’s economic growth until the British started the Benin Expedition of 1897 in order to depose the last Benin king. It was during that expedition where the British soldiers destroyed and looted the Benin palace of beautiful bronze and metal plaques and statues from the Benin king’s castle. These are the Benin Bronzes; antique statues that showcased Benin art and were made from the skillful hands of the Edo people during the 13th century. The Benin Bronzes became prized among European art and statue collectors. They were awed over the fact that violent savages from Africa could actually create such beautiful and wonderful statues. The most beautiful was the Benin Bronze heads. These commemorative brass heads were made by the most skillful Benin metalworkers for the royal family members. These brass heads were supposedly placed on the altars of kings and were prized possessions by the obas or kings. The subject of the Benin bronze heads was to exalt or praise the king, the queen or any member of the royal family. Sometimes, famous army commanders and generals were also the subjects of the Benin bronze head. Experts believe that the bronze heads were made to commemorate an important event or as a reward after an important battle. Today, thousands of these Benin bronze heads and other Benin bronzes are protected as exhibits in several British museums. The other Benin bronzes that can be found in museums outside of the UK were brought. In fact, 200 Benin bronze plaques were recorded to have been looted from the Benin king’s castle by British soldiers. The same 200 plaques were sent by the British government to the British Museum as gifts. The most famous Benin bronze head can be found in the Ethnological Museum of Berlin in Germany. The memorial bust of the Benin king’s mother, Iyoba, is safely stored inside a glass container in one of Germany’s most popular museums. The museum supposedly paid a handsome amount of money for the said Benin bronze head. Today, there is pressure from both the Oba of Benin and several Nigerian governments to several museums that own Benin bronzes for the restitution of these prized metal artifacts. Negotiations are currently undergoing between the parties so that these treasures that once came from one of Africa’s greatest kingdoms to be returned to where they came.	661	ENGLISH	1
One of America's most famous patriots, Benjamin Franklin was more than just a founding father of the country. He was a prolific writer, tradesman, scientist, and philosopher who had major influences in France, England, and America. Franklin made it clear through his works that he believed in both spirituality and science at the same time, and he wrote about how the two ideas can converge. He was quite famous during his life, but his fame lives on through his writings and discoveries. In the collection "The Autobiography and Other Writings," audiences can read about Franklin's life from his personal perspective. "The Autobiography" was important in that it was one of the first pieces of American literature that was praised in England. Franklin was very truthful in his tone and the depiction of his life; he wanted others to see his mistakes and learn from them. Also included in the collections are various prose, satire, speeches, and letters from his daily correspondence.	<urn:uuid:01dbf5ec-ec1a-4115-8545-55901dcab017>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lightningbookpromotions.com/book/673544491/the-autobiography-and-other-writings	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00130.warc.gz	en	0.996648	194	3.53125	4	[ 0.17575395107269287, 0.44402164220809937, 0.15148963034152985, -0.33229860663414, -0.4110139012336731, 0.4142201542854309, 0.5289228558540344, 0.48567190766334534, -0.04308145493268967, -0.1894104927778244, -0.09605465829372406, 0.2316865622997284, -0.290193647146225, 0.30023959279060364, ...	1	One of America's most famous patriots, Benjamin Franklin was more than just a founding father of the country. He was a prolific writer, tradesman, scientist, and philosopher who had major influences in France, England, and America. Franklin made it clear through his works that he believed in both spirituality and science at the same time, and he wrote about how the two ideas can converge. He was quite famous during his life, but his fame lives on through his writings and discoveries. In the collection "The Autobiography and Other Writings," audiences can read about Franklin's life from his personal perspective. "The Autobiography" was important in that it was one of the first pieces of American literature that was praised in England. Franklin was very truthful in his tone and the depiction of his life; he wanted others to see his mistakes and learn from them. Also included in the collections are various prose, satire, speeches, and letters from his daily correspondence.	195	ENGLISH	1
\| Wednesday 4:30 AM\| \| 18°C, Wind SW at 18 km/h, 63% Humidity\| Dutch Gap is located on the James River in Chesterfield County, Virginia; it was started as a canal by Union forces during the American Civil War to cut off a curl of the river controlled by Confederate forts. The canal was completed after the war and is now the main channel of the James River in this area. It is south of the lost 17th-century town of Henricus. The Henricus Historical Park is devoted to that town. Dutch Gap Wikipedia In 1611, Sir Thomas Dale, according to a method he had learned while campaigning in Holland, cut a ditch across a portion of land behind town connecting two parts of the James River. It became known as "Dale's Dutch Gap". It was a way to protect the rear of the town from possible attack and shorten the distance upriver. This length of the James River had broad, meandering stretches between Drewry's Bluff, where the river turns east into the coastal plain, and the confluence of the Appomattox River with the James below Bermuda Hundred. During the American Civil War, Union troops started to construct a larger canal at Dutch Gap late in 1864. Among their workers were paid African-American laborers from the Freedmen's Colony of Roanoke Island. They had been freed by Union forces and were pressed into service away from their base off the mainland of North Carolina. By that time, some freedmen were serving as soldiers in the United States Colored Troops. They took part in the military action at Dutch Gap. The Union Army intended to cut off the large curl of the James threatened by Confederate forts, such as Battery Dantzler where Confederate forces had installed two seven inch Brooke rifles, two ten-inch Columbiad guns, and two siege mortars overlooking Trent's Reach to prevent the U.S. navy vessels from approaching the Confederate capital at Richmond. The Union could not complete expansion of the canal during the war, but it was completed later. It has become the main channel of the James River in that area. An electricity-generating facility of Dominion Virginia Power Company is located nearby on the south shore of the James River. The Dutch Gap Conservation Area includes the archaeological site of Henricus. The Henricus Historical Park is located north of Dutch Gap in Chesterfield County (it was subdivided from Henrico County in 1749).	<urn:uuid:981190c3-5ae5-4383-99a1-5fb0316c98cf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Dutch-Gap	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00263.warc.gz	en	0.981357	513	3.71875	4	[ 0.1412309855222702, 0.4189396798610687, 0.4794899523258209, -0.11433663964271545, 0.371857613325119, -0.2462357133626938, -0.10174240171909332, -0.04322173818945885, -0.5253406763076782, 0.033085767179727554, 0.17247751355171204, -0.5333354473114014, -0.06017713621258736, 0.230291306972503...	2	\| Wednesday 4:30 AM\| \| 18°C, Wind SW at 18 km/h, 63% Humidity\| Dutch Gap is located on the James River in Chesterfield County, Virginia; it was started as a canal by Union forces during the American Civil War to cut off a curl of the river controlled by Confederate forts. The canal was completed after the war and is now the main channel of the James River in this area. It is south of the lost 17th-century town of Henricus. The Henricus Historical Park is devoted to that town. Dutch Gap Wikipedia In 1611, Sir Thomas Dale, according to a method he had learned while campaigning in Holland, cut a ditch across a portion of land behind town connecting two parts of the James River. It became known as "Dale's Dutch Gap". It was a way to protect the rear of the town from possible attack and shorten the distance upriver. This length of the James River had broad, meandering stretches between Drewry's Bluff, where the river turns east into the coastal plain, and the confluence of the Appomattox River with the James below Bermuda Hundred. During the American Civil War, Union troops started to construct a larger canal at Dutch Gap late in 1864. Among their workers were paid African-American laborers from the Freedmen's Colony of Roanoke Island. They had been freed by Union forces and were pressed into service away from their base off the mainland of North Carolina. By that time, some freedmen were serving as soldiers in the United States Colored Troops. They took part in the military action at Dutch Gap. The Union Army intended to cut off the large curl of the James threatened by Confederate forts, such as Battery Dantzler where Confederate forces had installed two seven inch Brooke rifles, two ten-inch Columbiad guns, and two siege mortars overlooking Trent's Reach to prevent the U.S. navy vessels from approaching the Confederate capital at Richmond. The Union could not complete expansion of the canal during the war, but it was completed later. It has become the main channel of the James River in that area. An electricity-generating facility of Dominion Virginia Power Company is located nearby on the south shore of the James River. The Dutch Gap Conservation Area includes the archaeological site of Henricus. The Henricus Historical Park is located north of Dutch Gap in Chesterfield County (it was subdivided from Henrico County in 1749).	518	ENGLISH	1
Continuing series on the signers of the Declaration of Independence William Hooper( June 28, 1742 – October 14, 1790 ) was a native of Boston. He was born to William and Mary Hooper. His father emigrated from Scotland in 1702, and his mother was the daughter of a well – respected merchant. William’s father wished him to follow in his footsteps as a minister, but he chose law instead – and became a part of history. William studied at home until about seven years of age, and then entered a public school, where he acquitted himself well. At sixteen, he began study at Harvard, and eventually graduated with a bachelor’s degree at the top of his class. He then undertook the law, reading at the offices of attorney James Otis. He had belief in God, and allegiance to the Episcopal church, but felt he could help others best through law rather than ecclesiastical study. In search of his own independence, he left Massachusetts and journeyed to North Carolina. He established his own law practice and became highly esteemed by colleagues. Settling in Wilmington, he met and married Anne Clark in 1767. She was one year his junior, marrying at twenty-four. They had three children. William began to fight for the colony’s rights to establish its own judicial system, a longstanding issue in North Carolina politics. Quickly he became a leading anti-government spokesman. Hooper organized and then chaired the first provincial congress in North Carolina. He was elected to the colony’s Committee of Correspondence and was a very active leader of the movement for a Continental Congress. Within a short time, William was appointed deputy attorney general of North Carolina and a member of the North Carolina assembly. Like forty-one other founding fathers, Hooper was a slave owner, but there is no record of him combating the institution or deploring it. William was elected to represent North Carolina in the First Continental Congress and the Second, leading the delegation. He largely authored North Carolina’s positions on policy relative to England. However, life in North Carolina did not agree with his health, and he suffered bouts of malaria that occasionally interfered with his duties. He served on a committee with Ben Franklin, and correctly predicted that the colonies would separate from Britain, earning him the moniker “Prophet of Independence”. Hooper was at home with malaria when the vote for independence was taken, but managed to make it back to Philadelphia to sign on August 2 with other late signers. In spite of his vocal opposition at home to the Crown, Jefferson did not trust him, due to his support of the Federalists, labeling him “the biggest Tory in Congress”. During the war, in 1781, Hooper’s family was forced to flee with a few possessions. The British troops looted his home, stole household articles and books, and set the remainder on fire. “Mrs. Hooper and Mrs. Allen had been seen with their families in wagons . . . moving towards Hillsboro. . . . I then resolved to . . . to secure, if possible, some of my negroes, and to collect what I could from the wreck of my property. I found that Mrs. Hooper had managed . . . to carry off all our household linen, blankets, and all the wearing apparel of herself and children [leaving] behind all her furniture . . . . The British had borne off every article of house and kitchen furniture, knives, forks, plates, and spoons an almost general sweep; nor had they the spared the beds . . . My library, except as to law books, is shamefully injured, and above 100 valuable volumes taken away . . . You know my partiality to my books.”William Hooper, letter to James Iredell Though re-elected to Congress, he was forced to resign due to health and spent his later years in judicial capacities in North Carolina. He retired to Hillsborough, NC, and died at a relatively young forty-eight years of age.	<urn:uuid:b1255fff-fdcf-4416-a45a-411c52de4025>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historicalnovelsrus.com/2019/12/16/why-did-william-hooper-sign-the-declaration-of-independence/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00441.warc.gz	en	0.986977	838	3.578125	4	[ -0.33754676580429077, 0.15196111798286438, 0.24798732995986938, -0.06501246988773346, -0.562862753868103, 0.09944586455821991, 0.2424096018075943, -0.14945751428604126, -0.2559760510921478, 0.015483526512980461, -0.22700485587120056, -0.05237393453717232, -0.01579698547720909, -0.269561529...	13	Continuing series on the signers of the Declaration of Independence William Hooper( June 28, 1742 – October 14, 1790 ) was a native of Boston. He was born to William and Mary Hooper. His father emigrated from Scotland in 1702, and his mother was the daughter of a well – respected merchant. William’s father wished him to follow in his footsteps as a minister, but he chose law instead – and became a part of history. William studied at home until about seven years of age, and then entered a public school, where he acquitted himself well. At sixteen, he began study at Harvard, and eventually graduated with a bachelor’s degree at the top of his class. He then undertook the law, reading at the offices of attorney James Otis. He had belief in God, and allegiance to the Episcopal church, but felt he could help others best through law rather than ecclesiastical study. In search of his own independence, he left Massachusetts and journeyed to North Carolina. He established his own law practice and became highly esteemed by colleagues. Settling in Wilmington, he met and married Anne Clark in 1767. She was one year his junior, marrying at twenty-four. They had three children. William began to fight for the colony’s rights to establish its own judicial system, a longstanding issue in North Carolina politics. Quickly he became a leading anti-government spokesman. Hooper organized and then chaired the first provincial congress in North Carolina. He was elected to the colony’s Committee of Correspondence and was a very active leader of the movement for a Continental Congress. Within a short time, William was appointed deputy attorney general of North Carolina and a member of the North Carolina assembly. Like forty-one other founding fathers, Hooper was a slave owner, but there is no record of him combating the institution or deploring it. William was elected to represent North Carolina in the First Continental Congress and the Second, leading the delegation. He largely authored North Carolina’s positions on policy relative to England. However, life in North Carolina did not agree with his health, and he suffered bouts of malaria that occasionally interfered with his duties. He served on a committee with Ben Franklin, and correctly predicted that the colonies would separate from Britain, earning him the moniker “Prophet of Independence”. Hooper was at home with malaria when the vote for independence was taken, but managed to make it back to Philadelphia to sign on August 2 with other late signers. In spite of his vocal opposition at home to the Crown, Jefferson did not trust him, due to his support of the Federalists, labeling him “the biggest Tory in Congress”. During the war, in 1781, Hooper’s family was forced to flee with a few possessions. The British troops looted his home, stole household articles and books, and set the remainder on fire. “Mrs. Hooper and Mrs. Allen had been seen with their families in wagons . . . moving towards Hillsboro. . . . I then resolved to . . . to secure, if possible, some of my negroes, and to collect what I could from the wreck of my property. I found that Mrs. Hooper had managed . . . to carry off all our household linen, blankets, and all the wearing apparel of herself and children [leaving] behind all her furniture . . . . The British had borne off every article of house and kitchen furniture, knives, forks, plates, and spoons an almost general sweep; nor had they the spared the beds . . . My library, except as to law books, is shamefully injured, and above 100 valuable volumes taken away . . . You know my partiality to my books.”William Hooper, letter to James Iredell Though re-elected to Congress, he was forced to resign due to health and spent his later years in judicial capacities in North Carolina. He retired to Hillsborough, NC, and died at a relatively young forty-eight years of age.	837	ENGLISH	1
When Van Gogh hospitalised himself at Saint Paul de Mausole, an asylum and clinic for the mentally ill, he was allocated a studio and was also allowed to paint in his bedroom. This provided an extensive view of the mountain range of the Alpilles: it was here that Van Gogh painted The Starry Night in June 1889. He saw the night as “even more coloured than the day” and obsessively waited for the perfect night sky. Interestingly, Van Gogh had originally planned this work as a pendant piece. Paul Gauguin was in charge of organising an art exhibit for the 1890 World’s Fair shortly after Starry Night was completed, and Van Gogh wanted it to be displayed alongside its daylight companion, his Wheatfield with Cypresses – a representation of the landscape of Starry Night at midday. Even though the sun is not visibly included, the brightly painted and shadowless wheat field suggests the overhead light of noon. The paintings weren’t included in the show in the end. Van Gogh had been fascinated by Delacroix’s use of colour, especially of the two colours he described as “most condemned, and with most reason, citron-yellow and Prussian blue”. He felt Delacroix “did superb things with them” – and this inspired his palette for Starry Night. The Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam has recently revealed that the hues originally painted by Van Gogh in the 1880s have actually faded, and what we see today are pale echoes of the original colours. Of course, it remains an electrifying painting, composed using elements of a few previously completed works still stored in Van Gogh’s studio. He envisioned his ideal Starry Night over a landscape, and not over a town. He wanted it to be not merely a descriptive piece of work, but an amalgamation of aspects from imagination and memory. He depicted a cypress tree and a village, rather than the enclosed field beneath his bedroom, and these are seen in the sketches he had previously drawn. The view in the painting highlights the vastness of space and time. Charles Whitney, a Harvard professor, noticed a stylised but striking similarity between the painting and the swirling star configurations and scientific drawings of spiral nebulas that had been published and widely discussed in France in the late 1880s. He also found accurate portrayals of the Milky Way, Aquarius, crescent moons and other star patterns in a number of Van Gogh’s other paintings. The artist incorporated an important revision from the detailed ink study of Starry Night to the final painting; to allow for the addition of an 11th star, he reduced the cypress tree. In his younger years, he wanted to dedicate his life to evangelising for those in poverty. This exact number of 11 stars was significant to Van Gogh’s powerful religious conviction; they held an important link for him to Genesis 37:9, and a favourite phrase he often referred to: “I had another dream, and this time the sun and moon and eleven stars were bowing down to me”. In 1890, Van Gogh moved to Auvers-sur-Oise to be near his physician, Dr Paul Gachet, who had agreed to look after him. When he had met Gachet, he was initially impressed but soon became doubtful of his competence and commented that Gachet was “sicker than I am, I think, or shall we say just as much”. However, he and the doctor became great friends, and Van Gogh was drawn to his obsessive passions for homeopathy, electroshock therapy, and anthropology. He painted numerous portraits of Gachet, one of which sold at auction in 1990 for more than $80 million (£61 million), a world record at the time. (Van Gogh only ever sold one painting in his lifetime, the wonderful Red Vineyard, to a wealthy artist friend for 400 Francs, about £750 today. The picture is now owned by the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, in Moscow.) He regularly told his brother and sister that he found Gachet’s mental instability similar to his own, and identified with Gachet’s avid involvement in his work as his way of easing loneliness and melancholy. He also praised the doctor for having “good knowledge of what is being done these days among the painters”, and liked the fact that Gachet himself drew and made engravings to help him maintain his balance. He also added: “Unfortunately, it is expensive here in the village but Gachet tells me that I can pay him in pictures, and I could not do that with anyone else if anything happened and I needed help.” He wrote to his brother, Theo, mentioning that although Gachet seemed very sensible, he was “as discouraged about his job as a country doctor as I am about my painting” and that Van Gogh offered to “gladly exchange job for job. If the depression or anything else became too great for me to bear, he could quite well do something to diminish its intensity, and that I must not find it awkward to be frank with him. Well, the moment when I shall need him may certainly come; however, up to now, all is well”. It is still unknown why Van Gogh did eventually decide to commit suicide, at 37. Gachet proposed to give a eulogy at the funeral but struggled as he wept profusely and eventually stammered a very confused farewell. He was attempting to outline Van Gogh’s achievements, praise the honesty of his work, point out the fact that he prized art above everything, and that that would make his name live. It was Gachet who had summoned Theo after Van Gogh had shot himself. The doctor had striven hard to save Van Gogh’s life but his efforts were in vain. Shortly after Van Gogh’s death, Gachet wrote to Theo: “The more I think of it, the more I think Vincent was a giant. Not a day passes that I do not look at his pictures.” Van Gogh joins the ranks of many artists whose lives have been made into biopics by various Hollywood studios, including Michelangelo, Vermeer, Gauguin, Turner, Basquiat, Picasso, Toulouse-Lautrec, Pollock, Modigliani, Goya, Caravaggio, Gentileschi, Renoir, Munch, Rembrandt, Warhol, O’Keeffe, Klimt, Leonardo da Vinci, Rockwell, El Greco, Bacon, Kahlo, and Matisse. Van Gogh is alone in having three films devoted to his life, in which he is played by Kirk Douglas, Tim Roth and Jacques Dutronc. © Charles Saatchi 2017	<urn:uuid:7f47b09c-0062-4daf-b1b4-ddc62ff77ff9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.telegraph.co.uk/art/artists/charles-saatchis-great-masterpieces-vincent-van-goghs-starry/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00358.warc.gz	en	0.98597	1,454	3.46875	3	[ -0.03051326423883438, 0.10133953392505646, 0.05236004292964935, 0.12002547830343246, 0.13417918980121613, 0.15719552338123322, 0.07044017314910889, 0.029928116127848625, 0.12780417501926422, 0.13588930666446686, 0.36374861001968384, 0.04720329865813255, -0.4714306592941284, 0.3265004158020...	3	When Van Gogh hospitalised himself at Saint Paul de Mausole, an asylum and clinic for the mentally ill, he was allocated a studio and was also allowed to paint in his bedroom. This provided an extensive view of the mountain range of the Alpilles: it was here that Van Gogh painted The Starry Night in June 1889. He saw the night as “even more coloured than the day” and obsessively waited for the perfect night sky. Interestingly, Van Gogh had originally planned this work as a pendant piece. Paul Gauguin was in charge of organising an art exhibit for the 1890 World’s Fair shortly after Starry Night was completed, and Van Gogh wanted it to be displayed alongside its daylight companion, his Wheatfield with Cypresses – a representation of the landscape of Starry Night at midday. Even though the sun is not visibly included, the brightly painted and shadowless wheat field suggests the overhead light of noon. The paintings weren’t included in the show in the end. Van Gogh had been fascinated by Delacroix’s use of colour, especially of the two colours he described as “most condemned, and with most reason, citron-yellow and Prussian blue”. He felt Delacroix “did superb things with them” – and this inspired his palette for Starry Night. The Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam has recently revealed that the hues originally painted by Van Gogh in the 1880s have actually faded, and what we see today are pale echoes of the original colours. Of course, it remains an electrifying painting, composed using elements of a few previously completed works still stored in Van Gogh’s studio. He envisioned his ideal Starry Night over a landscape, and not over a town. He wanted it to be not merely a descriptive piece of work, but an amalgamation of aspects from imagination and memory. He depicted a cypress tree and a village, rather than the enclosed field beneath his bedroom, and these are seen in the sketches he had previously drawn. The view in the painting highlights the vastness of space and time. Charles Whitney, a Harvard professor, noticed a stylised but striking similarity between the painting and the swirling star configurations and scientific drawings of spiral nebulas that had been published and widely discussed in France in the late 1880s. He also found accurate portrayals of the Milky Way, Aquarius, crescent moons and other star patterns in a number of Van Gogh’s other paintings. The artist incorporated an important revision from the detailed ink study of Starry Night to the final painting; to allow for the addition of an 11th star, he reduced the cypress tree. In his younger years, he wanted to dedicate his life to evangelising for those in poverty. This exact number of 11 stars was significant to Van Gogh’s powerful religious conviction; they held an important link for him to Genesis 37:9, and a favourite phrase he often referred to: “I had another dream, and this time the sun and moon and eleven stars were bowing down to me”. In 1890, Van Gogh moved to Auvers-sur-Oise to be near his physician, Dr Paul Gachet, who had agreed to look after him. When he had met Gachet, he was initially impressed but soon became doubtful of his competence and commented that Gachet was “sicker than I am, I think, or shall we say just as much”. However, he and the doctor became great friends, and Van Gogh was drawn to his obsessive passions for homeopathy, electroshock therapy, and anthropology. He painted numerous portraits of Gachet, one of which sold at auction in 1990 for more than $80 million (£61 million), a world record at the time. (Van Gogh only ever sold one painting in his lifetime, the wonderful Red Vineyard, to a wealthy artist friend for 400 Francs, about £750 today. The picture is now owned by the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, in Moscow.) He regularly told his brother and sister that he found Gachet’s mental instability similar to his own, and identified with Gachet’s avid involvement in his work as his way of easing loneliness and melancholy. He also praised the doctor for having “good knowledge of what is being done these days among the painters”, and liked the fact that Gachet himself drew and made engravings to help him maintain his balance. He also added: “Unfortunately, it is expensive here in the village but Gachet tells me that I can pay him in pictures, and I could not do that with anyone else if anything happened and I needed help.” He wrote to his brother, Theo, mentioning that although Gachet seemed very sensible, he was “as discouraged about his job as a country doctor as I am about my painting” and that Van Gogh offered to “gladly exchange job for job. If the depression or anything else became too great for me to bear, he could quite well do something to diminish its intensity, and that I must not find it awkward to be frank with him. Well, the moment when I shall need him may certainly come; however, up to now, all is well”. It is still unknown why Van Gogh did eventually decide to commit suicide, at 37. Gachet proposed to give a eulogy at the funeral but struggled as he wept profusely and eventually stammered a very confused farewell. He was attempting to outline Van Gogh’s achievements, praise the honesty of his work, point out the fact that he prized art above everything, and that that would make his name live. It was Gachet who had summoned Theo after Van Gogh had shot himself. The doctor had striven hard to save Van Gogh’s life but his efforts were in vain. Shortly after Van Gogh’s death, Gachet wrote to Theo: “The more I think of it, the more I think Vincent was a giant. Not a day passes that I do not look at his pictures.” Van Gogh joins the ranks of many artists whose lives have been made into biopics by various Hollywood studios, including Michelangelo, Vermeer, Gauguin, Turner, Basquiat, Picasso, Toulouse-Lautrec, Pollock, Modigliani, Goya, Caravaggio, Gentileschi, Renoir, Munch, Rembrandt, Warhol, O’Keeffe, Klimt, Leonardo da Vinci, Rockwell, El Greco, Bacon, Kahlo, and Matisse. Van Gogh is alone in having three films devoted to his life, in which he is played by Kirk Douglas, Tim Roth and Jacques Dutronc. © Charles Saatchi 2017	1,421	ENGLISH	1
The civil rights movement was a struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for blacks to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn’t end discrimination against blacks, they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. From 1963 to 1965 this school had over 5,000 students arrested for protesting during the Civil Rights Movement. After integration in 1970, the school name changed to West Junior High School. In 2000, the school name changed to Chatt Academy. On May 10, 2012, R.B. Hudson's name was finally reestablished, and the school is now known as the R.B. Hudson High School.	<urn:uuid:0874a593-17e0-40f5-8812-3fe40f0ac3cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/52985	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00121.warc.gz	en	0.985696	151	3.75	4	[ -0.3355245590209961, 0.15405943989753723, 0.0872182622551918, 0.08704333007335663, -0.2708054482936859, 0.23225180804729462, -0.11577222496271133, -0.04890885949134827, -0.2955590784549713, 0.0347791351377964, 0.2518116235733032, 0.37780624628067017, -0.038990579545497894, 0.00951926410198...	1	The civil rights movement was a struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for blacks to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn’t end discrimination against blacks, they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. From 1963 to 1965 this school had over 5,000 students arrested for protesting during the Civil Rights Movement. After integration in 1970, the school name changed to West Junior High School. In 2000, the school name changed to Chatt Academy. On May 10, 2012, R.B. Hudson's name was finally reestablished, and the school is now known as the R.B. Hudson High School.	180	ENGLISH	1
Many western societies assume there are two gender roles which are male and female but other societies accept a third or fourth gender. Many early investigations on gender became a part of psychological anthropology which is the study of the relationship between culture and personality. Margaret Mead is an American anthropologist that did many fieldworks to study different societies. Mead was one of the first female anthropologists who bought gender diversity issues to the public attention when she published her book in 1935 called Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (Lenkeit,194). She also explores the subject more deeply in her book “Male and Female” which was published in 1949. She traveled to Papua New Guinea for two years and did work on gender consciousness and to discover the extent of temperament differences between the sexes. She studies three groups while she was there, they are the Arapesh, the Mundugumor, and the Tchambuli. Before Mead began her work, many people believed that both men and women were biologically programmed to behave in many certain ways such as women having to be dependent, nurturing, gentle and passive and the men having to be independent, tough and aggressive. During the time she was studying these three groups she found that the male and female behaviors had different patterns based on their culture and they were all different to the gender role expectations from the United States (Human Nature and the Power of Culture, 2017). Mead arrived to the mountain top village known as Arapesh in December 1931. This group of people didn’t have a name for themselves so Mead and Fortune decided to name them Arapesh which is the word for “person” (Human Nature and the Power of Culture, 2017). She found that the Arapesh women fit the stereotype of being dependent, nurturing, gentle and passive. The men however did not fit the stereotype of being independent, tough, and aggressive. The men were maternal like the women and had a gentle, responsive and cooperative temperament. The men play secular flutes which were allowed to be seen by women. The mothers carried their babies in net bags that stimulate the experience of the womb. The next group that Mead studied was the Mundugumor which is now known as Biwat and located near the Yuat River. They were an aggressive culture and Mead believed they had a “rope” kinship system. Both the males and females exhibit the stereotype of male behaviors. They were selfish, aggressive, violent and had a high level of sexuality. According to Mead, the involved behavioral conditioning treated both girls and boys alike and little girls grew up aggressive as little boys and with no expectation of docilely accepting their role in life (Lenkeit,194). The mothers would carry their babies in rough-plaited, rigid baskets and the older children were carried on their mother’s backs with no support, by holding on to their mother’s hair (Human Nature and the Power of Culture, 2017). Mead and Fortune traveled to the Chambri Lakes region in New Guinea where the Tchambuli group which are also known as the Chambri are located. They had a very difficult language and they had a population of about 500 people. These people had distinct roles for males and females and were opposite to the roles the males and females have in North America. The males were less responsible, more emotionally dependent, were vain about their appearance, and involved in gossiping. The women, however, were dominant, impersonal, independent, competent, businesslike, concerned with providing their family and sexually aggressive. In conclusion, the male and female roles that are played in North American society are very different to the roles the female and males played in these three groups. Many people believed that these gender roles are biologically programmed in a certain way when in many cases they are based on cultural conditioning which begins from the time a baby is born and shaped into their culture. Mead’s theory was that behavior and personality can be improved and result from influences. Many people criticized her for her theory of that male and female personalities are influenced by the environment. The believed that the reported findings were custom-made for her theory but her contribution in separating biologically-based sex from socially-constructed gender was groundbreaking (Human Nature and the Power of Culture, 2017).	<urn:uuid:9bdc74e7-34bf-4339-874e-ffbf4c5ebb19>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://houghtonlakeboard.org/many-the-stereotype-of-being-dependent-nurturing-gentle/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00038.warc.gz	en	0.989582	871	4.09375	4	[ 0.2382718324661255, 0.4960799515247345, -0.07306662946939468, -0.035344354808330536, -0.10678640007972717, 0.5203714966773987, 0.18063822388648987, -0.0010912376455962658, 0.029866619035601616, -0.0956113263964653, 0.13562820851802826, -0.40528619289398193, 0.07683898508548737, -0.12601286...	3	Many western societies assume there are two gender roles which are male and female but other societies accept a third or fourth gender. Many early investigations on gender became a part of psychological anthropology which is the study of the relationship between culture and personality. Margaret Mead is an American anthropologist that did many fieldworks to study different societies. Mead was one of the first female anthropologists who bought gender diversity issues to the public attention when she published her book in 1935 called Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (Lenkeit,194). She also explores the subject more deeply in her book “Male and Female” which was published in 1949. She traveled to Papua New Guinea for two years and did work on gender consciousness and to discover the extent of temperament differences between the sexes. She studies three groups while she was there, they are the Arapesh, the Mundugumor, and the Tchambuli. Before Mead began her work, many people believed that both men and women were biologically programmed to behave in many certain ways such as women having to be dependent, nurturing, gentle and passive and the men having to be independent, tough and aggressive. During the time she was studying these three groups she found that the male and female behaviors had different patterns based on their culture and they were all different to the gender role expectations from the United States (Human Nature and the Power of Culture, 2017). Mead arrived to the mountain top village known as Arapesh in December 1931. This group of people didn’t have a name for themselves so Mead and Fortune decided to name them Arapesh which is the word for “person” (Human Nature and the Power of Culture, 2017). She found that the Arapesh women fit the stereotype of being dependent, nurturing, gentle and passive. The men however did not fit the stereotype of being independent, tough, and aggressive. The men were maternal like the women and had a gentle, responsive and cooperative temperament. The men play secular flutes which were allowed to be seen by women. The mothers carried their babies in net bags that stimulate the experience of the womb. The next group that Mead studied was the Mundugumor which is now known as Biwat and located near the Yuat River. They were an aggressive culture and Mead believed they had a “rope” kinship system. Both the males and females exhibit the stereotype of male behaviors. They were selfish, aggressive, violent and had a high level of sexuality. According to Mead, the involved behavioral conditioning treated both girls and boys alike and little girls grew up aggressive as little boys and with no expectation of docilely accepting their role in life (Lenkeit,194). The mothers would carry their babies in rough-plaited, rigid baskets and the older children were carried on their mother’s backs with no support, by holding on to their mother’s hair (Human Nature and the Power of Culture, 2017). Mead and Fortune traveled to the Chambri Lakes region in New Guinea where the Tchambuli group which are also known as the Chambri are located. They had a very difficult language and they had a population of about 500 people. These people had distinct roles for males and females and were opposite to the roles the males and females have in North America. The males were less responsible, more emotionally dependent, were vain about their appearance, and involved in gossiping. The women, however, were dominant, impersonal, independent, competent, businesslike, concerned with providing their family and sexually aggressive. In conclusion, the male and female roles that are played in North American society are very different to the roles the female and males played in these three groups. Many people believed that these gender roles are biologically programmed in a certain way when in many cases they are based on cultural conditioning which begins from the time a baby is born and shaped into their culture. Mead’s theory was that behavior and personality can be improved and result from influences. Many people criticized her for her theory of that male and female personalities are influenced by the environment. The believed that the reported findings were custom-made for her theory but her contribution in separating biologically-based sex from socially-constructed gender was groundbreaking (Human Nature and the Power of Culture, 2017).	892	ENGLISH	1
On July 1, 1862, a full year after the bombardment of Fort Sumter, President Abraham Lincoln appealed for an additional 300,000 men in the Union Army. Along with 17 other governors, Governor Oliver P. Morton of Indiana pledged to aid in the call for reinforcements. Morton was having difficulty filling the Indiana quota of troops. It was during this period of time that Benjamin Harrison and a friend found themselves in the Governor’s office on business. Morton asked the men to join him in his inner room at the conclusion of their business. Morton shared his concerns about raising troops; he was quite depressed at the people’s slow response. Harrison felt that he was addressing him personally. Harrison was so moved that he offered: “Governor, if I can be of any service, I will go.” Morton immediately asked him to raise a regiment, but felt that it was asking too much for Harrison to go into the field of battle and offered that they would find someone to command the regiment. Harrison had just been elected Reporter of the Supreme Court. Harrison, however, rejected the idea of asking men to join a regiment and then staying home himself. Harrison answered that if he made any speeches, and asked men to go, he proposed to go along with them, and stay as long as they did, if he lived that long. However, he did not feel that he should be in command of the regiment, as he did not have any military background. In response to this pledge, Harrison volunteered to raise a regiment. The new soldiers put into camp on the west side of Indianapolis and began their drills. Harrison employed a drill master from Chicago using his own funds to train the men. Harrison was given a commission as Second Lieutenant, and two weeks later was promoted to captain. The men remained in camp drilling for about a month. When the regiment was complete Governor Morton gave Harrison the commission of Colonel. By August 8, 1862, the newly appointed Colonel Harrison raised 1000 recruits. On August 15, the 70th Indiana arrived in Bowling Green, Kentucky, where Harrison faced the task of turning raw recruits into seasoned troops. By day, he marched and drilled his men; by night, long after taps had sounded, he studied and perfected himself in the tactics of war. Discipline would prove to be one of Harrison’s most arduous tasks. Company E, led by Captain Meredith, was especially challenging. Harrison wrote to his law partner, William Fishback, that two corporals had been “broken,” with one lieutenant arrested, and many of the squad in the guardhouse. “They are beginning to know me now.” Captain Meredith was anxious to reform and Harrison gave him the chance. Meredith served with distinction for the duration of the war. Harrison’s reputation became that of a strong leader. He earned the respect of his men and did not leave them in battle. The men learned that he stood by his word and was always concerned with their well-being. Harrison knew that they would have to be disciplined to survive battle. Harrison did not ask more of his men than he did of himself. Mr. Richard Smock remembered an incident while they were camped near Nashville during a very cold winter. Men on the picket line were nearly frozen to death, and Colonel Harrison fixed coffee and took it to them in the middle of the night. Harrison always led the men saying “Come on, boys!” as he took the lead. The 70th Indiana was assigned to guard the railroads in Tennessee until February 1863. They then served picket duty at Gallatin. In August 1863, they moved to Nashville to guard trains to Chattanooga and provided picket duty, leaving in February 1864 to join the Atlanta Campaign. In May 1864, Colonel Harrison and the regiment joined General Sherman’s Atlanta campaign in the Army of the Cumberland. For Harrison’s achievements at the battles of Resaca and Peachtree Creek, he was promoted to Brigadier General. During the spring of 1864, both the Union forces under Sherman and the Confederate forces under Johnston were preparing for a battle near Ringold, Georgia, on the Chickamauga River. This conflict never materialized, but it caused great anxiety on both sides. To get into position for the first general engagement of the Atlanta campaign, both sides attempted to outflank each other. Col. Harrison’s 70th Indiana Volunteer Regiment was sent across the Chickamauga battleground, where they reached the Lee and Gordon’s Mills on May 1, 1864. Grant had set May 5th as the day to move on the Confederate lines by both the Army of the Cumberland and Sherman’s Army. Harrison was attached to Sherman’s command. On May 5th, Harrison wrote to his wife Caroline of the move: “In front of my saddle I have my blue coat rolled up and strapped on. The small cavalry saddle bags are filled to their utmost capacity . . . my little tin bucket for making tea, swings clattering at my side. The bundle behind my saddle is so large that it is a straining effort to get my leg over it on or off and when in the saddle I feel like one who has been wrapped up for embalming . . . it is very disagreeable.” The enemy was engaged at Tunnell Hill and Rocky Face Ridge but fell back to Resaca. On May 13, 1864 Harrison moved toward Resaca. The first day of fighting occurred on the 13th; Harrison was not to participate in the fight until the next day. On the evening of the 13th, Harrison wrote to Caroline of his feelings on the eve of his “first great battle“: “I am in my usual good spirits, though not at all insensible to grave responsibilities and risks which I must bear tomorrow. I am thinking much of you and the dear children and my whole heart goes out to you in tenderness and love and many earnest prayers… I send up to God this night that should you lose a husband and they a father in the fight that you may find abundant consolation… I know you will not forget me… but let your grief be tempered by the consolation that I died for my country and in Christ. If God gives me strength I mean to bear myself bravely, and come what will, so that you may have no cause to blush for me, though you should be forced to mourn.” On the second day of the battle of Resaca, both the Confederate wing commander, General John Bell Hood, and the Union wing commander, General Joseph Hooker, took limited offensive action. The Confederate forces came forward slightly from their solidly prepared entrenchments. The Union forces continued to probe for a weakness in the Confederate line. A Confederate artillery battery posted in a breastwork proved particularly annoying. Brigadier General Ward’s brigade, of which Harrison was a part, was ordered to assault and capture this redoubt. The brigade attacked in a column formation, the 70th having the honor of leading the charge. The redoubt was heavily fortified with three infantry regiments in the rifle pits and four more regiments in the main trenches. Coming out of the woods, Harrison surprised and drove back the outlying infantry. Despite the deadly close range of the cannon fire, Harrison captured the battery in hand-to-hand fighting with the gunners. Fierce fighting continued all afternoon. At nightfall, the 70th carried the four captured 121-pound Napoleon Cannons to the rear, keeping them safe from recapture. The Confederate forces withdrew in the darkness of the morning of the 15th. Harrison received orders to report to Governor Morton for special duty. The next several weeks in Indianapolis were spent campaigning both for himself as Indiana’s Supreme Court Reporter and President Abraham Lincoln. After the November election, he left for Georgia to rejoin his old regiment for Sherman’s “March to the Sea.” Instead he was given command of the 1st Brigade at Nashville and led them in a decisive battle against Confederate General Hood. A few weeks later, he received orders to rejoin the 70th Indiana at Savannah, Georgia, after a brief furlough in Indianapolis. However, Harrison contracted scarlet fever delaying him by one month, and then spent the next several months training replacement troops in South Carolina. After the South’s surrender, he reached his old regiment on the same day as the news of President Lincoln’s assassination. On April 29, 1865, the regiment was ordered to march to Washington, DC. It participated in the Grand Review of Western Armies held on May 24, 1865. General Harrison and the 70th Indiana were mustered out of Federal service on June 8, 1865. Years after, Harrison participated in many Civil War reunions and during his presidency was a champion of providing pensions for Grand Army of the Republic veterans. Due to Candlelight Theatre we will be CLOSED for tours this Sunday, December 15, 2019. We will reopen the following day. Thank you for being an important part of the Presidential Site and sharing a legacy in action!	<urn:uuid:03df9ae6-5cc4-494b-80e8-c7c81d45401a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bhpsite.org/learn/benjamin-harrison/the-civil-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00144.warc.gz	en	0.984224	1,890	3.515625	4	[ -0.6418882608413696, 0.5131160616874695, 0.35452932119369507, -0.254193514585495, -0.5131406784057617, -0.05826864391565323, 0.219171404838562, -0.08009541034698486, -0.2936142086982727, -0.17475526034832, 0.18190108239650726, -0.24321681261062622, -0.048705924302339554, 0.5356038212776184...	1	On July 1, 1862, a full year after the bombardment of Fort Sumter, President Abraham Lincoln appealed for an additional 300,000 men in the Union Army. Along with 17 other governors, Governor Oliver P. Morton of Indiana pledged to aid in the call for reinforcements. Morton was having difficulty filling the Indiana quota of troops. It was during this period of time that Benjamin Harrison and a friend found themselves in the Governor’s office on business. Morton asked the men to join him in his inner room at the conclusion of their business. Morton shared his concerns about raising troops; he was quite depressed at the people’s slow response. Harrison felt that he was addressing him personally. Harrison was so moved that he offered: “Governor, if I can be of any service, I will go.” Morton immediately asked him to raise a regiment, but felt that it was asking too much for Harrison to go into the field of battle and offered that they would find someone to command the regiment. Harrison had just been elected Reporter of the Supreme Court. Harrison, however, rejected the idea of asking men to join a regiment and then staying home himself. Harrison answered that if he made any speeches, and asked men to go, he proposed to go along with them, and stay as long as they did, if he lived that long. However, he did not feel that he should be in command of the regiment, as he did not have any military background. In response to this pledge, Harrison volunteered to raise a regiment. The new soldiers put into camp on the west side of Indianapolis and began their drills. Harrison employed a drill master from Chicago using his own funds to train the men. Harrison was given a commission as Second Lieutenant, and two weeks later was promoted to captain. The men remained in camp drilling for about a month. When the regiment was complete Governor Morton gave Harrison the commission of Colonel. By August 8, 1862, the newly appointed Colonel Harrison raised 1000 recruits. On August 15, the 70th Indiana arrived in Bowling Green, Kentucky, where Harrison faced the task of turning raw recruits into seasoned troops. By day, he marched and drilled his men; by night, long after taps had sounded, he studied and perfected himself in the tactics of war. Discipline would prove to be one of Harrison’s most arduous tasks. Company E, led by Captain Meredith, was especially challenging. Harrison wrote to his law partner, William Fishback, that two corporals had been “broken,” with one lieutenant arrested, and many of the squad in the guardhouse. “They are beginning to know me now.” Captain Meredith was anxious to reform and Harrison gave him the chance. Meredith served with distinction for the duration of the war. Harrison’s reputation became that of a strong leader. He earned the respect of his men and did not leave them in battle. The men learned that he stood by his word and was always concerned with their well-being. Harrison knew that they would have to be disciplined to survive battle. Harrison did not ask more of his men than he did of himself. Mr. Richard Smock remembered an incident while they were camped near Nashville during a very cold winter. Men on the picket line were nearly frozen to death, and Colonel Harrison fixed coffee and took it to them in the middle of the night. Harrison always led the men saying “Come on, boys!” as he took the lead. The 70th Indiana was assigned to guard the railroads in Tennessee until February 1863. They then served picket duty at Gallatin. In August 1863, they moved to Nashville to guard trains to Chattanooga and provided picket duty, leaving in February 1864 to join the Atlanta Campaign. In May 1864, Colonel Harrison and the regiment joined General Sherman’s Atlanta campaign in the Army of the Cumberland. For Harrison’s achievements at the battles of Resaca and Peachtree Creek, he was promoted to Brigadier General. During the spring of 1864, both the Union forces under Sherman and the Confederate forces under Johnston were preparing for a battle near Ringold, Georgia, on the Chickamauga River. This conflict never materialized, but it caused great anxiety on both sides. To get into position for the first general engagement of the Atlanta campaign, both sides attempted to outflank each other. Col. Harrison’s 70th Indiana Volunteer Regiment was sent across the Chickamauga battleground, where they reached the Lee and Gordon’s Mills on May 1, 1864. Grant had set May 5th as the day to move on the Confederate lines by both the Army of the Cumberland and Sherman’s Army. Harrison was attached to Sherman’s command. On May 5th, Harrison wrote to his wife Caroline of the move: “In front of my saddle I have my blue coat rolled up and strapped on. The small cavalry saddle bags are filled to their utmost capacity . . . my little tin bucket for making tea, swings clattering at my side. The bundle behind my saddle is so large that it is a straining effort to get my leg over it on or off and when in the saddle I feel like one who has been wrapped up for embalming . . . it is very disagreeable.” The enemy was engaged at Tunnell Hill and Rocky Face Ridge but fell back to Resaca. On May 13, 1864 Harrison moved toward Resaca. The first day of fighting occurred on the 13th; Harrison was not to participate in the fight until the next day. On the evening of the 13th, Harrison wrote to Caroline of his feelings on the eve of his “first great battle“: “I am in my usual good spirits, though not at all insensible to grave responsibilities and risks which I must bear tomorrow. I am thinking much of you and the dear children and my whole heart goes out to you in tenderness and love and many earnest prayers… I send up to God this night that should you lose a husband and they a father in the fight that you may find abundant consolation… I know you will not forget me… but let your grief be tempered by the consolation that I died for my country and in Christ. If God gives me strength I mean to bear myself bravely, and come what will, so that you may have no cause to blush for me, though you should be forced to mourn.” On the second day of the battle of Resaca, both the Confederate wing commander, General John Bell Hood, and the Union wing commander, General Joseph Hooker, took limited offensive action. The Confederate forces came forward slightly from their solidly prepared entrenchments. The Union forces continued to probe for a weakness in the Confederate line. A Confederate artillery battery posted in a breastwork proved particularly annoying. Brigadier General Ward’s brigade, of which Harrison was a part, was ordered to assault and capture this redoubt. The brigade attacked in a column formation, the 70th having the honor of leading the charge. The redoubt was heavily fortified with three infantry regiments in the rifle pits and four more regiments in the main trenches. Coming out of the woods, Harrison surprised and drove back the outlying infantry. Despite the deadly close range of the cannon fire, Harrison captured the battery in hand-to-hand fighting with the gunners. Fierce fighting continued all afternoon. At nightfall, the 70th carried the four captured 121-pound Napoleon Cannons to the rear, keeping them safe from recapture. The Confederate forces withdrew in the darkness of the morning of the 15th. Harrison received orders to report to Governor Morton for special duty. The next several weeks in Indianapolis were spent campaigning both for himself as Indiana’s Supreme Court Reporter and President Abraham Lincoln. After the November election, he left for Georgia to rejoin his old regiment for Sherman’s “March to the Sea.” Instead he was given command of the 1st Brigade at Nashville and led them in a decisive battle against Confederate General Hood. A few weeks later, he received orders to rejoin the 70th Indiana at Savannah, Georgia, after a brief furlough in Indianapolis. However, Harrison contracted scarlet fever delaying him by one month, and then spent the next several months training replacement troops in South Carolina. After the South’s surrender, he reached his old regiment on the same day as the news of President Lincoln’s assassination. On April 29, 1865, the regiment was ordered to march to Washington, DC. It participated in the Grand Review of Western Armies held on May 24, 1865. General Harrison and the 70th Indiana were mustered out of Federal service on June 8, 1865. Years after, Harrison participated in many Civil War reunions and during his presidency was a champion of providing pensions for Grand Army of the Republic veterans. Due to Candlelight Theatre we will be CLOSED for tours this Sunday, December 15, 2019. We will reopen the following day. Thank you for being an important part of the Presidential Site and sharing a legacy in action!	1,904	ENGLISH	1
The plethora of taxes we pay today—federal income tax, alternative minimum tax, corporate tax, estate tax, FICA, and so on—didn't always exist. America's first citizens enjoyed few to no taxes, and taxes were added, increased, and occasionally (and often temporarily) repealed to give us the current tax regime. Let's explore the origins of some of the more common taxes we face today. When Were Taxes Implemented? Most of the taxes we pay today have been around for less than half of our country's history. One of the oldest is the estate tax, which was enacted in 1797 but was then repealed and reinstituted over the years, often in response to the need to finance wars. The modern estate tax was implemented in 1916, and the gift tax came about in 1924. The federal income tax was enacted in 1913, and corporate income taxes were enacted slightly earlier, in 1909. The 1920s and '30s saw the creation of multiple taxes. Sales taxes were enacted first in West Virginia in 1921, then in 11 more states in 1933 and 18 more states by 1940. As of 2010, Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon are the only states without a sales tax. President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Social Security Act in 1935, and Social Security taxes were first collected in January 1937, although no benefits were paid until January 1940. (For more insight, read more about how to give your taxes some credit.) The alternative minimum tax (AMT), a type of federal income tax, wasn't enacted until 1978. This parallel system uses a separate set of rules to calculate taxable income after allowed deductions. It was designed to prevent taxpayers from avoiding their "fair share" of taxes. Still, because it is not indexed to inflation, more and more taxpayers have become subjected to it over the years, resulting in escalating calls to reform or eliminate the AMT. These are just a few of the many taxes Americans are subjected to. Others include cigarette and alcohol taxes, energy taxes, aviation taxes, property taxes, telecommunications taxes, and state income taxes. The Tax Foundation calculated that in 2009, Americans on average had to work through April 11 just to earn the amount of money they would pay in taxes over the course of the year, better known as tax freedom day. (The exact date when an individual American has paid his or her tax burden for the year varies by state because of the differences in state taxes.) Tax Rates, Then and Now Tax rates tend to change (often for the worse) from their rates at the time of their enactment—a fact Americans should consider whenever they are faced with the threat of a new tax. For example, in 1913 when the federal income tax was implemented to help finance World War I, the marginal tax rate was 1% on income of $0 to $20,000, 2% on income of $20,000 to $50,000, 3% on income of $50,000 to $75,000, 4% on income of $75,000 to $100,000, 5% on income of $100,000 to $250,000, 6% on income of $250,000 to $500,000, and 7% on income of $500,000 and up. Tax rates were the same for everyone—there was no filing status, and there was no distinction between single taxpayers, married taxpayers filing jointly, married taxpayers filing separately, and heads of household. By 2009, tax rates had increased considerably, with a top marginal tax rate of 35%. Modern tax rates also depend on filing status. Because cigarette and alcohol taxes are built into the prices of these products, many Americans don't even know they're paying them. Federal tobacco taxes were first enacted in 1794, but came and went over the years until 1864. That year, a box of 20 cigarettes was taxed at 0.8 cents. In 2009, the rate was $1.01 per pack. States also tax cigarettes. In 2009, South Carolina taxed them at a low of 7 cents per pack, while Rhode Island taxed them at a high of $3.46 per pack. Spirits, wine, and beer are each taxed at different rates by both the federal and state governments. In 2008, the federal excise tax rates were $13.50 per proof gallon of spirits, $1.07 to $3.15 per gallon of wine depending on the wine's alcohol content, and $18 per 31-gallon barrel of beer. Each state sets its own tax rates for each type of alcohol. The lowest tax rate for spirits in 2009 was $1.50 per gallon in Maryland; the highest rate was $26.45 per gallon in Washington. For wine, the lowest tax rate in 2009 was 11 cents per gallon in Louisiana; the highest was $2.50 per gallon in Alaska. Beer was taxed at a low of 1.9 cents per gallon in Wyoming and a high of $1.07 per gallon in Alaska. The government started taxing cigarettes and alcohol to pay back the debts it incurred during the Revolutionary War. However, social purposes have also long influenced the taxation of these items. The higher the tax, the more likely Americans are to be discouraged from consuming tobacco and alcohol. However, because tobacco and alcohol taxes are flat taxes, they fall disproportionately on the poor. In other words, it is mostly the poor who are discouraged from using tobacco and alcohol, because other income groups can afford to pay the higher taxes. (Consider reading more about what would happen if the U.S. switched to a flat tax.) If the government taxes behavior, it wants to discourage, why does it tax gasoline? After all, gasoline taxes were implemented long before the environmental movement kicked in. Federal excise taxes on gasoline were implemented in June 1932 under President Herbert Hoover as part of the Revenue Act of 1932. As its name implies, this act was designed to increase the amount of money the government had at its disposal. The gasoline tax was expected to raise $150 million in new tax revenues for the government. In 1932, gas was taxed at a rate of 1 cent per gallon. By 2009, the tax had risen to 18.4 cents per gallon. State gasoline taxes can tack on an additional cost, ranging from a low of 8 cents per gallon in Alaska to a high of 42.5 cents per gallon in New York. Taxing investment income might seem particularly counterproductive since investment is necessary for economic growth, but that hasn't stopped the government from including it under its wide umbrella of taxable income. Capital gains taxes were enacted in 1913, along with the income tax. Dividend taxes were enacted in 1936 but only lasted through 1939. They reappeared in 1954 and have persisted ever since. (For more insight, you might explore why dividends still look good after all these years.) History is full of tax rebellions, and today America stands at the cusp of another tax reform that President Trump wants to push through. Back in 1773, taxes sparked Americans to destroy three shiploads of British tea. And in 1791, Alexander Hamilton's proposed excise tax on alcohol was enough to prompt the Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania. The question is, what lies ahead of this tax reform?	<urn:uuid:09e68b45-df0b-4d1b-91c0-2e9646680a8c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.investopedia.com/articles/tax/10/history-taxes.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00462.warc.gz	en	0.981	1,488	3.953125	4	[ -0.48641014099121094, -0.0038572456687688828, -0.008078773505985737, -0.2446938306093216, 0.06556949764490128, 0.3144235610961914, -0.019803453236818314, 0.09307551383972168, 0.19800139963626862, 0.36652249097824097, 0.462492972612381, 0.5846386551856995, -0.3871232867240906, 0.35997420549...	1	The plethora of taxes we pay today—federal income tax, alternative minimum tax, corporate tax, estate tax, FICA, and so on—didn't always exist. America's first citizens enjoyed few to no taxes, and taxes were added, increased, and occasionally (and often temporarily) repealed to give us the current tax regime. Let's explore the origins of some of the more common taxes we face today. When Were Taxes Implemented? Most of the taxes we pay today have been around for less than half of our country's history. One of the oldest is the estate tax, which was enacted in 1797 but was then repealed and reinstituted over the years, often in response to the need to finance wars. The modern estate tax was implemented in 1916, and the gift tax came about in 1924. The federal income tax was enacted in 1913, and corporate income taxes were enacted slightly earlier, in 1909. The 1920s and '30s saw the creation of multiple taxes. Sales taxes were enacted first in West Virginia in 1921, then in 11 more states in 1933 and 18 more states by 1940. As of 2010, Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon are the only states without a sales tax. President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Social Security Act in 1935, and Social Security taxes were first collected in January 1937, although no benefits were paid until January 1940. (For more insight, read more about how to give your taxes some credit.) The alternative minimum tax (AMT), a type of federal income tax, wasn't enacted until 1978. This parallel system uses a separate set of rules to calculate taxable income after allowed deductions. It was designed to prevent taxpayers from avoiding their "fair share" of taxes. Still, because it is not indexed to inflation, more and more taxpayers have become subjected to it over the years, resulting in escalating calls to reform or eliminate the AMT. These are just a few of the many taxes Americans are subjected to. Others include cigarette and alcohol taxes, energy taxes, aviation taxes, property taxes, telecommunications taxes, and state income taxes. The Tax Foundation calculated that in 2009, Americans on average had to work through April 11 just to earn the amount of money they would pay in taxes over the course of the year, better known as tax freedom day. (The exact date when an individual American has paid his or her tax burden for the year varies by state because of the differences in state taxes.) Tax Rates, Then and Now Tax rates tend to change (often for the worse) from their rates at the time of their enactment—a fact Americans should consider whenever they are faced with the threat of a new tax. For example, in 1913 when the federal income tax was implemented to help finance World War I, the marginal tax rate was 1% on income of $0 to $20,000, 2% on income of $20,000 to $50,000, 3% on income of $50,000 to $75,000, 4% on income of $75,000 to $100,000, 5% on income of $100,000 to $250,000, 6% on income of $250,000 to $500,000, and 7% on income of $500,000 and up. Tax rates were the same for everyone—there was no filing status, and there was no distinction between single taxpayers, married taxpayers filing jointly, married taxpayers filing separately, and heads of household. By 2009, tax rates had increased considerably, with a top marginal tax rate of 35%. Modern tax rates also depend on filing status. Because cigarette and alcohol taxes are built into the prices of these products, many Americans don't even know they're paying them. Federal tobacco taxes were first enacted in 1794, but came and went over the years until 1864. That year, a box of 20 cigarettes was taxed at 0.8 cents. In 2009, the rate was $1.01 per pack. States also tax cigarettes. In 2009, South Carolina taxed them at a low of 7 cents per pack, while Rhode Island taxed them at a high of $3.46 per pack. Spirits, wine, and beer are each taxed at different rates by both the federal and state governments. In 2008, the federal excise tax rates were $13.50 per proof gallon of spirits, $1.07 to $3.15 per gallon of wine depending on the wine's alcohol content, and $18 per 31-gallon barrel of beer. Each state sets its own tax rates for each type of alcohol. The lowest tax rate for spirits in 2009 was $1.50 per gallon in Maryland; the highest rate was $26.45 per gallon in Washington. For wine, the lowest tax rate in 2009 was 11 cents per gallon in Louisiana; the highest was $2.50 per gallon in Alaska. Beer was taxed at a low of 1.9 cents per gallon in Wyoming and a high of $1.07 per gallon in Alaska. The government started taxing cigarettes and alcohol to pay back the debts it incurred during the Revolutionary War. However, social purposes have also long influenced the taxation of these items. The higher the tax, the more likely Americans are to be discouraged from consuming tobacco and alcohol. However, because tobacco and alcohol taxes are flat taxes, they fall disproportionately on the poor. In other words, it is mostly the poor who are discouraged from using tobacco and alcohol, because other income groups can afford to pay the higher taxes. (Consider reading more about what would happen if the U.S. switched to a flat tax.) If the government taxes behavior, it wants to discourage, why does it tax gasoline? After all, gasoline taxes were implemented long before the environmental movement kicked in. Federal excise taxes on gasoline were implemented in June 1932 under President Herbert Hoover as part of the Revenue Act of 1932. As its name implies, this act was designed to increase the amount of money the government had at its disposal. The gasoline tax was expected to raise $150 million in new tax revenues for the government. In 1932, gas was taxed at a rate of 1 cent per gallon. By 2009, the tax had risen to 18.4 cents per gallon. State gasoline taxes can tack on an additional cost, ranging from a low of 8 cents per gallon in Alaska to a high of 42.5 cents per gallon in New York. Taxing investment income might seem particularly counterproductive since investment is necessary for economic growth, but that hasn't stopped the government from including it under its wide umbrella of taxable income. Capital gains taxes were enacted in 1913, along with the income tax. Dividend taxes were enacted in 1936 but only lasted through 1939. They reappeared in 1954 and have persisted ever since. (For more insight, you might explore why dividends still look good after all these years.) History is full of tax rebellions, and today America stands at the cusp of another tax reform that President Trump wants to push through. Back in 1773, taxes sparked Americans to destroy three shiploads of British tea. And in 1791, Alexander Hamilton's proposed excise tax on alcohol was enough to prompt the Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania. The question is, what lies ahead of this tax reform?	1,686	ENGLISH	1
The tale of Heracles first begins with Electryon, who was the son of Perseus and king of both Tiryns and Mycenae. Electryon had a beautiful daughter named Alcmene who was given in marriage to her cousin King Amphitryon of Troezen. It seems that one day as Electryon’s sons were busy tending to their father’s cattle, a band of Taphian pirates attached and ruthlessly killed eight of Alcmene’s brothers. Wanting to avenge the death of his sons, the king gathered up his army. Before leaving on his campaign, he appointed Amphitryon to act as regent in his place. During Electryon’s absence, news came that the stolen cattle were being held by the king of Elis and would not be returned unless a high ransom price was paid. Amphitryon met the murderers’ costly demands and then sent word to his father-in-law that the missing herds had been found. Electryon returned home only to find that Amphitryon insisted he be reimbursed for the ransom fee. An argument ensued between the two men, and in a fit of anger Amphitryon picked up a hammer and hurled it at one of the nearby cows. Unfortunately for Amphitryon, instead of hitting the animal, the weapon accidently struck Electryon upon the head with such force that it instantly brought about his death. Sthenelus, the brother of Electryon, took possession of the throne and without hesitation banished Amphitryon from Tiryns. Alcmene fled with her husband to the city of Thebes where the two found shelter under the protection of King Creon. To add to Amphitryon’s woes, Alcmene refused to share her bed with him until the death of her brothers had been vindicated. Knowing that retaliation was his only chance for a happy marriage, Amphitryon banded together an army and rode out to seek his revenge. With Amphitryon safely out of the picture, Zeus crept down from Olympus and made his way to Alcmene’s bedchamber. Disguised as Amphitryon, he assured the grieving woman that the cries of her murdered brothers had once and for all been silenced. Believing that Zeus was indeed her husband, Alcmene welcomed the god to spend the night in her bed. As fate may have it, the real Amphitryon won a victory for himself in the Taphian Islands and arrived home the very next day. Eager to share an afternoon of love with his wife, the jubliant champion hurried to Alcmene’s room only to find her worn out and tired from her previous night with Zeus. As Amphitryon told his tale of triumph, Alcmene listened with little enthusiam. She could not understand why he was repeating the same words he spoke to her the night before. Sensing that something was odd about his wife’s behavior, Amphitryon summoned the seer Teiresias to the palace where the details of Zeus’ secret meeting were openly revealed. Before long Alcmene realized she had become pregnant with twins, one being of divine blood and the other a mortal. One day Zeus could be heard boasting loudly through the halls of Olympus that he had fathered a child destined to be called Heracles (which means glory of Hera), and who would someday rule over the house of Perseus. The news of her husband’s disloyalty filled Hera with anger. She demanded that Zeus swear an oath that any prince born to the house of Perseus before nightfall would be proclaimed king. Desperately wanting to avoid a confrontation with his contentious wife, Zeus hastily agreed and pledged the sacred vow. In an instant Hera dispatched her daughter Eileithyia, a goddess of childbirth to Thebes where Alcmene’s labor had entered into its seventh day. In order to delay the birth of the twins, Eileithyia sat firmly atop her altar, symbolically keeping her legs tightly crossed and her arms and fingers entwined. Hera herself speedily traveled to Tiryns where she brought about the premature birth of King Sthenelus’ son Eurystheus, thus allowing the crown of Tiryns to fall smoothly into his hands. Alcmene’s worried attendants were just about to give up hope when one woman named Galanthis cried out “The babies have arrived!” causing Eileithyia to unwrap her limbs and jump to her feet. Before the goddess realized she had been tricked, her spell was broken and Heracles and his brother Iphicles were born. Proud of her victory over Eileithyia, Galanthius turned and let out a hearty laugh, but unfortunately for her the jubilance was short lived. She was at once transformed into a weasel and forever condemned to bear her young through her mouth. This ancient misconception came about due to the weasel’s habit of transporting their offspring by way of mouth.	<urn:uuid:b6b28960-3d69-4f20-aa23-a2a0412b6ec2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.medeaslair.net/women-and-witches/alcmene/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00006.warc.gz	en	0.981298	1,071	3.296875	3	[ -0.2293338179588318, 0.4985840916633606, 0.07196202874183655, -0.389466792345047, -0.26378729939460754, -0.3036952018737793, 0.2551283836364746, 0.2119464874267578, 0.04981379210948944, -0.13633647561073303, -0.2816593050956726, -0.17338261008262634, 0.2350802719593048, 0.2092517912387848,...	11	The tale of Heracles first begins with Electryon, who was the son of Perseus and king of both Tiryns and Mycenae. Electryon had a beautiful daughter named Alcmene who was given in marriage to her cousin King Amphitryon of Troezen. It seems that one day as Electryon’s sons were busy tending to their father’s cattle, a band of Taphian pirates attached and ruthlessly killed eight of Alcmene’s brothers. Wanting to avenge the death of his sons, the king gathered up his army. Before leaving on his campaign, he appointed Amphitryon to act as regent in his place. During Electryon’s absence, news came that the stolen cattle were being held by the king of Elis and would not be returned unless a high ransom price was paid. Amphitryon met the murderers’ costly demands and then sent word to his father-in-law that the missing herds had been found. Electryon returned home only to find that Amphitryon insisted he be reimbursed for the ransom fee. An argument ensued between the two men, and in a fit of anger Amphitryon picked up a hammer and hurled it at one of the nearby cows. Unfortunately for Amphitryon, instead of hitting the animal, the weapon accidently struck Electryon upon the head with such force that it instantly brought about his death. Sthenelus, the brother of Electryon, took possession of the throne and without hesitation banished Amphitryon from Tiryns. Alcmene fled with her husband to the city of Thebes where the two found shelter under the protection of King Creon. To add to Amphitryon’s woes, Alcmene refused to share her bed with him until the death of her brothers had been vindicated. Knowing that retaliation was his only chance for a happy marriage, Amphitryon banded together an army and rode out to seek his revenge. With Amphitryon safely out of the picture, Zeus crept down from Olympus and made his way to Alcmene’s bedchamber. Disguised as Amphitryon, he assured the grieving woman that the cries of her murdered brothers had once and for all been silenced. Believing that Zeus was indeed her husband, Alcmene welcomed the god to spend the night in her bed. As fate may have it, the real Amphitryon won a victory for himself in the Taphian Islands and arrived home the very next day. Eager to share an afternoon of love with his wife, the jubliant champion hurried to Alcmene’s room only to find her worn out and tired from her previous night with Zeus. As Amphitryon told his tale of triumph, Alcmene listened with little enthusiam. She could not understand why he was repeating the same words he spoke to her the night before. Sensing that something was odd about his wife’s behavior, Amphitryon summoned the seer Teiresias to the palace where the details of Zeus’ secret meeting were openly revealed. Before long Alcmene realized she had become pregnant with twins, one being of divine blood and the other a mortal. One day Zeus could be heard boasting loudly through the halls of Olympus that he had fathered a child destined to be called Heracles (which means glory of Hera), and who would someday rule over the house of Perseus. The news of her husband’s disloyalty filled Hera with anger. She demanded that Zeus swear an oath that any prince born to the house of Perseus before nightfall would be proclaimed king. Desperately wanting to avoid a confrontation with his contentious wife, Zeus hastily agreed and pledged the sacred vow. In an instant Hera dispatched her daughter Eileithyia, a goddess of childbirth to Thebes where Alcmene’s labor had entered into its seventh day. In order to delay the birth of the twins, Eileithyia sat firmly atop her altar, symbolically keeping her legs tightly crossed and her arms and fingers entwined. Hera herself speedily traveled to Tiryns where she brought about the premature birth of King Sthenelus’ son Eurystheus, thus allowing the crown of Tiryns to fall smoothly into his hands. Alcmene’s worried attendants were just about to give up hope when one woman named Galanthis cried out “The babies have arrived!” causing Eileithyia to unwrap her limbs and jump to her feet. Before the goddess realized she had been tricked, her spell was broken and Heracles and his brother Iphicles were born. Proud of her victory over Eileithyia, Galanthius turned and let out a hearty laugh, but unfortunately for her the jubilance was short lived. She was at once transformed into a weasel and forever condemned to bear her young through her mouth. This ancient misconception came about due to the weasel’s habit of transporting their offspring by way of mouth.	1,033	ENGLISH	1
George Herbert (3 April 1593 – 1 March 1633) was a Welsh-born English poet, orator and Anglican priest. Herbert’s poetry is associated with the writings of the metaphysical poets, and he is recognized as “a pivotal figure: enormously popular, deeply and broadly influential, and arguably the most skillful and important British devotional lyricist.”[ George Herbert as a Religious poet George Herbert as a Religious poet George Herbert is considered as a religious poet because of the subject matter of his poetry which is fully devotional and religious in nature. By his poetry, he completely surrenders himself to God and his master, Jesus. Although he was associated with the metaphysical group, he was exceptional for his treatment towards religion in his poetry. For his devotion to God, he is known as the saint of the metaphysical group. And his religious thought afterward influenced other metaphysical poets. However, his devotion to God reflects in his poems, and we find a great touch of religion in almost all of his poems. He was a Churchman of the Anglican Church. And his religious faith had grown and developed in this Church. He was influenced by it right from his childhood under the benign guidance of his pious mother and seasoned family chaplains. And long after the complication of his University graduation, he was ordained and placed over the little church of Bemarton. Herbert’s mind was moulded by religion and by the Anglican Church. As he was brought up in religious atmosphere and his religious faith is shaped by his pious mother, we see that his poems are the representations of his sacred mind and thought. His poems are nothing but the true expression of love towards God and Jesus. As Rose Macaulay says, “Herbert is, in a sense, the first of the Anglican poets; the first Anglican poet, that is, whose whole expression and art was coloured by and confined within the walls of his Church.” Herbert finds and gets satisfaction writing religious poems. Even the two sonnets that he sent to his mother when he was only seventeen year’s old are the symbol of what kind of poet he wanted to be. In his after years, he writes divine poems and sees beauty only in God. He is all for God, his king, whose praise he will sing in a plain, homely language. Even just before his death he gave a manuscript to one of his friends and the message that he gave is worthy. He said, “Deliver this little book to my dear brother Ferrar, and tell him he shall find in it a picture of the many spiritual conflicts that have passed betwixt God and my soul before I could subject mine to the will of Jesus, my master, in whose service I have now found perfect freedom.” However, Herbert is called the devotional or the religious poet because he deals with such subjects. The theme of most of his poems is religion. He deals with the soul, God, life after death, the relation between human spirits and senses and so on. He talks of man’s relation to God, of body to the soul, of the life here and to the life hereafter. In this relation, he often shows rebellion, reconciliation and the final submission. Moreover, his poetry is a sequence of religious poems. His motive is always to make the divine seem original, the secular imitation. He sees the things of daily life in direct relation to a supernatural order. Heavenly truths are indeed what he looks for in all his poems. There are many poems in which Herbert devoutly offers his homage to God or Christ, and make surrender of himself to the Almighty. These are poems of untroubled faith in which the tone is throughly one of affirmation. “Easter-Wings” is one of such poems. The theme of his poems is that Paradise was lost through Adam’s sin but was regained by Christ’s sacrifice. The underlining idea is that the fall of man is the essential basis of his rise, or in other words if there is no fall, there can be no flight. Here he says, “Lord, who createdst man in wealth and store, Though foolishly he lost the same, Decaying more and more, Till he became His another poem “The Altar”, shows his devotion to God and urges to take his broken heart into his own for his own satisfaction. He shows his devotion saying, “A HEART alone Is such a stone, As nothing but Thy pow’r doth cut. Wherefore each part Of my hard heart. Meets in this frame, To praise thy name.” There are some other poems like DISCIPLINE, AFFLICTION, PRAYER etc. in which Herbert shows his extraordinary love towards God. He praises God in many styles in many of his poems. As for example “The Temple” is a collection of 169 religious poems out of which 140 have been composed in different patterns of stanza, and out of which 116 patterns have been used for only single time. It appears that Herbert wanted to employ his skill in God’s praise in as much different forms as possible. Other poets: Herbert, John Donne and Vaughan are contemporary poets. Although they are associated with the metaphysical group, they have some similarities and dissimilarities among them. However, a comparative discussion with George Herbert and other poets is given below:– Donne and Herbert : John Donne ( 1572-1631 ) established what has become known as the Metaphysical style of poetry which was taken up by later poets like Herbert and Vaughan. Donne developed his technique writing love poetry, and later adapted it to the writing of religious poetry. George Herbert’s poetry shows that to a large extent he followed the lead offered by Donne, but he also made contributions which were quite distinct. But they have some similarities between them. Donne’s Holy Sonnet ‘Batter my Heart’ and Herbert’s ‘The Collar’ are both poems about the struggle to maintain faith in God. In the opening line of ‘Batter my Heart’ Donne writes, “Batter my heart, three person’d God;” Herbert, showing the influence of Donne, writes in his opening line of ‘The Collar’: “I struck the board, and cry’d, No more.” Both openings are abrupt and dramatic, evoking violent action, and both are delivered in a personal and colloquial manner. Herbert and Vaughan : Henry Vaughan shares Herbert’s preoccupation with the relationship between humanity and God. Both see mankind as restless and constantly seeking a sense of harmony and fulfillment through contact with God. In ‘The Pulley’ Herbert writes, “Yet let him keep the rest, But keep them with repining restlessnesse: Similarly, in ‘Man’ Vaughan writes, “Man hath stil either toyes or Care, He hath no root, nor to one place is ty’d, But ever restless and Irregular.” Both poets are conscious of the sinfulness of mankind, but in other respects their attitudes towards mankind seem to differ. From the above discussions, it can be said that George Herbert devoted his poetic genius for the praise of God and the theme of most of his poems is religion that leads us towards spiritual and moral ideas. And his poems find expressions only in God’s praise. So undoubtedly we can consider George Herbert is a devotional or religious poet George Herbert chose at Cambridge to devote his poetry to God and seemed to adjust easily to a religious life after leaving a court life. His poetry expresses the notion that one feels God’s presence or one doesn’t, propounding the theologically arguable concept that one cannot reason with God. His poetry is an extension of his sermons and seeks to instruct by example rather than by precept. He writes about his personal struggles in order that others may follow his example and thus overcome their struggles. His struggles are not on the same order of Donne’s, his fellow religious poet, however, being less desperate and less personal. Herbert’s approach to poetry writing is a more commonplace approach than an intellectual one. He uses common everyday domestic metaphors and imagery along with conceits (elaborate, intellectually original metaphors, short or extended), which are important in his poetry. The questions that Herbert explores, which constitute an extension to his sermons, are often resolved with a device he innovated: two quiet lines that convey a resolution founded in emotion and that may or may not answer the question(s) raised in the poem. The function of extending his sermons determines the his poetic style, in large part. Critics Herbert’s style, then, is “popular” as well as courtly and Metaphysical, and his leaning towards the manner of common Elizabethan speech is further emphasized by his well-known liking for homely illustrations, analogies and metaphors. His poems contain plenty of learned allusions (especially, as was natural in that age, to astronomy), but he certainly “goes less far afield for his analogies than Donne and finds most that will serve his purpose from common life,”–from carpentry, gardening and everyday domestic activity: Redemption “spreads the plaister equal to the crime,” after the refreshment of sleep, day will “give new wheels to our disorder’d clocks”, and so on. But although this feature of Herbert’s style is so commonly recognized that further illustration is unnecessary, its function is sometimes misinterpreted, as though Herbert’s experience were somehow limited by his interest in the commonplace. Even Professor Grierson, after listing some of Herbert’s comparisons, remarks [in Metaphysical Lyrics and Poems of the Seventeenth Century]: These are the “mean” similes which in Dr.Johnson’s view were fatal to poetic effect even in Shakespeare. We have learned not to be so fastidious, yet when they are not purified by the passionate heat of the poet’s dramatic imagination the effect is a little stuffy, for the analogies and symbols are more fanciful or traditional than natural and imaginative. Dr. Hutchinson rightly insists that Herbert’s conflict of mind was not simply about the priesthood, that his spiritual struggle “was over the more general issue of his submission to the Divine will” For George Herbert poetry is religion and religion poetry. He believed that a man should dedicate all his gifts to God’s service, that a poet should make the altar blossom with his poetry. Accordingly his most famous poem included in The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations (1633), The Temple as well as his other poems like Virtue and The Pulley are full of faith and fervor. In the poem Elixir the poet declares that his only desire is ‘In all things Thee to see’ and that the only true elixir is God. Yet not all of Herbert’s poems are of placid piety, for he himself declared that in many of his poems he presented ‘a picture of the many spiritual conflicts which have passed between God and my soul’. The Collar which is included in the said volume exemplifies such a spiritual conflict, the difficult, lifelong struggles of the Christian faith presented in terms of metaphysical wit and conceits. The poem has a fervid beginning and is as sticking as any other metaphysical poem: “I struck the board, and cry’d. No more.” Here the board stands both for the dining table and for alter. Being a priest, Herbert has the duty of giving the sacrament of Holy Communion. But he obviously wants to give up his religious and priestly duty because the feels that he has to sacrifice all his personal pleasures. Indeed, his religious vocation is the ‘Collar’ which is keeping him tied to his job. Again, it is the French choler (anger) and is a reference to Christ’s own yoke or burden. Collar also implied a relation between the human master and his dog tied o a leash. The word Collar is also a pun on ‘Choler’, for the bondage imposed by God results in irritation on the part of the priest. The poet laments the fact that for him there is no ripe harvest of sensual pleasures but only the thorn of pain. If he had ever known wine, it was much before his becoming a priest, for the sighs of the priest have dried the wine up. If there was golden corn, it too has been drowned by tears of the suffering priest. He wonders if the ‘year’ which is also a pun on an ear of corn is lost only to the priest. For him there is no crowning glorious, and not does he have any garland or flowers of gaiety for they have all been laid a waste by his self-sacrificing vocation. But the poet seems to realize all of that there still is ‘fruit’ and that if he only uses his hands in the sense of sensual instincts, he would be able to avail of it. Therefore he would try to recover all that his period of priesthood has deprived hi of. He would live the ‘cold dispute’ of theology for much greater pleasure. Using a series of metaphysical conceits as in The Pulley, the poet declares that his present religious vocation is no more than a ‘cage’. The bond between man and God which he had thought to be exceptionally strong ‘coble’ to draw him from the earth to heaven was actually nothing but a ‘rope of sands’. He feels that it is because of his weakness that he has been so firmly enslaved by God. Even the message of death, the Biblical remainder that man must one day turn to dust and then face the wrath of God was only an illusion. Therefore he would abandon his priestly ways for ‘double pleasures’. He believed that then his life would be ‘free’ and not only would it be free as the road or loose as the wind, but also as large as store. It is at this juncture when the poet has almost decided upon releasing himself from God’s bondage and when he has grown ‘fierce and wild’ that he receives a hearing God call out to him ‘child’. Under the experience of such a divine intervention the poet can do nothing else except make his humble reply: ‘My Lord’. Although this resolution of Herbert’s spiritual conflict would appear almost perplexing. The poet certainly wants to emphasize that God’s purpose and functioning transcends the logical of man’s limited rational mind. The conclusion is certainly the most and the most satisfying possible. So moved was Aldous Huxley by this poem that he called it one of the most moving poems in all literature. – See more at	<urn:uuid:8ad35c92-521c-4220-9bea-0a36731362f7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thenewstandardgallery.com/george-herbert/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00381.warc.gz	en	0.984674	3,164	3.265625	3	[ 0.2143246829509735, 0.46383705735206604, 0.17104089260101318, 0.032917313277721405, -0.20678237080574036, 0.11236201226711273, 0.3716139495372772, 0.02717006579041481, -0.05543571710586548, -0.22540587186813354, -0.06001710891723633, -0.09986701607704163, 0.40097129344940186, 0.20521557331...	2	George Herbert (3 April 1593 – 1 March 1633) was a Welsh-born English poet, orator and Anglican priest. Herbert’s poetry is associated with the writings of the metaphysical poets, and he is recognized as “a pivotal figure: enormously popular, deeply and broadly influential, and arguably the most skillful and important British devotional lyricist.”[ George Herbert as a Religious poet George Herbert as a Religious poet George Herbert is considered as a religious poet because of the subject matter of his poetry which is fully devotional and religious in nature. By his poetry, he completely surrenders himself to God and his master, Jesus. Although he was associated with the metaphysical group, he was exceptional for his treatment towards religion in his poetry. For his devotion to God, he is known as the saint of the metaphysical group. And his religious thought afterward influenced other metaphysical poets. However, his devotion to God reflects in his poems, and we find a great touch of religion in almost all of his poems. He was a Churchman of the Anglican Church. And his religious faith had grown and developed in this Church. He was influenced by it right from his childhood under the benign guidance of his pious mother and seasoned family chaplains. And long after the complication of his University graduation, he was ordained and placed over the little church of Bemarton. Herbert’s mind was moulded by religion and by the Anglican Church. As he was brought up in religious atmosphere and his religious faith is shaped by his pious mother, we see that his poems are the representations of his sacred mind and thought. His poems are nothing but the true expression of love towards God and Jesus. As Rose Macaulay says, “Herbert is, in a sense, the first of the Anglican poets; the first Anglican poet, that is, whose whole expression and art was coloured by and confined within the walls of his Church.” Herbert finds and gets satisfaction writing religious poems. Even the two sonnets that he sent to his mother when he was only seventeen year’s old are the symbol of what kind of poet he wanted to be. In his after years, he writes divine poems and sees beauty only in God. He is all for God, his king, whose praise he will sing in a plain, homely language. Even just before his death he gave a manuscript to one of his friends and the message that he gave is worthy. He said, “Deliver this little book to my dear brother Ferrar, and tell him he shall find in it a picture of the many spiritual conflicts that have passed betwixt God and my soul before I could subject mine to the will of Jesus, my master, in whose service I have now found perfect freedom.” However, Herbert is called the devotional or the religious poet because he deals with such subjects. The theme of most of his poems is religion. He deals with the soul, God, life after death, the relation between human spirits and senses and so on. He talks of man’s relation to God, of body to the soul, of the life here and to the life hereafter. In this relation, he often shows rebellion, reconciliation and the final submission. Moreover, his poetry is a sequence of religious poems. His motive is always to make the divine seem original, the secular imitation. He sees the things of daily life in direct relation to a supernatural order. Heavenly truths are indeed what he looks for in all his poems. There are many poems in which Herbert devoutly offers his homage to God or Christ, and make surrender of himself to the Almighty. These are poems of untroubled faith in which the tone is throughly one of affirmation. “Easter-Wings” is one of such poems. The theme of his poems is that Paradise was lost through Adam’s sin but was regained by Christ’s sacrifice. The underlining idea is that the fall of man is the essential basis of his rise, or in other words if there is no fall, there can be no flight. Here he says, “Lord, who createdst man in wealth and store, Though foolishly he lost the same, Decaying more and more, Till he became His another poem “The Altar”, shows his devotion to God and urges to take his broken heart into his own for his own satisfaction. He shows his devotion saying, “A HEART alone Is such a stone, As nothing but Thy pow’r doth cut. Wherefore each part Of my hard heart. Meets in this frame, To praise thy name.” There are some other poems like DISCIPLINE, AFFLICTION, PRAYER etc. in which Herbert shows his extraordinary love towards God. He praises God in many styles in many of his poems. As for example “The Temple” is a collection of 169 religious poems out of which 140 have been composed in different patterns of stanza, and out of which 116 patterns have been used for only single time. It appears that Herbert wanted to employ his skill in God’s praise in as much different forms as possible. Other poets: Herbert, John Donne and Vaughan are contemporary poets. Although they are associated with the metaphysical group, they have some similarities and dissimilarities among them. However, a comparative discussion with George Herbert and other poets is given below:– Donne and Herbert : John Donne ( 1572-1631 ) established what has become known as the Metaphysical style of poetry which was taken up by later poets like Herbert and Vaughan. Donne developed his technique writing love poetry, and later adapted it to the writing of religious poetry. George Herbert’s poetry shows that to a large extent he followed the lead offered by Donne, but he also made contributions which were quite distinct. But they have some similarities between them. Donne’s Holy Sonnet ‘Batter my Heart’ and Herbert’s ‘The Collar’ are both poems about the struggle to maintain faith in God. In the opening line of ‘Batter my Heart’ Donne writes, “Batter my heart, three person’d God;” Herbert, showing the influence of Donne, writes in his opening line of ‘The Collar’: “I struck the board, and cry’d, No more.” Both openings are abrupt and dramatic, evoking violent action, and both are delivered in a personal and colloquial manner. Herbert and Vaughan : Henry Vaughan shares Herbert’s preoccupation with the relationship between humanity and God. Both see mankind as restless and constantly seeking a sense of harmony and fulfillment through contact with God. In ‘The Pulley’ Herbert writes, “Yet let him keep the rest, But keep them with repining restlessnesse: Similarly, in ‘Man’ Vaughan writes, “Man hath stil either toyes or Care, He hath no root, nor to one place is ty’d, But ever restless and Irregular.” Both poets are conscious of the sinfulness of mankind, but in other respects their attitudes towards mankind seem to differ. From the above discussions, it can be said that George Herbert devoted his poetic genius for the praise of God and the theme of most of his poems is religion that leads us towards spiritual and moral ideas. And his poems find expressions only in God’s praise. So undoubtedly we can consider George Herbert is a devotional or religious poet George Herbert chose at Cambridge to devote his poetry to God and seemed to adjust easily to a religious life after leaving a court life. His poetry expresses the notion that one feels God’s presence or one doesn’t, propounding the theologically arguable concept that one cannot reason with God. His poetry is an extension of his sermons and seeks to instruct by example rather than by precept. He writes about his personal struggles in order that others may follow his example and thus overcome their struggles. His struggles are not on the same order of Donne’s, his fellow religious poet, however, being less desperate and less personal. Herbert’s approach to poetry writing is a more commonplace approach than an intellectual one. He uses common everyday domestic metaphors and imagery along with conceits (elaborate, intellectually original metaphors, short or extended), which are important in his poetry. The questions that Herbert explores, which constitute an extension to his sermons, are often resolved with a device he innovated: two quiet lines that convey a resolution founded in emotion and that may or may not answer the question(s) raised in the poem. The function of extending his sermons determines the his poetic style, in large part. Critics Herbert’s style, then, is “popular” as well as courtly and Metaphysical, and his leaning towards the manner of common Elizabethan speech is further emphasized by his well-known liking for homely illustrations, analogies and metaphors. His poems contain plenty of learned allusions (especially, as was natural in that age, to astronomy), but he certainly “goes less far afield for his analogies than Donne and finds most that will serve his purpose from common life,”–from carpentry, gardening and everyday domestic activity: Redemption “spreads the plaister equal to the crime,” after the refreshment of sleep, day will “give new wheels to our disorder’d clocks”, and so on. But although this feature of Herbert’s style is so commonly recognized that further illustration is unnecessary, its function is sometimes misinterpreted, as though Herbert’s experience were somehow limited by his interest in the commonplace. Even Professor Grierson, after listing some of Herbert’s comparisons, remarks [in Metaphysical Lyrics and Poems of the Seventeenth Century]: These are the “mean” similes which in Dr.Johnson’s view were fatal to poetic effect even in Shakespeare. We have learned not to be so fastidious, yet when they are not purified by the passionate heat of the poet’s dramatic imagination the effect is a little stuffy, for the analogies and symbols are more fanciful or traditional than natural and imaginative. Dr. Hutchinson rightly insists that Herbert’s conflict of mind was not simply about the priesthood, that his spiritual struggle “was over the more general issue of his submission to the Divine will” For George Herbert poetry is religion and religion poetry. He believed that a man should dedicate all his gifts to God’s service, that a poet should make the altar blossom with his poetry. Accordingly his most famous poem included in The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations (1633), The Temple as well as his other poems like Virtue and The Pulley are full of faith and fervor. In the poem Elixir the poet declares that his only desire is ‘In all things Thee to see’ and that the only true elixir is God. Yet not all of Herbert’s poems are of placid piety, for he himself declared that in many of his poems he presented ‘a picture of the many spiritual conflicts which have passed between God and my soul’. The Collar which is included in the said volume exemplifies such a spiritual conflict, the difficult, lifelong struggles of the Christian faith presented in terms of metaphysical wit and conceits. The poem has a fervid beginning and is as sticking as any other metaphysical poem: “I struck the board, and cry’d. No more.” Here the board stands both for the dining table and for alter. Being a priest, Herbert has the duty of giving the sacrament of Holy Communion. But he obviously wants to give up his religious and priestly duty because the feels that he has to sacrifice all his personal pleasures. Indeed, his religious vocation is the ‘Collar’ which is keeping him tied to his job. Again, it is the French choler (anger) and is a reference to Christ’s own yoke or burden. Collar also implied a relation between the human master and his dog tied o a leash. The word Collar is also a pun on ‘Choler’, for the bondage imposed by God results in irritation on the part of the priest. The poet laments the fact that for him there is no ripe harvest of sensual pleasures but only the thorn of pain. If he had ever known wine, it was much before his becoming a priest, for the sighs of the priest have dried the wine up. If there was golden corn, it too has been drowned by tears of the suffering priest. He wonders if the ‘year’ which is also a pun on an ear of corn is lost only to the priest. For him there is no crowning glorious, and not does he have any garland or flowers of gaiety for they have all been laid a waste by his self-sacrificing vocation. But the poet seems to realize all of that there still is ‘fruit’ and that if he only uses his hands in the sense of sensual instincts, he would be able to avail of it. Therefore he would try to recover all that his period of priesthood has deprived hi of. He would live the ‘cold dispute’ of theology for much greater pleasure. Using a series of metaphysical conceits as in The Pulley, the poet declares that his present religious vocation is no more than a ‘cage’. The bond between man and God which he had thought to be exceptionally strong ‘coble’ to draw him from the earth to heaven was actually nothing but a ‘rope of sands’. He feels that it is because of his weakness that he has been so firmly enslaved by God. Even the message of death, the Biblical remainder that man must one day turn to dust and then face the wrath of God was only an illusion. Therefore he would abandon his priestly ways for ‘double pleasures’. He believed that then his life would be ‘free’ and not only would it be free as the road or loose as the wind, but also as large as store. It is at this juncture when the poet has almost decided upon releasing himself from God’s bondage and when he has grown ‘fierce and wild’ that he receives a hearing God call out to him ‘child’. Under the experience of such a divine intervention the poet can do nothing else except make his humble reply: ‘My Lord’. Although this resolution of Herbert’s spiritual conflict would appear almost perplexing. The poet certainly wants to emphasize that God’s purpose and functioning transcends the logical of man’s limited rational mind. The conclusion is certainly the most and the most satisfying possible. So moved was Aldous Huxley by this poem that he called it one of the most moving poems in all literature. – See more at	2,986	ENGLISH	1
Based on the quoted section & example below: - Why would the Franc or USD fall in price vs the other if they are both fixed to gold; why would having less gold cause paper money to contract? - Why would economic growth cause upward pressure on the price of gold in terms of goods and services; yet, downward pressure on the dollar prices of goods and services. "When a country joined the gold standard its exchange rate against other member countries became fixed. If the exchange rate of, say, the US dollar against the French franc were to fall, then it would be cheaper for American importers of French goods to pay in gold than in depreciated dollars. Gold would flow to France. The US would have less gold to back its supply of paper dollars, which would then contract, pushing up the value of the dollar until it returned to its official price in terms of gold"	<urn:uuid:f2f91118-6e08-45ad-84c9-4226d6f04611>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://economics.stackexchange.com/questions/26504/currencies-fixed-to-gold	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00040.warc.gz	en	0.983569	181	3.296875	3	[ -0.4733622372150421, -0.30665284395217896, -0.23714743554592133, 0.09986048936843872, 0.2383100390434265, -0.1403360664844513, -0.153133824467659, 0.6898256540298462, 0.36154791712760925, 0.013543534092605114, 0.45250919461250305, 0.06255818158388138, 0.1324295550584793, 0.4169349074363708...	9	Based on the quoted section & example below: - Why would the Franc or USD fall in price vs the other if they are both fixed to gold; why would having less gold cause paper money to contract? - Why would economic growth cause upward pressure on the price of gold in terms of goods and services; yet, downward pressure on the dollar prices of goods and services. "When a country joined the gold standard its exchange rate against other member countries became fixed. If the exchange rate of, say, the US dollar against the French franc were to fall, then it would be cheaper for American importers of French goods to pay in gold than in depreciated dollars. Gold would flow to France. The US would have less gold to back its supply of paper dollars, which would then contract, pushing up the value of the dollar until it returned to its official price in terms of gold"	176	ENGLISH	1
At the very edge of our solar system there is a small heavenly object that has found its way into the hearts of all: Right! It is Pluto! Pluto was discovered in 1930 and at least in 2006 it planet status was revoked. For 76 years it was a planet like any other in our solar system, but then it was degraded to a dwarf planet. Pluto has always been a bit strange becuase it is even smaller than our moon, and no one had the courage to throw it out until in 2005 Eris was discovered. Eris is located behind Pluto and is about the same size. So you would have had to record it as the tenth planet in the solar system. That was the moment when the international astronomical union decided that it no longer has any lust for all these small planets. But what should Pluto and Eris be if they are no longer planets? They had created the new term dwarf planet especially for them. Since then Pluto has won many fans and supporters and a lot of people are demanding that Pluto be awarded to the status planet again. But in the end everything is not so bad, because since then three other dwarf planets have been discovered. With Eris there are now a total of five dwarf planets, so Pluto is now in a pretty good company. Pluto also has a small moon called Charon. The diameter of Charon is only about half as small as that of Pluto. Thus Charon is unusually large for a moon of a planet. To the comparison: the diameter of our moon is four times as small as that of our earth. Pluto and Charon could also be called double planets. On the surface of Charon there is a dark region which the scientists called Mordor because it looks like the dark land of Sauron in Lord of the Rings. Pluto itself was named after the Roman god of the underworld. The name was proposed by the then eleven-year-old Venetia Katharine Douglas Burney and received broad approval because all other planets are also named after Roman gods. The roman god Pluto is probably better known by his greek name Hades, the god of the underworld. Pluto was discovered by a 24 year old young man. But until then the astronomers believed that there had to be a so-called transneptunian object, a planet behind Neptune. But nobody was able to locate this planet. Then in 1930 the 24-year-old Clyde Tombaugh, who worked in an observatory in Arizona, looked through the telescope and discovered the present dwarf planet. Clyde Tombaugh was already a planet explorer at the age of 24. By the way, Clyde Tombaugh's home state Illinois has decided by law that Pluto will continue to be recognized as a normal planet there. Cool action! Pluto needs 247.94 earthyears for one orbit around the sun. Since Pluto's orbit around the sun is very eccentric, its distance varies from 29 to 49 astronomical units. Pluto also rotates once around its own axis in 6.387 earthdays. Pluto's diameter is 2374 km, which makes it smaller than the seven largest moons in our solar system. Besides Charon, Pluto actually has four more very small moons, but it is assumed that they are to collapse on one of the two objects in the future due to the gravitational field between Pluto and Charon or be catapulted away, they are not often mentioned. Mickey Mouse's dog was named after Pluto and not vice versa, as many always think. Pluto was discovered in 1930 and in the same year Disney invented the Mickey Mouse dog. In honor of the newly discovered planet, Mickey Mouse's dog was unceremoniously called Pluto. If you take a closer look at Pluto's surface, you'll find an amazing similarity between the two. Posted using Partiko Android	<urn:uuid:b8bd9a36-c5d7-4d23-a7a3-8d3ad0e80e24>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://steemkr.com/steemstem/@seven09/a-few-things-about-pluto-kcaqpsyf	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00322.warc.gz	en	0.981129	776	3.28125	3	[ -0.024595098569989204, -0.06114470213651657, 0.19367387890815735, -0.21551193296909332, -0.138878732919693, -0.01661987416446209, 0.00048552430234849453, 0.15426434576511383, -0.06626969575881958, 0.5067647695541382, 0.050686921924352646, -0.3862495720386505, 0.16407129168510437, 0.0218567...	1	At the very edge of our solar system there is a small heavenly object that has found its way into the hearts of all: Right! It is Pluto! Pluto was discovered in 1930 and at least in 2006 it planet status was revoked. For 76 years it was a planet like any other in our solar system, but then it was degraded to a dwarf planet. Pluto has always been a bit strange becuase it is even smaller than our moon, and no one had the courage to throw it out until in 2005 Eris was discovered. Eris is located behind Pluto and is about the same size. So you would have had to record it as the tenth planet in the solar system. That was the moment when the international astronomical union decided that it no longer has any lust for all these small planets. But what should Pluto and Eris be if they are no longer planets? They had created the new term dwarf planet especially for them. Since then Pluto has won many fans and supporters and a lot of people are demanding that Pluto be awarded to the status planet again. But in the end everything is not so bad, because since then three other dwarf planets have been discovered. With Eris there are now a total of five dwarf planets, so Pluto is now in a pretty good company. Pluto also has a small moon called Charon. The diameter of Charon is only about half as small as that of Pluto. Thus Charon is unusually large for a moon of a planet. To the comparison: the diameter of our moon is four times as small as that of our earth. Pluto and Charon could also be called double planets. On the surface of Charon there is a dark region which the scientists called Mordor because it looks like the dark land of Sauron in Lord of the Rings. Pluto itself was named after the Roman god of the underworld. The name was proposed by the then eleven-year-old Venetia Katharine Douglas Burney and received broad approval because all other planets are also named after Roman gods. The roman god Pluto is probably better known by his greek name Hades, the god of the underworld. Pluto was discovered by a 24 year old young man. But until then the astronomers believed that there had to be a so-called transneptunian object, a planet behind Neptune. But nobody was able to locate this planet. Then in 1930 the 24-year-old Clyde Tombaugh, who worked in an observatory in Arizona, looked through the telescope and discovered the present dwarf planet. Clyde Tombaugh was already a planet explorer at the age of 24. By the way, Clyde Tombaugh's home state Illinois has decided by law that Pluto will continue to be recognized as a normal planet there. Cool action! Pluto needs 247.94 earthyears for one orbit around the sun. Since Pluto's orbit around the sun is very eccentric, its distance varies from 29 to 49 astronomical units. Pluto also rotates once around its own axis in 6.387 earthdays. Pluto's diameter is 2374 km, which makes it smaller than the seven largest moons in our solar system. Besides Charon, Pluto actually has four more very small moons, but it is assumed that they are to collapse on one of the two objects in the future due to the gravitational field between Pluto and Charon or be catapulted away, they are not often mentioned. Mickey Mouse's dog was named after Pluto and not vice versa, as many always think. Pluto was discovered in 1930 and in the same year Disney invented the Mickey Mouse dog. In honor of the newly discovered planet, Mickey Mouse's dog was unceremoniously called Pluto. If you take a closer look at Pluto's surface, you'll find an amazing similarity between the two. Posted using Partiko Android	809	ENGLISH	1
For students in regular and well-to-do metropolitan schools, technology is a handy assistant to their learning, and a source of casual entertainment at home. However, according to what one leading academic on this subject has observed, technology is seen by disadvantaged children and their families as “a golden ticket out of poverty”. Dr Joanne Orlando, a senior lecturer in early childhood and education at Western Sydney University, is currently undertaking two major investigations – one into children’s home uses of technology and the other into the relationship between vulnerable children’s uses of technology and their well-being. Last year, Dr Orlando worked with Save the Children – an international non-governmental organisation that supports disadvantaged children – to evaluate a technology program they had integrated into a low-SES school community in Claymore, NSW. The idea behind the program called ‘Our Mobile Youth Van (M.Y.van), was to engage disadvantaged children in a variety of locations with innovative educational sessions and state of the art equipment. “We found that many of these kids had access to technology at home, and interestingly, their parents saw technology as their aspirational path out of poverty,” Dr Orlando told The Educator. “However, what I found really interesting from doing this was that disadvantaged students reported that when doing group work, they would often be marginalized due to their lower literacy levels.” Dr Orlando said these children, who would consequently lose confidence, were “pushed to the side” while more confident kids would take the reins in the collaborative settings. “I heard these stories again and again from children in primary and high school, and this was something I’d never thought of before, and it provided some insights into how this issue could be resolved,” she said. “When these less confident children were using technology in after-school care and surrounded by children like themselves, that’s when they had the opportunity to really learn and develop their skills.” Dr Orlando said principals must recognise that technology is just as important in younger year levels as it is in senior ones. “I find there is a tendency for just the older children to use technology, and for the better resources to go to these children.” Dr Orlando said that from what she has observed over the years, schools seem to be providing less technology-related opportunities and resources for younger children, who are more often than not, entirely capable of leveraging technology to improve their learning. “There is also a limited understanding of what a six-year-old can do on a laptop or iPad, so I think principals should develop the technological expertise of their teachers in younger year levels and feel confident that younger children can use technology effectively,” she said.	<urn:uuid:dec94b99-0953-4ee7-8e07-bf8a7fe69d87>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theeducatoronline.com/k12/technology/devices/can-technology-help-disadvantaged-students/249684	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00190.warc.gz	en	0.983394	576	3.375	3	[ -0.14142951369285583, 0.3080188035964966, 0.24707157909870148, -0.5807446241378784, -0.08416426926851273, -0.004708535969257355, -0.22161856293678284, 0.5037405490875244, -0.2553672194480896, -0.026625774800777435, 0.07711327075958252, 0.4901348054409027, -0.012704986147582531, 0.424711585...	7	For students in regular and well-to-do metropolitan schools, technology is a handy assistant to their learning, and a source of casual entertainment at home. However, according to what one leading academic on this subject has observed, technology is seen by disadvantaged children and their families as “a golden ticket out of poverty”. Dr Joanne Orlando, a senior lecturer in early childhood and education at Western Sydney University, is currently undertaking two major investigations – one into children’s home uses of technology and the other into the relationship between vulnerable children’s uses of technology and their well-being. Last year, Dr Orlando worked with Save the Children – an international non-governmental organisation that supports disadvantaged children – to evaluate a technology program they had integrated into a low-SES school community in Claymore, NSW. The idea behind the program called ‘Our Mobile Youth Van (M.Y.van), was to engage disadvantaged children in a variety of locations with innovative educational sessions and state of the art equipment. “We found that many of these kids had access to technology at home, and interestingly, their parents saw technology as their aspirational path out of poverty,” Dr Orlando told The Educator. “However, what I found really interesting from doing this was that disadvantaged students reported that when doing group work, they would often be marginalized due to their lower literacy levels.” Dr Orlando said these children, who would consequently lose confidence, were “pushed to the side” while more confident kids would take the reins in the collaborative settings. “I heard these stories again and again from children in primary and high school, and this was something I’d never thought of before, and it provided some insights into how this issue could be resolved,” she said. “When these less confident children were using technology in after-school care and surrounded by children like themselves, that’s when they had the opportunity to really learn and develop their skills.” Dr Orlando said principals must recognise that technology is just as important in younger year levels as it is in senior ones. “I find there is a tendency for just the older children to use technology, and for the better resources to go to these children.” Dr Orlando said that from what she has observed over the years, schools seem to be providing less technology-related opportunities and resources for younger children, who are more often than not, entirely capable of leveraging technology to improve their learning. “There is also a limited understanding of what a six-year-old can do on a laptop or iPad, so I think principals should develop the technological expertise of their teachers in younger year levels and feel confident that younger children can use technology effectively,” she said.	519	ENGLISH	1
Biblical manuscripts, with some exceptions that are minor as verses written on amulets and pots, are written on a single of three materials: Papyrus, Parchment, and Paper. Each had advantages and disadvantages. Parchment (treated animal skins) ended up being probably the most durable, but in addition the highest priced, and it is hard to get more and more sheets associated with size that is same color. Papyrus had been less costly, but wore away more quickly and, as it is damaged by moist, few copies survive towards the day that is present except from Egypt (as well as those usually defectively damaged). Paper failed to be available until fairly recently, and although it had been cheaper than parchment once paper mills were founded, the mills had high overhead expenses, so they really had been reasonably quite few; paper had been certainly not as cheap within the belated manuscript age as today (whenever paper is manufactured out of lumber pulp instead of rags). The following parts discuss the many forms of ancient writing materials and exactly how these were ready. The first fairly complete description of just exactly exactly how papyrus was prepared arises from Pliny’s Natural History (xiii.11f.): “Papyrus the writing material is manufactured out of the papyrus plant by div > This statement has its parts that are questionable e.g. there’s absolutely no proof that water through the Nile as such can be utilized as a glue, though it’s possible that some kind of glue could possibly be produced from some kind of soil discovered because of the Nile. Leer más	<urn:uuid:1deda05d-dbb9-49f3-abe5-e7115e9936aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://intertank.com.co/category/medical-persuasive-essay-topics-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00319.warc.gz	en	0.988194	329	4.03125	4	[ -0.5032018423080444, 0.2986859977245331, 0.3061276078224182, 0.13142147660255432, -0.22463318705558777, -0.3364051282405853, -0.444261372089386, 0.24717466533184052, -0.1140526756644249, 0.4369678795337677, -0.26384180784225464, -0.06988399475812912, 0.11782517284154892, 0.0531784929335117...	1	Biblical manuscripts, with some exceptions that are minor as verses written on amulets and pots, are written on a single of three materials: Papyrus, Parchment, and Paper. Each had advantages and disadvantages. Parchment (treated animal skins) ended up being probably the most durable, but in addition the highest priced, and it is hard to get more and more sheets associated with size that is same color. Papyrus had been less costly, but wore away more quickly and, as it is damaged by moist, few copies survive towards the day that is present except from Egypt (as well as those usually defectively damaged). Paper failed to be available until fairly recently, and although it had been cheaper than parchment once paper mills were founded, the mills had high overhead expenses, so they really had been reasonably quite few; paper had been certainly not as cheap within the belated manuscript age as today (whenever paper is manufactured out of lumber pulp instead of rags). The following parts discuss the many forms of ancient writing materials and exactly how these were ready. The first fairly complete description of just exactly exactly how papyrus was prepared arises from Pliny’s Natural History (xiii.11f.): “Papyrus the writing material is manufactured out of the papyrus plant by div > This statement has its parts that are questionable e.g. there’s absolutely no proof that water through the Nile as such can be utilized as a glue, though it’s possible that some kind of glue could possibly be produced from some kind of soil discovered because of the Nile. Leer más	321	ENGLISH	1
Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeare's most popular plays during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers. Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. Its plot is based on an Italian tale, translated into verse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562 and retold in prose in Palace of Pleasure by William Painter in 1567. Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both but, to expand the plot, developed supporting characters, particularly Mercutio and Paris. Believed to have been written between 1591 and 1595, the play was first published in a quarto version in 1597. This text was of poor quality, and later editions corrected it, bringing it more in line with Shakespeare's original. Shakespeare's use of his poetic dramatic structure, especially effects such as switching between comedy and tragedy to heighten tension, his expansion of minor characters, and his use of sub-plots to embellish the story, has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill. The play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters, sometimes changing the form as the character develops. Romeo, for example, grows more adept at the sonnet over the course of the play. About the Author Arguably the greatest English-language playwright, William Shakespeare was a seventeenth-century writer and dramatist, and is known as the Bard of Avon. Under the patronage of Queen Elizabeth I, he penned more than 30 plays, 154 sonnets, and numerous narrative poems and short verses. Equally accomplished in histories, tragedies, comedy, and romance, Shakespeare s most famous works include Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, The Taming of the Shrew, and As You Like It. Like many of his contemporaries, including Christopher Marlowe, Shakespeare began his career on the stage, eventually rising to become part-owner of Lord Chamberlain s Men, a popular dramatic company of his day, and of the storied Globe Theatre in London. Extremely popular in his lifetime, Shakespeare s works continue to resonate more than three hundred years after his death. His plays are performed more often than any other playwright s, have been translated into every major language in the world, and are studied widely by scholars and students.	<urn:uuid:74d02bf2-296c-4b87-9db3-a87d034e9ad4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.left-bank.com/book/9781545539125	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00387.warc.gz	en	0.982742	523	3.5625	4	[ -0.023308705538511276, -0.31804919242858887, 0.7572733163833618, -0.04723775014281273, -0.7592031955718994, 0.09262897819280624, 0.07676905393600464, 0.26274365186691284, 0.08171355724334717, -0.14998206496238708, 0.040251053869724274, -0.13962428271770477, 0.13813340663909912, 0.370831608...	1	Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeare's most popular plays during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers. Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. Its plot is based on an Italian tale, translated into verse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562 and retold in prose in Palace of Pleasure by William Painter in 1567. Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both but, to expand the plot, developed supporting characters, particularly Mercutio and Paris. Believed to have been written between 1591 and 1595, the play was first published in a quarto version in 1597. This text was of poor quality, and later editions corrected it, bringing it more in line with Shakespeare's original. Shakespeare's use of his poetic dramatic structure, especially effects such as switching between comedy and tragedy to heighten tension, his expansion of minor characters, and his use of sub-plots to embellish the story, has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill. The play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters, sometimes changing the form as the character develops. Romeo, for example, grows more adept at the sonnet over the course of the play. About the Author Arguably the greatest English-language playwright, William Shakespeare was a seventeenth-century writer and dramatist, and is known as the Bard of Avon. Under the patronage of Queen Elizabeth I, he penned more than 30 plays, 154 sonnets, and numerous narrative poems and short verses. Equally accomplished in histories, tragedies, comedy, and romance, Shakespeare s most famous works include Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, The Taming of the Shrew, and As You Like It. Like many of his contemporaries, including Christopher Marlowe, Shakespeare began his career on the stage, eventually rising to become part-owner of Lord Chamberlain s Men, a popular dramatic company of his day, and of the storied Globe Theatre in London. Extremely popular in his lifetime, Shakespeare s works continue to resonate more than three hundred years after his death. His plays are performed more often than any other playwright s, have been translated into every major language in the world, and are studied widely by scholars and students.	537	ENGLISH	1
Cromwell's period of personal rule as Protector, which began on 16 December, merely legalised his position as the single most important leader in post-monarchical England. It may be that Cromwell sought to make his authority constitutional, as the Instrument of Government allowed for, and it may also be that his objectives fell far short of dictatorship. However, his power base was narrow, being opposed not only by royalists at home and in exile, but also by the large Presbyterian faction, disillusioned republicans, and radicals within the army command. In a sense, the rule of the Major Generals was a response to the royalist risings of 1655, but it was also the result of a need to reorganise the army which, serving in England, Scotland and Ireland, was a considerable drain on the limited financial resources of the government. The Major Generals, war-hardened professional soldiers, proved themselves efficient in carrying through Cromwell's programme, but their involvement in local government alienated the country at large, and the long-term effects of their activities were felt long after the Restoration. In the summer of 1655 the decision was taken and implemented to reduce the costs of the armed forces— by cutting both their numbers and their pay, but the standing army was thenceforth to be assisted by a supplementary militia about 6,500 strong organised on a regional basis, similar to the situation which had prevailed in the West Country under John Disbrowe. According to the instructions issued on 22 August 1655, the Major Generals were not only to train and lead the militia troops under them, but were also to be responsible for controlling the activities of royalist suspects and other malcontents, as well as generally assisting the civil authorities, the JPs and their subordinates, in routine matters. A decimation tax was also to be levied on royalists worth £100 a year or upwards to finance the militia. Cromwell's centralisation policy proved far more effective than that attributed to Charles I and his ministers had ever done, and the association of some Major Generals with repressive puritan morality drives and excessive vigour in organising the JPs further undermined the Protectorate's support in the country. At first there were ten regions, later eleven, divided between William Goffe, Thomas Kelsey, John Disbrowe, Charles Fleetwood, John Barkstead, Edward Whalley, Philip Skippon, William Butler, James Berry, Charles Worsley and John Lambert. Since, however, Fleetwood and Lambert were members of Cromwell's Council, they were able to appoint deputies in their regions, the North going to Charles Howard and Robert Lilburn, and Fleetwood's area divided between Hezekiah Haynes and Tobias Bridge, although Bridge was shortly replaced by William Packer, who also acted in Buckinghamshire in consort with George Fleetwood. Early in 1656 South Wales was added to the vast territory, including North Wales, administered by James Berry, and the latter was also empowered to employ deputies, Rowland Dawkins and John Nicholas. Although they might interfere in local government, and proved competent at repressing dissident political activity, the Major Generals' powers were chiefly felt in urban centres, and they had little impact on the influence of country gentry long established in their shires. The election campaign of the summer of 1656 was marked by the Major Generals' efforts to enforce their own choices on voters for the proposed Parliament, and resistance from former political associates of Cromwell who equated the generals with the court of a new, personal, ruler. The fact that the Council of State had to exclude many elected MPs indicated the Major Generals' failure. At the year's end, efforts in Parliament to have the decimation tax extended failed, and the generals came under severe criticism in January 1657. The system of which they were the instruments was abandoned in that year. Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:29b4fcbd-63ef-4b7f-a68b-403031a012a5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.minecreek.info/royalist-army/map-54-the-rule-of-the-major-generals.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00381.warc.gz	en	0.983612	797	3.546875	4	[ -0.1645106077194214, 0.1751672327518463, 0.5682092905044556, -0.40232235193252563, -0.2602218985557556, -0.19068366289138794, 0.2273743450641632, -0.18438977003097534, -0.13096870481967926, 0.2034158855676651, -0.2403794229030609, -0.2624523639678955, 0.1529456377029419, 0.5080219507217407...	2	Cromwell's period of personal rule as Protector, which began on 16 December, merely legalised his position as the single most important leader in post-monarchical England. It may be that Cromwell sought to make his authority constitutional, as the Instrument of Government allowed for, and it may also be that his objectives fell far short of dictatorship. However, his power base was narrow, being opposed not only by royalists at home and in exile, but also by the large Presbyterian faction, disillusioned republicans, and radicals within the army command. In a sense, the rule of the Major Generals was a response to the royalist risings of 1655, but it was also the result of a need to reorganise the army which, serving in England, Scotland and Ireland, was a considerable drain on the limited financial resources of the government. The Major Generals, war-hardened professional soldiers, proved themselves efficient in carrying through Cromwell's programme, but their involvement in local government alienated the country at large, and the long-term effects of their activities were felt long after the Restoration. In the summer of 1655 the decision was taken and implemented to reduce the costs of the armed forces— by cutting both their numbers and their pay, but the standing army was thenceforth to be assisted by a supplementary militia about 6,500 strong organised on a regional basis, similar to the situation which had prevailed in the West Country under John Disbrowe. According to the instructions issued on 22 August 1655, the Major Generals were not only to train and lead the militia troops under them, but were also to be responsible for controlling the activities of royalist suspects and other malcontents, as well as generally assisting the civil authorities, the JPs and their subordinates, in routine matters. A decimation tax was also to be levied on royalists worth £100 a year or upwards to finance the militia. Cromwell's centralisation policy proved far more effective than that attributed to Charles I and his ministers had ever done, and the association of some Major Generals with repressive puritan morality drives and excessive vigour in organising the JPs further undermined the Protectorate's support in the country. At first there were ten regions, later eleven, divided between William Goffe, Thomas Kelsey, John Disbrowe, Charles Fleetwood, John Barkstead, Edward Whalley, Philip Skippon, William Butler, James Berry, Charles Worsley and John Lambert. Since, however, Fleetwood and Lambert were members of Cromwell's Council, they were able to appoint deputies in their regions, the North going to Charles Howard and Robert Lilburn, and Fleetwood's area divided between Hezekiah Haynes and Tobias Bridge, although Bridge was shortly replaced by William Packer, who also acted in Buckinghamshire in consort with George Fleetwood. Early in 1656 South Wales was added to the vast territory, including North Wales, administered by James Berry, and the latter was also empowered to employ deputies, Rowland Dawkins and John Nicholas. Although they might interfere in local government, and proved competent at repressing dissident political activity, the Major Generals' powers were chiefly felt in urban centres, and they had little impact on the influence of country gentry long established in their shires. The election campaign of the summer of 1656 was marked by the Major Generals' efforts to enforce their own choices on voters for the proposed Parliament, and resistance from former political associates of Cromwell who equated the generals with the court of a new, personal, ruler. The fact that the Council of State had to exclude many elected MPs indicated the Major Generals' failure. At the year's end, efforts in Parliament to have the decimation tax extended failed, and the generals came under severe criticism in January 1657. The system of which they were the instruments was abandoned in that year. Was this article helpful?	825	ENGLISH	1
shoe, foot covering, usually of leather, consisting of a sole and a portion above the sole called an upper. In prehistoric times skins or hides may have been tied around the foot for protection and warmth; studies of the foot bones of ancient humans suggest that some form of sturdy footwear was worn by human beings beginning between 40,000 and 26,000 years ago. The shoes found with the 5,300-year-old Ice Manin the Tyrolean Alps were made of skins and braided-bark netting and stuffed with straw and moss; an even older, leather shoe, some 5,500 years old, was found in 2008 in an Armenian cave. The sandal, a very early form of the shoe, was worn in Egypt, Greece, and Rome; a more ancient example (c.8000 BC), woven from plant materials, was found in an Oregon cave. An early form of the boot was also known in Greece and Rome. The characteristic shoe of the Middle Ages was the soft, clinging moccasin, which extended to the ankle. It was highly decorated and was of velvet, cloth of gold, and, increasingly, of leather. By the 13th cent. the toe had become greatly elongated until a century later the point had to be held aloft by a chain attached to the knee. After 1377 wooden clogs, called poulaines or pattens, were introduced. A forerunner of the heeled shoe, they were fastened under the shoe (if not a part of the shoe itself) to protect it from mud or water. The chopine, an ornamental shoe with a very high sole, went to fantastic heights. After 1500, styles reversed themselves, and the width of the toe was exaggerated; two colors and slashing were often employed to complement the costume. The high heel came into fashion with Elizabeth's reign in the late 16th cent. and was worn by both men and women; the shoe was colorfully decorated with rosettes, lace, and embroidery. France introduced (c.1600) the high-top boot which developed into the cavalier's boot with its wide, floppy top. The late 17th cent. saw the emergence of the square toe, high tongue, and buckles. Heels were lowered, becoming the French curved heel, until they disappeared (c.1780). With the new Empire styles, flat soft shoes with ribbon ties became the style for women, and military boots became the vogue for men. Guilds of shoemakers or cobelers existed in the Middle Ages; in the American colonies, the earliest known shoemaker was Thomas Beard, who arrived in Salem, Mass., in 1629. Early shoemakers worked at home, in small shops, or as itinerant workers who went to homes to make up the annual supply. Hand processes were used until c.1833; thereafter the rapid invention and development of machinery revolutionized the industry; today over 180 different kinds of machines are employed. As machinery became more specialized and the use of leather became primary, shoe styles and measurements became more refined and exact. From the high button shoe of the late 19th cent. to the low-cut pump of modern times (popular after 1920), the range of materials has increased, and styles are designed for every purpose and need. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Clothing, Jewelry, and Personal Adornment	<urn:uuid:649ed771-3e36-4683-9ae4-65b57bf3e6d3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/life/fashion/clothing-jewelry/shoe	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00413.warc.gz	en	0.982384	718	3.46875	3	[ -0.5872128009796143, 0.47477608919143677, 0.49648720026016235, 0.11258816719055176, -0.1570427417755127, -0.13966768980026245, -0.12742607295513153, 0.33821409940719604, -0.327682763338089, -0.16599246859550476, -0.039701275527477264, -0.41820114850997925, 0.13365820050239563, 0.2615157663...	4	shoe, foot covering, usually of leather, consisting of a sole and a portion above the sole called an upper. In prehistoric times skins or hides may have been tied around the foot for protection and warmth; studies of the foot bones of ancient humans suggest that some form of sturdy footwear was worn by human beings beginning between 40,000 and 26,000 years ago. The shoes found with the 5,300-year-old Ice Manin the Tyrolean Alps were made of skins and braided-bark netting and stuffed with straw and moss; an even older, leather shoe, some 5,500 years old, was found in 2008 in an Armenian cave. The sandal, a very early form of the shoe, was worn in Egypt, Greece, and Rome; a more ancient example (c.8000 BC), woven from plant materials, was found in an Oregon cave. An early form of the boot was also known in Greece and Rome. The characteristic shoe of the Middle Ages was the soft, clinging moccasin, which extended to the ankle. It was highly decorated and was of velvet, cloth of gold, and, increasingly, of leather. By the 13th cent. the toe had become greatly elongated until a century later the point had to be held aloft by a chain attached to the knee. After 1377 wooden clogs, called poulaines or pattens, were introduced. A forerunner of the heeled shoe, they were fastened under the shoe (if not a part of the shoe itself) to protect it from mud or water. The chopine, an ornamental shoe with a very high sole, went to fantastic heights. After 1500, styles reversed themselves, and the width of the toe was exaggerated; two colors and slashing were often employed to complement the costume. The high heel came into fashion with Elizabeth's reign in the late 16th cent. and was worn by both men and women; the shoe was colorfully decorated with rosettes, lace, and embroidery. France introduced (c.1600) the high-top boot which developed into the cavalier's boot with its wide, floppy top. The late 17th cent. saw the emergence of the square toe, high tongue, and buckles. Heels were lowered, becoming the French curved heel, until they disappeared (c.1780). With the new Empire styles, flat soft shoes with ribbon ties became the style for women, and military boots became the vogue for men. Guilds of shoemakers or cobelers existed in the Middle Ages; in the American colonies, the earliest known shoemaker was Thomas Beard, who arrived in Salem, Mass., in 1629. Early shoemakers worked at home, in small shops, or as itinerant workers who went to homes to make up the annual supply. Hand processes were used until c.1833; thereafter the rapid invention and development of machinery revolutionized the industry; today over 180 different kinds of machines are employed. As machinery became more specialized and the use of leather became primary, shoe styles and measurements became more refined and exact. From the high button shoe of the late 19th cent. to the low-cut pump of modern times (popular after 1920), the range of materials has increased, and styles are designed for every purpose and need. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Clothing, Jewelry, and Personal Adornment	766	ENGLISH	1
What are some political and social changes that the Joads go through in The Grapes of Wrath? The Joads went through a horrendous experience in “The Grapes of Wrath,” enduring hunger, displacement, death, and more. This broke them spiritually and changed them socially and politically. As the family unit that had been so important to them at the beginning of the novel begins to break up so they can find work in migrant worker camps, they start to lose their cohesive identity and ability to unite as a family. This disunity, as well as physical displacement from their homeland, has made them lose their sense of identity, as well as their familial bond. Those were some of the strongest ties they had socially. This foreshadows the number of families who would be displaced during this time period and the radical change in America as the unity became harder and harder to maintain. Politically, they realized that their plight was not just ecological in nature, but also stemmed from the fact that there were no jobs or housing available. This made... (The entire section contains 2 answers and 519 words.) check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:f624bf87-e355-4912-80cc-9b33cb33ced9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-were-some-political-social-changes-that-joads-351135	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00334.warc.gz	en	0.988649	239	3.390625	3	[ 0.19597263634204865, 0.2284655123949051, 0.39145633578300476, -0.4341007173061371, 0.4340452253818512, 0.08938877284526825, -0.10388677567243576, 0.21076861023902893, -0.19718360900878906, 0.027442526072263718, 0.48617038130760193, -0.07579784095287323, 0.0030770241282880306, 0.04833583906...	1	What are some political and social changes that the Joads go through in The Grapes of Wrath? The Joads went through a horrendous experience in “The Grapes of Wrath,” enduring hunger, displacement, death, and more. This broke them spiritually and changed them socially and politically. As the family unit that had been so important to them at the beginning of the novel begins to break up so they can find work in migrant worker camps, they start to lose their cohesive identity and ability to unite as a family. This disunity, as well as physical displacement from their homeland, has made them lose their sense of identity, as well as their familial bond. Those were some of the strongest ties they had socially. This foreshadows the number of families who would be displaced during this time period and the radical change in America as the unity became harder and harder to maintain. Politically, they realized that their plight was not just ecological in nature, but also stemmed from the fact that there were no jobs or housing available. This made... (The entire section contains 2 answers and 519 words.) check Approved by eNotes Editorial	231	ENGLISH	1
Indian Agencies were established by the US government as part of the formal relationship with Native American groups as it acquired new lands from them. Indian Agents were individuals responsible for cultivating relationships with the Native Americans and extending government policies. As treaties and agreements were negotiated and reservations were established, these relationships became increasingly complex and controversial. Early Territorial Period Initial management of Indian affairs in what would become Colorado was a result of acquisition of Mexican territory during the Mexican-American War (1846–48). In 1846 General Stephen Watts Kearney occupied New Mexico, and government interaction with Native Americans was largely to ensure peaceful relations and regulate trade. That year, Kearney appointed Charles Bent as civilian governor and superintendent of Indian affairs for the newly acquired land. Bent’s experience with numerous Native American groups through his affiliation with Bent’s Fort and with Fort St. Vrain and through his store in Taos made him a natural choice, but he spent only a few months at the post before he was killed during the Taos Revolt in January 1847. Subsequent governors followed Bent in the role as Superintendent of Indian Affairs in New Mexico, as was the case with later territorial governors. The Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory were formally organized in 1850. The Utah Territory extended eastward over the entire western third of Colorado to the Continental Divide, and the New Mexico Territory included the southern portion of Colorado east of the mountains. The Kansas and Nebraska territories were established in 1854, with the Kansas Territory covering the central portion of Colorado east of the mountains and Nebraska Territory covering northern Colorado east of the mountains. Agents were appointed to assist the territorial governors or superintendents of Indian Affairs on a somewhat regional basis that conformed to areas occupied by one or more Native American groups. The agents were posted to communities or forts that were in relatively close proximity to the Native American groups they were to serve. In these early years, agents often had some direct contact with the Native Americans in their jurisdiction, with most of their time spent attempting to ascertain which groups were present, their numbers, their modes of life and habits, and their ranges, as well as controlling illicit trade by whites or Hispanics. In the Utah Territory, the first agent seems to have been John Wilson, who was stationed at Fort Bridger beginning in August 1849. His wide area covered land occupied mainly by Utes, Shoshones, and Paiutes. J. S. Calhoun was the first agent in New Mexico; he was posted at Santa Fe and negotiated the Treaty of 1849 with the Utes at Abiquiu. His jurisdiction covered lands occupied or entered by Apache, Comanche, Navajo, Ute, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Kiowa, and various Puebloan groups. In Kansas, former trapper Thomas Fitzpatrick was assigned the area of the upper Arkansas and Platte Rivers by 1847 and was mostly concerned with the safety of travelers along the Santa Fé Trail and South Platte River. In an effort to protect emigrants traveling through the region on their way to California and Oregon, the US government signed a peace treaty, known as the Treaty of Fort Laramie, with Plains Indian groups in 1851 near Fort Laramie. Part of the treaty assigned territories for the various Plains Indian groups. Among these, the Arapaho and Cheyenne were jointly assigned to the area east of the Rockies between the North Platte and Arkansas Rivers. Annuity goods were distributed to them at Bent’s Fort, and the agent for the Upper Arkansas Agency was stationed there beginning in 1858. Annuity goods were useful items—such as clothing, tools, cookware, decorative items, hunting and fishing supplies, and canvases for tipis—that were distributed to Indians as stipulated by a signed treaty. In 1855 two treaties were negotiated with two Ute bands in the New Mexico Territory. With the assistance of Lorenzo Labadi, who served as the agent for both bands at Abiquiu, Territorial Governor David Merriwether finalized treaties with the Capote Utes on August 8, 1855, and with the Mouache Utes on September 11. Reservations were proposed for the Capote along the Animas River and for the Mouache along the Rio Grande, both extending into present-day Colorado. Though Congress failed to ratify either treaty, the treaties were the first in a series that followed national policy of attempting to have Native American groups cede a large portion of their territories for small reservations in return for money, goods, and services. Fort Wise/Fort Lyon Agency On February 15, 1861, within two weeks of the establishment of the Colorado Territory the Cheyenne and Arapaho signed the Fort Wise Treaty of 1861, which was deemed necessary because of increased conflict between the two tribes and the influx of miners and settlers to the area after the discovery of gold along the Front Range in 1858. Discussions with the Native Americans had been initiated in 1860. The Cheyenne and Arapaho agreed to cede most of their traditional lands for a smaller reservation that took up a considerable amount of southeastern Colorado and was bound on the north by Sand Creek and on the south by the boundary between the New Mexico and Colorado Territories. The western portion of the reservation was to be occupied by the Arapaho and the eastern portion by the Cheyenne. With the treaty and establishment of the Colorado Territory, A. G. Boone was made the agent at Fort Wise (soon renamed Fort Lyon), to be succeeded by Samuel G. Colley in 1862. The Kiowa and Comanche residing in southern Colorado were also attached to the agency at Fort Lyon, though a treaty had not been made with them. The Cheyenne and Arapaho never really occupied the reservation, mostly because the buffalo that they depended on were no longer present and only minimal improvements had been made for the agency. The Sand Creek Massacre, which took place on the reservation in 1864, resulted in widespread warfare. The Treaty of 1865 resulted in removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho from Colorado to reservation lands in Kansas and Oklahoma, and the Upper Arkansas Agency was terminated. Middle Park and Conejos Agencies With the establishment of Colorado Territory on February 10, 1861, the Colorado territorial governor became the local superintendent of Indian affairs. Two agencies were established in Colorado. The Conejos Agency had already been established in 1860 in the San Luis Valley to administer to the Tabeguache Utes, who had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Taos Agency under Kit Carson as early as 1856. Prior to its official establishment, the Conejos ranch of Lafayette Head had been where annuity goods for the Tabeguache and Mouache Utes were distributed beginning in 1858. Head became the first Indian agent at the Conejos Agency. The Middle Park Agency was established in 1862 for the Grand River, Uinta, and Yampa Utes. Simeon Whiteley was appointed the first Indian agent for the Middle Park Agency in 1862. The agency had no real headquarters, though its business was carried out at Hot Sulphur Springs, Breckenridge, Empire, and Denver. Responsibilities for Indians under Treaties The Treaty of 1868 resulted in Colorado’s Utes ceding much of their traditional homeland, including the San Luis Valley and the most heavily mined areas in the Colorado Rockies. The eastern boundary was at 107 degrees latitude, which was mostly west of the Continental Divide. The treaty stipulated that two new agencies would be established on the reservation. The Conejos Agency was replaced by the Los Pinos Agency west of Cochetopa Pass, and the Middle Park Agency was replaced by the White River Agency along the White River in northwestern Colorado; both were established in 1869. In order to satisfy treaty stipulations, the agent became the manager of several employees—typically a farmer, blacksmith, and schoolteacher, but often including cattle herders and sawmill operators. A full complement of buildings was constructed, including residences, shops, barns, school houses, and warehouses. Employees were to teach the Native Americans their respective skills. The agent ordered and distributed annuity goods and rations, made sure the agency was well supplied; hired, fired, and managed employees; and completed arduous financial accounting tasks. In addition, he was to enforce ever-changing government policies and respond to crises between Native Americans and whites. Despite the best intentions of most of agents, they were subject to accusations of malfeasance by Native Americans as well as encroaching whites, and to removal for political reasons. Federal Policy and Selection of Agents Under President Ulysses S. Grant, Christian reformers were included in developing and implementing Native American policy. This resulted in the Board of Indian Commissioners being established in 1869 and Christian evangelism being incorporated into Native American policy. With these changes, tribal traditions were discouraged; the treaty system was revamped so that it was no longer a nation-to-nation agreement; monetary annuities were discouraged in favor of goods, agency improvements, and services; and Native Americans were considered wards of the government for their protection. With proper oversight, it was thought that Native Americans could be educated in industry, civilization, and Christianity so they could eventually attain US citizenship and become self-supporting. Native Americans were initially to be placed on small reservations, with the goal being that when ready, they would be granted exclusive ownership of land in parcels of 160 acres or less. This was designed to teach them the values of land ownership and enable them to earn a living from their labor on their land. All of these goals were made without Native American input, ran contrary to Native American customs, and were demoralizing. Under the new policy, candidates for agents were to be put forward by Christian religious groups. Inadequate candidates were immediately available. For example, the initial agents for the Los Pinos and White River agencies were former military officers who were available as a result of the reduction of military force following the Civil War. Congress rejected this approach of appointing former military officers as public servants to fill civil positions in July 1870, so the American Unitarian Union began nominating candidates as agents for the two Indian Agencies in Colorado. White River Agency At the Middle Park Agency at White River, Daniel C. Oakes, successor to Simeon Whiteley, selected the agency location and began construction of the buildings. Lieutenant W. W. Parry, who was completely unprepared for the job, replaced Oakes in June 1869. Governor Edward M. McCook appointed several ineffective military officers as agents thereafter. More successful were agents John S. Littlefield and Edward H. Danforth, both nominated by the Unitarians and serving as agents from 1871 to 1878. Danforth was followed by Nathan C. Meeker. Meeker was not a Unitarian but was highly religious and brought utopian ideals from the agricultural colony of Greeley to the agency. After moving the agency to a new location a few miles downstream along the White River, Meeker’s rigidity and zealotry precipitated a Ute uprising, commonly known as the Meeker Incident, in late September 1879. Utes killed Meeker and ten others, including most of the agency’s employees, and the US troops sent to assist Meeker were defeated at the Battle of Milk Creek. The incident prompted the eventual removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado. Los Piños Agency Lieutenant Calvin T. Speer was the first agent for the Los Piños Agency, beginning in 1869. He selected the agency location and initiated construction of its buildings. Speer was replaced by Unitarian Jabez Nelson Trask, the first of three Unitarian agents between 1871 and 1876. Thereafter, the agency was served by a succession of agents unaffiliated with the Unitarian Church whose rapid, near-annual turnover provided no stable leadership until the Utes associated with the agency were removed from Colorado in late 1881. Denver Special Agency A large number of Utes who were to be attached to the White River Agency refused to move to the reservation and desired to continue hunting buffalo on the plains, spending summers in North and Middle Parks, and wintering near Denver. Although attached to the Middle Park Agency, these Utes had become accustomed to visiting the agent in Denver, where they acquired goods and services from the government. Rather than force the Utes onto the reservation on the west side of the Rockies, James B. Thompson, personal secretary and brother-in-law of Governor McCook, continued the practice of supplying the Indians in Denver in 1869. This practice was formalized through the establishment of the Denver Special Agency in 1870. It continued to serve the Utes through 1874, when they agreed to go to the reservation and be served by the White River Agency. After a brief reopening in 1875, the agency was permanently closed. The Meeker Incident was the catalyst for removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado. The bands associated with the White River Agency began moving to the Uintah Reservation in Utah in late summer 1881. The Tabeguache Utes attached to the Los Pinos Agency, under the leadership of Ouray negotiated an agreement shortly before his death, in 1880, that stipulated that they would be moved to a smaller reservation, likely at the confluence of the Grand and Gunnison Rivers in present-day Grand Junction. With this in mind, a survey of the proposed new reservation was completed that included several townships in what is known as the Ute Principal Meridian. If the land there was found unsuitable, then other lands could be considered. The Ute Commission, following the lead of member Otto Mears, found the land at the confluence of the Grand and Gunnison Rivers unsuitable for agricultural settlement, so decided that land at the confluence of the Green and White Rivers in Utah should be the new reservation. This land was annexed to the existing Uintah Reservation, and the reservation is now known as the Uintah and Ouray Reservation. Tabeguache Utes formerly attached to the Los Pinos Agency were forced to the new reservation in September 1881. Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Ute Reservations and Agencies A separate Southern Ute Agency was established for the Capote, Mouache, and Weeminuche Utes in early 1877, with Francis H. Weaver as the agent. The actual agency site selected that June was on the Los Pinos River, much to the consternation of the Utes, who expected it to be placed on the Navajo River. A post office at the agency was named Ignacio when it opened in 1882. When the town of Ignacio grew nearby, the post office was moved there in 1914. Native Americans attached to the agency were formerly served at agencies in Abiquiu and Cimarron, New Mexico. Ignacio, leader of the Southern Utes—as the three bands came to be known—had the foresight to distance his group from Ouray during the Brunot Agreement of 1873, when the San Juan Mountains were ceded to the US government. A strip of land fifteen miles wide and south of the territory ceded in the Brunot Agreement was recognized as the domain of the Southern Utes. The Southern Utes agreed to move to this reservation along the southern border of Colorado in 1880. Because they were recognized as separate from the Utes attached to the Los Pinos and White River agencies, they were allowed to remain in Colorado. Under the agreement, the reservation was to be allotted to individual tribal members with the remaining land sold for the benefit of the tribe. Ignacio objected to the plan and desired to retain contiguous land for the Weeminuche band. An agreement in 1895 resulted in the allotment of the eastern portion of the reservation, still known as the Southern Ute Reservation, with its agency at Ignacio. The 374 allotments designated to the Utes in the eastern portion of the reservation amounted to about 60,000 acres of land, leaving 636,000 acres open for entry to other settlers beginning in May 1899. The western portion was set aside as the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation for Native Americans who did not want to participate in the allotment program, with agency headquarters at Navajo Springs. Because of a lack of water, the agency at Navajo Springs was quickly abandoned and a new agency was constructed in about 1898 at Towaoc. Reconfiguration of Mesa Verde National Park in 1911 resulted in a land exchange that took 12,760 acres of the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation in exchange for 7,840 acres of land vacated from the original configuration of the park and 19,520 acres on the north side of Ute Mountain that extended to the south side of McElmo Canyon.	<urn:uuid:4733f67d-42e8-42c1-b685-6cb5e867e6c3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00097.warc.gz	en	0.981654	3,464	3.796875	4	[ -0.17935018241405487, 0.2196933627128601, 0.6272215247154236, -0.14661845564842224, -0.2632800340652466, -0.1425541639328003, 0.33142364025115967, -0.010378427803516388, -0.23741304874420166, -0.30925044417381287, 0.2888120710849762, 0.0010411900002509356, 0.18232190608978271, 0.3794350028...	1	Indian Agencies were established by the US government as part of the formal relationship with Native American groups as it acquired new lands from them. Indian Agents were individuals responsible for cultivating relationships with the Native Americans and extending government policies. As treaties and agreements were negotiated and reservations were established, these relationships became increasingly complex and controversial. Early Territorial Period Initial management of Indian affairs in what would become Colorado was a result of acquisition of Mexican territory during the Mexican-American War (1846–48). In 1846 General Stephen Watts Kearney occupied New Mexico, and government interaction with Native Americans was largely to ensure peaceful relations and regulate trade. That year, Kearney appointed Charles Bent as civilian governor and superintendent of Indian affairs for the newly acquired land. Bent’s experience with numerous Native American groups through his affiliation with Bent’s Fort and with Fort St. Vrain and through his store in Taos made him a natural choice, but he spent only a few months at the post before he was killed during the Taos Revolt in January 1847. Subsequent governors followed Bent in the role as Superintendent of Indian Affairs in New Mexico, as was the case with later territorial governors. The Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory were formally organized in 1850. The Utah Territory extended eastward over the entire western third of Colorado to the Continental Divide, and the New Mexico Territory included the southern portion of Colorado east of the mountains. The Kansas and Nebraska territories were established in 1854, with the Kansas Territory covering the central portion of Colorado east of the mountains and Nebraska Territory covering northern Colorado east of the mountains. Agents were appointed to assist the territorial governors or superintendents of Indian Affairs on a somewhat regional basis that conformed to areas occupied by one or more Native American groups. The agents were posted to communities or forts that were in relatively close proximity to the Native American groups they were to serve. In these early years, agents often had some direct contact with the Native Americans in their jurisdiction, with most of their time spent attempting to ascertain which groups were present, their numbers, their modes of life and habits, and their ranges, as well as controlling illicit trade by whites or Hispanics. In the Utah Territory, the first agent seems to have been John Wilson, who was stationed at Fort Bridger beginning in August 1849. His wide area covered land occupied mainly by Utes, Shoshones, and Paiutes. J. S. Calhoun was the first agent in New Mexico; he was posted at Santa Fe and negotiated the Treaty of 1849 with the Utes at Abiquiu. His jurisdiction covered lands occupied or entered by Apache, Comanche, Navajo, Ute, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Kiowa, and various Puebloan groups. In Kansas, former trapper Thomas Fitzpatrick was assigned the area of the upper Arkansas and Platte Rivers by 1847 and was mostly concerned with the safety of travelers along the Santa Fé Trail and South Platte River. In an effort to protect emigrants traveling through the region on their way to California and Oregon, the US government signed a peace treaty, known as the Treaty of Fort Laramie, with Plains Indian groups in 1851 near Fort Laramie. Part of the treaty assigned territories for the various Plains Indian groups. Among these, the Arapaho and Cheyenne were jointly assigned to the area east of the Rockies between the North Platte and Arkansas Rivers. Annuity goods were distributed to them at Bent’s Fort, and the agent for the Upper Arkansas Agency was stationed there beginning in 1858. Annuity goods were useful items—such as clothing, tools, cookware, decorative items, hunting and fishing supplies, and canvases for tipis—that were distributed to Indians as stipulated by a signed treaty. In 1855 two treaties were negotiated with two Ute bands in the New Mexico Territory. With the assistance of Lorenzo Labadi, who served as the agent for both bands at Abiquiu, Territorial Governor David Merriwether finalized treaties with the Capote Utes on August 8, 1855, and with the Mouache Utes on September 11. Reservations were proposed for the Capote along the Animas River and for the Mouache along the Rio Grande, both extending into present-day Colorado. Though Congress failed to ratify either treaty, the treaties were the first in a series that followed national policy of attempting to have Native American groups cede a large portion of their territories for small reservations in return for money, goods, and services. Fort Wise/Fort Lyon Agency On February 15, 1861, within two weeks of the establishment of the Colorado Territory the Cheyenne and Arapaho signed the Fort Wise Treaty of 1861, which was deemed necessary because of increased conflict between the two tribes and the influx of miners and settlers to the area after the discovery of gold along the Front Range in 1858. Discussions with the Native Americans had been initiated in 1860. The Cheyenne and Arapaho agreed to cede most of their traditional lands for a smaller reservation that took up a considerable amount of southeastern Colorado and was bound on the north by Sand Creek and on the south by the boundary between the New Mexico and Colorado Territories. The western portion of the reservation was to be occupied by the Arapaho and the eastern portion by the Cheyenne. With the treaty and establishment of the Colorado Territory, A. G. Boone was made the agent at Fort Wise (soon renamed Fort Lyon), to be succeeded by Samuel G. Colley in 1862. The Kiowa and Comanche residing in southern Colorado were also attached to the agency at Fort Lyon, though a treaty had not been made with them. The Cheyenne and Arapaho never really occupied the reservation, mostly because the buffalo that they depended on were no longer present and only minimal improvements had been made for the agency. The Sand Creek Massacre, which took place on the reservation in 1864, resulted in widespread warfare. The Treaty of 1865 resulted in removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho from Colorado to reservation lands in Kansas and Oklahoma, and the Upper Arkansas Agency was terminated. Middle Park and Conejos Agencies With the establishment of Colorado Territory on February 10, 1861, the Colorado territorial governor became the local superintendent of Indian affairs. Two agencies were established in Colorado. The Conejos Agency had already been established in 1860 in the San Luis Valley to administer to the Tabeguache Utes, who had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Taos Agency under Kit Carson as early as 1856. Prior to its official establishment, the Conejos ranch of Lafayette Head had been where annuity goods for the Tabeguache and Mouache Utes were distributed beginning in 1858. Head became the first Indian agent at the Conejos Agency. The Middle Park Agency was established in 1862 for the Grand River, Uinta, and Yampa Utes. Simeon Whiteley was appointed the first Indian agent for the Middle Park Agency in 1862. The agency had no real headquarters, though its business was carried out at Hot Sulphur Springs, Breckenridge, Empire, and Denver. Responsibilities for Indians under Treaties The Treaty of 1868 resulted in Colorado’s Utes ceding much of their traditional homeland, including the San Luis Valley and the most heavily mined areas in the Colorado Rockies. The eastern boundary was at 107 degrees latitude, which was mostly west of the Continental Divide. The treaty stipulated that two new agencies would be established on the reservation. The Conejos Agency was replaced by the Los Pinos Agency west of Cochetopa Pass, and the Middle Park Agency was replaced by the White River Agency along the White River in northwestern Colorado; both were established in 1869. In order to satisfy treaty stipulations, the agent became the manager of several employees—typically a farmer, blacksmith, and schoolteacher, but often including cattle herders and sawmill operators. A full complement of buildings was constructed, including residences, shops, barns, school houses, and warehouses. Employees were to teach the Native Americans their respective skills. The agent ordered and distributed annuity goods and rations, made sure the agency was well supplied; hired, fired, and managed employees; and completed arduous financial accounting tasks. In addition, he was to enforce ever-changing government policies and respond to crises between Native Americans and whites. Despite the best intentions of most of agents, they were subject to accusations of malfeasance by Native Americans as well as encroaching whites, and to removal for political reasons. Federal Policy and Selection of Agents Under President Ulysses S. Grant, Christian reformers were included in developing and implementing Native American policy. This resulted in the Board of Indian Commissioners being established in 1869 and Christian evangelism being incorporated into Native American policy. With these changes, tribal traditions were discouraged; the treaty system was revamped so that it was no longer a nation-to-nation agreement; monetary annuities were discouraged in favor of goods, agency improvements, and services; and Native Americans were considered wards of the government for their protection. With proper oversight, it was thought that Native Americans could be educated in industry, civilization, and Christianity so they could eventually attain US citizenship and become self-supporting. Native Americans were initially to be placed on small reservations, with the goal being that when ready, they would be granted exclusive ownership of land in parcels of 160 acres or less. This was designed to teach them the values of land ownership and enable them to earn a living from their labor on their land. All of these goals were made without Native American input, ran contrary to Native American customs, and were demoralizing. Under the new policy, candidates for agents were to be put forward by Christian religious groups. Inadequate candidates were immediately available. For example, the initial agents for the Los Pinos and White River agencies were former military officers who were available as a result of the reduction of military force following the Civil War. Congress rejected this approach of appointing former military officers as public servants to fill civil positions in July 1870, so the American Unitarian Union began nominating candidates as agents for the two Indian Agencies in Colorado. White River Agency At the Middle Park Agency at White River, Daniel C. Oakes, successor to Simeon Whiteley, selected the agency location and began construction of the buildings. Lieutenant W. W. Parry, who was completely unprepared for the job, replaced Oakes in June 1869. Governor Edward M. McCook appointed several ineffective military officers as agents thereafter. More successful were agents John S. Littlefield and Edward H. Danforth, both nominated by the Unitarians and serving as agents from 1871 to 1878. Danforth was followed by Nathan C. Meeker. Meeker was not a Unitarian but was highly religious and brought utopian ideals from the agricultural colony of Greeley to the agency. After moving the agency to a new location a few miles downstream along the White River, Meeker’s rigidity and zealotry precipitated a Ute uprising, commonly known as the Meeker Incident, in late September 1879. Utes killed Meeker and ten others, including most of the agency’s employees, and the US troops sent to assist Meeker were defeated at the Battle of Milk Creek. The incident prompted the eventual removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado. Los Piños Agency Lieutenant Calvin T. Speer was the first agent for the Los Piños Agency, beginning in 1869. He selected the agency location and initiated construction of its buildings. Speer was replaced by Unitarian Jabez Nelson Trask, the first of three Unitarian agents between 1871 and 1876. Thereafter, the agency was served by a succession of agents unaffiliated with the Unitarian Church whose rapid, near-annual turnover provided no stable leadership until the Utes associated with the agency were removed from Colorado in late 1881. Denver Special Agency A large number of Utes who were to be attached to the White River Agency refused to move to the reservation and desired to continue hunting buffalo on the plains, spending summers in North and Middle Parks, and wintering near Denver. Although attached to the Middle Park Agency, these Utes had become accustomed to visiting the agent in Denver, where they acquired goods and services from the government. Rather than force the Utes onto the reservation on the west side of the Rockies, James B. Thompson, personal secretary and brother-in-law of Governor McCook, continued the practice of supplying the Indians in Denver in 1869. This practice was formalized through the establishment of the Denver Special Agency in 1870. It continued to serve the Utes through 1874, when they agreed to go to the reservation and be served by the White River Agency. After a brief reopening in 1875, the agency was permanently closed. The Meeker Incident was the catalyst for removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado. The bands associated with the White River Agency began moving to the Uintah Reservation in Utah in late summer 1881. The Tabeguache Utes attached to the Los Pinos Agency, under the leadership of Ouray negotiated an agreement shortly before his death, in 1880, that stipulated that they would be moved to a smaller reservation, likely at the confluence of the Grand and Gunnison Rivers in present-day Grand Junction. With this in mind, a survey of the proposed new reservation was completed that included several townships in what is known as the Ute Principal Meridian. If the land there was found unsuitable, then other lands could be considered. The Ute Commission, following the lead of member Otto Mears, found the land at the confluence of the Grand and Gunnison Rivers unsuitable for agricultural settlement, so decided that land at the confluence of the Green and White Rivers in Utah should be the new reservation. This land was annexed to the existing Uintah Reservation, and the reservation is now known as the Uintah and Ouray Reservation. Tabeguache Utes formerly attached to the Los Pinos Agency were forced to the new reservation in September 1881. Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Ute Reservations and Agencies A separate Southern Ute Agency was established for the Capote, Mouache, and Weeminuche Utes in early 1877, with Francis H. Weaver as the agent. The actual agency site selected that June was on the Los Pinos River, much to the consternation of the Utes, who expected it to be placed on the Navajo River. A post office at the agency was named Ignacio when it opened in 1882. When the town of Ignacio grew nearby, the post office was moved there in 1914. Native Americans attached to the agency were formerly served at agencies in Abiquiu and Cimarron, New Mexico. Ignacio, leader of the Southern Utes—as the three bands came to be known—had the foresight to distance his group from Ouray during the Brunot Agreement of 1873, when the San Juan Mountains were ceded to the US government. A strip of land fifteen miles wide and south of the territory ceded in the Brunot Agreement was recognized as the domain of the Southern Utes. The Southern Utes agreed to move to this reservation along the southern border of Colorado in 1880. Because they were recognized as separate from the Utes attached to the Los Pinos and White River agencies, they were allowed to remain in Colorado. Under the agreement, the reservation was to be allotted to individual tribal members with the remaining land sold for the benefit of the tribe. Ignacio objected to the plan and desired to retain contiguous land for the Weeminuche band. An agreement in 1895 resulted in the allotment of the eastern portion of the reservation, still known as the Southern Ute Reservation, with its agency at Ignacio. The 374 allotments designated to the Utes in the eastern portion of the reservation amounted to about 60,000 acres of land, leaving 636,000 acres open for entry to other settlers beginning in May 1899. The western portion was set aside as the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation for Native Americans who did not want to participate in the allotment program, with agency headquarters at Navajo Springs. Because of a lack of water, the agency at Navajo Springs was quickly abandoned and a new agency was constructed in about 1898 at Towaoc. Reconfiguration of Mesa Verde National Park in 1911 resulted in a land exchange that took 12,760 acres of the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation in exchange for 7,840 acres of land vacated from the original configuration of the park and 19,520 acres on the north side of Ute Mountain that extended to the south side of McElmo Canyon.	3,622	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Indian society had succeeded in orienting the lifestyle, expectations and duties of its people in accordance with their vocation or profession. This helped in achieving greater vocational specialization and gave rise to four classes of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Unfortunately, with social decay, this class system later degenerated into caste system.. The Caste system in India is considered a scourge for the society. Its impact on Indian polity and social dynamics remains second to none, even though with urbanization, modernization and democracy it is rapidly losing its relevance in modern India, and thankfully so. May be it is time we also have a look at how this menace evolved to understand how gradual distortions corrupt our social institutions…. The ancient Indian society had innovated a unique class system based on vocation and profession, and attached a great amount of importance with reference to one's duties and values, giving them an importance equivalent to religion. The Indian religious philosophy of ‘Dharma’ prescribed code of conduct in accordance with one’s circumstances of life and place in family and society. Thus, the dharma of a son was considered different than the dharma of the father; similarly dharma of a teacher was different from the dharma of the soldier or a merchant or a farmer. The expectation of a particular code of conduct for different vocations played an important role in facilitating them to fulfill their role in the society. However, it also created identities and sub-identities within the society, especially once a link was established between one’s birth and vocation. This is what gave rise to the ‘caste system’ in due course of time. The Varna System This system, also known as the 'Varna' system of social division, divided the society on the basis of one's vocation and profession. Each of the four groups was prescribed duties and values comparable with modern professional. These duties were considered one's 'Dharma' - the term used equivalently for religion in India, literally meaning duties. In modern times, one can see an analogous concept of ‘ethics’ that is related and dependent on one’s profession or vocation. The first of these four classes was called 'Brahmins', consisting of scholars, saints and teachers, and was considered the most revered class in the Indian society. Supposed to be the conscience of the society, and the reservoirs and preservers of social knowledge, skills, wisdom and values, Brahmins led a very austere life, avoided vices like violence, greed, addiction, and glamor. They did not enjoy political power or wealth, yet, were granted the highest respect in society. Even the King was supposed to respect them, and killing a Brahmin was considered a sin. The next class was known as 'Kshatriyas', consisting of warriors, King, the nobles and the soldiers. They were supposed to be men of honor, follow a warrior's code of conduct, be respectful to the Brahmins and fight for the protection of weak. They enjoyed political power and were expected to use force and resort to violence whenever so required by their profession. Thus the duties of this class were different. The third class was that of 'Vaishyas', the businessmen and traders, who were expected to generate wealth and be rich. Their goal of life was to accumulate wealth and become rich. In a way they were like modern capitalists, but they were also supposed to respect Brahmins as well as pay their taxes to the King. In a way they were considered custodians of the society's wealth. The last class was called 'Shudras', which included ordinary peasants, the lower level employees, servants and workers. They were expected to perform the duty assigned with loyalty and honesty. As ordinary laymen, the expectations were also lower from them, and they had more freedom in selecting their life-style. Vocational Specialization distorted into Divided Society This class system adopted by the Indians in ancient times is a reflection to the level of sophistication of their society and can be considered an achievement in orienting one’s lifestyle and code of conduct in accordance with the requirements and expectations of their profession. In a way it reflected greater specialization of individuals towards their work. One's vocation was considered very important, and everyone was supposed to fulfill his or her duties honestly and sincerely. In fact, the word 'Dharma' equivalent to religions of the Western world, literally meant 'duty'. The concept was that one's duty depended on one's station in life, and would be different from time to time and person to person. So, the duties of a daughter were different than those of a mother. Similarly, the duties of a student were different than those of a teacher. Duties also varied with vocation. Thus, while other classes were expected to refrain from indulging in violence, the soldier class, i.e. kshatriyas were expected to be masters of warfare and be always ready to use violence for the benefit of society. This ancient class system later got distorted in to 'caste' system, when it came to be inherited by birth and hence connected with descent. Today it has all but faded, but its bitter memories still remain and remind us that groupism of any sort within the society is a dangerous phenomenon, and should never be allowed to take strong roots. Planning for a trip near Kurnool, then choose this plan. There are many holy places to see and get blessed near Kurnool. I have been to KL Bird Park and Jurong Bird Park in Singapore and I do admit that the latter is much better in terms of shows, bird species and overall enjoyment but there is something about KL Bird Park which forces you to come back here again and again.. Mangyan is the 7th largest island of India. Read the underlying article to know about dutch scholar Antoon Postma and the mangyan legacy in detail..	<urn:uuid:ea013cc6-fcb8-474f-9741-2f97cb9fcc5c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/class-divisions-ancient-india	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00188.warc.gz	en	0.980992	1,240	3.46875	3	[ -0.0010612800251692533, 0.33719947934150696, 0.05276918411254883, -0.470436692237854, -0.2576373815536499, 0.028073061257600784, 0.7223263382911682, -0.20544645190238953, 0.17605501413345337, -0.023352527990937233, -0.10856236517429352, -0.0819179117679596, 0.1942816972732544, 0.1914709955...	1	Ancient Indian society had succeeded in orienting the lifestyle, expectations and duties of its people in accordance with their vocation or profession. This helped in achieving greater vocational specialization and gave rise to four classes of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Unfortunately, with social decay, this class system later degenerated into caste system.. The Caste system in India is considered a scourge for the society. Its impact on Indian polity and social dynamics remains second to none, even though with urbanization, modernization and democracy it is rapidly losing its relevance in modern India, and thankfully so. May be it is time we also have a look at how this menace evolved to understand how gradual distortions corrupt our social institutions…. The ancient Indian society had innovated a unique class system based on vocation and profession, and attached a great amount of importance with reference to one's duties and values, giving them an importance equivalent to religion. The Indian religious philosophy of ‘Dharma’ prescribed code of conduct in accordance with one’s circumstances of life and place in family and society. Thus, the dharma of a son was considered different than the dharma of the father; similarly dharma of a teacher was different from the dharma of the soldier or a merchant or a farmer. The expectation of a particular code of conduct for different vocations played an important role in facilitating them to fulfill their role in the society. However, it also created identities and sub-identities within the society, especially once a link was established between one’s birth and vocation. This is what gave rise to the ‘caste system’ in due course of time. The Varna System This system, also known as the 'Varna' system of social division, divided the society on the basis of one's vocation and profession. Each of the four groups was prescribed duties and values comparable with modern professional. These duties were considered one's 'Dharma' - the term used equivalently for religion in India, literally meaning duties. In modern times, one can see an analogous concept of ‘ethics’ that is related and dependent on one’s profession or vocation. The first of these four classes was called 'Brahmins', consisting of scholars, saints and teachers, and was considered the most revered class in the Indian society. Supposed to be the conscience of the society, and the reservoirs and preservers of social knowledge, skills, wisdom and values, Brahmins led a very austere life, avoided vices like violence, greed, addiction, and glamor. They did not enjoy political power or wealth, yet, were granted the highest respect in society. Even the King was supposed to respect them, and killing a Brahmin was considered a sin. The next class was known as 'Kshatriyas', consisting of warriors, King, the nobles and the soldiers. They were supposed to be men of honor, follow a warrior's code of conduct, be respectful to the Brahmins and fight for the protection of weak. They enjoyed political power and were expected to use force and resort to violence whenever so required by their profession. Thus the duties of this class were different. The third class was that of 'Vaishyas', the businessmen and traders, who were expected to generate wealth and be rich. Their goal of life was to accumulate wealth and become rich. In a way they were like modern capitalists, but they were also supposed to respect Brahmins as well as pay their taxes to the King. In a way they were considered custodians of the society's wealth. The last class was called 'Shudras', which included ordinary peasants, the lower level employees, servants and workers. They were expected to perform the duty assigned with loyalty and honesty. As ordinary laymen, the expectations were also lower from them, and they had more freedom in selecting their life-style. Vocational Specialization distorted into Divided Society This class system adopted by the Indians in ancient times is a reflection to the level of sophistication of their society and can be considered an achievement in orienting one’s lifestyle and code of conduct in accordance with the requirements and expectations of their profession. In a way it reflected greater specialization of individuals towards their work. One's vocation was considered very important, and everyone was supposed to fulfill his or her duties honestly and sincerely. In fact, the word 'Dharma' equivalent to religions of the Western world, literally meant 'duty'. The concept was that one's duty depended on one's station in life, and would be different from time to time and person to person. So, the duties of a daughter were different than those of a mother. Similarly, the duties of a student were different than those of a teacher. Duties also varied with vocation. Thus, while other classes were expected to refrain from indulging in violence, the soldier class, i.e. kshatriyas were expected to be masters of warfare and be always ready to use violence for the benefit of society. This ancient class system later got distorted in to 'caste' system, when it came to be inherited by birth and hence connected with descent. Today it has all but faded, but its bitter memories still remain and remind us that groupism of any sort within the society is a dangerous phenomenon, and should never be allowed to take strong roots. Planning for a trip near Kurnool, then choose this plan. There are many holy places to see and get blessed near Kurnool. I have been to KL Bird Park and Jurong Bird Park in Singapore and I do admit that the latter is much better in terms of shows, bird species and overall enjoyment but there is something about KL Bird Park which forces you to come back here again and again.. Mangyan is the 7th largest island of India. Read the underlying article to know about dutch scholar Antoon Postma and the mangyan legacy in detail..	1,206	ENGLISH	1
In this gospel lesson of St. Matthew 2:13-23 is often referred or known as the gospel of the Fight in to Egypt or Refuge in Egypt, when Joseph took the holy family into Egypt after being warned by the angel of the Lord that the Christ child was in danger of being killed by Herod’s soldiers. This gospel makes reference to Joseph fleeing at night to Egypt, strange as it may seem he (Joseph) takes the holy family back to the land (Egypt) where the Jews (Jesus’s ancestors) were held hostage so to speak by Pharaoh in the Old Testament. As we know in scripture (Old Testament), it was God who told Moses to leave this place (Egypt). “The Lord said to Moses, leave this place, you and the people you brought up out of Egypt and go to the land I promised (Exodus 33:1)!” Thus, the baby Jesus and the holy family, like their ancestors who were once held captive in Egypt are now exiled in Egypt. Some theologians refer to the Fight into Egypt as Jesus’s beginning stages of Him being in exile, whereby his people or God’s people must evade the powers at be so that He (Jesus) will eventually be able to do His work. “Out of Egypt I called my Son (Matthew 2:15)” makes reference to Israel (Jesus) meaning that Jesus Christ is the new Israel. Furthermore, in the Old Testament (HOS.11:1) as one as the same words “out of Egypt” or meaning the same as Jesus is the new Israel. We can relate and compare Herod’s wickedness by killing all male children 2 and under to Pharaoh in the Old Testament where Pharaoh tried to wipe out the old Israel by killing all male children. In Matthew 2:18, we hear of Rachel weeping for her children, Rachel who died years before Christ, in this case, Rachel weeps for the mothers of those innocent male children of Bethlehem that were killed. We hear again of the angel of the Lord after Herod’s death appearing to Joseph in a dream telling him to take the holy family back to Israel, instead they go to the town of Nazareth, because Joseph was warned by God in a dream not to go there, Jesus will eventually begin his ministry, hence he will be called Jesus of Nazareth. When we read this gospel lesson of Matthew, a lot of people will ask, “How can God allow these innocent children of God to be slaughtered?” In the Orthodox church, we recognize these children as “The Holy Innocents” (also as saints and martyrs). Some theologians will say, everyone who has a share in suffering with Christ will rise with Him in eternal glory, ergo justice and mercy are beyond comprehension. Others might say, “God wanted to make an example of what evil can do, because of what sinful people are capable of.” Nobody really has a conclusive answer of why, we only know these children died as martyrs for Christ and became saints in order for Jesus to begin his earthly ministry and eventually be called Jesus of Nazareth, which was spoken by the prophets “He shall be called a Nazarene (Matthew 2:23).”One point to note here, speaking of Nazarene, early in Christ’s ministry, followers of Jesus were also called Nazarenes and eventually they were called Christians, as in today’s world. Another point is after the Exodus in the Old Testament and as it was mentioned by Matthew “out of Egypt my Son”, meaning Jesus and the New Israel, is the new beginning from Egypt where the Jews were captives in the Old (Old Testament) to Nazareth or the New (New Testament) where it starts all over for us as the new Israel in order for Jesus to proclaim the good news and the promise He gave to us that we will have everlasting life with Him if we believe He is the Son of God.	<urn:uuid:2935edd4-a06d-446a-a0f3-d0feb2882368>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://stmarylivonia.com/gospel-reflection-for-sunday-december-29-2019/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00123.warc.gz	en	0.981286	824	3.46875	3	[ -0.06812697649002075, 0.1896430104970932, 0.08051569014787674, -0.12404637783765793, -0.1196574941277504, -0.3113986849784851, 0.26799511909484863, 0.2860182523727417, 0.053143057972192764, 0.40906500816345215, 0.23628954589366913, -0.0827740728855133, 0.2027267962694168, 0.046832770109176...	1	In this gospel lesson of St. Matthew 2:13-23 is often referred or known as the gospel of the Fight in to Egypt or Refuge in Egypt, when Joseph took the holy family into Egypt after being warned by the angel of the Lord that the Christ child was in danger of being killed by Herod’s soldiers. This gospel makes reference to Joseph fleeing at night to Egypt, strange as it may seem he (Joseph) takes the holy family back to the land (Egypt) where the Jews (Jesus’s ancestors) were held hostage so to speak by Pharaoh in the Old Testament. As we know in scripture (Old Testament), it was God who told Moses to leave this place (Egypt). “The Lord said to Moses, leave this place, you and the people you brought up out of Egypt and go to the land I promised (Exodus 33:1)!” Thus, the baby Jesus and the holy family, like their ancestors who were once held captive in Egypt are now exiled in Egypt. Some theologians refer to the Fight into Egypt as Jesus’s beginning stages of Him being in exile, whereby his people or God’s people must evade the powers at be so that He (Jesus) will eventually be able to do His work. “Out of Egypt I called my Son (Matthew 2:15)” makes reference to Israel (Jesus) meaning that Jesus Christ is the new Israel. Furthermore, in the Old Testament (HOS.11:1) as one as the same words “out of Egypt” or meaning the same as Jesus is the new Israel. We can relate and compare Herod’s wickedness by killing all male children 2 and under to Pharaoh in the Old Testament where Pharaoh tried to wipe out the old Israel by killing all male children. In Matthew 2:18, we hear of Rachel weeping for her children, Rachel who died years before Christ, in this case, Rachel weeps for the mothers of those innocent male children of Bethlehem that were killed. We hear again of the angel of the Lord after Herod’s death appearing to Joseph in a dream telling him to take the holy family back to Israel, instead they go to the town of Nazareth, because Joseph was warned by God in a dream not to go there, Jesus will eventually begin his ministry, hence he will be called Jesus of Nazareth. When we read this gospel lesson of Matthew, a lot of people will ask, “How can God allow these innocent children of God to be slaughtered?” In the Orthodox church, we recognize these children as “The Holy Innocents” (also as saints and martyrs). Some theologians will say, everyone who has a share in suffering with Christ will rise with Him in eternal glory, ergo justice and mercy are beyond comprehension. Others might say, “God wanted to make an example of what evil can do, because of what sinful people are capable of.” Nobody really has a conclusive answer of why, we only know these children died as martyrs for Christ and became saints in order for Jesus to begin his earthly ministry and eventually be called Jesus of Nazareth, which was spoken by the prophets “He shall be called a Nazarene (Matthew 2:23).”One point to note here, speaking of Nazarene, early in Christ’s ministry, followers of Jesus were also called Nazarenes and eventually they were called Christians, as in today’s world. Another point is after the Exodus in the Old Testament and as it was mentioned by Matthew “out of Egypt my Son”, meaning Jesus and the New Israel, is the new beginning from Egypt where the Jews were captives in the Old (Old Testament) to Nazareth or the New (New Testament) where it starts all over for us as the new Israel in order for Jesus to proclaim the good news and the promise He gave to us that we will have everlasting life with Him if we believe He is the Son of God.	808	ENGLISH	1
The Atomic Bomb – Now What? – August 12, 1945 As the world waited for the official end of World War 2, and as the effects of the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki began to settle in, the question many were asking was “Can this Atomic force be useful for mankind”? The long-term effect of the bombings were still unknown at the time of this broadcast, but a panel of scientists was quickly assembled for this special broadcast of The Chicago University Roundtable to discuss that question. The scientists in question were from The University of Chicago, where initial research and development of the Atomic bomb took place. Was there a peaceful side of this discovery? And if so, how was it going to be utilized? And ultimately; “Was the Atomic Bomb good or bad for the world”? Robert Maynard Hutchins, Chancellor of Chicago University. Maynard G. Gustafson, dean of Faculties at Chicago University, and William F. Ogburn, Sociologist were called to discuss those questions. The answers were interesting. Gustavson echoed a sentiment from many of the developers of the bomb; he hoped they had not put dynamite in the hands of children. Ogburn was convinced it ended the war quickly, and quoted a newspaper report saying the Japanese Minister to Sweden felt the bomb brought about a plea for peace. But even on August 12th there was every indication that using the bomb was unnecessary and that, as a result, the U.S. had lost its moral prestige in the world. It was also suggested a better approach would have been dropping the bomb on an uninhabited part of Japan, as a demonstration of what could happen if Japan continued the war. The arguments for and against are interesting, and considering how they were being raised days, not months or years after the bombings, gives some indication there were misgivings about it’s use as a weapon and fears we had unleashed something we ultimately would not be able to control even before they had been used. A fascinating discussion – one which continues to go on, decades after. Here is that complete broadcast from August 12, 1945.	<urn:uuid:9105d70b-e979-444b-a9e8-e4c4075e76ed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pastdaily.com/2015/08/13/the-atomic-bomb-now-what-august-12-1945/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00229.warc.gz	en	0.986445	442	3.265625	3	[ -0.3719705045223236, 0.3856866657733917, 0.09855544567108154, -0.30079466104507446, 0.7843593955039978, 0.3024464547634125, 0.08905377238988876, 0.023409320041537285, -0.3604569733142853, 0.13336724042892456, 0.5449029803276062, 0.15656165778636932, 0.2948986291885376, 0.5451841354370117, ...	5	The Atomic Bomb – Now What? – August 12, 1945 As the world waited for the official end of World War 2, and as the effects of the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki began to settle in, the question many were asking was “Can this Atomic force be useful for mankind”? The long-term effect of the bombings were still unknown at the time of this broadcast, but a panel of scientists was quickly assembled for this special broadcast of The Chicago University Roundtable to discuss that question. The scientists in question were from The University of Chicago, where initial research and development of the Atomic bomb took place. Was there a peaceful side of this discovery? And if so, how was it going to be utilized? And ultimately; “Was the Atomic Bomb good or bad for the world”? Robert Maynard Hutchins, Chancellor of Chicago University. Maynard G. Gustafson, dean of Faculties at Chicago University, and William F. Ogburn, Sociologist were called to discuss those questions. The answers were interesting. Gustavson echoed a sentiment from many of the developers of the bomb; he hoped they had not put dynamite in the hands of children. Ogburn was convinced it ended the war quickly, and quoted a newspaper report saying the Japanese Minister to Sweden felt the bomb brought about a plea for peace. But even on August 12th there was every indication that using the bomb was unnecessary and that, as a result, the U.S. had lost its moral prestige in the world. It was also suggested a better approach would have been dropping the bomb on an uninhabited part of Japan, as a demonstration of what could happen if Japan continued the war. The arguments for and against are interesting, and considering how they were being raised days, not months or years after the bombings, gives some indication there were misgivings about it’s use as a weapon and fears we had unleashed something we ultimately would not be able to control even before they had been used. A fascinating discussion – one which continues to go on, decades after. Here is that complete broadcast from August 12, 1945.	445	ENGLISH	1
New Zealand's White Island volcano has erupted, leaving at least five people dead and many more unaccounted for. The volcanic island lies around 30 miles (48km) from the North Island's east coast and is only around 2km wide. It is one of the country's most active volcanoes, and rises to 321m above sea level - but around 70% of it is underwater, which has built up over 150,000 years of activity. White Island - also known by the indigenous Maori name Whakaari - was discovered by British explorer Captain James Cook on 1 October 1769, and it was named after the white plumes of smoke and steam rising from it. Because of its ease of access and frequent volcanic activity, tourists flock to White Island with around 10,000 visiting annually. Up until just before Monday's eruption, people could be seen walking in a huge crater on the island, showing the wealth of access tourists get on Whakaari. It was historically used for sulphur mining in the late 19th century, and again in the early parts of the 1900s, but when the western rim of the volcano collapsed in 1914 operations were stopped after all 12 workers on the island were killed. Mining started again in 1923, but learning the lessons of the landslide nine years earlier, workers built their huts elsewhere and sailed to the mines every day. If the seas were rough, they would instead have to walk along a precarious, narrow path around the coast. The island has been privately owned since 1953 and visitors need permission to step foot there. Whakaari was in constant eruption from 1975 to 2000, destroying the forest on the island and creating huge craters. There has been increased volcanic activity since 2012, but eruptions have been mostly limited to steam plumes and have been relatively short-lived, lasting around 10 minutes or so. Monday's eruption was classed as "minor" by GeoNet, which monitors the island, and put the volcano at alert level three (out of five). White Island is usually at alert level one or two. Despite being classed as minor, officials said that the island became unreachable following the eruption. They were forced to delay a rescue operation until it was safe.	<urn:uuid:0af8adac-5d95-460b-9dc5-e27d4234a481>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://news.sky.com/story/new-zealand-volcano-eruption-what-do-we-know-about-white-island-11882100	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00026.warc.gz	en	0.983977	462	3.515625	4	[ -0.13216368854045868, -0.04052503779530525, 0.2915482521057129, -0.19072473049163818, -0.1338694542646408, 0.4079996943473816, 0.2673023045063019, 0.10327183455228806, 0.022231539711356163, 0.5702530741691589, 0.0866250991821289, -0.2347152680158615, 0.1698470115661621, 0.8990254998207092,...	4	New Zealand's White Island volcano has erupted, leaving at least five people dead and many more unaccounted for. The volcanic island lies around 30 miles (48km) from the North Island's east coast and is only around 2km wide. It is one of the country's most active volcanoes, and rises to 321m above sea level - but around 70% of it is underwater, which has built up over 150,000 years of activity. White Island - also known by the indigenous Maori name Whakaari - was discovered by British explorer Captain James Cook on 1 October 1769, and it was named after the white plumes of smoke and steam rising from it. Because of its ease of access and frequent volcanic activity, tourists flock to White Island with around 10,000 visiting annually. Up until just before Monday's eruption, people could be seen walking in a huge crater on the island, showing the wealth of access tourists get on Whakaari. It was historically used for sulphur mining in the late 19th century, and again in the early parts of the 1900s, but when the western rim of the volcano collapsed in 1914 operations were stopped after all 12 workers on the island were killed. Mining started again in 1923, but learning the lessons of the landslide nine years earlier, workers built their huts elsewhere and sailed to the mines every day. If the seas were rough, they would instead have to walk along a precarious, narrow path around the coast. The island has been privately owned since 1953 and visitors need permission to step foot there. Whakaari was in constant eruption from 1975 to 2000, destroying the forest on the island and creating huge craters. There has been increased volcanic activity since 2012, but eruptions have been mostly limited to steam plumes and have been relatively short-lived, lasting around 10 minutes or so. Monday's eruption was classed as "minor" by GeoNet, which monitors the island, and put the volcano at alert level three (out of five). White Island is usually at alert level one or two. Despite being classed as minor, officials said that the island became unreachable following the eruption. They were forced to delay a rescue operation until it was safe.	502	ENGLISH	1
In 1154, while Barbarossa was reigning in Germany , Henry II, one of England 's greatest monarchs, came to the throne. Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet (Plan-tag'-e-net), Count of Anjou in France, and Matilda, daughter of King Henry I and granddaughter of William the Conqueror. Count Geoffrey used to wear in his hat a sprig of the broom plant, which is called in Latin "planta genista." From this he adopted the name Plantagenet, and the kings who descended from him and ruled England for more than three hundred years are called the Plantagenets. Henry II inherited a vast domain in France and managing this in addition England kept him very busy. One who knew him well said, "He never sits down; he is on his feet from morning till night." His chief assistant in the management of public affairs was Thomas Becket, whom he made chancellor of the kingdom. Becket was fond of pomp and luxury, and lived in a more magnificent manner than even the king himself. The clergy had at this time become almost independent of the king. To bring them under his authority Henry made Becket Archbishop of Canterbury , thus putting him at the head of the Church in England . The king expected that Becket would carry out all his wishes. Becket, however, refused to do that which the king most desired and a quarrel arose between them. At last, to escape the king's anger, Becket fled to France and remained there for six years. At the end of this time Henry invited him to come back to England . Not long after, however, the old quarrel began again. One day while Henry was sojourning in France , he cried out in a moment of passion, while surrounded by a group of knights, "Is there no one who will rid me of this turbulent priest?" Four knights who heard him understood from this angry speech that he desired the death of Becket, and they went to England to murder the Archbishop. When they met Becket they first demanded that he should do as the king wished, but he firmly refused. At dusk that same day they entered Canterbury Cathedral, again seeking for him. "Where is the traitor, Thomas Becket?" one of them cried. Becket boldly answered, "Here am I — no traitor, but a priest of god." As he finished speaking the knights rushed upon him and killed him. The people of England were horrified by this brutal murder. Becket was called a martyr and his tomb became a place of pious pilgrimage. The Pope canonized him and for years he was the most venerated of English saints. King Henry was in Normandy when the murder occurred. He declared that he had had nothing whatever to do with it and he punished the murderers. But from this time Henry had many troubles. His own sons rebelled against him, his barons were unfriendly, and conspiracies were formed. Henry thought that God was punishing him for the murder of Becket and so determined to do penance at the tomb of the saint. For some distance before he reached Canterbury Cathedral where Becket was buried he walked over the road with bare head and feet. After his arrival he fasted and prayed a day and a night. The next day he put scourges into the hands of the cathedral monks and said, "Scourge me as I kneel at the tomb of the saint." The monks did as he bade them and he patiently bore the pain. Henry finally triumphed over his enemies and had some years of peace, which he devoted to the good of England . In the last year of his life, however, he had trouble again. The king of France and Henry's son Richard took up arms against him. Henry was defeated and was forced to grant what they wished. When he saw a list of the barons who had joined the French king he found among them the name of his favorite son John, and his heart was broken. He died a few days later.	<urn:uuid:52f407ef-ff3a-41a0-8b14-4013d3005a8f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/77/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00513.warc.gz	en	0.990912	834	3.546875	4	[ -0.11142078042030334, 0.2654331922531128, 0.12489686161279678, -0.10941804945468903, -0.019342046231031418, -0.2311679571866989, 0.455319881439209, -0.03412514552474022, -0.08452761173248291, -0.11171981692314148, -0.15874254703521729, -0.48990172147750854, 0.27595698833465576, 0.297051012...	1	In 1154, while Barbarossa was reigning in Germany , Henry II, one of England 's greatest monarchs, came to the throne. Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet (Plan-tag'-e-net), Count of Anjou in France, and Matilda, daughter of King Henry I and granddaughter of William the Conqueror. Count Geoffrey used to wear in his hat a sprig of the broom plant, which is called in Latin "planta genista." From this he adopted the name Plantagenet, and the kings who descended from him and ruled England for more than three hundred years are called the Plantagenets. Henry II inherited a vast domain in France and managing this in addition England kept him very busy. One who knew him well said, "He never sits down; he is on his feet from morning till night." His chief assistant in the management of public affairs was Thomas Becket, whom he made chancellor of the kingdom. Becket was fond of pomp and luxury, and lived in a more magnificent manner than even the king himself. The clergy had at this time become almost independent of the king. To bring them under his authority Henry made Becket Archbishop of Canterbury , thus putting him at the head of the Church in England . The king expected that Becket would carry out all his wishes. Becket, however, refused to do that which the king most desired and a quarrel arose between them. At last, to escape the king's anger, Becket fled to France and remained there for six years. At the end of this time Henry invited him to come back to England . Not long after, however, the old quarrel began again. One day while Henry was sojourning in France , he cried out in a moment of passion, while surrounded by a group of knights, "Is there no one who will rid me of this turbulent priest?" Four knights who heard him understood from this angry speech that he desired the death of Becket, and they went to England to murder the Archbishop. When they met Becket they first demanded that he should do as the king wished, but he firmly refused. At dusk that same day they entered Canterbury Cathedral, again seeking for him. "Where is the traitor, Thomas Becket?" one of them cried. Becket boldly answered, "Here am I — no traitor, but a priest of god." As he finished speaking the knights rushed upon him and killed him. The people of England were horrified by this brutal murder. Becket was called a martyr and his tomb became a place of pious pilgrimage. The Pope canonized him and for years he was the most venerated of English saints. King Henry was in Normandy when the murder occurred. He declared that he had had nothing whatever to do with it and he punished the murderers. But from this time Henry had many troubles. His own sons rebelled against him, his barons were unfriendly, and conspiracies were formed. Henry thought that God was punishing him for the murder of Becket and so determined to do penance at the tomb of the saint. For some distance before he reached Canterbury Cathedral where Becket was buried he walked over the road with bare head and feet. After his arrival he fasted and prayed a day and a night. The next day he put scourges into the hands of the cathedral monks and said, "Scourge me as I kneel at the tomb of the saint." The monks did as he bade them and he patiently bore the pain. Henry finally triumphed over his enemies and had some years of peace, which he devoted to the good of England . In the last year of his life, however, he had trouble again. The king of France and Henry's son Richard took up arms against him. Henry was defeated and was forced to grant what they wished. When he saw a list of the barons who had joined the French king he found among them the name of his favorite son John, and his heart was broken. He died a few days later.	825	ENGLISH	1
In today’s class, we got a visual understanding of what our lectures and readings this week were all about. In the film series Egypt Uncovered, Chaos and Kings it told us that order, not chaos were the will of the gods. Set versus Horus, the ruler of chaos versus the ruler of the skies. These gods were to determine the destiny of the Egyptian civilization. Before there were pharaohs, the people of Egypt were said to have been ruled by the spirits of the dead or demi gods. We also learned that the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt did not happen overnight. Studies show there is not just one person or event that can be identified as the final straw in unifying Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Egyptologists are finding it is because of many different events all over Egypt as a whole country over a long period of time. A fun little fact I learned from the film today was about King Menes. He was the first king listed in the royal dynasties records and his whose reign lasted 60 years before he was run off with a hippo and killed. One other thing I found interesting from the film was learning about the damn ancient Egyptians tried to build. Even though they did not succeed in their plans, their attempt was evident in the thought and engineering that was put forth when building it. The goal was to protect the city from the flash floods in the rainy season. It was 42 ft tall, 300 ft long at the bottom and 100 ft across at the top. The wall of the damn was then supported by three cross-sections. This structure took ten years and numerous manual labor hours to complete. I would like to think because of all the other inventions ancient Egyptians were able to engineer, this damn would have served its purpose if it had been finished when floods came.	<urn:uuid:d74e2ea1-d8f8-4e85-ae3b-a71fb52e22cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp455-fs12/2012/10/11/set-versus-horus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00227.warc.gz	en	0.990922	367	3.453125	3	[ -0.18658758699893951, 0.8638096451759338, 0.1308630406856537, -0.29764726758003235, -0.09433864057064056, 0.049352604895830154, 0.13162121176719666, -0.16223104298114777, -0.16394276916980743, 0.11649004369974136, -0.1507306545972824, -0.3886626958847046, 0.03412608802318573, 0.10293766856...	3	In today’s class, we got a visual understanding of what our lectures and readings this week were all about. In the film series Egypt Uncovered, Chaos and Kings it told us that order, not chaos were the will of the gods. Set versus Horus, the ruler of chaos versus the ruler of the skies. These gods were to determine the destiny of the Egyptian civilization. Before there were pharaohs, the people of Egypt were said to have been ruled by the spirits of the dead or demi gods. We also learned that the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt did not happen overnight. Studies show there is not just one person or event that can be identified as the final straw in unifying Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Egyptologists are finding it is because of many different events all over Egypt as a whole country over a long period of time. A fun little fact I learned from the film today was about King Menes. He was the first king listed in the royal dynasties records and his whose reign lasted 60 years before he was run off with a hippo and killed. One other thing I found interesting from the film was learning about the damn ancient Egyptians tried to build. Even though they did not succeed in their plans, their attempt was evident in the thought and engineering that was put forth when building it. The goal was to protect the city from the flash floods in the rainy season. It was 42 ft tall, 300 ft long at the bottom and 100 ft across at the top. The wall of the damn was then supported by three cross-sections. This structure took ten years and numerous manual labor hours to complete. I would like to think because of all the other inventions ancient Egyptians were able to engineer, this damn would have served its purpose if it had been finished when floods came.	374	ENGLISH	1
Charles Wesley (18 December 1707 – 29 March 1788) was an English leader of the Methodist movement, most widely known for writing about 6,500 hymns.Wesley was born in Epworth, Lincolnshire, the son of Anglican cleric and poet Samuel Wesley and his wife Susanna. He was a younger brother of Methodist founder John Wesley and Anglican cleric Samuel Wesley the Younger, and he became the father of musician Samuel Wesley and grandfather of musician Samuel Sebastian Wesley. Wesley was educated at Oxford where his brothers had also studied, and he formed the “Holy Club” among his fellow students in 1729. John Wesley later joined this group, as did George Whitefield. Charles followed his father and brother into the church in 1735, and he travelled with John to Georgia in America, returning a year later. In 1749, he married Sarah Gwynne, daughter of a Welsh gentleman who had been converted to Methodism by Howell Harris. She accompanied the brothers on their evangelistic journeys throughout Britain until Charles ceased to travel in 1765. Despite their closeness, Charles and John did not always agree on questions relating to their beliefs. In particular, Charles was strongly opposed to the idea of a breach with the Church of England into which they had been ordained.	<urn:uuid:0e3f8f5b-93a3-471c-bc77-efa2315c9e9d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://goodquotes.me/authors/charles-wesley/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00039.warc.gz	en	0.991174	263	3.671875	4	[ 0.18397168815135956, 0.4456975758075714, -0.040681008249521255, -0.2593574821949005, 0.01952327974140644, 0.12608323991298676, -0.14636127650737762, -0.4227695167064667, 0.14618127048015594, -0.2728792428970337, -0.04640975594520569, 0.25376617908477783, 0.33416748046875, -0.10758405178785...	2	Charles Wesley (18 December 1707 – 29 March 1788) was an English leader of the Methodist movement, most widely known for writing about 6,500 hymns.Wesley was born in Epworth, Lincolnshire, the son of Anglican cleric and poet Samuel Wesley and his wife Susanna. He was a younger brother of Methodist founder John Wesley and Anglican cleric Samuel Wesley the Younger, and he became the father of musician Samuel Wesley and grandfather of musician Samuel Sebastian Wesley. Wesley was educated at Oxford where his brothers had also studied, and he formed the “Holy Club” among his fellow students in 1729. John Wesley later joined this group, as did George Whitefield. Charles followed his father and brother into the church in 1735, and he travelled with John to Georgia in America, returning a year later. In 1749, he married Sarah Gwynne, daughter of a Welsh gentleman who had been converted to Methodism by Howell Harris. She accompanied the brothers on their evangelistic journeys throughout Britain until Charles ceased to travel in 1765. Despite their closeness, Charles and John did not always agree on questions relating to their beliefs. In particular, Charles was strongly opposed to the idea of a breach with the Church of England into which they had been ordained.	284	ENGLISH	1
This is the death mask of James Hope, a leading activist in the Society of United Irishmen. He is regarded today as having been the most egalitarian and socialist of the United Irishmen leadership. James ‘Jemmy’ Hope was born in County Antrim in 1764. Heavily influenced by his Presbyterian faith and by the ideas of the American Revolution, in 1782 he joined the Irish Volunteer movement, which was initially raised to protect Ireland, but which progressively became more radical in its outlook and demands. In 1789 he marched with them to celebrate the taking of the Bastille and the start of the French Revolution. When the Volunteers waned, James joined the newly formed United Irishmen, which sought the end of British rule and an independent Ireland. The authorities watched the growth of the United Irishmen with concern. On war being declared against France in 1793, they were declared illegal and they went underground. In 1798 the United Irishmen led a major rebellion, hoping to begin a revolution in Ireland with the support of French troops. But under severe pressure from British military and civil measures, and divided on account of religion and geography, the leadership of the United Irishmen splintered, and the movement faltered – becoming more like a civil war in many places, as Irish loyalists joined in the suppression. Avoiding arrest, unlike many other leaders, James played a prominent part in the Battle of Antrim, holding up the victorious British forces and allowing the defeated United Irishmen to escape and go into hiding. Despite a further attempt to rise up in 1803, the United Irishmen were ultimately unable to revive their cause. The protestant majority in the north had mostly changed its views, turning them into loyal supporters of the British Government and many former United Irishmen now filled the ranks of the British army. Hope remained on the run for a number of years, barely surviving and earning a pittance. Following a political amnesty in 1806 he moved back to Belfast, where he continued to work and support his family. His ideas about activism, equality and independence, though, remained inspirational to many Irish radicals, and his memoirs were published a year before his death in 1847. This is a plaster copy of James Hope’s original death mask. Did you know..? Death masks were typically made for popular or notorious people whose remembrance was in the public interest, and had to be made within four hours of death to prevent features being altered by bloating. Sources & acknowledgements This object description and its related educational resources were researched and written by our team of historians and education specialists. For further information see the item’s home museum, gallery or archive, listed above. Find it here This object is in the collection of National Museums Northern Ireland	<urn:uuid:c994bbeb-4893-409b-9643-b2a413847a85>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ageofrevolution.org/200-object/james-hopes-death-mask/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00112.warc.gz	en	0.981958	572	3.296875	3	[ -0.5344966650009155, 0.18997034430503845, 0.6209330558776855, 0.043334878981113434, 0.2776359021663666, 0.25072383880615234, 0.24633775651454926, -0.3202893137931824, -0.2383645921945572, 0.0468156635761261, -0.03132464736700058, -0.4198402464389801, -0.14148351550102234, 0.367591172456741...	3	This is the death mask of James Hope, a leading activist in the Society of United Irishmen. He is regarded today as having been the most egalitarian and socialist of the United Irishmen leadership. James ‘Jemmy’ Hope was born in County Antrim in 1764. Heavily influenced by his Presbyterian faith and by the ideas of the American Revolution, in 1782 he joined the Irish Volunteer movement, which was initially raised to protect Ireland, but which progressively became more radical in its outlook and demands. In 1789 he marched with them to celebrate the taking of the Bastille and the start of the French Revolution. When the Volunteers waned, James joined the newly formed United Irishmen, which sought the end of British rule and an independent Ireland. The authorities watched the growth of the United Irishmen with concern. On war being declared against France in 1793, they were declared illegal and they went underground. In 1798 the United Irishmen led a major rebellion, hoping to begin a revolution in Ireland with the support of French troops. But under severe pressure from British military and civil measures, and divided on account of religion and geography, the leadership of the United Irishmen splintered, and the movement faltered – becoming more like a civil war in many places, as Irish loyalists joined in the suppression. Avoiding arrest, unlike many other leaders, James played a prominent part in the Battle of Antrim, holding up the victorious British forces and allowing the defeated United Irishmen to escape and go into hiding. Despite a further attempt to rise up in 1803, the United Irishmen were ultimately unable to revive their cause. The protestant majority in the north had mostly changed its views, turning them into loyal supporters of the British Government and many former United Irishmen now filled the ranks of the British army. Hope remained on the run for a number of years, barely surviving and earning a pittance. Following a political amnesty in 1806 he moved back to Belfast, where he continued to work and support his family. His ideas about activism, equality and independence, though, remained inspirational to many Irish radicals, and his memoirs were published a year before his death in 1847. This is a plaster copy of James Hope’s original death mask. Did you know..? Death masks were typically made for popular or notorious people whose remembrance was in the public interest, and had to be made within four hours of death to prevent features being altered by bloating. Sources & acknowledgements This object description and its related educational resources were researched and written by our team of historians and education specialists. For further information see the item’s home museum, gallery or archive, listed above. Find it here This object is in the collection of National Museums Northern Ireland	583	ENGLISH	1
The King Whose Words Buttered Parsnips Introductory Note: Published just a few weeks after the 1848 “March Days” in Prussia, this political satire lampoons the actions of King Frederick William IV to quell the civic unrest that was unsettling many of the German states. In March, citizens had gathered in the capital in protest; troops responded, and three hundred civilians and thirty soldiers were killed. The King placated the people by calling off the troops and promising many things that would improve their current circumstances—a promise few believed he intended to keep. Though the brief story is based on historical events, it is written as a humorous fable, an “Apologue, dedicated to Prussia,” depicting the people as gullible and the King as self-serving. (An Apologue, Dedicated to Prussia.) Now that there was once a King who had a silly people, who believed that fine words did butter parsnips. The King was quite aware of the peculiarity of his subjects; and when they held up their social parsnips to be buttered by political rights, he always made them a fine speech, and told them that he was their father, and that he would give them plenty of butter—some day soon; upon which the foolish people shouted, “God save our worthy King!” and went home and contentedly eat their parsnips dry. Now, this farce was many times repeated—so many times, that at length the people, silly as they were, began to get tired of it, and so one day they rose up in right-down earnest to seek real butter for their parsnips. Upon this, the King commanded his cavalry, and his infantry, and his artillery to mow down his dearly beloved children, which they did by thousands; but the people still fighting valiantly, drubbed the troops, and held the city in their possession, and the King in their hands. Out he came with his fine buttering words again, and cried over the dead bodies of those whom he had caused to be slain, and told the people that he loved them better than ever, and that they should have butter with their parsnips the day after to-morrow; and the people, who upon this subject had no more brains in their skulls than there is in the insides of boiled pumpkins, shouted out again “God save our worthy King!” and went home, and once more eat their parsnips dry. Next day the King convened them all. He looked at their bayonets, and knew that his troops were beaten and dispersed, and that the people could kick him out of his palace whenever they thought proper. So he asked them whether he was not a dear good old King, and a loving father, to give them whatever they wanted without the least compulsion, but quite spontaneously? And then he enquired whether they did not think such a capital King would make a still better Emperor? Would it be believed that the donkeys of people shouted “Yes! yes! God save our worthy Emperor!” So the King laughed in his sleeve at the gulls he had to deal with, and made them all manner of promises; kindly consenting to give them, as great favours, things which they could have taken without leave—asked or received. Upon which the people again went home, and again eat their parsnips dry. We are not, however, without great hopes that very soon this foolish people will have its eyes opened to the respectable Humbug who has been deceiving them, and that they will cause him to march out of his kingdom, with every drum in Germany playing the “Rogue’s March” at his heels. Download PDF of original Text (validated PDF/A conformant) How To Cite (MLA Format) "The King Whose Words Buttered Parsnips." The Man in the Moon, vol. 3, no. 5, 1848, pp. 257-8. Edited by Coryse Templeman. Victorian Short Fiction Project, 26 January 2020, http://vsfp.byu.edu/index.php/title/the-king-whose-words-buttered-parsnips/. 7 October 2016 26 January 2020	<urn:uuid:58869deb-64a9-4276-9627-f0205cf392d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://vsfp.byu.edu/index.php/title/the-king-whose-words-buttered-parsnips/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00531.warc.gz	en	0.988181	896	3.65625	4	[ -0.2847987413406372, 0.5753868818283081, 0.22139257192611694, 0.23300021886825562, -0.11787255853414536, -0.4908331036567688, 0.24642322957515717, 0.18048077821731567, -0.39742085337638855, -0.22881481051445007, -0.1474226713180542, -0.19855254888534546, 0.14685764908790588, -0.17386770248...	1	The King Whose Words Buttered Parsnips Introductory Note: Published just a few weeks after the 1848 “March Days” in Prussia, this political satire lampoons the actions of King Frederick William IV to quell the civic unrest that was unsettling many of the German states. In March, citizens had gathered in the capital in protest; troops responded, and three hundred civilians and thirty soldiers were killed. The King placated the people by calling off the troops and promising many things that would improve their current circumstances—a promise few believed he intended to keep. Though the brief story is based on historical events, it is written as a humorous fable, an “Apologue, dedicated to Prussia,” depicting the people as gullible and the King as self-serving. (An Apologue, Dedicated to Prussia.) Now that there was once a King who had a silly people, who believed that fine words did butter parsnips. The King was quite aware of the peculiarity of his subjects; and when they held up their social parsnips to be buttered by political rights, he always made them a fine speech, and told them that he was their father, and that he would give them plenty of butter—some day soon; upon which the foolish people shouted, “God save our worthy King!” and went home and contentedly eat their parsnips dry. Now, this farce was many times repeated—so many times, that at length the people, silly as they were, began to get tired of it, and so one day they rose up in right-down earnest to seek real butter for their parsnips. Upon this, the King commanded his cavalry, and his infantry, and his artillery to mow down his dearly beloved children, which they did by thousands; but the people still fighting valiantly, drubbed the troops, and held the city in their possession, and the King in their hands. Out he came with his fine buttering words again, and cried over the dead bodies of those whom he had caused to be slain, and told the people that he loved them better than ever, and that they should have butter with their parsnips the day after to-morrow; and the people, who upon this subject had no more brains in their skulls than there is in the insides of boiled pumpkins, shouted out again “God save our worthy King!” and went home, and once more eat their parsnips dry. Next day the King convened them all. He looked at their bayonets, and knew that his troops were beaten and dispersed, and that the people could kick him out of his palace whenever they thought proper. So he asked them whether he was not a dear good old King, and a loving father, to give them whatever they wanted without the least compulsion, but quite spontaneously? And then he enquired whether they did not think such a capital King would make a still better Emperor? Would it be believed that the donkeys of people shouted “Yes! yes! God save our worthy Emperor!” So the King laughed in his sleeve at the gulls he had to deal with, and made them all manner of promises; kindly consenting to give them, as great favours, things which they could have taken without leave—asked or received. Upon which the people again went home, and again eat their parsnips dry. We are not, however, without great hopes that very soon this foolish people will have its eyes opened to the respectable Humbug who has been deceiving them, and that they will cause him to march out of his kingdom, with every drum in Germany playing the “Rogue’s March” at his heels. Download PDF of original Text (validated PDF/A conformant) How To Cite (MLA Format) "The King Whose Words Buttered Parsnips." The Man in the Moon, vol. 3, no. 5, 1848, pp. 257-8. Edited by Coryse Templeman. Victorian Short Fiction Project, 26 January 2020, http://vsfp.byu.edu/index.php/title/the-king-whose-words-buttered-parsnips/. 7 October 2016 26 January 2020	881	ENGLISH	1
Patrick Henry was born in Hanover County, Virginia, on May 29, 1736, to John and Sarah Henry. Although he was mostly educated at home by his father, Patrick took an active interest in law, which he pursued on his own. In 1760, Patrick was admitted to the Virginia bar. He soon became a well-known and persuasive attorney and a staunch advocate for American independence. Vociferous Opposition to the Stamp Act Patrick Henry's words were extremely influential. In 1763, Henry argued against the King of England in the Parson's Cause case in Hanover County. Henry defended the right of the colony to fix the price of the tobacco in which the clergy were paid. When clergymen complained to the king, the ruling was nullified. Henry argued that any king who would veto a law implemented by a locally elected council is not a father to the people but a tyrant undeserving of the allegiance of his subjects. Henry was equally as vociferous in his opposition of the 1765 Stamp Act, which he voiced at the Virginia House of Burgesses. Despite cries of treason throughout the meeting room for his impassioned scolding of the Stamp Act and its creators, the House ultimately sided with Patrick Henry and his resolutions asserting that colonists, as Englishmen, have the exclusive right to tax themselves. Patrick Henry Arguing the Parson's Cause Give me Liberty or Give me Death Henry became a delegate to the House of Burgesses in 1765 and served until 1774. Henry became a powerful voice in the quest for American independence and advocated the arming of civilians. His famous words, "Give me liberty or give me death," spoke for a generation of Americans ready to rebel against England. Political Contributions to the New Nation Patrick Henry was more than just a radical - he was a very successful politician. He was a delegate to the Virginia Provincial Convention in 1775 and was a member of the Continental Congress from 1774-1776. Henry was twice elected as governor of Virginia and led the fight for the Virginia Religious Freedom Act of 1785. Even though he was a Federalist, Henry opposed ratification of the US Constitution, asserting it jeopardized states' rights. He worked hard to have the Bill of Rights added to the Constitution. Henry died June 6, 1799.	<urn:uuid:4a63fd45-f589-4b41-be55-50ba40051e2e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/patrick-henry-biography	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00010.warc.gz	en	0.988689	469	3.515625	4	[ -0.6532657146453857, 0.3833042085170746, 0.1474934220314026, -0.2553628087043762, -0.08411968499422073, 0.08306993544101715, 0.5473194718360901, -0.07684929668903351, -0.18139424920082092, 0.04541626572608948, -0.3339298367500305, -0.19419190287590027, -0.09196668863296509, -0.155361279845...	1	Patrick Henry was born in Hanover County, Virginia, on May 29, 1736, to John and Sarah Henry. Although he was mostly educated at home by his father, Patrick took an active interest in law, which he pursued on his own. In 1760, Patrick was admitted to the Virginia bar. He soon became a well-known and persuasive attorney and a staunch advocate for American independence. Vociferous Opposition to the Stamp Act Patrick Henry's words were extremely influential. In 1763, Henry argued against the King of England in the Parson's Cause case in Hanover County. Henry defended the right of the colony to fix the price of the tobacco in which the clergy were paid. When clergymen complained to the king, the ruling was nullified. Henry argued that any king who would veto a law implemented by a locally elected council is not a father to the people but a tyrant undeserving of the allegiance of his subjects. Henry was equally as vociferous in his opposition of the 1765 Stamp Act, which he voiced at the Virginia House of Burgesses. Despite cries of treason throughout the meeting room for his impassioned scolding of the Stamp Act and its creators, the House ultimately sided with Patrick Henry and his resolutions asserting that colonists, as Englishmen, have the exclusive right to tax themselves. Patrick Henry Arguing the Parson's Cause Give me Liberty or Give me Death Henry became a delegate to the House of Burgesses in 1765 and served until 1774. Henry became a powerful voice in the quest for American independence and advocated the arming of civilians. His famous words, "Give me liberty or give me death," spoke for a generation of Americans ready to rebel against England. Political Contributions to the New Nation Patrick Henry was more than just a radical - he was a very successful politician. He was a delegate to the Virginia Provincial Convention in 1775 and was a member of the Continental Congress from 1774-1776. Henry was twice elected as governor of Virginia and led the fight for the Virginia Religious Freedom Act of 1785. Even though he was a Federalist, Henry opposed ratification of the US Constitution, asserting it jeopardized states' rights. He worked hard to have the Bill of Rights added to the Constitution. Henry died June 6, 1799.	505	ENGLISH	1
HIS is the story of Odysseus, the most renowned of all the heroes the Greek poets have told us of—of Odysseus, his wars and his wanderings. And this story of Odysseus begins with his son, the youth who was called Telemachus. It was when Telemachus was a child of a month old that a messenger came from Agamemnon, the Great King, bidding Odysseus betake himself to the war against Troy that the Kings and Princes of Greece were about to wage. The wise Odysseus, foreseeing the disasters that would befall all that entered that war, was loth to go. And so when Agamemnon's messenger came to the island of Ithaka where he was King, Odysseus pretended to be mad. And that the messenger, Palamedes, might believe he was mad indeed, he did a thing that no man ever saw being done before—he took an ass and an ox and yoked them together to the same plough and began to plough a field. And when he had ploughed a furrow he sowed it, not with seeds that would grow, but with salt. When Palamedes saw him doing this he was nearly persuaded that Odysseus was mad. But to test him he took the child Telemachus and laid him down in the field in the way of the plough. Odysseus, when he came near to where the child lay, turned the plough aside and thereby showed that he was not a mad man. Then had he to take King Agamemnon's summons. And Agamemnon's word was that Odysseus should go to Aulis where the ships of the Kings and Princes of Greece were being gathered. But first he was to go into another country to seek the hero Achilles and persuade him also to enter the war against Troy. And so Odysseus bade good-bye to his infant son, Telemachus, and to his young wife, Penelope, and to his father, old Laertes. And he bade good-bye to his house and his lands and to the island of Ithaka where he was King. He summoned a council of the chief men of Ithaka and commended to their care his wife and his child and all his household, and thereafter he took his sailors and his fighting men with him and he sailed away. The years went by and Odysseus did not return. After ten years the City was taken by the Kings and Princes of Greece and the thread of war was wound up. But still Odysseus did not return. And now minstrels came to Ithaka with word of the deaths or the homecomings of the heroes who had fought in the war against Troy. But no minstrel brought any word of Odysseus, of his death or of his appearance in any land known to men. Ten years more went by. And now that infant son whom he had left behind, Telemachus, had grown up and was a young man of strength and purpose.	<urn:uuid:1f14a1d8-5e39-4017-923c-3c4cc7b3ba66>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/colum/odysseus/summons	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00036.warc.gz	en	0.993553	656	3.421875	3	[ -0.05395502224564552, 0.23914587497711182, 0.21277332305908203, -0.23011568188667297, -0.5338338613510132, -0.6774499416351318, 0.22070884704589844, 0.5308184623718262, -0.3683769702911377, -0.5266871452331543, -0.22545073926448822, -0.1744188517332077, 0.01873328536748886, 0.4977182745933...	1	HIS is the story of Odysseus, the most renowned of all the heroes the Greek poets have told us of—of Odysseus, his wars and his wanderings. And this story of Odysseus begins with his son, the youth who was called Telemachus. It was when Telemachus was a child of a month old that a messenger came from Agamemnon, the Great King, bidding Odysseus betake himself to the war against Troy that the Kings and Princes of Greece were about to wage. The wise Odysseus, foreseeing the disasters that would befall all that entered that war, was loth to go. And so when Agamemnon's messenger came to the island of Ithaka where he was King, Odysseus pretended to be mad. And that the messenger, Palamedes, might believe he was mad indeed, he did a thing that no man ever saw being done before—he took an ass and an ox and yoked them together to the same plough and began to plough a field. And when he had ploughed a furrow he sowed it, not with seeds that would grow, but with salt. When Palamedes saw him doing this he was nearly persuaded that Odysseus was mad. But to test him he took the child Telemachus and laid him down in the field in the way of the plough. Odysseus, when he came near to where the child lay, turned the plough aside and thereby showed that he was not a mad man. Then had he to take King Agamemnon's summons. And Agamemnon's word was that Odysseus should go to Aulis where the ships of the Kings and Princes of Greece were being gathered. But first he was to go into another country to seek the hero Achilles and persuade him also to enter the war against Troy. And so Odysseus bade good-bye to his infant son, Telemachus, and to his young wife, Penelope, and to his father, old Laertes. And he bade good-bye to his house and his lands and to the island of Ithaka where he was King. He summoned a council of the chief men of Ithaka and commended to their care his wife and his child and all his household, and thereafter he took his sailors and his fighting men with him and he sailed away. The years went by and Odysseus did not return. After ten years the City was taken by the Kings and Princes of Greece and the thread of war was wound up. But still Odysseus did not return. And now minstrels came to Ithaka with word of the deaths or the homecomings of the heroes who had fought in the war against Troy. But no minstrel brought any word of Odysseus, of his death or of his appearance in any land known to men. Ten years more went by. And now that infant son whom he had left behind, Telemachus, had grown up and was a young man of strength and purpose.	654	ENGLISH	1
The history of the Second World War is full of heroic actions carried out by men and women, often little known but whose work was indispensable in the discourse of war. Women were actively involved in virtually every aspect of the conflict, both military and civilian. For example, the British intelligence service (SOE) had 55 female members, of whom 13 died in action. There were also women soldiers and pilots who took part in military actions and bombardments. And more than 59,000 nurses participated in World War II, of which more than 200 died. In the Pacific alone, 70 were captured by the Japanese in 1942 and held prisoner for three and a half years. For Operation Overlord, the nurses received military training. They were taught how to get on a boat with a rope, how to jump on boats, how to parade, how to cross fences and barricades, and how to defend themselves. On D-Day they got rid of their traditional headdresses and wore military uniforms and boots. It does not seem that any nurse participated in the operation the D day, but they would arrive four days later, disembarking under the fire of the German snipers. These are some of those women who became heroines. 1. Virginia Hall Virginia Hall was, according to the Gestapo itself, the most dangerous of allied spies. American, she worked for the British SOE (Special Operations Executive), becoming the first operational allied spy in occupied France. She hid in Lyon for two years as a correspondent for the New York Post. Once the Allies landed in North Africa she crossed the Pyrenees on foot across to Spain, where she was imprisoned in Figueres. Once released, she moved to Madrid, where she continued her work. Once the United States enters the war, she joins the OSS (Office of Strategic Services), the predecessor of the CIA, and is sent back to France aboard a submarine. There she arms and trains three resistance battalions, which manage to destroy four bridges, sabotage railway and telephone lines and capture more than 500 German soldiers. She was never captured by the Nazis. Oh, and several years before becoming a spy she had lost a leg in a traffic accident, so she wore an artificial one. 2. Lillian Gutteridge Lillian Gutteridge was a British nurse who participated in the evacuation of the Allied armies in Dunkirk. She was one of the last nurses to leave France. Her ambulance was stopped by an SS officer who ordered her to deliver the wounded she was transporting. Lillian slapped the officer, who responded by stabbing her in the thigh with a knife. Before things got worse, the officer was shot down by soldiers of the retreating Scottish Black Watch regiment. Despite her injury, Lillian drove the ambulance to the French railroad bound for Cherbourg. On the way she picked up another 600 wounded French and British soldiers. Days later she managed to reach England with her patients. 3. Susan Travers The only woman in the French Foreign Legion at the time of the outbreak of war, Travers was in Bir Hakeim, Libya, when the forces of Free France were surrounded by the Germans. She refused to be evacuated with the rest of the women and remained under siege for 15 days, until the situation became untenable. Getting behind the wheel of a truck, she managed to cross the German fence and lead the 2,500 French surrounded soldiers to the allied lines, acting as a shield. 4. The Czech nurse who poisoned the Nazis A few years ago the Czech town of Trebon unveiled a commemorative plaque of a nurse (whose name is unknown), who after the German annexation of Czechoslovakia poisoned several German soldiers. She became her lover, and according to the stories that have been transmitted orally, after being with her they used to die or disappear. In the end she was executed by a Gestapo agent sent to investigate the matter. 5. Violette Szabo When her husband Etienne Szabo, officer of the French Foreign Legion died in combat, Violette was recruited by the British SOE and sent to France as a spy in April 1944. There she organized a resistance unit, sabotaged bridges and roads, and sent reports to London. She was arrested twice, but on both occasions she managed to escape. Sent back to France a few days after the Normandy landing, she was intercepted at a roadblock along with her partisan companion. Leaving the car Violette opened fire on the German soldiers, and continued firing until her companion managed to escape. Interrogated and tortured, they couldn’t get her to talk. She was transferred to the Ravensbrück concentration camp in August 1944, where she made several unsuccessful escape attempts. In January 1945 she was executed by an SS officer. Her story is told in the 1958 film Secret Agent SZ. 6. Augusta Chiwy Augusta Chiwy was a Belgian-Congolese nurse who volunteered to serve at the field hospital in Bastogne during the Battle of the Bulge. At that time there was only one doctor treating the wounded Americans. Augusta went around the battlefield picking up the wounded under enemy fire. In 2011, at the age of 93, the American army paid her a tribute. 7. Felice Schragenheim Although Felice Schragenheim tried to flee Germany several times before the war, the fact is that she remained working for a Nazi newspaper, hiding her Jewish status. There she had access to secret information and at the same time could hide in plain sight, helping other Jews to leave the country. In 1942 she falls in love with Lilly Wust, the wife of a German officer, with whose family she lives until August 21, 1943, when she is arrested and sent to the Theresienstadt concentration camp. Wust tries to visit her in the camp, but is refused. Felice dies on 1 January 1944, probably of tuberculosis. Wust then abandons her husband and devotes herself to protecting Jews for the rest of the war. All this wasn’t known until it was revealed by Lilly Wust in 1995. The 1999 film Aimée and Jaguar tells the story. 8. Elsie Ott Elsie Ott was a nurse and a lieutenant in the U.S. Army. In 1943 she was sent to India on board an airplane with the mission of evacuating wounded soldiers without ever having been trained or flown. The apparatus had no medical equipment, only a small first aid kit and a doctor. A few months later she returned to India with a new evacuation unit and was promoted to captain. 9. Lise Borsum Lise Borsum was a housewife, a member of the Norwegian resistance, who throughout the war helped Jews escape from Nazi-occupied countries, leading them to Sweden. Their house was used as a transit shelter. In 1943 she is arrested together with her husband. The husband was released, but she is sent to the Ravensbrück concentration camp, where she remains until she is released by the Swedish Red Cross in 1945. 10. Reba Whittle Reba Whittle, an air nurse from the United States, became the first female prisoner of war on the western front during World War II. The plane in which she was traveling was shot down over Aachen and the survivors taken prisoner. She was taken to a hospital near Frankfurt to care for British prisoners of war. She was finally liberated along with 109 of her companions thanks to the intercession of Switzerland, on January 25, 1945.	<urn:uuid:c38509de-1b80-4767-a6c9-b6199e363d20>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://labrujulaverde.com/en/2019/11/10-heroines-of-world-war-ii/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00543.warc.gz	en	0.98435	1,545	3.796875	4	[ -0.3342333734035492, 0.43308115005493164, 0.12794241309165955, -0.22753465175628662, 0.08439426124095917, 0.2598351836204529, 0.13911038637161255, 0.23101511597633362, 0.12440071254968643, -0.2128673940896988, 0.30435800552368164, -0.08232831954956055, 0.24138163030147552, 0.25299471616744...	8	The history of the Second World War is full of heroic actions carried out by men and women, often little known but whose work was indispensable in the discourse of war. Women were actively involved in virtually every aspect of the conflict, both military and civilian. For example, the British intelligence service (SOE) had 55 female members, of whom 13 died in action. There were also women soldiers and pilots who took part in military actions and bombardments. And more than 59,000 nurses participated in World War II, of which more than 200 died. In the Pacific alone, 70 were captured by the Japanese in 1942 and held prisoner for three and a half years. For Operation Overlord, the nurses received military training. They were taught how to get on a boat with a rope, how to jump on boats, how to parade, how to cross fences and barricades, and how to defend themselves. On D-Day they got rid of their traditional headdresses and wore military uniforms and boots. It does not seem that any nurse participated in the operation the D day, but they would arrive four days later, disembarking under the fire of the German snipers. These are some of those women who became heroines. 1. Virginia Hall Virginia Hall was, according to the Gestapo itself, the most dangerous of allied spies. American, she worked for the British SOE (Special Operations Executive), becoming the first operational allied spy in occupied France. She hid in Lyon for two years as a correspondent for the New York Post. Once the Allies landed in North Africa she crossed the Pyrenees on foot across to Spain, where she was imprisoned in Figueres. Once released, she moved to Madrid, where she continued her work. Once the United States enters the war, she joins the OSS (Office of Strategic Services), the predecessor of the CIA, and is sent back to France aboard a submarine. There she arms and trains three resistance battalions, which manage to destroy four bridges, sabotage railway and telephone lines and capture more than 500 German soldiers. She was never captured by the Nazis. Oh, and several years before becoming a spy she had lost a leg in a traffic accident, so she wore an artificial one. 2. Lillian Gutteridge Lillian Gutteridge was a British nurse who participated in the evacuation of the Allied armies in Dunkirk. She was one of the last nurses to leave France. Her ambulance was stopped by an SS officer who ordered her to deliver the wounded she was transporting. Lillian slapped the officer, who responded by stabbing her in the thigh with a knife. Before things got worse, the officer was shot down by soldiers of the retreating Scottish Black Watch regiment. Despite her injury, Lillian drove the ambulance to the French railroad bound for Cherbourg. On the way she picked up another 600 wounded French and British soldiers. Days later she managed to reach England with her patients. 3. Susan Travers The only woman in the French Foreign Legion at the time of the outbreak of war, Travers was in Bir Hakeim, Libya, when the forces of Free France were surrounded by the Germans. She refused to be evacuated with the rest of the women and remained under siege for 15 days, until the situation became untenable. Getting behind the wheel of a truck, she managed to cross the German fence and lead the 2,500 French surrounded soldiers to the allied lines, acting as a shield. 4. The Czech nurse who poisoned the Nazis A few years ago the Czech town of Trebon unveiled a commemorative plaque of a nurse (whose name is unknown), who after the German annexation of Czechoslovakia poisoned several German soldiers. She became her lover, and according to the stories that have been transmitted orally, after being with her they used to die or disappear. In the end she was executed by a Gestapo agent sent to investigate the matter. 5. Violette Szabo When her husband Etienne Szabo, officer of the French Foreign Legion died in combat, Violette was recruited by the British SOE and sent to France as a spy in April 1944. There she organized a resistance unit, sabotaged bridges and roads, and sent reports to London. She was arrested twice, but on both occasions she managed to escape. Sent back to France a few days after the Normandy landing, she was intercepted at a roadblock along with her partisan companion. Leaving the car Violette opened fire on the German soldiers, and continued firing until her companion managed to escape. Interrogated and tortured, they couldn’t get her to talk. She was transferred to the Ravensbrück concentration camp in August 1944, where she made several unsuccessful escape attempts. In January 1945 she was executed by an SS officer. Her story is told in the 1958 film Secret Agent SZ. 6. Augusta Chiwy Augusta Chiwy was a Belgian-Congolese nurse who volunteered to serve at the field hospital in Bastogne during the Battle of the Bulge. At that time there was only one doctor treating the wounded Americans. Augusta went around the battlefield picking up the wounded under enemy fire. In 2011, at the age of 93, the American army paid her a tribute. 7. Felice Schragenheim Although Felice Schragenheim tried to flee Germany several times before the war, the fact is that she remained working for a Nazi newspaper, hiding her Jewish status. There she had access to secret information and at the same time could hide in plain sight, helping other Jews to leave the country. In 1942 she falls in love with Lilly Wust, the wife of a German officer, with whose family she lives until August 21, 1943, when she is arrested and sent to the Theresienstadt concentration camp. Wust tries to visit her in the camp, but is refused. Felice dies on 1 January 1944, probably of tuberculosis. Wust then abandons her husband and devotes herself to protecting Jews for the rest of the war. All this wasn’t known until it was revealed by Lilly Wust in 1995. The 1999 film Aimée and Jaguar tells the story. 8. Elsie Ott Elsie Ott was a nurse and a lieutenant in the U.S. Army. In 1943 she was sent to India on board an airplane with the mission of evacuating wounded soldiers without ever having been trained or flown. The apparatus had no medical equipment, only a small first aid kit and a doctor. A few months later she returned to India with a new evacuation unit and was promoted to captain. 9. Lise Borsum Lise Borsum was a housewife, a member of the Norwegian resistance, who throughout the war helped Jews escape from Nazi-occupied countries, leading them to Sweden. Their house was used as a transit shelter. In 1943 she is arrested together with her husband. The husband was released, but she is sent to the Ravensbrück concentration camp, where she remains until she is released by the Swedish Red Cross in 1945. 10. Reba Whittle Reba Whittle, an air nurse from the United States, became the first female prisoner of war on the western front during World War II. The plane in which she was traveling was shot down over Aachen and the survivors taken prisoner. She was taken to a hospital near Frankfurt to care for British prisoners of war. She was finally liberated along with 109 of her companions thanks to the intercession of Switzerland, on January 25, 1945.	1,614	ENGLISH	1
Standard 8 (std) English Topical Questions Read the passage below and then answer questions 39 to 50 One of the most amazing things about the discovery of a 2,000 year old cemetery in the Bahariyah Oasis in Egypt was that no one was looking for it. No one even knew it existed. It had been completely buried by sand. In 1996, a donkey belonging to a guard at the neraby temple stumbled into a hole in the sand a mile from the temple. When the guard peered into the hole, he saw something shining brightly. He reported the discovery to Egyptian archaeologists right away. However, the archaeologists did not begin serious digging immediately. They did not have the workers or the money. So they made a quick survey of the site, and then covered everything up again. They wanted to hid it from thieves and protect it from exposure to the sun and weather. Finally, in 1999, they had enough money to begin exploring the site. On their very first day of work, after digging only several feet into the sand, they found a lot of mummies. Mummies are dead bodies that have been preserved for a long time. They are mostly found in Egypt. One of them had an especially beautiful mask. It was no a pharao’s mummy, though. It turned out that none of the tombs in this cemetery belonged to royalty. Most of the people buried here came from families that grew rich by trading in wine. The most spectacular of these mummies have masks made of plaster covered with a thin layer of gold. Many are in wonderful condition. And because grave robbers never found these tombs, everything that was buried with them is still there. Most of the mummies have been left where they were found, but a few of the best preserved ones are on display in the Bahariya Museum, where the public can take a look at them. Two mummies were found lying side by side and were probably a husband and a wife. His mask and chest plate were decorated with religious figures. Her head was turned in his direction, indicating that the husband had died first. The other mummies are of children. Archaeologists think they were brother and sister because they were found together. The boy was probably about five years old. His mask with its painted eyes and features are so real – he almost seems alive! Did archaeologists find treasures in these tombs? It depends on what you mean by ‘treasures’. They have not found any solid gold, but they have discovered all sorts of objects. The people buried in the cemetery may have thought some of these items would be useful in the afterlife. Or some may have been intended as gifts to the gods. For example, archaeologists have unearthed small statues of various gods. They have found many pieces of jewellery – necklaces, bracelets and anklets – made of copper, glass, ivory and semi-precious stones. They have also discovered many pottery pieces used for storing, cooking or serving food. There were some bronze Greek and Roman coins too. And in the children’s tombs, they found toys – carved animals for the children to play with in the afterlife. Archaeologists will be able to learn more about these people and their way of life by further studying their mummies and the things buried with them. And so many mummies were buried in the valley of Golden Mummies that excavation and learning will continue at the site for years to come. (Adapted from secrets of past by World Book, Inc. 2002) Maurice A. Nyamoti is a teacher by profession and has passion for assisting students improve performance P.O Box 1189 - 40200 Kisii Tel: 0728 450 424 Tel: 0738 619 279 Tel: 0763 450 425 E-mail - email@example.com	<urn:uuid:3353505c-3cbe-4597-b4f9-90f52344482c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.atikaschool.org/standard-8-std-english-topical-questions/category/kcse-passage-3-2011-question-3950	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00293.warc.gz	en	0.984344	800	3.796875	4	[ -0.1992534101009369, 0.4638824164867401, 0.35581299662590027, 0.038503505289554596, -0.13094457983970642, -0.11629065871238708, 0.5081743001937866, -0.25216665863990784, -0.16074205935001373, 0.3066619634628296, 0.08507614582777023, -0.34556055068969727, 0.10830433666706085, 0.443486630916...	1	Standard 8 (std) English Topical Questions Read the passage below and then answer questions 39 to 50 One of the most amazing things about the discovery of a 2,000 year old cemetery in the Bahariyah Oasis in Egypt was that no one was looking for it. No one even knew it existed. It had been completely buried by sand. In 1996, a donkey belonging to a guard at the neraby temple stumbled into a hole in the sand a mile from the temple. When the guard peered into the hole, he saw something shining brightly. He reported the discovery to Egyptian archaeologists right away. However, the archaeologists did not begin serious digging immediately. They did not have the workers or the money. So they made a quick survey of the site, and then covered everything up again. They wanted to hid it from thieves and protect it from exposure to the sun and weather. Finally, in 1999, they had enough money to begin exploring the site. On their very first day of work, after digging only several feet into the sand, they found a lot of mummies. Mummies are dead bodies that have been preserved for a long time. They are mostly found in Egypt. One of them had an especially beautiful mask. It was no a pharao’s mummy, though. It turned out that none of the tombs in this cemetery belonged to royalty. Most of the people buried here came from families that grew rich by trading in wine. The most spectacular of these mummies have masks made of plaster covered with a thin layer of gold. Many are in wonderful condition. And because grave robbers never found these tombs, everything that was buried with them is still there. Most of the mummies have been left where they were found, but a few of the best preserved ones are on display in the Bahariya Museum, where the public can take a look at them. Two mummies were found lying side by side and were probably a husband and a wife. His mask and chest plate were decorated with religious figures. Her head was turned in his direction, indicating that the husband had died first. The other mummies are of children. Archaeologists think they were brother and sister because they were found together. The boy was probably about five years old. His mask with its painted eyes and features are so real – he almost seems alive! Did archaeologists find treasures in these tombs? It depends on what you mean by ‘treasures’. They have not found any solid gold, but they have discovered all sorts of objects. The people buried in the cemetery may have thought some of these items would be useful in the afterlife. Or some may have been intended as gifts to the gods. For example, archaeologists have unearthed small statues of various gods. They have found many pieces of jewellery – necklaces, bracelets and anklets – made of copper, glass, ivory and semi-precious stones. They have also discovered many pottery pieces used for storing, cooking or serving food. There were some bronze Greek and Roman coins too. And in the children’s tombs, they found toys – carved animals for the children to play with in the afterlife. Archaeologists will be able to learn more about these people and their way of life by further studying their mummies and the things buried with them. And so many mummies were buried in the valley of Golden Mummies that excavation and learning will continue at the site for years to come. (Adapted from secrets of past by World Book, Inc. 2002) Maurice A. Nyamoti is a teacher by profession and has passion for assisting students improve performance P.O Box 1189 - 40200 Kisii Tel: 0728 450 424 Tel: 0738 619 279 Tel: 0763 450 425 E-mail - email@example.com	833	ENGLISH	1
The Crescentii clan (in modern Italian Crescenzi) — if they were an extended family — essentially ruled Rome and controlled the Papacy from 965until the nearly simultaneous deaths of their puppet pope Sergius IV and the patricius of the clan in 1012. Rome is the capital city and a special comune of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region. With 2,872,800 residents in 1,285 km2 (496.1 sq mi), it is also the country's most populated comune. It is the fourth most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the centre of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4,355,725 residents, thus making it the most populous metropolitan city in Italy. Rome is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio (Latium), along the shores of the Tiber. The Vatican City is an independent country inside the city boundaries of Rome, the only existing example of a country within a city: for this reason Rome has been often defined as capital of two states. Papal appointment was a medieval method of selecting a pope. Popes have always been selected by a council of Church fathers, however, Papal selection before 1059 was often characterized by confirmation or "nomination" by secular European rulers or by their predecessors. The later procedures of the papal conclave are in large part designed to constrain the interference of secular rulers which characterized the first millennium of the Roman Catholic Church, and persisted in practices such as the creation of crown-cardinals and the jus exclusivae. Appointment might have taken several forms, with a variety of roles for the laity and civic leaders, Byzantine and Germanic emperors, and noble Roman families. The role of the election vis-a-vis the general population and the clergy was prone to vary considerably, with a nomination carrying weight that ranged from near total to a mere suggestion or ratification of a prior election. Several individuals named Crescentius who appear in the very scanty documentation of the period have been grouped together by historians as the "Crescentii." Some do seem to bear family relationships, falling into two main branches, the Ottaviani and the Stefaniani, and their policies were consistent enough, especially as regards confronting the rival gang of aristocratic thugs, the Tusculani, who were descended from the influential curial official Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, ruler of Rome at the beginning of the 10th century. Their territorial strongholds were situated mainly in the Sabine Hills. The Crescentii had another formidable enemy, whose power did not always extend to Rome, in the German kings and emperors of the Ottonian Saxon dynasty, notably Otto the Great and Henry II. Emperor Otto's intervention in Italian affairs in 961 was not in Crescentii interests. In February 962, the pope and the emperor ratified the Diploma Ottonianum , in which the emperor became the guarantor of the independence of the papal states. It was the Crescentii who most threatened papal independence. Otto I, traditionally known as Otto the Great, was German king from 936 and Holy Roman Emperor from 962 until his death in 973. He was the oldest son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda. Henry II, also known as Saint Henry the Exuberant, Obl. S. B., was Holy Roman Emperor from 1014 until his death in 1024 and the last member of the Ottonian dynasty of Emperors as he had no children. The Duke of Bavaria from 995, Henry became King of Germany following the sudden death of his second cousin, Emperor Otto III in 1002, was crowned King of Italy in 1004, and was crowned by the Pope as Emperor in 1014. The Diploma Ottonianum was an agreement between Pope John XII and Otto I, King of Germany and Italy. It confirmed the earlier Donation of Pippin, granting control of the Papal States to the Popes, regularizing Papal elections, and clarifying the relationship between the Popes and the Holy Roman Emperors. The clan's triumph was in the later 10th century. They produced one pope from among their number — John XIII — and controlled most of the others, whom the leaders of the Crescentii installed as puppet popes. They held the secular offices such as praefectus by which Rome was technically still governed, and exacted large contributions and donations from the Papal treasury, in a thinly disguised extortion. From this power base within the city, they were able to influence even those popes who had not been their direct candidates. Pope John XIII was Pope from 1 October 965 to his death in 972. His pontificate was caught up in the continuing conflict between the Emperor, Otto I, and the Roman nobility. In the countryside, Crescentii castles concentrated a cluster of population that depended on them for their defense and were dependable armed members of the Crescentii clientage. After Sergius IV's death (1012), the Crescentii simply installed their candidate, Gregory, in the Lateran, without the assent of the cardinals. A struggle flared between the Crescentii and the rival Tusculani. The failure of their bold attempt and the pontificate of the Tusculan pope Benedict VIII, whose powerful protector was the King of the Germans, Henry II, whom he crowned Emperor in Rome in 1014, forced the Crescentii out of Rome, retreating to the fortified strongholds. In the 1020s, the abbot Hugh of Farfa was able to play one branch of Crescentii against another, and Crescentii support of two unsuccessful antipopes in mid-century, Sylvester III (Pope in 1045) and Benedict X in 1058 were symptoms of the clan's loss of unity and political prestige. As landowners, they settled into more local forms of patronage, as the Crescenzi. The Lateran Palace, formally the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran, is an ancient palace of the Roman Empire and later the main papal residence in southeast Rome. Pope Benedict VIII reigned from 18 May 1012 to his death in 1024. He was born Theophylactus to the noble family of the counts of Tusculum, descended from Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, like his predecessor Pope Benedict VII (973–974). Horace Mann considered him "...one of the few popes of the Middle Ages who was at once powerful at home and great abroad." Farfa Abbey is a territorial abbey in northern Lazio, central Italy. It is one of the most famous abbeys of Europe. It belongs to the Benedictine Order and is located about 60 km from Rome, in the commune of Fara Sabina, of which it is also a hamlet. Antipope Boniface VII, was an antipope. He is supposed to have put Pope Benedict VI to death. A popular tumult compelled him to flee to Constantinople in 974; he carried off a vast treasure, and returned in 984 and removed Pope John XIV (983–984) from office. After a brief rule from 984 to 985, he died under suspicious circumstances. Pope Gregory V, born Bruno of Carinthia was Pope from 3 May 996 to his death in 999. Pope Sylvester III or Silvester III, born Giovanni dei Crescenzi–Ottaviani in Rome, was Pope from 20 January to March 1045. Pope Sergius II was Pope from January 844 to his death in 847. Pope Sergius IV was Pope and the ruler of the Papal States from 31 July 1009 to his death in 1012. He was born in Rome as Pietro Martino Buccaporci, which translates as "Peter Martin Pig Snout". The date of his birth is unknown. Otto III was Holy Roman Emperor from 996 until his early death in 1002. A member of the Ottonian dynasty, Otto III was the only son of the Emperor Otto II and his wife Theophanu. Pope John XVIII was Pope and ruler of the Papal states from January 1004 to his abdication in June 1009. He was born Giovanni Fassano at Rome, the son of a Roman priest, either named Leo according to Johann Peter Kirsch, or named Ursus according to Horace K Mann. Theophylact I was a medieval Count of Tusculum who was the effective ruler of Rome from around 905 through to his death in 924. His descendants would control the Papacy for the next 100 years. On the death of Pope Sergius IV in June, 1012, "a certain Gregory" opposed the party of the Theophylae, and had himself made Pope, seemingly by a small faction. Gregory VI was the first to claim to be Pope as successor to Pope Sergius, and that Benedict VIII's claim was subsequent. The history of the papacy, the office held by the pope as head of the Roman Catholic Church, according to Catholic doctrine, spans from the time of Peter to the present day. Crescentius the Elder was a politician and aristocrat in Rome who played a part in the papal appointment. Crescentius the Younger, son of Crescentius the Elder, was a leader of the aristocracy of medieval Rome. During the minority of Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, he declared himself Consul of Rome and made himself de facto ruler of Rome. After being deposed, he led a rebellion, seized control of Rome, and appointed an antipope, but the rebellion failed and Crescentius was eventually executed. John Crescentius also John II Crescentius or Crescentius III was the son of Crescentius the Younger. He succeeded to his father's title of consul and patrician of Rome in 1002 and held it to his death. Emilia was the duchess of Gaeta first as consort of John III (984–1008) and then as the regent for her grandson John V (1012–1032) until at least 1029. There was no fixed process for papal selection before 1059. Popes, the bishops of Rome and the leaders of the Catholic Church, were often appointed by their predecessors or secular rulers. While the process was often characterized by some capacity of election, an election with the meaningful participation of the laity was the exception to the rule, especially as the popes' claims to temporal power solidified into the Papal States. The practice of papal appointment during this period would later give rise to the jus exclusivae, a veto right exercised by Catholic monarchies into the twentieth century. From 756 to 857, the papacy shifted from the orbit of the Byzantine Empire to that of the kings of the Franks. Pepin the Short, Charlemagne, and Louis the Pious had considerable influence in the selection and administration of popes. The "Donation of Pepin" (756) ratified a new period of papal rule in central Italy, which became known as the Papal States. The Tusculan Papacy was a period of papal history from 1012 to 1048 where three successive Counts of Tusculum installed themselves as pope.	<urn:uuid:fbe68c6f-2d7b-4e55-8b89-cc8fa0eb4021>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/Crescentii	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00152.warc.gz	en	0.982823	2,360	3.484375	3	[ -0.16836434602737427, 0.10488174110651016, 0.12012086808681488, 0.11276587098836899, -0.19625705480575562, -0.08584211766719818, -0.1305091679096222, 0.32064780592918396, 0.2004302442073822, -0.2026587575674057, -0.17372989654541016, -0.22462938725948334, 0.18902507424354553, 0.29533895850...	1	The Crescentii clan (in modern Italian Crescenzi) — if they were an extended family — essentially ruled Rome and controlled the Papacy from 965until the nearly simultaneous deaths of their puppet pope Sergius IV and the patricius of the clan in 1012. Rome is the capital city and a special comune of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region. With 2,872,800 residents in 1,285 km2 (496.1 sq mi), it is also the country's most populated comune. It is the fourth most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the centre of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4,355,725 residents, thus making it the most populous metropolitan city in Italy. Rome is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio (Latium), along the shores of the Tiber. The Vatican City is an independent country inside the city boundaries of Rome, the only existing example of a country within a city: for this reason Rome has been often defined as capital of two states. Papal appointment was a medieval method of selecting a pope. Popes have always been selected by a council of Church fathers, however, Papal selection before 1059 was often characterized by confirmation or "nomination" by secular European rulers or by their predecessors. The later procedures of the papal conclave are in large part designed to constrain the interference of secular rulers which characterized the first millennium of the Roman Catholic Church, and persisted in practices such as the creation of crown-cardinals and the jus exclusivae. Appointment might have taken several forms, with a variety of roles for the laity and civic leaders, Byzantine and Germanic emperors, and noble Roman families. The role of the election vis-a-vis the general population and the clergy was prone to vary considerably, with a nomination carrying weight that ranged from near total to a mere suggestion or ratification of a prior election. Several individuals named Crescentius who appear in the very scanty documentation of the period have been grouped together by historians as the "Crescentii." Some do seem to bear family relationships, falling into two main branches, the Ottaviani and the Stefaniani, and their policies were consistent enough, especially as regards confronting the rival gang of aristocratic thugs, the Tusculani, who were descended from the influential curial official Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, ruler of Rome at the beginning of the 10th century. Their territorial strongholds were situated mainly in the Sabine Hills. The Crescentii had another formidable enemy, whose power did not always extend to Rome, in the German kings and emperors of the Ottonian Saxon dynasty, notably Otto the Great and Henry II. Emperor Otto's intervention in Italian affairs in 961 was not in Crescentii interests. In February 962, the pope and the emperor ratified the Diploma Ottonianum , in which the emperor became the guarantor of the independence of the papal states. It was the Crescentii who most threatened papal independence. Otto I, traditionally known as Otto the Great, was German king from 936 and Holy Roman Emperor from 962 until his death in 973. He was the oldest son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda. Henry II, also known as Saint Henry the Exuberant, Obl. S. B., was Holy Roman Emperor from 1014 until his death in 1024 and the last member of the Ottonian dynasty of Emperors as he had no children. The Duke of Bavaria from 995, Henry became King of Germany following the sudden death of his second cousin, Emperor Otto III in 1002, was crowned King of Italy in 1004, and was crowned by the Pope as Emperor in 1014. The Diploma Ottonianum was an agreement between Pope John XII and Otto I, King of Germany and Italy. It confirmed the earlier Donation of Pippin, granting control of the Papal States to the Popes, regularizing Papal elections, and clarifying the relationship between the Popes and the Holy Roman Emperors. The clan's triumph was in the later 10th century. They produced one pope from among their number — John XIII — and controlled most of the others, whom the leaders of the Crescentii installed as puppet popes. They held the secular offices such as praefectus by which Rome was technically still governed, and exacted large contributions and donations from the Papal treasury, in a thinly disguised extortion. From this power base within the city, they were able to influence even those popes who had not been their direct candidates. Pope John XIII was Pope from 1 October 965 to his death in 972. His pontificate was caught up in the continuing conflict between the Emperor, Otto I, and the Roman nobility. In the countryside, Crescentii castles concentrated a cluster of population that depended on them for their defense and were dependable armed members of the Crescentii clientage. After Sergius IV's death (1012), the Crescentii simply installed their candidate, Gregory, in the Lateran, without the assent of the cardinals. A struggle flared between the Crescentii and the rival Tusculani. The failure of their bold attempt and the pontificate of the Tusculan pope Benedict VIII, whose powerful protector was the King of the Germans, Henry II, whom he crowned Emperor in Rome in 1014, forced the Crescentii out of Rome, retreating to the fortified strongholds. In the 1020s, the abbot Hugh of Farfa was able to play one branch of Crescentii against another, and Crescentii support of two unsuccessful antipopes in mid-century, Sylvester III (Pope in 1045) and Benedict X in 1058 were symptoms of the clan's loss of unity and political prestige. As landowners, they settled into more local forms of patronage, as the Crescenzi. The Lateran Palace, formally the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran, is an ancient palace of the Roman Empire and later the main papal residence in southeast Rome. Pope Benedict VIII reigned from 18 May 1012 to his death in 1024. He was born Theophylactus to the noble family of the counts of Tusculum, descended from Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, like his predecessor Pope Benedict VII (973–974). Horace Mann considered him "...one of the few popes of the Middle Ages who was at once powerful at home and great abroad." Farfa Abbey is a territorial abbey in northern Lazio, central Italy. It is one of the most famous abbeys of Europe. It belongs to the Benedictine Order and is located about 60 km from Rome, in the commune of Fara Sabina, of which it is also a hamlet. Antipope Boniface VII, was an antipope. He is supposed to have put Pope Benedict VI to death. A popular tumult compelled him to flee to Constantinople in 974; he carried off a vast treasure, and returned in 984 and removed Pope John XIV (983–984) from office. After a brief rule from 984 to 985, he died under suspicious circumstances. Pope Gregory V, born Bruno of Carinthia was Pope from 3 May 996 to his death in 999. Pope Sylvester III or Silvester III, born Giovanni dei Crescenzi–Ottaviani in Rome, was Pope from 20 January to March 1045. Pope Sergius II was Pope from January 844 to his death in 847. Pope Sergius IV was Pope and the ruler of the Papal States from 31 July 1009 to his death in 1012. He was born in Rome as Pietro Martino Buccaporci, which translates as "Peter Martin Pig Snout". The date of his birth is unknown. Otto III was Holy Roman Emperor from 996 until his early death in 1002. A member of the Ottonian dynasty, Otto III was the only son of the Emperor Otto II and his wife Theophanu. Pope John XVIII was Pope and ruler of the Papal states from January 1004 to his abdication in June 1009. He was born Giovanni Fassano at Rome, the son of a Roman priest, either named Leo according to Johann Peter Kirsch, or named Ursus according to Horace K Mann. Theophylact I was a medieval Count of Tusculum who was the effective ruler of Rome from around 905 through to his death in 924. His descendants would control the Papacy for the next 100 years. On the death of Pope Sergius IV in June, 1012, "a certain Gregory" opposed the party of the Theophylae, and had himself made Pope, seemingly by a small faction. Gregory VI was the first to claim to be Pope as successor to Pope Sergius, and that Benedict VIII's claim was subsequent. The history of the papacy, the office held by the pope as head of the Roman Catholic Church, according to Catholic doctrine, spans from the time of Peter to the present day. Crescentius the Elder was a politician and aristocrat in Rome who played a part in the papal appointment. Crescentius the Younger, son of Crescentius the Elder, was a leader of the aristocracy of medieval Rome. During the minority of Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, he declared himself Consul of Rome and made himself de facto ruler of Rome. After being deposed, he led a rebellion, seized control of Rome, and appointed an antipope, but the rebellion failed and Crescentius was eventually executed. John Crescentius also John II Crescentius or Crescentius III was the son of Crescentius the Younger. He succeeded to his father's title of consul and patrician of Rome in 1002 and held it to his death. Emilia was the duchess of Gaeta first as consort of John III (984–1008) and then as the regent for her grandson John V (1012–1032) until at least 1029. There was no fixed process for papal selection before 1059. Popes, the bishops of Rome and the leaders of the Catholic Church, were often appointed by their predecessors or secular rulers. While the process was often characterized by some capacity of election, an election with the meaningful participation of the laity was the exception to the rule, especially as the popes' claims to temporal power solidified into the Papal States. The practice of papal appointment during this period would later give rise to the jus exclusivae, a veto right exercised by Catholic monarchies into the twentieth century. From 756 to 857, the papacy shifted from the orbit of the Byzantine Empire to that of the kings of the Franks. Pepin the Short, Charlemagne, and Louis the Pious had considerable influence in the selection and administration of popes. The "Donation of Pepin" (756) ratified a new period of papal rule in central Italy, which became known as the Papal States. The Tusculan Papacy was a period of papal history from 1012 to 1048 where three successive Counts of Tusculum installed themselves as pope.	2,503	ENGLISH	1
'As it Was' - 01/01/2008 by an Old Hydrographer In 1958 Commander Hunt MBE, RN was about to undertake a survey in HMNZS <i>Lachlan</i> to complete NZ Chart 61, which included part of the rugged West Coast of the South Island much of which then lacked geodetic control stations. The members of the crew of <i>Lachlan</i> and Lands and Survey personnel were organised to work together to complete a traverse on foot through very difficult terrain, using a theodolite and the newly developed Tellurometer. The ship needed to have trigonometric stations ashore marked by beacons for sextant fixing from the ship and boats. But there were no trigs, as land surveyors had not yet reached some of the roughest country along the West Coast. After a reconnaissance by Lachlan it was obvious that the Tasman surf and rocky shore would make boat landings impossible. The only option was to traverse the coastline on foot. This would be difficult, but possible. The foreshore was mainly rocks, with cliffs rising up behind to 200 feet or more, and the mountains in the hinterland rising to 4,000 feet. A rainforest with large trees, dense bush, ferns and ‘gigi’ (a very thick and strong ‘supplejack’ cane) covered almost everything above the high tide. To make any progress the gigi had to be got through, and this meant slashing it down. The difficult part would be the first 23nm of coastline. We had a good liaison with Lands and Survey Department (Govt.), so we suggested that they might like to join us on this one, as it would benefit us equally. They were keen to accept. Cdr. Hunt’s plan was for a substantial shore-party of eleven men, with a survey team under Lt. Monro and the L&S team of one surveyor, Mr Watkins and two assistants. The survey for trigs was to start from the north. Another team of five men under Lt. Vennell was to work from Kohaihai northwards, laying out supply depots of food and batteries for the survey team coming south and looking out for suitable positions for trig stations. As it happened, Cdr. G.S. Ritchie, the previous captain of Lachlan, was passing through Cape Town. He found that South Africa had produced a new instrument, a ‘Tellurometer’, which measures distance ashore up to 40nm. He informed Cdr. Hunt, who then put in a case for the Navy Board to purchase it. We were successful! It was the first instrument in New Zealand. The Telluro-meter transformed the surveyors work greatly, as now we could fix positions on a traverse. It also had a voice channel between the two units, which was invaluable. This probably landed in a museum long ago. Now ‘The Big Trek’ could go. We had sixteen volunteers from Lachlan and three from L&S. Each would be carrying 75-80lbs on nineteen backs (11/2 tons). The important and heavier items were: - tellurometer – theodolites – tripod legs - 4 truck batteries (supposedly with jellied acid) - slashers, or cane cutters - dehydrated food for 19 men to last 3 weeks - boots with steel tricoini - and a promise of a small tot of Naval rum for each man at night (incl. L&S). On 21st January 1958 the ‘Big Trek’ commenced. The Lachlan slid quietly alongside the wharf in Golden Bay to land all the equipment, and sixteen of the ship’s company. At the same time, the three men from L&S arrived with two elderly 4WD open trucks. After our last civilised lunch we started off, on top of a truck and the equipment, with some comic on the foc’lse loudly playing ‘The Happy Wanderer’. The ship slid away. After that we wouldn’t see anyone for a few weeks, except the lighthouse keeper. Vennell and his four men went southward with a truck, taking the inland road to the West Coast towards Kohaihai, some 200 miles away and the end of the road. As there was still 7 miles of beach and forest to reach the Heaphy River and a trampers’ hut, they hired four pack horses and, with the five men, got all the gear and food into the hut by 10pm. The horses were then given a pat on the rump and told "Home". They turned around and plodded into the dark. In the morning the farmer saw four horses standing with their heads over the gate. The next day the team would start carrying food and batteries northward to make supply depots. Back in Golden Bay we had a dozen men sitting on the gear on the truck, heading towards Paturau River on the coast. When we got there a community hall was waiting for us, but there was no one around. It being the West Coast the rain started, but a sleeping bag on a wooden floor was heaven. We had scheduled a few days for training the ship’s men, as there would be some difficulties and dangerous areas ahead and we didn’t want them falling, complete with tellurometers and batteries. The batteries were supposed to contain ‘jellied’ acid, but that was not so. We had had special pack-frames built, but when the carrier bent forward a little trickle of acid dribbled down his neck. We had very upright sailors. We had detailed the various tasks so that everyone knew what was wanted of him. The surveyors operated the Tellurometer Master, with two L&S assistants on the Slave. For training we packed the backpacks with stones to 80lbs for a hike through the forests and gigi for a day, and next day up landslides, climbing cliffs and crossing rivers. From the last L&S traverse station from Nelson at Paturau we were able to use the tellurometer for the first time to close a traverse line on to Kahurangi Lighthouse. On the 27th we decamped with the truck 13nm down south to the Kahurangi Lighthouse. Five rivers had to be forded at low tide, and if the truck got stuck fourteen men had to un-stuck it. Nearer the lighthouse we were on sand and rock, with 200-foot vertical cliffs towering above us. It was touch and go when driving over some rocks, as low tide was not far from the cliffs. We paid our respects to the lightkeeper and daughters, who were quite excited. We were offered an old house for the night, which was better than canvas. When they heard that we were working our way down the coast, their comment was that it was impossible with all the equipment, and the lighthouse log showed that only sixteen people had ever gone that way. So one of our team had the honour of being the seventeenth. The usual track was much further back, in the mountains. From the next day on it was all footwork. Lachlan was now in Westport, to be available if any emergency arose. We moved, having derived a starting traverse station in relation to the lighthouse but leaving two L&S men to operate the tellurometer slave, and three sailors to help by humping. The rest of us headed south with the hope of finding a promontory that looked up and down the coast, which we did, about 11/2 nautical miles from the slave. We set up with the tellurometer master, woke up the slave and started operating. The high-frequency radio waves between master and slave are sensitive to humidity, temperature and air pressure. Multi-readings are necessary at each end, particularly for humidity. A special rattle is spun to record it, much like in English football matches. Thus the first day was nearly over. The slave team was on the way to us, some two-man tents were up, the cook had something for fourteen men, and crystal-clear water tumbled down nearby. The equipment was checked, ready for the next day. For dinner there was stewed dehydrated vegetables and a cup of tea. It wasn’t bad. Our cuisine was, breakfast: porridge and tea; lunch: three sardines, two ships biscuits, a cube of cheese, and tea; and at about 8pm the tot of the ship’s rum was measured out. It had been an easy day and all was well. Oddly, the sailors couldn’t go to bed without a cup of kai (cocoa)! Up at 6am, with porridge and a cup of tea for breakfast. The team with the Master unit was off to find a position for the next trig. The other half cleared the vegetation, built and painted a trig, set up the theodolite and Slave, and waited for the others to call. And that was the routine, more or less, for the next two weeks. We depended on the rain, seas and tides as to whether we took a low-level rocky track or climbed the cliffs and hills and fought with the gigi. For most of the way the coast curled inland, so that each line could be only 1/2 to 11/2 miles in length. If the sun was overcast, the forest was so dim it was difficult to see any bearings. On one occasion we found the gigi softer, which was good. So we thought. Looking down at our boots, however, a hole showed us only sea beneath; the cliff was about 15 feet inland - a bit scary. Sometimes when walking quickly on a rocky beach with 75lbs on the back some ‘rocks’ turned out to be seal heads. What a great fuss and noise they made. After 22 days we were at Kohaihai, and that was the end. The surveying and the white-painted trig stations all came out well. The ship could start back right away with the coordinates, and she sailed that evening. Earlier the L&S team had re-surveyed the nation grid lines from Nelson to Paturau, and later from Kohaihai to Mt. Newton. The final calculations were done at head office. For our use: the traverse was reported to be in error by not more than 1 in 80,000. The surveying covered 35nm of coastline, 23nm of which was the roughest terrain, where everything was carried. The southern team had to keep the depots going, which made it all possible. Finally, one of the crew, speaking for all the others, said they wouldn’t have missed it for all the world. How a pressed man came to be on the Big Trek. He was a Royal Navy rating serving onboard HMS Cook in the South Pacific, due to refit in Davenport Dockyard, Auckland, from December 1957 to March 1958. Being a person who disliked being on a ship during refit, he requested to see if it was possible for him to have a temporary transfer to the N.Z. Survey ship. This was agreed between the two COs. When he arrived to join Lachlan in Wellington he was puzzled by the greeting he was met with from the First Lieutenant, with whom he had served aboard Cook in 1953: "Nice to see you again, what size boots do you take?" He had been volunteered for the Big Trek! He was Robert Grisedale, ex-Ldg. Seaman SR2 who now resides at ‘Knapps’, Fendine, Carmarthen, SA33 4PQ, Wales, UK. Commander Monro commanded Lachlan for three and a half years and served as the Hydrographer RNZN for seven years. Last updated: 29/01/2020	<urn:uuid:dab7e418-e618-4ab2-aa47-116bc723a7ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.hydro-international.com/content/article/as-it-was-35	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00286.warc.gz	en	0.981758	2,503	3.34375	3	[ -0.12053052335977554, 0.25479552149772644, -0.00648352038115263, -0.40120840072631836, 0.1701021045446396, -0.0006204588571563363, -0.177317813038826, -0.0703853964805603, -0.5455027222633362, 0.2721259593963623, 0.3137297034263611, -0.593367338180542, 0.5125248432159424, 0.660047948360443...	1	'As it Was' - 01/01/2008 by an Old Hydrographer In 1958 Commander Hunt MBE, RN was about to undertake a survey in HMNZS <i>Lachlan</i> to complete NZ Chart 61, which included part of the rugged West Coast of the South Island much of which then lacked geodetic control stations. The members of the crew of <i>Lachlan</i> and Lands and Survey personnel were organised to work together to complete a traverse on foot through very difficult terrain, using a theodolite and the newly developed Tellurometer. The ship needed to have trigonometric stations ashore marked by beacons for sextant fixing from the ship and boats. But there were no trigs, as land surveyors had not yet reached some of the roughest country along the West Coast. After a reconnaissance by Lachlan it was obvious that the Tasman surf and rocky shore would make boat landings impossible. The only option was to traverse the coastline on foot. This would be difficult, but possible. The foreshore was mainly rocks, with cliffs rising up behind to 200 feet or more, and the mountains in the hinterland rising to 4,000 feet. A rainforest with large trees, dense bush, ferns and ‘gigi’ (a very thick and strong ‘supplejack’ cane) covered almost everything above the high tide. To make any progress the gigi had to be got through, and this meant slashing it down. The difficult part would be the first 23nm of coastline. We had a good liaison with Lands and Survey Department (Govt.), so we suggested that they might like to join us on this one, as it would benefit us equally. They were keen to accept. Cdr. Hunt’s plan was for a substantial shore-party of eleven men, with a survey team under Lt. Monro and the L&S team of one surveyor, Mr Watkins and two assistants. The survey for trigs was to start from the north. Another team of five men under Lt. Vennell was to work from Kohaihai northwards, laying out supply depots of food and batteries for the survey team coming south and looking out for suitable positions for trig stations. As it happened, Cdr. G.S. Ritchie, the previous captain of Lachlan, was passing through Cape Town. He found that South Africa had produced a new instrument, a ‘Tellurometer’, which measures distance ashore up to 40nm. He informed Cdr. Hunt, who then put in a case for the Navy Board to purchase it. We were successful! It was the first instrument in New Zealand. The Telluro-meter transformed the surveyors work greatly, as now we could fix positions on a traverse. It also had a voice channel between the two units, which was invaluable. This probably landed in a museum long ago. Now ‘The Big Trek’ could go. We had sixteen volunteers from Lachlan and three from L&S. Each would be carrying 75-80lbs on nineteen backs (11/2 tons). The important and heavier items were: - tellurometer – theodolites – tripod legs - 4 truck batteries (supposedly with jellied acid) - slashers, or cane cutters - dehydrated food for 19 men to last 3 weeks - boots with steel tricoini - and a promise of a small tot of Naval rum for each man at night (incl. L&S). On 21st January 1958 the ‘Big Trek’ commenced. The Lachlan slid quietly alongside the wharf in Golden Bay to land all the equipment, and sixteen of the ship’s company. At the same time, the three men from L&S arrived with two elderly 4WD open trucks. After our last civilised lunch we started off, on top of a truck and the equipment, with some comic on the foc’lse loudly playing ‘The Happy Wanderer’. The ship slid away. After that we wouldn’t see anyone for a few weeks, except the lighthouse keeper. Vennell and his four men went southward with a truck, taking the inland road to the West Coast towards Kohaihai, some 200 miles away and the end of the road. As there was still 7 miles of beach and forest to reach the Heaphy River and a trampers’ hut, they hired four pack horses and, with the five men, got all the gear and food into the hut by 10pm. The horses were then given a pat on the rump and told "Home". They turned around and plodded into the dark. In the morning the farmer saw four horses standing with their heads over the gate. The next day the team would start carrying food and batteries northward to make supply depots. Back in Golden Bay we had a dozen men sitting on the gear on the truck, heading towards Paturau River on the coast. When we got there a community hall was waiting for us, but there was no one around. It being the West Coast the rain started, but a sleeping bag on a wooden floor was heaven. We had scheduled a few days for training the ship’s men, as there would be some difficulties and dangerous areas ahead and we didn’t want them falling, complete with tellurometers and batteries. The batteries were supposed to contain ‘jellied’ acid, but that was not so. We had had special pack-frames built, but when the carrier bent forward a little trickle of acid dribbled down his neck. We had very upright sailors. We had detailed the various tasks so that everyone knew what was wanted of him. The surveyors operated the Tellurometer Master, with two L&S assistants on the Slave. For training we packed the backpacks with stones to 80lbs for a hike through the forests and gigi for a day, and next day up landslides, climbing cliffs and crossing rivers. From the last L&S traverse station from Nelson at Paturau we were able to use the tellurometer for the first time to close a traverse line on to Kahurangi Lighthouse. On the 27th we decamped with the truck 13nm down south to the Kahurangi Lighthouse. Five rivers had to be forded at low tide, and if the truck got stuck fourteen men had to un-stuck it. Nearer the lighthouse we were on sand and rock, with 200-foot vertical cliffs towering above us. It was touch and go when driving over some rocks, as low tide was not far from the cliffs. We paid our respects to the lightkeeper and daughters, who were quite excited. We were offered an old house for the night, which was better than canvas. When they heard that we were working our way down the coast, their comment was that it was impossible with all the equipment, and the lighthouse log showed that only sixteen people had ever gone that way. So one of our team had the honour of being the seventeenth. The usual track was much further back, in the mountains. From the next day on it was all footwork. Lachlan was now in Westport, to be available if any emergency arose. We moved, having derived a starting traverse station in relation to the lighthouse but leaving two L&S men to operate the tellurometer slave, and three sailors to help by humping. The rest of us headed south with the hope of finding a promontory that looked up and down the coast, which we did, about 11/2 nautical miles from the slave. We set up with the tellurometer master, woke up the slave and started operating. The high-frequency radio waves between master and slave are sensitive to humidity, temperature and air pressure. Multi-readings are necessary at each end, particularly for humidity. A special rattle is spun to record it, much like in English football matches. Thus the first day was nearly over. The slave team was on the way to us, some two-man tents were up, the cook had something for fourteen men, and crystal-clear water tumbled down nearby. The equipment was checked, ready for the next day. For dinner there was stewed dehydrated vegetables and a cup of tea. It wasn’t bad. Our cuisine was, breakfast: porridge and tea; lunch: three sardines, two ships biscuits, a cube of cheese, and tea; and at about 8pm the tot of the ship’s rum was measured out. It had been an easy day and all was well. Oddly, the sailors couldn’t go to bed without a cup of kai (cocoa)! Up at 6am, with porridge and a cup of tea for breakfast. The team with the Master unit was off to find a position for the next trig. The other half cleared the vegetation, built and painted a trig, set up the theodolite and Slave, and waited for the others to call. And that was the routine, more or less, for the next two weeks. We depended on the rain, seas and tides as to whether we took a low-level rocky track or climbed the cliffs and hills and fought with the gigi. For most of the way the coast curled inland, so that each line could be only 1/2 to 11/2 miles in length. If the sun was overcast, the forest was so dim it was difficult to see any bearings. On one occasion we found the gigi softer, which was good. So we thought. Looking down at our boots, however, a hole showed us only sea beneath; the cliff was about 15 feet inland - a bit scary. Sometimes when walking quickly on a rocky beach with 75lbs on the back some ‘rocks’ turned out to be seal heads. What a great fuss and noise they made. After 22 days we were at Kohaihai, and that was the end. The surveying and the white-painted trig stations all came out well. The ship could start back right away with the coordinates, and she sailed that evening. Earlier the L&S team had re-surveyed the nation grid lines from Nelson to Paturau, and later from Kohaihai to Mt. Newton. The final calculations were done at head office. For our use: the traverse was reported to be in error by not more than 1 in 80,000. The surveying covered 35nm of coastline, 23nm of which was the roughest terrain, where everything was carried. The southern team had to keep the depots going, which made it all possible. Finally, one of the crew, speaking for all the others, said they wouldn’t have missed it for all the world. How a pressed man came to be on the Big Trek. He was a Royal Navy rating serving onboard HMS Cook in the South Pacific, due to refit in Davenport Dockyard, Auckland, from December 1957 to March 1958. Being a person who disliked being on a ship during refit, he requested to see if it was possible for him to have a temporary transfer to the N.Z. Survey ship. This was agreed between the two COs. When he arrived to join Lachlan in Wellington he was puzzled by the greeting he was met with from the First Lieutenant, with whom he had served aboard Cook in 1953: "Nice to see you again, what size boots do you take?" He had been volunteered for the Big Trek! He was Robert Grisedale, ex-Ldg. Seaman SR2 who now resides at ‘Knapps’, Fendine, Carmarthen, SA33 4PQ, Wales, UK. Commander Monro commanded Lachlan for three and a half years and served as the Hydrographer RNZN for seven years. Last updated: 29/01/2020	2,507	ENGLISH	1
This article has multiple issues. Please help talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)( or discuss these issues on the Learn how and when to remove this template message) Herod Archelaus (Greek: , H?r?d?s Archelaos; 23 BC – c. 18 AD) was ethnarch of Samaria, Judea, and Idumea (biblical Edom), including the cities Caesarea and Jaffa, for a period of nine years (c. 4 BC to 6 AD). Archelaus was removed by Roman Emperor Augustus when Judaea province was formed under direct Roman rule, at the time of the Census of Quirinius. He was the son of Herod the Great and Malthace the Samaritan, and was the brother of Herod Antipas, and the half-brother of Herod II. Archelaus (a name meaning "leading the people") came to power after the death of his father Herod the Great in 4 BC, and ruled over one-half of the territorial dominion of his father. Josephus writes that Herod the Great (father of Archelaus) was in Jericho at the time of his death. Just prior to his final trip to Jericho, he was deeply involved in a religious conflagration. Herod had placed a golden eagle over the Temple entrance which was perceived as blasphemous. The eagle was chopped down with axes. Two teachers and approximately 40 other youths were arrested for this act and immolated. Herod defended his works and offered an attack on his predecessors, the dynastic Hasmoneans. Herod killed all male lineal successors of the Hasmoneans. The Pharisees had long attacked the Hasmoneans as well, as having parentage from Greeks while under bondage. This racial slur was repeated by the Pharisees through the rule of Alexander Jannaeus and Queen Salome. With this explicit background given, Josephus began an exposition of the days of Archelaus' reign before Passover of 4 BC. Archelaus dressed in white and ascended a golden throne and appeared to be kind to the populace in Jerusalem in order to appease their desires for lower taxes and an end to the (political) imprisonment of Herod's enemies. The demeanor of the questioning appeared to turn at some point, and the crowd began to call for the punishment of those of Herod's people who ordered the death of the two teachers and the 40 youths. They also demanded the replacement of the High Priest, from the appointed High Priest of Herod's to a High Priest, "of greater piety and purity". Josephus does not tell who would be "of greater piety and purity". To this request, however, Archelaus acceded, although he was becoming angry at the presumptions of the crowds. Archelaus asked for moderation and told the crowds that all would be well if they would put aside their animosities and wait until he was confirmed as King by Caesar Augustus. Archelaus then left to feast with his friends. It was evening and as the darkness settled, a mourning and wailing begin over the city. Archelaus began to worry as people begin streaming into the Temple area and those who wailed for loss of the teachers continued their very loud mourning. The people were escalating in their threatening behavior. Henry St. John Thackeray's translation of Josephus here states it thus: "The promoters of the mourning for the doctors stood in the body of the temple, procuring recruits for their faction". Josephus does not tell us who these "promoters of the mourning", who recruit from within a body inside the Temple, could be. Archelaus then sent a general, some other people and finally a "tribune in Command of a Cohort" to reason with these "Seditionists", to stop their "innovations" and wait until Archelaus could return from Rome and Caesar. Those who came from Archelaus were stoned, with many killed. After the stoning, those who stoned the soldiers returned to their sacrifices, as if nothing had happened. Josephus does not tell who performed the sacrifices in the Temple. It was after midnight, and Archelaus suddenly ordered the entire army into the city to the Temple. Josephus records the death toll at 3000. Archelaus sent heralds around the city announcing the cancellation of Passover. Archelaus quickly sailed to Caesar and faced a group of enemies - his own family. Antipas, the younger brother of Archelaus who was deposed from Herod's will days earlier, argued that Archelaus merely feigned grief for his father, crying during the day and involved with great "merriment" during the nights. The threats carried out by Archelaus ending in the death of 3000 in the Temple were not just threats to the worshipers in Jerusalem at Passover, but also amounted to a threat to Caesar himself, since Archelaus acted in every manner a King, before such title had been given by Caesar. At this point, Nicolaus of Damascus argued to Caesar that Archelaus acted appropriately and that Herod's will, supposedly written a few weeks prior (yielding the kingship to Archelaus and against Antipater), should be seen as valid. The change of this will in favor of Archelaus is given as Herod's true choice and, it is argued, occurred with Herod being in his right mind since he left the final decision to Caesar. The change of the will appears as one of Herod's last acts and it is attested from Jericho by one "Ptolemy", keeper of Herod's Seal. Nicholaus of Damascus had been Herod's confidant for years. He was loyal to Rome. Ptolemy was Nicholaus of Damascus' brother. Archelaus, at the conclusion of the arguments, fell at Caesar's feet. Caesar raised him up and stated that Archelaus "was worthy to succeed his father". Caesar gave Archelaus the title of Ethnarch and divided the kingdom. Rome would consolidate its power later. Thus, Archelaus received the Tetrarchy of Judea through the last will of his father, though a previous will had bequeathed it to his brother Antipas. He was proclaimed king by the army, but declined to assume the title until he had submitted his claims to Caesar Augustus in Rome. In Rome he was opposed by Antipas and by many of the Jews, who feared his cruelty, based on the murder of 3000; but in 4 BC Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the kingdom (Samaria, Judea, and Idumea) with the title of ethnarch (a ruler of an ethnic group). The first wife of Archelaus is given by Josephus simply as Mariamne, perhaps Mariamne III, daughter of Aristobulus IV, whom he divorced to marry Glaphyra. She was the widow of Archelaus' brother Alexander, though her second husband, Juba, king of Mauretania, was alive. This violation of the Mosaic law, along with Archelaus' continued cruelty, roused the ire of the Jews, who complained to Augustus. Archelaus fell into disrepute and was deposed in his 10th year of reign as ethnarch, being banished to Vienna (today Vienne) in Gaul. Samaria, Judea proper, and Idumea became the Roman province of Iudaea. Archelaus is mentioned in the Gospel of Matthew (chapter 2 verse 13-23). An angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream and told him to get up and take Mary and Jesus and flee to Egypt to avoid the Massacre of the Innocents. When Herod the Great died, Joseph was told by an angel in a dream to return to the land of Israel (presumably to Bethlehem). However, upon hearing that Archelaus had succeeded his father as ruler of Judaea he "was afraid to go there" (Matthew 2:22), and was again warned in a dream by God "and turned aside to the region of" Galilee. This is Matthew's explanation of why Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea but grew up in Nazareth. The beginning and conclusion of Jesus' parable of the minas in the Gospel of Luke, chapter 19, may refer to Archelaus' journey to Rome. Some interpreters conclude from this that Jesus' parables and preaching made use of events familiar to the people as examples for bringing his spiritual lessons to life. Others read the allusion as arising from later adaptations of Jesus' parables in the oral tradition, before the parables were recorded in the gospels. A nobleman went into a far country to receive for himself a kingdom and then return ... But his citizens hated him and sent a delegation after him, saying, "We do not want this man to reign over us." ... "But as for these enemies of mine," [said the nobleman,] "who did not want me to reign over them, bring them here and slaughter them before me." (Luke 19:12, 19:14, 19:27)	<urn:uuid:b094cfe0-1b11-4f1f-934a-c01a5d83d3e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Herod_Archelaus	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00468.warc.gz	en	0.982734	1,856	3.328125	3	[ -0.03941953927278519, 0.33474960923194885, 0.5491752028465271, -0.3077990412712097, -0.16574858129024506, -0.463096559047699, -0.16786305606365204, 0.5645855665206909, -0.17677035927772522, -0.2868720293045044, -0.0896211788058281, -0.15428858995437622, 0.3250146806240082, 0.26616939902305...	1	This article has multiple issues. Please help talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)( or discuss these issues on the Learn how and when to remove this template message) Herod Archelaus (Greek: , H?r?d?s Archelaos; 23 BC – c. 18 AD) was ethnarch of Samaria, Judea, and Idumea (biblical Edom), including the cities Caesarea and Jaffa, for a period of nine years (c. 4 BC to 6 AD). Archelaus was removed by Roman Emperor Augustus when Judaea province was formed under direct Roman rule, at the time of the Census of Quirinius. He was the son of Herod the Great and Malthace the Samaritan, and was the brother of Herod Antipas, and the half-brother of Herod II. Archelaus (a name meaning "leading the people") came to power after the death of his father Herod the Great in 4 BC, and ruled over one-half of the territorial dominion of his father. Josephus writes that Herod the Great (father of Archelaus) was in Jericho at the time of his death. Just prior to his final trip to Jericho, he was deeply involved in a religious conflagration. Herod had placed a golden eagle over the Temple entrance which was perceived as blasphemous. The eagle was chopped down with axes. Two teachers and approximately 40 other youths were arrested for this act and immolated. Herod defended his works and offered an attack on his predecessors, the dynastic Hasmoneans. Herod killed all male lineal successors of the Hasmoneans. The Pharisees had long attacked the Hasmoneans as well, as having parentage from Greeks while under bondage. This racial slur was repeated by the Pharisees through the rule of Alexander Jannaeus and Queen Salome. With this explicit background given, Josephus began an exposition of the days of Archelaus' reign before Passover of 4 BC. Archelaus dressed in white and ascended a golden throne and appeared to be kind to the populace in Jerusalem in order to appease their desires for lower taxes and an end to the (political) imprisonment of Herod's enemies. The demeanor of the questioning appeared to turn at some point, and the crowd began to call for the punishment of those of Herod's people who ordered the death of the two teachers and the 40 youths. They also demanded the replacement of the High Priest, from the appointed High Priest of Herod's to a High Priest, "of greater piety and purity". Josephus does not tell who would be "of greater piety and purity". To this request, however, Archelaus acceded, although he was becoming angry at the presumptions of the crowds. Archelaus asked for moderation and told the crowds that all would be well if they would put aside their animosities and wait until he was confirmed as King by Caesar Augustus. Archelaus then left to feast with his friends. It was evening and as the darkness settled, a mourning and wailing begin over the city. Archelaus began to worry as people begin streaming into the Temple area and those who wailed for loss of the teachers continued their very loud mourning. The people were escalating in their threatening behavior. Henry St. John Thackeray's translation of Josephus here states it thus: "The promoters of the mourning for the doctors stood in the body of the temple, procuring recruits for their faction". Josephus does not tell us who these "promoters of the mourning", who recruit from within a body inside the Temple, could be. Archelaus then sent a general, some other people and finally a "tribune in Command of a Cohort" to reason with these "Seditionists", to stop their "innovations" and wait until Archelaus could return from Rome and Caesar. Those who came from Archelaus were stoned, with many killed. After the stoning, those who stoned the soldiers returned to their sacrifices, as if nothing had happened. Josephus does not tell who performed the sacrifices in the Temple. It was after midnight, and Archelaus suddenly ordered the entire army into the city to the Temple. Josephus records the death toll at 3000. Archelaus sent heralds around the city announcing the cancellation of Passover. Archelaus quickly sailed to Caesar and faced a group of enemies - his own family. Antipas, the younger brother of Archelaus who was deposed from Herod's will days earlier, argued that Archelaus merely feigned grief for his father, crying during the day and involved with great "merriment" during the nights. The threats carried out by Archelaus ending in the death of 3000 in the Temple were not just threats to the worshipers in Jerusalem at Passover, but also amounted to a threat to Caesar himself, since Archelaus acted in every manner a King, before such title had been given by Caesar. At this point, Nicolaus of Damascus argued to Caesar that Archelaus acted appropriately and that Herod's will, supposedly written a few weeks prior (yielding the kingship to Archelaus and against Antipater), should be seen as valid. The change of this will in favor of Archelaus is given as Herod's true choice and, it is argued, occurred with Herod being in his right mind since he left the final decision to Caesar. The change of the will appears as one of Herod's last acts and it is attested from Jericho by one "Ptolemy", keeper of Herod's Seal. Nicholaus of Damascus had been Herod's confidant for years. He was loyal to Rome. Ptolemy was Nicholaus of Damascus' brother. Archelaus, at the conclusion of the arguments, fell at Caesar's feet. Caesar raised him up and stated that Archelaus "was worthy to succeed his father". Caesar gave Archelaus the title of Ethnarch and divided the kingdom. Rome would consolidate its power later. Thus, Archelaus received the Tetrarchy of Judea through the last will of his father, though a previous will had bequeathed it to his brother Antipas. He was proclaimed king by the army, but declined to assume the title until he had submitted his claims to Caesar Augustus in Rome. In Rome he was opposed by Antipas and by many of the Jews, who feared his cruelty, based on the murder of 3000; but in 4 BC Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the kingdom (Samaria, Judea, and Idumea) with the title of ethnarch (a ruler of an ethnic group). The first wife of Archelaus is given by Josephus simply as Mariamne, perhaps Mariamne III, daughter of Aristobulus IV, whom he divorced to marry Glaphyra. She was the widow of Archelaus' brother Alexander, though her second husband, Juba, king of Mauretania, was alive. This violation of the Mosaic law, along with Archelaus' continued cruelty, roused the ire of the Jews, who complained to Augustus. Archelaus fell into disrepute and was deposed in his 10th year of reign as ethnarch, being banished to Vienna (today Vienne) in Gaul. Samaria, Judea proper, and Idumea became the Roman province of Iudaea. Archelaus is mentioned in the Gospel of Matthew (chapter 2 verse 13-23). An angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream and told him to get up and take Mary and Jesus and flee to Egypt to avoid the Massacre of the Innocents. When Herod the Great died, Joseph was told by an angel in a dream to return to the land of Israel (presumably to Bethlehem). However, upon hearing that Archelaus had succeeded his father as ruler of Judaea he "was afraid to go there" (Matthew 2:22), and was again warned in a dream by God "and turned aside to the region of" Galilee. This is Matthew's explanation of why Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea but grew up in Nazareth. The beginning and conclusion of Jesus' parable of the minas in the Gospel of Luke, chapter 19, may refer to Archelaus' journey to Rome. Some interpreters conclude from this that Jesus' parables and preaching made use of events familiar to the people as examples for bringing his spiritual lessons to life. Others read the allusion as arising from later adaptations of Jesus' parables in the oral tradition, before the parables were recorded in the gospels. A nobleman went into a far country to receive for himself a kingdom and then return ... But his citizens hated him and sent a delegation after him, saying, "We do not want this man to reign over us." ... "But as for these enemies of mine," [said the nobleman,] "who did not want me to reign over them, bring them here and slaughter them before me." (Luke 19:12, 19:14, 19:27)	1,953	ENGLISH	1
Free Richard Wright’s Black Boy Essay Sample How did racial prejudice in the Jim Crow South affect black people and how did they cope Racial discrimination in the United States dates back to the days of slavery when blacks from Africa were transported to America to work in southern plantations. The Jim Crow system was a very effective system which was practiced in the south and went hand in hand with legalized racial discrimination at the time. This crass and discriminating system was in operation between 1866 and 1965. The Crow system laid down laws that prohibited interracial mingling between blacks and whites. Blacks could not go to the same schools, churches, organizations, and clubs with whites. Surprisingly, blacks were also not allowed to buy things from shops owned by whites. At the time blacks were to use separate washrooms and not supposed to board the same public conveyances as white people or would be made to sit in a segregated section in the back. In his book, Black Boy, Richard Wright gives an account of his life in the Jim Crow South thus giving an insight into the life of black people during these oppressive days. Wright’s autobiography also shows the reactions of black people towards the racial discrimination they suffered under white domination. Wright‘s book offers the reader a deeper understanding of the Jim Crow era and the endeavors of African Americans to unshackle themselves from its chains. Based on Wright’s book, Black Boy Part 1, it possible for the reader to enumerate the many ways through which Jim Crow racial prejudice in the south affected black people and their reaction to every act of oppression. In Chapter one, the reader will notice that the book addresses poverty as one way through which racial prejudice affected black people. Black people in the segregated south could not afford something as basic as food. This is evidenced by the author’s claims of hunger all the time. The reader can also deduce evidence of hunger from the author’s outburst upon realizing that a preacher the mother had invited to the home was likely to finish the fried chicken their mother had prepared. Further evidence can be seen where the author’s mother hands him and his younger brother to an orphanage which limits parents’ access to their children thus creating some form of separation. Further, poverty forces the author to beg for money in a local bar which results in him being exploited by the people who frequented the bar. Black people in the south also lived in squalid conditions as evidenced by the tenements that the author’s family moves into after the burning of their initial home. Poverty had many ramifications in the black community. It led to the separation of families as attested to by the separation of the author’s father from his mother. His father abandons them in abject poverty, a trend that was quite prevalent within the black community in the south. Blacks in the south also experienced racial violence. Evidence of this can be found in chapter two of the book. The husband (Uncle Hoskins) to the author’s aunt (Maggie) is shot dead by white supremacists who were envious of his success in business. This explains the quagmire that blacks found themselves in. If they succeeded in independent ventures, they faced violence from whites. The white segregationists wanted to keep the black community in a perpetual state of poverty. Upon reception of the news of the killing of Uncle Hoskins, the author’s family decides to flee from Arkansas, something that leaves the author seething with anger. Black’s typical reaction to violence by whites was to flee. Except for professor Matthews who had killed a white man, probably in self defense, everyone else in the black community takes to their heels upon the sight of racial violence. Even his aunt’s new boyfriend, professor Matthews flees with his aunt. The author later wonders why black people could not join hands and fight oppression instead of fleeing. There were also other forms of racial violence meted out to black people by whites. Blacks were publicly hanged especially in Tennessee and Texas for attempting to make advances on white females. In the Jim Crow south, whites had been known to rape black women. Black men reacted to this by attempting to rape white women. However, they were sure to face death by public hanging if they were caught and captured. The author also cites other reactions to racial prejudice towards black people. Further in chapter two, he talks of black children who sang racist songs targeted at a Jewish proprietor of a grocery store located at the corner of the neighborhood. These children must have learned such business from their homes, schools and probably churches. This is a classic depiction of a community choosing to react to racial discrimination in the same way though not in the same token. Jim Crow south denied blacks access to education. This is why there are so many plantation workers who are ignorant and easily gullible. Chapter five introduces the reader to the extortion of blacks by fellow blacks. Brother Mance employs the author as a life insurance sales assistant. This allows the author to interact with plantation farmers he concludes are ignorant because they were being sold life assurance policies that they will never benefit from in their entire life. Although blacks had countered segregation in education by establishing their own schools, many blacks could not enroll in school to learn how to read and write. Wright blames this on the lack of solidarity within the black community. Another way through which blacks were affected by racial segregation can be deduced from chapter five. Here the author’s grandfather is said to be critically ill due to wounds he suffered while fighting in the First World War. Sadly, the war department had continually denied him his pension probably on racial grounds. The family reacts to this by writing to the war department and holding conferences but this bore no fruits. The reader would be right in wondering why the author’s grandfather had to go through all this when his white counterparts could easily access war benefits. Much of the reaction to the above problems was not always sufficient, as the author claims. Many young men reacted to racial prejudice with hatred and distrust for white people. However, this distrust also crept up in the author’s relationship with his family members, something which explains the lack of solidarity in the black community during the Jim Crow era. To the threat of racial violence by which supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, blacks reacted by fleeing. Others reacted by embracing religion. A good example is the author’s grandmother and his aunt, Addie. However, being deeply religious bred another kind of prejudice; religious prejudice. It is this kind of business that leads the author’s grandmother and auntie in labeling the author as evil and a source of trouble. There were blacks who reacted to economic isolation by setting up their own businesses. Uncle Hoskins’ saloon is a good example; however, these kinds of initiatives by blacks faced stiff resistance from white supremacists as evidenced by the killing of Uncle Hoskins. In conclusion, Wright gives the reader an insight of the quagmire blacks went through in the hands of whites during Jim Crow system in the United States. From the essay, it is clear that all the initiatives by the blacks to unshackle themselves were not fruitful. It was not until the post World War II period that blacks started acting in solidarity in resisting racial segregation.	<urn:uuid:2b33d133-4620-4c56-97ca-f64b00d587ee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysservice.com/essays/research/free-richard-wright-s-black-boy-essay-sample.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00013.warc.gz	en	0.983905	1,487	3.6875	4	[ -0.037206485867500305, 0.3537864089012146, 0.04167097434401512, 0.15480273962020874, 0.0558362752199173, -0.06377904117107391, 0.005787604488432407, -0.15676414966583252, -0.3171428442001343, 0.23621684312820435, 0.3179079592227936, 0.2711252272129059, -0.16719481348991394, 0.1467597186565...	8	Free Richard Wright’s Black Boy Essay Sample How did racial prejudice in the Jim Crow South affect black people and how did they cope Racial discrimination in the United States dates back to the days of slavery when blacks from Africa were transported to America to work in southern plantations. The Jim Crow system was a very effective system which was practiced in the south and went hand in hand with legalized racial discrimination at the time. This crass and discriminating system was in operation between 1866 and 1965. The Crow system laid down laws that prohibited interracial mingling between blacks and whites. Blacks could not go to the same schools, churches, organizations, and clubs with whites. Surprisingly, blacks were also not allowed to buy things from shops owned by whites. At the time blacks were to use separate washrooms and not supposed to board the same public conveyances as white people or would be made to sit in a segregated section in the back. In his book, Black Boy, Richard Wright gives an account of his life in the Jim Crow South thus giving an insight into the life of black people during these oppressive days. Wright’s autobiography also shows the reactions of black people towards the racial discrimination they suffered under white domination. Wright‘s book offers the reader a deeper understanding of the Jim Crow era and the endeavors of African Americans to unshackle themselves from its chains. Based on Wright’s book, Black Boy Part 1, it possible for the reader to enumerate the many ways through which Jim Crow racial prejudice in the south affected black people and their reaction to every act of oppression. In Chapter one, the reader will notice that the book addresses poverty as one way through which racial prejudice affected black people. Black people in the segregated south could not afford something as basic as food. This is evidenced by the author’s claims of hunger all the time. The reader can also deduce evidence of hunger from the author’s outburst upon realizing that a preacher the mother had invited to the home was likely to finish the fried chicken their mother had prepared. Further evidence can be seen where the author’s mother hands him and his younger brother to an orphanage which limits parents’ access to their children thus creating some form of separation. Further, poverty forces the author to beg for money in a local bar which results in him being exploited by the people who frequented the bar. Black people in the south also lived in squalid conditions as evidenced by the tenements that the author’s family moves into after the burning of their initial home. Poverty had many ramifications in the black community. It led to the separation of families as attested to by the separation of the author’s father from his mother. His father abandons them in abject poverty, a trend that was quite prevalent within the black community in the south. Blacks in the south also experienced racial violence. Evidence of this can be found in chapter two of the book. The husband (Uncle Hoskins) to the author’s aunt (Maggie) is shot dead by white supremacists who were envious of his success in business. This explains the quagmire that blacks found themselves in. If they succeeded in independent ventures, they faced violence from whites. The white segregationists wanted to keep the black community in a perpetual state of poverty. Upon reception of the news of the killing of Uncle Hoskins, the author’s family decides to flee from Arkansas, something that leaves the author seething with anger. Black’s typical reaction to violence by whites was to flee. Except for professor Matthews who had killed a white man, probably in self defense, everyone else in the black community takes to their heels upon the sight of racial violence. Even his aunt’s new boyfriend, professor Matthews flees with his aunt. The author later wonders why black people could not join hands and fight oppression instead of fleeing. There were also other forms of racial violence meted out to black people by whites. Blacks were publicly hanged especially in Tennessee and Texas for attempting to make advances on white females. In the Jim Crow south, whites had been known to rape black women. Black men reacted to this by attempting to rape white women. However, they were sure to face death by public hanging if they were caught and captured. The author also cites other reactions to racial prejudice towards black people. Further in chapter two, he talks of black children who sang racist songs targeted at a Jewish proprietor of a grocery store located at the corner of the neighborhood. These children must have learned such business from their homes, schools and probably churches. This is a classic depiction of a community choosing to react to racial discrimination in the same way though not in the same token. Jim Crow south denied blacks access to education. This is why there are so many plantation workers who are ignorant and easily gullible. Chapter five introduces the reader to the extortion of blacks by fellow blacks. Brother Mance employs the author as a life insurance sales assistant. This allows the author to interact with plantation farmers he concludes are ignorant because they were being sold life assurance policies that they will never benefit from in their entire life. Although blacks had countered segregation in education by establishing their own schools, many blacks could not enroll in school to learn how to read and write. Wright blames this on the lack of solidarity within the black community. Another way through which blacks were affected by racial segregation can be deduced from chapter five. Here the author’s grandfather is said to be critically ill due to wounds he suffered while fighting in the First World War. Sadly, the war department had continually denied him his pension probably on racial grounds. The family reacts to this by writing to the war department and holding conferences but this bore no fruits. The reader would be right in wondering why the author’s grandfather had to go through all this when his white counterparts could easily access war benefits. Much of the reaction to the above problems was not always sufficient, as the author claims. Many young men reacted to racial prejudice with hatred and distrust for white people. However, this distrust also crept up in the author’s relationship with his family members, something which explains the lack of solidarity in the black community during the Jim Crow era. To the threat of racial violence by which supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, blacks reacted by fleeing. Others reacted by embracing religion. A good example is the author’s grandmother and his aunt, Addie. However, being deeply religious bred another kind of prejudice; religious prejudice. It is this kind of business that leads the author’s grandmother and auntie in labeling the author as evil and a source of trouble. There were blacks who reacted to economic isolation by setting up their own businesses. Uncle Hoskins’ saloon is a good example; however, these kinds of initiatives by blacks faced stiff resistance from white supremacists as evidenced by the killing of Uncle Hoskins. In conclusion, Wright gives the reader an insight of the quagmire blacks went through in the hands of whites during Jim Crow system in the United States. From the essay, it is clear that all the initiatives by the blacks to unshackle themselves were not fruitful. It was not until the post World War II period that blacks started acting in solidarity in resisting racial segregation.	1,459	ENGLISH	1
The Battle of Valenciennes 1918 The final two weeks of October 1918 had seen substantial gains by Allied armies along the entire front. Never in the war were the advances so swift, the distances so far. What had been a war of trenches was transformed to a war of movement. On one day alone, east of Cambrai, the Canadian Corps at the spearhead of the advance pushed 11km, liberating 40 villages. But the advance came to a halt near the French city of Valenciennes. There the Germans had driven a stake in the ground, and Valenciennes was a formidable obstacle. They had flooded the Canal de L’Escaut and a vast swath of land to the west and north of the city was inundated. The southern approaches were guarded by the heights of Mont Houy. Three divisions had already mercilessly rebuffed a British attack there. General Currie’s response was to send his forces swinging around the north to encircle the city. The other prong he pointed at Mont Houy. On November 1st at 5.15 a.m., a barrage unprecedented in its firepower fell upon the German defenders, and the infantry surged forward in its wake. By day’s end the German defences were crumbling. By the 2nd of November Valenciennes was liberated. The advance to Mons, and Belgium, lay ahead.	<urn:uuid:e76040e8-446e-4baf-b3eb-582c1b459d26>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.darrellduthie.com/uncategorized/the-battle-of-valenciennes-1918/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00299.warc.gz	en	0.983787	283	3.75	4	[ -0.32361647486686707, 0.44208189845085144, -0.04121680557727814, -0.02897210419178009, -0.4082980155944824, -0.0734926164150238, -0.3092159628868103, 0.5436280965805054, -0.11321686208248138, -0.118592768907547, 0.14114291965961456, -0.8429399728775024, 0.29169943928718567, 0.5011234879493...	9	The Battle of Valenciennes 1918 The final two weeks of October 1918 had seen substantial gains by Allied armies along the entire front. Never in the war were the advances so swift, the distances so far. What had been a war of trenches was transformed to a war of movement. On one day alone, east of Cambrai, the Canadian Corps at the spearhead of the advance pushed 11km, liberating 40 villages. But the advance came to a halt near the French city of Valenciennes. There the Germans had driven a stake in the ground, and Valenciennes was a formidable obstacle. They had flooded the Canal de L’Escaut and a vast swath of land to the west and north of the city was inundated. The southern approaches were guarded by the heights of Mont Houy. Three divisions had already mercilessly rebuffed a British attack there. General Currie’s response was to send his forces swinging around the north to encircle the city. The other prong he pointed at Mont Houy. On November 1st at 5.15 a.m., a barrage unprecedented in its firepower fell upon the German defenders, and the infantry surged forward in its wake. By day’s end the German defences were crumbling. By the 2nd of November Valenciennes was liberated. The advance to Mons, and Belgium, lay ahead.	290	ENGLISH	1
Background to the Straw Bear Festival The Straw Bear is a very old fenland icon which goes back well into the nineteenth century at the very least. Straw Bear parades took place on Plough Monday, the first Monday after Epiphany or Twelfth Night; the day when local farm workers were supposed to return to their work, ploughing the land. The Straw Bear dances in the Market Place, Whittlesea January 2016 As they had not been working or paid during the Christmas holidays the agricultural workers and “ploughboys” toured the locality to perform molly dances, plough-plays or sing and entertain with acts of “mischief” and would beg for money. To avoid recognition, they would black their faces to disguise themselves as their aim was essentially to intimidate in order to obtain money: those refusing to donate would have some trick played upon them. In her book “Fenland Chronicle” (Sybil Marshall, 1963) she recounts that her mother, had told her “very often these were real nasty tricks, and they’d wait until Plough Monday to get their own back on somebody what had done them some injury during the year” for example, they would plough up a doorway or take gates off their hinges so that the livestock escaped. The Straw Bear is not exclusively a Whittlesea custom and some of the earliest newspaper reports date from 1880 where in Ramsey, a few miles south of Whittlesea there are reports of an “individual dressed from top to toe in straw … (who) capered before the houses … to the merry strains of the accordion”. Read more: The (new) Whittlesea Straw Bear Festival is 40 years old	<urn:uuid:193f2ea3-ed71-4543-965c-bc522af046f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mardles.org/index.php/magazine/morris-on/16-morris?start=7	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00022.warc.gz	en	0.981356	360	3.34375	3	[ 0.32701927423477173, -0.4040531814098358, 0.038831550627946854, -0.1983087807893753, 0.240741565823555, 0.21394366025924683, -0.09095052629709244, -0.04652639478445053, -0.3757069408893585, 0.15900011360645294, -0.0819058045744896, -0.21647480130195618, 0.14600956439971924, -0.075110569596...	1	Background to the Straw Bear Festival The Straw Bear is a very old fenland icon which goes back well into the nineteenth century at the very least. Straw Bear parades took place on Plough Monday, the first Monday after Epiphany or Twelfth Night; the day when local farm workers were supposed to return to their work, ploughing the land. The Straw Bear dances in the Market Place, Whittlesea January 2016 As they had not been working or paid during the Christmas holidays the agricultural workers and “ploughboys” toured the locality to perform molly dances, plough-plays or sing and entertain with acts of “mischief” and would beg for money. To avoid recognition, they would black their faces to disguise themselves as their aim was essentially to intimidate in order to obtain money: those refusing to donate would have some trick played upon them. In her book “Fenland Chronicle” (Sybil Marshall, 1963) she recounts that her mother, had told her “very often these were real nasty tricks, and they’d wait until Plough Monday to get their own back on somebody what had done them some injury during the year” for example, they would plough up a doorway or take gates off their hinges so that the livestock escaped. The Straw Bear is not exclusively a Whittlesea custom and some of the earliest newspaper reports date from 1880 where in Ramsey, a few miles south of Whittlesea there are reports of an “individual dressed from top to toe in straw … (who) capered before the houses … to the merry strains of the accordion”. Read more: The (new) Whittlesea Straw Bear Festival is 40 years old	355	ENGLISH	1
an innovator who had enormous impact on society because he was the most talented and successful Renaissance man of his time. Leonardo da Vinci had multiple talents and careers throughout his life time. He was an artist ever since the he was a child and didn’t just use his talent for art to his advantage, he discovered incredible and amazing new hobbies that some men couldn’t even dream of doing. He changed our cultural beliefs through his art work. As he grew older he took on other careers such as painting, sculpting, engineering, mathematics, science, inventing, architecture, as well as a philosopher. He was the most loved Italian painter. Leonardo was born April 14, 1452 in a small town in Italy Vinci. His father discovered his talent in art and by the age of 14 Leonardo was painting with and was an apprentice with Verrocchio. At age twenty he was a master at art and had already started his own way of painting. He discovered a way to make his atmosphere look realistic in his painting by smoking out the color throughout the back round of the paintings. Paintrent’s would higher the young man to paint art works for them and he impressed every time. Not only was Leonardo an artist but he engaged in many projects having to do with human health and physical science. This is when he discovered his passion for architecture and construction. He dreamed of building and designing re-routes to rivers to pedestrian trails. Leonardo later went to Rome to work for Pope Lao the tenth. That is where he started studying human anatomy. He was very fascinated with nature and used this passion for his artworks. Most of his paintings inspired by nature are his best. Leonardo was a dreamer. One of the things he wanted to do most was learn how to fly. He studied birds to support his project. After years in his research he never found a way for the human body to fly. But he did invent many flying machines like a version of the helicopter and a parachute. Leonardo was also into the flow of water and after studying its movement he moved on to discovering water gadgets and designed some diving gear, water vehicles, and also the first water meter. He was officially centuries ahead of his time. He designed many construction projects and other inventions but his paintings were his best success. Some of his best works were The Mona Lisa, The last supper, and Vitruvian Man. De Vinci was the most talented man of all time. Although there are still secrets and unknown things about him and his paintings he still has earned his spot for fame and success. When Leonardo grew old he was loved by the king of France and worked for him as long as he could. On May 2, 1519 he grew old and became very sick. He died in the arms of the king of France after a stroke. His death was a tragedy and people have painted his last moments with the king. Leonardo was an innovator who has an enormous impact on society because he was the most talented and successful renaissance man.	<urn:uuid:dc6eeca9-14e6-4b1d-a757-d9817b980725>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bootables.net/leonardo-use-his-talent-for-art-to/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00022.warc.gz	en	0.992467	681	3.328125	3	[ -0.137800395488739, 0.35277312994003296, 0.31003236770629883, -0.2420864999294281, -0.7331142425537109, 0.11248470842838287, 0.48718059062957764, 0.3708229660987854, 0.23954789340496063, -0.027993865311145782, 0.14000871777534485, -0.39537888765335083, 0.12880060076713562, 0.32627755403518...	1	an innovator who had enormous impact on society because he was the most talented and successful Renaissance man of his time. Leonardo da Vinci had multiple talents and careers throughout his life time. He was an artist ever since the he was a child and didn’t just use his talent for art to his advantage, he discovered incredible and amazing new hobbies that some men couldn’t even dream of doing. He changed our cultural beliefs through his art work. As he grew older he took on other careers such as painting, sculpting, engineering, mathematics, science, inventing, architecture, as well as a philosopher. He was the most loved Italian painter. Leonardo was born April 14, 1452 in a small town in Italy Vinci. His father discovered his talent in art and by the age of 14 Leonardo was painting with and was an apprentice with Verrocchio. At age twenty he was a master at art and had already started his own way of painting. He discovered a way to make his atmosphere look realistic in his painting by smoking out the color throughout the back round of the paintings. Paintrent’s would higher the young man to paint art works for them and he impressed every time. Not only was Leonardo an artist but he engaged in many projects having to do with human health and physical science. This is when he discovered his passion for architecture and construction. He dreamed of building and designing re-routes to rivers to pedestrian trails. Leonardo later went to Rome to work for Pope Lao the tenth. That is where he started studying human anatomy. He was very fascinated with nature and used this passion for his artworks. Most of his paintings inspired by nature are his best. Leonardo was a dreamer. One of the things he wanted to do most was learn how to fly. He studied birds to support his project. After years in his research he never found a way for the human body to fly. But he did invent many flying machines like a version of the helicopter and a parachute. Leonardo was also into the flow of water and after studying its movement he moved on to discovering water gadgets and designed some diving gear, water vehicles, and also the first water meter. He was officially centuries ahead of his time. He designed many construction projects and other inventions but his paintings were his best success. Some of his best works were The Mona Lisa, The last supper, and Vitruvian Man. De Vinci was the most talented man of all time. Although there are still secrets and unknown things about him and his paintings he still has earned his spot for fame and success. When Leonardo grew old he was loved by the king of France and worked for him as long as he could. On May 2, 1519 he grew old and became very sick. He died in the arms of the king of France after a stroke. His death was a tragedy and people have painted his last moments with the king. Leonardo was an innovator who has an enormous impact on society because he was the most talented and successful renaissance man.	662	ENGLISH	1
annually on January 14th On January 14, 1784, the Confederation Congress—which was also still known as the Continental Congress—ratified the Treaty of Paris, the document that officially ended the American Revolutionary War and made the United States of America a sovereign nation. This historic event and its anniversary each year is known as Ratification Day. There was a long road between the ending of hostilities of the Revolutionary War and this moment, and the treaty still had to be approved in Paris following Ratification Day, but it was on this day that the United States Congress made the end of the war official. On April 11, 1783, Congress issued a proclamation declaring a "cessation of arms" with Great Britain, which was approved by Congress four days later. Representatives from Great Britain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783, which said that the United States was "free, sovereign and independent." Furthermore, it said Britain would remove troops from occupied American territory in a timely fashion, that Britain agreed to boundaries that would double the size of the United States' territory, and that the United States would regain access to the cod and haddock fisheries in the North Atlantic that had been taken by Britain during the war. Although the treaty had been signed, it needed to be ratified by Congress as well as by Britain in order to become official. On December 13, 1783, Congress convened at the Maryland State House in Annapolis, Maryland, to approve the Treaty of Paris. According to the Articles of Confederation, the law of the land at the time, a two-thirds majority was needed to approve the treaty, meaning nine out of the thirteen states had to ratify it. At least two delegates from each state needed to be present in order for that state to vote on the treaty. The two countries were to exchange their ratifications by March 3, 1784. The winter of 1783-1984 was especially brutal, replete with extreme cold, ice storms, and blizzards, allowing only seven of the thirteen states the ability to convene the required number of delegates until mid-January. Only one delegate from New Hampshire and South Carolina had made it there, so they could not vote. No delegates from New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Georgia were present, so they could not vote either. A faction of the delegates thought that the seven present states could ratify the treaty, since the Articles of Confederation said that a two-thirds majority was needed to enter a treaty, not to ratify it. It looked unlikely that delegates from nine states would arrive in time to ratify it, and this faction thought they should proceed with those seven present. The other faction, led by Thomas Jefferson, thought all nine states needed to be present for ratification. They thought that if they did not follow this, Britain would find out and then have an excuse to nullify the treaty. Jefferson headed a compromise committee that included members of both factions. They decided that if only seven states were present, Congress would pass a resolution that said that the states present were unanimous in favor of ratifying but weren't sure of their competency to ratify with just seven states. This would be sent to Benjamin Franklin, the American Ambassador to France, who would request a three-month delay from Britain, so that ratification could be done by nine states. But if the three-month delay wasn't granted, Franklin was to present the seven state ratification. This compromise became moot, as delegates arrived at the last moment. On January 13, two delegates arrived from Connecticut, giving that state the right to vote on the treaty, and bringing the total number of states that could vote to eight. One delegate also arrived from New Jersey. The following day, Richard Beresford of South Carolina arrived, a second delegate from that state and the vote could be taken. On January 17, 1784—Ratification Day—the United States Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris. A Proclamation of Peace, written by Thomas Jefferson, was also approved on the day. It included a reprinting of the peace treaty as well as words "requiring and enjoining" all of those in positions of power and citizens of the country to observe it. A resolution was also passed that encouraged the state legislatures to pursue a conciliatory approach toward loyalists. Three packets including a copy of the ratified treaty, the Proclamation of Peace, and the resolution for the state legislatures were sent to Paris via separate couriers. Colonel Josiah Harmar and David S. Franks took separate packets to New York City. They left the port on separate ships, but were not able to embark until February 21, because there was an ice barrier between Long Island and Staten Island. This meant they assuredly would not reach Paris by the March 3 deadline. Harmar reached Europe first, arriving on March 25, at L'Orient, a naval base in Brittany, France. He left for Paris and traveled day and night, arriving at Benjamin Franklin's residence in Passy, on the outskirts of the city, on March 29, and handed him the ratification documents. Although the ratified treaty arrived after the March 3 deadline, Great Britain accepted the explanation that there had been a delay because of treacherous weather. King George III then signed the British ratification on April 9. Ratifications were exchanged on May 12, 1784, which formally put the Treaty of Paris into effect. Benjamin Franklin sent the British copy to Congress. The implementation of the Treaty of Paris hinged on its ratification by the United States Congress, an objective that was fulfilled on January 14, 1784. Today, on the anniversary of ratification, we mark Ratification Day. The Old Senate Chamber in the Maryland State House, where the ratification took place, looks exactly as it did on that historic day, and each year on the anniversary a ceremony is held there. At the time of ratification, the United States flag had twelve stars shaped in a circle and a thirteenth inside of the circle. This flag is now flown over the statehouse and over other buildings in Annapolis on Ratification Day. How to Observe The following are a few ideas on how to observe Ratification Day: - Read the text of the Proclamation of Peace, which includes the text of the Treaty of Paris. You could also view a facsimile of the document. - Visit the Maryland State House, where an event is held each year. Make sure to stop in the Old Senate Chamber, where the ratification of the treaty took place. - Fly the same style of flag that flew over the statehouse on the day of ratification, and which is still flown there on Ratification Day each year. - Visit the Museum of the American Revolution.	<urn:uuid:9fde0e75-2ebb-4890-adaa-4b1303daf330>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.checkiday.com/df81a62710e178d4d59986758e56c951/ratification-day	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00449.warc.gz	en	0.981372	1,378	4.34375	4	[ -0.4488656520843506, 0.05034738406538963, 0.38186997175216675, 0.22587968409061432, -0.23717160522937775, 0.14911122620105743, -0.2078024446964264, 0.34491074085235596, -0.17581331729888916, 0.12168467044830322, 0.2606686055660248, 0.0904211699962616, -0.010711124166846275, 0.4090321063995...	2	annually on January 14th On January 14, 1784, the Confederation Congress—which was also still known as the Continental Congress—ratified the Treaty of Paris, the document that officially ended the American Revolutionary War and made the United States of America a sovereign nation. This historic event and its anniversary each year is known as Ratification Day. There was a long road between the ending of hostilities of the Revolutionary War and this moment, and the treaty still had to be approved in Paris following Ratification Day, but it was on this day that the United States Congress made the end of the war official. On April 11, 1783, Congress issued a proclamation declaring a "cessation of arms" with Great Britain, which was approved by Congress four days later. Representatives from Great Britain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783, which said that the United States was "free, sovereign and independent." Furthermore, it said Britain would remove troops from occupied American territory in a timely fashion, that Britain agreed to boundaries that would double the size of the United States' territory, and that the United States would regain access to the cod and haddock fisheries in the North Atlantic that had been taken by Britain during the war. Although the treaty had been signed, it needed to be ratified by Congress as well as by Britain in order to become official. On December 13, 1783, Congress convened at the Maryland State House in Annapolis, Maryland, to approve the Treaty of Paris. According to the Articles of Confederation, the law of the land at the time, a two-thirds majority was needed to approve the treaty, meaning nine out of the thirteen states had to ratify it. At least two delegates from each state needed to be present in order for that state to vote on the treaty. The two countries were to exchange their ratifications by March 3, 1784. The winter of 1783-1984 was especially brutal, replete with extreme cold, ice storms, and blizzards, allowing only seven of the thirteen states the ability to convene the required number of delegates until mid-January. Only one delegate from New Hampshire and South Carolina had made it there, so they could not vote. No delegates from New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Georgia were present, so they could not vote either. A faction of the delegates thought that the seven present states could ratify the treaty, since the Articles of Confederation said that a two-thirds majority was needed to enter a treaty, not to ratify it. It looked unlikely that delegates from nine states would arrive in time to ratify it, and this faction thought they should proceed with those seven present. The other faction, led by Thomas Jefferson, thought all nine states needed to be present for ratification. They thought that if they did not follow this, Britain would find out and then have an excuse to nullify the treaty. Jefferson headed a compromise committee that included members of both factions. They decided that if only seven states were present, Congress would pass a resolution that said that the states present were unanimous in favor of ratifying but weren't sure of their competency to ratify with just seven states. This would be sent to Benjamin Franklin, the American Ambassador to France, who would request a three-month delay from Britain, so that ratification could be done by nine states. But if the three-month delay wasn't granted, Franklin was to present the seven state ratification. This compromise became moot, as delegates arrived at the last moment. On January 13, two delegates arrived from Connecticut, giving that state the right to vote on the treaty, and bringing the total number of states that could vote to eight. One delegate also arrived from New Jersey. The following day, Richard Beresford of South Carolina arrived, a second delegate from that state and the vote could be taken. On January 17, 1784—Ratification Day—the United States Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris. A Proclamation of Peace, written by Thomas Jefferson, was also approved on the day. It included a reprinting of the peace treaty as well as words "requiring and enjoining" all of those in positions of power and citizens of the country to observe it. A resolution was also passed that encouraged the state legislatures to pursue a conciliatory approach toward loyalists. Three packets including a copy of the ratified treaty, the Proclamation of Peace, and the resolution for the state legislatures were sent to Paris via separate couriers. Colonel Josiah Harmar and David S. Franks took separate packets to New York City. They left the port on separate ships, but were not able to embark until February 21, because there was an ice barrier between Long Island and Staten Island. This meant they assuredly would not reach Paris by the March 3 deadline. Harmar reached Europe first, arriving on March 25, at L'Orient, a naval base in Brittany, France. He left for Paris and traveled day and night, arriving at Benjamin Franklin's residence in Passy, on the outskirts of the city, on March 29, and handed him the ratification documents. Although the ratified treaty arrived after the March 3 deadline, Great Britain accepted the explanation that there had been a delay because of treacherous weather. King George III then signed the British ratification on April 9. Ratifications were exchanged on May 12, 1784, which formally put the Treaty of Paris into effect. Benjamin Franklin sent the British copy to Congress. The implementation of the Treaty of Paris hinged on its ratification by the United States Congress, an objective that was fulfilled on January 14, 1784. Today, on the anniversary of ratification, we mark Ratification Day. The Old Senate Chamber in the Maryland State House, where the ratification took place, looks exactly as it did on that historic day, and each year on the anniversary a ceremony is held there. At the time of ratification, the United States flag had twelve stars shaped in a circle and a thirteenth inside of the circle. This flag is now flown over the statehouse and over other buildings in Annapolis on Ratification Day. How to Observe The following are a few ideas on how to observe Ratification Day: - Read the text of the Proclamation of Peace, which includes the text of the Treaty of Paris. You could also view a facsimile of the document. - Visit the Maryland State House, where an event is held each year. Make sure to stop in the Old Senate Chamber, where the ratification of the treaty took place. - Fly the same style of flag that flew over the statehouse on the day of ratification, and which is still flown there on Ratification Day each year. - Visit the Museum of the American Revolution.	1,434	ENGLISH	1
He returned in London alone and he met the philosopher William Godwin and the poet Coleridge the begin of one of the great friendship of literally history. At eighteen, he married Anne Hathaway, a woman seven or eight years his senior. Together they Romantic period poets two daughters: Susanna, who was born inand Judith whose twin brother died in boyhoodborn in Little is known about Shakespeare's activities between and Robert Greene's A Groatsworth of Wit alludes to him as an actor and playwright. Shakespeare may have taught at school during this period, but it seems more probable that shortly after he went to London to begin his apprenticeship as an actor. Due to the plague, the London theaters were often closed between June and April During that period, Shakespeare probably had some income from his patron, Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his first two poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece The former was a long narrative poem depicting the rejection of Venus by Adonis, his death, and the consequent disappearance of beauty from the world. Despite conservative objections to the poem's glorification of sensuality, it was immensely popular and was reprinted six times during the nine years following its publication. InShakespeare joined the Lord Chamberlain's company of actors, the most popular of the companies acting at Court. In Shakespeare joined a group of Chamberlain's Men that would form a syndicate to build and operate a new playhouse: With his share of the income from the Globe, Shakespeare was able to purchase New Place, his home in Stratford. While Shakespeare was regarded as the foremost dramatist of his time, evidence indicates that both he and his contemporaries looked to poetry, not playwriting, for enduring fame. Shakespeare's sonnets were composed between andthough not published until That edition, The Sonnets of Shakespeare, consists of sonnets, all written in the form of three quatrains and a couplet that is now recognized as Shakespearean. The sonnets fall into two groups: Nearly all of Shakespeare's sonnets examine the inevitable decay of time, and the immortalization of beauty and love in poetry. In his poems and plays, Shakespeare invented thousands of words, often combining or contorting Latin, French, and native roots. His impressive expansion of the English language, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, includes such words as: Shakespeare wrote more than thirty plays. These are usually divided into four categories: His earliest plays were primarily comedies and histories such as Henry VI and The Comedy of Errors, but inShakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet, his second tragedy, and over the next dozen years he would return to the form, writing the plays for which he is now best known: Only eighteen of Shakespeare's plays were published separately in quarto editions during his lifetime; a complete collection of his works did not appear until the publication of the First Folio inseveral years after his death. Nonetheless, his contemporaries recognized Shakespeare's achievements. Francis Meres cited "honey-tongued" Shakespeare for his plays and poems inand the Chamberlain's Men rose to become the leading dramatic company in London, installed as members of the royal household in Sometime afterShakespeare retired from the stage and returned to his home in Stratford. He drew up his will in January ofwhich included his famous bequest to his wife of his "second best bed.You certainly have heard of Cinque Terre, but the real jewel of Liguria lies in the area they call "the bay of poets.". Romancticism. No other period in English literature displays more variety in style, theme, and content than the Romantic Movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. If you would like to find a specific poet or poem, search this site by entering a name, title, or keywords in the search bar, or browse the Table of Contents. read poems by this poet. William Shakespeare was born on April 23, , in Stratford-upon-Avon. The son of John Shakespeare and Mary Arden, he was probably educated at the King Edward VI Grammar School in Stratford, where he learned Latin and a little Greek and read the Roman dramatists. The Romantic Era. In , William Lisle Bowles () wrote an influential sonnet sequence, Fourteen Sonnets, a sign of brighter times ahead for the kaja-net.com rational, witty, neoclassical seventeenth century poems written in heroic couplets gave way to major works in more open forms, the sonnet was somehow adapted to accommodate the . ‘The best laid schemes o’ mice an’ men Gang aft agley’ Robert Burns was born on 25 January in the village of Alloway, near Ayr.	<urn:uuid:4e56bef3-4baa-410f-b1c8-bbaae40c43e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kuzoqivymolekym.kaja-net.com/romantic-period-poets-30784kb.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00463.warc.gz	en	0.983924	986	3.296875	3	[ 0.07301102578639984, -0.3386431932449341, 0.35503146052360535, -0.18429481983184814, -0.4169282913208008, -0.1510058492422104, 0.17805500328540802, -0.16159315407276154, -0.07583136856555939, -0.5097295045852661, 0.01405568141490221, -0.07341854274272919, 0.094516322016716, 0.3336966633796...	1	He returned in London alone and he met the philosopher William Godwin and the poet Coleridge the begin of one of the great friendship of literally history. At eighteen, he married Anne Hathaway, a woman seven or eight years his senior. Together they Romantic period poets two daughters: Susanna, who was born inand Judith whose twin brother died in boyhoodborn in Little is known about Shakespeare's activities between and Robert Greene's A Groatsworth of Wit alludes to him as an actor and playwright. Shakespeare may have taught at school during this period, but it seems more probable that shortly after he went to London to begin his apprenticeship as an actor. Due to the plague, the London theaters were often closed between June and April During that period, Shakespeare probably had some income from his patron, Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his first two poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece The former was a long narrative poem depicting the rejection of Venus by Adonis, his death, and the consequent disappearance of beauty from the world. Despite conservative objections to the poem's glorification of sensuality, it was immensely popular and was reprinted six times during the nine years following its publication. InShakespeare joined the Lord Chamberlain's company of actors, the most popular of the companies acting at Court. In Shakespeare joined a group of Chamberlain's Men that would form a syndicate to build and operate a new playhouse: With his share of the income from the Globe, Shakespeare was able to purchase New Place, his home in Stratford. While Shakespeare was regarded as the foremost dramatist of his time, evidence indicates that both he and his contemporaries looked to poetry, not playwriting, for enduring fame. Shakespeare's sonnets were composed between andthough not published until That edition, The Sonnets of Shakespeare, consists of sonnets, all written in the form of three quatrains and a couplet that is now recognized as Shakespearean. The sonnets fall into two groups: Nearly all of Shakespeare's sonnets examine the inevitable decay of time, and the immortalization of beauty and love in poetry. In his poems and plays, Shakespeare invented thousands of words, often combining or contorting Latin, French, and native roots. His impressive expansion of the English language, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, includes such words as: Shakespeare wrote more than thirty plays. These are usually divided into four categories: His earliest plays were primarily comedies and histories such as Henry VI and The Comedy of Errors, but inShakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet, his second tragedy, and over the next dozen years he would return to the form, writing the plays for which he is now best known: Only eighteen of Shakespeare's plays were published separately in quarto editions during his lifetime; a complete collection of his works did not appear until the publication of the First Folio inseveral years after his death. Nonetheless, his contemporaries recognized Shakespeare's achievements. Francis Meres cited "honey-tongued" Shakespeare for his plays and poems inand the Chamberlain's Men rose to become the leading dramatic company in London, installed as members of the royal household in Sometime afterShakespeare retired from the stage and returned to his home in Stratford. He drew up his will in January ofwhich included his famous bequest to his wife of his "second best bed.You certainly have heard of Cinque Terre, but the real jewel of Liguria lies in the area they call "the bay of poets.". Romancticism. No other period in English literature displays more variety in style, theme, and content than the Romantic Movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. If you would like to find a specific poet or poem, search this site by entering a name, title, or keywords in the search bar, or browse the Table of Contents. read poems by this poet. William Shakespeare was born on April 23, , in Stratford-upon-Avon. The son of John Shakespeare and Mary Arden, he was probably educated at the King Edward VI Grammar School in Stratford, where he learned Latin and a little Greek and read the Roman dramatists. The Romantic Era. In , William Lisle Bowles () wrote an influential sonnet sequence, Fourteen Sonnets, a sign of brighter times ahead for the kaja-net.com rational, witty, neoclassical seventeenth century poems written in heroic couplets gave way to major works in more open forms, the sonnet was somehow adapted to accommodate the . ‘The best laid schemes o’ mice an’ men Gang aft agley’ Robert Burns was born on 25 January in the village of Alloway, near Ayr.	968	ENGLISH	1
Lorenzo de Medici Today we celebrate the birth of Lorenzo de Medici, born on this day in 1449 in Florence, Italy. Lorenzo became the de facto leader of the Florentine states after his father, Piero di Cosimo de’ Medici died in 1469. Sure, he was a political dude, but his nickname was Lorenzo The Magnificent. It wasn’t so much a nickname as it was a political title that was bestowed upon him at the age of twenty-one. But even so he became known as a magnificent patron of the arts, himself a poet, a friend to intellectuals and philosophers, as well as favored diplomat and banker/financier. Making a name for himself as a patron of the arts during the Renaissance means he was the patron of the likes of Michelangelo, Botticelli, and Leonardo da Vinci, among others. Michelangelo actually went to live with the Medici family when he was fifteen after Lorenzo discovered him at The Academy of San Marco, and stayed with the family for three years living alongside the children of Lorenzo and Giuliano. Two of those children would become Popes – Pope Leo X and Pope Clement VII – who would later commission him to work in Rome. Lorenzo also spent much of his family’s fortune in support of the arts and letters. He paid large sums to Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Fra Filippo Lippi to beautify the city of Florence. At the request of Lorenzo, the humanist John Lascaris and the poet Angelo Poliziano traveled far and wide to gather manuscripts for the Medici libraries. Lorenzo allowed these manuscripts to be copied by scribes for other libraries, and as they spread through Europe, so did the Renaissance. He died on April 8, 1492 You can find out more about him by reading his bio on Wikipedia.	<urn:uuid:f7be7bbf-6e5d-49df-b8a0-f34cbbb9d4b4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artist-at-large.com/2020/01/01/on-this-day-january-1-lorenzo-de-medici/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00495.warc.gz	en	0.984289	390	3.734375	4	[ -0.3454189896583557, 0.490787535905838, 0.658362090587616, 0.08957285434007645, -0.9284003973007202, -0.3262808322906494, 0.5053144693374634, 0.2180967628955841, -0.13678725063800812, -0.18483351171016693, -0.3006512224674225, -0.0955873355269432, 0.24384251236915588, 0.14585930109024048, ...	7	Lorenzo de Medici Today we celebrate the birth of Lorenzo de Medici, born on this day in 1449 in Florence, Italy. Lorenzo became the de facto leader of the Florentine states after his father, Piero di Cosimo de’ Medici died in 1469. Sure, he was a political dude, but his nickname was Lorenzo The Magnificent. It wasn’t so much a nickname as it was a political title that was bestowed upon him at the age of twenty-one. But even so he became known as a magnificent patron of the arts, himself a poet, a friend to intellectuals and philosophers, as well as favored diplomat and banker/financier. Making a name for himself as a patron of the arts during the Renaissance means he was the patron of the likes of Michelangelo, Botticelli, and Leonardo da Vinci, among others. Michelangelo actually went to live with the Medici family when he was fifteen after Lorenzo discovered him at The Academy of San Marco, and stayed with the family for three years living alongside the children of Lorenzo and Giuliano. Two of those children would become Popes – Pope Leo X and Pope Clement VII – who would later commission him to work in Rome. Lorenzo also spent much of his family’s fortune in support of the arts and letters. He paid large sums to Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Fra Filippo Lippi to beautify the city of Florence. At the request of Lorenzo, the humanist John Lascaris and the poet Angelo Poliziano traveled far and wide to gather manuscripts for the Medici libraries. Lorenzo allowed these manuscripts to be copied by scribes for other libraries, and as they spread through Europe, so did the Renaissance. He died on April 8, 1492 You can find out more about him by reading his bio on Wikipedia.	389	ENGLISH	1
Originating in the 19th century, Manifest Destiny was a belief that the US was destined to spread throughout the American continents. That this spread was inevitable and therefore justified, at any cost. The idea was that manifesting this inescapable advancement was the duty of all US citizens of the time. The term was originally coined in a rhetorical manner, featured in an article titled Annexation. The underlying themes of Manifest Destiny, that America and its settlers had a duty to spread industrialism west, carried along with them the fact that to see this mission to its end, slavery would need to continue and even be expanded. There were many critics of the idea, many claiming that those who utilized this idea only did so in seeking justification for activities only based in discrimination and selfishness. Regardless, the term was employed by Democrats to defend the war against Mexico and the splitting of Oregon with the British, as well as the push to eradicate Native power and expand slavery. In fact, this overwhelming urge on the part of some to push west and bring enlightenment to the savages that occupied the land there came at a great cost, both to early US citizens and to the Native American and slave populations. Despite political dissension surrounding the main themes of Manifest Destiny, the US government continued pushing west, removing Native American populations from their own lands, inciting skirmishes and wars with them. Those that supported Manifest Destiny believed that Native Americans were better off living separately from ‘whites’ and that the Native way of life would simply fade away. The Homestead Act of 1862 was another attempt at forcing the expansion of America, going hand-in-hand with the removal of Native peoples from their traditional lands. Offering free land, usually around 160 acres, to almost 600,000 families, the only requirement was to stay and improve the land for 5 years. While the idea was popular with pre-civil war Democrats, it was a highly contested school of thought, even among some notable American figures including Ulysses S. Grant and Abraham Lincoln. John Quincy Adams, who originally had been a great supporter of Manifest Destiny, rejected the continuation of slavery in 1843. By the turn of the 20th century, during the presidency of Teddy Roosevelt, Manifest Destiny had fallen from grace. Both the term and the forced expansion west had come under so much fire from opponents that it was no longer seen as healthy for the growing nation. Roosevelt and his successor Woodrow Wilson both explicitly rejected expansionism in favor of interventionism and the idea that the world should be a safe haven for democracy.	<urn:uuid:f1cba211-98e2-42ac-9853-5c753c34813e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://carldane.wordpress.com/2018/10/16/manifest-destiny/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00460.warc.gz	en	0.981317	523	4.40625	4	[ -0.23621873557567596, 0.17339618504047394, 0.19184604287147522, -0.21369390189647675, -0.15479972958564758, -0.11647197604179382, -0.2433064579963684, 0.1823107749223709, 0.09706380218267441, 0.10459808260202408, 0.06269822269678116, 0.08622588962316513, -0.12295489013195038, -0.0859224945...	5	Originating in the 19th century, Manifest Destiny was a belief that the US was destined to spread throughout the American continents. That this spread was inevitable and therefore justified, at any cost. The idea was that manifesting this inescapable advancement was the duty of all US citizens of the time. The term was originally coined in a rhetorical manner, featured in an article titled Annexation. The underlying themes of Manifest Destiny, that America and its settlers had a duty to spread industrialism west, carried along with them the fact that to see this mission to its end, slavery would need to continue and even be expanded. There were many critics of the idea, many claiming that those who utilized this idea only did so in seeking justification for activities only based in discrimination and selfishness. Regardless, the term was employed by Democrats to defend the war against Mexico and the splitting of Oregon with the British, as well as the push to eradicate Native power and expand slavery. In fact, this overwhelming urge on the part of some to push west and bring enlightenment to the savages that occupied the land there came at a great cost, both to early US citizens and to the Native American and slave populations. Despite political dissension surrounding the main themes of Manifest Destiny, the US government continued pushing west, removing Native American populations from their own lands, inciting skirmishes and wars with them. Those that supported Manifest Destiny believed that Native Americans were better off living separately from ‘whites’ and that the Native way of life would simply fade away. The Homestead Act of 1862 was another attempt at forcing the expansion of America, going hand-in-hand with the removal of Native peoples from their traditional lands. Offering free land, usually around 160 acres, to almost 600,000 families, the only requirement was to stay and improve the land for 5 years. While the idea was popular with pre-civil war Democrats, it was a highly contested school of thought, even among some notable American figures including Ulysses S. Grant and Abraham Lincoln. John Quincy Adams, who originally had been a great supporter of Manifest Destiny, rejected the continuation of slavery in 1843. By the turn of the 20th century, during the presidency of Teddy Roosevelt, Manifest Destiny had fallen from grace. Both the term and the forced expansion west had come under so much fire from opponents that it was no longer seen as healthy for the growing nation. Roosevelt and his successor Woodrow Wilson both explicitly rejected expansionism in favor of interventionism and the idea that the world should be a safe haven for democracy.	534	ENGLISH	1
In recognition of how many ways an egg could be prepared, the original chef’s tall hat was made with 100 pleats. This type of hat was first seen worn by French magistrates but was later worn by French chefs as a means of displaying seniority in the kitchen. Later on chefs in many countries adopted this style of hat for wear in the kitchen. Pyrenean sheperds were some of the earliest people to wear the beret. During the 1880’s the French mountain regiment began wearing the blue beret because of its neat design, its adaptability and its durability. In 1918 the British tank corps entered into training operations with the French and they discovered the beret was ideally suited for tank crews because of the fitted shape and inobtrusive design. The beret is worn all over the world by soldiers today. In America during the 1920’s an odd trend emerged where it was common for people to be beaten up if they were seen wearing a straw hat after the 15th of September. On September the 18th, 1925, a large fuss arose when President Coolidge was seen wearing a straw hat. Riots erupted in New York in 1922 when trouble-seeking gangs caused chaos by going on the rampage looking for people to attack and straw hats to destroy. In order not to be attacked, many people destroyed their own hats. In the 19th century in the US baseball players wore an array of straw and cotton hats in order to protect their faces and eyes from the sun. Fans were not able to identify their favourite players so a standardised form of head-wear became desirable for both players and fans. The peaked baseball cap was first seen worn by the Brooklyn Excelsiors in 1860. Hats declined in popularity at the end of the Second World War for a number of reasons. The hairstyles of the day meant hats were unpractical and sunglasses emerged as a very popular fashion accessory. Hat workers in factories started to worry about the future of the hat making industry, and in industrial towns such as Denton and Stockport it was not uncommon for people walking through without hats to be physically and verbally abused.	<urn:uuid:586c0262-7d3d-47dc-8faa-e03789e1c688>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://cheapnhljerseyswholesale.us/hat-facts.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00294.warc.gz	en	0.984455	437	3.3125	3	[ -0.3475143313407898, 0.12419026345014572, 0.07874857634305954, -0.23555853962898254, 0.11027542501688004, 0.41320016980171204, 0.6261076331138611, 0.18286044895648956, -0.297465443611145, -0.386831670999527, 0.13407617807388306, -0.15236406028270721, 0.11276010423898697, 0.0809459164738655...	7	In recognition of how many ways an egg could be prepared, the original chef’s tall hat was made with 100 pleats. This type of hat was first seen worn by French magistrates but was later worn by French chefs as a means of displaying seniority in the kitchen. Later on chefs in many countries adopted this style of hat for wear in the kitchen. Pyrenean sheperds were some of the earliest people to wear the beret. During the 1880’s the French mountain regiment began wearing the blue beret because of its neat design, its adaptability and its durability. In 1918 the British tank corps entered into training operations with the French and they discovered the beret was ideally suited for tank crews because of the fitted shape and inobtrusive design. The beret is worn all over the world by soldiers today. In America during the 1920’s an odd trend emerged where it was common for people to be beaten up if they were seen wearing a straw hat after the 15th of September. On September the 18th, 1925, a large fuss arose when President Coolidge was seen wearing a straw hat. Riots erupted in New York in 1922 when trouble-seeking gangs caused chaos by going on the rampage looking for people to attack and straw hats to destroy. In order not to be attacked, many people destroyed their own hats. In the 19th century in the US baseball players wore an array of straw and cotton hats in order to protect their faces and eyes from the sun. Fans were not able to identify their favourite players so a standardised form of head-wear became desirable for both players and fans. The peaked baseball cap was first seen worn by the Brooklyn Excelsiors in 1860. Hats declined in popularity at the end of the Second World War for a number of reasons. The hairstyles of the day meant hats were unpractical and sunglasses emerged as a very popular fashion accessory. Hat workers in factories started to worry about the future of the hat making industry, and in industrial towns such as Denton and Stockport it was not uncommon for people walking through without hats to be physically and verbally abused.	459	ENGLISH	1
When the Communist party took control of China and re-distributed wealth in the nation, Chairman Mao decided that the most efficient manner to preserve the power of the party was to maintain a constant state of Revolution . The nation even experienced a late blooming cultural revolution led by the Red Guard while the education system was being modified. One of his greatest feats in The People's Republic was the launch of a radical policy change, a Great Leap Forward . At the peak of reform, production was at an all time high , rivaling any success ever gained before or since in the history of the world. Innovative farming techniques also aided in the sharp rise of the Chinese economy. The Chinese also began to use technological advances to farm on once barren land . They even brought the nation together through the process of communization where many small family farms were joined together to allow for the sharing of resources. The healthy and happy Chinese people who had been freed from aristocratic oppression were kept safe from impure western ideals by the regulated media which prevented them from learning about the selfish greed being practiced throughout the world. Even during the revolution, the rest of the world recognized China diplomatically right away. Especially strong were the ties between Mao's government and Soviet Russia . The Soviets even inspired the Chinese to industrialize their economy. Why worry about growing food now when you can guarantee the money to buy it later just by making steel in small backyard furnaces alongside your crops . Of course like any industrialized nation, China saw the need to further their economic agenda a bit more by becoming a well known exporter Red China: 1,000,000,000 starving people - living proof that Socialism WORKS! But did it really work? « Go back to Socialism WORKS! - re-distributed wealth: - A common theme in nations in the aftermath of a communist revolution. What this essentially involves is taking, without compensation, anything of value in the nation. Instead of equally dividing land and resources among hard working people, the CCP claimed control of such resources and distributed these resources in paltry quantities among the masses. The result was a nation that had once had a few rich landowners and many poor workers now had wealthy government officials and a poor general population. - maintain a constant state of Revolution: - Mao succeeded with this effort to keep the nation running at the fever pitch of revolution for the length of his life and beyond. From the many Battles, to the Great Leap Forward, Even the Cultural Revolution where many dedicated Communist leaders were persecuted for not being loyal to the cause. Decades of revolution eventually burned the people of China out and limited the availability of resources for years to come. - cultural revolution: - Often times, a cultural revolution is a time when people open their minds to new ideas. The European Renaissance in the early part of the seventeenth century is an example of how a cultural revolution typically changes the people it touches. Much like anything dealing with Socialism, the Cultural revolution in China was driven to halt the free flow of discovery and modernization. Although Communist China had openly discouraged religious expression since the revolution, they had never actually attacked it until this time. Religious teachers were murdered or imprisoned. Religious texts were burned or otherwise destroyed. Even the teachings of the great philosopher Confucius were cast aside with scorn. - Red Guard: - An organization similar in nature to the Hitler Youth movement in Nazi Germany, the Red Guard were seen as the future of the CCP. Made up of young people who were taken out of school in 19--, this group was dangerous to everyone who was not able to quote key phrases from Mao's little red book. Many people were violently attacked because they could not produce a copy of the book upon request by a member of the Red Guard. The revolutionary tactics of this group resulted in a delayed re-opening of the schools. An entire generation of Chinese people grew up with little to no formal education as a result. - The People's Republic: - The name would lead a casual observer to believe that the Chinese people have full control over their government. Unfortunately, the name is quite misleading. Just as in any other Socialist nation, the people actually have little control of their government. All of the power is in the hands of the men at the head of the Chinese Communist Party. - Great Leap Forward: - Upon realizing that the starving people were ready to turn the revolution against him, Mao sought to use this revolutionary zeal to secure his power once more. He asked the people to make more sacrifices for the good of the nation. Many refused and were aided in compliance by use of force. The Great Leap Forward decimated the already weak Chinese economy. - production was at an all time high: - An Anti Rightist campaign had most people so frightened of persecution that they feared to report anything other than good news. The result was a trend of increasingly exaggerated accounting of production rates. Pressure to do better than the next group inflated the numbers even more. - Innovative farming techniques: - Some of these included planting crops too close together for anything to grow effectively. Close planting as it was known actually lowered the production of food below the inadequate levels it existed at before development. - farm on once barren land: - Many modern Socialists view the system as being environment friendly. The Chinese destroyed their environment in ways that most people cannot even contemplate. One of their favorite areas of land to use for farming consisted of filled in lakes. - Many people were forced from land that their families had farmed for generations in the name of national unity. Often, people resisted the government intrusion in their lives and refused to allow some of their tools to be taken by the state and used in other communes. The most damaging situation created out of this new policy was the fact that people were doing work that they had never done in their lives. If a man grew rice, but they needed more people to cultivate tomatoes, that man was forced to farm tomatoes. - healthy and happy Chinese people: - Hardly the case here. The people were greatly oppressed (see Tiananmen Square and regulated media) In addition to the oppression, the people are starving as a result of decades of failed economic reforms and what has been described as mother nature's wrath in response to the blatant disregard for the environment in the pursuit of economic gain. Only recently, with the aid of reforms turning away from Socialism, has the Chinese economy begun to reach a level where it can sustain the nations large population. - freed from aristocratic oppression: - Only to become oppressed by the heavy hand of an incompetent Socialist government. - regulated media: - I can't think of any reason why anyone would ever find this acceptable. The media was a propaganda machine. Anything that showed the flaws of the Party was never permitted to be seen by the public. By keeping the people in the dark it was easy for the revolutionary leaders to promote their agenda by focusing only on the (largely exaggerated) positive news. - recognized China diplomatically: - It took 20 to 30 years for most of the world to recognize the People's Republic as the official government of China. Most preferred to deal with the former government which had taken refuge on the tiny island of Taiwan. The United States did not recognize the government in place in Mainland China until the early 1970's - Soviet Russia: - In spite of the common bond of Socialism, China and the Soviet Union did not have the strong relationship that is often implied. In fact, the two governments often found themselves at odds over which of the two was practicing a truer form of Communism. Competition with the dominant Soviet Union inspired the dramatic policy change and reformation which would come to be known as The Great Leap Forward. - small backyard furnaces: - Much of the steel (and many other metals as well) was melted down in these furnaces in an attempt to bolster the industrial sector of the Chinese economy. This caused a sharp decline in the amount of available steel in the country because everything that could be found was melted down. What exactly was produced from this effort? A whole bunch of worthless steel of less than poor quality. The Socialist Chinese government had succeeded in not only getting rid of many valuable historical relics, but also in making a whole lot of junk. During this time, if you had something that had a made in China label on it, you could bet that it was going to be of low quality. The Chinese also succeed in further destroying their own environment because much of the available timber in the land was used to fuel these furnaces. - Actually, many crops were left to rot in the fields of the communes when the government put steel making on the list as its new top priority. It is a sad state of affairs to realize that Socialism which claims to help feed everyone while protecting the environment and creating a functional economy actually managed to starve tens of thousands of Chinese while destroying the environment and making many items which actually had some value (historical relics and such) into worthless junk-such a sound economic policy. - Some of the exports which account for a large percentage of the products sold to other nations include missile technology and weapons systems. Since they weren't doing as well with these as they had hoped, they also made it a point to step up opium production. At least they can be on the winning side of the Battle on drugs.	<urn:uuid:67f78799-68b9-4aa6-b593-96b9cf16a2d1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://archive.paoracle.com/SocialismWORKS!/index.php?sw=Communist%20China	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00285.warc.gz	en	0.981114	1,930	3.328125	3	[ -0.7305006980895996, 0.2330005019903183, 0.04771809279918671, 0.11721038818359375, 0.17883047461509705, 0.20593762397766113, -0.06925775110721588, 0.28502094745635986, -0.40546727180480957, 0.03949088975787163, 0.5603373050689697, 0.12328412383794785, 0.4027125835418701, -0.035682640969753...	3	When the Communist party took control of China and re-distributed wealth in the nation, Chairman Mao decided that the most efficient manner to preserve the power of the party was to maintain a constant state of Revolution . The nation even experienced a late blooming cultural revolution led by the Red Guard while the education system was being modified. One of his greatest feats in The People's Republic was the launch of a radical policy change, a Great Leap Forward . At the peak of reform, production was at an all time high , rivaling any success ever gained before or since in the history of the world. Innovative farming techniques also aided in the sharp rise of the Chinese economy. The Chinese also began to use technological advances to farm on once barren land . They even brought the nation together through the process of communization where many small family farms were joined together to allow for the sharing of resources. The healthy and happy Chinese people who had been freed from aristocratic oppression were kept safe from impure western ideals by the regulated media which prevented them from learning about the selfish greed being practiced throughout the world. Even during the revolution, the rest of the world recognized China diplomatically right away. Especially strong were the ties between Mao's government and Soviet Russia . The Soviets even inspired the Chinese to industrialize their economy. Why worry about growing food now when you can guarantee the money to buy it later just by making steel in small backyard furnaces alongside your crops . Of course like any industrialized nation, China saw the need to further their economic agenda a bit more by becoming a well known exporter Red China: 1,000,000,000 starving people - living proof that Socialism WORKS! But did it really work? « Go back to Socialism WORKS! - re-distributed wealth: - A common theme in nations in the aftermath of a communist revolution. What this essentially involves is taking, without compensation, anything of value in the nation. Instead of equally dividing land and resources among hard working people, the CCP claimed control of such resources and distributed these resources in paltry quantities among the masses. The result was a nation that had once had a few rich landowners and many poor workers now had wealthy government officials and a poor general population. - maintain a constant state of Revolution: - Mao succeeded with this effort to keep the nation running at the fever pitch of revolution for the length of his life and beyond. From the many Battles, to the Great Leap Forward, Even the Cultural Revolution where many dedicated Communist leaders were persecuted for not being loyal to the cause. Decades of revolution eventually burned the people of China out and limited the availability of resources for years to come. - cultural revolution: - Often times, a cultural revolution is a time when people open their minds to new ideas. The European Renaissance in the early part of the seventeenth century is an example of how a cultural revolution typically changes the people it touches. Much like anything dealing with Socialism, the Cultural revolution in China was driven to halt the free flow of discovery and modernization. Although Communist China had openly discouraged religious expression since the revolution, they had never actually attacked it until this time. Religious teachers were murdered or imprisoned. Religious texts were burned or otherwise destroyed. Even the teachings of the great philosopher Confucius were cast aside with scorn. - Red Guard: - An organization similar in nature to the Hitler Youth movement in Nazi Germany, the Red Guard were seen as the future of the CCP. Made up of young people who were taken out of school in 19--, this group was dangerous to everyone who was not able to quote key phrases from Mao's little red book. Many people were violently attacked because they could not produce a copy of the book upon request by a member of the Red Guard. The revolutionary tactics of this group resulted in a delayed re-opening of the schools. An entire generation of Chinese people grew up with little to no formal education as a result. - The People's Republic: - The name would lead a casual observer to believe that the Chinese people have full control over their government. Unfortunately, the name is quite misleading. Just as in any other Socialist nation, the people actually have little control of their government. All of the power is in the hands of the men at the head of the Chinese Communist Party. - Great Leap Forward: - Upon realizing that the starving people were ready to turn the revolution against him, Mao sought to use this revolutionary zeal to secure his power once more. He asked the people to make more sacrifices for the good of the nation. Many refused and were aided in compliance by use of force. The Great Leap Forward decimated the already weak Chinese economy. - production was at an all time high: - An Anti Rightist campaign had most people so frightened of persecution that they feared to report anything other than good news. The result was a trend of increasingly exaggerated accounting of production rates. Pressure to do better than the next group inflated the numbers even more. - Innovative farming techniques: - Some of these included planting crops too close together for anything to grow effectively. Close planting as it was known actually lowered the production of food below the inadequate levels it existed at before development. - farm on once barren land: - Many modern Socialists view the system as being environment friendly. The Chinese destroyed their environment in ways that most people cannot even contemplate. One of their favorite areas of land to use for farming consisted of filled in lakes. - Many people were forced from land that their families had farmed for generations in the name of national unity. Often, people resisted the government intrusion in their lives and refused to allow some of their tools to be taken by the state and used in other communes. The most damaging situation created out of this new policy was the fact that people were doing work that they had never done in their lives. If a man grew rice, but they needed more people to cultivate tomatoes, that man was forced to farm tomatoes. - healthy and happy Chinese people: - Hardly the case here. The people were greatly oppressed (see Tiananmen Square and regulated media) In addition to the oppression, the people are starving as a result of decades of failed economic reforms and what has been described as mother nature's wrath in response to the blatant disregard for the environment in the pursuit of economic gain. Only recently, with the aid of reforms turning away from Socialism, has the Chinese economy begun to reach a level where it can sustain the nations large population. - freed from aristocratic oppression: - Only to become oppressed by the heavy hand of an incompetent Socialist government. - regulated media: - I can't think of any reason why anyone would ever find this acceptable. The media was a propaganda machine. Anything that showed the flaws of the Party was never permitted to be seen by the public. By keeping the people in the dark it was easy for the revolutionary leaders to promote their agenda by focusing only on the (largely exaggerated) positive news. - recognized China diplomatically: - It took 20 to 30 years for most of the world to recognize the People's Republic as the official government of China. Most preferred to deal with the former government which had taken refuge on the tiny island of Taiwan. The United States did not recognize the government in place in Mainland China until the early 1970's - Soviet Russia: - In spite of the common bond of Socialism, China and the Soviet Union did not have the strong relationship that is often implied. In fact, the two governments often found themselves at odds over which of the two was practicing a truer form of Communism. Competition with the dominant Soviet Union inspired the dramatic policy change and reformation which would come to be known as The Great Leap Forward. - small backyard furnaces: - Much of the steel (and many other metals as well) was melted down in these furnaces in an attempt to bolster the industrial sector of the Chinese economy. This caused a sharp decline in the amount of available steel in the country because everything that could be found was melted down. What exactly was produced from this effort? A whole bunch of worthless steel of less than poor quality. The Socialist Chinese government had succeeded in not only getting rid of many valuable historical relics, but also in making a whole lot of junk. During this time, if you had something that had a made in China label on it, you could bet that it was going to be of low quality. The Chinese also succeed in further destroying their own environment because much of the available timber in the land was used to fuel these furnaces. - Actually, many crops were left to rot in the fields of the communes when the government put steel making on the list as its new top priority. It is a sad state of affairs to realize that Socialism which claims to help feed everyone while protecting the environment and creating a functional economy actually managed to starve tens of thousands of Chinese while destroying the environment and making many items which actually had some value (historical relics and such) into worthless junk-such a sound economic policy. - Some of the exports which account for a large percentage of the products sold to other nations include missile technology and weapons systems. Since they weren't doing as well with these as they had hoped, they also made it a point to step up opium production. At least they can be on the winning side of the Battle on drugs.	1,916	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 19-01-2016) Women in Telengana Movement form a very prominent part of the history of the state of Hyderabad. The Telengana people's struggle, lasting from 1946 to 1951, was the armed uprising of women and men against the oppressive policies of the Nizam of Hyderabad. During the time, Hyderabad was India's largest princely state with a population of over seventeen million. About 40 percent of the people lived on feudal estates where powerful owners had their own courts and jails. There was extreme exploitation of the labourers due the feudal system, especially women. The feudal network called for manual labour, including both men and women, in the context of the feudal business. The women were subject to various different forms of exploitation most of them even based on assault and sexual subjugation. Even though the upper and middle class women, both Hindu and Muslim, were able to escape the oppression faced by the peasant women, they too were controlled by the Purdah System . Under the Nizam, Hyderabad was one of the most backward of the princely states. Social reforms and institutions for female education, measures that had begun to transform the lives of some women in British India and other princely states, were unknown in Hyderabad. The very urge of revolting against the Nizams therefore became a burning issue not only with the males but also amongst the women. The excessive immorality and the extreme de-humanising conditions paved the way for the Telengana revolt in which women were to play a prominent part. Work of Women's Organisations By the 1930s women's organizations had survived strong opposition and established branches in Hyderabad. At first the meetings were places for upper and middle-class women to socialize but they soon became forums for the discussion of women's issues. Their work on behalf of education and social reform nurtured women leaders who increasingly became aware of larger political and economic issues. When it was clear India would become independent, the Nizam began to negotiate with the British regarding his future. The Communist Party saw his regime crumbling and called on the All-India Trade Union Congress, the All-Hyderabad Student's Union, and the women's organizations to join it and the Andhra Mahasabha against the Nizam. At its height the Telangana movement included 3,000 villages and over three million people. Role of Women in the Telengana Struggle Women played an important role in this struggle. There were deliberate attempts to mobilize women and in doing so the issues especially important to them- wages, wife-beating, childcare, hygiene, the right to breast-feed infants during work, food and even lavatories were discussed. In the final analysis, the very fact that these issues were raised was enough to gain the loyalty and support of women without. Women fought, side by side with men, for land, better wages, an end to forced labour and against exorbitant interest rates. And they were the victims of some of the worst atrocities. In the liberated areas peasants seized and redistributed land and put an end to bonded and forced labour. In 1948 Hyderabad state was incorporated into India by a police action and the Indian army moved to suppress this uprising. By 1950 the Communists decided to follow the Chinese model and designated Telangana the "Yenan of India." In response, the army intensified its efforts causing moderate sympathizers to withdraw their support. In 1931 it was obvious there was little chance of victory and the movement was called off. The Telangana movement had brought substantial gains for the peasantry. Many were able to retain the land they had acquired and forced labour ended. The biggest benefits for women that emerged from the success of the Telengana Movement was the end of forced labour, the end of the shocking system of adi bapa and the forced making of concubines.	<urn:uuid:c0991207-3c2d-42c2-876e-38a9a32ea2eb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/7/women__telengana_movement.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00483.warc.gz	en	0.984213	805	3.765625	4	[ -0.37255823612213135, 0.37876033782958984, -0.2672010064125061, 0.28209203481674194, -0.271375447511673, 0.4625345468521118, 0.16576974093914032, 0.1480921506881714, -0.2135140597820282, 0.047776930034160614, 0.19846394658088684, 0.11015895009040833, 0.4450755715370178, 0.06657243520021439...	1	(Last Updated on : 19-01-2016) Women in Telengana Movement form a very prominent part of the history of the state of Hyderabad. The Telengana people's struggle, lasting from 1946 to 1951, was the armed uprising of women and men against the oppressive policies of the Nizam of Hyderabad. During the time, Hyderabad was India's largest princely state with a population of over seventeen million. About 40 percent of the people lived on feudal estates where powerful owners had their own courts and jails. There was extreme exploitation of the labourers due the feudal system, especially women. The feudal network called for manual labour, including both men and women, in the context of the feudal business. The women were subject to various different forms of exploitation most of them even based on assault and sexual subjugation. Even though the upper and middle class women, both Hindu and Muslim, were able to escape the oppression faced by the peasant women, they too were controlled by the Purdah System . Under the Nizam, Hyderabad was one of the most backward of the princely states. Social reforms and institutions for female education, measures that had begun to transform the lives of some women in British India and other princely states, were unknown in Hyderabad. The very urge of revolting against the Nizams therefore became a burning issue not only with the males but also amongst the women. The excessive immorality and the extreme de-humanising conditions paved the way for the Telengana revolt in which women were to play a prominent part. Work of Women's Organisations By the 1930s women's organizations had survived strong opposition and established branches in Hyderabad. At first the meetings were places for upper and middle-class women to socialize but they soon became forums for the discussion of women's issues. Their work on behalf of education and social reform nurtured women leaders who increasingly became aware of larger political and economic issues. When it was clear India would become independent, the Nizam began to negotiate with the British regarding his future. The Communist Party saw his regime crumbling and called on the All-India Trade Union Congress, the All-Hyderabad Student's Union, and the women's organizations to join it and the Andhra Mahasabha against the Nizam. At its height the Telangana movement included 3,000 villages and over three million people. Role of Women in the Telengana Struggle Women played an important role in this struggle. There were deliberate attempts to mobilize women and in doing so the issues especially important to them- wages, wife-beating, childcare, hygiene, the right to breast-feed infants during work, food and even lavatories were discussed. In the final analysis, the very fact that these issues were raised was enough to gain the loyalty and support of women without. Women fought, side by side with men, for land, better wages, an end to forced labour and against exorbitant interest rates. And they were the victims of some of the worst atrocities. In the liberated areas peasants seized and redistributed land and put an end to bonded and forced labour. In 1948 Hyderabad state was incorporated into India by a police action and the Indian army moved to suppress this uprising. By 1950 the Communists decided to follow the Chinese model and designated Telangana the "Yenan of India." In response, the army intensified its efforts causing moderate sympathizers to withdraw their support. In 1931 it was obvious there was little chance of victory and the movement was called off. The Telangana movement had brought substantial gains for the peasantry. Many were able to retain the land they had acquired and forced labour ended. The biggest benefits for women that emerged from the success of the Telengana Movement was the end of forced labour, the end of the shocking system of adi bapa and the forced making of concubines.	820	ENGLISH	1
An Inspector Calls was written after World War Two. As many British men went away to fight during the war, their positions in work had to be filled by women. This helped change existing perceptions. Men had to acknowledge the fact that women were just as capable as them. As a result of this, many women enjoyed a newfound freedom that working and earning money allowed them. Not all men saw this change in attitude as a good thing and stayed stuck in the past. Priestley explores the impact of these new gender roles through the independence of Eva Smith and the sexist attitudes of Mr Birling. In An Inspector Calls Priestley explores the theme of gender through: \|How does Priestley show this?\|\|Evidence\|\|Analysis\| \|How Mr Birling refers to women\|\|When Mr Birling is telling Eric and Gerald about women's attitudes towards the clothes they wear.\|\|"...not only something to make 'em look prettier - but - well, a sort of sign or token of their self-respect."\|\|Mr Birling shows that he has a patronising view of women, making the suggestion that clothes are a sign of self-respect for them. He has a stereotypical view of women here and does not see them as individuals but suggests that all women think in the same way.\| \|How Gerald refers to women\|\|Gerald makes sexist and superficial comments about the women in the bar he visits.\|\|"I hate those hard-eyed dough-faced women."\|\|Gerald shows that he can be very superficial in his view of women. If they don’t meet his standard of how they 'should' look, he dislikes them.\| \|How Mrs Birling treats Eva Smith\|\|When Mrs Birling suggests that Eva is incapable of having feelings.\|\|"She was claiming elaborate fine feelings and scruples that were simply absurd in a girl in her position."\|\|Priestley shows that even women like Mrs Birling can be just as cruel and old fashioned as the men are. She does not try to empathise with a member of her own gender. This also highlights her negative attitude towards the working class\| How does Priestley explore ideas about gender in An Inspector Calls? Priestley would have hoped that by the end of the play the audience have questioned their views of stereotypical gender roles.	<urn:uuid:bef16d59-63c3-4f7e-b3f5-dd591c354ab2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zxcqycw/revision/4	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00041.warc.gz	en	0.981083	474	3.6875	4	[ -0.0020687829237431288, 0.4129626154899597, 0.11508825421333313, 0.019622286781668663, 0.15997196733951569, 0.2839113473892212, 0.5945615172386169, 0.2636285126209259, 0.11258372664451599, -0.26659858226776123, -0.1288946270942688, -0.08677476644515991, 0.04699385538697243, -0.041306678205...	1	An Inspector Calls was written after World War Two. As many British men went away to fight during the war, their positions in work had to be filled by women. This helped change existing perceptions. Men had to acknowledge the fact that women were just as capable as them. As a result of this, many women enjoyed a newfound freedom that working and earning money allowed them. Not all men saw this change in attitude as a good thing and stayed stuck in the past. Priestley explores the impact of these new gender roles through the independence of Eva Smith and the sexist attitudes of Mr Birling. In An Inspector Calls Priestley explores the theme of gender through: \|How does Priestley show this?\|\|Evidence\|\|Analysis\| \|How Mr Birling refers to women\|\|When Mr Birling is telling Eric and Gerald about women's attitudes towards the clothes they wear.\|\|"...not only something to make 'em look prettier - but - well, a sort of sign or token of their self-respect."\|\|Mr Birling shows that he has a patronising view of women, making the suggestion that clothes are a sign of self-respect for them. He has a stereotypical view of women here and does not see them as individuals but suggests that all women think in the same way.\| \|How Gerald refers to women\|\|Gerald makes sexist and superficial comments about the women in the bar he visits.\|\|"I hate those hard-eyed dough-faced women."\|\|Gerald shows that he can be very superficial in his view of women. If they don’t meet his standard of how they 'should' look, he dislikes them.\| \|How Mrs Birling treats Eva Smith\|\|When Mrs Birling suggests that Eva is incapable of having feelings.\|\|"She was claiming elaborate fine feelings and scruples that were simply absurd in a girl in her position."\|\|Priestley shows that even women like Mrs Birling can be just as cruel and old fashioned as the men are. She does not try to empathise with a member of her own gender. This also highlights her negative attitude towards the working class\| How does Priestley explore ideas about gender in An Inspector Calls? Priestley would have hoped that by the end of the play the audience have questioned their views of stereotypical gender roles.	462	ENGLISH	1
Most of what we know about St. Joseph comes from the first two chapters of the Gospel of St. Matthew as he describes the birth and infancy of Jesus. As the story begins, Mary is engaged to be married to Joseph, but she has become pregnant (as the angel Gabriel told her at the Annunciation). Joseph is about to end the engagement when an angel comes to him in a dream and gives him several pieces of important information: - Take Mary into your home as your wife. The child has been conceived by the Holy Spirit. - When the child comes, it will be a boy and you will name him Jesus. (In the Jewish tradition children were named by their father.) - This is a very important child. His mission is to save his people from their sins. (The name Jesus means “God saves.”) Joseph’s next dream comes after the visit of the Magi. Remember that the Magi stopped in Jerusalem to ask directions to the place where Jesus, Mary, and Joseph were staying. The three visitors referred to Mary’s baby as “the newborn king of the Jews” when they were speaking to King Herod. The king thought of himself as king of the Jews, so he wasn’t about to give up his throne to anyone, newborn or not. After their visit to Jesus in Bethlehem, the three Magi also had a dream in which they were told not to return to King Herod and give him a report on the child. But Herod knew the Magi had been to Bethlehem, so he sent his soldiers there to kill all newborn male babies. At this point Joseph has another dream and the angel gives him more information: - Get up, take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt. - Stay in Egypt until I tell you to return. - King Herod wants to find the child and kill him. After King Herod died, the angel comes to Joseph in another dream and tells him to take his family back to Israel. But Joseph is also warned that Herod’s son is ruling in his father’s place, so Joseph takes Jesus and Mary to Galilee, in the north, where they will be safe. Matthew’s Gospel shows how God’s wishes are communicated to Joseph by an angel who comes to him in his dreams. Most of these dreams concern Joseph’s role as protector of Jesus and his mother. Joseph protects Mary by fulfilling his intention to marry her, then protects Mary and Jesus by moving his family to Egypt to escape Herod’s plan to kill Jesus, and then by moving back to northern Israel to be out of sight of the authorities in Jerusalem. Because he was such a willing and responsible protector of the Holy Family, St. Joseph has been named the Guardian of the Universal Church. On St. Joseph’s Day, ask this responsible saint to help you as you try to carry out your own responsibilities faithfully.	<urn:uuid:e1678bc9-a774-4129-a25b-3000eda14967>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pflaumweeklies.com/st-joseph-the-man-of-dreams-1st-century/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00081.warc.gz	en	0.985625	609	3.359375	3	[ -0.01745917648077011, 0.17804604768753052, 0.043503303080797195, -0.2352510392665863, 0.025230376049876213, 0.2710000276565552, 0.37461403012275696, 0.40955179929733276, 0.4259028434753418, 0.18843767046928406, -0.06717920303344727, 0.27382662892341614, 0.11093591153621674, 0.2465594410896...	6	Most of what we know about St. Joseph comes from the first two chapters of the Gospel of St. Matthew as he describes the birth and infancy of Jesus. As the story begins, Mary is engaged to be married to Joseph, but she has become pregnant (as the angel Gabriel told her at the Annunciation). Joseph is about to end the engagement when an angel comes to him in a dream and gives him several pieces of important information: - Take Mary into your home as your wife. The child has been conceived by the Holy Spirit. - When the child comes, it will be a boy and you will name him Jesus. (In the Jewish tradition children were named by their father.) - This is a very important child. His mission is to save his people from their sins. (The name Jesus means “God saves.”) Joseph’s next dream comes after the visit of the Magi. Remember that the Magi stopped in Jerusalem to ask directions to the place where Jesus, Mary, and Joseph were staying. The three visitors referred to Mary’s baby as “the newborn king of the Jews” when they were speaking to King Herod. The king thought of himself as king of the Jews, so he wasn’t about to give up his throne to anyone, newborn or not. After their visit to Jesus in Bethlehem, the three Magi also had a dream in which they were told not to return to King Herod and give him a report on the child. But Herod knew the Magi had been to Bethlehem, so he sent his soldiers there to kill all newborn male babies. At this point Joseph has another dream and the angel gives him more information: - Get up, take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt. - Stay in Egypt until I tell you to return. - King Herod wants to find the child and kill him. After King Herod died, the angel comes to Joseph in another dream and tells him to take his family back to Israel. But Joseph is also warned that Herod’s son is ruling in his father’s place, so Joseph takes Jesus and Mary to Galilee, in the north, where they will be safe. Matthew’s Gospel shows how God’s wishes are communicated to Joseph by an angel who comes to him in his dreams. Most of these dreams concern Joseph’s role as protector of Jesus and his mother. Joseph protects Mary by fulfilling his intention to marry her, then protects Mary and Jesus by moving his family to Egypt to escape Herod’s plan to kill Jesus, and then by moving back to northern Israel to be out of sight of the authorities in Jerusalem. Because he was such a willing and responsible protector of the Holy Family, St. Joseph has been named the Guardian of the Universal Church. On St. Joseph’s Day, ask this responsible saint to help you as you try to carry out your own responsibilities faithfully.	580	ENGLISH	1
Essay about William Penn As A Holy Experiment G) He was a Dominican friar sent to the West Indies shortly after the Spanish began colonizing the area, and witnessed the ill treatment of the native population at the hands of the Spanish administration. he was one of the first people to argue the concept of universal Human Rights. In 1514 las casas freed his own Indian slaves and began to preach against the injustices of Spanish rule. He insisted that Indians were rational beings, not barbarians, and that Spain had grounds on which to deprive them of their land of liberty. F) In many ways, the lives of indentured servants and slaves were very similar to one another. The indentured servants, of course, had more hope for the future, but slaves could in some cases actually have better conditions in the present. Indentured servants and slaves were treated in broadly similar ways. They were both brought to the New World in horrible conditions with many dying along the way. They were both subject to physical…	<urn:uuid:18f0e9da-23d2-4b02-aaf6-daadb7ce9d91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/William-Penn-As-A-Holy-Experiment/PK36XXAY7MWW	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00090.warc.gz	en	0.991368	207	4.25	4	[ -0.3381047248840332, 0.3427359163761139, 0.23962907493114471, -0.14238810539245605, -0.25823408365249634, -0.2681172788143158, 0.0017999002011492848, 0.04810674116015434, 0.01636466570198536, 0.0586283877491951, 0.06916375458240509, 0.10452710837125778, -0.44839200377464294, 0.320595234632...	1	Essay about William Penn As A Holy Experiment G) He was a Dominican friar sent to the West Indies shortly after the Spanish began colonizing the area, and witnessed the ill treatment of the native population at the hands of the Spanish administration. he was one of the first people to argue the concept of universal Human Rights. In 1514 las casas freed his own Indian slaves and began to preach against the injustices of Spanish rule. He insisted that Indians were rational beings, not barbarians, and that Spain had grounds on which to deprive them of their land of liberty. F) In many ways, the lives of indentured servants and slaves were very similar to one another. The indentured servants, of course, had more hope for the future, but slaves could in some cases actually have better conditions in the present. Indentured servants and slaves were treated in broadly similar ways. They were both brought to the New World in horrible conditions with many dying along the way. They were both subject to physical…	207	ENGLISH	1
Communication can be very difficult when you do not feel comfortable or safe to share. This makes sense when you do not know someone well, however, when you are in a relationship with someone, communication is what helps you stay connected. We can do things at times that makes others feel they cannot communicate, without even realizing it. Sometimes there is a discrepancy for how one intends for a message to be heard and how it is actually recieved. Often times when this happens, relationships can take a downward turn. One of the common struggles in communication I hear is that people have difficulty admitting they have a mental health issue, need help, or just need to talk. As a result, one person feels unsupported and the other person feels disconnected. Lets look at a few of the reasons why this might happen. Some people have this idea that asking for help means you are weak somehow. This can prevent someone from speaking up because they do not want to be thought of as weak in the eyes of the people they care about. Sometimes the way in which we prioritize can give the impression that someone is not good enough. When this happens, they feel that if they shared anything about themselves needing help, they would be a burden to you. Because they do not want to put more stress on you, they keep things to themselves. The choice of words that people use can also give off an unwelcoming impression. For example, "That's so Bipolar" is often used to describe someone who is easy to anger or who is acting grouchy. "You're having an ADD moment" is another term I hear when someone is having difficulty paying attention. Yet another term I hear people use often to describe something that was difficult to experience is "That was SO traumatic". Another term used to describe poor boundaries is "You are such an enabler". I have also heard people saying "That's such an Autistic thing to do" when someone is struggling with social skills. These terms can get thrown around to put people down or assign blame. More commonly they are used in the wrong context to describe a behavior without the intention of hurting anyone. Unfortunately, there are people out there who really do struggle with Bipolar disorder, ADHD, Autism, and trauma. When they hear these terms, they don't always feel comfortable and open to talking about their need for support. They hear these statements and feel judged. So how can you make the other person feel more comfortable so that you can support them and have better communication? While we cannot control how other people interpret what we say, we have full control over how we say it. Pay attention to what you are saying and how you are delivering it. If you are frustrated, wait to talk so that you are abe to respond instead of react. If you do react, apologize so the other person knows what you actually meant. If you feel you are being clear, and you are in a good place to talk, pay attention to how the other person is behaving. Look at their body language. How are they receiving what you are saying? It is okay to ask. Remember that it does go both ways. It is also up to the other person to communicate what they need to feel comfortable. You cannot do better if they cannot lay that boundary down. If they express they are not wanting to talk yet, respect that. Sometimes just sitting with someone and showing them they are not alone goes a long way.	<urn:uuid:b042ce05-22bf-4c62-99d9-4b48ad906f25>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.alisonsilviuslmft.net/single-post/2018/02/18/What-Those-Struggling-with-a-Mental-Health-Diagnosis-Dont-Often-Share	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00520.warc.gz	en	0.981094	698	3.296875	3	[ -0.022953631356358528, -0.16577020287513733, 0.07516296952962875, 0.015494567342102528, -0.434653639793396, 0.0817752480506897, 0.8296632766723633, -0.03595953807234764, 0.04855525493621826, -0.44305288791656494, 0.31620094180107117, -0.018257927149534225, 0.34843072295188904, 0.2534307837...	3	Communication can be very difficult when you do not feel comfortable or safe to share. This makes sense when you do not know someone well, however, when you are in a relationship with someone, communication is what helps you stay connected. We can do things at times that makes others feel they cannot communicate, without even realizing it. Sometimes there is a discrepancy for how one intends for a message to be heard and how it is actually recieved. Often times when this happens, relationships can take a downward turn. One of the common struggles in communication I hear is that people have difficulty admitting they have a mental health issue, need help, or just need to talk. As a result, one person feels unsupported and the other person feels disconnected. Lets look at a few of the reasons why this might happen. Some people have this idea that asking for help means you are weak somehow. This can prevent someone from speaking up because they do not want to be thought of as weak in the eyes of the people they care about. Sometimes the way in which we prioritize can give the impression that someone is not good enough. When this happens, they feel that if they shared anything about themselves needing help, they would be a burden to you. Because they do not want to put more stress on you, they keep things to themselves. The choice of words that people use can also give off an unwelcoming impression. For example, "That's so Bipolar" is often used to describe someone who is easy to anger or who is acting grouchy. "You're having an ADD moment" is another term I hear when someone is having difficulty paying attention. Yet another term I hear people use often to describe something that was difficult to experience is "That was SO traumatic". Another term used to describe poor boundaries is "You are such an enabler". I have also heard people saying "That's such an Autistic thing to do" when someone is struggling with social skills. These terms can get thrown around to put people down or assign blame. More commonly they are used in the wrong context to describe a behavior without the intention of hurting anyone. Unfortunately, there are people out there who really do struggle with Bipolar disorder, ADHD, Autism, and trauma. When they hear these terms, they don't always feel comfortable and open to talking about their need for support. They hear these statements and feel judged. So how can you make the other person feel more comfortable so that you can support them and have better communication? While we cannot control how other people interpret what we say, we have full control over how we say it. Pay attention to what you are saying and how you are delivering it. If you are frustrated, wait to talk so that you are abe to respond instead of react. If you do react, apologize so the other person knows what you actually meant. If you feel you are being clear, and you are in a good place to talk, pay attention to how the other person is behaving. Look at their body language. How are they receiving what you are saying? It is okay to ask. Remember that it does go both ways. It is also up to the other person to communicate what they need to feel comfortable. You cannot do better if they cannot lay that boundary down. If they express they are not wanting to talk yet, respect that. Sometimes just sitting with someone and showing them they are not alone goes a long way.	690	ENGLISH	1
Pablo Picasso broke art historical traditions like no other artists before his time (except for his contemporary Cezanne – yet this is debatable). Known for challenging notions of what art should be, how it could be looked at (perspective) and understood through channeling emotions through colours and exploring new ways of incorporating other media, Picasso’s history of painting in terms of style and subject is well spread out. His paintings vary in subjects from prostitutes, Le Demoiselles d’ Avignon, to self-portraits and portraits of his lovers, Marie Therese Walter (who is portrayed in harsh bright colours) and Dora Maar (who is portrayed through curvilinear lines and soft pastel colours), to history paintings such as Guernica, and even still lifes. Picasso has done it all. Yet painting was not his only means of expression, especially in his notable analytical and synthetic cubism phases, 1908-1921 (Analytical cubism is best understood that the subject of the painting is relatively obvious in representation as opposed to Synthetic Cubism, where the end result is a subject that has been highly fragmented almost to the point of total abstraction). It was around the year 1912 that Picasso introduced the use of collage – combining different materials together, not only in his paintings, but in his sculptures as well, for example the sculpture Bull’s Head. Thus, while many admire Picasso for his cubist works, he too is well known for his neoclassical paintings, such as Mother and Child by the Sea, as well as for his sculptures (for example Bull’s Head Above), which occurred almost two decades after his cubism period ended. This too was around the end of WWII. It was after the war that he turned to children’s and primitive art as a source of inspiration, seen through his ceramic works with playful faces and bright colours, which too could be seen in his paintings and drawings of the time.	<urn:uuid:20a672e3-c74c-4c74-a4d7-63c2b2529c04>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.printed-editions.com/artist/pablo-picasso/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00457.warc.gz	en	0.986896	411	3.640625	4	[ 0.11267153918743134, 0.29499444365501404, 0.3797477185726166, 0.038514040410518646, -0.012674869038164616, -0.06331436336040497, -0.03156392648816109, -0.20774570107460022, -0.04053204134106636, -0.07116508483886719, 0.17503149807453156, -0.10941378772258759, 0.07425042241811752, 0.5439499...	7	Pablo Picasso broke art historical traditions like no other artists before his time (except for his contemporary Cezanne – yet this is debatable). Known for challenging notions of what art should be, how it could be looked at (perspective) and understood through channeling emotions through colours and exploring new ways of incorporating other media, Picasso’s history of painting in terms of style and subject is well spread out. His paintings vary in subjects from prostitutes, Le Demoiselles d’ Avignon, to self-portraits and portraits of his lovers, Marie Therese Walter (who is portrayed in harsh bright colours) and Dora Maar (who is portrayed through curvilinear lines and soft pastel colours), to history paintings such as Guernica, and even still lifes. Picasso has done it all. Yet painting was not his only means of expression, especially in his notable analytical and synthetic cubism phases, 1908-1921 (Analytical cubism is best understood that the subject of the painting is relatively obvious in representation as opposed to Synthetic Cubism, where the end result is a subject that has been highly fragmented almost to the point of total abstraction). It was around the year 1912 that Picasso introduced the use of collage – combining different materials together, not only in his paintings, but in his sculptures as well, for example the sculpture Bull’s Head. Thus, while many admire Picasso for his cubist works, he too is well known for his neoclassical paintings, such as Mother and Child by the Sea, as well as for his sculptures (for example Bull’s Head Above), which occurred almost two decades after his cubism period ended. This too was around the end of WWII. It was after the war that he turned to children’s and primitive art as a source of inspiration, seen through his ceramic works with playful faces and bright colours, which too could be seen in his paintings and drawings of the time.	397	ENGLISH	1
The Rise Of Shaka And The Zulu Empire A statue of Shaka Zulu. Source: (Getty Images) In the southeast corner of Africa, the warrior-king Shaka Zulu built a powerful empire in the 19th century, but his descent into despotism and madness was his ultimate undoing. Senzangakhona kaJama, the chief of the small, insignificant Zulu clan and Nandi, an orphan daughter of a neighboring Langeni clan chief had an affair that resulted in the birth of Shaka Zulu in 1787. Due to his illicit origins, Shaka held low status in the clan and his father wanted nothing to do with him. He tried to deny his paternity. In fact, Shaka’s stems from Senzangakhona saying that Nandi was not pregnant but was ill from an intestinal malady transmitted by the iShaka beetle. Nandi was taken on as Senzangakhona’s third wife, but he soon exiled her and her son back to her own people. With the Lageni, Shaka was tormented by members of the clan and relentlessly hazed because of his status. While Shaka endured it all in silence, he became a bitter, lonely, and angry young man. He only found comfort with his mother, and he hated the Lageni people. During this time, Shaka grew to be tall and powerful. Shaka took up stick fighting and developed great skills. Others were fearful to fight Shaka since the young warrior found to wound or kill, rather than out of fun like his peers. Shaka seemed to derive peace and pleasure from battle. He also mastered the six-foot long assegai, a spear tipped with steel. Eventually, drought forced a 23-year old Shaka and his mother to leave the Lageni and find shelter with the Mtetwa tribe headed by the chief Dingiswayo. Dingiswayo was forming an army and saw much promise in Shaka, so he recruited him into his forces. Fighting among the Zulu at that time was largely ceremonial where opponents would hurl insults at each other, throw a few spears, but not do any lasting damage. Dingiswayo used these methods to increase his own territory. Shaka, however, disagreed with these tactics and advocated the wholesale destruction of enemy clans. Shaka proved to be an innovator. He ran bare-footed, finding that traditional sandals were more of a hindrance than a help. Also, he is credited with developing the iKlwa, a short thrusting spear to replace the cumbersome assegai. He never liked the longer throwing spear since to Shaka’s mind it made no sense to throw away your weapon. The iKlwa, was used to stab enemies at close range. Its name came from the sound the weapon made when it was pulled out of an opponent’s body. Shaka reportedly developed a tactic where a Zulu warrior could use a new, smaller shield to sweep away an opponent's shield and leave his side exposed to attack. He was promoted by Dingiswayo into a command position in 1816. At that time, Shaka learned that his father Senzangakhona had died and that his half brother, Sigujana, had become chief. Shaka quickly orchestrated Sigujana’s assassination and usurped power for himself. Shaka was now chief but his army was only between 350-400 warriors. Shaka, however, was ambitious and frankly lusted for power. He relentlessly trained his men. His warriors ran at a trot, typically covering 30-40 miles per day and up to 50 at need. Complainers were executed. All his warriors had to be celibate unless they had been married before (wives and children were considered distractions). Because of this training, and because Shaka was utterly ruthless, he was able to quickly subdue and incorporate neighboring tribes into his rising Zulu empire. Another key to Shaka’s success was his strategy. He developed what became famously known as the “horns of the buffalo” or “horns of the bull” formation in which the Zulus would form a mass of warriors in the center. These would engage the enemy in the front while detachments of warriors forming “horns” flanked the enemy from the sides in a double envelopment. It was very effective, first against the hated Lageni to whom he showed little mercy and then the Buthelezi clan. Within a year after taking power, Shaka Zulu had 2,000 warriors at his command. Shaka made an alliance with Dingiswayo to conquer southeast Africa. However, Dingiswayo was killed by a rival. Wars among the clans including the Zulus continued, resulting in Shaka’s victory and unification of the tribes under his Zulu empire. His kingdom covered the southern coastal and hinterland sections of modern KwaZulu-Natal. Shaka completely disrupted the region as tribes fled against the wrath of his warriors. Over the next decade of conquest, he brought some 250,000 people into the Zulu kingdom and had 50,000 warriors at his command. It was at the apogee of his power that he met for Europeans. The British Henry Francis Fynn of the Farwell Trading Company who had been exploring the area for potential colonization heard of Shaka Zulu’s power. Curious, Fynn went to him. Shaka apparently wished to learn more about the British, particularly their King George. During a dance ceremony, Shaka was stabbed, but Fynn’s surgical assistant treated him. In response, Shaka signed over the area of Port Natal to the British. Shaka Zulu undoubtedly did not know what the ramifications of this would be. Shaka Zulu continued his wars of conquest until 1827 when he received word while on an elephant hunt that his beloved mother died of dysentery. Overwhelmed with grief, the already despotic Shaka fell into deeper tyranny. He ordered a year-long period of mourning. Crops were not to be planted, intercourse was not to be conducted (pregnant women and their husbands were to be executed) and milk from cattle and goats was to be poured on the ground. Death followed, leaving Shaka 7,000 subjects less by the time he called off the period of mourning after three months. But it was too late. His people had reached their breaking point. In September 1828 he was killed by three assassins with spears at a council meeting. Shaka Zulu died at age 41 after a short reign of 12 years. Yet his deed in unifying and revolutionizing the Zulus would live in history forever. Perhaps the most notable part of his legacy is that the tactics he devised were used in the 1879 Battle of Isandlwana in which an army of Zulu warriors defeated an army of British soldiers. It was Britain’s worst defeat by an indigenous people. Shaka Zulu, aside from the bloody and horrific portions of his rule, is looked at as a symbol of African unity. Like it? Share with your friends!	<urn:uuid:71800fb7-82ea-45f7-a34a-a0e4c3268364>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://curioushistorian.com/the-rise-of-shaka-and-the-zulu-empire	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00020.warc.gz	en	0.9901	1,496	3.421875	3	[ -0.5112134218215942, 0.9178208112716675, 0.1517721712589264, 0.4653465151786804, -0.32922881841659546, 0.12274564057588577, 0.4998055696487427, 0.232391357421875, -0.33659619092941284, 0.1150321513414383, 0.10646937787532806, -0.5295367240905762, 0.3513587713241577, 0.2230091392993927, 0...	21	The Rise Of Shaka And The Zulu Empire A statue of Shaka Zulu. Source: (Getty Images) In the southeast corner of Africa, the warrior-king Shaka Zulu built a powerful empire in the 19th century, but his descent into despotism and madness was his ultimate undoing. Senzangakhona kaJama, the chief of the small, insignificant Zulu clan and Nandi, an orphan daughter of a neighboring Langeni clan chief had an affair that resulted in the birth of Shaka Zulu in 1787. Due to his illicit origins, Shaka held low status in the clan and his father wanted nothing to do with him. He tried to deny his paternity. In fact, Shaka’s stems from Senzangakhona saying that Nandi was not pregnant but was ill from an intestinal malady transmitted by the iShaka beetle. Nandi was taken on as Senzangakhona’s third wife, but he soon exiled her and her son back to her own people. With the Lageni, Shaka was tormented by members of the clan and relentlessly hazed because of his status. While Shaka endured it all in silence, he became a bitter, lonely, and angry young man. He only found comfort with his mother, and he hated the Lageni people. During this time, Shaka grew to be tall and powerful. Shaka took up stick fighting and developed great skills. Others were fearful to fight Shaka since the young warrior found to wound or kill, rather than out of fun like his peers. Shaka seemed to derive peace and pleasure from battle. He also mastered the six-foot long assegai, a spear tipped with steel. Eventually, drought forced a 23-year old Shaka and his mother to leave the Lageni and find shelter with the Mtetwa tribe headed by the chief Dingiswayo. Dingiswayo was forming an army and saw much promise in Shaka, so he recruited him into his forces. Fighting among the Zulu at that time was largely ceremonial where opponents would hurl insults at each other, throw a few spears, but not do any lasting damage. Dingiswayo used these methods to increase his own territory. Shaka, however, disagreed with these tactics and advocated the wholesale destruction of enemy clans. Shaka proved to be an innovator. He ran bare-footed, finding that traditional sandals were more of a hindrance than a help. Also, he is credited with developing the iKlwa, a short thrusting spear to replace the cumbersome assegai. He never liked the longer throwing spear since to Shaka’s mind it made no sense to throw away your weapon. The iKlwa, was used to stab enemies at close range. Its name came from the sound the weapon made when it was pulled out of an opponent’s body. Shaka reportedly developed a tactic where a Zulu warrior could use a new, smaller shield to sweep away an opponent's shield and leave his side exposed to attack. He was promoted by Dingiswayo into a command position in 1816. At that time, Shaka learned that his father Senzangakhona had died and that his half brother, Sigujana, had become chief. Shaka quickly orchestrated Sigujana’s assassination and usurped power for himself. Shaka was now chief but his army was only between 350-400 warriors. Shaka, however, was ambitious and frankly lusted for power. He relentlessly trained his men. His warriors ran at a trot, typically covering 30-40 miles per day and up to 50 at need. Complainers were executed. All his warriors had to be celibate unless they had been married before (wives and children were considered distractions). Because of this training, and because Shaka was utterly ruthless, he was able to quickly subdue and incorporate neighboring tribes into his rising Zulu empire. Another key to Shaka’s success was his strategy. He developed what became famously known as the “horns of the buffalo” or “horns of the bull” formation in which the Zulus would form a mass of warriors in the center. These would engage the enemy in the front while detachments of warriors forming “horns” flanked the enemy from the sides in a double envelopment. It was very effective, first against the hated Lageni to whom he showed little mercy and then the Buthelezi clan. Within a year after taking power, Shaka Zulu had 2,000 warriors at his command. Shaka made an alliance with Dingiswayo to conquer southeast Africa. However, Dingiswayo was killed by a rival. Wars among the clans including the Zulus continued, resulting in Shaka’s victory and unification of the tribes under his Zulu empire. His kingdom covered the southern coastal and hinterland sections of modern KwaZulu-Natal. Shaka completely disrupted the region as tribes fled against the wrath of his warriors. Over the next decade of conquest, he brought some 250,000 people into the Zulu kingdom and had 50,000 warriors at his command. It was at the apogee of his power that he met for Europeans. The British Henry Francis Fynn of the Farwell Trading Company who had been exploring the area for potential colonization heard of Shaka Zulu’s power. Curious, Fynn went to him. Shaka apparently wished to learn more about the British, particularly their King George. During a dance ceremony, Shaka was stabbed, but Fynn’s surgical assistant treated him. In response, Shaka signed over the area of Port Natal to the British. Shaka Zulu undoubtedly did not know what the ramifications of this would be. Shaka Zulu continued his wars of conquest until 1827 when he received word while on an elephant hunt that his beloved mother died of dysentery. Overwhelmed with grief, the already despotic Shaka fell into deeper tyranny. He ordered a year-long period of mourning. Crops were not to be planted, intercourse was not to be conducted (pregnant women and their husbands were to be executed) and milk from cattle and goats was to be poured on the ground. Death followed, leaving Shaka 7,000 subjects less by the time he called off the period of mourning after three months. But it was too late. His people had reached their breaking point. In September 1828 he was killed by three assassins with spears at a council meeting. Shaka Zulu died at age 41 after a short reign of 12 years. Yet his deed in unifying and revolutionizing the Zulus would live in history forever. Perhaps the most notable part of his legacy is that the tactics he devised were used in the 1879 Battle of Isandlwana in which an army of Zulu warriors defeated an army of British soldiers. It was Britain’s worst defeat by an indigenous people. Shaka Zulu, aside from the bloody and horrific portions of his rule, is looked at as a symbol of African unity. Like it? Share with your friends!	1,497	ENGLISH	1

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