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Pythagoras was an Ionian philosopher and mathematician, born in sixth century BC in Samos. Most of the information available today has been recorded a few centuries after his death and as a result, many of the available accounts contradict each other. However, this much is certain that he was born to a merchant from Tyre and had studied under various teachers since his early childhood. When he was around forty years old, he left Samos. Some say he went to Egypt to study under the temple priests and returned after fifteen years while others say that he went straight to Croton to open a school. Nonetheless, it is certain that his main place of activity was Croton and there he set up a brotherhood and made important contribution to mathematics, philosophy and music. His followers, known as Pythagoreans, maintained strict loyalty and secrecy. Another established fact is that Pythagoras travelled extensively. Some accounts also claim that he went to India to study under Hindu Brahmins. Contradiction also exists about his death; but there is unanimity that he was hounded and killed by his enemies.
CHILDHOOD & EARLY LIFE
>> Pythagoras was born in the eastern Aegean island of Samos, Greece in 570 BC. It is believed that his mother, Pythias, was a native of the island while his father, Mnesarchus, was a merchant from Tyre (Lebanon), dealing in gems. It is also said that he had two or three siblings.
>> Pythagoras spent most of his early childhood at Samos. As he grew up, he began to accompany his father on his trading trips. It is believed that Mnesarchus once took him to Tyre, where he studied under scholars from Syria. It is possible that he might have also visited Italy during those early years.
>> Subsequently, Pythagoras studied extensively under different teachers. He learned poetry, could recite Homer and play the lyre. Apart from scholars from Syria, he also studied under wise men of Chaldea. Pherecydes of Syros was also one of his early teachers under whom he studied philosophy. .
>> At the age of eighteen, Pythagoras traveled to Miletus to meet Thales, a master of mathematics and astronomy. Although by then Thales had become too old to teach, the meeting was quite fruitful; it elicited in him an interest in science, mathematics and astronomy.
>> He must have also studied under Thales’ student Anaximander. The later works of Pythagoras show a striking similarity with the works of Anaximander. Both his astronomical and geometrical theories seem to have naturally developed from the theories of the elder philosopher.In 535 BC, Pythagoras left for Egypt to study under the temple priests. Earlier Thales had also given him the same advice. However, according to other accounts, he went to Egypt to escape the tyranny of Polycrates, the then ruler of Samos.
>> Pythagoras lived in Egypt for around ten years. After completing the necessary rites he first gained admission into the temple of Diospolis and was accepted into priesthood. It is also believed that for some years he studied under the Egyptian priest Oenuphis of Heliopolis.
>> In 525 BC, Emperor Cambyses II of Persia conquered Egypt. Pythagoras was captured and taken as prisoner to Babylon. Here he quickly associated himself to the Persians priests known as the magi and began to study mathematics and mathematical sciences as well as music under them.
>> In 522 BC, Cambyses II of Persia died under mysterious circumstances and Polycrates, the tyrannical ruler of Somas, was also killed. These events offered Pythagoras an opportunity to return to Somas, which did in 520 BC
>> On his return to Samos, Pythagoras opened a school called The Semicircle. However, his method of teaching was different and appealed to few. At the same time, the leaders wanted him to get involved with the city administration, which did not appeal to him.
>> In 518 BC, he shifted his base to Croton in southern Italy. Some accounts say he went there to study law and stayed back. Other accounts claim he went there in 530 BC to escape the tyranny of Polycrates, not to Egypt.
>> Whatever may be the case, it was here at Croton that he first started teaching in full scale, quickly gathering a band of followers. Subsequently, he set up a brotherhood, which was open to both men and women. It developed into a religious cum philosophical school with considerable political clout.
>> The Pythagoreans, as the followers of Pythagoras were called, could be divided into two sects. Those who lived and worked at the school were known as the mathematikoi or learners. Others, who lived outside the school, were known as akousmatics or listeners. Pythagoras was the master of both the sects.
>> The mathematikoi had to lead their life according to rules, which defined what they ate, wore or even spoke. They had no personal possession and followed strict vegetarianism. Contrarily, the akousmatics were allowed to own personal properties and eat non-vegetarian food. They attended the school only during the day time.
>> The Society practiced strict secrecy not only about rites and rituals, but also about what was taught. Therefore, although it made outstanding contributions to mathematics it is hard to distinguish between the works of Pythagoras and that of his followers.
>> Yet, Pythagoras’ contribution to mathematics can never be overstated. Today, he is best remembered for his concept of numbers. He believed that everything could be reduced to numbers and these numbers had their own characteristics, strengths and weaknesses.
>> To him 10 was the most complete number because it was made up of the first four digits (1+2+3+4) and when written in dot notation, they formed a triangle. He also believed geometry to be the highest form of mathematical studies through which one can explain the physical world.
>> Pythagoras’ belief stemmed from his observations of mathematics, music and astronomy. For example, he noticed that vibrating strings produce harmonious tones only when the ratios between the lengths of the strings are whole numbers. He later realized that these ratios could be extended to other instruments.
>> He also propagated that the soul is immortal. On death of a person, it takes up a new form and thus it moves from person to person and even to lower animals through a series of incarnations until it becomes pure and such purification could be done through music and mathematics.
>> Pythagoras himself was a good musician and could play the lyre well. Believer of mysticism, he also held that certain symbols have mystical significance and that the interaction between the opposites was an essential feature of the world.
>> He also taught that the Earth was a sphere at the center of the Cosmos. He held that all other planets and stars were spherical because sphere is the most perfect solid figure.
>> Pythagoras is most famous for his concept of geometry. It is believed that he was first to establish that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles and that for a right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides.
>> Although the last mentioned theorem was already discovered by the Babylonians, Pythagoras was first to prove it. It is also believed that he devised the tetractys, the triangular figure of four rows which add up to ten, which according him, was the perfect number.
PERSONAL LIFE & LEGACY
>> Pythagoras was married to Theano, his first pupil at Croton. She was also a philosopher in her own right. She wrote a treatise called ‘On Virtue’ and the doctrine of the golden mean was included in it. However, some say that she was not his wife, but a disciple.
>> According to various accounts, the couple had a son named Telauges, and three daughters named Damo, Arignote, and Myia. Some sources also put the number to seven. Their second daughter Arignote was a known scholar and works like ‘The Rites of Dionysus’, ‘Sacred Discourses’ have been credited to her.
>> Their third daughter Myia is said to have married the famous wrestler, Milo of Croton. It is further stated that Milo was an associate of Pythagoras and saved his life from a roof collapse.
>> Like most geniuses, Pythagoras too was very outspoken and created many enemies. One of them instigated the mob against the Pythagoreans and set fire to the building where they were staying. However, Pythagoras was able to escape. He then went to Metapontum and starved himself to death.
>> Some other accounts say that he was caught in a conflict between Agrigentum and the Syracusans and was killed by the Syracusans. Whatever was the cause of his death, according to most accounts he died in 495 BC. The ‘Theorem of Pythagoras’ or ‘Pythagoras Theorem’ still bears his legacy. | <urn:uuid:a0061a0a-e38a-48c9-8364-bd259522e94b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://getinfo.co.in/pythagoras/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00292.warc.gz | en | 0.991492 | 1,936 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.5938467383... | 2 | Pythagoras was an Ionian philosopher and mathematician, born in sixth century BC in Samos. Most of the information available today has been recorded a few centuries after his death and as a result, many of the available accounts contradict each other. However, this much is certain that he was born to a merchant from Tyre and had studied under various teachers since his early childhood. When he was around forty years old, he left Samos. Some say he went to Egypt to study under the temple priests and returned after fifteen years while others say that he went straight to Croton to open a school. Nonetheless, it is certain that his main place of activity was Croton and there he set up a brotherhood and made important contribution to mathematics, philosophy and music. His followers, known as Pythagoreans, maintained strict loyalty and secrecy. Another established fact is that Pythagoras travelled extensively. Some accounts also claim that he went to India to study under Hindu Brahmins. Contradiction also exists about his death; but there is unanimity that he was hounded and killed by his enemies.
CHILDHOOD & EARLY LIFE
>> Pythagoras was born in the eastern Aegean island of Samos, Greece in 570 BC. It is believed that his mother, Pythias, was a native of the island while his father, Mnesarchus, was a merchant from Tyre (Lebanon), dealing in gems. It is also said that he had two or three siblings.
>> Pythagoras spent most of his early childhood at Samos. As he grew up, he began to accompany his father on his trading trips. It is believed that Mnesarchus once took him to Tyre, where he studied under scholars from Syria. It is possible that he might have also visited Italy during those early years.
>> Subsequently, Pythagoras studied extensively under different teachers. He learned poetry, could recite Homer and play the lyre. Apart from scholars from Syria, he also studied under wise men of Chaldea. Pherecydes of Syros was also one of his early teachers under whom he studied philosophy. .
>> At the age of eighteen, Pythagoras traveled to Miletus to meet Thales, a master of mathematics and astronomy. Although by then Thales had become too old to teach, the meeting was quite fruitful; it elicited in him an interest in science, mathematics and astronomy.
>> He must have also studied under Thales’ student Anaximander. The later works of Pythagoras show a striking similarity with the works of Anaximander. Both his astronomical and geometrical theories seem to have naturally developed from the theories of the elder philosopher.In 535 BC, Pythagoras left for Egypt to study under the temple priests. Earlier Thales had also given him the same advice. However, according to other accounts, he went to Egypt to escape the tyranny of Polycrates, the then ruler of Samos.
>> Pythagoras lived in Egypt for around ten years. After completing the necessary rites he first gained admission into the temple of Diospolis and was accepted into priesthood. It is also believed that for some years he studied under the Egyptian priest Oenuphis of Heliopolis.
>> In 525 BC, Emperor Cambyses II of Persia conquered Egypt. Pythagoras was captured and taken as prisoner to Babylon. Here he quickly associated himself to the Persians priests known as the magi and began to study mathematics and mathematical sciences as well as music under them.
>> In 522 BC, Cambyses II of Persia died under mysterious circumstances and Polycrates, the tyrannical ruler of Somas, was also killed. These events offered Pythagoras an opportunity to return to Somas, which did in 520 BC
>> On his return to Samos, Pythagoras opened a school called The Semicircle. However, his method of teaching was different and appealed to few. At the same time, the leaders wanted him to get involved with the city administration, which did not appeal to him.
>> In 518 BC, he shifted his base to Croton in southern Italy. Some accounts say he went there to study law and stayed back. Other accounts claim he went there in 530 BC to escape the tyranny of Polycrates, not to Egypt.
>> Whatever may be the case, it was here at Croton that he first started teaching in full scale, quickly gathering a band of followers. Subsequently, he set up a brotherhood, which was open to both men and women. It developed into a religious cum philosophical school with considerable political clout.
>> The Pythagoreans, as the followers of Pythagoras were called, could be divided into two sects. Those who lived and worked at the school were known as the mathematikoi or learners. Others, who lived outside the school, were known as akousmatics or listeners. Pythagoras was the master of both the sects.
>> The mathematikoi had to lead their life according to rules, which defined what they ate, wore or even spoke. They had no personal possession and followed strict vegetarianism. Contrarily, the akousmatics were allowed to own personal properties and eat non-vegetarian food. They attended the school only during the day time.
>> The Society practiced strict secrecy not only about rites and rituals, but also about what was taught. Therefore, although it made outstanding contributions to mathematics it is hard to distinguish between the works of Pythagoras and that of his followers.
>> Yet, Pythagoras’ contribution to mathematics can never be overstated. Today, he is best remembered for his concept of numbers. He believed that everything could be reduced to numbers and these numbers had their own characteristics, strengths and weaknesses.
>> To him 10 was the most complete number because it was made up of the first four digits (1+2+3+4) and when written in dot notation, they formed a triangle. He also believed geometry to be the highest form of mathematical studies through which one can explain the physical world.
>> Pythagoras’ belief stemmed from his observations of mathematics, music and astronomy. For example, he noticed that vibrating strings produce harmonious tones only when the ratios between the lengths of the strings are whole numbers. He later realized that these ratios could be extended to other instruments.
>> He also propagated that the soul is immortal. On death of a person, it takes up a new form and thus it moves from person to person and even to lower animals through a series of incarnations until it becomes pure and such purification could be done through music and mathematics.
>> Pythagoras himself was a good musician and could play the lyre well. Believer of mysticism, he also held that certain symbols have mystical significance and that the interaction between the opposites was an essential feature of the world.
>> He also taught that the Earth was a sphere at the center of the Cosmos. He held that all other planets and stars were spherical because sphere is the most perfect solid figure.
>> Pythagoras is most famous for his concept of geometry. It is believed that he was first to establish that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles and that for a right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides.
>> Although the last mentioned theorem was already discovered by the Babylonians, Pythagoras was first to prove it. It is also believed that he devised the tetractys, the triangular figure of four rows which add up to ten, which according him, was the perfect number.
PERSONAL LIFE & LEGACY
>> Pythagoras was married to Theano, his first pupil at Croton. She was also a philosopher in her own right. She wrote a treatise called ‘On Virtue’ and the doctrine of the golden mean was included in it. However, some say that she was not his wife, but a disciple.
>> According to various accounts, the couple had a son named Telauges, and three daughters named Damo, Arignote, and Myia. Some sources also put the number to seven. Their second daughter Arignote was a known scholar and works like ‘The Rites of Dionysus’, ‘Sacred Discourses’ have been credited to her.
>> Their third daughter Myia is said to have married the famous wrestler, Milo of Croton. It is further stated that Milo was an associate of Pythagoras and saved his life from a roof collapse.
>> Like most geniuses, Pythagoras too was very outspoken and created many enemies. One of them instigated the mob against the Pythagoreans and set fire to the building where they were staying. However, Pythagoras was able to escape. He then went to Metapontum and starved himself to death.
>> Some other accounts say that he was caught in a conflict between Agrigentum and the Syracusans and was killed by the Syracusans. Whatever was the cause of his death, according to most accounts he died in 495 BC. The ‘Theorem of Pythagoras’ or ‘Pythagoras Theorem’ still bears his legacy. | 1,920 | ENGLISH | 1 |
James Charles Evers (born September 11, 1922) is an American civil rights activist and former politician. Evers was known for his role in the civil rights movement along with his younger brother Medgar Evers. He was made the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) State Voter Registration Chairman in 1954. After his brother’s assassination in 1963, Evers took over his position as field director of the NAACP in Mississippi. As field director, Evers organized and led many demonstrations for the rights of African Americans.In 1969, Evers was named “Man of the Year” by the NAACP. On June 3, 1969, Evers was elected in Fayette, Mississippi, as the first African-American mayor of a biracial town in the state in the post-Reconstruction era, following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which enforced constitutional rights for citizens. (The town of Mound Bayou had been incorporated in 1898 as a Negro-only municipality and had had black mayors and council members throughout the 20th century; challenger Earl Lucas was elected the Mound Bayou mayor, defeating incumbent Wesley Liddell on the same day that Evers was elected in Fayette)
At the time of Evers’s election as mayor, the town of Fayette had a population of 1,600 of which 75% was African-American and almost 25% White; the white officers on the Fayette city police “resigned rather than work under a black administration”, according to the Associated Press. Evers told reporters “I guess we will just have to operate with an all-black police department for the present. But I am still looking for some whites to join us in helping Fayette grow.” Evers then outlawed the carrying of firearms within city limits.He unsuccessfully ran for governor in 1971 and the United States Senate in 1978, both times as an Independent candidate. In 1989, Evers was defeated for re-election after serving sixteen years as mayor. | <urn:uuid:a89d6566-0893-4ed2-ae4a-00b197d277a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/charles-evers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00471.warc.gz | en | 0.986879 | 415 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.238718241453170... | 2 | James Charles Evers (born September 11, 1922) is an American civil rights activist and former politician. Evers was known for his role in the civil rights movement along with his younger brother Medgar Evers. He was made the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) State Voter Registration Chairman in 1954. After his brother’s assassination in 1963, Evers took over his position as field director of the NAACP in Mississippi. As field director, Evers organized and led many demonstrations for the rights of African Americans.In 1969, Evers was named “Man of the Year” by the NAACP. On June 3, 1969, Evers was elected in Fayette, Mississippi, as the first African-American mayor of a biracial town in the state in the post-Reconstruction era, following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which enforced constitutional rights for citizens. (The town of Mound Bayou had been incorporated in 1898 as a Negro-only municipality and had had black mayors and council members throughout the 20th century; challenger Earl Lucas was elected the Mound Bayou mayor, defeating incumbent Wesley Liddell on the same day that Evers was elected in Fayette)
At the time of Evers’s election as mayor, the town of Fayette had a population of 1,600 of which 75% was African-American and almost 25% White; the white officers on the Fayette city police “resigned rather than work under a black administration”, according to the Associated Press. Evers told reporters “I guess we will just have to operate with an all-black police department for the present. But I am still looking for some whites to join us in helping Fayette grow.” Evers then outlawed the carrying of firearms within city limits.He unsuccessfully ran for governor in 1971 and the United States Senate in 1978, both times as an Independent candidate. In 1989, Evers was defeated for re-election after serving sixteen years as mayor. | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ashura is the tenth day of Muharram in the Islamic calendar. For the majority of Shi'a Muslims, Ashura marks the climax of the Remembrance of Muharram, and commemorates the death of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad at the Battle of Karbala on 10 Muharram in the year 61 AH (in AHt: October 10, 680 CE). Sunni Muslims have the same accounts of these events, however ceremonial mourning did not become a custom - although poems, eulogizing and recounting the events were and continue to be common.
Mourning for the incident began almost immediately after the Battle of Karbala. Popular elegies were written by poets to commemorate the Battle of Karbala during the Umayyad and Abbasid era, and the earliest public mourning rituals occurred in 963 CE during the Buyid dynasty.
In Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, India and Pakistan, Ashura has become a national holiday, and many ethnic and religious communities participate in it. In Sunni Islam, Ashura also marks the day that Moses and the Israelites were saved from Pharaoh by God creating a path in the Sea, and is the Islamic equivalent to Yom Kippur. Other commemorations include Noah leaving the Ark and Muhammad's arrival in Medina.
Etymology: The root of the word Ashura has the meaning of tenth in Semitic languages; hence the name of the remembrance, literally translated, means "the tenth day". According to the orientalist A. J. Wensinck, the name is derived from the Hebrew ʿāsōr, with the Aramaic determinative ending. The day is indeed the tenth day of the month, although some Islamic scholars offer up different etymologies. In his book Ghuniyatut Talibin, Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani writes that Islamic scholars differ as to why this day is known as Ashura, some of them suggesting that it is the tenth most important day with which God has blessed Muslims.
Battle of Karbala: The Battle of Karbala took place within the crisis environment resulting from the succession of Yazid I. Immediately after succession, Yazid instructed the governor of Medina to compel Husayn and a few other prominent figures to pledge their allegiance. Husayn, however, refrained from making such a pledge, believing that Yazid was openly going against the teachings of Islam and changing the sunnah of Muhammad. He, therefore, accompanied by his household, his sons, brothers, and the sons of Hasan left Medina to seek asylum in Mecca. On the other hand, the people in Kufa, when informed of Muawiyah's death, sent letters urging Husayn to join them and pledging to support him against the Umayyads. Husayn wrote back to them saying that he would send his cousin Muslim ibn Aqeel to report to him on the situation, and that, if he found them united as their letters indicated, he would speedily join them because an Imam should act in accordance with the Quran and uphold justice, proclaim the truth, and dedicate himself to the cause of God. The mission of Muslim was initially successful and according to reports 18,000 men pledged their allegiance. But the situation changed radically when Yazid appointed Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad as the new governor of Kufa, ordering him to deal severely with Ibn Aqeel. Before news of the adverse turn of events had reached Mecca, Husayn set out for Kufa. On the way, Husayn found that his messenger, Muslim ibn Aqeel, had been killed in Kufa. Husayn encountered the army of Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad along the route towards Kufa. Husayn addressed the Kufan army, reminding them that they had invited him to come because they were without an Imam. He told them that he intended to proceed to Kufa with their support, but if they were now opposed to his coming, he would return to where he had come from. In response, the army urged him to proceed by another route. Thus, he turned to the left and reached Karbala, where the army forced him not to go further and stop at a location that was without water.
Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad, the governor instructed Umar ibn Sa'ad, the head of the Kufan army, to offer Ḥusayn and his supporters the opportunity to swear allegiance to Yazid. He also ordered Umar ibn Sa'ad to cut off Husayn and his followers from access to the water of the Euphrates. On the next morning, Umar ibn Sa'ad arranged the Kufan army in battle order.
The Battle of Karbala lasted from morning to sunset on October 10, 680 (Muharram 10, 61 AH). Husayn's small group of companions and family members (in total around 72 men and the women and children) fought against a large army under the command of Umar ibn Sa'ad and were killed near the river (Euphrates), from which they were not allowed to get water. Once the Umayyad troops had murdered Husayn and his male followers, they looted the tents, stripped the women of their jewelry, and took the skin upon which Zain al-Abidin was prostrate. Husayn's sister Zaynab was taken along with the enslaved women to the caliph in Damascus when she was imprisoned and after a year eventually was allowed to return to Medina.
let the kindness and spirit of the people draw you in! Iranian are some of the most genuinely hospitable people youve ever met. They never want anything in return, they just want to show you a good time and hope that you'll spread the word back home that Iran is a safe place to visit. Read More | <urn:uuid:e16df5df-86d3-424b-92f8-082aaf4b4641> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.itto.org/iran/event/Muharram-Ashura-Tasoua/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.98181 | 1,212 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.583503723144... | 6 | Ashura is the tenth day of Muharram in the Islamic calendar. For the majority of Shi'a Muslims, Ashura marks the climax of the Remembrance of Muharram, and commemorates the death of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad at the Battle of Karbala on 10 Muharram in the year 61 AH (in AHt: October 10, 680 CE). Sunni Muslims have the same accounts of these events, however ceremonial mourning did not become a custom - although poems, eulogizing and recounting the events were and continue to be common.
Mourning for the incident began almost immediately after the Battle of Karbala. Popular elegies were written by poets to commemorate the Battle of Karbala during the Umayyad and Abbasid era, and the earliest public mourning rituals occurred in 963 CE during the Buyid dynasty.
In Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, India and Pakistan, Ashura has become a national holiday, and many ethnic and religious communities participate in it. In Sunni Islam, Ashura also marks the day that Moses and the Israelites were saved from Pharaoh by God creating a path in the Sea, and is the Islamic equivalent to Yom Kippur. Other commemorations include Noah leaving the Ark and Muhammad's arrival in Medina.
Etymology: The root of the word Ashura has the meaning of tenth in Semitic languages; hence the name of the remembrance, literally translated, means "the tenth day". According to the orientalist A. J. Wensinck, the name is derived from the Hebrew ʿāsōr, with the Aramaic determinative ending. The day is indeed the tenth day of the month, although some Islamic scholars offer up different etymologies. In his book Ghuniyatut Talibin, Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani writes that Islamic scholars differ as to why this day is known as Ashura, some of them suggesting that it is the tenth most important day with which God has blessed Muslims.
Battle of Karbala: The Battle of Karbala took place within the crisis environment resulting from the succession of Yazid I. Immediately after succession, Yazid instructed the governor of Medina to compel Husayn and a few other prominent figures to pledge their allegiance. Husayn, however, refrained from making such a pledge, believing that Yazid was openly going against the teachings of Islam and changing the sunnah of Muhammad. He, therefore, accompanied by his household, his sons, brothers, and the sons of Hasan left Medina to seek asylum in Mecca. On the other hand, the people in Kufa, when informed of Muawiyah's death, sent letters urging Husayn to join them and pledging to support him against the Umayyads. Husayn wrote back to them saying that he would send his cousin Muslim ibn Aqeel to report to him on the situation, and that, if he found them united as their letters indicated, he would speedily join them because an Imam should act in accordance with the Quran and uphold justice, proclaim the truth, and dedicate himself to the cause of God. The mission of Muslim was initially successful and according to reports 18,000 men pledged their allegiance. But the situation changed radically when Yazid appointed Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad as the new governor of Kufa, ordering him to deal severely with Ibn Aqeel. Before news of the adverse turn of events had reached Mecca, Husayn set out for Kufa. On the way, Husayn found that his messenger, Muslim ibn Aqeel, had been killed in Kufa. Husayn encountered the army of Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad along the route towards Kufa. Husayn addressed the Kufan army, reminding them that they had invited him to come because they were without an Imam. He told them that he intended to proceed to Kufa with their support, but if they were now opposed to his coming, he would return to where he had come from. In response, the army urged him to proceed by another route. Thus, he turned to the left and reached Karbala, where the army forced him not to go further and stop at a location that was without water.
Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad, the governor instructed Umar ibn Sa'ad, the head of the Kufan army, to offer Ḥusayn and his supporters the opportunity to swear allegiance to Yazid. He also ordered Umar ibn Sa'ad to cut off Husayn and his followers from access to the water of the Euphrates. On the next morning, Umar ibn Sa'ad arranged the Kufan army in battle order.
The Battle of Karbala lasted from morning to sunset on October 10, 680 (Muharram 10, 61 AH). Husayn's small group of companions and family members (in total around 72 men and the women and children) fought against a large army under the command of Umar ibn Sa'ad and were killed near the river (Euphrates), from which they were not allowed to get water. Once the Umayyad troops had murdered Husayn and his male followers, they looted the tents, stripped the women of their jewelry, and took the skin upon which Zain al-Abidin was prostrate. Husayn's sister Zaynab was taken along with the enslaved women to the caliph in Damascus when she was imprisoned and after a year eventually was allowed to return to Medina.
let the kindness and spirit of the people draw you in! Iranian are some of the most genuinely hospitable people youve ever met. They never want anything in return, they just want to show you a good time and hope that you'll spread the word back home that Iran is a safe place to visit. Read More | 1,261 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Anglo Saxon culture has existed for many years and has been revealed in literature such as Beowulf and cultures today. Beowulf remains to be the perfect example of an Anglo Saxon hero. His understanding of respect for elders and family hierarchy played a vital role in society.
These beliefs not only serve as the foundation for literary heroes but for my family too. An interesting aspect that was revealed in Beowulf was respect for elders.
Throughout the poem, Beowulf showed respect to Hrothgar and to his king, Higlac by putting his life on the line fighting for a cause bigger than himself. As a result, he received many treasures for his heroic deeds and gave them to Higlac as a sign of respect. In my family, respecting your elders is something we all must do. For instance, whenever a family member enters the house, that person must greet the everyone there. If they don’t, then they’re confronted immediately about it and reminded to not let that happen again.
It’s unacceptable to just walk without greeting everyone. Another fascinating aspect that was portrayed in Beowulf was the hierarchy of the families. The king had authority over his family and his country. He made all of the decisions and no one dared to go against him. However, when the king died, the next oldest son in line took his place. In my family, my uncle has always been the “man of the house”. He was the protector and provider for the family making sure everybody was content and safe.
When my uncle passed away, his oldest son (cousin) took his place. However, this rule of authority no longer exists in my immediate family. Both of my parents provide and share responsibility equally which eases the burden. It’s evident that Anglo Saxon culture still serves as the foundation for my family culture and learning about it through Beowulf has caused me to realize how important it is. It’s incredible how far Anglo Saxon culture has survived and its influence on culture. dominant role in society. They were seen as the centra | <urn:uuid:764f811e-30e4-4ca9-9b1f-d7a4ca92b379> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://shinybookreview.com/anglo-saxon-culture-in-beowulf/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00388.warc.gz | en | 0.989846 | 435 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.03362865... | 2 | The Anglo Saxon culture has existed for many years and has been revealed in literature such as Beowulf and cultures today. Beowulf remains to be the perfect example of an Anglo Saxon hero. His understanding of respect for elders and family hierarchy played a vital role in society.
These beliefs not only serve as the foundation for literary heroes but for my family too. An interesting aspect that was revealed in Beowulf was respect for elders.
Throughout the poem, Beowulf showed respect to Hrothgar and to his king, Higlac by putting his life on the line fighting for a cause bigger than himself. As a result, he received many treasures for his heroic deeds and gave them to Higlac as a sign of respect. In my family, respecting your elders is something we all must do. For instance, whenever a family member enters the house, that person must greet the everyone there. If they don’t, then they’re confronted immediately about it and reminded to not let that happen again.
It’s unacceptable to just walk without greeting everyone. Another fascinating aspect that was portrayed in Beowulf was the hierarchy of the families. The king had authority over his family and his country. He made all of the decisions and no one dared to go against him. However, when the king died, the next oldest son in line took his place. In my family, my uncle has always been the “man of the house”. He was the protector and provider for the family making sure everybody was content and safe.
When my uncle passed away, his oldest son (cousin) took his place. However, this rule of authority no longer exists in my immediate family. Both of my parents provide and share responsibility equally which eases the burden. It’s evident that Anglo Saxon culture still serves as the foundation for my family culture and learning about it through Beowulf has caused me to realize how important it is. It’s incredible how far Anglo Saxon culture has survived and its influence on culture. dominant role in society. They were seen as the centra | 419 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles John Huffam Dickens was a writer and social critic who created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity.
Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors' prison. Despite his lack of formal education, he edited a weekly journal for 20 years, wrote 15 novels, five novellas, hundreds of short stories and non-fiction articles, lectured and performed extensively, was an indefatigable letter writer, and campaigned vigorously for children's rights, education, and other social reforms.
Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age. His 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also frequently adapted, and, like many of his novels, evoke images of early Victorian London. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London and Paris, is his best-known work of historical fiction. Dickens's creative genius has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for its realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of psychological depth, loose writing, and a vein of saccharine sentimentalism. The term Dickensian is used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings, such as poor social conditions or comically repulsive characters.
On 8 June 1870, Dickens suffered another stroke at his home after a full day's work on Edwin Drood. He never regained consciousness, and the next day he died at Gad's Hill Place. Contrary to his wish to be buried at Rochester Cathedral "in an inexpensive, unostentatious, and strictly private manner," he was laid to rest in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. A printed epitaph circulated at the time of the funeral reads: "To the Memory of Charles Dickens (England's most popular author) who died at his residence, Higham, near Rochester, Kent, 9 June 1870, aged 58 years. He was a sympathiser with the poor, the suffering, and the oppressed; and by his death, one of England's greatest writers is lost to the world." His last words were: "On the ground", in response to his sister-in-law Georgina's request that he lie down. | <urn:uuid:049d7688-9428-4518-9330-426343b91c9d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://librarywala.com/books/250732772261-charles-dickens-four-complete-novels | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00175.warc.gz | en | 0.982773 | 548 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.14717406034469604... | 1 | Charles John Huffam Dickens was a writer and social critic who created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity.
Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors' prison. Despite his lack of formal education, he edited a weekly journal for 20 years, wrote 15 novels, five novellas, hundreds of short stories and non-fiction articles, lectured and performed extensively, was an indefatigable letter writer, and campaigned vigorously for children's rights, education, and other social reforms.
Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age. His 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also frequently adapted, and, like many of his novels, evoke images of early Victorian London. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London and Paris, is his best-known work of historical fiction. Dickens's creative genius has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for its realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of psychological depth, loose writing, and a vein of saccharine sentimentalism. The term Dickensian is used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings, such as poor social conditions or comically repulsive characters.
On 8 June 1870, Dickens suffered another stroke at his home after a full day's work on Edwin Drood. He never regained consciousness, and the next day he died at Gad's Hill Place. Contrary to his wish to be buried at Rochester Cathedral "in an inexpensive, unostentatious, and strictly private manner," he was laid to rest in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. A printed epitaph circulated at the time of the funeral reads: "To the Memory of Charles Dickens (England's most popular author) who died at his residence, Higham, near Rochester, Kent, 9 June 1870, aged 58 years. He was a sympathiser with the poor, the suffering, and the oppressed; and by his death, one of England's greatest writers is lost to the world." His last words were: "On the ground", in response to his sister-in-law Georgina's request that he lie down. | 560 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Based on interviews with children aged 7 to 13, this report explores their views on their relationships with their siblings, including:
- children's feelings about being close to and caring for their siblings, and being apart and autonomous from them;
- patterns around gender and age status in how children relate to their siblings;
- children's understandings of everyday shifts and changes over time in their sibling relationships;
- the different ways in which children cope with problems in their relationships with their brothers and sisters.
Children's understandings of their sibling relationships offers new insights in providing supportive intervention for family relationships; adds to our knowledge of family lives; and reveals that sibling relationships are complex and patterned according to social context.
Children's relationships with their brothers and sisters are an important part of their everyday lives. Most research on siblings examines predetermined topics, rather than starting from children's own perspectives. This study involving 58 children aged seven to 13 listened to their accounts of everyday life with their brothers and sisters, showing them to be insightful commentators. The researchers, Rosalind Edwards, Lucy Hadfield and Melanie Mauthner, found that:
- Children often said that having brothers and sisters meant there was always 'someone there' for them, and gave an emotional sense of protection from being alone. Children loved and cared for each other, but also recognised that everyday disputes occurred. Some children, however, intensely disliked their siblings.
- Some children said that their brothers and sisters gave them a strong sense of identity as being part of a group, and saw sharing possessions and bedrooms as unremarkable. Others regarded themselves as individuals who were also siblings. They had a strong sense of independence and found it difficult to share possessions or bedrooms with their siblings.
- Talking together was important to girls in their relationships with their sisters, while for boys doing things together mattered in their relationships with their brothers. In brother-sister relationships, activities took precedence over talking.
- Children often talked about older brothers and sisters taking care of and protecting younger siblings, as well as having power over them, and about younger siblings as receivers of this attention and authority. Some younger siblings, however, looked after their older brothers or sisters, or saw them as immature.
- Children had a sense of change over time in themselves and their siblings as they grew older. They continually faced change in their everyday relationships with their brothers and sisters, not just in problematic family circumstances.
- The researchers conclude that sibling relationships are complex and diverse, and that children are active in shaping these relationships. This has implications for a range of fields of professional practice, such as parenting skills, family therapy and bullying initiatives.
Statistics on the number of children living with brothers and sisters are collected from a household point of view. Just over half of children in the UK live in households containing more than one child, and just under a quarter contain three or more children. However, parental separation and new partnerships can mean that children do not necessarily live in the same household as their biological siblings, and may have half or step-siblings living in the same or another household. Children may also have brothers and sisters who are no longer dependent and live elsewhere.
The number of siblings, their position in the age hierarchy, the age gap between them, and the gender balance of sibling groups are a focus of much research, which is overwhelmingly concerned with the resulting effects on child development, behaviour and educational outcomes. Children's own interpretations of their sibling relationships, and the social context in which they take place, are ignored.
This research explored how children understand and experience their everyday relationships with their brothers and sisters, and treated them as competent and expert informants on their own lives. The researchers interviewed 58 children aged between seven and 13, and drew out key themes from their accounts rather than searching for issues identified in advance. The research showed that sibling relationships are both complex and diverse, and that children are active in constructing them.
'There's always someone there'
Children often talked about their siblings in ways that showed they were an integral part of their emotional sense of security. Having brothers and sisters meant that there was always 'someone there' for them. Children spoke about how they felt loved and cared for by their brothers and sisters, and in turn loved and cared for their siblings. Having brothers and sisters gave these children emotional protection from an inner sense of being alone:
"I'm never really alone. But one of my friends, she doesn't have a brother or a sister, so she misses out … Because [my sister] lives with me and she shares – cos' she knows more about me so I'm kind of closer to her than I would be to [friends]." (Izzy, age nine, talking about her younger sister)
"Brothers and sisters, they are part of your family. You love them and they love you." (Tom, age nine, talking about his older sisters and brother)
"The best thing about having sisters are they're there to help, they're around when you need them. They're there to have a good time with." (Ellie, age twelve, talking about her older sisters)
Children also recognised that alongside this sense of their siblings being there for them, everyday disputes occurred:
"[My brother and sister] are closer to me [than friends] because they're like family, so I know them better than I know my friends … [We] quite often look after each other, but quite often [we] start fights … We don't always like the same thing and the slightest argument always starts a fight." (Jason, age eleven, talking about his older sister and younger brother)
Some children, however, did not like their brothers and sisters:
"I don't really like them … I spend most of my time by myself. And then they come up [to the bedroom] and destroy the thing that I've been playing with … They are going to come to my school and I don't want them to." (Jacob, age eight, talking about his younger sister and brothers)
Feeling part of a group, and being independent
Children had a varying sense of the importance of being part of a sibling group, or being independent from their brothers and sisters. Some children had a strong sense of themselves as being part of a sibling group, and saw sharing possessions and bedrooms as unremarkable:
"They give me money. Like whenever I need it they give it to me really … I let them go on my Playstation … I just get all my stuff on one side [of the bedroom I share with one of my brothers] and put all his stuff on that side. He can use my stuff and I use his." (Lee, age ten, talking about his older brothers)
Their brothers and sisters provided these children with a sense of collective identity. If they were parted from their siblings, they often sought to integrate themselves into another group:
"It doesn't matter [if sisters don't live together], just as long as you have some girls to help you out when you need them." (Ellie, age twelve, talking about her non-resident older sisters)
"Now [my sister] has got a job she doesn't come back [home] as often, but I am getting used to it … [If someone else was in the same position, I'd tell him] if he has got any other relatives, spend more time with them." (Jason, age eleven, talking about his oldest sister)
Other children had a strong sense of independence, and felt that their brothers and sisters threatened it. They did not want to share possessions or bedrooms with their siblings:
"[My brother and sister] share a room, and my mum and dad share a room, and I have a room to myself. I love it … I put a note on the outside of my bedroom door saying no one allowed in my room." (Harry, age nine, talking about his younger brother and sister)
"She goes through all my magazines when I tell her not to. I don't like it but she still goes through them … She takes my clothes, like she goes out in my coats when I tell her not to. She tries to wear my shoes out, she tries to wear my make-up." (Mariko, age nine, talking about her younger sister)
These children saw themselves as individuals who were also siblings. They did not often refer to compensating for being parted from their brothers and sisters by integrating themselves into another group.
Talk and activity
Talk and activity were key elements in children's relationships with their brothers and sisters. Their practice largely differed by gender. Girls often said that talking together was a significant aspect of feeling close to their sisters. For boys, sharing activities was an important part of their relationship with their brothers. Brother-sister relationships worked on male terms, with activities taking precedence over talk:
"I spend a lot of time with my sister when I go and see her. [We] just talk about life … Cos' my sister has moved, like I keep in contact with her and like that makes me feel better cos' I still know what she looks like and what her voice sounds like and things like that." (Anne, age eleven, talking about her older sister)
"I play gun games with [my younger sister] and we play games … It's a bit boring. Like there is no-one to play with who is boys, play football and stuff. I asked [my older sister], she did used to. Like she kicked it and then she just said, 'oh it's boring' and just went in… [My brother] used to, though, play football. Now he stays in and watches [television]." (Daniel, age nine, talking about his younger sister and older sister and brother)
For girls, an inability to talk to and confide in their sisters, and for boys a lack of shared activities often represented a sense of partial or complete emotional separation in the relationship. When older siblings left home and moved away, girls seemed more resourceful in maintaining closeness across geographical distance through talk-based communication (phone, email, texting, letters). Boys' reliance on joint activities, however, meant that they had fewer resources to draw on to bridge the distance.
Many children talked about older brothers and sisters taking care of and protecting their younger siblings, as well as having power over them, and about younger siblings as receivers of this attention and (sometimes unappreciated) authority:
"My older brother and sister stick up for me around the house and in the street … My little brother goes to the same school as me and we have to go there on the bus, so I help him on the bus." (Emily, age eleven, talking about her older brother and sister, and younger brother)
"The best things are, they are fun to play with, they help you with your homework. Well, [my brother] helps with the computer if something goes wrong … He like is older so he thinks he knows more. Well, he does, but you know [sighs]. When I don't know things he makes it like I don't know that much." (Chris, age eleven, talking about his older brother)
Younger brothers and sisters, however, sometimes also looked after or protected their older siblings, for example when they were ill or being bullied. Some children described their older brothers or sisters as acting in immature ways for their age, and saw themselves as more mature:
"He is just immature. Because he doesn't act like older … Cos' I'm probably more grown up than he is. I wish he'd go out more an' act more like a teenager." (Cora, age 13, talking about her older brother)
Change in relationships
As they grew older, children had a sense of change in their relationships with their brothers and sisters over time. This related to abilities and interests:
"[My sister] does different things to me, but I do the same things as [my brother] … I used to play with her more when I was tiny … We got older and changed." (Jason, age eleven, talking about his older sister and younger brother)
"When I couldn't get to sleep or something, she used to let me come and sleep in her bed and stuff, and used to, like, hug. And now it's like her in one bedroom and me in the other, because we don't really want to sleep together now. She thinks I'm a bit babyish now, because I'm not like out at all the places like she's going." (Natalie, age twelve, talking about her older sister)
In this way, children were living with emotional and social change as part of their everyday lives with their brothers and sisters. For children, change was not just associated with problematic family circumstances.
The researchers conclude that the complexity and diversity of children's understanding of their relationships with their siblings, as well as shifts in these relationships over time, mean that there are no universal prescriptions. Nonetheless, the study's findings have implications for several fields of professional practice. For example:
- children's feelings that having siblings means that 'there is always someone there' for them need to be acknowledged in curricula for practice;
- being part of a sibling group and being independent could inform parenting information and skills courses and family therapy interventions, and provide a benchmark for decisions about looked-after children;
- talk and activity as gender-related elements in children's sibling relationships are relevant to educators, play leaders, social workers, health visitors, family therapists and others concerned with children's methods of communication;
- the potential benefit of both older and younger siblings as a resource could be recognised in initiatives to deal with bullying in school and outside the home.
About the project
Researchers based at London South Bank University and The Open University carried out flexible, child-focused interviews with 58 children aged between seven and 13. The participating children were evenly divided between girls and boys. Half came from working-class families, and half were middle class. The majority of children were white. Half lived with both their biological parents, a quarter lived in step-families, and the rest lived in lone-mother families or an extended family. Half the children had one or two siblings, and the other half had three or more. About half had siblings living outside their family household. | <urn:uuid:6b28a5cc-8628-4a47-97a1-babab09ab189> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/childrens-understanding-their-sibling-relationships | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.983936 | 2,946 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.335968375205993... | 4 | Based on interviews with children aged 7 to 13, this report explores their views on their relationships with their siblings, including:
- children's feelings about being close to and caring for their siblings, and being apart and autonomous from them;
- patterns around gender and age status in how children relate to their siblings;
- children's understandings of everyday shifts and changes over time in their sibling relationships;
- the different ways in which children cope with problems in their relationships with their brothers and sisters.
Children's understandings of their sibling relationships offers new insights in providing supportive intervention for family relationships; adds to our knowledge of family lives; and reveals that sibling relationships are complex and patterned according to social context.
Children's relationships with their brothers and sisters are an important part of their everyday lives. Most research on siblings examines predetermined topics, rather than starting from children's own perspectives. This study involving 58 children aged seven to 13 listened to their accounts of everyday life with their brothers and sisters, showing them to be insightful commentators. The researchers, Rosalind Edwards, Lucy Hadfield and Melanie Mauthner, found that:
- Children often said that having brothers and sisters meant there was always 'someone there' for them, and gave an emotional sense of protection from being alone. Children loved and cared for each other, but also recognised that everyday disputes occurred. Some children, however, intensely disliked their siblings.
- Some children said that their brothers and sisters gave them a strong sense of identity as being part of a group, and saw sharing possessions and bedrooms as unremarkable. Others regarded themselves as individuals who were also siblings. They had a strong sense of independence and found it difficult to share possessions or bedrooms with their siblings.
- Talking together was important to girls in their relationships with their sisters, while for boys doing things together mattered in their relationships with their brothers. In brother-sister relationships, activities took precedence over talking.
- Children often talked about older brothers and sisters taking care of and protecting younger siblings, as well as having power over them, and about younger siblings as receivers of this attention and authority. Some younger siblings, however, looked after their older brothers or sisters, or saw them as immature.
- Children had a sense of change over time in themselves and their siblings as they grew older. They continually faced change in their everyday relationships with their brothers and sisters, not just in problematic family circumstances.
- The researchers conclude that sibling relationships are complex and diverse, and that children are active in shaping these relationships. This has implications for a range of fields of professional practice, such as parenting skills, family therapy and bullying initiatives.
Statistics on the number of children living with brothers and sisters are collected from a household point of view. Just over half of children in the UK live in households containing more than one child, and just under a quarter contain three or more children. However, parental separation and new partnerships can mean that children do not necessarily live in the same household as their biological siblings, and may have half or step-siblings living in the same or another household. Children may also have brothers and sisters who are no longer dependent and live elsewhere.
The number of siblings, their position in the age hierarchy, the age gap between them, and the gender balance of sibling groups are a focus of much research, which is overwhelmingly concerned with the resulting effects on child development, behaviour and educational outcomes. Children's own interpretations of their sibling relationships, and the social context in which they take place, are ignored.
This research explored how children understand and experience their everyday relationships with their brothers and sisters, and treated them as competent and expert informants on their own lives. The researchers interviewed 58 children aged between seven and 13, and drew out key themes from their accounts rather than searching for issues identified in advance. The research showed that sibling relationships are both complex and diverse, and that children are active in constructing them.
'There's always someone there'
Children often talked about their siblings in ways that showed they were an integral part of their emotional sense of security. Having brothers and sisters meant that there was always 'someone there' for them. Children spoke about how they felt loved and cared for by their brothers and sisters, and in turn loved and cared for their siblings. Having brothers and sisters gave these children emotional protection from an inner sense of being alone:
"I'm never really alone. But one of my friends, she doesn't have a brother or a sister, so she misses out … Because [my sister] lives with me and she shares – cos' she knows more about me so I'm kind of closer to her than I would be to [friends]." (Izzy, age nine, talking about her younger sister)
"Brothers and sisters, they are part of your family. You love them and they love you." (Tom, age nine, talking about his older sisters and brother)
"The best thing about having sisters are they're there to help, they're around when you need them. They're there to have a good time with." (Ellie, age twelve, talking about her older sisters)
Children also recognised that alongside this sense of their siblings being there for them, everyday disputes occurred:
"[My brother and sister] are closer to me [than friends] because they're like family, so I know them better than I know my friends … [We] quite often look after each other, but quite often [we] start fights … We don't always like the same thing and the slightest argument always starts a fight." (Jason, age eleven, talking about his older sister and younger brother)
Some children, however, did not like their brothers and sisters:
"I don't really like them … I spend most of my time by myself. And then they come up [to the bedroom] and destroy the thing that I've been playing with … They are going to come to my school and I don't want them to." (Jacob, age eight, talking about his younger sister and brothers)
Feeling part of a group, and being independent
Children had a varying sense of the importance of being part of a sibling group, or being independent from their brothers and sisters. Some children had a strong sense of themselves as being part of a sibling group, and saw sharing possessions and bedrooms as unremarkable:
"They give me money. Like whenever I need it they give it to me really … I let them go on my Playstation … I just get all my stuff on one side [of the bedroom I share with one of my brothers] and put all his stuff on that side. He can use my stuff and I use his." (Lee, age ten, talking about his older brothers)
Their brothers and sisters provided these children with a sense of collective identity. If they were parted from their siblings, they often sought to integrate themselves into another group:
"It doesn't matter [if sisters don't live together], just as long as you have some girls to help you out when you need them." (Ellie, age twelve, talking about her non-resident older sisters)
"Now [my sister] has got a job she doesn't come back [home] as often, but I am getting used to it … [If someone else was in the same position, I'd tell him] if he has got any other relatives, spend more time with them." (Jason, age eleven, talking about his oldest sister)
Other children had a strong sense of independence, and felt that their brothers and sisters threatened it. They did not want to share possessions or bedrooms with their siblings:
"[My brother and sister] share a room, and my mum and dad share a room, and I have a room to myself. I love it … I put a note on the outside of my bedroom door saying no one allowed in my room." (Harry, age nine, talking about his younger brother and sister)
"She goes through all my magazines when I tell her not to. I don't like it but she still goes through them … She takes my clothes, like she goes out in my coats when I tell her not to. She tries to wear my shoes out, she tries to wear my make-up." (Mariko, age nine, talking about her younger sister)
These children saw themselves as individuals who were also siblings. They did not often refer to compensating for being parted from their brothers and sisters by integrating themselves into another group.
Talk and activity
Talk and activity were key elements in children's relationships with their brothers and sisters. Their practice largely differed by gender. Girls often said that talking together was a significant aspect of feeling close to their sisters. For boys, sharing activities was an important part of their relationship with their brothers. Brother-sister relationships worked on male terms, with activities taking precedence over talk:
"I spend a lot of time with my sister when I go and see her. [We] just talk about life … Cos' my sister has moved, like I keep in contact with her and like that makes me feel better cos' I still know what she looks like and what her voice sounds like and things like that." (Anne, age eleven, talking about her older sister)
"I play gun games with [my younger sister] and we play games … It's a bit boring. Like there is no-one to play with who is boys, play football and stuff. I asked [my older sister], she did used to. Like she kicked it and then she just said, 'oh it's boring' and just went in… [My brother] used to, though, play football. Now he stays in and watches [television]." (Daniel, age nine, talking about his younger sister and older sister and brother)
For girls, an inability to talk to and confide in their sisters, and for boys a lack of shared activities often represented a sense of partial or complete emotional separation in the relationship. When older siblings left home and moved away, girls seemed more resourceful in maintaining closeness across geographical distance through talk-based communication (phone, email, texting, letters). Boys' reliance on joint activities, however, meant that they had fewer resources to draw on to bridge the distance.
Many children talked about older brothers and sisters taking care of and protecting their younger siblings, as well as having power over them, and about younger siblings as receivers of this attention and (sometimes unappreciated) authority:
"My older brother and sister stick up for me around the house and in the street … My little brother goes to the same school as me and we have to go there on the bus, so I help him on the bus." (Emily, age eleven, talking about her older brother and sister, and younger brother)
"The best things are, they are fun to play with, they help you with your homework. Well, [my brother] helps with the computer if something goes wrong … He like is older so he thinks he knows more. Well, he does, but you know [sighs]. When I don't know things he makes it like I don't know that much." (Chris, age eleven, talking about his older brother)
Younger brothers and sisters, however, sometimes also looked after or protected their older siblings, for example when they were ill or being bullied. Some children described their older brothers or sisters as acting in immature ways for their age, and saw themselves as more mature:
"He is just immature. Because he doesn't act like older … Cos' I'm probably more grown up than he is. I wish he'd go out more an' act more like a teenager." (Cora, age 13, talking about her older brother)
Change in relationships
As they grew older, children had a sense of change in their relationships with their brothers and sisters over time. This related to abilities and interests:
"[My sister] does different things to me, but I do the same things as [my brother] … I used to play with her more when I was tiny … We got older and changed." (Jason, age eleven, talking about his older sister and younger brother)
"When I couldn't get to sleep or something, she used to let me come and sleep in her bed and stuff, and used to, like, hug. And now it's like her in one bedroom and me in the other, because we don't really want to sleep together now. She thinks I'm a bit babyish now, because I'm not like out at all the places like she's going." (Natalie, age twelve, talking about her older sister)
In this way, children were living with emotional and social change as part of their everyday lives with their brothers and sisters. For children, change was not just associated with problematic family circumstances.
The researchers conclude that the complexity and diversity of children's understanding of their relationships with their siblings, as well as shifts in these relationships over time, mean that there are no universal prescriptions. Nonetheless, the study's findings have implications for several fields of professional practice. For example:
- children's feelings that having siblings means that 'there is always someone there' for them need to be acknowledged in curricula for practice;
- being part of a sibling group and being independent could inform parenting information and skills courses and family therapy interventions, and provide a benchmark for decisions about looked-after children;
- talk and activity as gender-related elements in children's sibling relationships are relevant to educators, play leaders, social workers, health visitors, family therapists and others concerned with children's methods of communication;
- the potential benefit of both older and younger siblings as a resource could be recognised in initiatives to deal with bullying in school and outside the home.
About the project
Researchers based at London South Bank University and The Open University carried out flexible, child-focused interviews with 58 children aged between seven and 13. The participating children were evenly divided between girls and boys. Half came from working-class families, and half were middle class. The majority of children were white. Half lived with both their biological parents, a quarter lived in step-families, and the rest lived in lone-mother families or an extended family. Half the children had one or two siblings, and the other half had three or more. About half had siblings living outside their family household. | 2,892 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Publius Ovidius Naso, the poet better known today as Ovid, tried to write his own epitaph before his death in A.D. 17. In a series of poems composed near the end of his life, he asked for these lines to mark his final resting place:
I who lie here was a writer
Of tales of tender love
Naso the poet, done in by my
You who pass by, should you be
A lover, may you
Trouble yourself to say that Naso’s
May rest softly.
Recognized today for the Metamorphoses, his dazzling reworking of Greek and Latin myths, Ovid was known during his time for vibrant, controversial love poetry, including the Amores (The Loves) and the Ars amatoria (The Art of Love). These frank poetic reflections on Roman sexual customs brought him fame but also played a role in his downfall. (Learn about the responsibilities that came with coveted Roman citizenship.)
After publishing his magnum opus, Ovid fell out of imperial favor, was forced to leave Rome, and exiled to Tomis, a city on the Black Sea. It was here, on the fringes of the empire, that Ovid pined for his beloved Rome and begged to return. (This is why Black Sea shipwrecks are such unique finds.)
By Ovid’s own account, the exile was punishment for an “error” that enraged the emperor Augustus. Ovid considered himself lucky that he escaped execution for the offense but never recorded any specific details about what he did wrong. Scholars have puzzled over the cause of the exile for centuries, which remains unsolved to this day.
Ovid was born in 43 B.C. in Sulmo (now Sulmona) 100 miles east of Rome. His letters and the Tristia (Lamentations), a five-book collection of poems written in exile, have given historians a wealth of autobiographical details.
He describes himself as a natural poet from his youth: “Poetry in meter comes unbidden to me.” After a brief stint traveling and then studying in Athens, he turned his back on a political career, and went instead to Rome to become a poet. He fell in love with the city, and it embraced his poetry.
Completed in 16 B.C., Ovid’s first major work was the Amores, a collection of poems charting a love affair with a young woman called Corinna. In this first book of poems, Ovid employed an urbane, ironic voice. A famous poem describing a hot summer’s afternoon of lovemaking ends with the lines:
Fill in the rest for yourselves!
Tired at last, we lay sleeping.
May my siestas often turn out that way.
Some have theorized that Corinna had a real-life corollary: Fifth-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris identified her as Julia the Elder, Augustus’ daughter, and posited that Ovid enjoyed a dalliance with her. Sidonius credited that scandalous relationship for Ovid’s exile, but later historians have debunked this theory. Most commentators regard Corinna as a fictional character.
Following this debut, Ovid notched up one success after another. His Heroides (Heroines) was a series of dramatic monologues centering on mythological women, including Dido, Medea, and Ariadne, who lament their mistreatment by their lovers.
A three-part work, Ars amatoria, completed around A.D. 2 was a sensation. The first two parts are a “how-to” guide for men on seducing women and keeping their love. Ovid counsels that absence makes the heart grow fonder and that asking a woman’s age is not a recipe for seduction. Part three is aimed at women and includes the suggestion that making a lover jealous isn’t such a bad idea. (Rome's Vestal Virgins were awarded privileges unavailable to other Roman women.)
Ovid had struck publishing gold. His handbook gave his young audience practical tips under the guise of a formal didactic work. But despite its success, Ovid craved a more learned readership.
Ovid’s career started when Roman literary circles were devoted to two figures: Virgil and Horace. Virgil was writing the Aeneid, the national epic about Aeneas the Trojan prince and mythological founder of Rome, while Horace was feted for his witty Satires. These two men would embody the flowering of Roman letters under Augustus.
Already in his 40s when he completed Ars amatoria, Ovid was neither fabulously wealthy nor well connected. He had a loyal patron, but the literary set he associated with were minor writers compared to giants like Virgil and Horace.
Inspired to write a great work like the Aeneid, Ovid wrote the Metamorphoses. “My purpose is to tell of bodies which have been transformed,” he wrote in his opening lines. He informed the readers that the theme of transformation will influence the very form of his long poem, which will “spin an unbroken thread of verse from the earliest beginnings of my world down to my own times.”
Extremely successful in its own time, the work became one of the most influential works of Western literature, inspiring numerous works of art, music, and drama. Love, lust, grief, terror, and divine punishment trigger a series of startling changes in Ovid’s retelling of 250 stories of gods and mortals.
Sailors become dolphins. The sculptor Pygmalion’s kiss changes a statue into a young woman. For having spied the goddess Diana as she bathed, the hunter Actaeon is changed into a stag to be ripped apart by his hounds. In one of the Metamorphoses’ most famous passages, Daphne flees Apollo’s lustful advances and changes into a laurel tree: “Her hair grew into leaves, her arms into branches, and her feet that were lately so swift, were held by sluggish roots, while her face became the treetop. Nothing of her was left, except her shining loveliness.” (Ovid retold the classic tale of Theseus and the Minotaur in his Metamorphoses')
By age 50 Ovid had reached the peak of his popularity. His groundbreaking style had established him as one of the most popular poets in Rome. But it was just as his fortunes were riding high that disaster broke. In A.D. 8, as Ovid was garnering praise for the Metamorphoses, the emperor Augustus decided to send him into exile. (Who were Rome's 'Five Good Emperors'?)
Ovid lived the rest of his years in Tomis. His petitions to the emperor were all in vain. After Augustus’ death in A.D. 14, Ovid tried to get his successor Tiberius to commute his sentence, but the new emperor was impervious to the continued pleas of both the poet and his wife Fabia. The Roman love poet died in A.D. 17, far from the city where he had made his name, and which he had loved so dearly.
Scholars still have not pinpointed all the reasons why Augustus wanted Ovid exiled. The poet attributed his punishment to “carmen et error”—“a poem and an error.” Most historians agree the “poem” was the Ars amatoria, whose rakish indifference to social norms was at odds with the new imperial morality Augustus was promoting. As chief priest, the emperor was guardian of laws and customs (curator legum et morum) and was eager to restore traditional social norms.
In A.D. 8, the year of Ovid’s banishment, however, the Ars amatoria was more than five years old. Historians largely agree that while the poem might have served as extra evidence of Ovid’s undesirability in the eyes of Augustus, it was a secondary cause for his banishment. The real reason for Ovid’s exile was the “error,” references to which are scattered through Ovid’s later writing. Scanning these texts for clues, scholars have found several hints as to what the “error” might have been. The poet never spells it out, but states that it was unpremeditated, the result of a foolish mistake.
Mysteries of exile
Numerous hypotheses have been put forward. American scholar John C. Thibault’s 1964 book, The Mystery of Ovid’s Exile, studies medieval writings that speculate on Ovid’s error. Among the most dramatic are that Ovid knew of an incestuous affair between Augustus and his daughter Julia, or that Ovid had a dalliance with Livia, the emperor’s wife.
The 20th-century British Ovid scholar Peter Green proposes that the error was not moral, but political. A very delicate theme at the time was the question of Augustus’ succession. If Ovid had gossiped about certain political factions, his indiscretions (combined with the salaciousness of his earlier erotic poetry) could have been enough to seal his fate. | <urn:uuid:21cfbe45-638f-4856-8083-1c34e81a62d7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2019/11-12/exiled-roman-poet-ovid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00128.warc.gz | en | 0.983645 | 1,959 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.438136368989944... | 2 | Publius Ovidius Naso, the poet better known today as Ovid, tried to write his own epitaph before his death in A.D. 17. In a series of poems composed near the end of his life, he asked for these lines to mark his final resting place:
I who lie here was a writer
Of tales of tender love
Naso the poet, done in by my
You who pass by, should you be
A lover, may you
Trouble yourself to say that Naso’s
May rest softly.
Recognized today for the Metamorphoses, his dazzling reworking of Greek and Latin myths, Ovid was known during his time for vibrant, controversial love poetry, including the Amores (The Loves) and the Ars amatoria (The Art of Love). These frank poetic reflections on Roman sexual customs brought him fame but also played a role in his downfall. (Learn about the responsibilities that came with coveted Roman citizenship.)
After publishing his magnum opus, Ovid fell out of imperial favor, was forced to leave Rome, and exiled to Tomis, a city on the Black Sea. It was here, on the fringes of the empire, that Ovid pined for his beloved Rome and begged to return. (This is why Black Sea shipwrecks are such unique finds.)
By Ovid’s own account, the exile was punishment for an “error” that enraged the emperor Augustus. Ovid considered himself lucky that he escaped execution for the offense but never recorded any specific details about what he did wrong. Scholars have puzzled over the cause of the exile for centuries, which remains unsolved to this day.
Ovid was born in 43 B.C. in Sulmo (now Sulmona) 100 miles east of Rome. His letters and the Tristia (Lamentations), a five-book collection of poems written in exile, have given historians a wealth of autobiographical details.
He describes himself as a natural poet from his youth: “Poetry in meter comes unbidden to me.” After a brief stint traveling and then studying in Athens, he turned his back on a political career, and went instead to Rome to become a poet. He fell in love with the city, and it embraced his poetry.
Completed in 16 B.C., Ovid’s first major work was the Amores, a collection of poems charting a love affair with a young woman called Corinna. In this first book of poems, Ovid employed an urbane, ironic voice. A famous poem describing a hot summer’s afternoon of lovemaking ends with the lines:
Fill in the rest for yourselves!
Tired at last, we lay sleeping.
May my siestas often turn out that way.
Some have theorized that Corinna had a real-life corollary: Fifth-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris identified her as Julia the Elder, Augustus’ daughter, and posited that Ovid enjoyed a dalliance with her. Sidonius credited that scandalous relationship for Ovid’s exile, but later historians have debunked this theory. Most commentators regard Corinna as a fictional character.
Following this debut, Ovid notched up one success after another. His Heroides (Heroines) was a series of dramatic monologues centering on mythological women, including Dido, Medea, and Ariadne, who lament their mistreatment by their lovers.
A three-part work, Ars amatoria, completed around A.D. 2 was a sensation. The first two parts are a “how-to” guide for men on seducing women and keeping their love. Ovid counsels that absence makes the heart grow fonder and that asking a woman’s age is not a recipe for seduction. Part three is aimed at women and includes the suggestion that making a lover jealous isn’t such a bad idea. (Rome's Vestal Virgins were awarded privileges unavailable to other Roman women.)
Ovid had struck publishing gold. His handbook gave his young audience practical tips under the guise of a formal didactic work. But despite its success, Ovid craved a more learned readership.
Ovid’s career started when Roman literary circles were devoted to two figures: Virgil and Horace. Virgil was writing the Aeneid, the national epic about Aeneas the Trojan prince and mythological founder of Rome, while Horace was feted for his witty Satires. These two men would embody the flowering of Roman letters under Augustus.
Already in his 40s when he completed Ars amatoria, Ovid was neither fabulously wealthy nor well connected. He had a loyal patron, but the literary set he associated with were minor writers compared to giants like Virgil and Horace.
Inspired to write a great work like the Aeneid, Ovid wrote the Metamorphoses. “My purpose is to tell of bodies which have been transformed,” he wrote in his opening lines. He informed the readers that the theme of transformation will influence the very form of his long poem, which will “spin an unbroken thread of verse from the earliest beginnings of my world down to my own times.”
Extremely successful in its own time, the work became one of the most influential works of Western literature, inspiring numerous works of art, music, and drama. Love, lust, grief, terror, and divine punishment trigger a series of startling changes in Ovid’s retelling of 250 stories of gods and mortals.
Sailors become dolphins. The sculptor Pygmalion’s kiss changes a statue into a young woman. For having spied the goddess Diana as she bathed, the hunter Actaeon is changed into a stag to be ripped apart by his hounds. In one of the Metamorphoses’ most famous passages, Daphne flees Apollo’s lustful advances and changes into a laurel tree: “Her hair grew into leaves, her arms into branches, and her feet that were lately so swift, were held by sluggish roots, while her face became the treetop. Nothing of her was left, except her shining loveliness.” (Ovid retold the classic tale of Theseus and the Minotaur in his Metamorphoses')
By age 50 Ovid had reached the peak of his popularity. His groundbreaking style had established him as one of the most popular poets in Rome. But it was just as his fortunes were riding high that disaster broke. In A.D. 8, as Ovid was garnering praise for the Metamorphoses, the emperor Augustus decided to send him into exile. (Who were Rome's 'Five Good Emperors'?)
Ovid lived the rest of his years in Tomis. His petitions to the emperor were all in vain. After Augustus’ death in A.D. 14, Ovid tried to get his successor Tiberius to commute his sentence, but the new emperor was impervious to the continued pleas of both the poet and his wife Fabia. The Roman love poet died in A.D. 17, far from the city where he had made his name, and which he had loved so dearly.
Scholars still have not pinpointed all the reasons why Augustus wanted Ovid exiled. The poet attributed his punishment to “carmen et error”—“a poem and an error.” Most historians agree the “poem” was the Ars amatoria, whose rakish indifference to social norms was at odds with the new imperial morality Augustus was promoting. As chief priest, the emperor was guardian of laws and customs (curator legum et morum) and was eager to restore traditional social norms.
In A.D. 8, the year of Ovid’s banishment, however, the Ars amatoria was more than five years old. Historians largely agree that while the poem might have served as extra evidence of Ovid’s undesirability in the eyes of Augustus, it was a secondary cause for his banishment. The real reason for Ovid’s exile was the “error,” references to which are scattered through Ovid’s later writing. Scanning these texts for clues, scholars have found several hints as to what the “error” might have been. The poet never spells it out, but states that it was unpremeditated, the result of a foolish mistake.
Mysteries of exile
Numerous hypotheses have been put forward. American scholar John C. Thibault’s 1964 book, The Mystery of Ovid’s Exile, studies medieval writings that speculate on Ovid’s error. Among the most dramatic are that Ovid knew of an incestuous affair between Augustus and his daughter Julia, or that Ovid had a dalliance with Livia, the emperor’s wife.
The 20th-century British Ovid scholar Peter Green proposes that the error was not moral, but political. A very delicate theme at the time was the question of Augustus’ succession. If Ovid had gossiped about certain political factions, his indiscretions (combined with the salaciousness of his earlier erotic poetry) could have been enough to seal his fate. | 1,895 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our nation had many great people who have changed our nation’s fate throughout the history. These people may not be remembered but have changed our nation’s direction. People like John F. Kennedy, Abraham Lincoln, John Adams, George Washington, and etc. were remembered. But a person like John Hancock, about 1/300 of the population of Unites States of America knows about him. Even though he is not remembered, John Hancock is one of the most extraordinary people who have change the fate of our nation.
John Hancock was born on January 23, 1727 in Braintree, Mass. He is the son of John Hancock and Mary Hawke. John Hancock (father) was a Harvard graduate and minister. They lived in a part of town which eventually became the
…show more content…
The custom officers did not inspect the ship until the next morning, when they found the ship was less than one-quarter full. The agents claimed that no wine had been unloaded during the night. The next month, while the warship HMS Romney was in port, one of the custom officers now said that he had been forcibly held on the Liberty and was threatened with death if he told about it. The government seized the ship. A mob gathered at the homes of the custom officers, smashing their windows and threatening to attack the custom officers if they returned. Hancock was able to obtain the release of the Liberty until the case came up in court. Otis and Adams accused Hancock of capitulating to the government, in response to which Hancock canceled his deal to recover the ship. In August, the charges against Hancock were dropped, but his ship was ordered forfeited. In November, after British troops had arrived, Hancock was again arrested for smuggling on the Liberty. After three months, with no evidence or eyewitness testimony to his guilt being presented, he was acquitted. In February 1769, the events associated with the Liberty caused Parliament to order the Massachusetts Governor to apply the Treasons Act 1534, ordering those suspected of treason to be brought to England. The ship was armed and roamed the coast looking for smugglers. | <urn:uuid:58673ef1-ae96-4050-8ccf-7d6e89507161> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/John-Hancock/F3BPFH35J | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00559.warc.gz | en | 0.988312 | 429 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.2261245548725... | 1 | Our nation had many great people who have changed our nation’s fate throughout the history. These people may not be remembered but have changed our nation’s direction. People like John F. Kennedy, Abraham Lincoln, John Adams, George Washington, and etc. were remembered. But a person like John Hancock, about 1/300 of the population of Unites States of America knows about him. Even though he is not remembered, John Hancock is one of the most extraordinary people who have change the fate of our nation.
John Hancock was born on January 23, 1727 in Braintree, Mass. He is the son of John Hancock and Mary Hawke. John Hancock (father) was a Harvard graduate and minister. They lived in a part of town which eventually became the
…show more content…
The custom officers did not inspect the ship until the next morning, when they found the ship was less than one-quarter full. The agents claimed that no wine had been unloaded during the night. The next month, while the warship HMS Romney was in port, one of the custom officers now said that he had been forcibly held on the Liberty and was threatened with death if he told about it. The government seized the ship. A mob gathered at the homes of the custom officers, smashing their windows and threatening to attack the custom officers if they returned. Hancock was able to obtain the release of the Liberty until the case came up in court. Otis and Adams accused Hancock of capitulating to the government, in response to which Hancock canceled his deal to recover the ship. In August, the charges against Hancock were dropped, but his ship was ordered forfeited. In November, after British troops had arrived, Hancock was again arrested for smuggling on the Liberty. After three months, with no evidence or eyewitness testimony to his guilt being presented, he was acquitted. In February 1769, the events associated with the Liberty caused Parliament to order the Massachusetts Governor to apply the Treasons Act 1534, ordering those suspected of treason to be brought to England. The ship was armed and roamed the coast looking for smugglers. | 436 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The world of art changed during the 1500s when Michelangelo was alive. The intricate designs of human beauty and accomplishment replaced the popular medieval, gothic styles. He showed the true potential of art and the full creativity of the human brain when let free. He left a massive legacy and created a ton of art work that will keep his name known for all time. Michelangelo was the only one said to equal Leonardo Da Vinci, he brought his own style and technique such as marble sculpture, oil paint, and frescos into the public eye and changed the renaissance with his originality. Unlike other artists Michelangelo’s work was appreciated in his time. His way and style and masterpieces such as the Sistine Chapel, the David and Pieta, and his most famous the Creation of Adam altered the artist’s method for centuries, and still affect new art today.
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarrtoti Simoni was born on March 6, 1475, and was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet. His father was the judicial administrator for a small town in Caprese. In 1481 Michelangelo’s mother died when he was six years old, and because of his father’s time consuming job Michelangelo lived with a cutter and his wife and family. He spent many years with the family and left, thanking the family for giving him a loving home and helping him grow to be a better person and not fall apart. He learned to work marble with a chisel and hammer during the time he spent with the family. Later he was sent to study grammar by his father at the humanist Francesco da Urbino, but showed no interest in the school itself, instead putting all his attention on copying the paintings at the church and looking for other artists to talk to and learn more from. When Michelangelo was still young at only thirteen his father noticed his overwhelming talent in the art field and sent him off to be an apprentice to the artist Dominico Ghirlandaio. Later, his skills surpassed even the teacher and Michelangelo was invited to the powerful Medici family’s Humanist Academy; there he was able to study sculpture under Bertoldo di Giovanni. A little fun fact while under the instruction of Giovanni, Michelangelo was punched in the nose by a student named Pietro Torrigiano, which is why explains the disfigurement of his face in all of his portraits. He was so talented that his views and thoughts inspired philosophers such as Ficino, Mirandola, and Poliziano in their writings. While Michelangelo was there he created the Sculpture Battle of the Centaurs, which was commissioned by the well know Lorenzo de Medici. In 1492 Lorenzo de Medici dies and Michelangelo leaves the Medici court and returns to his fathers place. About a few months later after he gets to his fathers house he carved a wooden crucifix for the Florentine church of Santo Spirito, which allowed him some studies of anatomy on the churches hospital corpses. He used the Corpses to learn more about the human body to better draw and create and make his art look more lifelike. He would look at the nerves and insides of the bodies to see how the body works and moves to bring life to his sculptures.
In 1494, the Medici were exiled from Florence when it was eventually driven to chaos, causing economic destruction and made the city extremely unstable; so Michelangelo ran to Bologna to escape the political uprising. After a while when everything settled he returned to Florence but received no commissions but then returned to working for the Medici family. While in Florence for six months he created small sculptures: St. John the Baptist and a sleeping Cupid. The Roman Cardinal was so impressed with his work on these that he invited Michelangelo to Rome. Age Twenty-one he arrives to Rome, where most of his most famous artworks are made: Pieta was done in 1499, the David in 1501-1504, and my favorite the Sistine Chapel in 1512. Some time later the Medici came back to ask him to create a funerary chapel in the Basilica of San Lorenzo. The task took most of the 1520s-1530s. His last piece in Rome was the fresco of The Final Judgment, which takes up the entire wall in the back of the Sistine chapel.
Michelangelo was always followed by Censorship, in fact he was referred to as “inventor of obscenities”. There was a campaign that happened during the Counter-Reformation called the fig-leaf that had a goal to cover up all private areas in renaissance artist, starting with Michelangelo’s works. He returned to Florence once it was more peaceful and stable, and lived happily until he died in 1564.
Just like most great artists, Michelangelo’s work was not thought highly of back in the 1500s as it is in todays society. Michelangelo would always get requested to do sculptures and paintings, some as big as the David, and the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. He had a unique talent where he could see what he wanted in the medium whether it was a slab of marble, or blank canvas and could expertly recreate whatever he saw, “I saw the angel in the marble and carved until I set him free”, thats how highly he thought of sculpturing. although he is famous for many of his drawings his biggest accomplishment was his amazing talent for sculpting life like figures with marble, no one else had his level of expertise, he would say “every block of stone has a statue inside it and it is the task of the sculptor to discover it”. Before his work, marble was used for simple and small pieces, but after he finished giant projects like the David, he caused the new wave of marble sculpting to begin to open to the art community.
Throughout Michelangelo’s life, the wealthy and powerful Medici family ruled Florence, and he stayed with them on many different occasions. During his life Florence’s stability was moving quickly up and down, but then evened out later near the very end of his life. Michelangelo revolutionized the world with his artistic techniques that changed the artist’s methods for centuries, and still how art is made today. His views and ideals showed in his artworks and he will always be well known as one of the most influential artists the world has ever known rivaling Leonardo Da Vinci. He had too many artworks too name but just a few that really stuck out and made him know across the world:
The first and most famous was his Sistine chapel, an entire building showing the creativity and full potential of his talents. It is located in the Apostolic Palace, which is also the official residence of the pope in Vatican City. Known as Cappella Magna, it took its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who restored it between 1477 and 1480. But the fame of it lies in the frescos that are inside, like the Sistine Chapel ceiling, The Last Judgement by Michelangelo himself. During Sixtus IV reign, a team of Renaissance painters which had Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Cosimo Rosselli was hired to create a series of frescos depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ. Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel’s ceiling, one of the most well know artworks to change the course of western art and is known as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilizations. They told the greatest sculptor to paint, Michelangelo suffered much in the chapel, he did not enjoy painting that much and thought of it as a lower form of art yet could not disobey a demand from the pope himself. There was about eleven thousand square feet and he was not a painter. The ceiling was composed of many artworks the main one being the Creation of Adam Which rivals the Mona Lisa in terms of how iconic it is. A fun fact about it during his time working on the ceiling he was allowed to bring a team of friends who were fresco painters to help him in Rome to show him their techniques. His friends worked more like employees than like artists and they would give themselves breaks frequently and goofed off whenever they would get the chance, annoyed of them horsing around too much, he tells them to leave and that he is tired of them and that he is sorry for asking them to come and that he should have trusted in himself and not expected to learn from others. He sent them back to Florence and told them he will just create his own methods. After being done with about a third for the ceiling he notices several spots of mold which came from the roman lime his friends used which was white in color and does not dry quickly, and when mixed with pozzolana, which is brownish and forms a dark mixture which is very watery before it sets, thus rendering his artwork useless. He runs back to the pope to tell him that he told him so that he was not a fresco painter and what has happened and that all his work was ruined. The pope sends him back to the Chapel with an expert named Sangallo, to see whats wrong. Sangallo explains to Michelangelo how to remove the molds and was responsible for encouraging him to continue the work. The reason Michelangelo got into this mess was because of an arch-enemy, an architect named Bramante and the Painter Raphael, Bramante despited Michelangelo for his incredible talents, and after losing his commission to work on the Popes tomb to Michelangelo he wanted to figure out a way to get Michelangelo to fail at something, while Raphael was jealous that Michelangelo was getting all the attention that he thought he deserved and knew that he was not known for painting, and that this would be a great way to show that Michelangelo is not as great as everyone thinks he is. Bramante knew that Michelangelo did not like to paint and originally was commissioned to build sculptures in the Chapel but he and Raphael went to the pope (Julius II) and persuaded him to test and put Michelangelo to his limits and give him a medium to work on that he was unfamiliar with not knowing that it would give rise to the most well known and inspiring artworks of all time.
On the Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, there were many artworks, the most well know rivaling the Mona Lisa was called the Creation of Adam, which is a fresco painting that illustrates the biblical creation story from the book of Genesis where God gives life to Adam, the first man. In this artwork God is represented as an elderly white bearded man covered with a cloak, while Adam is completely nude. God is reaching for Adam, yet their fingers are not touching yet, giving an impression that the giver of life, God himself, is reaching for Adam who has yet to receive it, it shows that they are not on the same level, that Adam is waiting for the energy or power to live. There are many interesting thoughts about this artwork, if you look at the Cloth around God and the twelve figures you can notice that it looks like a brain; this gives an idea to people that either God is Knowledge, all knowing, or that God is a figment of our imagination and he exists because we imagine it so with our brains. It is hard to decide which ideology is right or if Michelangelo even had these thoughts when creating the piece, maybe the brain look alike is just a coincidence. There has also been many ideas about the identities and meanings of the twelve figures around God. According to Walter Pater, and English art critic, which is also now widely accepted, the person protected by God’s left arm represents Eve due to the feminine features and the way she looks at Adam, while the other figures represent the souls of the unborn children of Adam and Eve, also meaning the human race. Another idea that has challenged the first is that the figure behind God is actually supposed to be the Virgin Mary. The Creation of Adam is thought to represent mainly one thing, that God created man in his own image.
The Fall Of Man, a painting with two events taking place, with an enormous tree in the middle with limbs wrapped around it formed from the evil Satan on one side and an angry angel of justice on the other side. The scene shows the temptation of Adam and Eve and their punishment, the fig tree in the middle represents the tree of knowledge. The left side shows Satan offering Adam and Eve an apple that God told them they could do anything they pleased but eat the apple, on the left shows after Adam and Eve eat the apple and are banished from heaven for their disobedience hence their punishment. This piece shows the talent of Michelangelo reaching new heights as you can notice for the first time, the figures occupy the entire foreground and display the use of foreshortening, which also becomes even more prominent in his later drawings.
While there were many more Pieces on the ceiling twenty-five years later after finishing his famous fresco paintings on the ceiling Michelangelo creates The Last Judgment in the Back wall of the Sistine Chapel. This is often stated as one of Michelangelo’s most complex pieces, the incredible art displays God’s final judgement of mankind and was most talked about because of the nudity it showed despite being in a place of God and worship; in fact in 1564, the council of Trent ordered the Mannerist painted Daniele da Volterra to cover up certain parts that were considered too indecent for a church. The Last Judgement is composed of over three hundred figures, with nearly all the males and angels originally shown as nudes. It depicts the second coming of christ as well as the final and eternal Judgement by God on all of humanity. It shows three horizontal layers showing heaven, earth, and hell within a single large space. At the center is christ, shown before the final judgement and following him in rotation are said to be the saints and God’s elect. The most notable are Saint Peter holding the keys of Heaven and Saint Bartholomew with his own skin, which is known to be as a self-portrait of Michelangelo. In the lower center of the wall are the angels of the Apocalypse, who are supposed to be awakening the dead with the long trumpets; on the left of them, the risen get back their bodies as they ascend to heaven, while on the right you can see angels and demons fighting and falling on their way to hell. Below is Hell with a red fiery background where the damned are sent and greeting by Minos for their final judgment before entering hell.
Biagio Da Cesena a Cardinal at the time was mad at Michelangelo for drawing all the nudes in the Chapel and kept criticizing him. He went multiple times to Pope Julius II to get him to force Michelangelo get rid of them all and start over but the pope allowed it and told Michelangelo to do as he pleases with his art. Michelangelo decided to take advance of this and get revenge on Biagio and drew him as Minos. Minos is the Judge of the dead at the very place of judgment at the entrance of hell, so in a way Michelangelo condemns his critic to an eternity in hell to serve as the judge; also there is a serpent circling around Minos and bites his genitals which is an absolute embarrassment for a cardinal.
In the upper center there is a group of seven angels on clouds who are blowing trumpets, while others are holding books that have the names of the damned and the saved in them. On the right is a large figure with two demons pull him down towards hell. The way Michelangelo is able to show all the emotions and the force of terror at this moment in time of the final judgement where there is no time or any opportunities left to fix theirs mistakes. The entire painting is filled with human figures, most of them fully naked, yet showing intense power and great emotional expressions.
Aside from his paintings and most of them being in the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo was also widely popular for his sculptures. His most popular one was David and was created in marble between 1501 and 1504 and of course represents the biblical hero David. While at first there was supposed to be twelve large figures of the old Testament but later in 1500 they consulted many artists one being Leonardo da Vinci for the commission but Michelangelo at age twenty-six was victorious in getting the job. Taking over two years to build and standing at seventeen feet tall, six and a half feet wide; it was originally commissioned to be a series of prophets and then positioned on the roofline on the end of the East side of the Florence Cathedral. Nearing the end of it being completed the Florentine authorities told Michelangelo that there was no way they could put the six ton statue on the roof of the cathedral and was instead put in a public square outside the seat of civic government in Florence and was unveiled on September 8, 1508.
The second most famous sculpture named The Pieta translating to “the pity” was finished in 1499. It was commissioned for the french Cardinal Jean de Bilheres; made for his funeral monument and was the only piece that was signed by Michelangelo himself. The reason for the signing was because he overheard visitors talking about the sculpture and saying that it is the work of another sculptor, Cristoforo Solari. The famous artwork shows the body of Jesus on his mothers lap (Mary) after his crucifixion. It took about two years to complete and was put in the Chapel of Santa Petronilla which was later demolished along with the chapel by than Michelangelo’s arch-enemy Bramante when he was hired to rebuild the basilica.
Finally one of his longest artworks to be completed, The Tomb of Pope Julius II, also the reason for the hatred build from Barmante for losing the commission to Michelangelo. Originally commissioned in 1505 but not completed until 1545, 40 years to complete. Although the project is considered one of Michelangelo’s greatest disappointments of his life, it is still an impressive and massive piece. The pope interrupted the commission several times, for reasons unknown, although some say it was it might have been the funds that had to be diverted for Bramante’s rebuilding of Saint Peters. The original project was supposed to be a freestanding three level structure with about forty large statues. Following the pope’s death in 1513 the project was slowly reduced until in April 1532, a final contract was made to have a simple wall tomb with only about one-third the amount of the figures originally planned.
Michelangelo has many, many more artworks that are just as amazing as the ones mentioned, but there would be too much to talk about. Michelangelo’s artistic techniques changed the way artists think and work for centuries, and still effect how all art is made today. His views and ideas pushed future artists to keep growing and find new ways to create and allow their artworks to be bold. Michelangelo put great detail and work into everything he worked on and will always be one of the greatest and most influential artists the world will ever know. | <urn:uuid:781a92fc-fcd0-4370-9e6d-753e3e8cb03b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tooly.io/michelangelo-as-the-most-influential-artist/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00416.warc.gz | en | 0.986689 | 3,988 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.625029504299163... | 1 | The world of art changed during the 1500s when Michelangelo was alive. The intricate designs of human beauty and accomplishment replaced the popular medieval, gothic styles. He showed the true potential of art and the full creativity of the human brain when let free. He left a massive legacy and created a ton of art work that will keep his name known for all time. Michelangelo was the only one said to equal Leonardo Da Vinci, he brought his own style and technique such as marble sculpture, oil paint, and frescos into the public eye and changed the renaissance with his originality. Unlike other artists Michelangelo’s work was appreciated in his time. His way and style and masterpieces such as the Sistine Chapel, the David and Pieta, and his most famous the Creation of Adam altered the artist’s method for centuries, and still affect new art today.
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarrtoti Simoni was born on March 6, 1475, and was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet. His father was the judicial administrator for a small town in Caprese. In 1481 Michelangelo’s mother died when he was six years old, and because of his father’s time consuming job Michelangelo lived with a cutter and his wife and family. He spent many years with the family and left, thanking the family for giving him a loving home and helping him grow to be a better person and not fall apart. He learned to work marble with a chisel and hammer during the time he spent with the family. Later he was sent to study grammar by his father at the humanist Francesco da Urbino, but showed no interest in the school itself, instead putting all his attention on copying the paintings at the church and looking for other artists to talk to and learn more from. When Michelangelo was still young at only thirteen his father noticed his overwhelming talent in the art field and sent him off to be an apprentice to the artist Dominico Ghirlandaio. Later, his skills surpassed even the teacher and Michelangelo was invited to the powerful Medici family’s Humanist Academy; there he was able to study sculpture under Bertoldo di Giovanni. A little fun fact while under the instruction of Giovanni, Michelangelo was punched in the nose by a student named Pietro Torrigiano, which is why explains the disfigurement of his face in all of his portraits. He was so talented that his views and thoughts inspired philosophers such as Ficino, Mirandola, and Poliziano in their writings. While Michelangelo was there he created the Sculpture Battle of the Centaurs, which was commissioned by the well know Lorenzo de Medici. In 1492 Lorenzo de Medici dies and Michelangelo leaves the Medici court and returns to his fathers place. About a few months later after he gets to his fathers house he carved a wooden crucifix for the Florentine church of Santo Spirito, which allowed him some studies of anatomy on the churches hospital corpses. He used the Corpses to learn more about the human body to better draw and create and make his art look more lifelike. He would look at the nerves and insides of the bodies to see how the body works and moves to bring life to his sculptures.
In 1494, the Medici were exiled from Florence when it was eventually driven to chaos, causing economic destruction and made the city extremely unstable; so Michelangelo ran to Bologna to escape the political uprising. After a while when everything settled he returned to Florence but received no commissions but then returned to working for the Medici family. While in Florence for six months he created small sculptures: St. John the Baptist and a sleeping Cupid. The Roman Cardinal was so impressed with his work on these that he invited Michelangelo to Rome. Age Twenty-one he arrives to Rome, where most of his most famous artworks are made: Pieta was done in 1499, the David in 1501-1504, and my favorite the Sistine Chapel in 1512. Some time later the Medici came back to ask him to create a funerary chapel in the Basilica of San Lorenzo. The task took most of the 1520s-1530s. His last piece in Rome was the fresco of The Final Judgment, which takes up the entire wall in the back of the Sistine chapel.
Michelangelo was always followed by Censorship, in fact he was referred to as “inventor of obscenities”. There was a campaign that happened during the Counter-Reformation called the fig-leaf that had a goal to cover up all private areas in renaissance artist, starting with Michelangelo’s works. He returned to Florence once it was more peaceful and stable, and lived happily until he died in 1564.
Just like most great artists, Michelangelo’s work was not thought highly of back in the 1500s as it is in todays society. Michelangelo would always get requested to do sculptures and paintings, some as big as the David, and the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. He had a unique talent where he could see what he wanted in the medium whether it was a slab of marble, or blank canvas and could expertly recreate whatever he saw, “I saw the angel in the marble and carved until I set him free”, thats how highly he thought of sculpturing. although he is famous for many of his drawings his biggest accomplishment was his amazing talent for sculpting life like figures with marble, no one else had his level of expertise, he would say “every block of stone has a statue inside it and it is the task of the sculptor to discover it”. Before his work, marble was used for simple and small pieces, but after he finished giant projects like the David, he caused the new wave of marble sculpting to begin to open to the art community.
Throughout Michelangelo’s life, the wealthy and powerful Medici family ruled Florence, and he stayed with them on many different occasions. During his life Florence’s stability was moving quickly up and down, but then evened out later near the very end of his life. Michelangelo revolutionized the world with his artistic techniques that changed the artist’s methods for centuries, and still how art is made today. His views and ideals showed in his artworks and he will always be well known as one of the most influential artists the world has ever known rivaling Leonardo Da Vinci. He had too many artworks too name but just a few that really stuck out and made him know across the world:
The first and most famous was his Sistine chapel, an entire building showing the creativity and full potential of his talents. It is located in the Apostolic Palace, which is also the official residence of the pope in Vatican City. Known as Cappella Magna, it took its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who restored it between 1477 and 1480. But the fame of it lies in the frescos that are inside, like the Sistine Chapel ceiling, The Last Judgement by Michelangelo himself. During Sixtus IV reign, a team of Renaissance painters which had Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Cosimo Rosselli was hired to create a series of frescos depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ. Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel’s ceiling, one of the most well know artworks to change the course of western art and is known as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilizations. They told the greatest sculptor to paint, Michelangelo suffered much in the chapel, he did not enjoy painting that much and thought of it as a lower form of art yet could not disobey a demand from the pope himself. There was about eleven thousand square feet and he was not a painter. The ceiling was composed of many artworks the main one being the Creation of Adam Which rivals the Mona Lisa in terms of how iconic it is. A fun fact about it during his time working on the ceiling he was allowed to bring a team of friends who were fresco painters to help him in Rome to show him their techniques. His friends worked more like employees than like artists and they would give themselves breaks frequently and goofed off whenever they would get the chance, annoyed of them horsing around too much, he tells them to leave and that he is tired of them and that he is sorry for asking them to come and that he should have trusted in himself and not expected to learn from others. He sent them back to Florence and told them he will just create his own methods. After being done with about a third for the ceiling he notices several spots of mold which came from the roman lime his friends used which was white in color and does not dry quickly, and when mixed with pozzolana, which is brownish and forms a dark mixture which is very watery before it sets, thus rendering his artwork useless. He runs back to the pope to tell him that he told him so that he was not a fresco painter and what has happened and that all his work was ruined. The pope sends him back to the Chapel with an expert named Sangallo, to see whats wrong. Sangallo explains to Michelangelo how to remove the molds and was responsible for encouraging him to continue the work. The reason Michelangelo got into this mess was because of an arch-enemy, an architect named Bramante and the Painter Raphael, Bramante despited Michelangelo for his incredible talents, and after losing his commission to work on the Popes tomb to Michelangelo he wanted to figure out a way to get Michelangelo to fail at something, while Raphael was jealous that Michelangelo was getting all the attention that he thought he deserved and knew that he was not known for painting, and that this would be a great way to show that Michelangelo is not as great as everyone thinks he is. Bramante knew that Michelangelo did not like to paint and originally was commissioned to build sculptures in the Chapel but he and Raphael went to the pope (Julius II) and persuaded him to test and put Michelangelo to his limits and give him a medium to work on that he was unfamiliar with not knowing that it would give rise to the most well known and inspiring artworks of all time.
On the Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, there were many artworks, the most well know rivaling the Mona Lisa was called the Creation of Adam, which is a fresco painting that illustrates the biblical creation story from the book of Genesis where God gives life to Adam, the first man. In this artwork God is represented as an elderly white bearded man covered with a cloak, while Adam is completely nude. God is reaching for Adam, yet their fingers are not touching yet, giving an impression that the giver of life, God himself, is reaching for Adam who has yet to receive it, it shows that they are not on the same level, that Adam is waiting for the energy or power to live. There are many interesting thoughts about this artwork, if you look at the Cloth around God and the twelve figures you can notice that it looks like a brain; this gives an idea to people that either God is Knowledge, all knowing, or that God is a figment of our imagination and he exists because we imagine it so with our brains. It is hard to decide which ideology is right or if Michelangelo even had these thoughts when creating the piece, maybe the brain look alike is just a coincidence. There has also been many ideas about the identities and meanings of the twelve figures around God. According to Walter Pater, and English art critic, which is also now widely accepted, the person protected by God’s left arm represents Eve due to the feminine features and the way she looks at Adam, while the other figures represent the souls of the unborn children of Adam and Eve, also meaning the human race. Another idea that has challenged the first is that the figure behind God is actually supposed to be the Virgin Mary. The Creation of Adam is thought to represent mainly one thing, that God created man in his own image.
The Fall Of Man, a painting with two events taking place, with an enormous tree in the middle with limbs wrapped around it formed from the evil Satan on one side and an angry angel of justice on the other side. The scene shows the temptation of Adam and Eve and their punishment, the fig tree in the middle represents the tree of knowledge. The left side shows Satan offering Adam and Eve an apple that God told them they could do anything they pleased but eat the apple, on the left shows after Adam and Eve eat the apple and are banished from heaven for their disobedience hence their punishment. This piece shows the talent of Michelangelo reaching new heights as you can notice for the first time, the figures occupy the entire foreground and display the use of foreshortening, which also becomes even more prominent in his later drawings.
While there were many more Pieces on the ceiling twenty-five years later after finishing his famous fresco paintings on the ceiling Michelangelo creates The Last Judgment in the Back wall of the Sistine Chapel. This is often stated as one of Michelangelo’s most complex pieces, the incredible art displays God’s final judgement of mankind and was most talked about because of the nudity it showed despite being in a place of God and worship; in fact in 1564, the council of Trent ordered the Mannerist painted Daniele da Volterra to cover up certain parts that were considered too indecent for a church. The Last Judgement is composed of over three hundred figures, with nearly all the males and angels originally shown as nudes. It depicts the second coming of christ as well as the final and eternal Judgement by God on all of humanity. It shows three horizontal layers showing heaven, earth, and hell within a single large space. At the center is christ, shown before the final judgement and following him in rotation are said to be the saints and God’s elect. The most notable are Saint Peter holding the keys of Heaven and Saint Bartholomew with his own skin, which is known to be as a self-portrait of Michelangelo. In the lower center of the wall are the angels of the Apocalypse, who are supposed to be awakening the dead with the long trumpets; on the left of them, the risen get back their bodies as they ascend to heaven, while on the right you can see angels and demons fighting and falling on their way to hell. Below is Hell with a red fiery background where the damned are sent and greeting by Minos for their final judgment before entering hell.
Biagio Da Cesena a Cardinal at the time was mad at Michelangelo for drawing all the nudes in the Chapel and kept criticizing him. He went multiple times to Pope Julius II to get him to force Michelangelo get rid of them all and start over but the pope allowed it and told Michelangelo to do as he pleases with his art. Michelangelo decided to take advance of this and get revenge on Biagio and drew him as Minos. Minos is the Judge of the dead at the very place of judgment at the entrance of hell, so in a way Michelangelo condemns his critic to an eternity in hell to serve as the judge; also there is a serpent circling around Minos and bites his genitals which is an absolute embarrassment for a cardinal.
In the upper center there is a group of seven angels on clouds who are blowing trumpets, while others are holding books that have the names of the damned and the saved in them. On the right is a large figure with two demons pull him down towards hell. The way Michelangelo is able to show all the emotions and the force of terror at this moment in time of the final judgement where there is no time or any opportunities left to fix theirs mistakes. The entire painting is filled with human figures, most of them fully naked, yet showing intense power and great emotional expressions.
Aside from his paintings and most of them being in the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo was also widely popular for his sculptures. His most popular one was David and was created in marble between 1501 and 1504 and of course represents the biblical hero David. While at first there was supposed to be twelve large figures of the old Testament but later in 1500 they consulted many artists one being Leonardo da Vinci for the commission but Michelangelo at age twenty-six was victorious in getting the job. Taking over two years to build and standing at seventeen feet tall, six and a half feet wide; it was originally commissioned to be a series of prophets and then positioned on the roofline on the end of the East side of the Florence Cathedral. Nearing the end of it being completed the Florentine authorities told Michelangelo that there was no way they could put the six ton statue on the roof of the cathedral and was instead put in a public square outside the seat of civic government in Florence and was unveiled on September 8, 1508.
The second most famous sculpture named The Pieta translating to “the pity” was finished in 1499. It was commissioned for the french Cardinal Jean de Bilheres; made for his funeral monument and was the only piece that was signed by Michelangelo himself. The reason for the signing was because he overheard visitors talking about the sculpture and saying that it is the work of another sculptor, Cristoforo Solari. The famous artwork shows the body of Jesus on his mothers lap (Mary) after his crucifixion. It took about two years to complete and was put in the Chapel of Santa Petronilla which was later demolished along with the chapel by than Michelangelo’s arch-enemy Bramante when he was hired to rebuild the basilica.
Finally one of his longest artworks to be completed, The Tomb of Pope Julius II, also the reason for the hatred build from Barmante for losing the commission to Michelangelo. Originally commissioned in 1505 but not completed until 1545, 40 years to complete. Although the project is considered one of Michelangelo’s greatest disappointments of his life, it is still an impressive and massive piece. The pope interrupted the commission several times, for reasons unknown, although some say it was it might have been the funds that had to be diverted for Bramante’s rebuilding of Saint Peters. The original project was supposed to be a freestanding three level structure with about forty large statues. Following the pope’s death in 1513 the project was slowly reduced until in April 1532, a final contract was made to have a simple wall tomb with only about one-third the amount of the figures originally planned.
Michelangelo has many, many more artworks that are just as amazing as the ones mentioned, but there would be too much to talk about. Michelangelo’s artistic techniques changed the way artists think and work for centuries, and still effect how all art is made today. His views and ideas pushed future artists to keep growing and find new ways to create and allow their artworks to be bold. Michelangelo put great detail and work into everything he worked on and will always be one of the greatest and most influential artists the world will ever know. | 3,986 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Children’s books have told stories with heartwarming lessons for decades, but many have failed to include minorities.
In 2018, 77% of characters depicted in children’s books were either white people or animals and objects, whereas only 7% were Asian or Pacific Islander.
Graduate student Angel Trazo said she aims to address this lack of diversity in children’s publishing. In July, Trazo self-published her first children’s book titled “We Are Inspiring: The Stories of 32 Inspirational Asian American Women.” Trazo said the idea of creating a children’s book highlighting notable female Asian American figures came to her as she was exploring a local bookstore in San Jose, California. While looking at the shelves, she came across a book about black women in history, but failed to find a similar book about Asian American women.
“It made me think that people aren’t aware of Asian American women who are alive right now doing amazing things, so that’s definitely a gap that I could fill,” Trazo said.
Some of the women in the book are activists whom she learned about in her first Asian American studies course, she said. One of these figures is Yuri Kochiyama, a Japanese American civil rights activist who fought for reparations for those held in Japanese internment camps during World War II. Another activist Trazo said she included is Helen Zia, a Chinese American journalist who promoted Asian American rights.
However, Trazo said she did not only want to highlight women from the past, so she also included more recent activists, such as Filipina American rapper Ruby Ibarra. The book features Trazo’s illustrations of the 32 women alongside a brief biography describing their backgrounds and contributions to society.
Trazo said the reason she decided to self-publish was to be free of the various restrictions that come with using a publisher for a children’s book, such as specific words she could use or the overall word count. Trazo said she wanted to use more justice-oriented words, such as “incarceration camps” rather than “Japanese internment camps,” which she may not have been able to do with a publisher.
“I also wanted to have the ability to put in biographies of people who I thought were less known, and I didn’t want a publisher to say those people aren’t important,” Trazo said.
Katie Quan, a friend of Trazo who artistically inspired her, said the book selling out on Amazon sheds a positive light on self-publishers as a whole. Most writers, she said, tend to assume someone must publish their book for them. However, being able to self-promote and connect with people through self-publishing was an important part of Trazo’s goal to create more Asian American representation in children’s literature.
“You’re the one who creates everything, distributes everything and promotes everything versus other publishers who go through a lot of channels and often times want to see how much they can monetize the book,” Quan said. “People who self-publish do it because they really are passionate about it and want to see it grow.”
Inspired by Trazo’s decision to create and self-publish a book centered on Asian Americans, Asian American studies lecturer Lily Anne Welty Tamai invited Trazo to speak about the book to her class. She said she chose to invite her to speak because she wanted to show her students that activism among Asian American women does not only exist in the past, but is still being carried out by women like Trazo.
Tamai said it is meaningful to make a book that highlights strong female Asian American figures for children, especially because representation can empower young children. Tamai said that seeing families eating with chopsticks or shopping at an Asian grocery store allows children to feel legitimately represented.
Reflecting on the book selling out on Amazon, Tamai said the book’s success could be compared to the Asian American representation in 2018, specifically in the movie “Crazy Rich Asians.” She said Asian Americans worldwide were extremely excited about finally being represented in a large Hollywood movie, but the movie was also relevant to non-Asian people as well.
“Everyone talks about movie, which wasn’t just for Asian Americans,” Tamai said. “There were non-Asians who really enjoyed the movie because it’s a story about the human condition, and I think that is what resonates with everybody.”
When Trazo saw her book’s success, she said she realized how much of a need there was for a book about notable Asian American women. She said one of the largest obstacles she faced during the publishing process was external doubts from people who questioned whether there was even a demand for the type of book she was making. However, when the book sold out on Amazon, Trazo said she proved that there is indeed a market for a book centered on female Asian Americans.
“I just hope that children and people who aren’t children will be able to take away a story that inspires them or become more interested in studying nonwhite historical figures,” Trazo said. “To people who aren’t Asian American, I hope the stories are inspiring to them.” | <urn:uuid:0790d408-dc0f-4fcc-88b3-ebdcda5d448a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dailybruin.com/2020/01/08/student-self-publishes-childrens-book-to-broaden-asian-american-representation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.981523 | 1,152 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.47136059403419495... | 2 | Children’s books have told stories with heartwarming lessons for decades, but many have failed to include minorities.
In 2018, 77% of characters depicted in children’s books were either white people or animals and objects, whereas only 7% were Asian or Pacific Islander.
Graduate student Angel Trazo said she aims to address this lack of diversity in children’s publishing. In July, Trazo self-published her first children’s book titled “We Are Inspiring: The Stories of 32 Inspirational Asian American Women.” Trazo said the idea of creating a children’s book highlighting notable female Asian American figures came to her as she was exploring a local bookstore in San Jose, California. While looking at the shelves, she came across a book about black women in history, but failed to find a similar book about Asian American women.
“It made me think that people aren’t aware of Asian American women who are alive right now doing amazing things, so that’s definitely a gap that I could fill,” Trazo said.
Some of the women in the book are activists whom she learned about in her first Asian American studies course, she said. One of these figures is Yuri Kochiyama, a Japanese American civil rights activist who fought for reparations for those held in Japanese internment camps during World War II. Another activist Trazo said she included is Helen Zia, a Chinese American journalist who promoted Asian American rights.
However, Trazo said she did not only want to highlight women from the past, so she also included more recent activists, such as Filipina American rapper Ruby Ibarra. The book features Trazo’s illustrations of the 32 women alongside a brief biography describing their backgrounds and contributions to society.
Trazo said the reason she decided to self-publish was to be free of the various restrictions that come with using a publisher for a children’s book, such as specific words she could use or the overall word count. Trazo said she wanted to use more justice-oriented words, such as “incarceration camps” rather than “Japanese internment camps,” which she may not have been able to do with a publisher.
“I also wanted to have the ability to put in biographies of people who I thought were less known, and I didn’t want a publisher to say those people aren’t important,” Trazo said.
Katie Quan, a friend of Trazo who artistically inspired her, said the book selling out on Amazon sheds a positive light on self-publishers as a whole. Most writers, she said, tend to assume someone must publish their book for them. However, being able to self-promote and connect with people through self-publishing was an important part of Trazo’s goal to create more Asian American representation in children’s literature.
“You’re the one who creates everything, distributes everything and promotes everything versus other publishers who go through a lot of channels and often times want to see how much they can monetize the book,” Quan said. “People who self-publish do it because they really are passionate about it and want to see it grow.”
Inspired by Trazo’s decision to create and self-publish a book centered on Asian Americans, Asian American studies lecturer Lily Anne Welty Tamai invited Trazo to speak about the book to her class. She said she chose to invite her to speak because she wanted to show her students that activism among Asian American women does not only exist in the past, but is still being carried out by women like Trazo.
Tamai said it is meaningful to make a book that highlights strong female Asian American figures for children, especially because representation can empower young children. Tamai said that seeing families eating with chopsticks or shopping at an Asian grocery store allows children to feel legitimately represented.
Reflecting on the book selling out on Amazon, Tamai said the book’s success could be compared to the Asian American representation in 2018, specifically in the movie “Crazy Rich Asians.” She said Asian Americans worldwide were extremely excited about finally being represented in a large Hollywood movie, but the movie was also relevant to non-Asian people as well.
“Everyone talks about movie, which wasn’t just for Asian Americans,” Tamai said. “There were non-Asians who really enjoyed the movie because it’s a story about the human condition, and I think that is what resonates with everybody.”
When Trazo saw her book’s success, she said she realized how much of a need there was for a book about notable Asian American women. She said one of the largest obstacles she faced during the publishing process was external doubts from people who questioned whether there was even a demand for the type of book she was making. However, when the book sold out on Amazon, Trazo said she proved that there is indeed a market for a book centered on female Asian Americans.
“I just hope that children and people who aren’t children will be able to take away a story that inspires them or become more interested in studying nonwhite historical figures,” Trazo said. “To people who aren’t Asian American, I hope the stories are inspiring to them.” | 1,055 | ENGLISH | 1 |
NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 2 - April 1944
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Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 1 April
Anne mentions the gradual progress of her friendship with Peter in the previous entry in her diary. She writes that they had grown close enough to discuss personal topics without feeling the need to keep their thoughts in check. This she sees as an improvement in her life and as a sign that God is still by her side. In this entry, however, she talks about her desire for a further progress in their relation. She has had a dream long ago and she dearly wishes for this dream to come true. She longs for a kiss which she says is 'so long in coming'. Peter, however, shows no signs which may prompt Anne to believe that he too is looking for something out of their relation apart from mere friendship. She wonders whether he too longs for a kiss and is too shy to acknowledge it and his love for her. She also wonders why he wants to be in her company so often and yet does not say anything to her. She is forced to ponder over these emotions and cry her heart out all alone in her room.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 11 April
On Sunday evening, Peter and Anne had taken a few divan cushions, one of which belonged to Dussel, to the front attic. While they were sitting there, Mr van Dann called out to them to inquire if they had Dussel's cushion. The cushion they took was used by him as a pillow. He was greatly annoyed with them for using his cushion. A great commotion and confusion followed this discovery. He made a lot of fuss complaining that it might be infested with fleas from the cat. He showed such love for the cushion that no one could understand it. Anne and Peter decided to take revenge for making such a huge fuss over such a small matter. They added two hard brushes in his bed and had a good laugh about it later. This brought the incident of the missing cushion to an end.
The phrase 'a blind' used by Anne means an excuse designed to disguise the truth. In this case, it must have been 'a blind' invented by the men to warn the others of an approaching danger without raising an alarm. Anne called Peter's request for help with an English sentence a blind. As soon as Peter warned the others, all the men were down in a flash and the women remained upstairs. The women talked for a while and then they heard a bang. The bang was followed by a quietness which lasted till quarter to ten. Everyone was quiet, pale in the face, waiting for the men to return. They had questions running in their minds, but no one to ask them to. At ten, they heard footsteps on the stairs and saw Mr Frank and Mr van Daan enter. In quick words, Mr van Daan told the women to turn out the lights and creep upstairs as they were expecting the police to be in the house. Anne noted that the faces of the men were also pale. The women had many questions, but there was no time to get answers. They quickly went up, turned out the lights and hid there in silence.
Anne writes that there was no time to be frightened. All of them had enough experience of the war to know that when instructions to turn off the lights and hide in the room above had come, they all had to do just that without wasting time. They had to take quick steps to hide from external threats. They grabbed everything they could and headed upstairs. The men left the women in the room above and returned down to face the danger before them. When the men had first seen the burglars trying to enlarge the hole in the door of the warehouse, van Daan, out of his quick thinking, cried out, "Police!" The alarm he raised scared the burglars and thus prevented their discovery. Once the burglars had fled, the 'Home Guards' tried to repair the damage. They put up a plank to cover the hole from being discovered by the police. However, someone kicked the plank hard from the outside and sent it flying. Although this behaviour agitated the men, their chief concern was to camouflage their hiding. Once again, they tried to put up the plank, but a married couple passing by noticed the movement and mistook them for burglars. The men had no choice but to pretend to be burglars and destroy the office as they knew that the police would be there soon. Thus, their attempts at concealing their hideout were hindered and their lives were endangered.
The break-in happened on the night of Easter Sunday at half past nine. While the men were busy trying to figure out how to fix the hole in the door, a light was shone from the outside. This drew their attention. They saw a married couple who assumed that the men were thieves. By the time the men were back inside the secret annex, they estimated that the married couple would have informed the police about the burglary they witnessed. They knew that no one would be at work on Easter Monday. This meant that the earliest they could expect the police was on Tuesday morning. If someone was to look into the place anytime before Tuesday, it had to look deserted. So, everyone remained hidden in the upstairs room.
All of them sat in pitch darkness in the room because Mrs van Daan had turned the lamp out without meaning to and they did not know what else to do. The silence was such that they could hear the breathing of everyone in the room. Two of them kept watch at Peter's open window in turns, while the other two joined the women. This continued till quarter past eleven when they heard a bustle and noise downstairs. In no time, they heard footsteps in the house. Everyone was so silent that even their breaths were inaudible now. They listened to the footsteps moving in the house from the private office to the kitchen and then on the stairs. Then they heard the swinging cupboard being rattled. At this point, they all saw death in the face. The only thought in Anne's mind was 'Now we are lost!' The breath of everyone inside stopped, and they waited for their doom, but by some luck, the men outside rattled the door twice and then the footsteps of the men retreated.
The men had to inform Koophius about the previous night's events as they needed help to fix the hold and check the neighbourhood. Doing this was risky as they expected guards to be posted in the office below, and the sound of the telephone would travel to them easily. The men informed Koophius that there were burglars in the house and that the police had come after them searching the place and reaching up to the swinging cupboard. They also told him that they believed the burglars had used force to open the door of the warehouse and had escaped through the garden. They gave him a brief on the condition of the place informing him that the main entrance had been bolted and the typewriter and adding machine were safe in the private office. Finally, they asked him to warn the Henk and get the key from Elli to look around the house for any more danger. Anne said that 'everything went according to plan' because they had managed to pass the message to Koophius without alerting the guards of their presence within.
Following the break-in, the rules in the Annexe had become even more stringent. Apart from the rules, Anne noticed changes in the behaviour of the people in the Annexe. It was a close call, the effect of which no one could shake off. While Mr Dussel changed his sitting from Kraler's office to the bathroom, Peter took it upon himself to scan the place two times now, at half past eight and half past nine. All the windows, including the one in Peter's room, were closed at all times, especially at nights. The fear of the future made everyone restless and grumpy. Everyone was at odds with someone or the other at all times. There were arguments heard constantly. Anne and Peter were reproached by everyone for what they saw as carelessness. They were constantly reminded that they were Jews, which during this war was worse than being a slave. Their life depended on how well they could camouflage their existence.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 14 April
Anne notes that more than the burglary, the fear of being found by the police had shaken everyone. The shock was so great, that it also affected their health. Everyone was constantly restless; her father, in particular, was about to explode with anger and frustration. Soon after the break-in, Mrs van Daan fell ill with fever and was restricted to her bed. Even Mr van Daan was growing pale without his smoke. Dussel, who had taken a different approach to it all, had become more observant than ever. He was the one to give up a great many things for the others. They also had problems like the leakage in the lavatory and a non-functioning tap washer. Although Anne knew that these things could be fixed and the inconvenience was only temporary, she could not ignore the timing of it all. So, she wrote 'our luck's not in at the moment'.
Anne writes that she only saw dissatisfaction, grumpy faces, sighs and suppressed complaints all around her. If an outsider were to view this, then he would deduce that they all were suddenly struck by severe adversity. However, this was not true. Their condition was the same as it was when they first went into hiding. The only difference was that the theft and the attempted burglary brought them face to face once again with the fate which awaited them. Anne observes here that 'things are just as bad as you yourself care to make them'. By this, she meant that the severity of any condition totally depended on how harsh a person considers it to be. A person's mind controls his emotions, and it is the mind which tells us whether something is bearable or not. At such times Anne writes that her work, her hope, her courage and her love kept her head above water and prevented her from complaining.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 15 April
On 15th April, a few days after the attempted burglary, Anne writes of another chaos which broke loose in the annex. This time the cause of it was Peter. He had forgotten to unbolt the front door one morning. As the door could not be opened from the outside, Kreler and the men were not able to enter the house and had to resort to entering from the back. They had to go around the neighbour's area and force open the kitchen window to enter. Kreler was enraged because of this carelessness. The incident scared and saddened Peter greatly. The scolding and the disapproval of the grown-ups almost brought him to tears. Although he was held responsible, Anne believes that everyone was to be blamed because by some coincidence everyone forgot to make sure that the door was unbolted as they would normally do.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 16 April
On the previous day, Anne had been kissed for the first time by Peter. She thought of it as her first kiss and cherished the moment in her mind. She did not give much regard to the kisses she received before on the cheek and on her hand by her friends in school. So, this was her first kiss. She describes the events which led them to kiss each other. On the previous evening, the two had been sitting on the divan with their hands around each other enjoying their quiet time. On Anne's suggestion, they moved up to prevent banging against the cupboard. Their closeness made them feel things they had never felt before. Finally, when it was time for them to leave, Peter turned to her and kissed her on her cheek through her hair. The kiss gave Anne joy as well as hope for their future. The closeness to Peter silenced her and gave her the experience of peace which she never experienced before. So, she called the day the best day of her life.
Peter's show of affection made Anne feel special. On the night of the kiss, Peter held Anne close to him. He hugged her and made her lean on him. The closeness made Anne feel things that she had never felt before. The joy of being in such proximity with him was so great that she could not utter a word. She just leaned on him and enjoyed the moment while he played with her hair and stroked her cheek. When it was time for Peter to go for his routine check around the house, she stood by him and watched him get ready. He kissed her cheek at this moment. Although she had been longing for the kiss for long, when it really came she did not know how to react. She was overjoyed and just ran down without a backward glance.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 17 April
On the following day, concerns of morality began worrying Anne. She was concerned about her parents' reaction to her behaviour. She wondered what they would say if they were to know that her friendship with Peter had grown beyond mere friendship. She tried to suppress this, but a greater concern in her mind was about Peter's next step. She knew that he was a boy and could want to either develop the relation they shared or shun it entirely. She did not know what to think and make of his behaviour. It was impossible for her to discern what he truly felt from his cool and composed exterior. Moreover, she was worried that he may not like her forward behaviour. She compares herself with Margot and writes that she would never kiss a boy without being certain of their future together. So, her own behaviour startled her. She wondered if Peter would also later think the same and give her up because of her forward nature.
Anne believed that in such trying times, everyone deserved a little happiness. She agrees that in normal circumstances her behaviour would be seen as extremely inappropriate. Now, there was so little hope and almost nothing to look forward to. She believed that she was a grown person (at least in mind) and she deserved the happiness she got. With the negativity that surrounded them, Peter's company was the only source of happiness in her life and she was not willing to give it up. She took care of herself and had the right to make her life's decisions. They were all confined to the four walls of the annex for the past two years with no chance to see the outside world and no hope for freedom. At such times, it was senseless to reject herself the little moments of love. Moreover, she considered that distancing herself from Peter was being unjust to him as she knew that he too did not have any friend in the annex and that their little meetings gave him happiness.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 18 April
Anne begins this entry by writing about the progress of the war on the Russian and Italian front. She gives information as conveyed to her by her father. She picks up the positive note in his voice and reflects it while writing this letter. The positivity in her tone can be felt by the reader. It expresses a hope for the future. The optimism in her voice can also be attributed to the good times she was sharing with Peter. She mentions being able to discuss even the most delicate topics with him. The kiss they shared every evening only added to her good mood. In contrast to a day she described before, this day seemed to have passed on a good note. Even the weather outside was pleasant; they were having a good spring day after the long cold winter; almost as if it was in tune with the positivity within. There was colour in nature once more, and this colour added colour to their gloomy lives.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 19 April
In this entry, Anne describes the beauty of a day in spring. She writes about the birds singing and the sun shining merrily. Coupled with this is the company of Peter. Observing nature with him beside her gave her immense pleasure. She writes that she wants nothing more from life. She just wants to live each day in a peaceful environment like the one she shares with Peter. This entry reflects Peter as a more grounded person, too mature for her age. The adversities that she and her family have lived through have given her a new perspective on life. She has learned to look at things from a mature person's point of view. She is not fascinated by trivial things which would normally excite a girl of her age. She has witnessed the reality of life and values it greatly. She realises that a peaceful moment with a loved one on a bright sunny morning is of greater importance than any material treasures.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 21 April
This entry moves from one topic to the other in quick succession. Anne begins by giving details of the royal family of York. Anne mentions the coming of age of Princess Elizabeth and speculates about her probable suitor. She also writes about the princess's sister Margaret Rose. After this, she jumps on to the topic of the stolen potato meal and the reaction of the residents to it. She concludes by mentioning her wish of getting one of her stories printed under a pseudonym. This entry shows us the contrast in situations around the world. While on one hand, families were hiding worried for their lives every day, on the other hand, the biggest concern for a family was to decide whether it was the appropriate time to announce the coming of age of their daughter.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 25 April
In this entry, Anne writes about the change in Dussel's reaction to the new laws laid for the safety of all. The fresh rules upset him greatly. He kept insisting that he was shouted at repeatedly by van Daan. He also said things like 'everything here happens upside down'. Although he was forbidden to sit in the downstairs office on Saturday afternoons and on Sundays, he continued to do so, inventing new excuses every time he was reproached. He even insulted Mr Frank when he (Mr Frank) called his bluff. This resulted in Mr Frank distancing himself from Dussel and avoiding speaking to him as much as possible. Van Daan was also upset with Dussel and had not been speaking to him for ten days. The men were naturally angry at all times.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 27 April
Mrs van Daan's illness had caused her to have a sulky mood. As her cold was not improving, it made her gloomy, upset and intolerant towards everyone and everything. She complained that she could not get Lozenges, her medicine for cold. She complained when the sun was not shining or because they were not allowed to look outside the window or when she felt that the invasion was long overdue. She had a reason to complain at all times. However, her gloominess did not touch everyone in the annex. All were by now used to her nature and just laughed at her persistent reasons for complaining.
Anne too was ill and was not needed to do any work around the house; she devoted her day to reading. She read pieces from different works. Anne first translated a piece from Dutch to English. After this, she read about great wars. She then moved on to the history of Africa. She read about its culture, occupations of people and so forth. She then moved on to one of her favourite subjects-family trees. She traced some family trees until midnight. History of the church and animals were her next topics. She also read a few sections of the Bible. She then read a little bit of literature and brushed up her geography. Thus ended her day spent in knowledge seeking. Anne was amazed at the amount one could read and the knowledge that one could acquire in a single day.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 28 April
In this entry, Anne describes the two sides to her personality. She writes that there were two sides to her. In contrast to the ordinary one, whom everyone saw and knew, was a different Anne-a calm and loving Anne who only wanted to be cared for and loved in return. This Anne thought with her heart. She cried when love was shown to her, while the other hid everything she felt and put up a mask of a brave girl before the others. Peter's kindness brought out the second Anne hidden with. His loving and nurturing made her see him as her safe place where she could come out and stretch herself. Anne felt secure with him; she felt him capable of giving her the love and attention she sought.
Anne was surprised by her boldness. She could not believe that she took the first step by kissing Peter. She therefore asked herself if what she did was right. She had reached a point where she needed to assess her behaviour. She knew that girls (during her time) were not allowed to be so bold and forward. They were raised to be passive and recipients of affection. She worried that her boldness might make Peter feel insecure. She did not wish to be superior to Peter. She wanted him to take care of her. She realised that her pent up emotions and longing for affection had urged her to act with such fearlessness. To add to this confusion was her fear of what awaited her at the bottom of the stairs. Every day she had to pay the cost of sharing a few wonderful moments with Peter in the dim of the night. This cost came in the form of bright light, questions and laughter; all of which she had to bear with courage.
Anne had many questions regarding her relation with Peter. Although their relation had progressed on a personal level, she knew that it was not strong enough to face the light of day. Also, she clearly understood and acknowledged the fact that they were very young and that they could not be certain about the kind of future they would have if they chose to stick together. Anne was not sure if Peter's character was strong enough to take the place of a husband in her life. Despite knowing all these things, Anne was drawn to him by some force which she could not reject. She knew that she felt happy in his presence and she wanted to continue feeling that way. Her rational side and her emotional side were at war, and this is what prompted her to write 'Oh Peter, what have you done to me!'
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 3 April
Food and food patterns in the annex are the subjects of this entry. As the war progressed, resources became scarce. Whatever was available was taken away to provide for the men fighting in the war. Anne thought it was necessary to describe in detail the food available for them to eat and the sacrifices they had to make to drag the limited rations as long as possible. Anne writes that a kind of 'food cycle' was followed in the annex. When a particular vegetable was available, they had nothing else to eat but that one vegetable for a long time. They used one vegetable to make various dishes. She mentions food cycles of endive, spinach, kohlrabi, salsify, cucumbers tomatoes and sauerkrauts. Dishes like stew, salads and casseroles all were made using that one single vegetable.
Anne mentions having the most delightful period because fresh leafy vegetables were not available. This probably means that she did not like leafy vegetables. Also, at a later point, she writes that the vegetables which were available were not of the best quality. They were bitter and almost rotten. The scarcity of these meant that they got pulses and other vegetables to eat. The long dragging food cycles containing leafy vegetables now changed to kidney beans, peas, turnips, potatoes and carrots. Although these were also of low quality, they were still a pleasant change from the bitter vegetables they previously ate. They made soups, dumplings and gravies of these. Due to the shortage of bread, they ate potatoes at every meal. The only happiness that they got during their meals was from the beetroot salads which was available often and the slice of liver sausage and jam on bread they got to eat once a week. For these small blessings, Anne wrote 'Thank goodness'.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 4 April
Anne strongly believed that the war would soon come to an end and that they would return to their normal lives. However, as their conditions worsened and the war seemed nowhere close to an end, her hope began to falter. She had been reading her books and learning her subjects hoping to return to school soon, but now she was not sure that it would happen. She wondered if all her efforts were in vain. She worried that if the war did not end by September, she would have to fall back two years at school and she did not want this to happen. The thought of not having the future she imagined caused her great sadness. Coupled with this, she was worried about her relation with Peter. She was unable to mask her sadness over Peter's inactivity. She did not understand why he did not take a step towards her if he really loved her. She knew that anytime now her facade would crack and she would break down in tears. She did not want the sympathy of others. Therefore, when she returned to bed all alone, she allowed herself to cry. She knew that this was better than letting the others see her tears. When her sobs grew louder, Anne quickly controlled herself by repeating the words 'I must' to herself.
Anne wanted to become a journalist. She wanted to make a place for herself in the world. She could not see her life limited to her family as was the case with her mother, Mrs van Daan and the other women of the time. She did not want to be a foolish or shallow woman. She believed she had a depth of perception and understanding far greater than her mother. She wanted to do more than just taking care of a husband and children. She aimed to create something by which she would be remembered even after her death. She wanted something besides a family to which she could dedicate her life and talents. Such high expectations made her the greatest critique of her own work. She understood best how well a piece was written. It helped her as it kept pushing her to improve her skills.
Writing helped Anne give expression to her thoughts and feelings. At a later point in her diary, she writes that her books and her diary, in particular, helped her maintain her sanity while the others were tormented by the attack. She notes that writing elevated her mood at all times. It rid her of her sorrows and gave her renewed courage to go on. Through her writing, she was able to recapture her thoughts, ideas and fantasies. For this reason, she dearly wished to become a successful writer one day. Anne knew that she was good at writing and was proud of this talent that God had blessed her with. She mentions two of her stories, 'Eva's Dreams' and 'Candy's Life'. She calls the first her best fairytale. She says that a major portion of the second was good too, but in totality, it did not amount to much. She had figured out how to improve 'Candy's Life' but was never drawn back to it to complete it.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 6 April
Anne was an avid reader. She preferred literature and history over math. All her hobbies were related to learning. She says that writing was her first hobby. She also liked to create family trees of royal families. She had been working on the family trees of eight royal families across the world. These included the French, German, Spanish and English. She collected information about them from newspapers, books pamphlets and biographies. She goes on to say that History was her third favourite hobby. Greek and Roman mythology were next. Her father had bought her many books on these subjects and she spent a lot of time reading them and copying passages from them. In addition to collecting family photos, she loved to collect photos of film stars.
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0.0964925363... | 1 | NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 2 - April 1944
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Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 1 April
Anne mentions the gradual progress of her friendship with Peter in the previous entry in her diary. She writes that they had grown close enough to discuss personal topics without feeling the need to keep their thoughts in check. This she sees as an improvement in her life and as a sign that God is still by her side. In this entry, however, she talks about her desire for a further progress in their relation. She has had a dream long ago and she dearly wishes for this dream to come true. She longs for a kiss which she says is 'so long in coming'. Peter, however, shows no signs which may prompt Anne to believe that he too is looking for something out of their relation apart from mere friendship. She wonders whether he too longs for a kiss and is too shy to acknowledge it and his love for her. She also wonders why he wants to be in her company so often and yet does not say anything to her. She is forced to ponder over these emotions and cry her heart out all alone in her room.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 11 April
On Sunday evening, Peter and Anne had taken a few divan cushions, one of which belonged to Dussel, to the front attic. While they were sitting there, Mr van Dann called out to them to inquire if they had Dussel's cushion. The cushion they took was used by him as a pillow. He was greatly annoyed with them for using his cushion. A great commotion and confusion followed this discovery. He made a lot of fuss complaining that it might be infested with fleas from the cat. He showed such love for the cushion that no one could understand it. Anne and Peter decided to take revenge for making such a huge fuss over such a small matter. They added two hard brushes in his bed and had a good laugh about it later. This brought the incident of the missing cushion to an end.
The phrase 'a blind' used by Anne means an excuse designed to disguise the truth. In this case, it must have been 'a blind' invented by the men to warn the others of an approaching danger without raising an alarm. Anne called Peter's request for help with an English sentence a blind. As soon as Peter warned the others, all the men were down in a flash and the women remained upstairs. The women talked for a while and then they heard a bang. The bang was followed by a quietness which lasted till quarter to ten. Everyone was quiet, pale in the face, waiting for the men to return. They had questions running in their minds, but no one to ask them to. At ten, they heard footsteps on the stairs and saw Mr Frank and Mr van Daan enter. In quick words, Mr van Daan told the women to turn out the lights and creep upstairs as they were expecting the police to be in the house. Anne noted that the faces of the men were also pale. The women had many questions, but there was no time to get answers. They quickly went up, turned out the lights and hid there in silence.
Anne writes that there was no time to be frightened. All of them had enough experience of the war to know that when instructions to turn off the lights and hide in the room above had come, they all had to do just that without wasting time. They had to take quick steps to hide from external threats. They grabbed everything they could and headed upstairs. The men left the women in the room above and returned down to face the danger before them. When the men had first seen the burglars trying to enlarge the hole in the door of the warehouse, van Daan, out of his quick thinking, cried out, "Police!" The alarm he raised scared the burglars and thus prevented their discovery. Once the burglars had fled, the 'Home Guards' tried to repair the damage. They put up a plank to cover the hole from being discovered by the police. However, someone kicked the plank hard from the outside and sent it flying. Although this behaviour agitated the men, their chief concern was to camouflage their hiding. Once again, they tried to put up the plank, but a married couple passing by noticed the movement and mistook them for burglars. The men had no choice but to pretend to be burglars and destroy the office as they knew that the police would be there soon. Thus, their attempts at concealing their hideout were hindered and their lives were endangered.
The break-in happened on the night of Easter Sunday at half past nine. While the men were busy trying to figure out how to fix the hole in the door, a light was shone from the outside. This drew their attention. They saw a married couple who assumed that the men were thieves. By the time the men were back inside the secret annex, they estimated that the married couple would have informed the police about the burglary they witnessed. They knew that no one would be at work on Easter Monday. This meant that the earliest they could expect the police was on Tuesday morning. If someone was to look into the place anytime before Tuesday, it had to look deserted. So, everyone remained hidden in the upstairs room.
All of them sat in pitch darkness in the room because Mrs van Daan had turned the lamp out without meaning to and they did not know what else to do. The silence was such that they could hear the breathing of everyone in the room. Two of them kept watch at Peter's open window in turns, while the other two joined the women. This continued till quarter past eleven when they heard a bustle and noise downstairs. In no time, they heard footsteps in the house. Everyone was so silent that even their breaths were inaudible now. They listened to the footsteps moving in the house from the private office to the kitchen and then on the stairs. Then they heard the swinging cupboard being rattled. At this point, they all saw death in the face. The only thought in Anne's mind was 'Now we are lost!' The breath of everyone inside stopped, and they waited for their doom, but by some luck, the men outside rattled the door twice and then the footsteps of the men retreated.
The men had to inform Koophius about the previous night's events as they needed help to fix the hold and check the neighbourhood. Doing this was risky as they expected guards to be posted in the office below, and the sound of the telephone would travel to them easily. The men informed Koophius that there were burglars in the house and that the police had come after them searching the place and reaching up to the swinging cupboard. They also told him that they believed the burglars had used force to open the door of the warehouse and had escaped through the garden. They gave him a brief on the condition of the place informing him that the main entrance had been bolted and the typewriter and adding machine were safe in the private office. Finally, they asked him to warn the Henk and get the key from Elli to look around the house for any more danger. Anne said that 'everything went according to plan' because they had managed to pass the message to Koophius without alerting the guards of their presence within.
Following the break-in, the rules in the Annexe had become even more stringent. Apart from the rules, Anne noticed changes in the behaviour of the people in the Annexe. It was a close call, the effect of which no one could shake off. While Mr Dussel changed his sitting from Kraler's office to the bathroom, Peter took it upon himself to scan the place two times now, at half past eight and half past nine. All the windows, including the one in Peter's room, were closed at all times, especially at nights. The fear of the future made everyone restless and grumpy. Everyone was at odds with someone or the other at all times. There were arguments heard constantly. Anne and Peter were reproached by everyone for what they saw as carelessness. They were constantly reminded that they were Jews, which during this war was worse than being a slave. Their life depended on how well they could camouflage their existence.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 14 April
Anne notes that more than the burglary, the fear of being found by the police had shaken everyone. The shock was so great, that it also affected their health. Everyone was constantly restless; her father, in particular, was about to explode with anger and frustration. Soon after the break-in, Mrs van Daan fell ill with fever and was restricted to her bed. Even Mr van Daan was growing pale without his smoke. Dussel, who had taken a different approach to it all, had become more observant than ever. He was the one to give up a great many things for the others. They also had problems like the leakage in the lavatory and a non-functioning tap washer. Although Anne knew that these things could be fixed and the inconvenience was only temporary, she could not ignore the timing of it all. So, she wrote 'our luck's not in at the moment'.
Anne writes that she only saw dissatisfaction, grumpy faces, sighs and suppressed complaints all around her. If an outsider were to view this, then he would deduce that they all were suddenly struck by severe adversity. However, this was not true. Their condition was the same as it was when they first went into hiding. The only difference was that the theft and the attempted burglary brought them face to face once again with the fate which awaited them. Anne observes here that 'things are just as bad as you yourself care to make them'. By this, she meant that the severity of any condition totally depended on how harsh a person considers it to be. A person's mind controls his emotions, and it is the mind which tells us whether something is bearable or not. At such times Anne writes that her work, her hope, her courage and her love kept her head above water and prevented her from complaining.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 15 April
On 15th April, a few days after the attempted burglary, Anne writes of another chaos which broke loose in the annex. This time the cause of it was Peter. He had forgotten to unbolt the front door one morning. As the door could not be opened from the outside, Kreler and the men were not able to enter the house and had to resort to entering from the back. They had to go around the neighbour's area and force open the kitchen window to enter. Kreler was enraged because of this carelessness. The incident scared and saddened Peter greatly. The scolding and the disapproval of the grown-ups almost brought him to tears. Although he was held responsible, Anne believes that everyone was to be blamed because by some coincidence everyone forgot to make sure that the door was unbolted as they would normally do.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 16 April
On the previous day, Anne had been kissed for the first time by Peter. She thought of it as her first kiss and cherished the moment in her mind. She did not give much regard to the kisses she received before on the cheek and on her hand by her friends in school. So, this was her first kiss. She describes the events which led them to kiss each other. On the previous evening, the two had been sitting on the divan with their hands around each other enjoying their quiet time. On Anne's suggestion, they moved up to prevent banging against the cupboard. Their closeness made them feel things they had never felt before. Finally, when it was time for them to leave, Peter turned to her and kissed her on her cheek through her hair. The kiss gave Anne joy as well as hope for their future. The closeness to Peter silenced her and gave her the experience of peace which she never experienced before. So, she called the day the best day of her life.
Peter's show of affection made Anne feel special. On the night of the kiss, Peter held Anne close to him. He hugged her and made her lean on him. The closeness made Anne feel things that she had never felt before. The joy of being in such proximity with him was so great that she could not utter a word. She just leaned on him and enjoyed the moment while he played with her hair and stroked her cheek. When it was time for Peter to go for his routine check around the house, she stood by him and watched him get ready. He kissed her cheek at this moment. Although she had been longing for the kiss for long, when it really came she did not know how to react. She was overjoyed and just ran down without a backward glance.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 17 April
On the following day, concerns of morality began worrying Anne. She was concerned about her parents' reaction to her behaviour. She wondered what they would say if they were to know that her friendship with Peter had grown beyond mere friendship. She tried to suppress this, but a greater concern in her mind was about Peter's next step. She knew that he was a boy and could want to either develop the relation they shared or shun it entirely. She did not know what to think and make of his behaviour. It was impossible for her to discern what he truly felt from his cool and composed exterior. Moreover, she was worried that he may not like her forward behaviour. She compares herself with Margot and writes that she would never kiss a boy without being certain of their future together. So, her own behaviour startled her. She wondered if Peter would also later think the same and give her up because of her forward nature.
Anne believed that in such trying times, everyone deserved a little happiness. She agrees that in normal circumstances her behaviour would be seen as extremely inappropriate. Now, there was so little hope and almost nothing to look forward to. She believed that she was a grown person (at least in mind) and she deserved the happiness she got. With the negativity that surrounded them, Peter's company was the only source of happiness in her life and she was not willing to give it up. She took care of herself and had the right to make her life's decisions. They were all confined to the four walls of the annex for the past two years with no chance to see the outside world and no hope for freedom. At such times, it was senseless to reject herself the little moments of love. Moreover, she considered that distancing herself from Peter was being unjust to him as she knew that he too did not have any friend in the annex and that their little meetings gave him happiness.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 18 April
Anne begins this entry by writing about the progress of the war on the Russian and Italian front. She gives information as conveyed to her by her father. She picks up the positive note in his voice and reflects it while writing this letter. The positivity in her tone can be felt by the reader. It expresses a hope for the future. The optimism in her voice can also be attributed to the good times she was sharing with Peter. She mentions being able to discuss even the most delicate topics with him. The kiss they shared every evening only added to her good mood. In contrast to a day she described before, this day seemed to have passed on a good note. Even the weather outside was pleasant; they were having a good spring day after the long cold winter; almost as if it was in tune with the positivity within. There was colour in nature once more, and this colour added colour to their gloomy lives.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 19 April
In this entry, Anne describes the beauty of a day in spring. She writes about the birds singing and the sun shining merrily. Coupled with this is the company of Peter. Observing nature with him beside her gave her immense pleasure. She writes that she wants nothing more from life. She just wants to live each day in a peaceful environment like the one she shares with Peter. This entry reflects Peter as a more grounded person, too mature for her age. The adversities that she and her family have lived through have given her a new perspective on life. She has learned to look at things from a mature person's point of view. She is not fascinated by trivial things which would normally excite a girl of her age. She has witnessed the reality of life and values it greatly. She realises that a peaceful moment with a loved one on a bright sunny morning is of greater importance than any material treasures.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 21 April
This entry moves from one topic to the other in quick succession. Anne begins by giving details of the royal family of York. Anne mentions the coming of age of Princess Elizabeth and speculates about her probable suitor. She also writes about the princess's sister Margaret Rose. After this, she jumps on to the topic of the stolen potato meal and the reaction of the residents to it. She concludes by mentioning her wish of getting one of her stories printed under a pseudonym. This entry shows us the contrast in situations around the world. While on one hand, families were hiding worried for their lives every day, on the other hand, the biggest concern for a family was to decide whether it was the appropriate time to announce the coming of age of their daughter.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 25 April
In this entry, Anne writes about the change in Dussel's reaction to the new laws laid for the safety of all. The fresh rules upset him greatly. He kept insisting that he was shouted at repeatedly by van Daan. He also said things like 'everything here happens upside down'. Although he was forbidden to sit in the downstairs office on Saturday afternoons and on Sundays, he continued to do so, inventing new excuses every time he was reproached. He even insulted Mr Frank when he (Mr Frank) called his bluff. This resulted in Mr Frank distancing himself from Dussel and avoiding speaking to him as much as possible. Van Daan was also upset with Dussel and had not been speaking to him for ten days. The men were naturally angry at all times.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 27 April
Mrs van Daan's illness had caused her to have a sulky mood. As her cold was not improving, it made her gloomy, upset and intolerant towards everyone and everything. She complained that she could not get Lozenges, her medicine for cold. She complained when the sun was not shining or because they were not allowed to look outside the window or when she felt that the invasion was long overdue. She had a reason to complain at all times. However, her gloominess did not touch everyone in the annex. All were by now used to her nature and just laughed at her persistent reasons for complaining.
Anne too was ill and was not needed to do any work around the house; she devoted her day to reading. She read pieces from different works. Anne first translated a piece from Dutch to English. After this, she read about great wars. She then moved on to the history of Africa. She read about its culture, occupations of people and so forth. She then moved on to one of her favourite subjects-family trees. She traced some family trees until midnight. History of the church and animals were her next topics. She also read a few sections of the Bible. She then read a little bit of literature and brushed up her geography. Thus ended her day spent in knowledge seeking. Anne was amazed at the amount one could read and the knowledge that one could acquire in a single day.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 28 April
In this entry, Anne describes the two sides to her personality. She writes that there were two sides to her. In contrast to the ordinary one, whom everyone saw and knew, was a different Anne-a calm and loving Anne who only wanted to be cared for and loved in return. This Anne thought with her heart. She cried when love was shown to her, while the other hid everything she felt and put up a mask of a brave girl before the others. Peter's kindness brought out the second Anne hidden with. His loving and nurturing made her see him as her safe place where she could come out and stretch herself. Anne felt secure with him; she felt him capable of giving her the love and attention she sought.
Anne was surprised by her boldness. She could not believe that she took the first step by kissing Peter. She therefore asked herself if what she did was right. She had reached a point where she needed to assess her behaviour. She knew that girls (during her time) were not allowed to be so bold and forward. They were raised to be passive and recipients of affection. She worried that her boldness might make Peter feel insecure. She did not wish to be superior to Peter. She wanted him to take care of her. She realised that her pent up emotions and longing for affection had urged her to act with such fearlessness. To add to this confusion was her fear of what awaited her at the bottom of the stairs. Every day she had to pay the cost of sharing a few wonderful moments with Peter in the dim of the night. This cost came in the form of bright light, questions and laughter; all of which she had to bear with courage.
Anne had many questions regarding her relation with Peter. Although their relation had progressed on a personal level, she knew that it was not strong enough to face the light of day. Also, she clearly understood and acknowledged the fact that they were very young and that they could not be certain about the kind of future they would have if they chose to stick together. Anne was not sure if Peter's character was strong enough to take the place of a husband in her life. Despite knowing all these things, Anne was drawn to him by some force which she could not reject. She knew that she felt happy in his presence and she wanted to continue feeling that way. Her rational side and her emotional side were at war, and this is what prompted her to write 'Oh Peter, what have you done to me!'
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 3 April
Food and food patterns in the annex are the subjects of this entry. As the war progressed, resources became scarce. Whatever was available was taken away to provide for the men fighting in the war. Anne thought it was necessary to describe in detail the food available for them to eat and the sacrifices they had to make to drag the limited rations as long as possible. Anne writes that a kind of 'food cycle' was followed in the annex. When a particular vegetable was available, they had nothing else to eat but that one vegetable for a long time. They used one vegetable to make various dishes. She mentions food cycles of endive, spinach, kohlrabi, salsify, cucumbers tomatoes and sauerkrauts. Dishes like stew, salads and casseroles all were made using that one single vegetable.
Anne mentions having the most delightful period because fresh leafy vegetables were not available. This probably means that she did not like leafy vegetables. Also, at a later point, she writes that the vegetables which were available were not of the best quality. They were bitter and almost rotten. The scarcity of these meant that they got pulses and other vegetables to eat. The long dragging food cycles containing leafy vegetables now changed to kidney beans, peas, turnips, potatoes and carrots. Although these were also of low quality, they were still a pleasant change from the bitter vegetables they previously ate. They made soups, dumplings and gravies of these. Due to the shortage of bread, they ate potatoes at every meal. The only happiness that they got during their meals was from the beetroot salads which was available often and the slice of liver sausage and jam on bread they got to eat once a week. For these small blessings, Anne wrote 'Thank goodness'.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 4 April
Anne strongly believed that the war would soon come to an end and that they would return to their normal lives. However, as their conditions worsened and the war seemed nowhere close to an end, her hope began to falter. She had been reading her books and learning her subjects hoping to return to school soon, but now she was not sure that it would happen. She wondered if all her efforts were in vain. She worried that if the war did not end by September, she would have to fall back two years at school and she did not want this to happen. The thought of not having the future she imagined caused her great sadness. Coupled with this, she was worried about her relation with Peter. She was unable to mask her sadness over Peter's inactivity. She did not understand why he did not take a step towards her if he really loved her. She knew that anytime now her facade would crack and she would break down in tears. She did not want the sympathy of others. Therefore, when she returned to bed all alone, she allowed herself to cry. She knew that this was better than letting the others see her tears. When her sobs grew louder, Anne quickly controlled herself by repeating the words 'I must' to herself.
Anne wanted to become a journalist. She wanted to make a place for herself in the world. She could not see her life limited to her family as was the case with her mother, Mrs van Daan and the other women of the time. She did not want to be a foolish or shallow woman. She believed she had a depth of perception and understanding far greater than her mother. She wanted to do more than just taking care of a husband and children. She aimed to create something by which she would be remembered even after her death. She wanted something besides a family to which she could dedicate her life and talents. Such high expectations made her the greatest critique of her own work. She understood best how well a piece was written. It helped her as it kept pushing her to improve her skills.
Writing helped Anne give expression to her thoughts and feelings. At a later point in her diary, she writes that her books and her diary, in particular, helped her maintain her sanity while the others were tormented by the attack. She notes that writing elevated her mood at all times. It rid her of her sorrows and gave her renewed courage to go on. Through her writing, she was able to recapture her thoughts, ideas and fantasies. For this reason, she dearly wished to become a successful writer one day. Anne knew that she was good at writing and was proud of this talent that God had blessed her with. She mentions two of her stories, 'Eva's Dreams' and 'Candy's Life'. She calls the first her best fairytale. She says that a major portion of the second was good too, but in totality, it did not amount to much. She had figured out how to improve 'Candy's Life' but was never drawn back to it to complete it.
Chapter 2 - April 1944 Exercise 6 April
Anne was an avid reader. She preferred literature and history over math. All her hobbies were related to learning. She says that writing was her first hobby. She also liked to create family trees of royal families. She had been working on the family trees of eight royal families across the world. These included the French, German, Spanish and English. She collected information about them from newspapers, books pamphlets and biographies. She goes on to say that History was her third favourite hobby. Greek and Roman mythology were next. Her father had bought her many books on these subjects and she spent a lot of time reading them and copying passages from them. In addition to collecting family photos, she loved to collect photos of film stars.
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The infamous “Wannsee Conference” was a high-profile gathering of high-ranking heads of the Nazi party of the German tyrannical regime. They gathered in Berlin, Wannsee, on 20 January 1942. The meeting’s agenda was to deliberate and discuss how to implement what they referred to as the “striking a final solution to the Jewish question.” The purpose was to communicate to the administrative leaders of various departments in charge of various policies and programs related to the Nazi’s endeavor. Richard Heydrich called the meeting. He was the chief executer of the plan; he was the chief of the SD, which is the security service, and doubled as the NAZI governor of Bohemia and Moravia. Through his office, the NAZI controlled both the NAZI Security police (known as Gestapo and Kriminalpolizei in German) and the SS Intelligent service (known as Sicherheit). However, there is no existing document that explains by whom, when, and in what manner they decided to carry out the massacre of 11 million Jews. Nevertheless, many scholars argue that such orders were not given in a written form. Instead, Adolf Hitler ordered them autocratically in oral form in the summer of 1941. After the meeting, a network of extermination camps were put up and millions of youths were murdered. The Wannsee house, where the conference happened, is currently preserved as a Memorial for the Holocaust.
At the conference, Heydrich Reinhardt presented the master plan under Adolf Hitler’s approval for the quick extermination of the Jews in French speaking North Africa and Europe and for the use of able-bodied Jews on road construction projects. In the end, the Jews working in road projects would also die. By 1941, in the inner circles of the Nazi top headship as well as the government corridors, it was becoming apparent that Adolf Hitler planned to eliminate the Jews in Europe and have them deported to the eastern territories for execution through any means possible at the time. That was a great challenge because it was to involve mass registration and movement of many people during the period of labor shortage. The burden was severe. Logistically, it was a difficult task. It was also imminent that some of the high-ranking state officials could collaborate inadequately or completely fail to cooperate. Therefore, it was important that the representatives of the affected departments were brought together to discuss the way forward and ensure the top officials took part.
Buy The Wannsee Conference essay paper online
Heydrich gave an account of the measures against the Jews taken in Germany and Europe since their Nazi seized leadership in 1933. Heydrich explained that from 1933 to 1941, more than 530 000 German and Austrian Jews immigrate and were deported. The briefing prepared on his behalf by Eichmann, who was the top expert of practicalities, a week prior to the conference provided valuable information. According to Hedrick’s report, there were more than 11 million Jews in Europe, with about half of them coming from countries free from the German’s authoritarian control. Because the further immigration of the Jews in Europe had been stopped, Hedrick suggested to try “another possible solution to the question”. The solution was evacuating the Jews to the eastern side. There was to be a ‘provisional’ solution; however, ‘more practical remedy’ had been gathered in preparation to release the “final solution to the Jewish question.” Some scholars argue that the Wannsee conference did not go beyond the evacuation of the Jews and settling them to the east; there was no murdering. Heydrich explained their fate in his speech at the conference:
Under proper guidance, in the course of the final solution the Jews are to be allocated for appropriate labor in the east. Able bodied Jews, separated according to sex, will be taken in large columns to these areas for work on roads, in the course of which action doubtless a large portion will be eliminated by natural causes. The possible final remnant will have to be treated accordingly because it is the product of natural selection and would, if released act as a seed of new Jewish revival.
The participants of the conference could not understand what Heydrich meant. Actually, historians reveal that most of the participants were learned; most of them had a doctorate. Heydrich went further to explain that, for legal and political correctness, he found it important to define who a Jew was. He listed exemptions as well: the Jews aged 65 and above and the Jewish who were veterans of the First World War and had been injured and wounded, and those who were iron cross winners to be confined in the constructed concentration camps (at Theresienstasdt).
The situation of the half-caste people was more complex. With regard to the Nuremburg Statutes made in 1935, the half castes’ statuses were ambiguously left, maybe deliberately, for foreseen uses. Heydrich referred to them as Mischlings (a mix of races) of first degree if they had two Jewish grandparents. Surprisingly, this was not applicable to the children from the marriage of a Jew to a non-Jew. This would not be the case if they had been exempted only by a few individuals from the high offices in the Nazi party. The exempted would instead undergo sterilization. In the mixed marriages situation, Heydrich ruled that if in that marriage the children were raised in German culture, the partner (Jewish) would not suffer deportation. Since his emphasis was the effects of the German influence, a mixed marriage with children raised as Jews would unfortunately cause the children to be deported or sent to Theresienstadt. The exceptions above were applicable in Germany and Austria, and were readily flouted. In a majority of the other nations, Jews were packed and deported on masses, including everyone who shared neighborhood or closely identified themselves with the Jews as they were regarded as the Jews as well. Except for a few recorded exceptions in France, where the French regime at the time applied its own rules mainly affecting the refugees instead of the French-born Jews. Therefore, in the process, many French-Jews survived.
Some countries reported opposition. For example, in Denmark, the plan received opposition from not only the king but also the people, who were against the actions of the Danish participants who were supposed to evacuate majority of the Jewish population to Sweden. There was more opposition in Romania and Hungary, although they were at the time German allies. Heydrich commented that extermination of the Jews in Romania was inefficient and slow in spite of the observed dislike for Semitism. The Hungarian government had its own Jewish policy and resisted German’s interference until 1944, when the regime of Miklos Horthy was overthrown. Experts attribute Horthy’s fall to Nazi’s extremist interventions. In the course, Eichmann murdered more than 450 000 Hungarian Jews.
In the conference, Heydrich spoke for about an hour, after which questions and comments followed. Other participants also made their contributions. Representatives Hoffmann and Stuckart were the first to point out the legal, administrative, and other challenges in the execution of the plan. They mentioned the issue of the mixed-couple marriages rooting for forced marriage dissolutions in prevention of imminent legal battles. They said that it would call for wider use of sterilization as a better alternative to deportation. Luther, a representative of the foreign office, advised that caution should be exercised in Scandinavian as well as other Nordic nations where public view was not anti-Jewish and, therefore, it may be unpredictable on how they reacted to unpleasant scenes. Buhler, speaking for the Poland's general government, contributed that their general government did not mind implementing the plan, especially if the planned final solution to the problem began in their general government. He indicated that transportation was not to play a large role and that there were no problems with labor supply. Jews were to be deported first from the general government's territory, as quickly as possible, because in his opinion, the Jews there were a greater epidemic. He explained that they were causing permanent problems in the country’s economy because of their continued dealings in the black market. Another participant, Neumann, speaking for the four-year arrangement, advocated for the selective exclusion of the Jews, who at the time worked in industries vital to the war efforts, especially those whose replacements could not be found. Concerning Neumann’s argument, Heydrich assured him quickly that these Jews would not suffer evacuation. Historians observe that the answer was most likely not genuine; it was Heydrich’s desperate efforts not to offend Neumann’s boss. Details put off in the following meeting included questions concerning Mischlings as well as those of mixed matrimony. The questions on this subject were postponed because of their complexity.
The Wannsee conference lasted about 90 minutes. The execution was to be carried in a systematic and bureaucratic way, which saw about six million Jews executed. The holocaust was sponsored by Adolf Hitler’s regime. Historians analyze that since the Nazis ascended to power in January 1933, they have been carrying the thought that they were racially superior to the inferior, a tag given to the Jews. They were even deemed a threat to the superiors and were, therefore, treated as enemies to the German community. During the holocaust, other minority groups also suffered. The German regime also fought against the other groups because of racial inferiority. Some Slavic people, such as Russians, Poles, were also persecuted. They were selected against on unfair grounds, such as behavioral, political, and ideological grounds. Some of these groups included communists, socialists, Kingdom for Jehovah’s witnesses, and homosexuals.
The Nazi tyranny had spread to other countries in Europe. With the help of their collaborators, the Germans brutally persecuted and murdered millions of people. Millions of Soviet prisoners of war were murdered or died of starvation, maltreatments, diseases, and infections under highly deplorable conditions. Some Soviet and Polish civilians were subjected to forced labor and mistreatment. The Germans also targeted the non-Jewish Polish intelligentsia, who were killed as well, and millions faced deportation. Since the onset of the Nazi regime, homosexuals and other sexual minorities existed. The Nazi authorities had a specific norm and code, and those who did not conform to it would have to face persecution. Political opponents were not spared either. The German police department raided thousands of political opponents, such as socialists and trade unionists.
The persecution and genocide were indeed stepwise and systematic, as was outlined in the Wannsee conference. First, the laws to discriminate the Jews from the civil society were enacted long before World War II. The concentration camps were then established for detaining and confining the targeted groups for forced labor until they died of diseases and exhaustion. Ghettos were established, where the Romani were gathered and confined before being ferried to extermination camps, where most of them would die in transit. If they survived the fatal journey, they would be killed in gas chambers. The government was deeply involved in logistics so that the genocide would go efficiently as planned.
During the 1941 summer, an SS leader, Mr. Himmler, ordered the Auschwitz commandant to carry the final solution. The following year, 1942, was the year of mass murder of such a scale that had been never observed before on the planet. All the plans had been laid down in the Wannsee conference. The SS cheated Jews aboard trains at Balzac, Sobibor that they were just stopping. According to the SS, they would soon continue their journey to their respective destinations. In addition, the Jews were further told that their clothes ought to be disinfected as they proceeded to shower rooms. They walked nude into a room fitted with showers. As soon as they crammed in the place, the door was closed, and in the airtight condition, poisonous carbon monoxide gas was pumped.
In all the death camps, special crews from the Jewish people were used to remove the victims from the gas chambers. They extracted any gold materials from the teeth and searched body openings for any concealed valuables. Corpses were discarded in mass graves and cremated in heated fire pits. Valuables, such as gold, silver, clothing, glasses, watches, and jewelers were shipped to Germany for reuse. A surprising fact about their journey to the death camps was that the Nazi regime would charge the Jews exterminated from the Western Europe the train fares. They were charged as third class passengers. They were ferried disguised as they were being taken for resettlement in the eastern side. In the Polish ghettos, the Jews were told they were transferred to work. Most of them willingly availed themselves, hoping to escape the deplorable cruel conditions in the ghettos. They were confined in poorly ventilated and unheated boxcars with poor water and sanitation. Many of them died long before reaching their destination.
By around 1944, the Nazi war had started to turn against Adolf. His armies started losing battles. However, the killing of the Jews continued. On 24 July 1944, the Soviet army destroyed the first death camp Majdanek in the eastern side of Poland. More than 350 000 Jews had died there. Himmler countered and ordered the destruction of all the gas chambers. The Soviet army reached Auschwitz in 1945. By that time, over 1.5 million Jews and over half a million Polish prisoners had perished. In April 1945, the Soviet army surrounded Berlin, where Adolf Hitler took his own life. The Reich rule came down. By that time, most of the European Jews had been brutally murdered. Over 4 million lost their lives in the death camps. Over 2 million others were either shot dead or succumbed to death in the ghetto death camps. The formidable allies: the United States, Britain, and the Soviet States Union started the arduous task, digging to uncover the minds behind the master plan. Seven months afterwards, the Nuremberg War Crime Trials began.
The Wannsee conference was indeed a conglomeration of the bloodthirsty minds. The plan against the 11 million Jews was devised simply because the Germans considering themselves a superior race. The plan was mapped out by the most senior officials of the Nazi party under Adolf Hitler. They planned to exterminate the Jews through shooting, gas poisoning, and subjecting them to deplorable inhumane conditions, which led to their death.
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0.471858978271484... | 1 | The infamous “Wannsee Conference” was a high-profile gathering of high-ranking heads of the Nazi party of the German tyrannical regime. They gathered in Berlin, Wannsee, on 20 January 1942. The meeting’s agenda was to deliberate and discuss how to implement what they referred to as the “striking a final solution to the Jewish question.” The purpose was to communicate to the administrative leaders of various departments in charge of various policies and programs related to the Nazi’s endeavor. Richard Heydrich called the meeting. He was the chief executer of the plan; he was the chief of the SD, which is the security service, and doubled as the NAZI governor of Bohemia and Moravia. Through his office, the NAZI controlled both the NAZI Security police (known as Gestapo and Kriminalpolizei in German) and the SS Intelligent service (known as Sicherheit). However, there is no existing document that explains by whom, when, and in what manner they decided to carry out the massacre of 11 million Jews. Nevertheless, many scholars argue that such orders were not given in a written form. Instead, Adolf Hitler ordered them autocratically in oral form in the summer of 1941. After the meeting, a network of extermination camps were put up and millions of youths were murdered. The Wannsee house, where the conference happened, is currently preserved as a Memorial for the Holocaust.
At the conference, Heydrich Reinhardt presented the master plan under Adolf Hitler’s approval for the quick extermination of the Jews in French speaking North Africa and Europe and for the use of able-bodied Jews on road construction projects. In the end, the Jews working in road projects would also die. By 1941, in the inner circles of the Nazi top headship as well as the government corridors, it was becoming apparent that Adolf Hitler planned to eliminate the Jews in Europe and have them deported to the eastern territories for execution through any means possible at the time. That was a great challenge because it was to involve mass registration and movement of many people during the period of labor shortage. The burden was severe. Logistically, it was a difficult task. It was also imminent that some of the high-ranking state officials could collaborate inadequately or completely fail to cooperate. Therefore, it was important that the representatives of the affected departments were brought together to discuss the way forward and ensure the top officials took part.
Buy The Wannsee Conference essay paper online
Heydrich gave an account of the measures against the Jews taken in Germany and Europe since their Nazi seized leadership in 1933. Heydrich explained that from 1933 to 1941, more than 530 000 German and Austrian Jews immigrate and were deported. The briefing prepared on his behalf by Eichmann, who was the top expert of practicalities, a week prior to the conference provided valuable information. According to Hedrick’s report, there were more than 11 million Jews in Europe, with about half of them coming from countries free from the German’s authoritarian control. Because the further immigration of the Jews in Europe had been stopped, Hedrick suggested to try “another possible solution to the question”. The solution was evacuating the Jews to the eastern side. There was to be a ‘provisional’ solution; however, ‘more practical remedy’ had been gathered in preparation to release the “final solution to the Jewish question.” Some scholars argue that the Wannsee conference did not go beyond the evacuation of the Jews and settling them to the east; there was no murdering. Heydrich explained their fate in his speech at the conference:
Under proper guidance, in the course of the final solution the Jews are to be allocated for appropriate labor in the east. Able bodied Jews, separated according to sex, will be taken in large columns to these areas for work on roads, in the course of which action doubtless a large portion will be eliminated by natural causes. The possible final remnant will have to be treated accordingly because it is the product of natural selection and would, if released act as a seed of new Jewish revival.
The participants of the conference could not understand what Heydrich meant. Actually, historians reveal that most of the participants were learned; most of them had a doctorate. Heydrich went further to explain that, for legal and political correctness, he found it important to define who a Jew was. He listed exemptions as well: the Jews aged 65 and above and the Jewish who were veterans of the First World War and had been injured and wounded, and those who were iron cross winners to be confined in the constructed concentration camps (at Theresienstasdt).
The situation of the half-caste people was more complex. With regard to the Nuremburg Statutes made in 1935, the half castes’ statuses were ambiguously left, maybe deliberately, for foreseen uses. Heydrich referred to them as Mischlings (a mix of races) of first degree if they had two Jewish grandparents. Surprisingly, this was not applicable to the children from the marriage of a Jew to a non-Jew. This would not be the case if they had been exempted only by a few individuals from the high offices in the Nazi party. The exempted would instead undergo sterilization. In the mixed marriages situation, Heydrich ruled that if in that marriage the children were raised in German culture, the partner (Jewish) would not suffer deportation. Since his emphasis was the effects of the German influence, a mixed marriage with children raised as Jews would unfortunately cause the children to be deported or sent to Theresienstadt. The exceptions above were applicable in Germany and Austria, and were readily flouted. In a majority of the other nations, Jews were packed and deported on masses, including everyone who shared neighborhood or closely identified themselves with the Jews as they were regarded as the Jews as well. Except for a few recorded exceptions in France, where the French regime at the time applied its own rules mainly affecting the refugees instead of the French-born Jews. Therefore, in the process, many French-Jews survived.
Some countries reported opposition. For example, in Denmark, the plan received opposition from not only the king but also the people, who were against the actions of the Danish participants who were supposed to evacuate majority of the Jewish population to Sweden. There was more opposition in Romania and Hungary, although they were at the time German allies. Heydrich commented that extermination of the Jews in Romania was inefficient and slow in spite of the observed dislike for Semitism. The Hungarian government had its own Jewish policy and resisted German’s interference until 1944, when the regime of Miklos Horthy was overthrown. Experts attribute Horthy’s fall to Nazi’s extremist interventions. In the course, Eichmann murdered more than 450 000 Hungarian Jews.
In the conference, Heydrich spoke for about an hour, after which questions and comments followed. Other participants also made their contributions. Representatives Hoffmann and Stuckart were the first to point out the legal, administrative, and other challenges in the execution of the plan. They mentioned the issue of the mixed-couple marriages rooting for forced marriage dissolutions in prevention of imminent legal battles. They said that it would call for wider use of sterilization as a better alternative to deportation. Luther, a representative of the foreign office, advised that caution should be exercised in Scandinavian as well as other Nordic nations where public view was not anti-Jewish and, therefore, it may be unpredictable on how they reacted to unpleasant scenes. Buhler, speaking for the Poland's general government, contributed that their general government did not mind implementing the plan, especially if the planned final solution to the problem began in their general government. He indicated that transportation was not to play a large role and that there were no problems with labor supply. Jews were to be deported first from the general government's territory, as quickly as possible, because in his opinion, the Jews there were a greater epidemic. He explained that they were causing permanent problems in the country’s economy because of their continued dealings in the black market. Another participant, Neumann, speaking for the four-year arrangement, advocated for the selective exclusion of the Jews, who at the time worked in industries vital to the war efforts, especially those whose replacements could not be found. Concerning Neumann’s argument, Heydrich assured him quickly that these Jews would not suffer evacuation. Historians observe that the answer was most likely not genuine; it was Heydrich’s desperate efforts not to offend Neumann’s boss. Details put off in the following meeting included questions concerning Mischlings as well as those of mixed matrimony. The questions on this subject were postponed because of their complexity.
The Wannsee conference lasted about 90 minutes. The execution was to be carried in a systematic and bureaucratic way, which saw about six million Jews executed. The holocaust was sponsored by Adolf Hitler’s regime. Historians analyze that since the Nazis ascended to power in January 1933, they have been carrying the thought that they were racially superior to the inferior, a tag given to the Jews. They were even deemed a threat to the superiors and were, therefore, treated as enemies to the German community. During the holocaust, other minority groups also suffered. The German regime also fought against the other groups because of racial inferiority. Some Slavic people, such as Russians, Poles, were also persecuted. They were selected against on unfair grounds, such as behavioral, political, and ideological grounds. Some of these groups included communists, socialists, Kingdom for Jehovah’s witnesses, and homosexuals.
The Nazi tyranny had spread to other countries in Europe. With the help of their collaborators, the Germans brutally persecuted and murdered millions of people. Millions of Soviet prisoners of war were murdered or died of starvation, maltreatments, diseases, and infections under highly deplorable conditions. Some Soviet and Polish civilians were subjected to forced labor and mistreatment. The Germans also targeted the non-Jewish Polish intelligentsia, who were killed as well, and millions faced deportation. Since the onset of the Nazi regime, homosexuals and other sexual minorities existed. The Nazi authorities had a specific norm and code, and those who did not conform to it would have to face persecution. Political opponents were not spared either. The German police department raided thousands of political opponents, such as socialists and trade unionists.
The persecution and genocide were indeed stepwise and systematic, as was outlined in the Wannsee conference. First, the laws to discriminate the Jews from the civil society were enacted long before World War II. The concentration camps were then established for detaining and confining the targeted groups for forced labor until they died of diseases and exhaustion. Ghettos were established, where the Romani were gathered and confined before being ferried to extermination camps, where most of them would die in transit. If they survived the fatal journey, they would be killed in gas chambers. The government was deeply involved in logistics so that the genocide would go efficiently as planned.
During the 1941 summer, an SS leader, Mr. Himmler, ordered the Auschwitz commandant to carry the final solution. The following year, 1942, was the year of mass murder of such a scale that had been never observed before on the planet. All the plans had been laid down in the Wannsee conference. The SS cheated Jews aboard trains at Balzac, Sobibor that they were just stopping. According to the SS, they would soon continue their journey to their respective destinations. In addition, the Jews were further told that their clothes ought to be disinfected as they proceeded to shower rooms. They walked nude into a room fitted with showers. As soon as they crammed in the place, the door was closed, and in the airtight condition, poisonous carbon monoxide gas was pumped.
In all the death camps, special crews from the Jewish people were used to remove the victims from the gas chambers. They extracted any gold materials from the teeth and searched body openings for any concealed valuables. Corpses were discarded in mass graves and cremated in heated fire pits. Valuables, such as gold, silver, clothing, glasses, watches, and jewelers were shipped to Germany for reuse. A surprising fact about their journey to the death camps was that the Nazi regime would charge the Jews exterminated from the Western Europe the train fares. They were charged as third class passengers. They were ferried disguised as they were being taken for resettlement in the eastern side. In the Polish ghettos, the Jews were told they were transferred to work. Most of them willingly availed themselves, hoping to escape the deplorable cruel conditions in the ghettos. They were confined in poorly ventilated and unheated boxcars with poor water and sanitation. Many of them died long before reaching their destination.
By around 1944, the Nazi war had started to turn against Adolf. His armies started losing battles. However, the killing of the Jews continued. On 24 July 1944, the Soviet army destroyed the first death camp Majdanek in the eastern side of Poland. More than 350 000 Jews had died there. Himmler countered and ordered the destruction of all the gas chambers. The Soviet army reached Auschwitz in 1945. By that time, over 1.5 million Jews and over half a million Polish prisoners had perished. In April 1945, the Soviet army surrounded Berlin, where Adolf Hitler took his own life. The Reich rule came down. By that time, most of the European Jews had been brutally murdered. Over 4 million lost their lives in the death camps. Over 2 million others were either shot dead or succumbed to death in the ghetto death camps. The formidable allies: the United States, Britain, and the Soviet States Union started the arduous task, digging to uncover the minds behind the master plan. Seven months afterwards, the Nuremberg War Crime Trials began.
The Wannsee conference was indeed a conglomeration of the bloodthirsty minds. The plan against the 11 million Jews was devised simply because the Germans considering themselves a superior race. The plan was mapped out by the most senior officials of the Nazi party under Adolf Hitler. They planned to exterminate the Jews through shooting, gas poisoning, and subjecting them to deplorable inhumane conditions, which led to their death.
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- Causes and Effects of Sneakers Reselling
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Most popular orders | 3,102 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Little Albert experiment has become a widely known case study that is continuously discussed by a large number of psychology professionals. In 1920, behaviorist John Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner began to conduct one of the first experiments done with a child. Stability played a major factor in choosing Albert for this case study, as Watson wanted to ensure that they would do as little harm as possible during the experiment. Watson’s method of choice for this experiment was to use principles of classic conditioning to create a stimulus in children that would result in fear. Since Watson wanted to condition Albert, a variety of objects were used that would otherwise not scare him. These objects included a white rat, blocks, a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, wool, and a Santa Claus mask. Albert’s conditioning began with a series of emotional tests that became part of a routine in which Watson and Rayner were determining whether other stimuli’s could cause fear.
Watson and his team opened the experiment by questioning if a loud noise would cause a fear reaction. A hammer struck against a steel bar was an abrupt sound causing Albert to throw his hands in the air. By the third and last strike, the child was crying; this was the first time an emotive state (in the lab) produced fear, causing Albert to cry. The sound conditioning led to Watson and his team questioning whether they could condition an emotion while presenting a white rat to the child at the same time they strike the steel bar.
The first time the rat was presented to Albert he began to reach for it; as soon as he touched the rat the bar was struck. This affected Albert causing him not to cry, but show signs of distress. After a weeks break from experimenting, Albert was placed on the mattress with the rat without sound. He started to reach for the rat, however once the rat came into contact with Albert’s hand, he quickly withdrew it. This occurrence between the rat and the bar showed that the dual stimulations the week prior had a lasting effect on Albert. In his case study, Watson explained that the stimulations were given to get a complete reaction from Albert. The response from the stimulations “was as convincing a case of a completely conditioned fear response as could have been theoretically pictured” (Watson, 1920, pp. 314). Every time the rat was joined with the loud sound (dual stimulation), Albert gave the same complete negative reaction.
In the experiment, pairing the rat and noise caused by the hammer striking the bar, play the role of unconditioned stimulus (US), conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR). Introducing Albert to the loud sound of hammering the bar is measured as the unconditioned stimulus. The loud sound is something that Albert is not accustomed to, so the response is unlearned. Conditioned stimulus occurred when Albert was continuously introduced to the rat alone. Since Albert experienced the rat at the same the bar was hammered, he... | <urn:uuid:0c507a30-5c5a-4da3-b0f8-d989c8628bfe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-tiny-albert-experiment-by-john-watson-and-rosalie-rayner | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.982235 | 609 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | The Little Albert experiment has become a widely known case study that is continuously discussed by a large number of psychology professionals. In 1920, behaviorist John Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner began to conduct one of the first experiments done with a child. Stability played a major factor in choosing Albert for this case study, as Watson wanted to ensure that they would do as little harm as possible during the experiment. Watson’s method of choice for this experiment was to use principles of classic conditioning to create a stimulus in children that would result in fear. Since Watson wanted to condition Albert, a variety of objects were used that would otherwise not scare him. These objects included a white rat, blocks, a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, wool, and a Santa Claus mask. Albert’s conditioning began with a series of emotional tests that became part of a routine in which Watson and Rayner were determining whether other stimuli’s could cause fear.
Watson and his team opened the experiment by questioning if a loud noise would cause a fear reaction. A hammer struck against a steel bar was an abrupt sound causing Albert to throw his hands in the air. By the third and last strike, the child was crying; this was the first time an emotive state (in the lab) produced fear, causing Albert to cry. The sound conditioning led to Watson and his team questioning whether they could condition an emotion while presenting a white rat to the child at the same time they strike the steel bar.
The first time the rat was presented to Albert he began to reach for it; as soon as he touched the rat the bar was struck. This affected Albert causing him not to cry, but show signs of distress. After a weeks break from experimenting, Albert was placed on the mattress with the rat without sound. He started to reach for the rat, however once the rat came into contact with Albert’s hand, he quickly withdrew it. This occurrence between the rat and the bar showed that the dual stimulations the week prior had a lasting effect on Albert. In his case study, Watson explained that the stimulations were given to get a complete reaction from Albert. The response from the stimulations “was as convincing a case of a completely conditioned fear response as could have been theoretically pictured” (Watson, 1920, pp. 314). Every time the rat was joined with the loud sound (dual stimulation), Albert gave the same complete negative reaction.
In the experiment, pairing the rat and noise caused by the hammer striking the bar, play the role of unconditioned stimulus (US), conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR). Introducing Albert to the loud sound of hammering the bar is measured as the unconditioned stimulus. The loud sound is something that Albert is not accustomed to, so the response is unlearned. Conditioned stimulus occurred when Albert was continuously introduced to the rat alone. Since Albert experienced the rat at the same the bar was hammered, he... | 606 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Let There Be Light - Part V
In 1518, Luther was summoned by Pope Leo X to appear in Heidelberg, Germany, to defend his statements. Martin Luther debated a panel of distinguished Augustinian monks, who were considered to be theological masters of the church. The monks were no match for Luther. Months later, Cardinal Cajetan put Martin Luther on trial. Cajetan, also a distinguished scholar, was no more a match against Luther than the Augustinian monks. While the cardinal defended the Catholic Church’s use of indulgences, Luther set out his countering positions with great precision and was unfazed by feeble attempts at belittling his courage. Luther said he would not recant anything unless Scripture proved him wrong. “I deny that the pope is above Scripture. His Holiness abuses Scripture.”
Cardinal Cajetan lost his temper and began shouting at Luther, demanding Luther to leave and to never darken his holy door again unless he was willing to say, “I recant.”
In due time, a series of commissions was convened to examine Luther’s teachings. The first papal commission found them to be heretical, but the second merely stated that Luther’s writings were scandalous and offensive to pious ears. But, Pope Leo X had all he could take of Martin Luther. In 1520, he issued a “papal bull”—a public declaration that concluded Luther’s propositions as heresy. The papal bull not only obliged all Christians to acknowledge the pope’s authority and power to grant indulgences, but also threatened Luther with excommunication from the Catholic Church and gave him 120 days to recant in Rome. No sooner than Luther received the bull, he burned it—publicly!
When Pope Leo X received word of Luther’s active defiance, he issued a “Decet Romanum Pontificem,” in English meaning, “It Pleases the Roman Pontiff,” thus banishing Luther from the church. The issue was turned over to secular authorities, and Luther agreed to appear before the Diet of Worms.
As vast as the rift now appeared between Martin Luther and the church, there was still a chance for reprieve, and Luther was prepared to address the accusations against him. This was to be Luther’s defining moment.
After a long and difficult journey from Wittenberg, Luther arrived in Worms with great fanfare. Preceding his arrival, a crowd of 2,000 lined the streets to escort him into town. The citizens eagerly pressed forth to see this man, every moment the crowds increasing. The procession made its way with difficulty through the multitudes. A great number even climbed onto rooftops to catch a glimpse. The tops of houses and the pavements of the streets were littered with spectators. To some, he was a prodigy of wisdom; to others, a fool. Nonetheless, the entire city came to see him.
Luther advanced through the crowds with difficulty as he made his way into the town hall. Luther’s appearance before the Diet in itself was a great victory over the church and the papacy. The pope had condemned him to perpetual silence, yet, here he was, about to speak before thousands of attentive listeners.
Approaching the assembly, Luther was presented with a table littered with copies of his own writings. The panel of dignitaries demanded confirmation that he authored the various writings attributed to him and whether he espoused of its contents. Luther calmly stated, “The books are all mine, and I have written more.”
The Diet further noted that Luther’s writings contained the errors of previous reformers and that various councils had already condemned these heretics over past centuries. Luther was undeterred. He demanded that these men show him any Scripture that would refute his positions and writings. There was none.
“You have not answered the question put to you,” one of the dignitaries said. “You were not summoned hither to call in question the decisions of councils. You are required to give a clear and precise answer. Will you, or will you not retract?”
Luther responded, “Since then your serene majesty and your lordships request a simple reply, I will give it without horns and hoofs, and say: Unless I am convinced by the testimony of Scripture or by plain reason (for I believe in neither the pope nor in councils alone, for it is well-known, not only that they have erred, but also have contradicted themselves), I am mastered by the passages of Scripture which I have quoted, and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant, for it is neither safe nor honest to violate one’s conscience. I can do no other. Here I take my stand, God being my helper. Amen.”
The assembly, including the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, was thunderstruck. They witnessed firsthand Luther’s bold demeanor and unshaken courage. The monk, who so courageously nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the Castle Church nearly four years prior, had braved his enemies amongst an assembly of men who thirsted for his blood. Dumbfounded but still seeking grounds to convict Luther, the Diet convened to deliberate. After several days of deliberation, the assembly was faced with coming to a decision on Luther’s fate.
Without validation, Charles V issued the “Edict of Worms,” placing Luther under imperial ban, banning his literature and officially declaring him a heretic to the entirety of the Holy Roman Empire. He was to be arrested on site. Furthermore, the assembly sanctioned his death with no legal consequences under the law. Essentially, the Roman Catholic Church was condoning the murder of Martin Luther.
The Edict of Worms further stated that it would be considered a crime for anyone within the empire to give Luther sanctuary.
But, Luther had already vanished.
His sentence came down several days after the Diet, so Luther, now a condemned and wanted man, had already taken shelter, thanks to Prince Frederick of Saxony, who whisked him into hiding at Wartburg Castle days before the edict was made public.
This article is an excerpt from the book, Light Of Liberty.
Share this Post
No one has commented on this article yet. Leave your comment below! | <urn:uuid:6255cd8d-110f-488c-9c20-680dd5a374d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://donnieswaggart.org/articles/let-there-be-light--part-v | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00281.warc.gz | en | 0.981014 | 1,341 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.0886896103620... | 5 | Let There Be Light - Part V
In 1518, Luther was summoned by Pope Leo X to appear in Heidelberg, Germany, to defend his statements. Martin Luther debated a panel of distinguished Augustinian monks, who were considered to be theological masters of the church. The monks were no match for Luther. Months later, Cardinal Cajetan put Martin Luther on trial. Cajetan, also a distinguished scholar, was no more a match against Luther than the Augustinian monks. While the cardinal defended the Catholic Church’s use of indulgences, Luther set out his countering positions with great precision and was unfazed by feeble attempts at belittling his courage. Luther said he would not recant anything unless Scripture proved him wrong. “I deny that the pope is above Scripture. His Holiness abuses Scripture.”
Cardinal Cajetan lost his temper and began shouting at Luther, demanding Luther to leave and to never darken his holy door again unless he was willing to say, “I recant.”
In due time, a series of commissions was convened to examine Luther’s teachings. The first papal commission found them to be heretical, but the second merely stated that Luther’s writings were scandalous and offensive to pious ears. But, Pope Leo X had all he could take of Martin Luther. In 1520, he issued a “papal bull”—a public declaration that concluded Luther’s propositions as heresy. The papal bull not only obliged all Christians to acknowledge the pope’s authority and power to grant indulgences, but also threatened Luther with excommunication from the Catholic Church and gave him 120 days to recant in Rome. No sooner than Luther received the bull, he burned it—publicly!
When Pope Leo X received word of Luther’s active defiance, he issued a “Decet Romanum Pontificem,” in English meaning, “It Pleases the Roman Pontiff,” thus banishing Luther from the church. The issue was turned over to secular authorities, and Luther agreed to appear before the Diet of Worms.
As vast as the rift now appeared between Martin Luther and the church, there was still a chance for reprieve, and Luther was prepared to address the accusations against him. This was to be Luther’s defining moment.
After a long and difficult journey from Wittenberg, Luther arrived in Worms with great fanfare. Preceding his arrival, a crowd of 2,000 lined the streets to escort him into town. The citizens eagerly pressed forth to see this man, every moment the crowds increasing. The procession made its way with difficulty through the multitudes. A great number even climbed onto rooftops to catch a glimpse. The tops of houses and the pavements of the streets were littered with spectators. To some, he was a prodigy of wisdom; to others, a fool. Nonetheless, the entire city came to see him.
Luther advanced through the crowds with difficulty as he made his way into the town hall. Luther’s appearance before the Diet in itself was a great victory over the church and the papacy. The pope had condemned him to perpetual silence, yet, here he was, about to speak before thousands of attentive listeners.
Approaching the assembly, Luther was presented with a table littered with copies of his own writings. The panel of dignitaries demanded confirmation that he authored the various writings attributed to him and whether he espoused of its contents. Luther calmly stated, “The books are all mine, and I have written more.”
The Diet further noted that Luther’s writings contained the errors of previous reformers and that various councils had already condemned these heretics over past centuries. Luther was undeterred. He demanded that these men show him any Scripture that would refute his positions and writings. There was none.
“You have not answered the question put to you,” one of the dignitaries said. “You were not summoned hither to call in question the decisions of councils. You are required to give a clear and precise answer. Will you, or will you not retract?”
Luther responded, “Since then your serene majesty and your lordships request a simple reply, I will give it without horns and hoofs, and say: Unless I am convinced by the testimony of Scripture or by plain reason (for I believe in neither the pope nor in councils alone, for it is well-known, not only that they have erred, but also have contradicted themselves), I am mastered by the passages of Scripture which I have quoted, and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant, for it is neither safe nor honest to violate one’s conscience. I can do no other. Here I take my stand, God being my helper. Amen.”
The assembly, including the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, was thunderstruck. They witnessed firsthand Luther’s bold demeanor and unshaken courage. The monk, who so courageously nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the Castle Church nearly four years prior, had braved his enemies amongst an assembly of men who thirsted for his blood. Dumbfounded but still seeking grounds to convict Luther, the Diet convened to deliberate. After several days of deliberation, the assembly was faced with coming to a decision on Luther’s fate.
Without validation, Charles V issued the “Edict of Worms,” placing Luther under imperial ban, banning his literature and officially declaring him a heretic to the entirety of the Holy Roman Empire. He was to be arrested on site. Furthermore, the assembly sanctioned his death with no legal consequences under the law. Essentially, the Roman Catholic Church was condoning the murder of Martin Luther.
The Edict of Worms further stated that it would be considered a crime for anyone within the empire to give Luther sanctuary.
But, Luther had already vanished.
His sentence came down several days after the Diet, so Luther, now a condemned and wanted man, had already taken shelter, thanks to Prince Frederick of Saxony, who whisked him into hiding at Wartburg Castle days before the edict was made public.
This article is an excerpt from the book, Light Of Liberty.
Share this Post
No one has commented on this article yet. Leave your comment below! | 1,286 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frederick Gowland Hopkins Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Frederick Gowland Hopkins was born on June 20th, in 1861. He was a celebrated English biochemist. In 1929, Hopkins was bestowed with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He shared this award with Christiaan Eijkman. Together, the two had engaged in research that led to the discovery of vitamins. Hopkins was also credited with the discovery of tryptophan, an amino acid in 1901. For a period of five years beginning 1930, he was the President of the Royal Society.
Frederick Gowland Hopkins was born on June 20th, 1861. His birthplace was in Eastbourne, Sussex. He schooled at the City of London School. Later on, he went for his further studies at the University of London External Programme. At some point, he enrolled in a medical school called Guy's Hospital. Later in life, Hopkins took the job as a teacher at Guy's Hospital where he taught toxicology and physiology for four years.
While teaching at Guy's Hospital, Frederick Gowland Hopkins also made his first publication on blood albumins. His interests in the science field were quickly noticed, and in 1898, Sir Michael Foster invited him to carry out intensive research on physiology at the Cambridge University. Hopkins was mainly assigned to investigate more in-depth into the chemical aspects of physiology.
In mid-1902, Frederick Gowland Hopkins obtained his doctorate from the University of London. Similarly, he was granted readership in biochemistry around this time from the Trinity College. Before his research into physiology, biochemistry was at this time not recognized as a different branch of science. Nonetheless, with Hopkins contributions in the field, in 1914, he was appointed the chairman of biochemistry at the University of Cambridge. This made him the first biochemistry professor at the university.
Discovery of Vitamins
In 1912, Frederick Gowland Hopkins released a publication that later earned him high acclaim. In this publication, he demonstrated the right animal feeding diets that would boost their growth. During this time, he proposed that there were absolute essentials for animal growth and gave them the term "accessory food factors." These were later identified as ‘Vitamins.’ This work led to the Nobel Prize in Physiology for Medicine that he was given in 1929 alongside Christiaan Eijkman.
Frederick Gowland Hopkins' research on vitamins proved handy during World War I. When there were food shortages his ideologies of essential food nutrients were quite crucial.
Frederick Gowland Hopkins wedded Jessie Anne Stevens in 1898. The two were blessed with two daughters. Sadly, his wife passed away in 1937.
Hopkins died a decade later after his wife had passed away. He died on May 16th, 1947. He was 85 years at the time of his death.
Melvin Ellis Calvin
Richard Laurence Millington Synge | <urn:uuid:097e9800-dbca-417b-b715-c86e5d488794> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/frederick-gowland-hopkins/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.983091 | 594 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.02797871455550... | 1 | Frederick Gowland Hopkins Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Frederick Gowland Hopkins was born on June 20th, in 1861. He was a celebrated English biochemist. In 1929, Hopkins was bestowed with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He shared this award with Christiaan Eijkman. Together, the two had engaged in research that led to the discovery of vitamins. Hopkins was also credited with the discovery of tryptophan, an amino acid in 1901. For a period of five years beginning 1930, he was the President of the Royal Society.
Frederick Gowland Hopkins was born on June 20th, 1861. His birthplace was in Eastbourne, Sussex. He schooled at the City of London School. Later on, he went for his further studies at the University of London External Programme. At some point, he enrolled in a medical school called Guy's Hospital. Later in life, Hopkins took the job as a teacher at Guy's Hospital where he taught toxicology and physiology for four years.
While teaching at Guy's Hospital, Frederick Gowland Hopkins also made his first publication on blood albumins. His interests in the science field were quickly noticed, and in 1898, Sir Michael Foster invited him to carry out intensive research on physiology at the Cambridge University. Hopkins was mainly assigned to investigate more in-depth into the chemical aspects of physiology.
In mid-1902, Frederick Gowland Hopkins obtained his doctorate from the University of London. Similarly, he was granted readership in biochemistry around this time from the Trinity College. Before his research into physiology, biochemistry was at this time not recognized as a different branch of science. Nonetheless, with Hopkins contributions in the field, in 1914, he was appointed the chairman of biochemistry at the University of Cambridge. This made him the first biochemistry professor at the university.
Discovery of Vitamins
In 1912, Frederick Gowland Hopkins released a publication that later earned him high acclaim. In this publication, he demonstrated the right animal feeding diets that would boost their growth. During this time, he proposed that there were absolute essentials for animal growth and gave them the term "accessory food factors." These were later identified as ‘Vitamins.’ This work led to the Nobel Prize in Physiology for Medicine that he was given in 1929 alongside Christiaan Eijkman.
Frederick Gowland Hopkins' research on vitamins proved handy during World War I. When there were food shortages his ideologies of essential food nutrients were quite crucial.
Frederick Gowland Hopkins wedded Jessie Anne Stevens in 1898. The two were blessed with two daughters. Sadly, his wife passed away in 1937.
Hopkins died a decade later after his wife had passed away. He died on May 16th, 1947. He was 85 years at the time of his death.
Melvin Ellis Calvin
Richard Laurence Millington Synge | 640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When it was first published, many critics doubted that The Narrative of the Life and Times of Frederick DougIass had even been written by Frederick Douglass. As odd as it may seem now, that criticism was not completely unfounded: In the mid-nineteenth century, the antislavery movement produced hundreds of slave narratives, many of them ghostwritten by white abolitionists and tailored to create sympathy for their movement. But this book, by this remarkable man, was different. The tag line at the end of the book's subtitle—Written by Himself —was vitally important. Although clearly written with the abolitionist cause in mind, this book is not merely a political tract. True, its dispassionate prose brought to light the "injustice, exposure to outrage, and savage barbarity" of slavery as Douglass observed and experienced it. But it also brought to life an uncommon man and the particular concerns seared into him during his experience of bondage. Douglass recounts that during slavery, he and his people were denied life's fundamentals: faith, family, education, the capacity for bold action, a sense of community, and personal identity. Douglass saw reclamation of these things as the key to his and his people's survival, redemption, and salvation.
The autobiography opens with a description of the aspects of his own life that Douglass was never allowed to know: the identity of his father, the warmth and care of his mother (who was a stranger to him), and even the fact of his own date of birth. As a child, he suffered from and observed savage beatings firsthand, including the fierce beating of his Aunt Hester at the hands of their master, Captain Aaron Anthony. As he grew older, Douglass liberated himself in stages: mentally, spiritually, and, eventually, physically. His mental freedom began when he was taught to read and write and realized the power of literacy; his spiritual freedom came when he discovered the grace of Christianity and the will to resist his beatings; his physical freedom arrived when he finally escaped to the North.
After escaping, Douglass was committed to telling the world about the condition of the brothers and sisters he left behind. Aside from telling Douglass's personal story, his autobiography takes us to the fields and the cabins and the lives of many slaves to reveal the real human cost of slavery. Douglass focused on the dehumanizing aspects of slavery: not just the beatings, but the parting of children from their mothers, the denial of education, and the sexual abuses of slave masters. He ends the book with this statement: "Sincerely and earnestly hoping that his little book may do something toward throwing light on the American slave system, and hastening the glad day of deliverance to the millions of my brethren in bonds—faithfully relying upon the power of truth, love, and justice, for success in my humble efforts—and solemnly pledging myself anew to the sacred cause, I subscribe myself, Frederick Douglass."
The book was an incredible success: It sold over thirty thousand copies and was an international bestseller. It was the first, and most successful, of three autobiographies that Douglass was to write. The other two, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) and The Life and Times of Frederick DougIass, update the story of his life and revise some of the facts of his earlier autobiography. | <urn:uuid:e63e2624-6fa0-4ae5-8f0d-d64534bab75b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://prerelease.barnesandnoble.com/w/life-of-an-american-slave-frederick-douglass/1102351973?ean=9781400100477 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00465.warc.gz | en | 0.98212 | 688 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.216973215341568... | 2 | When it was first published, many critics doubted that The Narrative of the Life and Times of Frederick DougIass had even been written by Frederick Douglass. As odd as it may seem now, that criticism was not completely unfounded: In the mid-nineteenth century, the antislavery movement produced hundreds of slave narratives, many of them ghostwritten by white abolitionists and tailored to create sympathy for their movement. But this book, by this remarkable man, was different. The tag line at the end of the book's subtitle—Written by Himself —was vitally important. Although clearly written with the abolitionist cause in mind, this book is not merely a political tract. True, its dispassionate prose brought to light the "injustice, exposure to outrage, and savage barbarity" of slavery as Douglass observed and experienced it. But it also brought to life an uncommon man and the particular concerns seared into him during his experience of bondage. Douglass recounts that during slavery, he and his people were denied life's fundamentals: faith, family, education, the capacity for bold action, a sense of community, and personal identity. Douglass saw reclamation of these things as the key to his and his people's survival, redemption, and salvation.
The autobiography opens with a description of the aspects of his own life that Douglass was never allowed to know: the identity of his father, the warmth and care of his mother (who was a stranger to him), and even the fact of his own date of birth. As a child, he suffered from and observed savage beatings firsthand, including the fierce beating of his Aunt Hester at the hands of their master, Captain Aaron Anthony. As he grew older, Douglass liberated himself in stages: mentally, spiritually, and, eventually, physically. His mental freedom began when he was taught to read and write and realized the power of literacy; his spiritual freedom came when he discovered the grace of Christianity and the will to resist his beatings; his physical freedom arrived when he finally escaped to the North.
After escaping, Douglass was committed to telling the world about the condition of the brothers and sisters he left behind. Aside from telling Douglass's personal story, his autobiography takes us to the fields and the cabins and the lives of many slaves to reveal the real human cost of slavery. Douglass focused on the dehumanizing aspects of slavery: not just the beatings, but the parting of children from their mothers, the denial of education, and the sexual abuses of slave masters. He ends the book with this statement: "Sincerely and earnestly hoping that his little book may do something toward throwing light on the American slave system, and hastening the glad day of deliverance to the millions of my brethren in bonds—faithfully relying upon the power of truth, love, and justice, for success in my humble efforts—and solemnly pledging myself anew to the sacred cause, I subscribe myself, Frederick Douglass."
The book was an incredible success: It sold over thirty thousand copies and was an international bestseller. It was the first, and most successful, of three autobiographies that Douglass was to write. The other two, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) and The Life and Times of Frederick DougIass, update the story of his life and revise some of the facts of his earlier autobiography. | 689 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In The Red Badge of Courage, what differences does Crane see between the leaders of battle and the common soldiers?
The differences between the different ranks of soldiers in the Civil War is something that Crane's fiction seeks to explore not just in this excellent novel but elsewhere in his various works as well. To take a specific instance, let us look at Chapter Four of this great work and the way that the commanding officers of the rank and file soldiers are shown to react to the way in which their soldiers are fleeing and deserting. It is interesting to note the way that the commanding officers are shown to be rather ridiculous in their inability to prevent their soldiers from fleeing the battlefield:
The following throng went whirling around the flank. Here and there were officers carried along on the stream like exasperated chips. They were striking about them with their swords and with their left fists, punching every head they could reach. They cursed like highwaymen.
In the heat and pressure of battle, even commanding officers are shown to lose their cool and dignity. Crane goes on to describe one officer who "displayed the furious anger of a spoiled child." Although this novel clearly presents the commanding officers as being "higher" than the common soldiers such as the protagonist, the pressure of battle and war is shown to be a great equaliser that all men respond to in a way that shows them in their true colours and strips them of the dignity and station that other men give them.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:21a958c7-4c67-4472-b06f-5c357ca5880c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-differences-does-crane-see-between-leaders-285101 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00263.warc.gz | en | 0.982985 | 301 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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The differences between the different ranks of soldiers in the Civil War is something that Crane's fiction seeks to explore not just in this excellent novel but elsewhere in his various works as well. To take a specific instance, let us look at Chapter Four of this great work and the way that the commanding officers of the rank and file soldiers are shown to react to the way in which their soldiers are fleeing and deserting. It is interesting to note the way that the commanding officers are shown to be rather ridiculous in their inability to prevent their soldiers from fleeing the battlefield:
The following throng went whirling around the flank. Here and there were officers carried along on the stream like exasperated chips. They were striking about them with their swords and with their left fists, punching every head they could reach. They cursed like highwaymen.
In the heat and pressure of battle, even commanding officers are shown to lose their cool and dignity. Crane goes on to describe one officer who "displayed the furious anger of a spoiled child." Although this novel clearly presents the commanding officers as being "higher" than the common soldiers such as the protagonist, the pressure of battle and war is shown to be a great equaliser that all men respond to in a way that shows them in their true colours and strips them of the dignity and station that other men give them.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 297 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Children with severe pneumonia can be treated just as effectively at home as in a hospital, according to new research. Doctors in Pakistan found that children taking antibiotics at home were as likely to survive serious pneumonia as those treated in hospitals. The study was published Friday in the British medical journal, The Lancet. "If this (home) treatment was implemented on a wide scale, then we could potentially save millions of children," said Dr. Renee Van de Weerdt, a child health expert at UNICEF, who was not involved in the study. "This shows us that we can do something about pneumonia at the community level," Van de Weerdt said. "It doesn't always require a sophisticated hospital." Pneumonia is the top killer of children under five worldwide, causing one-fifth of the 10 million deaths every year. Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lungs that causes coughing, breathing difficulties, fever and muscle pain. About five to 10 percent of all children under five in developing countries get pneumonia every year. Children with HIV or malaria are at particular risk. Under current World Health Organization guidelines, health workers refer children with severe pneumonia to hospitals to receive antibiotics through injections. But in many poor countries, children referred to hospitals often don't receive care if their parents cannot afford it or if there is no nearby hospital. In the Lancet study, doctors in Pakistan randomly assigned children with serious pneumonia to either receive antibiotic shots in the hospital for two days, or to take antibiotics at home for five days. Parents of the children sent home were instructed how and when to give their children the antibiotics. The research was conducted at seven sites across Pakistan: 1,012 children were hospitalized and 1,025 were treated at home. The children were aged between about three months and five years old. Among the hospitalized children, 87 children did not respond to the treatment or developed complications. That compared to 77 children in those treated at home. Five children died during the study; four were in the hospitalized group and one was at home. The study was conducted by researchers at Boston University's School of Public Health and colleagues, and was paid for by WHO and the U.S. Agency for International Development. Treating children with severe pneumonia at home would also save health systems thousands of dollars. A course of medicines to be taken at home costs $2 at most. Based on the Pakistani results and those of previous studies, WHO said it would soon revise its guidelines for children with pneumonia. UNICEF said that trained community health workers, rather than parents, should be the ones giving drugs to children at home with severe pneumonia. "At the implementation level, there are quality control challenges," Van de Weert said. "We don't want antibiotics to be used wildly by anyone." WHO said that not all children with severe pneumonia could be treated at home, and that a small percentage would still require hospitalization. "Pneumonia is the single biggest killer of children in the world," said Dr. Shamim Qazi, a pediatrician at WHO. "We are hopeful that with the results from this study, we may be able to change that." | <urn:uuid:a2431ea0-8e02-4e8b-bd95-aeed70aacf08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jpost.com/Health-and-Sci-Tech/Health/Docs-Home-care-OK-for-kids-pneumonia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.985031 | 631 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.28085941076278687,... | 3 | Children with severe pneumonia can be treated just as effectively at home as in a hospital, according to new research. Doctors in Pakistan found that children taking antibiotics at home were as likely to survive serious pneumonia as those treated in hospitals. The study was published Friday in the British medical journal, The Lancet. "If this (home) treatment was implemented on a wide scale, then we could potentially save millions of children," said Dr. Renee Van de Weerdt, a child health expert at UNICEF, who was not involved in the study. "This shows us that we can do something about pneumonia at the community level," Van de Weerdt said. "It doesn't always require a sophisticated hospital." Pneumonia is the top killer of children under five worldwide, causing one-fifth of the 10 million deaths every year. Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lungs that causes coughing, breathing difficulties, fever and muscle pain. About five to 10 percent of all children under five in developing countries get pneumonia every year. Children with HIV or malaria are at particular risk. Under current World Health Organization guidelines, health workers refer children with severe pneumonia to hospitals to receive antibiotics through injections. But in many poor countries, children referred to hospitals often don't receive care if their parents cannot afford it or if there is no nearby hospital. In the Lancet study, doctors in Pakistan randomly assigned children with serious pneumonia to either receive antibiotic shots in the hospital for two days, or to take antibiotics at home for five days. Parents of the children sent home were instructed how and when to give their children the antibiotics. The research was conducted at seven sites across Pakistan: 1,012 children were hospitalized and 1,025 were treated at home. The children were aged between about three months and five years old. Among the hospitalized children, 87 children did not respond to the treatment or developed complications. That compared to 77 children in those treated at home. Five children died during the study; four were in the hospitalized group and one was at home. The study was conducted by researchers at Boston University's School of Public Health and colleagues, and was paid for by WHO and the U.S. Agency for International Development. Treating children with severe pneumonia at home would also save health systems thousands of dollars. A course of medicines to be taken at home costs $2 at most. Based on the Pakistani results and those of previous studies, WHO said it would soon revise its guidelines for children with pneumonia. UNICEF said that trained community health workers, rather than parents, should be the ones giving drugs to children at home with severe pneumonia. "At the implementation level, there are quality control challenges," Van de Weert said. "We don't want antibiotics to be used wildly by anyone." WHO said that not all children with severe pneumonia could be treated at home, and that a small percentage would still require hospitalization. "Pneumonia is the single biggest killer of children in the world," said Dr. Shamim Qazi, a pediatrician at WHO. "We are hopeful that with the results from this study, we may be able to change that." | 650 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Egyptians were the first known peoples to discover and use leaven, which they credited to their gods. Later, the Israelites in this culture were living a bitter life as slaves to the Egyptians. Then the unexpected happened to the Israelites, the people trapped in the lowest levels of this society - they were rescued and brought into a new society with a new structure and a new Leader. They symbol of this new culture was a very different bread - unleavened bread. This message was given on the First Day of Unleavened Bread.
John Elliott pastors United Church of God congregations in southern British Columbia, Canada and in Sedro-Woolley, Washington. He also has served on the Council of Elders and assists with the Church’s operations in East Africa. | <urn:uuid:b6e98e7a-66a6-48d3-bfc4-dabe524f0194> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ucg.org/sermons/reject-the-leaven-of-wickedness-and-crave-the-leaven-of-righteousness | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.982161 | 159 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.0419107638... | 1 | The Egyptians were the first known peoples to discover and use leaven, which they credited to their gods. Later, the Israelites in this culture were living a bitter life as slaves to the Egyptians. Then the unexpected happened to the Israelites, the people trapped in the lowest levels of this society - they were rescued and brought into a new society with a new structure and a new Leader. They symbol of this new culture was a very different bread - unleavened bread. This message was given on the First Day of Unleavened Bread.
John Elliott pastors United Church of God congregations in southern British Columbia, Canada and in Sedro-Woolley, Washington. He also has served on the Council of Elders and assists with the Church’s operations in East Africa. | 156 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In medieval bestiaries, we are liable to see real but exotic animals illustrated alongside fantastical creatures like unicorns and centaurs. The real beasts are often depicted inaccurately, which we often attribute to the fact that the artist had never seen a real specimen, but worked from descriptions from those who had. However, there were many depictions of elephants that showed the same inaccuracy: a trunk shaped like a trumpet. Could those artists possibly be copying the ideas of earlier artists? Where was the first depiction of an elephant with a trumpet nose?
One of the mysteries of the bestiary form is what the first one looked like. The tradition is usually traced back to the Physiologus, a book that no longer exists. It’s thought that it was written around the 2nd century A.D., in Alexandria, by a scholar working in Greek, and much of what’s known about it is derived from later translations into Latin. It would have contained the descriptions of a selection of animals, perhaps 50 or so, and relied on the standard works of natural history of the time, including Aristotle’s History of Animals and Pliny’s Natural History.
The thing about that book is that the animals weren't just described- they were used as allegories for "the ways of God, of Man and of the Devil.” The story it told of elephants was about sex. While the trunk shape is never fully explained, the search for the answer is quite interesting, as you'll find at Atlas Obscura. | <urn:uuid:d5a780d6-658d-4dc3-aa59-b7373dc16c1d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.neatorama.com/2017/02/12/Why-Did-Medieval-Artists-Give-Elephants-Trunks-That-Look-Like-Trumpets/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00559.warc.gz | en | 0.985392 | 315 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.031287848949... | 2 | In medieval bestiaries, we are liable to see real but exotic animals illustrated alongside fantastical creatures like unicorns and centaurs. The real beasts are often depicted inaccurately, which we often attribute to the fact that the artist had never seen a real specimen, but worked from descriptions from those who had. However, there were many depictions of elephants that showed the same inaccuracy: a trunk shaped like a trumpet. Could those artists possibly be copying the ideas of earlier artists? Where was the first depiction of an elephant with a trumpet nose?
One of the mysteries of the bestiary form is what the first one looked like. The tradition is usually traced back to the Physiologus, a book that no longer exists. It’s thought that it was written around the 2nd century A.D., in Alexandria, by a scholar working in Greek, and much of what’s known about it is derived from later translations into Latin. It would have contained the descriptions of a selection of animals, perhaps 50 or so, and relied on the standard works of natural history of the time, including Aristotle’s History of Animals and Pliny’s Natural History.
The thing about that book is that the animals weren't just described- they were used as allegories for "the ways of God, of Man and of the Devil.” The story it told of elephants was about sex. While the trunk shape is never fully explained, the search for the answer is quite interesting, as you'll find at Atlas Obscura. | 307 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An ancient Roman shipwreck from the time of Jesus Christ has been discovered near the fishing port of Fiskardo located on the north coast of Kefalonia and the cargo that was found inside was very interesting. Around 6,000 well-preserved amphorae that were used to transport food and wine were found on board the ship (pictures can be seen here).
The ship and its cargo that were found near the Greek island using sonar equipment date back between 1 B.C. and 1 A.D. What’s even more interesting is that the Fiskardo shipwreck is the largest one ever found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and one of the four largest that have been located in all of the Mediterranean. The ship measured approximately 110 feet long by 42 feet wide, with its cargo measuring 98 feet by 39 feet.
The shipwreck was discovered at a very significant location, as ancient houses, bath complexes, a theater, tomb, and cemetery dating back between 146 B.C. and 330 A.D. were recently unearthed in Fiskardo. According to researchers, Fiskardo was a “very important port at that time”. Their study was published in Journal of Archaeological Science and can be read in full here.
It is believed that Fiskardo was a very important location along the Roman trading route that transported food and wine across the Mediterranean. Wine, oil, cereal, and olives were commonly transported through the Mediterranean and ended up in Rome. That would explain why there were so many amphorae found on the ship as they were used to transport all the goods.
Amphorae are jugs typically made from ceramic and used to store a variety of goods – liquid and/or dry – but were most commonly used to store wine. Normally, amphorae had two large handles that connected the shoulder of the jug to the long, skinny neck which helped with pouring out the goods. And since around 6,000 of them were discovered on the ship, that was a lot of goods that were being transported at that time.
It’s still unclear whether the shipwreck will be raised from the sea floor. “It’s half-buried in the sediment, so we have high expectations that if we go to an excavation in the future, we will find part or the whole wooden hull,” said George Ferentinos who is from the University of Patras in Greece and also led the study on the discovery. | <urn:uuid:d8438d01-03c3-45c5-8bea-512c047ab29d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2019/12/ancient-roman-shipwreck-containing-6000-amphorae-found-near-greek-island/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00074.warc.gz | en | 0.990694 | 509 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3158125877380371,... | 9 | An ancient Roman shipwreck from the time of Jesus Christ has been discovered near the fishing port of Fiskardo located on the north coast of Kefalonia and the cargo that was found inside was very interesting. Around 6,000 well-preserved amphorae that were used to transport food and wine were found on board the ship (pictures can be seen here).
The ship and its cargo that were found near the Greek island using sonar equipment date back between 1 B.C. and 1 A.D. What’s even more interesting is that the Fiskardo shipwreck is the largest one ever found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and one of the four largest that have been located in all of the Mediterranean. The ship measured approximately 110 feet long by 42 feet wide, with its cargo measuring 98 feet by 39 feet.
The shipwreck was discovered at a very significant location, as ancient houses, bath complexes, a theater, tomb, and cemetery dating back between 146 B.C. and 330 A.D. were recently unearthed in Fiskardo. According to researchers, Fiskardo was a “very important port at that time”. Their study was published in Journal of Archaeological Science and can be read in full here.
It is believed that Fiskardo was a very important location along the Roman trading route that transported food and wine across the Mediterranean. Wine, oil, cereal, and olives were commonly transported through the Mediterranean and ended up in Rome. That would explain why there were so many amphorae found on the ship as they were used to transport all the goods.
Amphorae are jugs typically made from ceramic and used to store a variety of goods – liquid and/or dry – but were most commonly used to store wine. Normally, amphorae had two large handles that connected the shoulder of the jug to the long, skinny neck which helped with pouring out the goods. And since around 6,000 of them were discovered on the ship, that was a lot of goods that were being transported at that time.
It’s still unclear whether the shipwreck will be raised from the sea floor. “It’s half-buried in the sediment, so we have high expectations that if we go to an excavation in the future, we will find part or the whole wooden hull,” said George Ferentinos who is from the University of Patras in Greece and also led the study on the discovery. | 513 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although she majored in both chemistry and physics, Perkins was always fascinated by her economics electives and began developing the necessary tools that she later would need as Secretary of Labor.
Her mother, Susan E. Bean, came from Bethel, and her father Frederick Perkins, was born and raised in Newcastle, on land along the Damariscotta River his ancestors first settled in the s. After the Civil War, economic times became more difficult in rural Maine, and the brickyard began to falter.
Frederick and his younger brother moved to Massachusetts for better prospects, while the oldest son remained in Newcastle to manage the farm. InFrederick Perkins moved his young family from Boston to Worcester, where he opened a paper goods business — a business that remains successful to this day.
He maintained close ties to Newcastle, however, and Fanny, as she was known to the family, spent her childhood summers with her grandmother on the farm in Newcastle.
Frequently in winters, her grandmother and uncle would stay with the Perkins family in Worcester. It was at the Brick House, built in as a wedding gift for her grandparents, that Fanny heard stories about the French and Indian War, when the Perkins family maintained a garrison by the river to shelter the community in case of trouble.
Because Howard had lost his right arm in the war, Fanny was enlisted as his secretary. Thus, Fanny was raised with a deep appreciation of history and pride in her patriot ancestry. She came of age understanding her New England heritage and adopting the Yankee values that were the core of that heritage — frugality, ingenuity, tenacity and self-reliance — as well as a belief that the new nation, only a century old at her birth, held opportunities for all who sought and were willing to work for them.
Her life would take her far beyond the humble Maine farm, but it is there that she returned year after year for rest and renewal. Fanny and her sister Ethel, four years her junior, were restricted largely to the people and events within their house and the nearby Plymouth Congregational Church.
It was only when Fanny entered school that she encountered poverty.
When she asked her parents why nice people could be poor, they gave her the accepted answers of the day: Frederick Perkins read to the family in Greek and gave Fanny lessons in Greek grammar when she was only eight. He also taught her to read at an early age and encouraged her interest in classical literature.
Although it was unusual for young women to attend college at that time, it was always assumed that Fanny would do so. Its founder, Mary Lyon, believed that women should be educated, but with education came responsibility.
This sense of purpose clearly foretold the remarkable career that Fanny Perkins would eventually pursue. Fanny majored in physics, with minors in chemistry and biology.
She was a popular student, became class president her senior year and permanent class president upon graduation. It was in her final semester, however, that she took a course in American economic history that would have the most profound impact on her life.
Taught by historian Annah May Soule, the course concerned the growth of industrialism in England and America. Professor Soule required her students to visit the mills along the Connecticut River in neighboring Holyoke to observe working conditions there. There were absolutely no effective laws that regulated the number of hours they were permitted to work.
There were no provisions which guarded their health nor adequately looked after their compensation in case of injury. Those things seemed very wrong. I was young and was inspired with the idea of reforming, or at east doing what I could, to help change those abuses.Aug 21, · Frances Perkins () achieved historic gains as U.S.
secretary of labor under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. After graduating from Mount . It looks like you've lost connection to our server.
Please check your internet connection or reload this page. Frances Perkins () achieved historic gains as U.S. secretary of labor under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. After graduating from Mount Holyoke College, she was a teacher before becoming.
Frances Perkins. In , SSA staff wrote a brief biography of Frances Perkins, along with a selection of quotation from her career. Social Security Commissioner Stanford G.
Ross sent a copy of this bio to Department of Health, Education and Welfare Patricia Harris on 10/25/79, because she had expressed an interest in the life of Miss Perkins. Frances Perkins was secretary of labor for the 12 years of Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency and the first woman to hold a Cabinet post.
She brought to her office a deep commitment to improving the lives of workers and creating a legitimate role for labor unions in American society, succeeding.
In , Frances Perkins accepted a position as general secretary of the Philadelphia Research and Protective Association, a new organization whose goal was to thwart the diversion of newly arrived immigrant girls, including black women from the South, into prostitution. | <urn:uuid:39e971d1-e12e-4b87-a480-9f826b55ce17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sunuwyhekuhahoze.srmvision.com/a-research-on-the-life-of-frances-perkins-15093ns.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.986212 | 1,013 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.20331156253... | 1 | Although she majored in both chemistry and physics, Perkins was always fascinated by her economics electives and began developing the necessary tools that she later would need as Secretary of Labor.
Her mother, Susan E. Bean, came from Bethel, and her father Frederick Perkins, was born and raised in Newcastle, on land along the Damariscotta River his ancestors first settled in the s. After the Civil War, economic times became more difficult in rural Maine, and the brickyard began to falter.
Frederick and his younger brother moved to Massachusetts for better prospects, while the oldest son remained in Newcastle to manage the farm. InFrederick Perkins moved his young family from Boston to Worcester, where he opened a paper goods business — a business that remains successful to this day.
He maintained close ties to Newcastle, however, and Fanny, as she was known to the family, spent her childhood summers with her grandmother on the farm in Newcastle.
Frequently in winters, her grandmother and uncle would stay with the Perkins family in Worcester. It was at the Brick House, built in as a wedding gift for her grandparents, that Fanny heard stories about the French and Indian War, when the Perkins family maintained a garrison by the river to shelter the community in case of trouble.
Because Howard had lost his right arm in the war, Fanny was enlisted as his secretary. Thus, Fanny was raised with a deep appreciation of history and pride in her patriot ancestry. She came of age understanding her New England heritage and adopting the Yankee values that were the core of that heritage — frugality, ingenuity, tenacity and self-reliance — as well as a belief that the new nation, only a century old at her birth, held opportunities for all who sought and were willing to work for them.
Her life would take her far beyond the humble Maine farm, but it is there that she returned year after year for rest and renewal. Fanny and her sister Ethel, four years her junior, were restricted largely to the people and events within their house and the nearby Plymouth Congregational Church.
It was only when Fanny entered school that she encountered poverty.
When she asked her parents why nice people could be poor, they gave her the accepted answers of the day: Frederick Perkins read to the family in Greek and gave Fanny lessons in Greek grammar when she was only eight. He also taught her to read at an early age and encouraged her interest in classical literature.
Although it was unusual for young women to attend college at that time, it was always assumed that Fanny would do so. Its founder, Mary Lyon, believed that women should be educated, but with education came responsibility.
This sense of purpose clearly foretold the remarkable career that Fanny Perkins would eventually pursue. Fanny majored in physics, with minors in chemistry and biology.
She was a popular student, became class president her senior year and permanent class president upon graduation. It was in her final semester, however, that she took a course in American economic history that would have the most profound impact on her life.
Taught by historian Annah May Soule, the course concerned the growth of industrialism in England and America. Professor Soule required her students to visit the mills along the Connecticut River in neighboring Holyoke to observe working conditions there. There were absolutely no effective laws that regulated the number of hours they were permitted to work.
There were no provisions which guarded their health nor adequately looked after their compensation in case of injury. Those things seemed very wrong. I was young and was inspired with the idea of reforming, or at east doing what I could, to help change those abuses.Aug 21, · Frances Perkins () achieved historic gains as U.S.
secretary of labor under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. After graduating from Mount . It looks like you've lost connection to our server.
Please check your internet connection or reload this page. Frances Perkins () achieved historic gains as U.S. secretary of labor under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. After graduating from Mount Holyoke College, she was a teacher before becoming.
Frances Perkins. In , SSA staff wrote a brief biography of Frances Perkins, along with a selection of quotation from her career. Social Security Commissioner Stanford G.
Ross sent a copy of this bio to Department of Health, Education and Welfare Patricia Harris on 10/25/79, because she had expressed an interest in the life of Miss Perkins. Frances Perkins was secretary of labor for the 12 years of Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency and the first woman to hold a Cabinet post.
She brought to her office a deep commitment to improving the lives of workers and creating a legitimate role for labor unions in American society, succeeding.
In , Frances Perkins accepted a position as general secretary of the Philadelphia Research and Protective Association, a new organization whose goal was to thwart the diversion of newly arrived immigrant girls, including black women from the South, into prostitution. | 1,005 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Martin Luther King Jr. He was one of the greatest American Civil Rights leaders of the s. He was born in in the city of Atlanta, Georgia. His father was a minister at the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta.
He had great courage and passion to defeat segregation and racism that existed in the United States and it was his influence to all the Blacks to defy white supremacy and his belief in nonviolence that lead to the success of the Civil Rights movement. Martin Luther King was born on January 15, in Atlanta, Georgia where the city suffered most of the racial discrimination in the South, and, in addition, the Ku Klux Klan had one of its headquarters there.
But it was his father, Martin Luther King Sr. These efforts to improve the way of life for Blacks could be seen by his son. In December 5, King began to be significant in the changing of the Black man's way of life.
The boycott of the Montgomery Bus was begun when Rosa Parks refused to surrender her seat on a bus to a white man on December 1st and two Patrolmen took her away to the police station where she was booked.
He and 50 other ministered held a meeting and agreed to start a boycott on December 5th, the day of Rosa Park's hearing. The bus company did not take them seriously, because if there was bad weather, they would have to take the bus.
They had a special agreement with black cab companies, in which they were allowed to get a ride for a much cheaper price than normal. Blacks had to walk to work, and so they did not have time to do any shopping and therefore the sales decreased dramatically.
On January 30, while M. L was making a speech, his house was bombed.
Luckily his wife and baby had left the living room when the bomb exploded, but a black mob formed and was angry about what had happened, and Policemen were sent to the scene to control the situation, even though they were outnumbered.
King, however, because of his strong belief in nonviolence, urged the crowd to not use their guns and to go home. The news coverage increased on the Montgomery boycott as months passed. He traveled to many places and made speeches in order to raise money for the MIA's legal fees.
When he returned he found that he was charged for breaking an anti-boycott law. He and the others were found guilty, but they appealed the sentence. That night the KKK looted 40 cars in hopes of scaring the Blacks.
But the black people did not hide in their homes and turn the lights off. They stayed on their porches and waved showing that they were not afraid of them at all.
By Martin Luther King became a national figure. Time magazine wrote a story on him, and his ideology of nonviolence began to spread throughout the country.
The boycott gave a strong psychological push of courage that would continue until Blacks obtained what was morally right.
What made Martin Luther King striking was his conviction on non-violence. He believed that this belief could give blacks a superior level of morality over whites. This ideology was important for his success in later years.
As a result, it helped restrain the use of violence from whites to blacks and vice versa. This philosophy was tested during the Montgomery bus boycott. Before the successful boycott, blacks used violence in order to protest racism.• The essay should be inspired by a Dr.
King moment or speech and how it has influenced the student’s thoughts on the theme: Making Lives Matter DR. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. ESSAY CONTEST. Jan 16, · Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. giving his I Have a Dream speech to huge crowd gathered for the Mall in Washington DC during the March on Washington for .
Where is the thesis statement in Martin Luther King's "I have a dream" speech? I'm having trouble trying to find his statement in the text, when I do find it, I'm suppose to rewrite it in plain language, I can do that, it is just that every sentence seems to be his thesis!
How to Cite This SparkNote Full Bibliographic Citation MLA. SparkNotes Editors. “SparkNote on Martin Luther King, Jr..” nationwidesecretarial.com SparkNotes LLC. Martin Luther King Jr. was a pastor, humanitarian and leader in the American civil rights movement of the s.
In numerous speeches, marches and letters, he fought for racial and economic justice. Martin Luther King Jr. ’s speech, “I Have a Dream”, uses the emphasis of pathos throughout the duration of his speech.
For example, he states true feelings that many people in our nation were feeling at that time, which brought out a strong sense of realness to his speech. | <urn:uuid:f2eba1d5-ebc7-4ad2-83ec-28f511dd97fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ropujomulim.nationwidesecretarial.com/essay-on-martin-luther-kings-speech-50550cu.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00125.warc.gz | en | 0.987553 | 983 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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-0.07984180748462... | 3 | Martin Luther King Jr. He was one of the greatest American Civil Rights leaders of the s. He was born in in the city of Atlanta, Georgia. His father was a minister at the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta.
He had great courage and passion to defeat segregation and racism that existed in the United States and it was his influence to all the Blacks to defy white supremacy and his belief in nonviolence that lead to the success of the Civil Rights movement. Martin Luther King was born on January 15, in Atlanta, Georgia where the city suffered most of the racial discrimination in the South, and, in addition, the Ku Klux Klan had one of its headquarters there.
But it was his father, Martin Luther King Sr. These efforts to improve the way of life for Blacks could be seen by his son. In December 5, King began to be significant in the changing of the Black man's way of life.
The boycott of the Montgomery Bus was begun when Rosa Parks refused to surrender her seat on a bus to a white man on December 1st and two Patrolmen took her away to the police station where she was booked.
He and 50 other ministered held a meeting and agreed to start a boycott on December 5th, the day of Rosa Park's hearing. The bus company did not take them seriously, because if there was bad weather, they would have to take the bus.
They had a special agreement with black cab companies, in which they were allowed to get a ride for a much cheaper price than normal. Blacks had to walk to work, and so they did not have time to do any shopping and therefore the sales decreased dramatically.
On January 30, while M. L was making a speech, his house was bombed.
Luckily his wife and baby had left the living room when the bomb exploded, but a black mob formed and was angry about what had happened, and Policemen were sent to the scene to control the situation, even though they were outnumbered.
King, however, because of his strong belief in nonviolence, urged the crowd to not use their guns and to go home. The news coverage increased on the Montgomery boycott as months passed. He traveled to many places and made speeches in order to raise money for the MIA's legal fees.
When he returned he found that he was charged for breaking an anti-boycott law. He and the others were found guilty, but they appealed the sentence. That night the KKK looted 40 cars in hopes of scaring the Blacks.
But the black people did not hide in their homes and turn the lights off. They stayed on their porches and waved showing that they were not afraid of them at all.
By Martin Luther King became a national figure. Time magazine wrote a story on him, and his ideology of nonviolence began to spread throughout the country.
The boycott gave a strong psychological push of courage that would continue until Blacks obtained what was morally right.
What made Martin Luther King striking was his conviction on non-violence. He believed that this belief could give blacks a superior level of morality over whites. This ideology was important for his success in later years.
As a result, it helped restrain the use of violence from whites to blacks and vice versa. This philosophy was tested during the Montgomery bus boycott. Before the successful boycott, blacks used violence in order to protest racism.• The essay should be inspired by a Dr.
King moment or speech and how it has influenced the student’s thoughts on the theme: Making Lives Matter DR. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. ESSAY CONTEST. Jan 16, · Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. giving his I Have a Dream speech to huge crowd gathered for the Mall in Washington DC during the March on Washington for .
Where is the thesis statement in Martin Luther King's "I have a dream" speech? I'm having trouble trying to find his statement in the text, when I do find it, I'm suppose to rewrite it in plain language, I can do that, it is just that every sentence seems to be his thesis!
How to Cite This SparkNote Full Bibliographic Citation MLA. SparkNotes Editors. “SparkNote on Martin Luther King, Jr..” nationwidesecretarial.com SparkNotes LLC. Martin Luther King Jr. was a pastor, humanitarian and leader in the American civil rights movement of the s.
In numerous speeches, marches and letters, he fought for racial and economic justice. Martin Luther King Jr. ’s speech, “I Have a Dream”, uses the emphasis of pathos throughout the duration of his speech.
For example, he states true feelings that many people in our nation were feeling at that time, which brought out a strong sense of realness to his speech. | 972 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Greek is willingly taking action to find the murderer
Greek tragedy is a drama in which the main character is bound to suffer extreme sorrow as a consequence of a moral weakness. Sophocles is a Greek tragedian who wrote a play that demonstrates one of his summit achievements, know as Oedipus The King. The play is a greek classic based on the downfall of Oedipus the king of Thebes, who is trying to save the city by solving the murder mystery of their previous king Laius. He sent out his brother-in-law Creon to Delphi for advice from the greek god, Apollo, on how to save the sinking city. Creon delivers the news and Oedipus is willingly taking action to find the murderer of Laius. When he finds out from a blind prophet, Tiresias, that he is the murderer his ignorance leads him to denial and curiosity. Oedipus is the only person who solved the Sphinx riddle which clarifies he is knowledgeable. But he is blind and ignorant when it comes to his past. Sophocles embedded the symbolic motif of sight and blindness to correlate with knowledge and ignorance to demonstrate the irony within the play. Throughout the play, the words sight and blindness appear a lot to emphasize the idea that we blind ourselves from the truth which causes the lack of ignorance. The two main characters reflect each other by being equal but have different advantages. Sometimes people can not handle the whole truth and blind themselves from the harsh reality causing downfall. Oedipus ascends to the throne because he solved the Sphinx riddle. He married Jocasta, the queen and widow of Laius. A plague struck the city and the only way to rid the curse is to find Laius’s murderer. The people of Thebes worship and implore you because he got rid of the Sphinx without any extra knowledge or skill. They’re begging for his help to raise up the city to set them on their feet again. Oedipus tries to seek help from Tiresias because the leader believes the truth lives with him. Oedipus states, Tiresias is the “one shield and savior” that they have been looking for to save the city. Tiresias is asked to tell them everything he knows. Tiresias broke the silence and claims “you are the curse, the corruption of the land…I say you are the murderer you hunt” (401-413) is one of the truths that came forward after all the insult Oedipus gave. Oedipus is in denial because the response he was given made him feel betrayed and angry because he thinks Tiresias is making up stories. They go back and forth and Oedipus comes to the suspicion that Creon put him up to it because he wants the throne. Tiresias then says, Creon is not your downfall, you are your own. Oedipus mocks Tiresias blindness and he answers “you with your precious eyes, you’re blind to the corruption of your life” (471) demonstrates Oedipus’s lack of knowledge and sight. He can not see what’s right in front of him and he does not know that he is living the doom the oracle declared on him. One recurring question that is asked is “who are your parents” Oedipus believes the king and queen of Corinth are his parents. He went to the oracle to ask the gods if it was true that Polybus and Merope were not his biological parents. The oracle condemned him with a horrific prophecy that would change the rest of the play. His prophecy is that he will kill his father and marry his mom. Oedipus ran away from Corinth because he feared if he stayed it might come true. The irony of this is revealed when Oedipus finds out the truth about Laius’s death. His ignorance plays a big role because it made him blind to the life he was living. Tiresias is a blind prophet who “sees with the eyes of Lord Apollo” who might know who the murderer is. He was welcomed into the palace until he opened up about Oedipus past. He knew Oedipus was the murderer of Laius. He also knew about his prophecy and how he was living it. Teiresias is blind but he can see right through Oedipus and how ignorant he is. Tiresias says, “how terrible to see the truth when the truth is only pain to him who sees” (359-360) knows Oedipus is blind to the truth. He is trying to tell him the truth but he does not care. Both characters reflect each other because they are both missing something the other person has. Oedipus the king can see and has knowledge in certain subjects. Tiresias the blind prophet cannot see with his eyes but he can see the future and has a lot of knowledge. The knowledge Oedipus is lacking, Tiresias is able to fill in because he knows what Apollo serves. Oedipus thinks he’s intelligent enough to know that Teiresias is not telling him the truth and it’s only a conspiracy. Tiresias is trying to say, Oedipus may not be physically blind but he is when it comes to what’s right in front of him he is. Oedipus is filled with anger and can not comprehend the words Tiresias speaks. Jocasta tries to calm him down after arguing with Creon about his place on the throne. He explains his conspiracy and how he sent Tiresias to do his “dirty work to keep his own lips clean”. She told him not to listen to the prophet because no one can tell the future. Jocasta tells Oedipus the time an oracle came to Laius. The oracle said his son would kill him and doom would strike him down. Before that could happen the baby was taken to the mountain to die “fastened his ankles and had a henchman fling him away on a barren”. When Jocasta told him the place Laius was murder, it clicked and Oedipus finally believed he was the one who killed him. Oedipus could not bear the truth that he decided to blind himself from it. The biggest consequence of his ignorance is blinding himself because “nothing I could see could bring me joy” (1472) the truth haunts him and he does not want to see any more pain. Oedipus thought blinding himself would get rid of the pain he caused and he wants to be exiled. Oedipus is blind to the truth about his past and he needs help from other people to understand what he caused. He finally realizes the pain he caused to the people around him. He ran away from his prophecy to only meet with his real parents and doom them. He killed his father, Laius and married his mother Jocasta. He cannot bear to see the pain any longer so he blinds himself. | <urn:uuid:2e2e906b-304d-4f08-8f4e-686104a803ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://learnwaystoearnonline.com/greek-is-willingly-taking-action-to-find-the-murderer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00343.warc.gz | en | 0.982768 | 1,485 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.172852605581283... | 1 | Greek is willingly taking action to find the murderer
Greek tragedy is a drama in which the main character is bound to suffer extreme sorrow as a consequence of a moral weakness. Sophocles is a Greek tragedian who wrote a play that demonstrates one of his summit achievements, know as Oedipus The King. The play is a greek classic based on the downfall of Oedipus the king of Thebes, who is trying to save the city by solving the murder mystery of their previous king Laius. He sent out his brother-in-law Creon to Delphi for advice from the greek god, Apollo, on how to save the sinking city. Creon delivers the news and Oedipus is willingly taking action to find the murderer of Laius. When he finds out from a blind prophet, Tiresias, that he is the murderer his ignorance leads him to denial and curiosity. Oedipus is the only person who solved the Sphinx riddle which clarifies he is knowledgeable. But he is blind and ignorant when it comes to his past. Sophocles embedded the symbolic motif of sight and blindness to correlate with knowledge and ignorance to demonstrate the irony within the play. Throughout the play, the words sight and blindness appear a lot to emphasize the idea that we blind ourselves from the truth which causes the lack of ignorance. The two main characters reflect each other by being equal but have different advantages. Sometimes people can not handle the whole truth and blind themselves from the harsh reality causing downfall. Oedipus ascends to the throne because he solved the Sphinx riddle. He married Jocasta, the queen and widow of Laius. A plague struck the city and the only way to rid the curse is to find Laius’s murderer. The people of Thebes worship and implore you because he got rid of the Sphinx without any extra knowledge or skill. They’re begging for his help to raise up the city to set them on their feet again. Oedipus tries to seek help from Tiresias because the leader believes the truth lives with him. Oedipus states, Tiresias is the “one shield and savior” that they have been looking for to save the city. Tiresias is asked to tell them everything he knows. Tiresias broke the silence and claims “you are the curse, the corruption of the land…I say you are the murderer you hunt” (401-413) is one of the truths that came forward after all the insult Oedipus gave. Oedipus is in denial because the response he was given made him feel betrayed and angry because he thinks Tiresias is making up stories. They go back and forth and Oedipus comes to the suspicion that Creon put him up to it because he wants the throne. Tiresias then says, Creon is not your downfall, you are your own. Oedipus mocks Tiresias blindness and he answers “you with your precious eyes, you’re blind to the corruption of your life” (471) demonstrates Oedipus’s lack of knowledge and sight. He can not see what’s right in front of him and he does not know that he is living the doom the oracle declared on him. One recurring question that is asked is “who are your parents” Oedipus believes the king and queen of Corinth are his parents. He went to the oracle to ask the gods if it was true that Polybus and Merope were not his biological parents. The oracle condemned him with a horrific prophecy that would change the rest of the play. His prophecy is that he will kill his father and marry his mom. Oedipus ran away from Corinth because he feared if he stayed it might come true. The irony of this is revealed when Oedipus finds out the truth about Laius’s death. His ignorance plays a big role because it made him blind to the life he was living. Tiresias is a blind prophet who “sees with the eyes of Lord Apollo” who might know who the murderer is. He was welcomed into the palace until he opened up about Oedipus past. He knew Oedipus was the murderer of Laius. He also knew about his prophecy and how he was living it. Teiresias is blind but he can see right through Oedipus and how ignorant he is. Tiresias says, “how terrible to see the truth when the truth is only pain to him who sees” (359-360) knows Oedipus is blind to the truth. He is trying to tell him the truth but he does not care. Both characters reflect each other because they are both missing something the other person has. Oedipus the king can see and has knowledge in certain subjects. Tiresias the blind prophet cannot see with his eyes but he can see the future and has a lot of knowledge. The knowledge Oedipus is lacking, Tiresias is able to fill in because he knows what Apollo serves. Oedipus thinks he’s intelligent enough to know that Teiresias is not telling him the truth and it’s only a conspiracy. Tiresias is trying to say, Oedipus may not be physically blind but he is when it comes to what’s right in front of him he is. Oedipus is filled with anger and can not comprehend the words Tiresias speaks. Jocasta tries to calm him down after arguing with Creon about his place on the throne. He explains his conspiracy and how he sent Tiresias to do his “dirty work to keep his own lips clean”. She told him not to listen to the prophet because no one can tell the future. Jocasta tells Oedipus the time an oracle came to Laius. The oracle said his son would kill him and doom would strike him down. Before that could happen the baby was taken to the mountain to die “fastened his ankles and had a henchman fling him away on a barren”. When Jocasta told him the place Laius was murder, it clicked and Oedipus finally believed he was the one who killed him. Oedipus could not bear the truth that he decided to blind himself from it. The biggest consequence of his ignorance is blinding himself because “nothing I could see could bring me joy” (1472) the truth haunts him and he does not want to see any more pain. Oedipus thought blinding himself would get rid of the pain he caused and he wants to be exiled. Oedipus is blind to the truth about his past and he needs help from other people to understand what he caused. He finally realizes the pain he caused to the people around him. He ran away from his prophecy to only meet with his real parents and doom them. He killed his father, Laius and married his mother Jocasta. He cannot bear to see the pain any longer so he blinds himself. | 1,451 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ontario is a province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, it is Canada's most populous province, with 38.3 percent of the country's population, and is the second-largest province in total area. Ontario is fourth-largest jurisdiction in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are included. It is home to the nation's capital city, Ottawa, and the nation's most populous city, Toronto, which is also Ontario's provincial capital.
Robert Baldwin was a Canadian lawyer and politician who, with his political partner Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, led the first responsible ministry in Canada. "Responsible Government" marked the country's democratic independence, without a revolution, although not without violence. This achievement also included the introduction of municipal government, the introduction of a modern legal system and the Canadian Jury system, and the abolishing of imprisonment for debt. Baldwin is also noted for resisting a decades-long tradition of Orange Order terrorism of political reform in the colony, that went so far as to burn the Parliament buildings in Montreal in 1849.
From 1896 known as The Clergy Endowments (Canada) Act 1791, the statute passed at Westminster in the 31st year of George III, and itemised as chapter 31, was commonly known as the Constitutional Act 1791. It was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain.
York was a town and second capital of the district of Upper Canada. It is the predecessor to the old city of Toronto (1834–1998). It was established in 1793 by Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe as a "temporary" location for the capital of Upper Canada, while he made plans to build a capital near today's London, Ontario. Simcoe renamed the location York after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, George III's second son. Simcoe gave up his plan to build a capital at London, and York became the permanent capital of Upper Canada on February 1, 1796. That year Simcoe returned to Britain and was temporarily replaced by Peter Russell.
William Lyon Mackenzie was a Scottish-born Canadian-American journalist and politician. His strong views on political equality and clean government drove him to outright rebellion in 1837 after a career as mayor of Toronto and in the colonial legislative assembly of Upper Canada (Ontario). He led the 1837 Upper Canada Rebellion and during its bitter end he set up a small rebel enclave named "Republic of Canada," where he served as president December 13, 1837 to January 14, 1838. After a period of exile in the U.S., he returned to Canada and served as elected member of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from 1851 to 1858.
The Upper Canada Rebellion was an insurrection against the perceived oligarchic government of the British colony of Upper Canada in December 1837. While public grievances had existed for years, it was the rebellion in Lower Canada, which started the previous month, that emboldened rebels in Upper Canada to openly revolt.
The Family Compact is the term used by historians for a small closed group of men who exercised most of the political, economic and judicial power in Upper Canada from the 1810s to the 1840s. It was the Upper Canadian equivalent of the Château Clique in Lower Canada. It was noted for its conservatism and opposition to democracy.
The Province of Quebec was a colony in North America created by Great Britain after the Seven Years' War which ended by the Battle of the Plain of Abraham. During the war, Great Britain's forces conquered French Canada. As part of terms of the Treaty of Paris peace settlement, France gave up its claim to Canada and negotiated to keep the small but rich sugar island of Guadeloupe instead. By Britain's Royal Proclamation of 1763, Canada was renamed the Province of Quebec. The new British province extended from the coast of Labrador on the Atlantic Ocean, southwest through the Saint Lawrence River Valley to the Great Lakes and beyond to the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Portions of its southwest were later ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1783) at the conclusion of the American Revolution although the British maintained a military presence there until 1796. In 1791, the territory north of the Great Lakes was divided into Lower Canada and Upper Canada.
Ontario came into being as a province of Canada in 1867 but historians use the term to cover its entire history. This article also covers the history of the territory Ontario now occupies.
Clergy Reserves were tracts of land in Upper Canada and Lower Canada reserved for the support of "Protestant clergy" by the Constitutional Act of 1791. One-seventh of all surveyed Crown lands were set aside, totalling 2,395,687 acres (9,695 km2) and 934,052 acres (3,780 km2) respectively for each Province, and provision was made to dedicate some of those reserved lands as glebe land in support of any parsonage or rectory that may be established by the Church of England. The provincial legislatures could vary or repeal these provisions, but royal assent could not be given prior to such passed bills having been laid before both houses of the British Parliament for at least thirty days.
John Strachan was a figure in Upper Canada and the first Anglican Bishop of Toronto. He is best known as a political bishop who held many government positions and promoted education from common schools to helping to found the University of Toronto.
Eastern Ontario is a secondary region of Southern Ontario in the Canadian province of Ontario which lies in a wedge-shaped area between the Ottawa River and St. Lawrence River. It shares water boundaries with Quebec to the north and New York State to the east and south, as well as a small land boundary with the Vaudreuil-Soulanges region of Quebec to the east.
The History of Ontario covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. The lands that make up present-day Ontario, the most populous province of Canada as of the early 21st century have been inhabited for millennia by groups of Aboriginal people, with French and British exploration and colonization commencing in the 17th century. Before the arrival of Europeans, the region was inhabited both by Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes.
The Bank of Upper Canada was established in 1821 under a Charter granted by the legislature of Upper Canada in 1819 to a group of Kingston merchants. The charter was appropriated by the more influential Executive Councillors to the Lt. Governor, the Rev. John Strachan and William Allan and moved to Toronto. The bank was closely associated with the group that came to be known as the Family Compact, and formed a large part of their wealth. The association with the Family Compact and its underhanded practices made Reformers, including Mackenzie, regard the Bank of Upper Canada as a prop of the Government. Complaints about the bank were a staple of Reform agitation in the 1830s because of its monopoly and aggressive legal actions against debtors.
The Bank of the People was created by radical Reform politicians James Lesslie, James Hervey Price, and Dr John Rolph in Toronto in 1835. It was founded after they failed to establish a "Provincial Loan Office" in which farmers could borrow small sums guaranteed by their land holdings. The Bank of the People was the only bank in Upper Canada not to suspend payments during the financial panic of 1837-8. Many of the shareholders, however, took part in the Rebellion of 1837 and the Family Compact plotted to have it taken over by the Bank of Montreal in 1840.
Samuel Lount was a blacksmith, farmer, magistrate and member of the Legislative Assembly in the province of Upper Canada for Simcoe County from 1834 to 1836. He was an organizer of the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837, for which he was hanged. His execution made him a martyr to the Upper Canadian Reform movement.
The Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada was the lower house of the legislature for the Province of Canada, which consisted of the former provinces of Lower Canada, then known as Canada East and later the province of Quebec, and Upper Canada, then known as Canada West and later the province of Ontario. It was created by The Union Act of 1840. Canada East and Canada West each elected 42 members to the assembly. The upper house of the legislature was called the Legislative Council.
The history of Ottawa, capital of Canada, was shaped by events such as the construction of the Rideau Canal, the lumber industry, the choice of Ottawa as the location of Canada's capital, as well as American and European influences and interactions. By 1914, Ottawa's population had surpassed 100,000 and today it is the capital of a G7 country whose metropolitan population exceeds one million.
The Reform movement was a political movement in British Canada in the early 19th century.
There were two types of corporations at work in the Upper Canadian economy: the legislatively chartered companies and the unregulated joint stock companies. These two business forms had different legal standing; chartered corporations had a "separate personality" - they were a legal person quite distinct from its members or shareholders, a legal fiction which protected those shareholders with limited liability. In contrast, joint stock companies were made illegal by the English Bubble Act of 1720. Joint stock companies were considered extensive partnerships under common law, and English legislation limited these to a maximum of six partners. Without incorporation, the company was not considered a "separate personality." It could not hold property; this was held by trustees, who usually had to provide a bond or security. Without incorporation, the company could neither sue nor be sued at law. And without incorporation, shareholders were personally responsible for the debts to the company to the full extent of their personal property; shareholders were not protected by limited liability. There were, then, significant legal hurdles that made the joint stock company an unwieldy form of partnership. | <urn:uuid:42f9c160-9b39-4b58-9d24-94ab489598bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Upper_Canada | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00366.warc.gz | en | 0.981275 | 2,043 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.01447193976... | 1 | Ontario is a province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, it is Canada's most populous province, with 38.3 percent of the country's population, and is the second-largest province in total area. Ontario is fourth-largest jurisdiction in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are included. It is home to the nation's capital city, Ottawa, and the nation's most populous city, Toronto, which is also Ontario's provincial capital.
Robert Baldwin was a Canadian lawyer and politician who, with his political partner Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, led the first responsible ministry in Canada. "Responsible Government" marked the country's democratic independence, without a revolution, although not without violence. This achievement also included the introduction of municipal government, the introduction of a modern legal system and the Canadian Jury system, and the abolishing of imprisonment for debt. Baldwin is also noted for resisting a decades-long tradition of Orange Order terrorism of political reform in the colony, that went so far as to burn the Parliament buildings in Montreal in 1849.
From 1896 known as The Clergy Endowments (Canada) Act 1791, the statute passed at Westminster in the 31st year of George III, and itemised as chapter 31, was commonly known as the Constitutional Act 1791. It was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain.
York was a town and second capital of the district of Upper Canada. It is the predecessor to the old city of Toronto (1834–1998). It was established in 1793 by Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe as a "temporary" location for the capital of Upper Canada, while he made plans to build a capital near today's London, Ontario. Simcoe renamed the location York after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, George III's second son. Simcoe gave up his plan to build a capital at London, and York became the permanent capital of Upper Canada on February 1, 1796. That year Simcoe returned to Britain and was temporarily replaced by Peter Russell.
William Lyon Mackenzie was a Scottish-born Canadian-American journalist and politician. His strong views on political equality and clean government drove him to outright rebellion in 1837 after a career as mayor of Toronto and in the colonial legislative assembly of Upper Canada (Ontario). He led the 1837 Upper Canada Rebellion and during its bitter end he set up a small rebel enclave named "Republic of Canada," where he served as president December 13, 1837 to January 14, 1838. After a period of exile in the U.S., he returned to Canada and served as elected member of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from 1851 to 1858.
The Upper Canada Rebellion was an insurrection against the perceived oligarchic government of the British colony of Upper Canada in December 1837. While public grievances had existed for years, it was the rebellion in Lower Canada, which started the previous month, that emboldened rebels in Upper Canada to openly revolt.
The Family Compact is the term used by historians for a small closed group of men who exercised most of the political, economic and judicial power in Upper Canada from the 1810s to the 1840s. It was the Upper Canadian equivalent of the Château Clique in Lower Canada. It was noted for its conservatism and opposition to democracy.
The Province of Quebec was a colony in North America created by Great Britain after the Seven Years' War which ended by the Battle of the Plain of Abraham. During the war, Great Britain's forces conquered French Canada. As part of terms of the Treaty of Paris peace settlement, France gave up its claim to Canada and negotiated to keep the small but rich sugar island of Guadeloupe instead. By Britain's Royal Proclamation of 1763, Canada was renamed the Province of Quebec. The new British province extended from the coast of Labrador on the Atlantic Ocean, southwest through the Saint Lawrence River Valley to the Great Lakes and beyond to the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Portions of its southwest were later ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1783) at the conclusion of the American Revolution although the British maintained a military presence there until 1796. In 1791, the territory north of the Great Lakes was divided into Lower Canada and Upper Canada.
Ontario came into being as a province of Canada in 1867 but historians use the term to cover its entire history. This article also covers the history of the territory Ontario now occupies.
Clergy Reserves were tracts of land in Upper Canada and Lower Canada reserved for the support of "Protestant clergy" by the Constitutional Act of 1791. One-seventh of all surveyed Crown lands were set aside, totalling 2,395,687 acres (9,695 km2) and 934,052 acres (3,780 km2) respectively for each Province, and provision was made to dedicate some of those reserved lands as glebe land in support of any parsonage or rectory that may be established by the Church of England. The provincial legislatures could vary or repeal these provisions, but royal assent could not be given prior to such passed bills having been laid before both houses of the British Parliament for at least thirty days.
John Strachan was a figure in Upper Canada and the first Anglican Bishop of Toronto. He is best known as a political bishop who held many government positions and promoted education from common schools to helping to found the University of Toronto.
Eastern Ontario is a secondary region of Southern Ontario in the Canadian province of Ontario which lies in a wedge-shaped area between the Ottawa River and St. Lawrence River. It shares water boundaries with Quebec to the north and New York State to the east and south, as well as a small land boundary with the Vaudreuil-Soulanges region of Quebec to the east.
The History of Ontario covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. The lands that make up present-day Ontario, the most populous province of Canada as of the early 21st century have been inhabited for millennia by groups of Aboriginal people, with French and British exploration and colonization commencing in the 17th century. Before the arrival of Europeans, the region was inhabited both by Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes.
The Bank of Upper Canada was established in 1821 under a Charter granted by the legislature of Upper Canada in 1819 to a group of Kingston merchants. The charter was appropriated by the more influential Executive Councillors to the Lt. Governor, the Rev. John Strachan and William Allan and moved to Toronto. The bank was closely associated with the group that came to be known as the Family Compact, and formed a large part of their wealth. The association with the Family Compact and its underhanded practices made Reformers, including Mackenzie, regard the Bank of Upper Canada as a prop of the Government. Complaints about the bank were a staple of Reform agitation in the 1830s because of its monopoly and aggressive legal actions against debtors.
The Bank of the People was created by radical Reform politicians James Lesslie, James Hervey Price, and Dr John Rolph in Toronto in 1835. It was founded after they failed to establish a "Provincial Loan Office" in which farmers could borrow small sums guaranteed by their land holdings. The Bank of the People was the only bank in Upper Canada not to suspend payments during the financial panic of 1837-8. Many of the shareholders, however, took part in the Rebellion of 1837 and the Family Compact plotted to have it taken over by the Bank of Montreal in 1840.
Samuel Lount was a blacksmith, farmer, magistrate and member of the Legislative Assembly in the province of Upper Canada for Simcoe County from 1834 to 1836. He was an organizer of the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837, for which he was hanged. His execution made him a martyr to the Upper Canadian Reform movement.
The Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada was the lower house of the legislature for the Province of Canada, which consisted of the former provinces of Lower Canada, then known as Canada East and later the province of Quebec, and Upper Canada, then known as Canada West and later the province of Ontario. It was created by The Union Act of 1840. Canada East and Canada West each elected 42 members to the assembly. The upper house of the legislature was called the Legislative Council.
The history of Ottawa, capital of Canada, was shaped by events such as the construction of the Rideau Canal, the lumber industry, the choice of Ottawa as the location of Canada's capital, as well as American and European influences and interactions. By 1914, Ottawa's population had surpassed 100,000 and today it is the capital of a G7 country whose metropolitan population exceeds one million.
The Reform movement was a political movement in British Canada in the early 19th century.
There were two types of corporations at work in the Upper Canadian economy: the legislatively chartered companies and the unregulated joint stock companies. These two business forms had different legal standing; chartered corporations had a "separate personality" - they were a legal person quite distinct from its members or shareholders, a legal fiction which protected those shareholders with limited liability. In contrast, joint stock companies were made illegal by the English Bubble Act of 1720. Joint stock companies were considered extensive partnerships under common law, and English legislation limited these to a maximum of six partners. Without incorporation, the company was not considered a "separate personality." It could not hold property; this was held by trustees, who usually had to provide a bond or security. Without incorporation, the company could neither sue nor be sued at law. And without incorporation, shareholders were personally responsible for the debts to the company to the full extent of their personal property; shareholders were not protected by limited liability. There were, then, significant legal hurdles that made the joint stock company an unwieldy form of partnership. | 2,167 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Raid on St. Augustine was a military event during the Anglo-Spanish War in which the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine in Florida (Spanish : San Agustín)) was captured in a small fight and burnt by an English expedition fleet led by Francis Drake. This was part of Francis Drake's Great Expedition and was his last engagement on the Spanish Main before Drake headed north for the Roanoke Colony. The expedition also forced the Spanish to abandon any settlements and forts in present-day South Carolina.
The Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) was an intermittent conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and England that was never formally declared. The war was punctuated by widely separated battles, and began with England's military expedition in 1585 to what was then the Spanish Netherlands under the command of the Earl of Leicester in support of the resistance of the States General to Spanish Habsburg rule.
St. Augustine is a city in the Southeastern United States, on the Atlantic coast of northeastern Florida. Founded in 1565 by Spanish explorers, it is the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement within the borders of the continental United States.
Spanish Florida, was the first major European land claim and attempted settlement in North America during the European Age of Discovery. La Florida formed part of the Captaincy General of Cuba, the Viceroyalty of New Spain, and the Spanish Empire during Spanish colonization of the Americas. While its boundaries were never clearly or formally defined, the territory was much larger than the present-day state of Florida, extending over much of what is now the southeastern United States, including all of present-day Florida plus portions of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, and southeastern Louisiana. Spain's claim to this vast area was based on several wide-ranging expeditions mounted during the 16th century. A number of missions, settlements, and small forts existed in the 16th and to a lesser extent in the 17th century; eventually they were abandoned due to pressure from the expanding English and French colonial projects, the collapse of the native populations, and the general difficulty in becoming agriculturally or economically self-sufficient. By the 18th century, Spain's control over La Florida did not extend much beyond its three forts, all located in present-day Florida: St. Augustine, St. Marks, and Pensacola.
War had already been unofficially declared by Philip II of Spain after the Treaty of Nonsuch in which Elizabeth I had offered her support to the rebellious Protestant Dutch rebels. The Queen through Francis Walsingham ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish New World colonies in a kind of preemptive strike. Sailing from Plymouth, England, in November 1585 he struck first at Santiago in the Cape Verde islands off the northwest coast of Africa, then across the Atlantic at the Spanish city of Santo Domingo which was captured and ransomed on 1 January 1586; following that he successfully attacked the important city of Cartagena on 19 February.
Philip II was King of Castile and Aragon (1556–98), King of Portugal, King of Naples and Sicily, and jure uxoris King of England and Ireland. He was also Duke of Milan. From 1555 he was lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands.
The Treaty of Nonsuch was signed on 19 August 1585 by Elizabeth I of England and the Dutch Rebels fighting against Spanish rule. It was the first international treaty signed by what would become the Dutch Republic. It was signed at Nonsuch Palace, Surrey, England.
The Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) was the revolt of the northern, largely Protestant Seven Provinces of the Low Countries against the rule of the Roman Catholic Habsburg King Philip II of Spain, hereditary ruler of the provinces. The northern provinces (Netherlands) eventually separated from the southern provinces, which continued under Habsburg Spain until 1714.
Drake wanted to strike at another Spanish city on the Spanish Main before finally visiting and replenishing Sir Walter Raleigh's new colony of Roanoke Colony on the American east coast. After this he hoped to make the transatlantic crossing back to England. The fleet headed north, and in late April Drake put into the Spanish Cuban mainland where his men dug wells in search of fresh water and gathered supplies to help counter an outbreak of dysentery, then he moved on.
Sir Walter Raleigh, also spelled Ralegh, was an English landed gentleman, writer, poet, soldier, politician, courtier, spy and explorer. He was cousin to Sir Richard Grenville and younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. He is also well known for popularising tobacco in England. Raleigh was one of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era.
The Roanoke Colony, also known as the Lost Colony, was the first attempt at founding a permanent English settlement in North America. It was established in 1585 on Roanoke Island in what is today's Dare County, North Carolina. The colony was sponsored by Sir Walter Raleigh, although he himself never set foot in it.
Dysentery is an inflammatory disease of the intestine, especially of the colon, which always results in severe diarrhea and abdominal pains. Other symptoms may include fever and a feeling of incomplete defecation. The disease is caused by several types of infectious pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and parasites.
The fleet traveled north within sight of land on the Florida peninsula sailing past its eastern coast. On 27 May 1586 as they approached further north a small fort was spotted on the shore, with a small inlet close by. This was the location of St Augustine, the most northerly town in Spain's New World Empire.Drake knew of the place and was also aware of the fact that the Spanish under Pedro Menéndez de Avilés had ordered all of the French Huguenot colonists that had tried to settle in the area executed. Drake decided on one final opportunity to raid and plunder, and a chance to avenge his fellow Protestants.
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés was a Spanish admiral and explorer from the region of Asturias, Spain, who is remembered for planning the first regular trans-oceanic convoys and for founding St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565. This was the first successful Spanish settlement in La Florida and the most significant city in the region for nearly three centuries. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously-inhabited, European-established settlement in the continental United States. Menéndez de Avilés was also the first governor of Florida (1565–74).
French Florida was a colonial territory established by French Huguenot colonists in what is now Florida between 1562 and 1565.
The English attacked and bombarded a small wooden fort in the sand dunes; the Spanish there fired only a few shots and fled. Drake sent a landing party to investigate, while Christopher Carleill, captain of the Tiger, and a few volunteers rowed a ship's boat into the inlet and saw no sign of any Spaniards. It sat on a strip of sand, separated from the mainland by a band of water, which entered into the inlet.A French Huguenot Nicholas Borgoignon, who had been taken prisoner by the Spanish six years before was found in a boat and agreed to guide the English to the Spanish settlement.
Christopher Carleill was an English military and naval commander.
The Spanish governor of St. Augustine, Pedro Menéndez de Márquez (nephew of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés), was warned that Drake was off the coast, and he realized that with fewer than a hundred militiamen he could offer little in the way of resistance. The Spanish settlers withdrew inland and hoped to make surprise raids against the English gradually. Drake and his men occupied the area of the small fort but during the night Indians, native allies of the Spanish garrison, attacked. Drake and his men held their ground and within twenty minutes the Indians were repulsed with some loss.
The following day, Drake, Carleill and around two hundred men advanced up the inlet in pinnaces and small boats, and they soon came upon the Spanish log stockade fort of San Juan. After a few shots by the Spanish, the English landed and took the fort with only a few losses. They found it deserted, as the Spanish had fled, but discovered an intact gun platform with fourteen bronze artillery pieces. They also found a chest containing the garrison's pay, about 2,000 gold ducats, which was inadvertently left behind in the retreat.Drake, knowing the Spanish had fled, began to plunder what he could; he took the guns, and burned the fort to the ground.
Soon the English came upon the main settlement of St. Augustine itself, this time they found it deserted. The Spanish, however, were just outside the town when Drake's men arrived, and they opened up a skirmishing fire. Anthony Powell, one of Carleill's officers, was killed in the opening shots as he tried to assault the outskirts. Carleill's men then charged all the way to the outskirts of the town into the scrub, forcing the Spanish to retreat and leaving Drake in control of the settlement.
The English garrisoned the town overnight and the following day razed the whole of St. Augustine to the ground. All buildings were torched, crops were destroyed and anything of value was either taken or destroyed.The fort of San Juan was burnt and all the artillery pieces were carried away by the English among other booty.
Once the English had gone Menéndez and the rest of the Spanish settlers returned to find a smoldering ruins and very little left of their settlement. He soon begged for help from the viceroy of Cuba and the settlement took a while to build itself back up. The destroyed fort San Juan was replaced with another wooden fort. A masonry fortress to defend the presidio was not built until construction of the Castillo de San Marcos began in 1672.
Drake's fleet sailed from St. Augustine on 29 May, heading northwards up the coast, looking for signs of Raleigh's settlement. They cruised into what is now Charleston Harbor but found it deserted, then continued up the coast until they saw smoke. A boat was sent to investigate, and its crew finally made contact with the English settlers, who were encamped on Roanoke Island. Drake had no supplies but offered to take any of the settlers back to England; he sailed into Portsmouth on July 22.
Drake was greeted as a national hero upon his arrival in England; by that time news of his daring raids on the Spanish Main had reached most of Europe. His direct assault on the Spanish Empire was disastrous for the prestige of Spain and threatened the continued flow of New World riches, in the form of silver and gold, into its national treasury. The Spaniards, who called Drake El Draque, regarded him as a monstrous pirate. Drake's strike at the heart of the Spanish colonial empire embarrassed the Spanish king, Philip II, and hardened his resolve to invade and conquer England.
The consequences of Drake's raid were significant to the Spanish. Rumors soon began to spread that the English had a settlement further north and were using the place as a base for piracy. This was confirmed by news from released Spanish prisoners that Drake had wanted to replenish the colony of Roanoke. Although the Spanish knew of Roanoke they could not find the English colony despite a number of military expeditions sent out. Menéndez came the closest reaching 37 degrees latitude but failed to find anything.
Fearing another raid, and with the Spanish settlements on the American West coast being overstretched, undermanned and underarmed; a crisis followed. Menéndez even conferred with the Council of the Indies in Seville (who received confirmation of St. Augustine's destruction by July) and Philip II, that all concentration should be in one place and that being at St. Augustine. Mendendez despite objections got his way and as a result Parris Island and Santa Elena were abandoned. This marked the end of the permanent Spanish presence in what today is South Carolina.
In the present day the events of Sir Francis Drake's Raid are recreated in June at St. Augustine. So far there have been 27 re enactments and all are held in the old part of town.The re-enactment features an encampment, drills, weapon demonstrations, and more.
Sir Francis Drake was an English sea captain, privateer, slave trader, naval officer and explorer of the Elizabethan era. Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580, and was the first to complete the voyage as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire circumnavigation. With his incursion into the Pacific Ocean, he claimed what is now California for the English and inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish on the western coast of the Americas, an area that had previously been largely unexplored by western shipping.
Sir Thomas Cavendish was an English explorer and a privateer known as "The Navigator" because he was the first who deliberately tried to emulate Sir Francis Drake and raid the Spanish towns and ships in the Pacific and return by circumnavigating the globe. While members of Magellan's, Loaisa's, Drake's, and Loyola's expeditions had preceded Cavendish in circumnavigating the globe, it had not been their intent at the outset. His first trip and successful circumnavigation made him rich from captured Spanish gold, silk and treasure from the Pacific and the Philippines. His richest prize was the captured 600 ton sailing ship the Manila Galleon Santa Ana. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I of England after his return. He later set out for a second raiding and circumnavigation trip but was not as fortunate and died at sea at the age of 31.
Events from the 16th century in Canada.
Jean Ribault was a French naval officer, navigator, and a colonizer of what would become the southeastern United States. He was a major figure in the French attempts to colonize Florida. A Huguenot and officer under Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, Ribault led an expedition to the New World in 1562 that founded the outpost of Charlesfort on Parris Island in present-day South Carolina. Two years later, he took over command of the French colony of Fort Caroline in what is now Jacksonville, Florida. He and many of his followers were massacred by Spanish soldiers near St. Augustine.
Rene Goulaine de Laudonnière was a French Huguenot explorer and the founder of the French colony of Fort Caroline in what is now Jacksonville, Florida. Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, a Huguenot, sent Jean Ribault and Laudonnière to explore potential sites in Florida suitable for settlement by the French Protestants.
Sir Ralph Lane was an English explorer of the Elizabethan era. He was part of the unsuccessful attempt in 1585 to colonise Roanoke Island, North Carolina. He also served the Crown in Ireland and was knighted by the Queen in 1593.
Singeing the King of Spain's Beard is the derisive name given to the attack in April and May 1587 in the Bay of Cádiz, by the English privateer Francis Drake against the Spanish naval forces assembling at Cádiz. Much of the Spanish fleet was destroyed, and substantial supplies were destroyed or captured. There followed a series of raiding parties against several forts along the Portuguese coast. A Spanish treasure ship, returning from the Indies, was also captured. The damage caused by the English delayed Spanish plans to invade England by more than a year, yet did not dispel them.
The Sea Dogs were a group of sea-raiders,, who were authorised by Queen Elizabeth I of England, and also engaged in slave trading.
Pedro Menéndez Márquez was a Spanish military officer, conquistador, and governor of Spanish Florida. He was a nephew of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, who had been appointed adelantado of La Florida by King Philip II. Márquez was also related to Diego de Velasco, Hernando de Miranda, Gutierre de Miranda, Juan Menéndez Márquez, and Francisco Menéndez Márquez, all of whom served as governors of La Florida.
The English overseas possessions, also known as the English colonial empire, comprised a variety of overseas territories that were colonised, conquered, or otherwise acquired by the former Kingdom of England during the centuries before the Acts of Union of 1707 between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland created the Kingdom of Great Britain. The many English possessions then became the foundation of the British Empire and its fast-growing naval and mercantile power, which until then had yet to overtake those of the Dutch Republic, the Kingdom of Portugal, and the Kingdom of Spain.
This is a timeline of the U.S. state of Florida.
The Battle of Cartagena de Indias (1586) or the Capture of Cartagena de Indias was a military and naval action fought on 9–11 February 1586, of the recently declared Anglo-Spanish War that resulted in the assault and capture by English soldiers and sailors of the Spanish city of Cartagena de Indias governed by Pedro de Bustos on the Spanish Main. The English were led by Francis Drake. The raid was part of his Great Expedition to the Spanish New World. The English soldiers then occupied the city for over two months and captured much booty along with a ransom before departing on 12 April.
The Battle of Santo Domingo (1586) or the Capture of Santo Domingo was a military and naval action fought on 1 January 1586, of the recently declared Anglo-Spanish War that resulted in the assault and capture by English soldiers and sailors of the Spanish city of Santo Domingo governed by Cristóbal de Ovalle on the Spanish island of Hispaniola. The English were led by Francis Drake and was part of his Great Expedition to the raid the Spanish New World in a kind of preemptive strike. The English soldiers then occupied the city for over a month and captured much booty along with a 25,000 ducat ransom before departing on 1 February.
The Capture of Santiago was a military event that took place between 11–28 November 1585 during the newly declared Anglo-Spanish War. An English expedition led by Francis Drake captured the port town of Cidade Velha in the Cape Verde islands that had recently belonged to the Crown of Portugal. He sacked it and then marched inland before doing the same at São Domingos and Praia. Afterwards Drake left and continued his expedition to successfully raid the Spanish possessions in the Americas.
The history of St. Augustine, Florida, the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States, began in 1565 when it was founded by the Spanish admiral, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. The Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez, signed by King Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida, and expansive privileges to exploit the lands in the vast territory of Spanish Florida, called La Florida by the Spaniards. This contract directed Menéndez to explore the region's Atlantic coast and report on its features, with the object of finding a suitable location to establish a permanent colony from which the Spanish treasure fleet could be defended and Spain's claimed territories in North America protected against incursions by other European powers.
The Newfoundland Expedition also known as Bernard Drake's Newfoundland Expedition was an English naval expedition that took place during the beginning of the declared Anglo-Spanish War in the North Atlantic during summer and Autumn of 1585. The area of conflict was situated mainly in an area known as the Grand Banks off present day Newfoundland. The aim of the expedition was to capture the Spanish and Portuguese fishing fleets. The expedition was a huge military and financial success and virtually removed the Spanish and Portuguese from these waters. In addition the raid had large consequences in terms of English colonial expansion and settlement. | <urn:uuid:456dbd7f-5e91-46da-9b14-4cbdb0d6df30> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Raid_on_St._Augustine | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.980338 | 4,207 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.611053586006... | 1 | The Raid on St. Augustine was a military event during the Anglo-Spanish War in which the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine in Florida (Spanish : San Agustín)) was captured in a small fight and burnt by an English expedition fleet led by Francis Drake. This was part of Francis Drake's Great Expedition and was his last engagement on the Spanish Main before Drake headed north for the Roanoke Colony. The expedition also forced the Spanish to abandon any settlements and forts in present-day South Carolina.
The Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) was an intermittent conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and England that was never formally declared. The war was punctuated by widely separated battles, and began with England's military expedition in 1585 to what was then the Spanish Netherlands under the command of the Earl of Leicester in support of the resistance of the States General to Spanish Habsburg rule.
St. Augustine is a city in the Southeastern United States, on the Atlantic coast of northeastern Florida. Founded in 1565 by Spanish explorers, it is the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement within the borders of the continental United States.
Spanish Florida, was the first major European land claim and attempted settlement in North America during the European Age of Discovery. La Florida formed part of the Captaincy General of Cuba, the Viceroyalty of New Spain, and the Spanish Empire during Spanish colonization of the Americas. While its boundaries were never clearly or formally defined, the territory was much larger than the present-day state of Florida, extending over much of what is now the southeastern United States, including all of present-day Florida plus portions of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, and southeastern Louisiana. Spain's claim to this vast area was based on several wide-ranging expeditions mounted during the 16th century. A number of missions, settlements, and small forts existed in the 16th and to a lesser extent in the 17th century; eventually they were abandoned due to pressure from the expanding English and French colonial projects, the collapse of the native populations, and the general difficulty in becoming agriculturally or economically self-sufficient. By the 18th century, Spain's control over La Florida did not extend much beyond its three forts, all located in present-day Florida: St. Augustine, St. Marks, and Pensacola.
War had already been unofficially declared by Philip II of Spain after the Treaty of Nonsuch in which Elizabeth I had offered her support to the rebellious Protestant Dutch rebels. The Queen through Francis Walsingham ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish New World colonies in a kind of preemptive strike. Sailing from Plymouth, England, in November 1585 he struck first at Santiago in the Cape Verde islands off the northwest coast of Africa, then across the Atlantic at the Spanish city of Santo Domingo which was captured and ransomed on 1 January 1586; following that he successfully attacked the important city of Cartagena on 19 February.
Philip II was King of Castile and Aragon (1556–98), King of Portugal, King of Naples and Sicily, and jure uxoris King of England and Ireland. He was also Duke of Milan. From 1555 he was lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands.
The Treaty of Nonsuch was signed on 19 August 1585 by Elizabeth I of England and the Dutch Rebels fighting against Spanish rule. It was the first international treaty signed by what would become the Dutch Republic. It was signed at Nonsuch Palace, Surrey, England.
The Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) was the revolt of the northern, largely Protestant Seven Provinces of the Low Countries against the rule of the Roman Catholic Habsburg King Philip II of Spain, hereditary ruler of the provinces. The northern provinces (Netherlands) eventually separated from the southern provinces, which continued under Habsburg Spain until 1714.
Drake wanted to strike at another Spanish city on the Spanish Main before finally visiting and replenishing Sir Walter Raleigh's new colony of Roanoke Colony on the American east coast. After this he hoped to make the transatlantic crossing back to England. The fleet headed north, and in late April Drake put into the Spanish Cuban mainland where his men dug wells in search of fresh water and gathered supplies to help counter an outbreak of dysentery, then he moved on.
Sir Walter Raleigh, also spelled Ralegh, was an English landed gentleman, writer, poet, soldier, politician, courtier, spy and explorer. He was cousin to Sir Richard Grenville and younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. He is also well known for popularising tobacco in England. Raleigh was one of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era.
The Roanoke Colony, also known as the Lost Colony, was the first attempt at founding a permanent English settlement in North America. It was established in 1585 on Roanoke Island in what is today's Dare County, North Carolina. The colony was sponsored by Sir Walter Raleigh, although he himself never set foot in it.
Dysentery is an inflammatory disease of the intestine, especially of the colon, which always results in severe diarrhea and abdominal pains. Other symptoms may include fever and a feeling of incomplete defecation. The disease is caused by several types of infectious pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and parasites.
The fleet traveled north within sight of land on the Florida peninsula sailing past its eastern coast. On 27 May 1586 as they approached further north a small fort was spotted on the shore, with a small inlet close by. This was the location of St Augustine, the most northerly town in Spain's New World Empire.Drake knew of the place and was also aware of the fact that the Spanish under Pedro Menéndez de Avilés had ordered all of the French Huguenot colonists that had tried to settle in the area executed. Drake decided on one final opportunity to raid and plunder, and a chance to avenge his fellow Protestants.
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés was a Spanish admiral and explorer from the region of Asturias, Spain, who is remembered for planning the first regular trans-oceanic convoys and for founding St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565. This was the first successful Spanish settlement in La Florida and the most significant city in the region for nearly three centuries. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously-inhabited, European-established settlement in the continental United States. Menéndez de Avilés was also the first governor of Florida (1565–74).
French Florida was a colonial territory established by French Huguenot colonists in what is now Florida between 1562 and 1565.
The English attacked and bombarded a small wooden fort in the sand dunes; the Spanish there fired only a few shots and fled. Drake sent a landing party to investigate, while Christopher Carleill, captain of the Tiger, and a few volunteers rowed a ship's boat into the inlet and saw no sign of any Spaniards. It sat on a strip of sand, separated from the mainland by a band of water, which entered into the inlet.A French Huguenot Nicholas Borgoignon, who had been taken prisoner by the Spanish six years before was found in a boat and agreed to guide the English to the Spanish settlement.
Christopher Carleill was an English military and naval commander.
The Spanish governor of St. Augustine, Pedro Menéndez de Márquez (nephew of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés), was warned that Drake was off the coast, and he realized that with fewer than a hundred militiamen he could offer little in the way of resistance. The Spanish settlers withdrew inland and hoped to make surprise raids against the English gradually. Drake and his men occupied the area of the small fort but during the night Indians, native allies of the Spanish garrison, attacked. Drake and his men held their ground and within twenty minutes the Indians were repulsed with some loss.
The following day, Drake, Carleill and around two hundred men advanced up the inlet in pinnaces and small boats, and they soon came upon the Spanish log stockade fort of San Juan. After a few shots by the Spanish, the English landed and took the fort with only a few losses. They found it deserted, as the Spanish had fled, but discovered an intact gun platform with fourteen bronze artillery pieces. They also found a chest containing the garrison's pay, about 2,000 gold ducats, which was inadvertently left behind in the retreat.Drake, knowing the Spanish had fled, began to plunder what he could; he took the guns, and burned the fort to the ground.
Soon the English came upon the main settlement of St. Augustine itself, this time they found it deserted. The Spanish, however, were just outside the town when Drake's men arrived, and they opened up a skirmishing fire. Anthony Powell, one of Carleill's officers, was killed in the opening shots as he tried to assault the outskirts. Carleill's men then charged all the way to the outskirts of the town into the scrub, forcing the Spanish to retreat and leaving Drake in control of the settlement.
The English garrisoned the town overnight and the following day razed the whole of St. Augustine to the ground. All buildings were torched, crops were destroyed and anything of value was either taken or destroyed.The fort of San Juan was burnt and all the artillery pieces were carried away by the English among other booty.
Once the English had gone Menéndez and the rest of the Spanish settlers returned to find a smoldering ruins and very little left of their settlement. He soon begged for help from the viceroy of Cuba and the settlement took a while to build itself back up. The destroyed fort San Juan was replaced with another wooden fort. A masonry fortress to defend the presidio was not built until construction of the Castillo de San Marcos began in 1672.
Drake's fleet sailed from St. Augustine on 29 May, heading northwards up the coast, looking for signs of Raleigh's settlement. They cruised into what is now Charleston Harbor but found it deserted, then continued up the coast until they saw smoke. A boat was sent to investigate, and its crew finally made contact with the English settlers, who were encamped on Roanoke Island. Drake had no supplies but offered to take any of the settlers back to England; he sailed into Portsmouth on July 22.
Drake was greeted as a national hero upon his arrival in England; by that time news of his daring raids on the Spanish Main had reached most of Europe. His direct assault on the Spanish Empire was disastrous for the prestige of Spain and threatened the continued flow of New World riches, in the form of silver and gold, into its national treasury. The Spaniards, who called Drake El Draque, regarded him as a monstrous pirate. Drake's strike at the heart of the Spanish colonial empire embarrassed the Spanish king, Philip II, and hardened his resolve to invade and conquer England.
The consequences of Drake's raid were significant to the Spanish. Rumors soon began to spread that the English had a settlement further north and were using the place as a base for piracy. This was confirmed by news from released Spanish prisoners that Drake had wanted to replenish the colony of Roanoke. Although the Spanish knew of Roanoke they could not find the English colony despite a number of military expeditions sent out. Menéndez came the closest reaching 37 degrees latitude but failed to find anything.
Fearing another raid, and with the Spanish settlements on the American West coast being overstretched, undermanned and underarmed; a crisis followed. Menéndez even conferred with the Council of the Indies in Seville (who received confirmation of St. Augustine's destruction by July) and Philip II, that all concentration should be in one place and that being at St. Augustine. Mendendez despite objections got his way and as a result Parris Island and Santa Elena were abandoned. This marked the end of the permanent Spanish presence in what today is South Carolina.
In the present day the events of Sir Francis Drake's Raid are recreated in June at St. Augustine. So far there have been 27 re enactments and all are held in the old part of town.The re-enactment features an encampment, drills, weapon demonstrations, and more.
Sir Francis Drake was an English sea captain, privateer, slave trader, naval officer and explorer of the Elizabethan era. Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580, and was the first to complete the voyage as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire circumnavigation. With his incursion into the Pacific Ocean, he claimed what is now California for the English and inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish on the western coast of the Americas, an area that had previously been largely unexplored by western shipping.
Sir Thomas Cavendish was an English explorer and a privateer known as "The Navigator" because he was the first who deliberately tried to emulate Sir Francis Drake and raid the Spanish towns and ships in the Pacific and return by circumnavigating the globe. While members of Magellan's, Loaisa's, Drake's, and Loyola's expeditions had preceded Cavendish in circumnavigating the globe, it had not been their intent at the outset. His first trip and successful circumnavigation made him rich from captured Spanish gold, silk and treasure from the Pacific and the Philippines. His richest prize was the captured 600 ton sailing ship the Manila Galleon Santa Ana. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I of England after his return. He later set out for a second raiding and circumnavigation trip but was not as fortunate and died at sea at the age of 31.
Events from the 16th century in Canada.
Jean Ribault was a French naval officer, navigator, and a colonizer of what would become the southeastern United States. He was a major figure in the French attempts to colonize Florida. A Huguenot and officer under Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, Ribault led an expedition to the New World in 1562 that founded the outpost of Charlesfort on Parris Island in present-day South Carolina. Two years later, he took over command of the French colony of Fort Caroline in what is now Jacksonville, Florida. He and many of his followers were massacred by Spanish soldiers near St. Augustine.
Rene Goulaine de Laudonnière was a French Huguenot explorer and the founder of the French colony of Fort Caroline in what is now Jacksonville, Florida. Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, a Huguenot, sent Jean Ribault and Laudonnière to explore potential sites in Florida suitable for settlement by the French Protestants.
Sir Ralph Lane was an English explorer of the Elizabethan era. He was part of the unsuccessful attempt in 1585 to colonise Roanoke Island, North Carolina. He also served the Crown in Ireland and was knighted by the Queen in 1593.
Singeing the King of Spain's Beard is the derisive name given to the attack in April and May 1587 in the Bay of Cádiz, by the English privateer Francis Drake against the Spanish naval forces assembling at Cádiz. Much of the Spanish fleet was destroyed, and substantial supplies were destroyed or captured. There followed a series of raiding parties against several forts along the Portuguese coast. A Spanish treasure ship, returning from the Indies, was also captured. The damage caused by the English delayed Spanish plans to invade England by more than a year, yet did not dispel them.
The Sea Dogs were a group of sea-raiders,, who were authorised by Queen Elizabeth I of England, and also engaged in slave trading.
Pedro Menéndez Márquez was a Spanish military officer, conquistador, and governor of Spanish Florida. He was a nephew of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, who had been appointed adelantado of La Florida by King Philip II. Márquez was also related to Diego de Velasco, Hernando de Miranda, Gutierre de Miranda, Juan Menéndez Márquez, and Francisco Menéndez Márquez, all of whom served as governors of La Florida.
The English overseas possessions, also known as the English colonial empire, comprised a variety of overseas territories that were colonised, conquered, or otherwise acquired by the former Kingdom of England during the centuries before the Acts of Union of 1707 between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland created the Kingdom of Great Britain. The many English possessions then became the foundation of the British Empire and its fast-growing naval and mercantile power, which until then had yet to overtake those of the Dutch Republic, the Kingdom of Portugal, and the Kingdom of Spain.
This is a timeline of the U.S. state of Florida.
The Battle of Cartagena de Indias (1586) or the Capture of Cartagena de Indias was a military and naval action fought on 9–11 February 1586, of the recently declared Anglo-Spanish War that resulted in the assault and capture by English soldiers and sailors of the Spanish city of Cartagena de Indias governed by Pedro de Bustos on the Spanish Main. The English were led by Francis Drake. The raid was part of his Great Expedition to the Spanish New World. The English soldiers then occupied the city for over two months and captured much booty along with a ransom before departing on 12 April.
The Battle of Santo Domingo (1586) or the Capture of Santo Domingo was a military and naval action fought on 1 January 1586, of the recently declared Anglo-Spanish War that resulted in the assault and capture by English soldiers and sailors of the Spanish city of Santo Domingo governed by Cristóbal de Ovalle on the Spanish island of Hispaniola. The English were led by Francis Drake and was part of his Great Expedition to the raid the Spanish New World in a kind of preemptive strike. The English soldiers then occupied the city for over a month and captured much booty along with a 25,000 ducat ransom before departing on 1 February.
The Capture of Santiago was a military event that took place between 11–28 November 1585 during the newly declared Anglo-Spanish War. An English expedition led by Francis Drake captured the port town of Cidade Velha in the Cape Verde islands that had recently belonged to the Crown of Portugal. He sacked it and then marched inland before doing the same at São Domingos and Praia. Afterwards Drake left and continued his expedition to successfully raid the Spanish possessions in the Americas.
The history of St. Augustine, Florida, the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States, began in 1565 when it was founded by the Spanish admiral, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. The Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez, signed by King Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida, and expansive privileges to exploit the lands in the vast territory of Spanish Florida, called La Florida by the Spaniards. This contract directed Menéndez to explore the region's Atlantic coast and report on its features, with the object of finding a suitable location to establish a permanent colony from which the Spanish treasure fleet could be defended and Spain's claimed territories in North America protected against incursions by other European powers.
The Newfoundland Expedition also known as Bernard Drake's Newfoundland Expedition was an English naval expedition that took place during the beginning of the declared Anglo-Spanish War in the North Atlantic during summer and Autumn of 1585. The area of conflict was situated mainly in an area known as the Grand Banks off present day Newfoundland. The aim of the expedition was to capture the Spanish and Portuguese fishing fleets. The expedition was a huge military and financial success and virtually removed the Spanish and Portuguese from these waters. In addition the raid had large consequences in terms of English colonial expansion and settlement. | 4,261 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For as long as written records have existed, there have been accounts of cultures celebrating the planting and harvest seasons. In this sense, Thanksgiving is an ancient holiday, as the purpose of these celebrations would be to express gratitude for a plentiful harvest. There is evidence supporting that these types of festivals have taken place in many parts of the world for hundreds if not thousands of years.
In the United States, there is debate as to when and where the first Thanksgiving was held. Wikipedia, quoting a book by Ann Morrill, states that there were Thanksgiving observances in the colony that was to become Virginia as early as 1607. There were likely harvest season celebrations in the colonies even prior to this date. One Thanksgiving, however, stands out over the rest in the minds of the people of the United States. The significance of this particular Thanksgiving doesn’t lie in when it occurred, or whether it occurred first, second, or so on, but rather in the harsh situation that faced the people involved.
The Thanksgiving at Plymouth Rock – In September of 1620, a ship called the Mayflower left the town of Plymouth, England and headed toward the New World. When the ship departed, there were 102 passengers on board the ship. Some of the passengers on board were seeking religious freedom. These individuals are now referred to as Pilgrims, but at the time they were known as Separationists. The targeted landing area of the ship was originally the Virginia settlement, but weather conditions would prevent the Mayflower from ever reaching its intended destination.
The voyage from England to the New World lasted 66 days, and the ship arrived in what is now known as Cape Cod Harbor, New England, in November. At this time winter had already begun, and the Mayflower was forced to drop anchor and attempt to wait until the spring before settling on land. After they stopped, several exploratory crews were sent out onto the land, to forage for food and possibly bounty. The leaders of these crews were named Miles Standish, who was an English Soldier, and Captain Christopher Jones. There is documentation on several events that took place during these expeditions, provided by letters sent back to England by some of the members involved. On an expedition led by Miles Standish, the party encountered an abandoned Native American settlement and essentially looted it. During the looting, several of the members dug up a grave. In the grave, members found stashes of corn and took it with them, covering the grave as they left. This event is somewhat grim and could easily be viewed in a negative light from our standpoint in present day, but it is very difficult to determine what the level of desperation of the crew would have been like at the time. The disturbance of the gravesites caused tension between the local Native Americans and the passengers of the Mayflower. Several years earlier, a man by the name of Thomas Hunt had captured 20 Native Americans in the same area and sold them into slavery in England, which added to the tension.
On board the Mayflower, disease had started to take its toll. Scurvy and tuberculosis were among the diseases that were affecting the passengers. Those that could manage started to build Plymouth Colony on the mainland. Some of the additional expeditions saw skirmishes with Native Americans where arrows and gunfire were exchanged. By the end of the winter, only about half of the original 102 had survived.
In the spring something incredible happened to the destitute colonists. Several years before in 1614, when Thomas Hunt had taken the 20 Native Americans as slaves, he had tried to sell some of them in Spain. According to Wikipedia, local Spanish friars took the slaves in order to attempt to convert them to Christianity. Among the Native Americans taken was a man by the name of Tisquantum Squanto. Squanto wanted to return home and was able to leave the custody of the friars. He made his way to London, England, and then made two subsequent trips back across the Atlantic before he was able to get to the area where he was originally from, the area where Plymouth Colony was being established. He returned in 1619. That Squanto was able to learn English and find his way to London and then back to his tribe in 5 years shows his level of intelligence and determination. In the spring of 1621, as the Pilgrims were struggling for survival, they met Squanto. That Squanto spoke English was nothing short of a small miracle for the Pilgrims. Squanto aided the Pilgrims in the practice of cultivating corn (maize) and catching wildlife. He also helped to create peace between a local tribe, the Wampanoag, and the Pilgrims. In the fall of 1621, the Pilgrims were able to harvest the corn that Squanto had helped them plant. In celebration, they held a Thanksgiving dinner and invited members of the Wampanoag tribe to join them. This would be a Thanksgiving that would be remembered for centuries to come.
Thanksgiving holidays in the colonies were sporadic at first. They would often follow harvests or periods when the colonists were particularly thankful. As time went on, Thanksgiving feasts became more widespread, and formal dates were set for Thanksgiving. In 1777, George Washington issued a day of Thanksgiving to celebrate the defeat of the British at Saratoga. Again, in 1779, he issued another Thanksgiving holiday to celebrate the victory of the Revolutionary War. This was the first National Thanksgiving holiday.
It wasn’t until the Civil War, in 1863, that Thanksgiving was set as an annual National holiday. In response to a number of letters written by Sarah Hale, Abraham Lincoln declared that the final Thursday of November would be a National day of Thanksgiving. Thanksgiving remained on the last Thursday of November until 1939 when, in an attempt to revive the economy during the Great Depression, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved it to the fourth Thursday. The idea behind this strategy was that retailers would be able to sell more of their merchandise if an extra week was added to the holiday shopping season. Some members of Congress and parts of the nation were upset that the day was being changed from the last Thursday to the fourth or third Thursday. In a compromise made in 1941, Congress and the President agreed to hold Thanksgiving on the fourth Thursday of every November.
Today’s Thanksgiving dinners can consist of a number of items. Some of the more traditional dishes include turkey, corn, beans, stuffing, dressing, cranberry sauce, sweet potatoes, mashed potatoes, casseroles and numerous desserts.
Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Christmas Parade
Established in 1924, the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Christmas Parade has become an absolute staple of Thanksgiving Day. The parade begins in the morning, and is the United States’ (and possibly the World’s) most widely televised parade event each year. The parade draws enormous crowds, and features enormous helium balloons. In more recent years, in addition to the parade, a huge show involving dancers of different groups has been put on in front of the Macy’s building on 34th street.
Presidential Pardon of a Turkey
Started either during George Bush Sr.’s presidential term, or during Abraham Lincoln’s presidential term, the President now pardons two turkeys each year at Thanksgiving. These turkeys are able to live the rest of their lives on a farm, without fear of ever becoming a Thanksgiving Turkey.
The day following Thanksgiving has for sometime been the busiest shopping day of the year. In order to lure shoppers into their doors, retailers will offer fantastic bargains on items in their store. This often causes large lines to form at stores in the early hours of the morning, as shoppers gear up to get a head start on the Christmas holiday shopping season.
Each year, the Dallas Cowboys and Detroit Lions will each host an NFL Football game. After one or both of the games, the announcers will issue a Turkey Leg Award to the player who performed the best during the game. John Madden especially known for his award of the Turkey Leg.
When is Thanksgiving?
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0.36802953481674... | 4 | For as long as written records have existed, there have been accounts of cultures celebrating the planting and harvest seasons. In this sense, Thanksgiving is an ancient holiday, as the purpose of these celebrations would be to express gratitude for a plentiful harvest. There is evidence supporting that these types of festivals have taken place in many parts of the world for hundreds if not thousands of years.
In the United States, there is debate as to when and where the first Thanksgiving was held. Wikipedia, quoting a book by Ann Morrill, states that there were Thanksgiving observances in the colony that was to become Virginia as early as 1607. There were likely harvest season celebrations in the colonies even prior to this date. One Thanksgiving, however, stands out over the rest in the minds of the people of the United States. The significance of this particular Thanksgiving doesn’t lie in when it occurred, or whether it occurred first, second, or so on, but rather in the harsh situation that faced the people involved.
The Thanksgiving at Plymouth Rock – In September of 1620, a ship called the Mayflower left the town of Plymouth, England and headed toward the New World. When the ship departed, there were 102 passengers on board the ship. Some of the passengers on board were seeking religious freedom. These individuals are now referred to as Pilgrims, but at the time they were known as Separationists. The targeted landing area of the ship was originally the Virginia settlement, but weather conditions would prevent the Mayflower from ever reaching its intended destination.
The voyage from England to the New World lasted 66 days, and the ship arrived in what is now known as Cape Cod Harbor, New England, in November. At this time winter had already begun, and the Mayflower was forced to drop anchor and attempt to wait until the spring before settling on land. After they stopped, several exploratory crews were sent out onto the land, to forage for food and possibly bounty. The leaders of these crews were named Miles Standish, who was an English Soldier, and Captain Christopher Jones. There is documentation on several events that took place during these expeditions, provided by letters sent back to England by some of the members involved. On an expedition led by Miles Standish, the party encountered an abandoned Native American settlement and essentially looted it. During the looting, several of the members dug up a grave. In the grave, members found stashes of corn and took it with them, covering the grave as they left. This event is somewhat grim and could easily be viewed in a negative light from our standpoint in present day, but it is very difficult to determine what the level of desperation of the crew would have been like at the time. The disturbance of the gravesites caused tension between the local Native Americans and the passengers of the Mayflower. Several years earlier, a man by the name of Thomas Hunt had captured 20 Native Americans in the same area and sold them into slavery in England, which added to the tension.
On board the Mayflower, disease had started to take its toll. Scurvy and tuberculosis were among the diseases that were affecting the passengers. Those that could manage started to build Plymouth Colony on the mainland. Some of the additional expeditions saw skirmishes with Native Americans where arrows and gunfire were exchanged. By the end of the winter, only about half of the original 102 had survived.
In the spring something incredible happened to the destitute colonists. Several years before in 1614, when Thomas Hunt had taken the 20 Native Americans as slaves, he had tried to sell some of them in Spain. According to Wikipedia, local Spanish friars took the slaves in order to attempt to convert them to Christianity. Among the Native Americans taken was a man by the name of Tisquantum Squanto. Squanto wanted to return home and was able to leave the custody of the friars. He made his way to London, England, and then made two subsequent trips back across the Atlantic before he was able to get to the area where he was originally from, the area where Plymouth Colony was being established. He returned in 1619. That Squanto was able to learn English and find his way to London and then back to his tribe in 5 years shows his level of intelligence and determination. In the spring of 1621, as the Pilgrims were struggling for survival, they met Squanto. That Squanto spoke English was nothing short of a small miracle for the Pilgrims. Squanto aided the Pilgrims in the practice of cultivating corn (maize) and catching wildlife. He also helped to create peace between a local tribe, the Wampanoag, and the Pilgrims. In the fall of 1621, the Pilgrims were able to harvest the corn that Squanto had helped them plant. In celebration, they held a Thanksgiving dinner and invited members of the Wampanoag tribe to join them. This would be a Thanksgiving that would be remembered for centuries to come.
Thanksgiving holidays in the colonies were sporadic at first. They would often follow harvests or periods when the colonists were particularly thankful. As time went on, Thanksgiving feasts became more widespread, and formal dates were set for Thanksgiving. In 1777, George Washington issued a day of Thanksgiving to celebrate the defeat of the British at Saratoga. Again, in 1779, he issued another Thanksgiving holiday to celebrate the victory of the Revolutionary War. This was the first National Thanksgiving holiday.
It wasn’t until the Civil War, in 1863, that Thanksgiving was set as an annual National holiday. In response to a number of letters written by Sarah Hale, Abraham Lincoln declared that the final Thursday of November would be a National day of Thanksgiving. Thanksgiving remained on the last Thursday of November until 1939 when, in an attempt to revive the economy during the Great Depression, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved it to the fourth Thursday. The idea behind this strategy was that retailers would be able to sell more of their merchandise if an extra week was added to the holiday shopping season. Some members of Congress and parts of the nation were upset that the day was being changed from the last Thursday to the fourth or third Thursday. In a compromise made in 1941, Congress and the President agreed to hold Thanksgiving on the fourth Thursday of every November.
Today’s Thanksgiving dinners can consist of a number of items. Some of the more traditional dishes include turkey, corn, beans, stuffing, dressing, cranberry sauce, sweet potatoes, mashed potatoes, casseroles and numerous desserts.
Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Christmas Parade
Established in 1924, the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Christmas Parade has become an absolute staple of Thanksgiving Day. The parade begins in the morning, and is the United States’ (and possibly the World’s) most widely televised parade event each year. The parade draws enormous crowds, and features enormous helium balloons. In more recent years, in addition to the parade, a huge show involving dancers of different groups has been put on in front of the Macy’s building on 34th street.
Presidential Pardon of a Turkey
Started either during George Bush Sr.’s presidential term, or during Abraham Lincoln’s presidential term, the President now pardons two turkeys each year at Thanksgiving. These turkeys are able to live the rest of their lives on a farm, without fear of ever becoming a Thanksgiving Turkey.
The day following Thanksgiving has for sometime been the busiest shopping day of the year. In order to lure shoppers into their doors, retailers will offer fantastic bargains on items in their store. This often causes large lines to form at stores in the early hours of the morning, as shoppers gear up to get a head start on the Christmas holiday shopping season.
Each year, the Dallas Cowboys and Detroit Lions will each host an NFL Football game. After one or both of the games, the announcers will issue a Turkey Leg Award to the player who performed the best during the game. John Madden especially known for his award of the Turkey Leg.
When is Thanksgiving?
|This year (2020)||November 26 (Thursday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)||November 28 (Thursday)||Multiple dates - more| | 1,716 | ENGLISH | 1 |
General John Pope was a senior Union officer during the American Civil War. Pope fought successfully in the Western Theatre but is best known for his exploits in the Eastern Theatre of the American Civil War. Pope’s career was overshadowed by his defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run.
John Pope was born on March 16th 1822 in Louisville, Kentucky. His father served as a judge in Illinois Territory and knew Abraham Lincoln when he worked as a lawyer.
Pope graduated from US Military Academy in 1842 and became a career army officer. He fought in the Mexican-American War during which time he was given the temporary rank of captain. However, Pope spent a great deal of his time as a topographical officer mapping out Florida and New Mexico. Prior to the American Civil War, Pope’s main task was his involvement in the planning for a railway that was to cross America.
Pope’s family connection to the Lincoln’s was seen when Lincoln was voted President. Pope was one of just four officers selected to escort the President –elect to Washington DC.
Shortly after the American Civil War broke out in April 1861, Pope was put in charge of Illinois volunteers with the rank of Brigadier General (June 1861).
Pope fought successfully in Missouri and along the Mississippi River – all part of the Western Theatre of the American Civil War. The overall commander of the Western Theatre was Major General John Frémont. He did not get on with Pope and there is little doubt that Pope used his connections in Washington to try to get Frémont relieved of his command. There is also littler doubt that Frémont knew what Pope was trying to do. It was hardly a recipe for military success – yet Pope was successful both militarily and in his attempt to get Frémont removed from his command – he was succeeded by Major General Henry Halleck.
Pope achieved a victory at Blackwater, Missouri, that resulted in the Confederates in the region retreating and the capture of 1,200 prisoners-of-war. Suitably impressed with this achievement, Halleck appointed Pope to command the Army of the Mississippi in February 1862.
Pope’s army consisted of 25,000 men and his primary task was to clear the Confederates from the Mississippi River. In this he was very successful. In April 1862, the heavily fortified Confederate post called Island No 10 was captured. 12,000 men surrendered along with their weapons. The loss of Island No 10 freed up the Mississippi River for Union navigation as far south as Memphis. In recognition of this achievement, Pope was promoted to Major General.
The success Pope experienced in the Western Theatre was not matched by his contemporaries in the Eastern Theatre. Major General George McClellan failed in his attempt to capture Richmond during the Peninsula Campaign and it was felt that Pope might just have that magic touch to rectify the situation.
Pope was brought from the Western Theatre to the Eastern Theatre and given command of the Army of Virginia. His success in the Western Theatre may well have gone to his head – he was very keen to let anyone who would listen know about his successes there, especially the Union press. However, he immediately angered the men in the Army of Virginia by criticising their past performance in battle and comparing their failure in the east with his success in the west. His message to them regarding their lack of fighting efficiency would come back to haunt Pope very quickly.
His first major engagement in battle was against an army commanded by General Robert E Lee aided by ‘Stonewall’ Jackson. By any standards they were a formidable pairing and Pope was definitely out of his league with regards to his strategic thinking.
Pope had a major advantage at the Second Battle of Bull Run – his far larger army. Pope had 70,000 men at his disposal while Lee had 55,000. In fact, Lee decided to split his army in two. He sent Jackson with 24,000 men to attack Pope’s rear after outflanking Pope’s army. When Lee actually attacked Pope’s main force, he did so with 31,000 men. However, the simultaneous attack in the front and in the rear of his army confused Pope. To make matters worse for Pope, Jackson captured his main supply base at Manassas Station.
Pope suffered a major defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas) fought between August 28th and August 29th 1862. Pope was simply outthought by Lee but he tried to push the blame for this defeat onto his subordinate officers, primarily Brigadier General Fitz John Porter who was accused of disobeying orders. Porter faced a court martial and was found guilty. In 1879, Porter was officially exonerated of all charges by a Board of Inquiry, which placed the blame for the defeat firmly on Pope.
However, his attempts to push the blame for the overwhelming defeat on others came to nothing and Pope was relieved of his command in September 1862.
Following his defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run, Pope was moved to Minnesota where he commanded the US Army in the Dakota War of 1862. He was given command of the Department of the Missouri in January 1865. He negotiated the surrender of Confederate troops in the region following Lee’s surrender in April 1865.
In April 1867, Pope was appointed governor the ‘Reconstruction 3rd Military District’ and set up his headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia. He held this post until December 1867. Probably his most famous action during his time as governor was to order that African Americans could serve on juries during trials. On paper, it was an important statement of intent even if the southern states post-American Civil War were not conducive to civil rights.
Following his time in Atlanta, Pope fought in the Apache Wars.
He had to suffer the public embarrassment of the findings of the 1879 Porter Board of Inquiry.
Pope was promoted to Major General in 1882 and retired from the army in 1886.
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0.3997424244... | 8 | General John Pope was a senior Union officer during the American Civil War. Pope fought successfully in the Western Theatre but is best known for his exploits in the Eastern Theatre of the American Civil War. Pope’s career was overshadowed by his defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run.
John Pope was born on March 16th 1822 in Louisville, Kentucky. His father served as a judge in Illinois Territory and knew Abraham Lincoln when he worked as a lawyer.
Pope graduated from US Military Academy in 1842 and became a career army officer. He fought in the Mexican-American War during which time he was given the temporary rank of captain. However, Pope spent a great deal of his time as a topographical officer mapping out Florida and New Mexico. Prior to the American Civil War, Pope’s main task was his involvement in the planning for a railway that was to cross America.
Pope’s family connection to the Lincoln’s was seen when Lincoln was voted President. Pope was one of just four officers selected to escort the President –elect to Washington DC.
Shortly after the American Civil War broke out in April 1861, Pope was put in charge of Illinois volunteers with the rank of Brigadier General (June 1861).
Pope fought successfully in Missouri and along the Mississippi River – all part of the Western Theatre of the American Civil War. The overall commander of the Western Theatre was Major General John Frémont. He did not get on with Pope and there is little doubt that Pope used his connections in Washington to try to get Frémont relieved of his command. There is also littler doubt that Frémont knew what Pope was trying to do. It was hardly a recipe for military success – yet Pope was successful both militarily and in his attempt to get Frémont removed from his command – he was succeeded by Major General Henry Halleck.
Pope achieved a victory at Blackwater, Missouri, that resulted in the Confederates in the region retreating and the capture of 1,200 prisoners-of-war. Suitably impressed with this achievement, Halleck appointed Pope to command the Army of the Mississippi in February 1862.
Pope’s army consisted of 25,000 men and his primary task was to clear the Confederates from the Mississippi River. In this he was very successful. In April 1862, the heavily fortified Confederate post called Island No 10 was captured. 12,000 men surrendered along with their weapons. The loss of Island No 10 freed up the Mississippi River for Union navigation as far south as Memphis. In recognition of this achievement, Pope was promoted to Major General.
The success Pope experienced in the Western Theatre was not matched by his contemporaries in the Eastern Theatre. Major General George McClellan failed in his attempt to capture Richmond during the Peninsula Campaign and it was felt that Pope might just have that magic touch to rectify the situation.
Pope was brought from the Western Theatre to the Eastern Theatre and given command of the Army of Virginia. His success in the Western Theatre may well have gone to his head – he was very keen to let anyone who would listen know about his successes there, especially the Union press. However, he immediately angered the men in the Army of Virginia by criticising their past performance in battle and comparing their failure in the east with his success in the west. His message to them regarding their lack of fighting efficiency would come back to haunt Pope very quickly.
His first major engagement in battle was against an army commanded by General Robert E Lee aided by ‘Stonewall’ Jackson. By any standards they were a formidable pairing and Pope was definitely out of his league with regards to his strategic thinking.
Pope had a major advantage at the Second Battle of Bull Run – his far larger army. Pope had 70,000 men at his disposal while Lee had 55,000. In fact, Lee decided to split his army in two. He sent Jackson with 24,000 men to attack Pope’s rear after outflanking Pope’s army. When Lee actually attacked Pope’s main force, he did so with 31,000 men. However, the simultaneous attack in the front and in the rear of his army confused Pope. To make matters worse for Pope, Jackson captured his main supply base at Manassas Station.
Pope suffered a major defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas) fought between August 28th and August 29th 1862. Pope was simply outthought by Lee but he tried to push the blame for this defeat onto his subordinate officers, primarily Brigadier General Fitz John Porter who was accused of disobeying orders. Porter faced a court martial and was found guilty. In 1879, Porter was officially exonerated of all charges by a Board of Inquiry, which placed the blame for the defeat firmly on Pope.
However, his attempts to push the blame for the overwhelming defeat on others came to nothing and Pope was relieved of his command in September 1862.
Following his defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run, Pope was moved to Minnesota where he commanded the US Army in the Dakota War of 1862. He was given command of the Department of the Missouri in January 1865. He negotiated the surrender of Confederate troops in the region following Lee’s surrender in April 1865.
In April 1867, Pope was appointed governor the ‘Reconstruction 3rd Military District’ and set up his headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia. He held this post until December 1867. Probably his most famous action during his time as governor was to order that African Americans could serve on juries during trials. On paper, it was an important statement of intent even if the southern states post-American Civil War were not conducive to civil rights.
Following his time in Atlanta, Pope fought in the Apache Wars.
He had to suffer the public embarrassment of the findings of the 1879 Porter Board of Inquiry.
Pope was promoted to Major General in 1882 and retired from the army in 1886.
John Pope died on September 23rd 1892. | 1,301 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Upon his death in 4 B.C.E., the kingdom of Herod the Great was divided among three of his surviving sons. Antipas was given the region to the east of the Jordan known as Perea, along with the Galilee. Philip was given the region to the northeast of the Sea of Galilee known as Gaulanitis. Archelaus was given the regions of Idumea, Samaria, and, most important, Judah, where his father had built his extravagant palaces and forts and had carried out an elaborate renovation of the temple. However, Archelaus's tumultuous rule would last only two years, until the Romans deposed him and transformed his territory into a Roman province known as Judea. The other two brothers fared much better than their disgraced counterpart. Antipas continued his reign over Perea and Galilee from 4 B.C.E until 39 C.E. During his reign he built a new city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, which he named Tiberias, after the son of the Roman emperor Augustus. Similarly, Philip reigned over Gaulanitis from 4 B.C.E. until his death in 33/34 C.E. He founded the city of Panias and named it Caesarea, after the Roman emperor (this is the Caesarea Philippi of the New Testament). Produced by RiddleMaps.com.
Of or relating to the reign of the family of Herod, which governed Palestine from 55 B.C.E. to the end of the first century C.E.
Before the Common Era; a notation used in place of B.C. ("before Christ") for years before the current calendar era.
the southern kingdom of Judah during the divided monarchy or what later became the larger province under imperial control
A collection of first-century Jewish and early Christian writings that, along with the Old Testament, makes up the Christian Bible. | <urn:uuid:d35c5725-4cb5-445c-9992-8233c7244b38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bibleodyssey.org/en/tools/map-gallery/h/map-Herod | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.980279 | 398 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.21987757086753... | 18 | Upon his death in 4 B.C.E., the kingdom of Herod the Great was divided among three of his surviving sons. Antipas was given the region to the east of the Jordan known as Perea, along with the Galilee. Philip was given the region to the northeast of the Sea of Galilee known as Gaulanitis. Archelaus was given the regions of Idumea, Samaria, and, most important, Judah, where his father had built his extravagant palaces and forts and had carried out an elaborate renovation of the temple. However, Archelaus's tumultuous rule would last only two years, until the Romans deposed him and transformed his territory into a Roman province known as Judea. The other two brothers fared much better than their disgraced counterpart. Antipas continued his reign over Perea and Galilee from 4 B.C.E until 39 C.E. During his reign he built a new city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, which he named Tiberias, after the son of the Roman emperor Augustus. Similarly, Philip reigned over Gaulanitis from 4 B.C.E. until his death in 33/34 C.E. He founded the city of Panias and named it Caesarea, after the Roman emperor (this is the Caesarea Philippi of the New Testament). Produced by RiddleMaps.com.
Of or relating to the reign of the family of Herod, which governed Palestine from 55 B.C.E. to the end of the first century C.E.
Before the Common Era; a notation used in place of B.C. ("before Christ") for years before the current calendar era.
the southern kingdom of Judah during the divided monarchy or what later became the larger province under imperial control
A collection of first-century Jewish and early Christian writings that, along with the Old Testament, makes up the Christian Bible. | 397 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What happens in The Pit and the Pendulum?
In "The Pit and the Pendulum," the narrator relates how he was tortured and imprisoned. He was first placed in a cell with a giant pit in the center. He was then strapped to a table as a pendulum swung back and forth above him, threatening to slice him in two. He narrowly escaped with his life.
The Spanish Inquisition sentenced the narrator to death. He was imprisoned in a dark cell, where he nearly fell into a deep pit from which there would be no escape.
He was then strapped to a table, over which a blade swung like a pendulum. He watched as the pendulum swung lower and lower. He managed to escape by smearing meat on the ropes, enticing rats to chew through them.
- His captors attempt to force him into the pit by closing the walls around him. He's saved at the last minute by General Lasalle and the French army.
The first-person narrator informs the reader that he is trying to recall and write down everything that happened to him earlier. He describes the Spanish Inquisition’s sentencing him to death, a sentence that he could not understand because of his extremely nervous state. When he regained consciousness temporarily, he felt himself being carried down and down into an apparent abyss. Later, when he was fully conscious, he knew that he was lying on his back in an oppressive, damp environment. Finally daring to open his eyes and finding himself in absolute darkness, he imagined that he was buried alive. Food and drink were provided to him only when he swooned or slept. Later, while investigating his surroundings, he narrowly escaped falling into a deep pit to a certain death. Shaken, but relieved, he fell asleep. When he awoke, some light entering the dungeon made it possible for him to compare the room to his calculations made in the dark.
Soon he discovered that one form of torture and execution had only been replaced with another, for he was strapped to a table so that only his head and left arm could be moved slightly. A large razor-sharp pendulum suspended overhead drew nearer with each pass. The ponderous rate at which it descended increased his agony, for he had to await death for what seemed to be many days. At last he developed a plan: He smeared some scraps of meat on his ropes so that the rats in the cell came to gnaw on them. Just as the pendulum brushed his skin, the ropes were loosened enough to allow him to escape. His relief was again short-lived, for the walls of his cell became hotter and hotter, forcing him toward the pit in the center of the room. When he resisted, his invisible tormentors moved the walls so that he was squeezed toward death by heat or by falling into the pit. At the moment when he was losing his foothold, the machines were suddenly turned off, and the walls receded. Just before he fell into the pit, he was rescued by General Lasalle, the leader of the French army, which had just invaded Toledo.
First published in 1843 and subsequently revised by Poe for an 1845 issue of The Broadway Journal, "The Pit and the Pendulum" is told by an unnamed first-person narrator whose credibility actually rises even as he is subjected to increasingly fantastic tortures. At the outset, the narrator acknowledges that he is "sick," but we immediately realize that his illness is not a form of insanity, but an hallucinatory condition that can be explained by the physical abuse that he has already undergone. Although he is temporarily deranged, the narrator is nonetheless rational. He is, in fact, a victim of the Spanish Inquisition in Toledo, accused of some unidentified (implicitly heretical) crime, and has been bound for sentencing. The narrator first hears the sound of his judges in a "dreamy hum," but is then unable to hear at all. Instead, he sees the white lips of the black-robed inquisitors as they pass sentence upon him. He focuses his sight on seven tall candles, which at first appear to him as angels, but then dissolve into meaningless forms. The whole scene,...
(The entire section is 2,065 words.) | <urn:uuid:05e90d09-f666-44b6-a72f-16596eae17e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/topics/pit-pendulum?en_action=content_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.991198 | 861 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.17540892958641... | 2 | What happens in The Pit and the Pendulum?
In "The Pit and the Pendulum," the narrator relates how he was tortured and imprisoned. He was first placed in a cell with a giant pit in the center. He was then strapped to a table as a pendulum swung back and forth above him, threatening to slice him in two. He narrowly escaped with his life.
The Spanish Inquisition sentenced the narrator to death. He was imprisoned in a dark cell, where he nearly fell into a deep pit from which there would be no escape.
He was then strapped to a table, over which a blade swung like a pendulum. He watched as the pendulum swung lower and lower. He managed to escape by smearing meat on the ropes, enticing rats to chew through them.
- His captors attempt to force him into the pit by closing the walls around him. He's saved at the last minute by General Lasalle and the French army.
The first-person narrator informs the reader that he is trying to recall and write down everything that happened to him earlier. He describes the Spanish Inquisition’s sentencing him to death, a sentence that he could not understand because of his extremely nervous state. When he regained consciousness temporarily, he felt himself being carried down and down into an apparent abyss. Later, when he was fully conscious, he knew that he was lying on his back in an oppressive, damp environment. Finally daring to open his eyes and finding himself in absolute darkness, he imagined that he was buried alive. Food and drink were provided to him only when he swooned or slept. Later, while investigating his surroundings, he narrowly escaped falling into a deep pit to a certain death. Shaken, but relieved, he fell asleep. When he awoke, some light entering the dungeon made it possible for him to compare the room to his calculations made in the dark.
Soon he discovered that one form of torture and execution had only been replaced with another, for he was strapped to a table so that only his head and left arm could be moved slightly. A large razor-sharp pendulum suspended overhead drew nearer with each pass. The ponderous rate at which it descended increased his agony, for he had to await death for what seemed to be many days. At last he developed a plan: He smeared some scraps of meat on his ropes so that the rats in the cell came to gnaw on them. Just as the pendulum brushed his skin, the ropes were loosened enough to allow him to escape. His relief was again short-lived, for the walls of his cell became hotter and hotter, forcing him toward the pit in the center of the room. When he resisted, his invisible tormentors moved the walls so that he was squeezed toward death by heat or by falling into the pit. At the moment when he was losing his foothold, the machines were suddenly turned off, and the walls receded. Just before he fell into the pit, he was rescued by General Lasalle, the leader of the French army, which had just invaded Toledo.
First published in 1843 and subsequently revised by Poe for an 1845 issue of The Broadway Journal, "The Pit and the Pendulum" is told by an unnamed first-person narrator whose credibility actually rises even as he is subjected to increasingly fantastic tortures. At the outset, the narrator acknowledges that he is "sick," but we immediately realize that his illness is not a form of insanity, but an hallucinatory condition that can be explained by the physical abuse that he has already undergone. Although he is temporarily deranged, the narrator is nonetheless rational. He is, in fact, a victim of the Spanish Inquisition in Toledo, accused of some unidentified (implicitly heretical) crime, and has been bound for sentencing. The narrator first hears the sound of his judges in a "dreamy hum," but is then unable to hear at all. Instead, he sees the white lips of the black-robed inquisitors as they pass sentence upon him. He focuses his sight on seven tall candles, which at first appear to him as angels, but then dissolve into meaningless forms. The whole scene,...
(The entire section is 2,065 words.) | 857 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Apollo 11 astronauts were traveling to the moon in July 1969, it required the invention and development of some truly groundbreaking technology. And it was all being produced at a furious pace, it was after all the Space War between The United States of America and the USSR.
We saw the invention of the world’s biggest rocket, the smallest one, fastest on and even the smallest computers at the time. Not to mention the operations needed high-speed data networks, spacesuits, space food, and a moon buggy. The issue was that during the 1960s, the manufacturing industry had not caught up with the technology that was being produced. This meant that things you would have believed were built using robotics and machinery, were assembled entirely by hand.
This meant there was a small force of crucial workers in NASA on Earth, some were so specialized they were guarded at all times by secret services. Because if they were ever captured or killed, then NASA’s billion-dollar operations would all be let down. You could think of these specialized manufacturing workers as a single point of failure for NASA, they were perhaps the most important assembly workers ever to exist on Earth.
Spacesuits were for example created by Playtex, bringing together 21 layers of nested fabric that needed to still be flexible enough to do all the work on the moon. Each layer was sewn by an expert, as each layer had to be assembled delicately and with immense precision.
Perhaps the most important part of a space mission? How to get home, back down to Earth safely. During the time of Apollo 11, they used parachutes, which were all 7,200 square feet of fabric, that is pretty much enough to cover the floor space of three typical U.S sized houses. The problem was only three people in the world knew how to fold them correctly for deployment. Only three people were trained by the Federal Aviation Administration to do this: Norma Cretal, Buzz Corey and Jimmy Calunga.
As a result, these three people were never allowed to ride in the same car or plane together, NASA feared so much that an accident could wipe out there knowledge of how to correctly fold an Apollo parachute. | <urn:uuid:35282aef-f807-493f-93d5-783d2b09c29c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blitzlift.com/only-three-people-in-the-world-could-fold-apollos-parachutes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00120.warc.gz | en | 0.988245 | 445 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.394495666027069... | 5 | When Apollo 11 astronauts were traveling to the moon in July 1969, it required the invention and development of some truly groundbreaking technology. And it was all being produced at a furious pace, it was after all the Space War between The United States of America and the USSR.
We saw the invention of the world’s biggest rocket, the smallest one, fastest on and even the smallest computers at the time. Not to mention the operations needed high-speed data networks, spacesuits, space food, and a moon buggy. The issue was that during the 1960s, the manufacturing industry had not caught up with the technology that was being produced. This meant that things you would have believed were built using robotics and machinery, were assembled entirely by hand.
This meant there was a small force of crucial workers in NASA on Earth, some were so specialized they were guarded at all times by secret services. Because if they were ever captured or killed, then NASA’s billion-dollar operations would all be let down. You could think of these specialized manufacturing workers as a single point of failure for NASA, they were perhaps the most important assembly workers ever to exist on Earth.
Spacesuits were for example created by Playtex, bringing together 21 layers of nested fabric that needed to still be flexible enough to do all the work on the moon. Each layer was sewn by an expert, as each layer had to be assembled delicately and with immense precision.
Perhaps the most important part of a space mission? How to get home, back down to Earth safely. During the time of Apollo 11, they used parachutes, which were all 7,200 square feet of fabric, that is pretty much enough to cover the floor space of three typical U.S sized houses. The problem was only three people in the world knew how to fold them correctly for deployment. Only three people were trained by the Federal Aviation Administration to do this: Norma Cretal, Buzz Corey and Jimmy Calunga.
As a result, these three people were never allowed to ride in the same car or plane together, NASA feared so much that an accident could wipe out there knowledge of how to correctly fold an Apollo parachute. | 448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On December 12, 1919, Colorado became the 22nd state to ratify the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which granted women the right to vote. Governor Shoup signed his approval of ratification a few days later, on December 15th.
The Amendment required 36 states to ratify it in order to pass. Illinois was the first state to ratify on June 10, 1919, and Tennessee was the 36th state on August 18, 1920, with a very closely contested state Representative vote of 50 yes to 49 no. The 19th Amendment was officially adopted on August 26, 1920.
However, women’s suffrage in Colorado actually began 27 years before the adoption of the 19th Amendment, in 1893. That year, the state held the Colorado Equal Suffrage Referendum, where the measure passed with 55 percent of the vote. 35,798 Colorado voters cast ballots in favor of the referendum, while 29,551 opposed the measure. The highest support for the referendum came in Mesa county, where 78% of voters approved it, and the lowest support was in Costilla county, where only 16% of the voters approved it. | <urn:uuid:cec8fd74-baac-454d-8207-87fccb5a4b59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pickandsledge.com/2019/12/20/100-years-ago-today-colorado-ratifies-19th-amendment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00464.warc.gz | en | 0.983895 | 236 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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-0.15325288474... | 15 | On December 12, 1919, Colorado became the 22nd state to ratify the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which granted women the right to vote. Governor Shoup signed his approval of ratification a few days later, on December 15th.
The Amendment required 36 states to ratify it in order to pass. Illinois was the first state to ratify on June 10, 1919, and Tennessee was the 36th state on August 18, 1920, with a very closely contested state Representative vote of 50 yes to 49 no. The 19th Amendment was officially adopted on August 26, 1920.
However, women’s suffrage in Colorado actually began 27 years before the adoption of the 19th Amendment, in 1893. That year, the state held the Colorado Equal Suffrage Referendum, where the measure passed with 55 percent of the vote. 35,798 Colorado voters cast ballots in favor of the referendum, while 29,551 opposed the measure. The highest support for the referendum came in Mesa county, where 78% of voters approved it, and the lowest support was in Costilla county, where only 16% of the voters approved it. | 293 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In this series, we look at under-acknowledged women through the ages.
On 22 January 1856, an extraordinary event in Australia’s history occurred. It is not part of our collective national identity, nor has it been mythologised over the decades through song, dance, or poetry. It doesn’t even have a hashtag. But on this day in the thriving gold rush town of Castlemaine, two women took to the polls and cast their votes in a democratic election.
Two days later, Melbourne newspaper The Argus unwittingly granted one of them posterity, writing “two women voted – one, the famous Mrs. Fanny Finch”. Fanny Finch was a London-born businesswoman of African heritage, a single mother of four and is the first known woman to cast a vote in an Australian election.
Victorian women over the age of 21 (excluding Indigenous women) would not receive full unconditional suffrage until 1908. (Victorian Indigenous women were not enfranchised until 1965.) But Fanny Finch, as a local business owner who paid rates, was able to exploit a loophole in suffrage law that was yet to discriminate against gender or race.
The Municipal Institutions Act of 1854 granted suffrage to ratepaying “persons”. The loophole was eventually closed in 1865 when “persons” became “men”.Trove
Who was Fanny?
Frances Finch was born Frances Combe in London in 1815. At eight-weeks-old she was orphaned by her mother after a tryst with a footman ended in a pregnancy but no marriage proposal.
A cross-stitch sampler attributed to Frances Coombe (sic) in 1830 at the age of 15 suggests she understood both her parents to be free people of African racial heritage (although the UK did not free slaves unconditionally until 1838.) The London Foundling Hospital, where Fanny was accepted as an orphan, provided her with some protection against slavery as well as an otherwise inaccessible education and access to an apprenticeship scheme in “household duties”.Author provided
By 1837, a 22-year-old Fanny was a free, literate, educated, and experienced domestic servant. In that year she was approved a labourer’s free passage to the new colony of South Australia.
In Adelaide, Fanny was a valued employee of Julia Wyatt, an author, artist, and wife of the surgeon and first Protector of Aborigines, Dr. William Wyatt. Over the course of the next decade Fanny left their employment, married a sailor, Joseph Finch, and started a family.
By 1850, for reasons unknown, Fanny had left her husband. With her four children in tow, she made her way to Victoria. She arrived in the colony 12 months before the start of the Victorian gold rush. By early 1852 she was operating a restaurant and lodging house on the Forest Creek goldfields, alongside approximately 25,000 gold digging men and a handful of women.
There, in the fledgling township of Forest Creek, Mrs Finch’s Board and Lodging House became “the only one in which any person could get respectable accommodation”. By 1854, she had moved to nearby Castlemaine where she ran a restaurant. She quickly became one of its most recognisable faces.Richard Daintree.
A successful businesswoman
Fanny was a successful businesswoman, known to dress in bright blue silk with her black hair adorned in artificial flowers. Strong and robust, with an even larger personality she was not one to shy away from attempting to remedy injustice when she saw it – be it with her words, her cooking or her fists. Evidently, she possessed visibility and power.
Her business acumen and conspicuity make it probable that her male contemporaries were unsurprised when they witnessed Fanny cast her vote at the Hall of Castlemaine (now the Theatre Royal). Did the men taunt her? Encourage her? Or were they complacent? We cannot know. We do know that no one stopped her. She selected her preference and signed her name.Author provided
That afternoon, however, the two assessors of the day disallowed both Fanny and the other unknown woman’s votes. Their reasons were cited as: “they (the women) had no right to vote”. Further details were not divulged.
Still, Walter Smith, the man for whom Fanny voted, was elected to council. Smith was an agent and brewer who arrived at Forest Creek at around the same time as Fanny. Little is known about what motivated her to vote for him but no one else, despite being allowed to vote in seven councillors. She was clearly determined to elect him to council.
A rare glimpse
During colonial times women were rarely identified by name in the press – particularly women of the working class. The 1856 Argus report now offers historians an unprecedented opportunity to identify an otherwise invisible minority – the 19th century Australian woman of colour – as an active participant in our political history.
Fanny was a woman, who, through relative privilege – wielded with her own blood, sweat and tears – refused to founder beneath the weight of a white, Anglo-male world of commerce. However, this came at a price. As a woman of colour occupying space in a white man’s world, assaults on her success were not uncommon. Yet she refused to disappear.
One of those assaults occurred in December 1855. Fanny Finch was fined £50 for the illicit sale of alcohol, known as “sly-grogging”. After a month-long trial, which involved scandalous cross-examinations of miners, policemen, and even her two young sons, she was charged and fined.
Despite the exorbitant fine and the public slandering of her character and commercial integrity, Fanny Finch was not defeated. Like many business people on the goldfields, she both owed money and was owed it by others, but over the following four months, she began an unprecedented campaign of self-representation.
The day following her conviction she published a letter in the local paper accusing the local authorities of injustice (a copy of this has not survived). A month on, she cast that vote. Then a few months later in April, she published the following advertisement.
Mrs. Finch begs to inform the inhabitants of Castlemaine that henceforth she will carry on business for her children and would be happy to receive any outstanding debts … finding that the more she herself strives the more she is oppressed, although she can firmly state that if those who are in her debt would come forward each with one third, she will be relieved of all debt, have a good home for her family and about two thousand pounds in her pocket.
Fanny Finch also begs to state that as in her affluence she was so kindly trusted, they may be sure that she, from her own free will, may some day liquidate all, but she must have her time … and in spite of what enemies she may have, she intends to keep throughout the winter ready cooked Ham, Beef Soups (a la mode) from seven in the morning to seven in the night.
The vote of the famous Mrs. Fanny Finch adds a woman of colour’s voice to what Clare Wright has described as an unorganised movement for women’s rights during the 1850s.
Fanny died on the 15th October 1863, aged 48. She was remembered as “a strong minded woman” with “a genuine tenderness of heart, ever ready to serve another in distress … without the slightest ostentation”.
She was given a public burial in an unmarked grave at Castlemaine Cemetery.
Authors: Kacey Sinclair, PhD Candidate in History, La Trobe University | <urn:uuid:a1c03e9b-ebcb-44d9-acc1-606d78bb149c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dailybulletin.com.au/the-conversation/43631-australia%E2%80%99s-first-known-female-voter-the-famous-mrs-fanny-finch | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.982232 | 1,626 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.04496774822... | 2 | In this series, we look at under-acknowledged women through the ages.
On 22 January 1856, an extraordinary event in Australia’s history occurred. It is not part of our collective national identity, nor has it been mythologised over the decades through song, dance, or poetry. It doesn’t even have a hashtag. But on this day in the thriving gold rush town of Castlemaine, two women took to the polls and cast their votes in a democratic election.
Two days later, Melbourne newspaper The Argus unwittingly granted one of them posterity, writing “two women voted – one, the famous Mrs. Fanny Finch”. Fanny Finch was a London-born businesswoman of African heritage, a single mother of four and is the first known woman to cast a vote in an Australian election.
Victorian women over the age of 21 (excluding Indigenous women) would not receive full unconditional suffrage until 1908. (Victorian Indigenous women were not enfranchised until 1965.) But Fanny Finch, as a local business owner who paid rates, was able to exploit a loophole in suffrage law that was yet to discriminate against gender or race.
The Municipal Institutions Act of 1854 granted suffrage to ratepaying “persons”. The loophole was eventually closed in 1865 when “persons” became “men”.Trove
Who was Fanny?
Frances Finch was born Frances Combe in London in 1815. At eight-weeks-old she was orphaned by her mother after a tryst with a footman ended in a pregnancy but no marriage proposal.
A cross-stitch sampler attributed to Frances Coombe (sic) in 1830 at the age of 15 suggests she understood both her parents to be free people of African racial heritage (although the UK did not free slaves unconditionally until 1838.) The London Foundling Hospital, where Fanny was accepted as an orphan, provided her with some protection against slavery as well as an otherwise inaccessible education and access to an apprenticeship scheme in “household duties”.Author provided
By 1837, a 22-year-old Fanny was a free, literate, educated, and experienced domestic servant. In that year she was approved a labourer’s free passage to the new colony of South Australia.
In Adelaide, Fanny was a valued employee of Julia Wyatt, an author, artist, and wife of the surgeon and first Protector of Aborigines, Dr. William Wyatt. Over the course of the next decade Fanny left their employment, married a sailor, Joseph Finch, and started a family.
By 1850, for reasons unknown, Fanny had left her husband. With her four children in tow, she made her way to Victoria. She arrived in the colony 12 months before the start of the Victorian gold rush. By early 1852 she was operating a restaurant and lodging house on the Forest Creek goldfields, alongside approximately 25,000 gold digging men and a handful of women.
There, in the fledgling township of Forest Creek, Mrs Finch’s Board and Lodging House became “the only one in which any person could get respectable accommodation”. By 1854, she had moved to nearby Castlemaine where she ran a restaurant. She quickly became one of its most recognisable faces.Richard Daintree.
A successful businesswoman
Fanny was a successful businesswoman, known to dress in bright blue silk with her black hair adorned in artificial flowers. Strong and robust, with an even larger personality she was not one to shy away from attempting to remedy injustice when she saw it – be it with her words, her cooking or her fists. Evidently, she possessed visibility and power.
Her business acumen and conspicuity make it probable that her male contemporaries were unsurprised when they witnessed Fanny cast her vote at the Hall of Castlemaine (now the Theatre Royal). Did the men taunt her? Encourage her? Or were they complacent? We cannot know. We do know that no one stopped her. She selected her preference and signed her name.Author provided
That afternoon, however, the two assessors of the day disallowed both Fanny and the other unknown woman’s votes. Their reasons were cited as: “they (the women) had no right to vote”. Further details were not divulged.
Still, Walter Smith, the man for whom Fanny voted, was elected to council. Smith was an agent and brewer who arrived at Forest Creek at around the same time as Fanny. Little is known about what motivated her to vote for him but no one else, despite being allowed to vote in seven councillors. She was clearly determined to elect him to council.
A rare glimpse
During colonial times women were rarely identified by name in the press – particularly women of the working class. The 1856 Argus report now offers historians an unprecedented opportunity to identify an otherwise invisible minority – the 19th century Australian woman of colour – as an active participant in our political history.
Fanny was a woman, who, through relative privilege – wielded with her own blood, sweat and tears – refused to founder beneath the weight of a white, Anglo-male world of commerce. However, this came at a price. As a woman of colour occupying space in a white man’s world, assaults on her success were not uncommon. Yet she refused to disappear.
One of those assaults occurred in December 1855. Fanny Finch was fined £50 for the illicit sale of alcohol, known as “sly-grogging”. After a month-long trial, which involved scandalous cross-examinations of miners, policemen, and even her two young sons, she was charged and fined.
Despite the exorbitant fine and the public slandering of her character and commercial integrity, Fanny Finch was not defeated. Like many business people on the goldfields, she both owed money and was owed it by others, but over the following four months, she began an unprecedented campaign of self-representation.
The day following her conviction she published a letter in the local paper accusing the local authorities of injustice (a copy of this has not survived). A month on, she cast that vote. Then a few months later in April, she published the following advertisement.
Mrs. Finch begs to inform the inhabitants of Castlemaine that henceforth she will carry on business for her children and would be happy to receive any outstanding debts … finding that the more she herself strives the more she is oppressed, although she can firmly state that if those who are in her debt would come forward each with one third, she will be relieved of all debt, have a good home for her family and about two thousand pounds in her pocket.
Fanny Finch also begs to state that as in her affluence she was so kindly trusted, they may be sure that she, from her own free will, may some day liquidate all, but she must have her time … and in spite of what enemies she may have, she intends to keep throughout the winter ready cooked Ham, Beef Soups (a la mode) from seven in the morning to seven in the night.
The vote of the famous Mrs. Fanny Finch adds a woman of colour’s voice to what Clare Wright has described as an unorganised movement for women’s rights during the 1850s.
Fanny died on the 15th October 1863, aged 48. She was remembered as “a strong minded woman” with “a genuine tenderness of heart, ever ready to serve another in distress … without the slightest ostentation”.
She was given a public burial in an unmarked grave at Castlemaine Cemetery.
Authors: Kacey Sinclair, PhD Candidate in History, La Trobe University | 1,633 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The British started settling in India at the beginning of the seventeenth century after the establishment of the British East India Company that dealt with spice trade. This was proceeding during two hundred years. However, in 1947, India finally gained its independence from the British rule and left the Indians to rule themselves and run their country. However, the Indians were confused on how they would rule themselves, because they had initially been treated as minorities for a long time. Even after, the Indians gained their independence and freedom from the British rule, remnants of the British colonial rule still infiltrated and affected the lives of Indians, even in the post colonial India. This is observed in many spheres of the Indians’ life including traditions, language, identity and later the sense of nationalism that the Indians felt after the departure of the British colonizers. This paper focuses on the effects of British colonialism in India on the social, cultural and economic development of the Indians. It depicts the feeling of inferiority that has all along enslaved many Indians, which they inherited from their colonizers.
Effects on Tradition
After colonization, the Indians largely felt the presence and effects that the English people had on them. They felt oppressed and with no freedom. This was because of the mistreatment they had received in their own country.These people were, therefore, filled with hatred for themselves and their traditional ways. According to them, the only way to free themselves fully was by learning and adopting English traditions. They pursued this with all their energies and even loathed their own traditions. This is shown in several instances.
During and after colonization, most of the Indians pretended to reject the way of life of the English people, but secretly admired them. They also explored opportunities to make money outside India, in developed nations like America and Britain. This is seen through the character, like Biju, who is an illegal immigrant in the US. He does odd jobs there like working in restaurants and selling hotdogs in fast food joints. Despite this, he would rather stay and work in the US than go back to India and get a decent job. He prefers to hold on to the little money he receives to going back home. This is further demonstrated, by the way, his people back at home admire what he is pursuing in America. They think that he is doing well just because he is working in the US. Biju's father, the cook, proudly speaks of him because he is in America.
We can further see the way many Indians struggle to leave India in order to go to America and Britain. This is because they all believe that their lives can be better there. We see the way Biju scrambles with other Indians to obtain his visa. He mentions to the officers in charge that he is civilized and, therefore, he merits receiving a passport. This shows the way these Indians viewed their traditional ways as being backward. To free themselves from the colonial oppression they had suffered, they preferred to abandon their traditions and embrace the new ways of the colonizers as a way of civilization hence freedom. To this extent, they viewed tradition as a tool for oppression. They abandoned traditions and pursued civilization so as to attain freedom.
Despite the fact that the judge was from a lower caste than his wife, he is allowed to marry her. This is because he is educated. This is totally against the Indian traditions. According to the Indian traditions, people could only marry from the same caste. This instance shows how education, as introduced by the English people, changes and affects the Indians’ traditional beliefs.
We also see the Harish-Harry family, an Indian family, which is living in America. They change their name from their traditional Indian name and adopt an English name. This can be viewed as a way of abandoning tradition and following new ways. A traditional name should give one identity as it reflects their origin in the society. This family chooses to alienate themselves from that by rejecting their original Indian name.
This is also demonstrated through the character and practices of the judge (grandfather). We are told by Gyan who had dinner with them on several occasions that they did not eat traditional Indian food. Instead, they ate English and American food. Gyan despises Sai and her family because of this. Gyan also feels that the way Sai gives herself to him easily is not Indian at all. According to him, she should have made things harder for him. He equally feels that he cannot have anything to do with her, because they belong to different classes. The Indian tradition does not allow such a union.
We can, therefore, see that even after independence, there are those who despised their traditional Indian ways like the judge and Sai. This is because they thought the Indian ways were backward. On the other hand, other Indians like Gyan preferred to hold onto their traditions as this was the only way through which they could identify themselves and free themselves from the oppression they had suffered under the British rule.
Effects on Language
The Indians adopted the English language as their main form of communication and national language. The missionaries who went to India during the early colonial days introduced this language. In addition, most of the educated Indians preferred to communicate in English. This was to portray their civilization level and also help them catch up with the English ways, which they all pursued passionately. For example, we are told that some of them like Lola’s daughter, Pixie, have a British accent, which sanitized elegance and, therefore, worked for the BBC. Her mother tells her never to look back at India and live in Britain for good. This is a demonstration of how some of the Indians failed to appreciate their origin and customs. They chose to speak their colonizer’s language and discard and even undermine their original language. This can be seen as a form of modernization.
The use of English language continued for a long time and caused many traditional Indian language dialects to be abandoned and even forgotten. This is still prevalent even today. Indians still use English language as their national and official language.
Effects on Identity
The British colonizers initiated the loss of the Indian identity. This emerged from the way the undermined Indians’ culture, practices and beliefs. They overlooked them and put their own English ways into practice. This caused the Indian ways to fade, and the result was that many Indians preferred to identify themselves with the English ways.
There is a total loss of identity among many people, who prefer to follow the English way of life, while those who practiced the previous Indian ways were despised. This is seen, in characters, like the judge in several instances. For example, when the judge had gone to study abroad, we are told he became obsessed with bathing off his Indian smell. He wanted to separate and alienate himself from his original Indian ways. When he returned to India from studying, he totally despises his Indian wife whom he finds to be backward. We also see this from the house he lives in at Kalimpong. We are told that many other houses at Kalimpong were built in an English design. They preferred not to live in houses which were built in traditional Indian design. This demonstrated the desire to have a British identity.
Loss of identity is also seen in American Indians who moved to the US to establish themselves there. They prefer not to associate themselves with anything Indian. For example, when Biju was working as a delivery guy in a restaurant, in America, he met educated Indian ladies. He overhears them saying that they would never marry a decent Indian boy. Instead, they preferred educated non Indians. This demonstrates their desire to alienate themselves from their Indian origin. It is essential to point out that formal education was introduced to the Indian society by the British colonizers who wanted to modernize the Indian society. However, these resulted in the educated Indians like the judge who preferred to identify themselves with the ways of the British and unddermined their traditional Indian ways, hence, loss of their own identity. Because of this, we are told that these Indians are filled with much hatred of their own ways and practices. They are bitter because of the pain and discrimination they went through in the English country. Despite this, they prefer to maintain the new English ways and abandon all their Indian ways and Identity in the name of modernization.
Through the character of Lola, we see her desire to identify herself with the English ways by her wardrobe choice. We are told she owns a collection of Marks and Spencer outfit. She also thinks that Naipal is strange and backward. This is because he is still stuck in the Indian ways. According to her, following the Indian ways is the lack of freedom and progression. She prides in her daughter who works with BBC, an English reporting company.
Effects of Colonialism
Even after India attained independence, they still fought among themselves. This was all in an effort to do away with any oppression that they felt. For example, the Gorkha tribe continually fought for land and freedom. This was just a way of expressing themselves after the oppression that they had received for a long time being a British colony. The British introduced many things in India during their time there. This ranged from development to oppression of the Indians. The English missionaries introduced formal education, where the Indians were taught how to write, speak and read English language. There was also construction of roads and rails. This improved transportation in India, which enhanced trade. They also introduced improved agricultural practices in India. This increased agricultural output hence food availability and further expansion of agricultural trade. They also introduced improved technology and science that enhanced globalization in India. This led to growth of India’s economy and expansion of trade. These developments are still felt up to date, and, they have been used as a basis for further development. However, despite all these positive impacts, the Indians still felt oppressed as they were not allowed to rule in their own country. Instead, they were ruled by foreigners.
After independence, the Gorkhas become violent to other Indian tribes that are a minority. This was because of the oppression that they suffered at the mercy of the British colonizers. They do this to relieve the tension and stress that they have suffered under the rule of the British Empire. This results to a political turmoil in India that scares the Indian citizens like the cook. When the cook talks to his son Biju, we see that the whole community thinks Biju can save them, because he is in America. They believe that being there gives one power. This gives Biju a burden for his father and his society and he thinks about going back home.
However, despite many desires people had to be civilized by following the ways of the British, we see firsthand experience in Biju’s life about the negative effects this might have. After living and working in America for some time, Biju realizes the emptiness that he felt on the inside. He realized that the new ways were more enslaving than he thought before. He is filled with betrayal for his family and guilt because of his actions. He preferred to go back home. He missed the old days of his childhood in India and realized that this was the life he wanted for himself and his children. He, therefore, decides to go back to India where his father lives. On the other hand, people like the judge, still believe that India is such a backward country and it would be better not to live there. He was rejected by his family for not being an Indian man.
In conclusion, we can see that the effects of the British colonial rule were continually felt in India for quite some time even after the colonizers left. This is observed from the way the Indians behave, their practices and beliefs. Most of them abandon their traditional way of life and struggle to copy the English ways as a way of civilization. This raises conflicts among themselves and tribal clashes arise. All these happen, because the Indians had no idea what their real identity was and strived to achieve it. The only way they thought to be worth to appropriate was through violence. This triggers a series of events as they strive to be independent.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:39110ffb-1ada-4c68-82e0-478fc9866d6a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/the-rise-of-individualism-in-india.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00334.warc.gz | en | 0.987172 | 2,465 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.012386747635... | 1 | The British started settling in India at the beginning of the seventeenth century after the establishment of the British East India Company that dealt with spice trade. This was proceeding during two hundred years. However, in 1947, India finally gained its independence from the British rule and left the Indians to rule themselves and run their country. However, the Indians were confused on how they would rule themselves, because they had initially been treated as minorities for a long time. Even after, the Indians gained their independence and freedom from the British rule, remnants of the British colonial rule still infiltrated and affected the lives of Indians, even in the post colonial India. This is observed in many spheres of the Indians’ life including traditions, language, identity and later the sense of nationalism that the Indians felt after the departure of the British colonizers. This paper focuses on the effects of British colonialism in India on the social, cultural and economic development of the Indians. It depicts the feeling of inferiority that has all along enslaved many Indians, which they inherited from their colonizers.
Effects on Tradition
After colonization, the Indians largely felt the presence and effects that the English people had on them. They felt oppressed and with no freedom. This was because of the mistreatment they had received in their own country.These people were, therefore, filled with hatred for themselves and their traditional ways. According to them, the only way to free themselves fully was by learning and adopting English traditions. They pursued this with all their energies and even loathed their own traditions. This is shown in several instances.
During and after colonization, most of the Indians pretended to reject the way of life of the English people, but secretly admired them. They also explored opportunities to make money outside India, in developed nations like America and Britain. This is seen through the character, like Biju, who is an illegal immigrant in the US. He does odd jobs there like working in restaurants and selling hotdogs in fast food joints. Despite this, he would rather stay and work in the US than go back to India and get a decent job. He prefers to hold on to the little money he receives to going back home. This is further demonstrated, by the way, his people back at home admire what he is pursuing in America. They think that he is doing well just because he is working in the US. Biju's father, the cook, proudly speaks of him because he is in America.
We can further see the way many Indians struggle to leave India in order to go to America and Britain. This is because they all believe that their lives can be better there. We see the way Biju scrambles with other Indians to obtain his visa. He mentions to the officers in charge that he is civilized and, therefore, he merits receiving a passport. This shows the way these Indians viewed their traditional ways as being backward. To free themselves from the colonial oppression they had suffered, they preferred to abandon their traditions and embrace the new ways of the colonizers as a way of civilization hence freedom. To this extent, they viewed tradition as a tool for oppression. They abandoned traditions and pursued civilization so as to attain freedom.
Despite the fact that the judge was from a lower caste than his wife, he is allowed to marry her. This is because he is educated. This is totally against the Indian traditions. According to the Indian traditions, people could only marry from the same caste. This instance shows how education, as introduced by the English people, changes and affects the Indians’ traditional beliefs.
We also see the Harish-Harry family, an Indian family, which is living in America. They change their name from their traditional Indian name and adopt an English name. This can be viewed as a way of abandoning tradition and following new ways. A traditional name should give one identity as it reflects their origin in the society. This family chooses to alienate themselves from that by rejecting their original Indian name.
This is also demonstrated through the character and practices of the judge (grandfather). We are told by Gyan who had dinner with them on several occasions that they did not eat traditional Indian food. Instead, they ate English and American food. Gyan despises Sai and her family because of this. Gyan also feels that the way Sai gives herself to him easily is not Indian at all. According to him, she should have made things harder for him. He equally feels that he cannot have anything to do with her, because they belong to different classes. The Indian tradition does not allow such a union.
We can, therefore, see that even after independence, there are those who despised their traditional Indian ways like the judge and Sai. This is because they thought the Indian ways were backward. On the other hand, other Indians like Gyan preferred to hold onto their traditions as this was the only way through which they could identify themselves and free themselves from the oppression they had suffered under the British rule.
Effects on Language
The Indians adopted the English language as their main form of communication and national language. The missionaries who went to India during the early colonial days introduced this language. In addition, most of the educated Indians preferred to communicate in English. This was to portray their civilization level and also help them catch up with the English ways, which they all pursued passionately. For example, we are told that some of them like Lola’s daughter, Pixie, have a British accent, which sanitized elegance and, therefore, worked for the BBC. Her mother tells her never to look back at India and live in Britain for good. This is a demonstration of how some of the Indians failed to appreciate their origin and customs. They chose to speak their colonizer’s language and discard and even undermine their original language. This can be seen as a form of modernization.
The use of English language continued for a long time and caused many traditional Indian language dialects to be abandoned and even forgotten. This is still prevalent even today. Indians still use English language as their national and official language.
Effects on Identity
The British colonizers initiated the loss of the Indian identity. This emerged from the way the undermined Indians’ culture, practices and beliefs. They overlooked them and put their own English ways into practice. This caused the Indian ways to fade, and the result was that many Indians preferred to identify themselves with the English ways.
There is a total loss of identity among many people, who prefer to follow the English way of life, while those who practiced the previous Indian ways were despised. This is seen, in characters, like the judge in several instances. For example, when the judge had gone to study abroad, we are told he became obsessed with bathing off his Indian smell. He wanted to separate and alienate himself from his original Indian ways. When he returned to India from studying, he totally despises his Indian wife whom he finds to be backward. We also see this from the house he lives in at Kalimpong. We are told that many other houses at Kalimpong were built in an English design. They preferred not to live in houses which were built in traditional Indian design. This demonstrated the desire to have a British identity.
Loss of identity is also seen in American Indians who moved to the US to establish themselves there. They prefer not to associate themselves with anything Indian. For example, when Biju was working as a delivery guy in a restaurant, in America, he met educated Indian ladies. He overhears them saying that they would never marry a decent Indian boy. Instead, they preferred educated non Indians. This demonstrates their desire to alienate themselves from their Indian origin. It is essential to point out that formal education was introduced to the Indian society by the British colonizers who wanted to modernize the Indian society. However, these resulted in the educated Indians like the judge who preferred to identify themselves with the ways of the British and unddermined their traditional Indian ways, hence, loss of their own identity. Because of this, we are told that these Indians are filled with much hatred of their own ways and practices. They are bitter because of the pain and discrimination they went through in the English country. Despite this, they prefer to maintain the new English ways and abandon all their Indian ways and Identity in the name of modernization.
Through the character of Lola, we see her desire to identify herself with the English ways by her wardrobe choice. We are told she owns a collection of Marks and Spencer outfit. She also thinks that Naipal is strange and backward. This is because he is still stuck in the Indian ways. According to her, following the Indian ways is the lack of freedom and progression. She prides in her daughter who works with BBC, an English reporting company.
Effects of Colonialism
Even after India attained independence, they still fought among themselves. This was all in an effort to do away with any oppression that they felt. For example, the Gorkha tribe continually fought for land and freedom. This was just a way of expressing themselves after the oppression that they had received for a long time being a British colony. The British introduced many things in India during their time there. This ranged from development to oppression of the Indians. The English missionaries introduced formal education, where the Indians were taught how to write, speak and read English language. There was also construction of roads and rails. This improved transportation in India, which enhanced trade. They also introduced improved agricultural practices in India. This increased agricultural output hence food availability and further expansion of agricultural trade. They also introduced improved technology and science that enhanced globalization in India. This led to growth of India’s economy and expansion of trade. These developments are still felt up to date, and, they have been used as a basis for further development. However, despite all these positive impacts, the Indians still felt oppressed as they were not allowed to rule in their own country. Instead, they were ruled by foreigners.
After independence, the Gorkhas become violent to other Indian tribes that are a minority. This was because of the oppression that they suffered at the mercy of the British colonizers. They do this to relieve the tension and stress that they have suffered under the rule of the British Empire. This results to a political turmoil in India that scares the Indian citizens like the cook. When the cook talks to his son Biju, we see that the whole community thinks Biju can save them, because he is in America. They believe that being there gives one power. This gives Biju a burden for his father and his society and he thinks about going back home.
However, despite many desires people had to be civilized by following the ways of the British, we see firsthand experience in Biju’s life about the negative effects this might have. After living and working in America for some time, Biju realizes the emptiness that he felt on the inside. He realized that the new ways were more enslaving than he thought before. He is filled with betrayal for his family and guilt because of his actions. He preferred to go back home. He missed the old days of his childhood in India and realized that this was the life he wanted for himself and his children. He, therefore, decides to go back to India where his father lives. On the other hand, people like the judge, still believe that India is such a backward country and it would be better not to live there. He was rejected by his family for not being an Indian man.
In conclusion, we can see that the effects of the British colonial rule were continually felt in India for quite some time even after the colonizers left. This is observed from the way the Indians behave, their practices and beliefs. Most of them abandon their traditional way of life and struggle to copy the English ways as a way of civilization. This raises conflicts among themselves and tribal clashes arise. All these happen, because the Indians had no idea what their real identity was and strived to achieve it. The only way they thought to be worth to appropriate was through violence. This triggers a series of events as they strive to be independent.
Most popular orders | 2,438 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ellis Island has been known by several other names including Little Oyster Island, Dyer’s Island, Bucking Island and Gibbet Island. It was the busiest immigration station in the United States from 1892 to 1954. Before that it was known as a place where condemned prisoners met their end.
It was used by Native Americans for oyster harvesting and other food sources. It has been named after Samuel Ellis who was the last private owner of the island. It is located in Upper New York Bay and most part of it is located in New Jersey.
Quick Facts: –
- The first ever immigrant to set foot on Ellis Island was a 15 years old, Annie Moore.
- All the immigrants had to go through a series of physical and mental exams to ensure their admittance to the United States.
- The medical facility at this immigration station was called U.S. Marine Hospital Number 43.
- They were required to answer a total of 29 questions in order to gain entry to the United States.
- This island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument in 1965 by President Lyndon Johnson.
- Between 1892 and 1924, more than 12 million people were processed through the island.
- Immigration to the United States decreased after the National Origins Act of 1924.
- Approximately 90% Ellis Island is man-made. Ship ballasts and excavation from subway construction increased the size by 6 acres.
- During the Civil War, this island also served as an ammunition supply depot. | <urn:uuid:0d6ac7e5-f357-4c54-9b6d-0e3f190eab72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://easyscienceforkids.com/ellis-island/?print=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00182.warc.gz | en | 0.983564 | 308 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.575379967689514... | 4 | Ellis Island has been known by several other names including Little Oyster Island, Dyer’s Island, Bucking Island and Gibbet Island. It was the busiest immigration station in the United States from 1892 to 1954. Before that it was known as a place where condemned prisoners met their end.
It was used by Native Americans for oyster harvesting and other food sources. It has been named after Samuel Ellis who was the last private owner of the island. It is located in Upper New York Bay and most part of it is located in New Jersey.
Quick Facts: –
- The first ever immigrant to set foot on Ellis Island was a 15 years old, Annie Moore.
- All the immigrants had to go through a series of physical and mental exams to ensure their admittance to the United States.
- The medical facility at this immigration station was called U.S. Marine Hospital Number 43.
- They were required to answer a total of 29 questions in order to gain entry to the United States.
- This island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument in 1965 by President Lyndon Johnson.
- Between 1892 and 1924, more than 12 million people were processed through the island.
- Immigration to the United States decreased after the National Origins Act of 1924.
- Approximately 90% Ellis Island is man-made. Ship ballasts and excavation from subway construction increased the size by 6 acres.
- During the Civil War, this island also served as an ammunition supply depot. | 328 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bartolome de Las Casas was a Spanish Catholic priest who later became a Bishop in the Caribbean Islands. Las Casas had emigrated from Spain to the Caribbean Island of Hispaniola in what are today Haiti and the Dominican Republic. He witnessed the brutality of the Spaniards towards the Native Indians of the Islands they occupied (Las Casas 5). The Spaniards treated the Native Indians worse than beasts, believing they were lesser human beings, if human beings at all. However, Las Casas thought the Native Indians to be human beings and have a soul and a spirit, and therefore believed they need to be treated better. He was also worried by the rate at which the number of the Natives had reduced due to the atrocities committed against them by the Spanish colonizers. It is this brutality that prompted him to write the “Brief Account of the Devastation of the Indies” (1542) addressed to the then King of Spain, Phillip II.
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His readings brought to the fore the inhumane treatment that was exercised to the Indians and the Africans by the White colonizers. The readings became the rallying point for the antislavery crusaders. They cited it to show that slavery was evil and that no race was superior and therefore one race should not be used by the other to provide free forced labor for its enrichment. They argued that on the basis that all races are equal, people of a particular race should not be owned by another people as their property. Las Casas pleadings were very influential, as he belonged to the oppressing race.
The “curse on the sons of Ham” was used by proslavery clergymen in the USA to support slavery of the black race. It is primarily based on Genesis 9:25-27. In this scripture Noah got drunk and naked, and his son Ham who was supposedly black saw his nakedness. Annoyed by the fact that his son had seen his nakedness, Noah cursed Ham’s descendants. They were to be slaved forever and since Ham was supposedly black, some people believed the blacks are therefore supposed to be slaves of the other races. They were therefore enslaved at the time, and this was seen as fulfillments of this prophesy.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:9a6d206b-b7b6-4415-91bd-5344b5ef51de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/caribbean-history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.988284 | 514 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.68337219... | 1 | Bartolome de Las Casas was a Spanish Catholic priest who later became a Bishop in the Caribbean Islands. Las Casas had emigrated from Spain to the Caribbean Island of Hispaniola in what are today Haiti and the Dominican Republic. He witnessed the brutality of the Spaniards towards the Native Indians of the Islands they occupied (Las Casas 5). The Spaniards treated the Native Indians worse than beasts, believing they were lesser human beings, if human beings at all. However, Las Casas thought the Native Indians to be human beings and have a soul and a spirit, and therefore believed they need to be treated better. He was also worried by the rate at which the number of the Natives had reduced due to the atrocities committed against them by the Spanish colonizers. It is this brutality that prompted him to write the “Brief Account of the Devastation of the Indies” (1542) addressed to the then King of Spain, Phillip II.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
His readings brought to the fore the inhumane treatment that was exercised to the Indians and the Africans by the White colonizers. The readings became the rallying point for the antislavery crusaders. They cited it to show that slavery was evil and that no race was superior and therefore one race should not be used by the other to provide free forced labor for its enrichment. They argued that on the basis that all races are equal, people of a particular race should not be owned by another people as their property. Las Casas pleadings were very influential, as he belonged to the oppressing race.
The “curse on the sons of Ham” was used by proslavery clergymen in the USA to support slavery of the black race. It is primarily based on Genesis 9:25-27. In this scripture Noah got drunk and naked, and his son Ham who was supposedly black saw his nakedness. Annoyed by the fact that his son had seen his nakedness, Noah cursed Ham’s descendants. They were to be slaved forever and since Ham was supposedly black, some people believed the blacks are therefore supposed to be slaves of the other races. They were therefore enslaved at the time, and this was seen as fulfillments of this prophesy.
Most popular orders | 512 | ENGLISH | 1 |
by Narelle Atkins
The story of Ruth took place during the time of the Judges. In Judges 17:6 we learn that the Israelites had gone their own way. “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit.” The Israelites had taken on Canaanite practices, including worshiping idols and other gods.
Ruth stood out in this bleak period of Israel’s history for a number of reasons. She was a Moabitess who had married a man from the tribe of Judah. After being widowed, Ruth chose to leave Moab and go to Bethlehem with her mother-in-law, Naomi, who was alone after the death of her husband and sons.
Ruth was not only loyal to her mother-in-law, but she worshiped the God of the Israelites. In Ruth 1:16 she said to Naomi “Your people will be my people and your God my God.”
In Bethlehem, Ruth faithfully followed her mother-in-law’s instructions. She worked hard in Boaz’ field and gleaned grain to provide food for herself and Naomi. She was prepared to marry Naomi’s husband’s closest relative, their kinsman-redeemer, in order to provide a firstborn son as an heir for Naomi. Boaz was impressed by Ruth and he believed she was a woman of noble character. God blessed Ruth’s marriage to Boaz, her kinsman-redeemer, and their firstborn son, Obed, became the grandfather of King David.
by Narelle Atkins
The book of Judges tells us about the twelve judges God raised up to lead Israel. There were six major judges and six minor judges. The major judges were Othniel, Ehud, Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah and Samson.
Gideon is remembered for being an ideal judge and Israel thrived under his leadership. In contrast Gideon’s son, Abimelech, was evil. The son of one of Gideon’s concubines, Abimelech murdered seventy of his brothers so he could rule over Israel after his father’s death. He is not considered a judge despite governing Israel for several years. Abimelech fought with everyone and was eventually killed. A woman dropped a millstone on his head and he died at the sword of his servant to avoid the shame of dying at the hands of a woman.
Samson is one of the more well known judges. He was a Nazirite, set apart by God to deliver the Israelites from the hands of the Philistines. He possessed extraordinary strength from the Lord because the hair on his head had never been shaved. Samson fell in love with Delilah, who tricked him into revealing the source of his strength. Delilah betrayed Samson by arranging for the seven braids on his head to be shaved while he slept. Samson’s strength left him and he was captured by the Philistines.
Deborah was the only female judge to lead Israel. A prophetess, she was obedient to the Lord and brought a time of peace and prosperity to Israel.
by Narelle Atkins
Judges Chapter 2 outlines the role the judges played in Israel’s history. The judges led Israel during the period of time after Joshua brought the Israelites into the Promised Land and before the establishment by Samuel of Israel’s monarchy, starting with King Saul and King David.
The angel of the Lord spoke to the Israelites at Bokim. The Israelites had disobeyed God by not driving out all the inhabitants of Canaan before they took possession of the Promised Land. After Joshua’s death, Canaanite nations and other people still lived in parts of Canaan. The Israelites had broken their covenant promise to God and He left the foreigners in Canaan to test the Israelites’ faith and obedience to His laws.
The next generation of Israelites after Joshua grew up without knowing God or what He had done for Israel. They intermarried with the foreigners living in Canaan and worshiped their gods including Baals and the Ashtoreths. The Israelites were wicked in the eyes of the Lord and they angered Him. God handed the Israelites over to their enemies, who plundered and oppressed them.
The Israelites eventually cried out to the Lord for help. God appointed judges who saved the Israelites from their enemies and He restored peace and prosperity until the judge died. After the judge’s death, the Israelites returned to their evil practices and worshiped other gods.
The cycle of sin, judgment, repentance and redemption continued. Israel repeatedly forgot about God’s love and the covenant promises God had made with His chosen people. The new generations of Israelites turned away from God and embraced the religious and cultural practices of the other nations in Canaan. God showed His mercy to the Israelites by sending judges to save them and re-establish peace in the land.
by Deborah Horscroft
From Joseph’s line came Deborah, the only female Judge over Israel. She brought the word of the Lord to the commander of Israel’s army, Barak. God promised them victory and gave them an unusual battle plan against a stronger foe that had iron chariots. Barak had faith in God’s promise, but asked Deborah to accompany him – just in case.
Like us, many of those we read about in the early years of Israel’s history had an imperfect faith in God’s promises, yet God was faithful to them. He honoured their struggles to uphold their responsibilities, even when those around them were turning from God. In His mercy He forgave their sins when they were repentant.
Hebrews 11 provides a tribute to many of the faithful, including some from the time of the Judges. It also reminds us what it means to have faith while we await the time when we shall be perfect.
“Now faith is being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see. This is what the ancients were commended for… And what more shall I say? I do not have time to tell about Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel and the prophets, who through faith conquered kingdoms, administered justice, and gained what was promised; … whose weakness was turned to strength; and who became powerful in battle and routed foreign armies. – the world was not worthy of them. These were all commended for their faith, yet none of them received what had been promised. God had planned something better for us so that only together with us would they be made perfect.” (Hebrews 11: 1-2, 32-33, 38-40) | <urn:uuid:555ab3e8-3143-47f6-a47f-c14c7ecf1f66> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://30minutebiblestudies.wordpress.com/tag/judges/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.984818 | 1,402 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.017925757914781... | 2 | by Narelle Atkins
The story of Ruth took place during the time of the Judges. In Judges 17:6 we learn that the Israelites had gone their own way. “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit.” The Israelites had taken on Canaanite practices, including worshiping idols and other gods.
Ruth stood out in this bleak period of Israel’s history for a number of reasons. She was a Moabitess who had married a man from the tribe of Judah. After being widowed, Ruth chose to leave Moab and go to Bethlehem with her mother-in-law, Naomi, who was alone after the death of her husband and sons.
Ruth was not only loyal to her mother-in-law, but she worshiped the God of the Israelites. In Ruth 1:16 she said to Naomi “Your people will be my people and your God my God.”
In Bethlehem, Ruth faithfully followed her mother-in-law’s instructions. She worked hard in Boaz’ field and gleaned grain to provide food for herself and Naomi. She was prepared to marry Naomi’s husband’s closest relative, their kinsman-redeemer, in order to provide a firstborn son as an heir for Naomi. Boaz was impressed by Ruth and he believed she was a woman of noble character. God blessed Ruth’s marriage to Boaz, her kinsman-redeemer, and their firstborn son, Obed, became the grandfather of King David.
by Narelle Atkins
The book of Judges tells us about the twelve judges God raised up to lead Israel. There were six major judges and six minor judges. The major judges were Othniel, Ehud, Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah and Samson.
Gideon is remembered for being an ideal judge and Israel thrived under his leadership. In contrast Gideon’s son, Abimelech, was evil. The son of one of Gideon’s concubines, Abimelech murdered seventy of his brothers so he could rule over Israel after his father’s death. He is not considered a judge despite governing Israel for several years. Abimelech fought with everyone and was eventually killed. A woman dropped a millstone on his head and he died at the sword of his servant to avoid the shame of dying at the hands of a woman.
Samson is one of the more well known judges. He was a Nazirite, set apart by God to deliver the Israelites from the hands of the Philistines. He possessed extraordinary strength from the Lord because the hair on his head had never been shaved. Samson fell in love with Delilah, who tricked him into revealing the source of his strength. Delilah betrayed Samson by arranging for the seven braids on his head to be shaved while he slept. Samson’s strength left him and he was captured by the Philistines.
Deborah was the only female judge to lead Israel. A prophetess, she was obedient to the Lord and brought a time of peace and prosperity to Israel.
by Narelle Atkins
Judges Chapter 2 outlines the role the judges played in Israel’s history. The judges led Israel during the period of time after Joshua brought the Israelites into the Promised Land and before the establishment by Samuel of Israel’s monarchy, starting with King Saul and King David.
The angel of the Lord spoke to the Israelites at Bokim. The Israelites had disobeyed God by not driving out all the inhabitants of Canaan before they took possession of the Promised Land. After Joshua’s death, Canaanite nations and other people still lived in parts of Canaan. The Israelites had broken their covenant promise to God and He left the foreigners in Canaan to test the Israelites’ faith and obedience to His laws.
The next generation of Israelites after Joshua grew up without knowing God or what He had done for Israel. They intermarried with the foreigners living in Canaan and worshiped their gods including Baals and the Ashtoreths. The Israelites were wicked in the eyes of the Lord and they angered Him. God handed the Israelites over to their enemies, who plundered and oppressed them.
The Israelites eventually cried out to the Lord for help. God appointed judges who saved the Israelites from their enemies and He restored peace and prosperity until the judge died. After the judge’s death, the Israelites returned to their evil practices and worshiped other gods.
The cycle of sin, judgment, repentance and redemption continued. Israel repeatedly forgot about God’s love and the covenant promises God had made with His chosen people. The new generations of Israelites turned away from God and embraced the religious and cultural practices of the other nations in Canaan. God showed His mercy to the Israelites by sending judges to save them and re-establish peace in the land.
by Deborah Horscroft
From Joseph’s line came Deborah, the only female Judge over Israel. She brought the word of the Lord to the commander of Israel’s army, Barak. God promised them victory and gave them an unusual battle plan against a stronger foe that had iron chariots. Barak had faith in God’s promise, but asked Deborah to accompany him – just in case.
Like us, many of those we read about in the early years of Israel’s history had an imperfect faith in God’s promises, yet God was faithful to them. He honoured their struggles to uphold their responsibilities, even when those around them were turning from God. In His mercy He forgave their sins when they were repentant.
Hebrews 11 provides a tribute to many of the faithful, including some from the time of the Judges. It also reminds us what it means to have faith while we await the time when we shall be perfect.
“Now faith is being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see. This is what the ancients were commended for… And what more shall I say? I do not have time to tell about Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel and the prophets, who through faith conquered kingdoms, administered justice, and gained what was promised; … whose weakness was turned to strength; and who became powerful in battle and routed foreign armies. – the world was not worthy of them. These were all commended for their faith, yet none of them received what had been promised. God had planned something better for us so that only together with us would they be made perfect.” (Hebrews 11: 1-2, 32-33, 38-40) | 1,366 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On January 10, 1928 Minnie Buckingham Harper (R-McDowell) was appointed to succeed her late husband in the West Virginia House of Delegates, becoming the first African-American woman to serve in a Legislative Body in the United States. Harper was appointed by Governor Howard Gore to fill the vacancy caused by the death of her husband, E. Howard Harper.
Prior to her husband’s passing, Minnie Harper had been a housewife in Keystone. She did not run in the state legislative elections held later that year.
During the early part of the 20th century the southern half of the WV, and McDowell County in particular, attracted a relatively large number of African Americans from surrounding states who were looking for work in the coal mines.
Although the work was hazardous and hard, the pay was relatively good, especially given the limited career alternatives available to African-American men. By 1920, the state’s African-American population had increased to almost 86,000. McDowell County became known as a place where African-Americans could achieve considerable social mobility in an otherwise segregated society.
The post The first African-American woman to serve in a legislative body in the US appeared first on Appalachian History. | <urn:uuid:48ee88ee-2f34-4fa0-8ca2-ae4a86b1f26f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.blogarama.com/classic-blogs/46996-appalachian-history-blog/18580438-first-african-american-woman-serve-legislative-body | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.98188 | 250 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.365902215242385... | 1 | On January 10, 1928 Minnie Buckingham Harper (R-McDowell) was appointed to succeed her late husband in the West Virginia House of Delegates, becoming the first African-American woman to serve in a Legislative Body in the United States. Harper was appointed by Governor Howard Gore to fill the vacancy caused by the death of her husband, E. Howard Harper.
Prior to her husband’s passing, Minnie Harper had been a housewife in Keystone. She did not run in the state legislative elections held later that year.
During the early part of the 20th century the southern half of the WV, and McDowell County in particular, attracted a relatively large number of African Americans from surrounding states who were looking for work in the coal mines.
Although the work was hazardous and hard, the pay was relatively good, especially given the limited career alternatives available to African-American men. By 1920, the state’s African-American population had increased to almost 86,000. McDowell County became known as a place where African-Americans could achieve considerable social mobility in an otherwise segregated society.
The post The first African-American woman to serve in a legislative body in the US appeared first on Appalachian History. | 252 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cave was the son of Thomas Cave of St Helens Worcester and his wife Katherine Jones, daughter of Walter Jones of Witney, Oxfordshire. He received the support of Prince Rupert and in November 1640 was elected Member of Parliament for Lichfield in the Long Parliament. He was disabled from sitting in parliament in 1642 for supporting the King.
Cave became Governor of Hereford Castle after the Royalists re-captured the town in 1642, but on 25 April 1643, the Parliamentarian forces under General Waller attacked Hereford and found little opposition. Waller demanded the surrender of the City, and a £3000 ransom, and imposed fines on the citizens instead of plunder. Cave was court-marshalled for the surrender of the City but he explained how reluctant the citizens had been to help with the defence and was acquitted. Cave subsequently fought at the Battle of Naseby where he was killed on16 June 1645. | <urn:uuid:46722ddf-756c-4cf6-ab87-2661b5a628d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wn.com/Richard_Cave | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00218.warc.gz | en | 0.984719 | 192 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.094279594719409... | 1 | Cave was the son of Thomas Cave of St Helens Worcester and his wife Katherine Jones, daughter of Walter Jones of Witney, Oxfordshire. He received the support of Prince Rupert and in November 1640 was elected Member of Parliament for Lichfield in the Long Parliament. He was disabled from sitting in parliament in 1642 for supporting the King.
Cave became Governor of Hereford Castle after the Royalists re-captured the town in 1642, but on 25 April 1643, the Parliamentarian forces under General Waller attacked Hereford and found little opposition. Waller demanded the surrender of the City, and a £3000 ransom, and imposed fines on the citizens instead of plunder. Cave was court-marshalled for the surrender of the City but he explained how reluctant the citizens had been to help with the defence and was acquitted. Cave subsequently fought at the Battle of Naseby where he was killed on16 June 1645. | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are still many relevant cases of injustice towards African Americans in the present day. Black citizens still experience racial profiling, racial discourse, and abuse by law enforcement officers; these are three of the most prominent reasons that Martin Luther king Jr.'s "Letter from Birmingham Jail" is still relevant today. They outline the issues he wanted to fight against – issues that many American citizens deny the existence of today.
The life of a Negro was very hard in Birmingham because little to no one was on their side of the argument to desegregate. Most of the time, the locals were very hostile toward the Negros. They assumed if one Negro was aggressive and uncivilized, they all were. They feared social and political change because they were used to the segregated way of life. White southerners often profiled Negros as being unclean and unintelligent, simply because of the color of their skin. If Negros were submissive and infantile, the whites were strong and dignified. There was no freedom for Negros; if they wanted freedom, they should've been born white. Racial profiling still exists today, whether it's stopping a black person in a high-class neighborhood because of 'risk' of theft, or following a black person around a store to make sure no illegal activity is occurring. Racial profiling still happens and is still a big issue in our society. .
Though racial discourse was more common in the 1960's, it still exists in the United States today. In the 1960's people were more accustom to racial slurs and racial discrimination because Negroes weren't viewed as equal citizens during that time. If someone were to shout a racial slur at a Negro on the streets in Birmingham in 1963, there was more of a possibility of it becoming a group activity. But if someone were to shout a racial slur on the streets today, it would be completely unacceptable and bystanders would most likely protect those who were being attacked. | <urn:uuid:68f454c1-86e2-43a9-828e-a43839e98f7c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/219566.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.989113 | 391 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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-0.1394530981... | 7 | There are still many relevant cases of injustice towards African Americans in the present day. Black citizens still experience racial profiling, racial discourse, and abuse by law enforcement officers; these are three of the most prominent reasons that Martin Luther king Jr.'s "Letter from Birmingham Jail" is still relevant today. They outline the issues he wanted to fight against – issues that many American citizens deny the existence of today.
The life of a Negro was very hard in Birmingham because little to no one was on their side of the argument to desegregate. Most of the time, the locals were very hostile toward the Negros. They assumed if one Negro was aggressive and uncivilized, they all were. They feared social and political change because they were used to the segregated way of life. White southerners often profiled Negros as being unclean and unintelligent, simply because of the color of their skin. If Negros were submissive and infantile, the whites were strong and dignified. There was no freedom for Negros; if they wanted freedom, they should've been born white. Racial profiling still exists today, whether it's stopping a black person in a high-class neighborhood because of 'risk' of theft, or following a black person around a store to make sure no illegal activity is occurring. Racial profiling still happens and is still a big issue in our society. .
Though racial discourse was more common in the 1960's, it still exists in the United States today. In the 1960's people were more accustom to racial slurs and racial discrimination because Negroes weren't viewed as equal citizens during that time. If someone were to shout a racial slur at a Negro on the streets in Birmingham in 1963, there was more of a possibility of it becoming a group activity. But if someone were to shout a racial slur on the streets today, it would be completely unacceptable and bystanders would most likely protect those who were being attacked. | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Antoine Lavoisier has been called the founder of modern chemistry. The French scientist is most remembered for developing the scientific method, which is a careful, step-by-step process for proving or disproving something.
Alfred Wegener studied astronomy and meteorology—and was even a record-holding balloonist—before he became famous for his theories on how the land and seas on Earth were formed and change. These ideas are continental drift and plate tectonics. Seeing that the continents fit together like a puzzle, Wegener proved the theory that all of Earth's continents were once connected. Although his theories weren't accepted until after his death, scientists use plate tectonics to explain volcanoes and many other changes on Earth.
Albert Einstein is probably the most influential scientist and greatest physicist of the twentieth century. He revolutionized our ideas about time and space and is best known for his theory of relativity and his equation E=mc^2, which explains the relationship between energy and mass. By age 30, he was considered by many to be one of the world's greatest scientific thinkers.
Isaac Newton is considered one of the greatest scientists who ever lived. His work changed the way humans understand astronomy, physics, math, and more. He is probably most famous for three laws about the way things move, called Newton's Law of Motion.
Thomas Edison's inventions changed the world. His most famous invention is the light bulb, but he also invented generators and the power grid. Edison holds 1,000 patents—the record for the most new inventions. He even started his own electric company.
Hippocrates was a Greek doctor who is called The Father of Medicine. Before he was born around 460 B.C., there was little science in medicine. Doctors thought the gods were to blame for illness. Hippocrates studied the human body and tried to figure out what caused disease so he could develop cures. Hippocrates suggested rules for doctors to follow. The Hippocratic Oath, which doctors still follow, was based on his teachings.
Jane Goodall is the world's leading authority on chimpanzees. She moved to the African jungle to study them. Her visit to Kenya led to a meeting with famous paleontologist Louis Leakey. Although she wasn't a trained scientist, Goodall began working with Leakey in 1960. She earned the trust of the apes and observed their social interactions. She studied them for more than 30 years. She learned that chimps use tools and are more intelligent than was previously thought. | <urn:uuid:c7933a79-c44c-43bb-8a07-8dde6081d5b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biguniverse.com/library/books/antoine-lavoisier-founder-of-modern-chemistry | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.985248 | 521 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.17049038410... | 1 | Antoine Lavoisier has been called the founder of modern chemistry. The French scientist is most remembered for developing the scientific method, which is a careful, step-by-step process for proving or disproving something.
Alfred Wegener studied astronomy and meteorology—and was even a record-holding balloonist—before he became famous for his theories on how the land and seas on Earth were formed and change. These ideas are continental drift and plate tectonics. Seeing that the continents fit together like a puzzle, Wegener proved the theory that all of Earth's continents were once connected. Although his theories weren't accepted until after his death, scientists use plate tectonics to explain volcanoes and many other changes on Earth.
Albert Einstein is probably the most influential scientist and greatest physicist of the twentieth century. He revolutionized our ideas about time and space and is best known for his theory of relativity and his equation E=mc^2, which explains the relationship between energy and mass. By age 30, he was considered by many to be one of the world's greatest scientific thinkers.
Isaac Newton is considered one of the greatest scientists who ever lived. His work changed the way humans understand astronomy, physics, math, and more. He is probably most famous for three laws about the way things move, called Newton's Law of Motion.
Thomas Edison's inventions changed the world. His most famous invention is the light bulb, but he also invented generators and the power grid. Edison holds 1,000 patents—the record for the most new inventions. He even started his own electric company.
Hippocrates was a Greek doctor who is called The Father of Medicine. Before he was born around 460 B.C., there was little science in medicine. Doctors thought the gods were to blame for illness. Hippocrates studied the human body and tried to figure out what caused disease so he could develop cures. Hippocrates suggested rules for doctors to follow. The Hippocratic Oath, which doctors still follow, was based on his teachings.
Jane Goodall is the world's leading authority on chimpanzees. She moved to the African jungle to study them. Her visit to Kenya led to a meeting with famous paleontologist Louis Leakey. Although she wasn't a trained scientist, Goodall began working with Leakey in 1960. She earned the trust of the apes and observed their social interactions. She studied them for more than 30 years. She learned that chimps use tools and are more intelligent than was previously thought. | 531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hershey was born on September 13, 1857 in Derry Township, Pennsylvania.
On March 2, 1903, he began construction on what was to become the world’s largest chocolate manufacturing company, only he didn't know that it would become a large company. In 1935, Hershey established the M.S. Hershey Foundation, a private charitable foundation that provides educational and cultural opportunities for Hershey residents.
Hershey was married to Catherine Sweeney from 1871 until her death in 1915. In 1912 Hershey was supposed to go on the RMS Titanic, but he could not go because his wife was sick at the time. Sweeney died three years later.
Hershey died on October 14, 1946 from natural causes in Hershey, Pennsylvania, a town named after him, aged 88 years old.
Hershey started a school for orphaned children. He gave the Hershey Trust to that school. He made a town for his workers. Unlike other worker towns, it was comfortable and not expensive. Among many of the places he built for his workers to go to in their free time, Hershey built the Hershey Park, now a popular amusement park. Hershey was among the first to use the idea of Taylorism, after Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylorism is the idea that workers who do more should earn more.
Lancaster Caramel Company
Hershey returned to Lancaster in 1883. He borrowed money from the bank to start the Lancaster Caramel Company, which quickly became an outstanding success. He used the caramel recipe he had obtained during his previous travels to make candies. Also, from his previous travels, he learned that caramels sell better in bulk, so that is what he did. This company soon became a success when a man from England visited Lancaster. He loved Hershey's candies once he tasted them and placed a big order to be delivered to Britain. Hershey was able to pay off the debt from the bank and had some money left over to buy more ingredients and equipment.
By the early 1890s Lancaster Caramel Company had gotten big, employing over 1,300 workers in two factories. After a travel to Chicago for the World's Columbian Exposition, he sparked an interest in chocolate. After a long time of deciding, he took a risk and sold Lancaster Caramel Company for one million dollars to start the famous Hershey Chocolate Company.
The Hershey Chocolate Company
Using the proceeds from the 1900 sale of the Lancaster Caramel Company, Hershey initially acquired farm land roughly 30 miles (50 km) northwest of Lancaster, near his birthplace of Derry Township. There, he could obtain the large supplies of fresh milk needed to perfect and produce fine milk chocolate. Excited by the potential of milk chocolate, which at that time was a luxury product, Hershey was determined to develop a formula for milk chocolate and market and sell it to the American public. Through trial and error, he created his own formula for milk chocolate. The first Hershey bar was produced in 1900. Hershey's Kisses were developed in 1907, and the Hershey's Bar with almonds was introduced in 1908.
On March 2, 1903, he began construction on what was to become the world’s largest chocolate manufacturing company. The facility, completed in 1905, was designed to manufacture chocolate using the latest mass production techniques. Hershey’s milk chocolate quickly became the first nationally marketed product of its kind.
The factory was in the center of a dairy farmland, but with Hershey’s support, houses, businesses, churches and a transportation infrastructure created around the plant. Because the land was surrounded by dairy farms, Hershey was able to use fresh milk to mass-produce quality milk chocolate. Hershey continued to experiment and perfect the process of making milk chocolate using the techniques he had first learned for adding milk to make caramels when he had moved to Drexel Hill.
Milton S. Hershey Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:50511236-c361-4e1d-89b2-4e9c20958842> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Milton_Hershey | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.984621 | 821 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.169617235... | 2 | Hershey was born on September 13, 1857 in Derry Township, Pennsylvania.
On March 2, 1903, he began construction on what was to become the world’s largest chocolate manufacturing company, only he didn't know that it would become a large company. In 1935, Hershey established the M.S. Hershey Foundation, a private charitable foundation that provides educational and cultural opportunities for Hershey residents.
Hershey was married to Catherine Sweeney from 1871 until her death in 1915. In 1912 Hershey was supposed to go on the RMS Titanic, but he could not go because his wife was sick at the time. Sweeney died three years later.
Hershey died on October 14, 1946 from natural causes in Hershey, Pennsylvania, a town named after him, aged 88 years old.
Hershey started a school for orphaned children. He gave the Hershey Trust to that school. He made a town for his workers. Unlike other worker towns, it was comfortable and not expensive. Among many of the places he built for his workers to go to in their free time, Hershey built the Hershey Park, now a popular amusement park. Hershey was among the first to use the idea of Taylorism, after Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylorism is the idea that workers who do more should earn more.
Lancaster Caramel Company
Hershey returned to Lancaster in 1883. He borrowed money from the bank to start the Lancaster Caramel Company, which quickly became an outstanding success. He used the caramel recipe he had obtained during his previous travels to make candies. Also, from his previous travels, he learned that caramels sell better in bulk, so that is what he did. This company soon became a success when a man from England visited Lancaster. He loved Hershey's candies once he tasted them and placed a big order to be delivered to Britain. Hershey was able to pay off the debt from the bank and had some money left over to buy more ingredients and equipment.
By the early 1890s Lancaster Caramel Company had gotten big, employing over 1,300 workers in two factories. After a travel to Chicago for the World's Columbian Exposition, he sparked an interest in chocolate. After a long time of deciding, he took a risk and sold Lancaster Caramel Company for one million dollars to start the famous Hershey Chocolate Company.
The Hershey Chocolate Company
Using the proceeds from the 1900 sale of the Lancaster Caramel Company, Hershey initially acquired farm land roughly 30 miles (50 km) northwest of Lancaster, near his birthplace of Derry Township. There, he could obtain the large supplies of fresh milk needed to perfect and produce fine milk chocolate. Excited by the potential of milk chocolate, which at that time was a luxury product, Hershey was determined to develop a formula for milk chocolate and market and sell it to the American public. Through trial and error, he created his own formula for milk chocolate. The first Hershey bar was produced in 1900. Hershey's Kisses were developed in 1907, and the Hershey's Bar with almonds was introduced in 1908.
On March 2, 1903, he began construction on what was to become the world’s largest chocolate manufacturing company. The facility, completed in 1905, was designed to manufacture chocolate using the latest mass production techniques. Hershey’s milk chocolate quickly became the first nationally marketed product of its kind.
The factory was in the center of a dairy farmland, but with Hershey’s support, houses, businesses, churches and a transportation infrastructure created around the plant. Because the land was surrounded by dairy farms, Hershey was able to use fresh milk to mass-produce quality milk chocolate. Hershey continued to experiment and perfect the process of making milk chocolate using the techniques he had first learned for adding milk to make caramels when he had moved to Drexel Hill.
Milton S. Hershey Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 873 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At dawn on the 14th December 1798, the Royal Navy frigate Ambuscade 32, was patrolling the estuary of the River Gironde on the west coast of France. As grey light spread across the sea, they spotted the sails of another ship coming from the west. The Ambuscade approached to investigate, at which point the unidentified ship, which was the French corvette Bayonnaise 24, turned-tail and ran.
This was a perfectly reasonable response. The French ship was only armed with 8 pounder guns, as oppose to the more numerous 12 pounder cannon of the Ambuscade. Even though she was carrying a detachment of 40 soldiers, in addition to her normal crew, her opponent was both larger and faster. Prudence, after all, is the greater part of valour. The British frigate gave chase, and thanks to her superior speed, began to close with the Bayonnaise. By noon, the ships were in range of each other and battle commenced.
For the first hour, the two sides circled around each other exchanging broadsides, with the Ambuscade attempting to close the range, and her smaller opponent trying to keep clear. With both fewer and smaller guns, the Bayonnaise suffered much more damage and loss of life than her opponent. Towards the end of this first hour she found herself decisively out-manoeuvred, with the British frigate about to pass across her stern and rake her. In Age of Sail battles, this was normally a crippling blow. Cannon balls fired in this way would enter the poorly protected stern of a ship and tear down its whole length. Things were looking grim for the Bayonnaise.
And then her fortune began to change. One of the Ambuscade’s cannons burst, killing thirteen of her crew outright, wounding many more, and badly damaging the frigate. In the confusion that followed, the Bayonnaise was able to escape to the south. The Ambuscade managed to restore the situation on board, and set off in pursuit. By 3 pm she was alongside the French ship, and firing into her once more. Unable to either run or outfight her opponent, the Bayonnaise tried a desperate manoeuvre. She turned hard to port and rammed the Ambuscade.
This move caught the British ship completely by surprise. The bowsprit of the Bayonnaise crashed into the Ambuscade's damaged mizzen mast, bringing it down, wounding more of her crew, and hopelessly entangling the two ships. Some of the British ship’s afterguard had been sent below to help fight a small powder fire on the gun deck, leaving her quarterdeck dangerously empty of crew. Things began to move in the French ship’s favour. From her forecastle, her marines, together with the contingent of soldiers she carried, began firing muskets from short range down onto the Ambuscade’s deck. They far outnumbered the frigate’s few Royal Marines, and were ordered to concentrate on shooting their opponent’s officers.
Her first lieutenant was quickly hit in the groin, and taken bellow. Moments later Captain Henry Jenkins was badly wounded, and followed him down to the surgeon. Lieutenant Sinclair, who commanded the Ambuscade’s marines, was next, about the same time as her sailing master was shot in the head. Meanwhile the crew of the Bayonnaise had all been gathered together and armed. In a cheering wave, they boarded their Royal Navy opponent, using the bowsprit as a bridge. After a brief, savage fight, the ship’s last uninjured officer, her purser William Murray, surrendered the frigate.
The triumphant French took over the Ambuscade, and used her to tow the crippled Bayonnaise into Rochefort, where they arrived in triumph the following day. French victories over larger Royal Navy opponents were unprecedented at the time, and much was made of this rare propaganda coup by the Paris government. Lieutenant de Vaisseau Richer, the Bayonnaise’s wounded commander, was promoted to Capitaine de Vaisseau, a jump of three ranks. All the other surviving officers were promoted too, and a series of paintings were commissioned celebrating the notable feat.
As for the Ambuscade’s Captain Henry Jenkins he was exchanged the following year, returned to Britain, were he faced a Courts Marshal for the loss of his ship. He was still crippled by his injuries and would never walk again. Being forced to give evidence from a stretcher was widely seen as having saved him from a guilty verdict. He never commanded a ship again. | <urn:uuid:eaa38b07-faf7-4867-8385-16685f0a86f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.philipkallan.com/single-post/2018/11/19/Victory-in-the-Gironde | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.982737 | 955 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3089887499... | 3 | At dawn on the 14th December 1798, the Royal Navy frigate Ambuscade 32, was patrolling the estuary of the River Gironde on the west coast of France. As grey light spread across the sea, they spotted the sails of another ship coming from the west. The Ambuscade approached to investigate, at which point the unidentified ship, which was the French corvette Bayonnaise 24, turned-tail and ran.
This was a perfectly reasonable response. The French ship was only armed with 8 pounder guns, as oppose to the more numerous 12 pounder cannon of the Ambuscade. Even though she was carrying a detachment of 40 soldiers, in addition to her normal crew, her opponent was both larger and faster. Prudence, after all, is the greater part of valour. The British frigate gave chase, and thanks to her superior speed, began to close with the Bayonnaise. By noon, the ships were in range of each other and battle commenced.
For the first hour, the two sides circled around each other exchanging broadsides, with the Ambuscade attempting to close the range, and her smaller opponent trying to keep clear. With both fewer and smaller guns, the Bayonnaise suffered much more damage and loss of life than her opponent. Towards the end of this first hour she found herself decisively out-manoeuvred, with the British frigate about to pass across her stern and rake her. In Age of Sail battles, this was normally a crippling blow. Cannon balls fired in this way would enter the poorly protected stern of a ship and tear down its whole length. Things were looking grim for the Bayonnaise.
And then her fortune began to change. One of the Ambuscade’s cannons burst, killing thirteen of her crew outright, wounding many more, and badly damaging the frigate. In the confusion that followed, the Bayonnaise was able to escape to the south. The Ambuscade managed to restore the situation on board, and set off in pursuit. By 3 pm she was alongside the French ship, and firing into her once more. Unable to either run or outfight her opponent, the Bayonnaise tried a desperate manoeuvre. She turned hard to port and rammed the Ambuscade.
This move caught the British ship completely by surprise. The bowsprit of the Bayonnaise crashed into the Ambuscade's damaged mizzen mast, bringing it down, wounding more of her crew, and hopelessly entangling the two ships. Some of the British ship’s afterguard had been sent below to help fight a small powder fire on the gun deck, leaving her quarterdeck dangerously empty of crew. Things began to move in the French ship’s favour. From her forecastle, her marines, together with the contingent of soldiers she carried, began firing muskets from short range down onto the Ambuscade’s deck. They far outnumbered the frigate’s few Royal Marines, and were ordered to concentrate on shooting their opponent’s officers.
Her first lieutenant was quickly hit in the groin, and taken bellow. Moments later Captain Henry Jenkins was badly wounded, and followed him down to the surgeon. Lieutenant Sinclair, who commanded the Ambuscade’s marines, was next, about the same time as her sailing master was shot in the head. Meanwhile the crew of the Bayonnaise had all been gathered together and armed. In a cheering wave, they boarded their Royal Navy opponent, using the bowsprit as a bridge. After a brief, savage fight, the ship’s last uninjured officer, her purser William Murray, surrendered the frigate.
The triumphant French took over the Ambuscade, and used her to tow the crippled Bayonnaise into Rochefort, where they arrived in triumph the following day. French victories over larger Royal Navy opponents were unprecedented at the time, and much was made of this rare propaganda coup by the Paris government. Lieutenant de Vaisseau Richer, the Bayonnaise’s wounded commander, was promoted to Capitaine de Vaisseau, a jump of three ranks. All the other surviving officers were promoted too, and a series of paintings were commissioned celebrating the notable feat.
As for the Ambuscade’s Captain Henry Jenkins he was exchanged the following year, returned to Britain, were he faced a Courts Marshal for the loss of his ship. He was still crippled by his injuries and would never walk again. Being forced to give evidence from a stretcher was widely seen as having saved him from a guilty verdict. He never commanded a ship again. | 950 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This over-life-size porphyry head once sat in the entrance hall to Hungersall Lodge, the home of Rupert Gunnis, collector, antiquarian and author of Dictionary of British Sculptors 1660-1851 (illustrated in situ in Knox, op. cit., fig. 3). By tradition, he had found it abandoned in the chicken run of a ducal estate, and managed to acquire it for his own collection.
The head was almost certainly carved to fit into large shoulders executed in marble or bronze, and the relative scale required for such a large head - along with the use of porphyry - suggests that it was an important commission. With its distinctive, aquiline nose, shallow-set eyes and slightly protruding lower lip, it appears to represent William III of England. Certainly this was who Gunnis himself believed the head was meant to represent.
With his short hair, it is likely that the bust is a posthumous portrait of the king, who died in 1702. However, as joint monarch - with his cousin Mary - William represented the victory of a protestant succession over the catholic Stuarts, and thus continued to be a potent symbol in Hanoverian England. As a comparison, one can cite the bust of William executed in around 1736 by Michael Rysbrack (illustrated in Bristol, op. cit., fig. 12) which also depicts the monarch with short curling hair and wearing a laurel wreath. The element which makes the present head such a rarity is the fact that it is executed in porphyry, and on such a grand scale. Incredibly difficult to carve due to its hardness, porphyry is traditionally associated with emperors. Its use is virtually unheard of in the English tradition of portraiture, however it is possible that it was chosen on this occasion to emphasise the status of a man whose claim to the English throne was considered by many to be tenuous at best. | <urn:uuid:a74b66f3-7d5b-408c-b947-1558bee06351> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/Sculptures-Statues-Figures/a-carved-porphyry-head-of-a-man-5338782-details.aspx?intObjectID=5338782 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.981122 | 408 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.097555935... | 1 | This over-life-size porphyry head once sat in the entrance hall to Hungersall Lodge, the home of Rupert Gunnis, collector, antiquarian and author of Dictionary of British Sculptors 1660-1851 (illustrated in situ in Knox, op. cit., fig. 3). By tradition, he had found it abandoned in the chicken run of a ducal estate, and managed to acquire it for his own collection.
The head was almost certainly carved to fit into large shoulders executed in marble or bronze, and the relative scale required for such a large head - along with the use of porphyry - suggests that it was an important commission. With its distinctive, aquiline nose, shallow-set eyes and slightly protruding lower lip, it appears to represent William III of England. Certainly this was who Gunnis himself believed the head was meant to represent.
With his short hair, it is likely that the bust is a posthumous portrait of the king, who died in 1702. However, as joint monarch - with his cousin Mary - William represented the victory of a protestant succession over the catholic Stuarts, and thus continued to be a potent symbol in Hanoverian England. As a comparison, one can cite the bust of William executed in around 1736 by Michael Rysbrack (illustrated in Bristol, op. cit., fig. 12) which also depicts the monarch with short curling hair and wearing a laurel wreath. The element which makes the present head such a rarity is the fact that it is executed in porphyry, and on such a grand scale. Incredibly difficult to carve due to its hardness, porphyry is traditionally associated with emperors. Its use is virtually unheard of in the English tradition of portraiture, however it is possible that it was chosen on this occasion to emphasise the status of a man whose claim to the English throne was considered by many to be tenuous at best. | 414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Put those mediocre B-minus essays on the trash pile and level up to A-plus quality. Hopefully, with a little bit of guidance, you can successfully transition from a good writer, to a fantastic one. So put a bit of thinking into your projects, work a little harder, and don’t be afraid to try a few new strategies to turn your essay into a piece that will impress your teacher.
George Washington was raised from a humble beginning. He was born and grew up in a plantation that was worked by African-American slaves. He did not make it finish his studies and went to a formal school for only eight years. After his star had failed to shine here, Washington went on to train in other odd activities for a teen in his age. He went to learn how to fish, ride horses, hunt and sail on a boat. However he was at a tender age, he knew that theses skills would give him an upper hand in the war years. Things worked out for him and he apprentice for many surveyors that gave him a chance to travel in most parts of the country. When George was twenty years old, he was called up in the Virginia Militia. He was given the prestigious rank of a lieutenant colonel. It is during this time that he realized how disadvantaged he was to be a non-British born. His pay and that of other Briton officers holding the same rank was so much different. He, however, served in the role given with diligence and carried the Britain flag in the French and India War. He also went into other three British missions though he lost in all the three. He stepped down after every defeat but was always persuaded to have back his position.
After these many involvements in war, George was now experienced. He gave his best short to the Revolutionary War and won the War. Though he was greatly victimized for his approach to the war and his timing techniques, George got things done. His attack at the Delaware River on a Christmas night that gave him the victory in the Revolutionary War was questioned by many. He knew that the opponents were drunk and took that advantage and attacked them during the night. He did not believe in large battle troops and the highest number of soldiers he ever commanded was ten thousand. Most of his victories were with a smaller group but with a tactical approach.
Washington is maybe the only soldier that has fought many losing battles in his lifetime. He always used the tactic of retreating when beaten. His policies either win the war or live to fight another day. He also employed the tactics utilized by the French in America. This always worked right for the Americans, but British had superior numbers and always carried the day.
© Copyright 2009-2020. The-Kings-Speech.com all rights reserved | <urn:uuid:aa11a0c7-645d-4447-aef7-ab7331297294> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.the-kings-speech.com/essay-sample-about-george-washington/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.99415 | 561 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.479239344596862... | 2 | Put those mediocre B-minus essays on the trash pile and level up to A-plus quality. Hopefully, with a little bit of guidance, you can successfully transition from a good writer, to a fantastic one. So put a bit of thinking into your projects, work a little harder, and don’t be afraid to try a few new strategies to turn your essay into a piece that will impress your teacher.
George Washington was raised from a humble beginning. He was born and grew up in a plantation that was worked by African-American slaves. He did not make it finish his studies and went to a formal school for only eight years. After his star had failed to shine here, Washington went on to train in other odd activities for a teen in his age. He went to learn how to fish, ride horses, hunt and sail on a boat. However he was at a tender age, he knew that theses skills would give him an upper hand in the war years. Things worked out for him and he apprentice for many surveyors that gave him a chance to travel in most parts of the country. When George was twenty years old, he was called up in the Virginia Militia. He was given the prestigious rank of a lieutenant colonel. It is during this time that he realized how disadvantaged he was to be a non-British born. His pay and that of other Briton officers holding the same rank was so much different. He, however, served in the role given with diligence and carried the Britain flag in the French and India War. He also went into other three British missions though he lost in all the three. He stepped down after every defeat but was always persuaded to have back his position.
After these many involvements in war, George was now experienced. He gave his best short to the Revolutionary War and won the War. Though he was greatly victimized for his approach to the war and his timing techniques, George got things done. His attack at the Delaware River on a Christmas night that gave him the victory in the Revolutionary War was questioned by many. He knew that the opponents were drunk and took that advantage and attacked them during the night. He did not believe in large battle troops and the highest number of soldiers he ever commanded was ten thousand. Most of his victories were with a smaller group but with a tactical approach.
Washington is maybe the only soldier that has fought many losing battles in his lifetime. He always used the tactic of retreating when beaten. His policies either win the war or live to fight another day. He also employed the tactics utilized by the French in America. This always worked right for the Americans, but British had superior numbers and always carried the day.
© Copyright 2009-2020. The-Kings-Speech.com all rights reserved | 562 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By day, he was a pastor of a church but by night, he was part of a secret network that helped slaves escape to freedom.
The Reverend Samuel Green, a farmer and a Methodist preacher, was also a key Underground Railroad agent active in Dorchester County, Maryland in the 1850s.
In the course of time, he met with other prominent black abolitionists like Frederick Douglass, Stephen Myers, John Rock, among others.
More about this
But it is not his so-called collaborations with Tubman and other fugitive slaves that would land him in jail but rather his possession of a copy of a best-selling book – Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin that was anti-slavery.
Despite being born into slavery in New East Market, Maryland around 1802, Green received an education, unlike many black people during that period.
He initially worked as a farm slave in the fields of Dorchester County and married an enslaved woman called Kitty who gave him two children.
In 1831 when Green’s owner died, he bequeathed his freedom five years later but Green was able to earn enough money to pay off his freedom after just a year.
He also paid off his wife’s freedom, nevertheless, their two children remained slaves. In 1854, one of Green’s sons, Samuel Jr., was able to escape the home of his owner, Dr. James Muse to Canada.
Fearing that Samuel’s sister would do the same, Muse sold her to a plantation owner in Missouri, separating her from her husband and two children.
Meanwhile, Green had gained prominence among the freed black community while working as a lay minister in the local Methodist Episcopal church.
In 1852, he was selected as a representative to a statewide “Convention of the Free Colored People of Maryland.” Three years after, he attended the National Convention of the Colored People of the United States in Philadelphia where he met the likes of Douglass and other leading black abolitionists at the time.
But most importantly, Green was a key member of the Underground Railroad, a large movement in North America consisting of several individuals who worked together to aid slaves in their escape from their captors.
Accounts state that a lot of fugitive slaves passed through Green’s East New Market home during their daring escapes.
It is reported that Tubman also used Green’s home as a safe haven for herself and other fugitives during her journeys back to Dorchester County.
A large portion of Tubman’s family was then enslaved in Maryland. As a key figure of the Underground Railroad, she worked to free them with the help of some abolitionists in the region including Green in 1850.
She then went on several other journeys to help slaves escape north and onward to Canada, which had also abolished slavery.
It is even believed that Samuel Jr. was able to escape slavery following instructions from Tubman. That shows the extent of closeness Green’s family had with Tubman.
Green’s woes as an Underground Railroad member, however, began in 1857 when he provided refuge to a group of Dorchester County runaways who would become known as the Dover Eight after a daring escape from a jailhouse.
The Dover Eight made national headlines, and Green was accused of having played a role in their escape.
Authorities searched Green’s home and found items, including letters he had received from his son, a map, railroad schedules and a volume of Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
For violating Maryland’s law governing possession of abolitionist literature by free or enslaved people of color, Green was arrested and sentenced to 10 years in prison.
Green’s case, which historians believe “explores freedom of speech and of the press in a slave state during the 1850s,” gained nationwide attention at the time.
His supporters and other prominent abolitionists sent petitions to authorities asking for a pardon. In 1862, he was finally pardoned but was asked to leave the state within 60 days.
Records say Green and his wife joined their son in Canada but made a few stops along the way, including having to meet with Harriet Beecher Stowe, the author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
After the Civil War and emancipation, Green and his family returned to Maryland. Before his death in 1877, Green joined a group of pastors who founded the Centenary Biblical Institute in Baltimore to train new pastors.
The school became a teacher’s college in 1890 and ultimately evolved into Morgan State University. | <urn:uuid:af6844b4-e7b5-452a-aa00-0f9552549a12> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://face2faceafrica.com/article/pastor-samuel-green-the-little-known-but-key-underground-railroad-figure-who-helped-harriet-tubman | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.986203 | 952 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.16504696011... | 2 | By day, he was a pastor of a church but by night, he was part of a secret network that helped slaves escape to freedom.
The Reverend Samuel Green, a farmer and a Methodist preacher, was also a key Underground Railroad agent active in Dorchester County, Maryland in the 1850s.
In the course of time, he met with other prominent black abolitionists like Frederick Douglass, Stephen Myers, John Rock, among others.
More about this
But it is not his so-called collaborations with Tubman and other fugitive slaves that would land him in jail but rather his possession of a copy of a best-selling book – Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin that was anti-slavery.
Despite being born into slavery in New East Market, Maryland around 1802, Green received an education, unlike many black people during that period.
He initially worked as a farm slave in the fields of Dorchester County and married an enslaved woman called Kitty who gave him two children.
In 1831 when Green’s owner died, he bequeathed his freedom five years later but Green was able to earn enough money to pay off his freedom after just a year.
He also paid off his wife’s freedom, nevertheless, their two children remained slaves. In 1854, one of Green’s sons, Samuel Jr., was able to escape the home of his owner, Dr. James Muse to Canada.
Fearing that Samuel’s sister would do the same, Muse sold her to a plantation owner in Missouri, separating her from her husband and two children.
Meanwhile, Green had gained prominence among the freed black community while working as a lay minister in the local Methodist Episcopal church.
In 1852, he was selected as a representative to a statewide “Convention of the Free Colored People of Maryland.” Three years after, he attended the National Convention of the Colored People of the United States in Philadelphia where he met the likes of Douglass and other leading black abolitionists at the time.
But most importantly, Green was a key member of the Underground Railroad, a large movement in North America consisting of several individuals who worked together to aid slaves in their escape from their captors.
Accounts state that a lot of fugitive slaves passed through Green’s East New Market home during their daring escapes.
It is reported that Tubman also used Green’s home as a safe haven for herself and other fugitives during her journeys back to Dorchester County.
A large portion of Tubman’s family was then enslaved in Maryland. As a key figure of the Underground Railroad, she worked to free them with the help of some abolitionists in the region including Green in 1850.
She then went on several other journeys to help slaves escape north and onward to Canada, which had also abolished slavery.
It is even believed that Samuel Jr. was able to escape slavery following instructions from Tubman. That shows the extent of closeness Green’s family had with Tubman.
Green’s woes as an Underground Railroad member, however, began in 1857 when he provided refuge to a group of Dorchester County runaways who would become known as the Dover Eight after a daring escape from a jailhouse.
The Dover Eight made national headlines, and Green was accused of having played a role in their escape.
Authorities searched Green’s home and found items, including letters he had received from his son, a map, railroad schedules and a volume of Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
For violating Maryland’s law governing possession of abolitionist literature by free or enslaved people of color, Green was arrested and sentenced to 10 years in prison.
Green’s case, which historians believe “explores freedom of speech and of the press in a slave state during the 1850s,” gained nationwide attention at the time.
His supporters and other prominent abolitionists sent petitions to authorities asking for a pardon. In 1862, he was finally pardoned but was asked to leave the state within 60 days.
Records say Green and his wife joined their son in Canada but made a few stops along the way, including having to meet with Harriet Beecher Stowe, the author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
After the Civil War and emancipation, Green and his family returned to Maryland. Before his death in 1877, Green joined a group of pastors who founded the Centenary Biblical Institute in Baltimore to train new pastors.
The school became a teacher’s college in 1890 and ultimately evolved into Morgan State University. | 925 | ENGLISH | 1 |
‘Nameless and Friendless’ was painted in 1857 by Emily Mary Osborn. It captures a single woman trying, and failing, to earn a living as an artist in Victorian England. In a trade traditionally occupied by men, she becomes nameless and friendless.
Osborn was actively involved in the campaign for women’s rights during the mid-19th century. She was supported by wealthy patrons, including Queen Victoria. But she used her position of power to help improve the lives of women like those depicted in her paintings.
From a Tate Britain online description:
Although Blake was considered mad by contemporaries for his idiosyncratic views, he is held in high regard by later critics for his expressiveness and creativity, and for the philosophical and mystical undercurrents within his work. His paintings and poetry have been characterised as part of the Romantic movement and as “Pre-Romantic”. A committed Christian who was hostile to the Church of England (indeed, to almost all forms of organised religion), Blake was influenced by the ideals and ambitions of the French and American Revolutions.
William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, painter, and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his lifetime, Blake is now considered a seminal figure in the history of the poetry and visual arts of the Romantic Age. What he called his prophetic works were said by 20th-century critic Northrop Frye to form “what is in proportion to its merits the least read body of poetry in the English language”. His visual artistry led 21st-century critic Jonathan Jones to proclaim him “far and away the greatest artist Britain has ever produced”. In 2002, Blake was placed at number 38 in the BBC’s poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.
To read more: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/william-blake-39 | <urn:uuid:94fe56dd-ec92-4485-8a63-6a7942e52dd0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://boomers-daily.com/tag/tate-britain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00025.warc.gz | en | 0.984879 | 403 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.195043072... | 1 | ‘Nameless and Friendless’ was painted in 1857 by Emily Mary Osborn. It captures a single woman trying, and failing, to earn a living as an artist in Victorian England. In a trade traditionally occupied by men, she becomes nameless and friendless.
Osborn was actively involved in the campaign for women’s rights during the mid-19th century. She was supported by wealthy patrons, including Queen Victoria. But she used her position of power to help improve the lives of women like those depicted in her paintings.
From a Tate Britain online description:
Although Blake was considered mad by contemporaries for his idiosyncratic views, he is held in high regard by later critics for his expressiveness and creativity, and for the philosophical and mystical undercurrents within his work. His paintings and poetry have been characterised as part of the Romantic movement and as “Pre-Romantic”. A committed Christian who was hostile to the Church of England (indeed, to almost all forms of organised religion), Blake was influenced by the ideals and ambitions of the French and American Revolutions.
William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, painter, and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his lifetime, Blake is now considered a seminal figure in the history of the poetry and visual arts of the Romantic Age. What he called his prophetic works were said by 20th-century critic Northrop Frye to form “what is in proportion to its merits the least read body of poetry in the English language”. His visual artistry led 21st-century critic Jonathan Jones to proclaim him “far and away the greatest artist Britain has ever produced”. In 2002, Blake was placed at number 38 in the BBC’s poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.
To read more: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/william-blake-39 | 410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In "Mother to Son," what has kept the stairway from being easy to climb?
First of all, it's important to note that the staircase is an allegory for the mother's life. An allegory is a literary device which is used to reveal a hidden message, meaning, or moral. In this case, the speaker's mother uses the allegory of climbing a staircase to tell her son about what kind of life she's had and how she wants him to keep going in his, however many problems he may face.
As she explains, her life hasn't been easy; it's been "no crystal stair." On the contrary, it's been full of tacks and splinters, with boards torn up and places with no carpet on the floor. These literal obstacles to climbing the stairs represent the many challenges that the speaker's mother has had to face in her life.
Despite everything, though, she's just kept on climbing the stairs, reaching landings and turning corners, sometimes even in the dark. Having kept on going, she's keen for her son to do the same. Returning to the allegory, she doesn't want him to give up climbing and sit on the stair because it's too hard. She's still going, and she's still climbing, despite all the many obstacles in her path, and she hopes that her son will follow her example.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:6bba1d14-f7f2-44bf-abf8-fd9162b220a6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/in-mother-to-son-what-has-kept-the-stairway-from-2018840 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.98499 | 289 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.284005135297... | 1 | In "Mother to Son," what has kept the stairway from being easy to climb?
First of all, it's important to note that the staircase is an allegory for the mother's life. An allegory is a literary device which is used to reveal a hidden message, meaning, or moral. In this case, the speaker's mother uses the allegory of climbing a staircase to tell her son about what kind of life she's had and how she wants him to keep going in his, however many problems he may face.
As she explains, her life hasn't been easy; it's been "no crystal stair." On the contrary, it's been full of tacks and splinters, with boards torn up and places with no carpet on the floor. These literal obstacles to climbing the stairs represent the many challenges that the speaker's mother has had to face in her life.
Despite everything, though, she's just kept on climbing the stairs, reaching landings and turning corners, sometimes even in the dark. Having kept on going, she's keen for her son to do the same. Returning to the allegory, she doesn't want him to give up climbing and sit on the stair because it's too hard. She's still going, and she's still climbing, despite all the many obstacles in her path, and she hopes that her son will follow her example.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Aranyu Soltesz. Alphabet Worksheet. At Monday, January 13th 2020, 08:46:55 AM.
Care should be taken to give children worksheets that they are capable of doing. This involves understanding and monitoring the child continually, since the level of attainment of different children would often be quite different. The worksheet should challenge the child but not overwhelm her. If the worksheet is too easy or too repetitive, it may bore the child and she would not be happy. If the activity is too difficult it would frustrate her and she would not like to take up more sheets.
Worksheet is not just for practice. Teachers can also let their students do a group activity through worksheets. Through this, students will learn how to bond and work with their classmates as one team. Teachers may also make worksheet activities as a contest. The prizes at hand will inspire and motivate students to perform well and learn their lessons. It is important to learn letter first. The children must need to know how to write letters in printable form. After that, they can be taught how to write cursive. Writing cursive is not as easy as writing letters in printable form.
Knowledge, exposures and the experiences of the child in his early years influence how his brain develops. That's the reason why parents send their children to day care schools though others prefer pre schooling them at home which is more practical and cheaper. Either of the both can be a good start for a child to be nurtured and develop. In addition to their pre schooling they give their children a chance to explore the world of art and music. It has been observed that most children who learn music lessons such as piano, violin, guitar and even voice culturing proved to be smarter than those who didn't. Parents believe that if a child practices everything, he will be able to do many things when he grows up. | <urn:uuid:d7b3a047-cbe3-45ab-b55f-50d2a02b3e9c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://troublewithcomics.com/alphabet-tracing-worksheets/alphabet-tracing-worksheets-worksheet-nursery-master-letter-preschool-traceable-letters-numbers-sheets-free-printable-uppercase-lowercase-pdf-cursive-missing-writing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00077.warc.gz | en | 0.980794 | 390 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2368037849664688... | 1 | By Aranyu Soltesz. Alphabet Worksheet. At Monday, January 13th 2020, 08:46:55 AM.
Care should be taken to give children worksheets that they are capable of doing. This involves understanding and monitoring the child continually, since the level of attainment of different children would often be quite different. The worksheet should challenge the child but not overwhelm her. If the worksheet is too easy or too repetitive, it may bore the child and she would not be happy. If the activity is too difficult it would frustrate her and she would not like to take up more sheets.
Worksheet is not just for practice. Teachers can also let their students do a group activity through worksheets. Through this, students will learn how to bond and work with their classmates as one team. Teachers may also make worksheet activities as a contest. The prizes at hand will inspire and motivate students to perform well and learn their lessons. It is important to learn letter first. The children must need to know how to write letters in printable form. After that, they can be taught how to write cursive. Writing cursive is not as easy as writing letters in printable form.
Knowledge, exposures and the experiences of the child in his early years influence how his brain develops. That's the reason why parents send their children to day care schools though others prefer pre schooling them at home which is more practical and cheaper. Either of the both can be a good start for a child to be nurtured and develop. In addition to their pre schooling they give their children a chance to explore the world of art and music. It has been observed that most children who learn music lessons such as piano, violin, guitar and even voice culturing proved to be smarter than those who didn't. Parents believe that if a child practices everything, he will be able to do many things when he grows up. | 385 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today, the idea of “proper” hygiene is entirely different from that of the frontier days due to the advertising of commercial hygiene products such as deodorants and shampoos. Shampoo wasn’t produced until the 1920s and soap made from animal fat and ash was hard on women’s hair so they washed it only once per month. Some soap was made from the soap weed (the yucca plant), which left the hair soft and clean.
Cowboys would often visit town on Saturdays. There they would treat themselves to a bath, haircut and shave then sprinkle themselves with bay rum as an after shave lotion.
Dental hygiene was almost non-existent because toothbrushes and dental floss was not readily available on the frontier. People seldom brushed their teeth. At stagecoach stations and homes, a water bucket hung next to the door with a dipper to be used by everyone. Also a community toothbrush hung by a string next to the water bucket to be shared by anyone who felt compelled to clean his or her teeth. Food often was picked from between the teeth with the tip point of a knife by both men and women.
At one time during the Middle Ages, tooth decay was thought to be caused by “tooth worms.” The forerunner to the toothbrush was a “chew stick” or twig with a frayed tip that acted as a brush. Americans didn’t routinely brush teeth until the 1940s when WWII soldiers were taught to brush daily. People tried several different things to clean their teeth. To name a few: ground egg shells, ash, ground oyster shells, and salt. In 1824, a man named Peabody started adding soap to a paste. In 1883, Colgate started adding chalk and mass produced his paste in jars. However, this paste was not available on the frontier.
When a tooth became a problem, people often turned to a barber or anyone with pliers. Few people know that the barber and dentistry co-existed for many years. Doctors did not practice dentistry. In the middle ages, the barbers became highly skilled in the art of dentistry, perhaps because they already owned the sharp tools such as razors often needed to extract a tooth. To aid in tooth extraction, they designed a tool to extract teeth, much like modern day forceps. For hundreds of years, these barbers provided their services to poorer people who couldn’t afford to see a physician. In the late 1800s, the barbers and dentists took on separate professions.
My dentist, Valdamar Cevallos, explained the red, white and blue barber poles outside barbershops advertised a place to get a haircut and shave. But it also represented a place for dental work and bloodletting — the drawing of blood from a patient in an attempt to cure them of disease or infection. President George Washington had a sore throat one morning and after a series of medical procedures, including the draining of nearly 40 percent of his blood in bloodletting, he died that evening.
Paul Revere is known for his midnight ride to warn that the British were coming. Few people know that besides being a silversmith, he was also a dentist who may have been the first to create bridges and other dental equipment. He identified a friend who had died in battle by recognizing the dental bridge he had created for him. This was probably the first known case of dental forensics.
No medication was available. Ether was first used in 1846 and it would be another 59 years before Novocain would be invented by a German chemist named Alfred Einhorn.
Dentistry has come a long way since Paul Revere, and my dentist, Val, said he no longer performs bloodletting.
To be continued ... | <urn:uuid:9a75fbeb-92dc-4add-a8b0-8e683644ce49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://seguingazette.com/opinion/community_columnists/article_65b3510e-34df-11ea-a5ff-3bd3c609c5c6.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00496.warc.gz | en | 0.987127 | 792 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.0989040061831... | 2 | Today, the idea of “proper” hygiene is entirely different from that of the frontier days due to the advertising of commercial hygiene products such as deodorants and shampoos. Shampoo wasn’t produced until the 1920s and soap made from animal fat and ash was hard on women’s hair so they washed it only once per month. Some soap was made from the soap weed (the yucca plant), which left the hair soft and clean.
Cowboys would often visit town on Saturdays. There they would treat themselves to a bath, haircut and shave then sprinkle themselves with bay rum as an after shave lotion.
Dental hygiene was almost non-existent because toothbrushes and dental floss was not readily available on the frontier. People seldom brushed their teeth. At stagecoach stations and homes, a water bucket hung next to the door with a dipper to be used by everyone. Also a community toothbrush hung by a string next to the water bucket to be shared by anyone who felt compelled to clean his or her teeth. Food often was picked from between the teeth with the tip point of a knife by both men and women.
At one time during the Middle Ages, tooth decay was thought to be caused by “tooth worms.” The forerunner to the toothbrush was a “chew stick” or twig with a frayed tip that acted as a brush. Americans didn’t routinely brush teeth until the 1940s when WWII soldiers were taught to brush daily. People tried several different things to clean their teeth. To name a few: ground egg shells, ash, ground oyster shells, and salt. In 1824, a man named Peabody started adding soap to a paste. In 1883, Colgate started adding chalk and mass produced his paste in jars. However, this paste was not available on the frontier.
When a tooth became a problem, people often turned to a barber or anyone with pliers. Few people know that the barber and dentistry co-existed for many years. Doctors did not practice dentistry. In the middle ages, the barbers became highly skilled in the art of dentistry, perhaps because they already owned the sharp tools such as razors often needed to extract a tooth. To aid in tooth extraction, they designed a tool to extract teeth, much like modern day forceps. For hundreds of years, these barbers provided their services to poorer people who couldn’t afford to see a physician. In the late 1800s, the barbers and dentists took on separate professions.
My dentist, Valdamar Cevallos, explained the red, white and blue barber poles outside barbershops advertised a place to get a haircut and shave. But it also represented a place for dental work and bloodletting — the drawing of blood from a patient in an attempt to cure them of disease or infection. President George Washington had a sore throat one morning and after a series of medical procedures, including the draining of nearly 40 percent of his blood in bloodletting, he died that evening.
Paul Revere is known for his midnight ride to warn that the British were coming. Few people know that besides being a silversmith, he was also a dentist who may have been the first to create bridges and other dental equipment. He identified a friend who had died in battle by recognizing the dental bridge he had created for him. This was probably the first known case of dental forensics.
No medication was available. Ether was first used in 1846 and it would be another 59 years before Novocain would be invented by a German chemist named Alfred Einhorn.
Dentistry has come a long way since Paul Revere, and my dentist, Val, said he no longer performs bloodletting.
To be continued ... | 786 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Things fall apart
All the cultures in a bigger or smaller grade had always been under the possibility of colonization. Even today where there is a greater control and knowledge about the territories we still see some powerful country trying to colonize other. In the book by Chinua Achebe “Things Fall Apart” we see how the English people in the name of the Queen of England try to colonize small African villages. We have been talking about colonization, but what is colonization? We can define colonization as the appropriation of lands that belong to someone else by force, and the introduction of the foreign culture to the one already existing there. In this book what Achebe wants to show us is that is possible to change a whole culture just by introducing a new one. If we analyze the book we see that the African village had its own structure and rules. Everyone in the village respected those rules even the most powerful men in the village. When Okonkwo shoots accidentally the old’ s dead man daughter he has to leave the village, even thought he was one of the nine who run that village. There were no excuses, nor corruption, nor a way to escape, if someone did something wrong that someone have to pay no matter whom he was. He tries to show us how the original culture of the village was, how the women were treated and how men were in charge of everything. He shows us that the more you work and the stronger you were the more important you were. We can see this very clear in the analogy of Okonkwo’ s father and Okonkwo. His father hardly worked, he was not a strong man, and therefore he was not respected and owed lots of money to everyone in the village. On the other side Okonkwo was a warrior, hardworking man. Everyone in the village respected him and he was one of the wealthiest men also. This kind of culture and social life was very characteristic of African villages in colonization times. Achebe wants to show us how is that a culture can be changed from one day to another, and he really represents what happens. The first thing that is worth naming is when Okonkwo’ s son joins the missionaries. Even though Okonkwo prohibited his son to go there, his son couldn’t resist it, going against all the villages’ principles and mainly against his father. His father very mad disinherit him showing his son he disapproved completely what he did, and he also does this to show his other children what would happen to them if they go with the missionaries. The second thing that we can see that changes everything is the matter of religion. The missionaries try to convince the people from Umuofia that the gods that they where worshipping were not real, and that there was only one god. The people of Umuofia showed a great discontent since they couldn’t believe that someone that came from some other place was telling them that the gods they worshipped generation after generation did not exist. | <urn:uuid:1719ae7a-97a5-48bf-a387-e9b20423e025> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/Thing_Fall_Apart | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.986614 | 619 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.119267329573631... | 2 | Things fall apart
All the cultures in a bigger or smaller grade had always been under the possibility of colonization. Even today where there is a greater control and knowledge about the territories we still see some powerful country trying to colonize other. In the book by Chinua Achebe “Things Fall Apart” we see how the English people in the name of the Queen of England try to colonize small African villages. We have been talking about colonization, but what is colonization? We can define colonization as the appropriation of lands that belong to someone else by force, and the introduction of the foreign culture to the one already existing there. In this book what Achebe wants to show us is that is possible to change a whole culture just by introducing a new one. If we analyze the book we see that the African village had its own structure and rules. Everyone in the village respected those rules even the most powerful men in the village. When Okonkwo shoots accidentally the old’ s dead man daughter he has to leave the village, even thought he was one of the nine who run that village. There were no excuses, nor corruption, nor a way to escape, if someone did something wrong that someone have to pay no matter whom he was. He tries to show us how the original culture of the village was, how the women were treated and how men were in charge of everything. He shows us that the more you work and the stronger you were the more important you were. We can see this very clear in the analogy of Okonkwo’ s father and Okonkwo. His father hardly worked, he was not a strong man, and therefore he was not respected and owed lots of money to everyone in the village. On the other side Okonkwo was a warrior, hardworking man. Everyone in the village respected him and he was one of the wealthiest men also. This kind of culture and social life was very characteristic of African villages in colonization times. Achebe wants to show us how is that a culture can be changed from one day to another, and he really represents what happens. The first thing that is worth naming is when Okonkwo’ s son joins the missionaries. Even though Okonkwo prohibited his son to go there, his son couldn’t resist it, going against all the villages’ principles and mainly against his father. His father very mad disinherit him showing his son he disapproved completely what he did, and he also does this to show his other children what would happen to them if they go with the missionaries. The second thing that we can see that changes everything is the matter of religion. The missionaries try to convince the people from Umuofia that the gods that they where worshipping were not real, and that there was only one god. The people of Umuofia showed a great discontent since they couldn’t believe that someone that came from some other place was telling them that the gods they worshipped generation after generation did not exist. | 608 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alfred Adler was bom on February 7, 1870, in Rudolfsheim, a village near Vienna. His mother Pauline was a hard-working homemaker who kept busy with her seven children. His father Leopold was a middle-class Jewish grain merchant from Hungary. As a young boy, Adler was weak and sickly and at age 5, he nearly died of pneumonia. He had gone ice-skating with an older boy who abandoned young Alfred. Cold and shivering, Adler managed to find his way home where he immediately fell asleep on the living room couch. As Adler gradually gained consciousness, he heard a doctor say to his parents, "Give yourself no more trouble. The boy is lost" (Hoffman, 1994, p. 8). This experience, along with the death of a younger brother, motivated Adler to become a physician.
Adler's poor health was in sharp contrast to the health of his older brother Sig-mund. Several of Adler's earliest memories were concerned with the unhappy competition between his brother's good health and his own illness. Sigmund Adler, the childhood rival whom Adler attempted to surpass, remained a worthy opponent, and in later years he became very successful in business and even helped Alfred financially. By almost any standard, however, Alfred Adler was much more famous than Sigmund Adler. Like many secondborn children, however, Alfred continued the rivalry with his older brother into middle age. He once told one of his biographers, Phyllis Bottome (1939, p. 18), "My eldest brother is a good industrious fellow—he was always ahead of me . . . and he is still ahead of me!"
The lives of Freud and Adler have several interesting parallels. Although both men came from middle- or lower-middle-class Viennese Jewish parents, neither was devoutly religious. However, Freud was much more conscious of his Jewishness than was Adler and often believed himself to be persecuted because of his Jewish background. On the other hand, Adler never claimed to have been mistreated, and in 1904, while still a member of Freud's inner circle, he converted to Protestantism. Despite this conversion, he held no deep religious convictions, and in fact, one of his biographers (Rattner, 1983) regarded him as an agnostic.
Like Freud, Adler had a younger brother who died in infancy. This early experience profoundly affected both men but in vastly different ways. Freud, by his own account, had wished unconsciously for the death of his rival and when the infant Julius did in fact die, Freud was filled with guilt and self-reproach, conditions that continued into his adulthood.
In contrast, Adler would seem to have had a more powerful reason to be traumatized by the death of his younger brother Rudolf. At age 4, Adler awoke one
Chapter 3 Adler: Individual Psychology 67
morning to find Rudolf dead in the bed next to his. Rather than being terrified or feeling guilty, Adler saw this experience, along with his own near death from pneumonia as a challenge to overcome death. Thus, at age 5, he decided that his goal hi life would be to conquer death. Because medicine offered some chance to forestall death, Adler decided at that early age to become a physician (Hoffman, 1994).
Although Freud was surrounded by a large family, including seven younger brothers and sisters, two grown half-brothers, and a nephew and niece about his age, he felt more emotionally attached to his parents, especially his mother, than to these other family members. In contrast, Adler was more hiterested in social relationships, and his siblings and peers played a pivotal role hi his childhood development. Personality differences between Freud and Adler continued throughout adulthood, with Freud preferrhig intense one-to-one relationships and Adler feeling more comfortable hi group situations. These personality differences were also reflected in then professional organizations. Freud's Vienna Psychoanalytic Society and International Psychoanalytic Association were highly structured in pyramid fashion, with an inner circle of six of Freud's trusted friends forming a kind of oligarchy at the top. Adler, by comparison, was more democratic, often meeting with colleagues and friends hi Vienna coffeehouses where they played a piano and sang songs. Adler's Society for Individual Psychology, in fact, suffered from a loose organization, and Adler had a relaxed attitude toward bushiess details that did not enhance his movement (Ellen-berger, 1970).
Adler attended elementary school with neither difficulty nor distinction. However, when he entered the Gymnasium hi preparation for medical school, he did so poorly that his father threatened to remove him from school and apprentice him to a shoemaker (Grey, 1998). As a medical student he once agahi completed work with no special honors, probably because his hiterest in patient care conflicted with his professors' hiterest hi precise diagnoses (Hoffman, 1994). When he received his medical degree near the end of 1895, he had realized his childhood goal of becoming a physician.
Because his father had been bom hi Hungary, Adler was a Hungarian citizen and was thus obliged to serve a tour of military duty in the Hungarian army. He fulfilled that obligation immediately after receiving his medical degree and then returned to Vienna for postgraduate study. (Adler became an Austrian citizen in 1911). He began private practice as an eye specialist, but gave up that specialization and turned to psychiatry and general medicine.
Scholars disagree on the first meeting of Adler and Freud (Bottome, 1939; El-lenenberger, 1970; Fiebert, 1997; Handlbauer, 1998), but all agree that in the late fall of 1902, Freud invited Adler and tlnee other Viennese physicians to attend a meeting in Freud's home to discuss psychology and neuropathology. This group was known as the Wednesday Psychological Society until 1908, when it became the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Although Freud led these discussion groups, Adler never considered Freud to be his mentor and believed somewhat naively that he and others could make contributions to psychoanalysis—contributions that would be acceptable to Freud. Although Adler was one of the original members of Freud's inner circle, the two men never shared a warm personal relationship. Neither man was quick to recognize theoretical differences even after Adler's 1907 publication of Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Psychical Compensation (1907/1917), which
68 Part II Psychodynamic Theories assumed that physical deficiencies—not sex—formed the foundation for human motivation.
During the next few years, Adler became even more convinced that psychoanalysis should be much broader than Freud's view of infantile sexuality, hi 1911, Adler, who was then president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, presented his views before the group, expresshig opposition to the strong sexual proclivities of psychoanalysis and insisting that the drive for superiority was a more basic motive than sexuality. Both he and Freud finally recognized that their differences were irreconcilable, and hi October of 1911 Adler resigned his presidency and membership hi the Psychoanalytic Society. Along with nine other former members of the Freudian circle, he formed the Society for Free Psychoanalytic Study, a name that irritated Freud with its implication that Freudian psychoanalysis was opposed to a free expression of ideas. Adler, however, soon changed the name of his organization to the Society for Individual Psychology—a name that clearly indicated he had abandoned psychoanalysis.
Like Freud Adler was affected by events surrounding World War I. Both men had financial difficulties, and both reluctantly borrowed money from relatives— Freud from his brother-in-law Edward Bennays and Adler from his brother Sigmund. Each man also made important changes hi his theory. Freud elevated aggression to the level of sex after viewhig the horrors of war, and Adler suggested that social interest and compassion could be the cornerstones of human motivation. The war years also brought a major disappointment to Adler when his application for an unpaid lecture position at the University of Vienna was turned down. Adler wanted this position to gain another forum for spreadhig his views, but he also desperately desired to attain the same prestigious position that Freud had held for more than a dozen years. Adler never attahied this position, but after the war he was able to advance his theories through lecturing, establishing child guidance clinics, and training teachers.
During the last several years of his life, Adler frequently visited the United States, where he taught individual psychology at Columbia University and the New School for Social Research. By 1932, he was a permanent resident of the United States and held the position ofVisiting Professor for Medical Psychology at Long Island College of Medichie, now Downstate Medical School, State University of New York. Unlike Freud who disliked Americans and their superficial understanding of psychoanalysis, Adler was hnpressed by Americans and admired their optimism and open-mindedness. His popularity as a speaker in the United States during the mid-19308 had few rivals, and he ahned his last several books toward a receptive American market (Hoffman, 1994).
Adler married a fiercely independent Russian woman, Raissa Epstehi, in December of 1897. Raissa was an early feminist and much more political than her husband. In later years, while Adler lived hi New York, she remained mostly hi Vienna and worked to promote Marxist-Leninist views that were quite different from Adler's notion of individual freedom and responsibility. After several years of requests by her husband to move to New York, Raissa finally came to stay hi New York only a few months before Adler's death. Ironically, Raissa, who did not share her husband's love for America, continued to live hi New York until her own death, nearly a quarter of a century after Adler had died (Hoffman, 1994).
Chapter 3 Adler: Individual Psychology 69
Raissa and Alfred had four children: Alexandra and Kurt, who became psychiatrists and continued then father's work; Valentine (Vali), who died as a political prisoner of the Soviet Union in about 1942; and Cornelia (Nelly), who aspired to be an actress.
Adler's favorite relaxation was music, but he also maintained an active interest in art and literature. In his work he often borrowed examples from fairy tales, the Bible, Shakespeare, Goethe, and numerous other literary works. He identified himself closely with the common person, and his manner and appearance were consistent with that identification. His patients included a high percentage of people from the lower and middle classes, a rarity among psychiatrists of his time. His personal qualities included an optimistic attitude toward the human condition, an intense competitiveness coupled with friendly congeniality, and a strong belief in the basic gender equality, which combined with a willingness to forcefully advocate women's rights.
From middle childhood until after his 67th birthday, Adler enjoyed robust health. Then, in the early months of 1937, while concerned with the fate of his daughter Vali who had disappeared somewhere in Moscow, Adler felt chest pams while on a speakmg tour in the Netherlands. Ignoring the doctor's advice to rest, he continued on to Aberdeen, Scotland where on May 28, 1937, he died of a heart attack. Freud who was 14 years older than Adler, had outlived his longtime adversary. On hearing of Adler's death, Freud (as quoted in E. Jones, 1957) sarcastically remarked "For a Jew boy out of a Viennese suburb a death in Aberdeen is an unheard-of career in itself and a proof of how far he had got on. The world really rewarded him richly for his service in having contradicted psychoanalysis" (p. 208).
Was this article helpful?
Achieve the Fitness and Wellness for You that you have always wanted by learning the facts so you can take the right steps to maximize your health. Learn How to Achieve Real Fitness and Wellness for a Healthy Body, Mind and Spirit to Improve Your Quality of Life in Today's World. Receive Valuable Information to Discover What Really Matters and What Actually Works in Finding Genuine Wholeness for All Aspects of Your Being. | <urn:uuid:7bb491d9-5cd1-416f-86b1-50a9c35bb7b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.flandershealth.us/personality-2/biography-of-alfred-adler.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.983998 | 2,529 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.21097883582115173,... | 1 | Alfred Adler was bom on February 7, 1870, in Rudolfsheim, a village near Vienna. His mother Pauline was a hard-working homemaker who kept busy with her seven children. His father Leopold was a middle-class Jewish grain merchant from Hungary. As a young boy, Adler was weak and sickly and at age 5, he nearly died of pneumonia. He had gone ice-skating with an older boy who abandoned young Alfred. Cold and shivering, Adler managed to find his way home where he immediately fell asleep on the living room couch. As Adler gradually gained consciousness, he heard a doctor say to his parents, "Give yourself no more trouble. The boy is lost" (Hoffman, 1994, p. 8). This experience, along with the death of a younger brother, motivated Adler to become a physician.
Adler's poor health was in sharp contrast to the health of his older brother Sig-mund. Several of Adler's earliest memories were concerned with the unhappy competition between his brother's good health and his own illness. Sigmund Adler, the childhood rival whom Adler attempted to surpass, remained a worthy opponent, and in later years he became very successful in business and even helped Alfred financially. By almost any standard, however, Alfred Adler was much more famous than Sigmund Adler. Like many secondborn children, however, Alfred continued the rivalry with his older brother into middle age. He once told one of his biographers, Phyllis Bottome (1939, p. 18), "My eldest brother is a good industrious fellow—he was always ahead of me . . . and he is still ahead of me!"
The lives of Freud and Adler have several interesting parallels. Although both men came from middle- or lower-middle-class Viennese Jewish parents, neither was devoutly religious. However, Freud was much more conscious of his Jewishness than was Adler and often believed himself to be persecuted because of his Jewish background. On the other hand, Adler never claimed to have been mistreated, and in 1904, while still a member of Freud's inner circle, he converted to Protestantism. Despite this conversion, he held no deep religious convictions, and in fact, one of his biographers (Rattner, 1983) regarded him as an agnostic.
Like Freud, Adler had a younger brother who died in infancy. This early experience profoundly affected both men but in vastly different ways. Freud, by his own account, had wished unconsciously for the death of his rival and when the infant Julius did in fact die, Freud was filled with guilt and self-reproach, conditions that continued into his adulthood.
In contrast, Adler would seem to have had a more powerful reason to be traumatized by the death of his younger brother Rudolf. At age 4, Adler awoke one
Chapter 3 Adler: Individual Psychology 67
morning to find Rudolf dead in the bed next to his. Rather than being terrified or feeling guilty, Adler saw this experience, along with his own near death from pneumonia as a challenge to overcome death. Thus, at age 5, he decided that his goal hi life would be to conquer death. Because medicine offered some chance to forestall death, Adler decided at that early age to become a physician (Hoffman, 1994).
Although Freud was surrounded by a large family, including seven younger brothers and sisters, two grown half-brothers, and a nephew and niece about his age, he felt more emotionally attached to his parents, especially his mother, than to these other family members. In contrast, Adler was more hiterested in social relationships, and his siblings and peers played a pivotal role hi his childhood development. Personality differences between Freud and Adler continued throughout adulthood, with Freud preferrhig intense one-to-one relationships and Adler feeling more comfortable hi group situations. These personality differences were also reflected in then professional organizations. Freud's Vienna Psychoanalytic Society and International Psychoanalytic Association were highly structured in pyramid fashion, with an inner circle of six of Freud's trusted friends forming a kind of oligarchy at the top. Adler, by comparison, was more democratic, often meeting with colleagues and friends hi Vienna coffeehouses where they played a piano and sang songs. Adler's Society for Individual Psychology, in fact, suffered from a loose organization, and Adler had a relaxed attitude toward bushiess details that did not enhance his movement (Ellen-berger, 1970).
Adler attended elementary school with neither difficulty nor distinction. However, when he entered the Gymnasium hi preparation for medical school, he did so poorly that his father threatened to remove him from school and apprentice him to a shoemaker (Grey, 1998). As a medical student he once agahi completed work with no special honors, probably because his hiterest in patient care conflicted with his professors' hiterest hi precise diagnoses (Hoffman, 1994). When he received his medical degree near the end of 1895, he had realized his childhood goal of becoming a physician.
Because his father had been bom hi Hungary, Adler was a Hungarian citizen and was thus obliged to serve a tour of military duty in the Hungarian army. He fulfilled that obligation immediately after receiving his medical degree and then returned to Vienna for postgraduate study. (Adler became an Austrian citizen in 1911). He began private practice as an eye specialist, but gave up that specialization and turned to psychiatry and general medicine.
Scholars disagree on the first meeting of Adler and Freud (Bottome, 1939; El-lenenberger, 1970; Fiebert, 1997; Handlbauer, 1998), but all agree that in the late fall of 1902, Freud invited Adler and tlnee other Viennese physicians to attend a meeting in Freud's home to discuss psychology and neuropathology. This group was known as the Wednesday Psychological Society until 1908, when it became the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Although Freud led these discussion groups, Adler never considered Freud to be his mentor and believed somewhat naively that he and others could make contributions to psychoanalysis—contributions that would be acceptable to Freud. Although Adler was one of the original members of Freud's inner circle, the two men never shared a warm personal relationship. Neither man was quick to recognize theoretical differences even after Adler's 1907 publication of Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Psychical Compensation (1907/1917), which
68 Part II Psychodynamic Theories assumed that physical deficiencies—not sex—formed the foundation for human motivation.
During the next few years, Adler became even more convinced that psychoanalysis should be much broader than Freud's view of infantile sexuality, hi 1911, Adler, who was then president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, presented his views before the group, expresshig opposition to the strong sexual proclivities of psychoanalysis and insisting that the drive for superiority was a more basic motive than sexuality. Both he and Freud finally recognized that their differences were irreconcilable, and hi October of 1911 Adler resigned his presidency and membership hi the Psychoanalytic Society. Along with nine other former members of the Freudian circle, he formed the Society for Free Psychoanalytic Study, a name that irritated Freud with its implication that Freudian psychoanalysis was opposed to a free expression of ideas. Adler, however, soon changed the name of his organization to the Society for Individual Psychology—a name that clearly indicated he had abandoned psychoanalysis.
Like Freud Adler was affected by events surrounding World War I. Both men had financial difficulties, and both reluctantly borrowed money from relatives— Freud from his brother-in-law Edward Bennays and Adler from his brother Sigmund. Each man also made important changes hi his theory. Freud elevated aggression to the level of sex after viewhig the horrors of war, and Adler suggested that social interest and compassion could be the cornerstones of human motivation. The war years also brought a major disappointment to Adler when his application for an unpaid lecture position at the University of Vienna was turned down. Adler wanted this position to gain another forum for spreadhig his views, but he also desperately desired to attain the same prestigious position that Freud had held for more than a dozen years. Adler never attahied this position, but after the war he was able to advance his theories through lecturing, establishing child guidance clinics, and training teachers.
During the last several years of his life, Adler frequently visited the United States, where he taught individual psychology at Columbia University and the New School for Social Research. By 1932, he was a permanent resident of the United States and held the position ofVisiting Professor for Medical Psychology at Long Island College of Medichie, now Downstate Medical School, State University of New York. Unlike Freud who disliked Americans and their superficial understanding of psychoanalysis, Adler was hnpressed by Americans and admired their optimism and open-mindedness. His popularity as a speaker in the United States during the mid-19308 had few rivals, and he ahned his last several books toward a receptive American market (Hoffman, 1994).
Adler married a fiercely independent Russian woman, Raissa Epstehi, in December of 1897. Raissa was an early feminist and much more political than her husband. In later years, while Adler lived hi New York, she remained mostly hi Vienna and worked to promote Marxist-Leninist views that were quite different from Adler's notion of individual freedom and responsibility. After several years of requests by her husband to move to New York, Raissa finally came to stay hi New York only a few months before Adler's death. Ironically, Raissa, who did not share her husband's love for America, continued to live hi New York until her own death, nearly a quarter of a century after Adler had died (Hoffman, 1994).
Chapter 3 Adler: Individual Psychology 69
Raissa and Alfred had four children: Alexandra and Kurt, who became psychiatrists and continued then father's work; Valentine (Vali), who died as a political prisoner of the Soviet Union in about 1942; and Cornelia (Nelly), who aspired to be an actress.
Adler's favorite relaxation was music, but he also maintained an active interest in art and literature. In his work he often borrowed examples from fairy tales, the Bible, Shakespeare, Goethe, and numerous other literary works. He identified himself closely with the common person, and his manner and appearance were consistent with that identification. His patients included a high percentage of people from the lower and middle classes, a rarity among psychiatrists of his time. His personal qualities included an optimistic attitude toward the human condition, an intense competitiveness coupled with friendly congeniality, and a strong belief in the basic gender equality, which combined with a willingness to forcefully advocate women's rights.
From middle childhood until after his 67th birthday, Adler enjoyed robust health. Then, in the early months of 1937, while concerned with the fate of his daughter Vali who had disappeared somewhere in Moscow, Adler felt chest pams while on a speakmg tour in the Netherlands. Ignoring the doctor's advice to rest, he continued on to Aberdeen, Scotland where on May 28, 1937, he died of a heart attack. Freud who was 14 years older than Adler, had outlived his longtime adversary. On hearing of Adler's death, Freud (as quoted in E. Jones, 1957) sarcastically remarked "For a Jew boy out of a Viennese suburb a death in Aberdeen is an unheard-of career in itself and a proof of how far he had got on. The world really rewarded him richly for his service in having contradicted psychoanalysis" (p. 208).
Was this article helpful?
Achieve the Fitness and Wellness for You that you have always wanted by learning the facts so you can take the right steps to maximize your health. Learn How to Achieve Real Fitness and Wellness for a Healthy Body, Mind and Spirit to Improve Your Quality of Life in Today's World. Receive Valuable Information to Discover What Really Matters and What Actually Works in Finding Genuine Wholeness for All Aspects of Your Being. | 2,588 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The idea of sleep is supposed to evoke feelings of peace, relaxation and refreshment, but when expert Mary Carskadon talks about teen sleep in school districts with early start times, she uses far less comfortable words.
“Social policy clashes with what we see from the biology,” said Carskadon, a professor of psychiatry and human behaviour at the Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University. “For teens, when they have not gotten enough sleep and they have to get up too early, they are crushed in the morning.”
Over decades of study, Carskadon has shown that two systems that regulate sleep, circadian rhythms and sleep pressure, both change as children grow up. While they still need the same amount of sleep throughout childhood — ideally 9 to 10 hours — older kids naturally become inclined to go to sleep later (as their circadian rhythms skew later). That means they become biologically predisposed to sleep later, too, to fully relieve that sleep pressure – or biological need to sleep. Yet society frequently requires that they wake early.
“They are incredibly sleepy from the sleep pressure, but also they have to be at school at a time when their circadian system wants them to be asleep,” she said.
Carskadon shared the insights from her research as one of many speakers at “Adolescent Sleep, Health, and School Start Times,” a national conference in Washington, D.C.. Organised by Dr. Judy Owens, director of sleep medicine at Boston Children’s Hospital and former professor at Brown University, the event featured scientists, physicians and K-12 educators from across the United States who gathered to discuss the health, educational and controversial policy implications of the issue.
The issue is a hot button in several states, including Rhode Island where a newly proposed law would set a statewide high school start time of 8:30 a.m. Carskadon, meanwhile, has been invited to address the Rhode Island Association of School Committees in May even as she gears up for a new study this summer.
The biology of bedtime
Carskadon’s work began in the 1970s when she was a graduate student at Stanford University. She surveyed teens about their sleep habits and preferences. Perhaps not surprisingly, the results showed that teens stayed up later and slept less than when they were younger. The prevailing assumption was that they needed less sleep. But when she experimentally put teens on a schedule that allowed them to sleep longer, they did. Teens didn’t need less sleep than younger kids, she concluded. The fact that they also stopped waking on their own was apparent in the data, but was not Carskadon’s focus at the time.
“We kind of missed that clue until we started looking at it in different ways,” she said.
In a nationwide round of surveys in the early 1990s, she asked sixth graders when they felt best during the day and what their sleep preferences were. She also asked them to rate their maturity. She found an interesting trend.
“The more mature they rated themselves, the more evening type they rated themselves,” she said. “There was a hint that maybe something was going on around the time of pubertal development that has to do with the circadian system.”
In her Bradley Hospital sleep lab located on the campus of Butler Hospital in Rhode Island, Carskadon began to expand her research to incorporate biomarkers such as saliva levels of melatonin, a natural hormone driven by circadian rhythms that cues the onset of sleepiness. She found that given the same light/dark schedule, teens will produce melatonin at later times than younger kids, indicating their circadian rhythm grows fundamentally later as they age.
One of her most seminal findings came in the late 1990s, when she studied 10th graders who had a high school start time of about 7:20 a.m. Wrist-worn sleep monitors showed they were getting about 7 hours of sleep a night. When she brought them into the lab, she’d wake them up for their regular school start time but then let them go back to sleep starting at 8:30 — a time when in school they’d be expected to be well underway with taking exams or listening intently to lectures.
“About half of them looked like they had a major sleep disorder — narcolepsy,” she said. “At 8:30, half of the kids fell asleep in under a minute and went directly into REM sleep which means that their brains were set up in a very strong way to be asleep. When you are trying to teach and learn, it’s a non-starter.”
As her lab grew and she added expertise to the team, she also began to look at brain wave patterns of teens as they slept. That helped her observe the buildup of sleep pressure. Her lab’s finding was that sleep pressure builds up more slowly in older kids. It’s easier for them to stay awake longer. But what doesn’t change is how quickly they relieve sleep pressure: they need just as much sleep.
Her studies have continued all along. In 2014, she added more to the evidence of a later shift in sleep schedules with age, not by comparing groups of differently aged kids as before, but by comparing kids to themselves as they aged. Carskadon and colleagues published a study in PLOS ONE tracking the same children for more than two years. The data clearly showed that as they got older, they went to bed later.
A recurring theme in Carskadon’s studies is that later-to-bed and later-to-rise is not entirely a behavioural choice — it’s a physiological imperative.
“The force behind the change that we see behaviourally is in the biology,” she said.
Even the newest threat to teen sleep — the temptations of portable screens lit up with games and social media — has direct and specific biological impact on sleep. In a 2015 study she found that the sleep biology of boys and girls aged 9 to 15 who were in the earlier stages of puberty was especially sensitive to light at night compared to older teens, meaning that late-night gadget use is particularly disruptive for young teens.
The clash with policy
For all the scientific evidence she has found, Carskadon acknowledges that policy is driven by many factors. Her studies have identified significant overall trends, but individuals vary widely, she said, and there are no doubt many households where teens are managing early school days just fine.
Meanwhile, there are a lot of reasons why school districts start when they do, she said. For some families, for example, having older kids home from school before younger kids allows parents to be sure that younger kids have an older sibling to come home to.
“The school system is central to community life,” she acknowledged.
But the biological evidence for letting teens sleep in longer is overwhelming, she said. So long as school starts at a time when they physiologically still need to be asleep, she said, teenagers on average may be consigned to suffer from a “social jetlag” in which the timing of life is not the timing of the body.
(Source: Brown University) | <urn:uuid:f161fceb-ffe3-4e3a-8102-87159070ca43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.parenthub.com.au/news/parenting-news/early-school-starts-pit-teens-in-a-conflict-between-society-biology/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.98173 | 1,511 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.6283773183... | 7 | The idea of sleep is supposed to evoke feelings of peace, relaxation and refreshment, but when expert Mary Carskadon talks about teen sleep in school districts with early start times, she uses far less comfortable words.
“Social policy clashes with what we see from the biology,” said Carskadon, a professor of psychiatry and human behaviour at the Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University. “For teens, when they have not gotten enough sleep and they have to get up too early, they are crushed in the morning.”
Over decades of study, Carskadon has shown that two systems that regulate sleep, circadian rhythms and sleep pressure, both change as children grow up. While they still need the same amount of sleep throughout childhood — ideally 9 to 10 hours — older kids naturally become inclined to go to sleep later (as their circadian rhythms skew later). That means they become biologically predisposed to sleep later, too, to fully relieve that sleep pressure – or biological need to sleep. Yet society frequently requires that they wake early.
“They are incredibly sleepy from the sleep pressure, but also they have to be at school at a time when their circadian system wants them to be asleep,” she said.
Carskadon shared the insights from her research as one of many speakers at “Adolescent Sleep, Health, and School Start Times,” a national conference in Washington, D.C.. Organised by Dr. Judy Owens, director of sleep medicine at Boston Children’s Hospital and former professor at Brown University, the event featured scientists, physicians and K-12 educators from across the United States who gathered to discuss the health, educational and controversial policy implications of the issue.
The issue is a hot button in several states, including Rhode Island where a newly proposed law would set a statewide high school start time of 8:30 a.m. Carskadon, meanwhile, has been invited to address the Rhode Island Association of School Committees in May even as she gears up for a new study this summer.
The biology of bedtime
Carskadon’s work began in the 1970s when she was a graduate student at Stanford University. She surveyed teens about their sleep habits and preferences. Perhaps not surprisingly, the results showed that teens stayed up later and slept less than when they were younger. The prevailing assumption was that they needed less sleep. But when she experimentally put teens on a schedule that allowed them to sleep longer, they did. Teens didn’t need less sleep than younger kids, she concluded. The fact that they also stopped waking on their own was apparent in the data, but was not Carskadon’s focus at the time.
“We kind of missed that clue until we started looking at it in different ways,” she said.
In a nationwide round of surveys in the early 1990s, she asked sixth graders when they felt best during the day and what their sleep preferences were. She also asked them to rate their maturity. She found an interesting trend.
“The more mature they rated themselves, the more evening type they rated themselves,” she said. “There was a hint that maybe something was going on around the time of pubertal development that has to do with the circadian system.”
In her Bradley Hospital sleep lab located on the campus of Butler Hospital in Rhode Island, Carskadon began to expand her research to incorporate biomarkers such as saliva levels of melatonin, a natural hormone driven by circadian rhythms that cues the onset of sleepiness. She found that given the same light/dark schedule, teens will produce melatonin at later times than younger kids, indicating their circadian rhythm grows fundamentally later as they age.
One of her most seminal findings came in the late 1990s, when she studied 10th graders who had a high school start time of about 7:20 a.m. Wrist-worn sleep monitors showed they were getting about 7 hours of sleep a night. When she brought them into the lab, she’d wake them up for their regular school start time but then let them go back to sleep starting at 8:30 — a time when in school they’d be expected to be well underway with taking exams or listening intently to lectures.
“About half of them looked like they had a major sleep disorder — narcolepsy,” she said. “At 8:30, half of the kids fell asleep in under a minute and went directly into REM sleep which means that their brains were set up in a very strong way to be asleep. When you are trying to teach and learn, it’s a non-starter.”
As her lab grew and she added expertise to the team, she also began to look at brain wave patterns of teens as they slept. That helped her observe the buildup of sleep pressure. Her lab’s finding was that sleep pressure builds up more slowly in older kids. It’s easier for them to stay awake longer. But what doesn’t change is how quickly they relieve sleep pressure: they need just as much sleep.
Her studies have continued all along. In 2014, she added more to the evidence of a later shift in sleep schedules with age, not by comparing groups of differently aged kids as before, but by comparing kids to themselves as they aged. Carskadon and colleagues published a study in PLOS ONE tracking the same children for more than two years. The data clearly showed that as they got older, they went to bed later.
A recurring theme in Carskadon’s studies is that later-to-bed and later-to-rise is not entirely a behavioural choice — it’s a physiological imperative.
“The force behind the change that we see behaviourally is in the biology,” she said.
Even the newest threat to teen sleep — the temptations of portable screens lit up with games and social media — has direct and specific biological impact on sleep. In a 2015 study she found that the sleep biology of boys and girls aged 9 to 15 who were in the earlier stages of puberty was especially sensitive to light at night compared to older teens, meaning that late-night gadget use is particularly disruptive for young teens.
The clash with policy
For all the scientific evidence she has found, Carskadon acknowledges that policy is driven by many factors. Her studies have identified significant overall trends, but individuals vary widely, she said, and there are no doubt many households where teens are managing early school days just fine.
Meanwhile, there are a lot of reasons why school districts start when they do, she said. For some families, for example, having older kids home from school before younger kids allows parents to be sure that younger kids have an older sibling to come home to.
“The school system is central to community life,” she acknowledged.
But the biological evidence for letting teens sleep in longer is overwhelming, she said. So long as school starts at a time when they physiologically still need to be asleep, she said, teenagers on average may be consigned to suffer from a “social jetlag” in which the timing of life is not the timing of the body.
(Source: Brown University) | 1,447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
June 16, 2011
**Compare and contrast early Hebrew faith to Zoroastrianism.
The early Hebrew religion and Zoroastrianism the two shared similarities in their excessive ethical specifications; however , Judaism only contains the 10 Commandments and a agreement with their our god. Zoroastrians were obligated to stand in the need of our god, and as opposed to the early Hebrew religion, Zoroastrians had outcomes in their what bodes for their activities in life, in which may have got later motivated Judaism.
Early Hebrew religion and Zoroastrians shared common grounds in regards to the health and wellness of their believers. Both had been monotheistic, Judaism's god getting Yahweh and Zoroastrian's god being Ahuramazda. Both beliefs had their primary leaders. Moses was called by simply Yahweh while King Darius was appointed by Ahuramazda. Israelites had been expected to continue to keep their agreement and the 10 Commandments. " Similarly, Persians were anticipated to keep promises and notify the truth” p. 126. Both faith based teachings made an ideology in justifying their world.
" Along with keeping the people to high moral standards, Zoroastrian god, Ahuramazda gave Darius a requirement to bring order to a world in turmoil” p. 124. " There was challenging between good and evil, playing away thousands of years, with good eventually destined to prevail” p125 Humanity would be involved in this kind of struggle and individuals can be rewarded or punished based upon their activities in life.
" In contrast, Yahweh did not determine his believer's fate. Along with the covenant, Moses inscribed the Ten Best practices for god's " Picked People”, through which prohibited homicide, adultery, robbery, lying, covet, demanded admiration for parents and rest coming from work on the Sabbath day time. Zoroastrianism just emphasized truth-telling, purity, and reference pertaining to nature” s. 124
" Zoroastrianism was one of the great religions in the ancient universe, preaching opinion in one best deity, placed humans to high moral... | <urn:uuid:9e352d6d-ccc3-4eab-b666-073287e0108c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://coseene.net/comparing-the-first-hebrew/93126-essay-about-comparing-the-first-hebrew-religious.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.980287 | 446 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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**Compare and contrast early Hebrew faith to Zoroastrianism.
The early Hebrew religion and Zoroastrianism the two shared similarities in their excessive ethical specifications; however , Judaism only contains the 10 Commandments and a agreement with their our god. Zoroastrians were obligated to stand in the need of our god, and as opposed to the early Hebrew religion, Zoroastrians had outcomes in their what bodes for their activities in life, in which may have got later motivated Judaism.
Early Hebrew religion and Zoroastrians shared common grounds in regards to the health and wellness of their believers. Both had been monotheistic, Judaism's god getting Yahweh and Zoroastrian's god being Ahuramazda. Both beliefs had their primary leaders. Moses was called by simply Yahweh while King Darius was appointed by Ahuramazda. Israelites had been expected to continue to keep their agreement and the 10 Commandments. " Similarly, Persians were anticipated to keep promises and notify the truth” p. 126. Both faith based teachings made an ideology in justifying their world.
" Along with keeping the people to high moral standards, Zoroastrian god, Ahuramazda gave Darius a requirement to bring order to a world in turmoil” p. 124. " There was challenging between good and evil, playing away thousands of years, with good eventually destined to prevail” p125 Humanity would be involved in this kind of struggle and individuals can be rewarded or punished based upon their activities in life.
" In contrast, Yahweh did not determine his believer's fate. Along with the covenant, Moses inscribed the Ten Best practices for god's " Picked People”, through which prohibited homicide, adultery, robbery, lying, covet, demanded admiration for parents and rest coming from work on the Sabbath day time. Zoroastrianism just emphasized truth-telling, purity, and reference pertaining to nature” s. 124
" Zoroastrianism was one of the great religions in the ancient universe, preaching opinion in one best deity, placed humans to high moral... | 469 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Harper’s Weekly issues of the 19th century remain among the more popular in our inventory, as the multiple engravings found in each issue document much of American history from 1857 through the end of the century. We have over 60,000 issues in inventory but still some dates are sold out as soon as they arrive. I suspect most of you have seen this title, but few may be aware of the interesting process of creating the prints in a timely manner.
The story of how Harper’s delivered this amazing product during the Civil War is a fascinating one, and I must give credit to www.sonofthesouth.net for much of detail.
The process started by the deployment of not only reporters but also artists to the battlefield. Some of the most renowned artists of the 1800’s got their start as illustrators for Harper’s Weekly, including Winslow Homer and Thomas Nast. These artists would sketch scenes of the battles that they witnessed and the sketches would then be dispatched back to Harper’s for publication in the upcoming papers.
In order to publish the artwork, the images first had to be carved onto a block of wood. But it would take too much time for a single engraver to carve an entire print, particularly given the timeliness of each issue. To provide the illustrations as quickly as possible, a very clever idea was developed. The illustration would be cut into 2 inch squares and each square would be engraved onto a different small block of wood by an assigned carver.
By dividing the illustration up, each artist assigned to just a portion, a team of workers could carve a full page illustration in a short period of time. After the small blocks were completed they were then screwed together to form the overall illustration and a finishing engraver would provide final touches to be sure the pieces were perfectly aligned. This completed wood block was then used as a “master” to stamp the illustration onto all the newspapers being printed. If you look at a Harper’s engraving carefully you can often see where the blocks of wood were joined together.
It wasn’t until the 1890’s that the technology of printing caused the end of hand-done engravings for the pages of Harper’s and other illustrated periodicals. With the demise of this labor-intensive trade also came the end of some of the more beautiful works of art to be found on paper. They remain treasures today and hearken back to an era when artistry and long hours of work were an important part in providing the news. | <urn:uuid:d7c6c50b-b410-4f51-88b6-0cc17ad81c08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.rarenewspapers.com/?p=1122&print=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.980264 | 529 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.7064934372901917... | 4 | Harper’s Weekly issues of the 19th century remain among the more popular in our inventory, as the multiple engravings found in each issue document much of American history from 1857 through the end of the century. We have over 60,000 issues in inventory but still some dates are sold out as soon as they arrive. I suspect most of you have seen this title, but few may be aware of the interesting process of creating the prints in a timely manner.
The story of how Harper’s delivered this amazing product during the Civil War is a fascinating one, and I must give credit to www.sonofthesouth.net for much of detail.
The process started by the deployment of not only reporters but also artists to the battlefield. Some of the most renowned artists of the 1800’s got their start as illustrators for Harper’s Weekly, including Winslow Homer and Thomas Nast. These artists would sketch scenes of the battles that they witnessed and the sketches would then be dispatched back to Harper’s for publication in the upcoming papers.
In order to publish the artwork, the images first had to be carved onto a block of wood. But it would take too much time for a single engraver to carve an entire print, particularly given the timeliness of each issue. To provide the illustrations as quickly as possible, a very clever idea was developed. The illustration would be cut into 2 inch squares and each square would be engraved onto a different small block of wood by an assigned carver.
By dividing the illustration up, each artist assigned to just a portion, a team of workers could carve a full page illustration in a short period of time. After the small blocks were completed they were then screwed together to form the overall illustration and a finishing engraver would provide final touches to be sure the pieces were perfectly aligned. This completed wood block was then used as a “master” to stamp the illustration onto all the newspapers being printed. If you look at a Harper’s engraving carefully you can often see where the blocks of wood were joined together.
It wasn’t until the 1890’s that the technology of printing caused the end of hand-done engravings for the pages of Harper’s and other illustrated periodicals. With the demise of this labor-intensive trade also came the end of some of the more beautiful works of art to be found on paper. They remain treasures today and hearken back to an era when artistry and long hours of work were an important part in providing the news. | 516 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. She had lots of stepmothers.
Born at Greenwich Palace on February 18, 1516 (seven years after the 1509 marriage of her parents, King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon,) Mary was their only child to survive past infancy. In the 1520s, Henry, unhappy his wife hadn’t produced a male heir, decided to end their marriage and wed Anne Boleyn, the sister of one of his former mistresses. In 1527, Henry, a Catholic, sought an annulment from the pope, on the grounds his union with Catherine was incestuous and unlawful since she’d previously been married to his deceased older brother. When the pope refused to grant the annulment, the king broke with Rome, tied the knot with Anne in 1533 and became head of the Church of England. The king grew tired of his second wife and in 1536 had her beheaded after she was convicted of what were likely trumped-up charges of adultery. Henry had four more marriages: his third wife died shortly after giving birth to a son, his fourth marriage ended in annulment, his fifth wife was beheaded and wife No. 6 was still married to the king when he died.
2. Mary’s succession to the throne wasn’t easy.
Following her father’s marriage to Anne Boleyn in 1533, Mary was declared illegitimate and removed from the line of succession to the throne. After Henry had Boleyn executed, the couple’s daughter, Elizabeth, also was removed from the line of succession. In 1544, Henry reinstated both daughters to the line of succession behind their half-brother, Edward, born to the king’s third wife in 1537. When Henry died in 1547, Edward became king. During the young monarch’s reign, Protestantism was established in England and Edward’s relationship with his Catholic sibling Mary was strained. In 1553, the teenage Edward became seriously ill and, not wanting Mary to claim the throne and restore Catholicism across the land once he died, he had her (as well as Elizabeth) removed from the line of succession. One of Edward’s advisors, the duke of Northumberland, is thought to have urged him to arrange for the throne to pass to the king’s Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey. When Edward died later that same year, Jane was proclaimed queen of England. Northumberland, Jane’s father-in-law, set out with forces to capture Mary, but before he could do so she raised her own army and rallied other supporters, prompting the royal government to switch its allegiance from Jane and declare Mary the legitimate queen. Jane, who had reigned for just nine days, was imprisoned in the Tower of London and Northumberland was executed.
3. Mary was set to be engaged at age 2.
For royals like Mary, marriage was about dynasty building and diplomatic relations rather than love. When she was just 2, Mary was set to be engaged to the son of the king of France, although the arrangement was terminated several years later and the young princess was betrothed to her cousin, Emperor Charles V, who was 16 years older. That engagement eventually ended as well. However, after Mary became queen, she was engaged to Charles V’s son, Prince Philip of Spain. More than a decade younger than Mary, Philip, also a Catholic, came to England to meet her for the first time in 1554 and the pair tied the knot two days later at Winchester Castle. After Charles stepped down as the king of Spain in 1556, Philip succeeded him and later became king of Portugal as well.
4. Her marriage plans sparked an uprising.
In 1554, a group of Englishmen, attempted to overthrow Mary, fearing foreign domination if Mary wed Spain’s Prince Philip and anxious about the monarch’s restoration of Catholicism. Referred to by historians as the Wyatt Rebellion, for one of the conspirators, Sir Thomas Wyatt, the uprising quickly failed. Afterward, around 100 people involved in the action were executed. Although Lady Jane Grey, the so-called Nine-Day Queen, had not been involved in the plot, her father was, and Jane subsequently was beheaded. Additionally, Mary’s sister, Elizabeth, was imprisoned in the Tower of London for several months and later placed under house arrest for a year, although there was no conclusive evidence she had any role in the rebellion either.
5. She had a false pregnancy.
Shortly after Mary wed at age 37, the queen and her doctors believed she was pregnant. She experienced morning sickness, her abdomen expanded and she reportedly felt the baby move. An official announcement was made that the queen was expecting and as the anticipated delivery drew near Mary retreated from public view for her lying-in period. Sometime afterward, word spread that Mary had given birth to a son and her subjects started celebrating. However, the news turned out to be only a rumor. More time passed, but a royal infant never appeared and eventually it became apparent one never would. Although it’s unclear exactly what happened, some medical experts now suggest the monarch might’ve suffered from pseudocyesis, a rare condition in which a woman has many of the symptoms of pregnancy (and in some cases even experiences labor pain) but isn’t in fact carrying a child.
Several years after her false pregnancy, Mary once again incorrectly thought she was expecting. She ultimately died childless.
6. She had hundreds of people burned at the stake—earning her the nickname “Bloody Mary.”
Once in power, Mary worked to return England to Catholicism, restoring papal authority and undoing various reforms to the English church that had taken place under her half-brother Edward. She also resurrected the laws against heresy, and as a result nearly 300 Protestants were burned at the stake. Among those killed were Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury and an advisor to kings Henry VIII and Edward VI, Mary’s father and brother. Cranmer had declared the marriage of Mary’s parents unlawful so Henry could wed Anne Boleyn, and during the reign of Edward the archbishop promoted Protestantism. In the end, Mary’s goal of a Catholic England failed, as her successor, Queen Elizabeth I, took the nation back to Protestantism.
7. Mary lost England’s last territory in France.
The queen was dealt a blow in 1558 when the French captured Calais, a port town referred to as “the brightest jewel in the English crown.” A gateway for trade, Calais had been under English control since the 14th century. Upon learning the news that England had lost its last possession in France, Mary is alleged to have responded: “When I am dead and opened, you shall find Philip and Calais lying in my heart.”
8. She was overshadowed by her younger sister.
Mary’s five-year reign ended when she died during an influenza epidemic in 1558 at age 42 at St. James’s Palace in London. She was succeeded by her younger sister, Elizabeth, who ruled until her death in 1603. Elizabeth’s successor, James I, commanded that her coffin be placed on top of Mary’s in a vault at Westminster Abbey and had a large monument to Elizabeth erected at the site, while Mary only warranted a mention in an inscription on the monument. The gesture was symbolic of how Mary, the first English queen to rule in her own right, was overshadowed by Elizabeth, whose long reign is considered one of the greatest in the nation’s history. The Elizabethan era included voyages of discovery by such explorers as Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh, the defeat of the Spanish Armada and a flourishing of the arts, with Shakespeare producing a number of works during this period. | <urn:uuid:8ccb798a-476b-4959-b830-cc714e78a26f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.history.com/news/8-things-you-might-not-know-about-mary-i | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00404.warc.gz | en | 0.988974 | 1,628 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.0944234430... | 9 | 1. She had lots of stepmothers.
Born at Greenwich Palace on February 18, 1516 (seven years after the 1509 marriage of her parents, King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon,) Mary was their only child to survive past infancy. In the 1520s, Henry, unhappy his wife hadn’t produced a male heir, decided to end their marriage and wed Anne Boleyn, the sister of one of his former mistresses. In 1527, Henry, a Catholic, sought an annulment from the pope, on the grounds his union with Catherine was incestuous and unlawful since she’d previously been married to his deceased older brother. When the pope refused to grant the annulment, the king broke with Rome, tied the knot with Anne in 1533 and became head of the Church of England. The king grew tired of his second wife and in 1536 had her beheaded after she was convicted of what were likely trumped-up charges of adultery. Henry had four more marriages: his third wife died shortly after giving birth to a son, his fourth marriage ended in annulment, his fifth wife was beheaded and wife No. 6 was still married to the king when he died.
2. Mary’s succession to the throne wasn’t easy.
Following her father’s marriage to Anne Boleyn in 1533, Mary was declared illegitimate and removed from the line of succession to the throne. After Henry had Boleyn executed, the couple’s daughter, Elizabeth, also was removed from the line of succession. In 1544, Henry reinstated both daughters to the line of succession behind their half-brother, Edward, born to the king’s third wife in 1537. When Henry died in 1547, Edward became king. During the young monarch’s reign, Protestantism was established in England and Edward’s relationship with his Catholic sibling Mary was strained. In 1553, the teenage Edward became seriously ill and, not wanting Mary to claim the throne and restore Catholicism across the land once he died, he had her (as well as Elizabeth) removed from the line of succession. One of Edward’s advisors, the duke of Northumberland, is thought to have urged him to arrange for the throne to pass to the king’s Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey. When Edward died later that same year, Jane was proclaimed queen of England. Northumberland, Jane’s father-in-law, set out with forces to capture Mary, but before he could do so she raised her own army and rallied other supporters, prompting the royal government to switch its allegiance from Jane and declare Mary the legitimate queen. Jane, who had reigned for just nine days, was imprisoned in the Tower of London and Northumberland was executed.
3. Mary was set to be engaged at age 2.
For royals like Mary, marriage was about dynasty building and diplomatic relations rather than love. When she was just 2, Mary was set to be engaged to the son of the king of France, although the arrangement was terminated several years later and the young princess was betrothed to her cousin, Emperor Charles V, who was 16 years older. That engagement eventually ended as well. However, after Mary became queen, she was engaged to Charles V’s son, Prince Philip of Spain. More than a decade younger than Mary, Philip, also a Catholic, came to England to meet her for the first time in 1554 and the pair tied the knot two days later at Winchester Castle. After Charles stepped down as the king of Spain in 1556, Philip succeeded him and later became king of Portugal as well.
4. Her marriage plans sparked an uprising.
In 1554, a group of Englishmen, attempted to overthrow Mary, fearing foreign domination if Mary wed Spain’s Prince Philip and anxious about the monarch’s restoration of Catholicism. Referred to by historians as the Wyatt Rebellion, for one of the conspirators, Sir Thomas Wyatt, the uprising quickly failed. Afterward, around 100 people involved in the action were executed. Although Lady Jane Grey, the so-called Nine-Day Queen, had not been involved in the plot, her father was, and Jane subsequently was beheaded. Additionally, Mary’s sister, Elizabeth, was imprisoned in the Tower of London for several months and later placed under house arrest for a year, although there was no conclusive evidence she had any role in the rebellion either.
5. She had a false pregnancy.
Shortly after Mary wed at age 37, the queen and her doctors believed she was pregnant. She experienced morning sickness, her abdomen expanded and she reportedly felt the baby move. An official announcement was made that the queen was expecting and as the anticipated delivery drew near Mary retreated from public view for her lying-in period. Sometime afterward, word spread that Mary had given birth to a son and her subjects started celebrating. However, the news turned out to be only a rumor. More time passed, but a royal infant never appeared and eventually it became apparent one never would. Although it’s unclear exactly what happened, some medical experts now suggest the monarch might’ve suffered from pseudocyesis, a rare condition in which a woman has many of the symptoms of pregnancy (and in some cases even experiences labor pain) but isn’t in fact carrying a child.
Several years after her false pregnancy, Mary once again incorrectly thought she was expecting. She ultimately died childless.
6. She had hundreds of people burned at the stake—earning her the nickname “Bloody Mary.”
Once in power, Mary worked to return England to Catholicism, restoring papal authority and undoing various reforms to the English church that had taken place under her half-brother Edward. She also resurrected the laws against heresy, and as a result nearly 300 Protestants were burned at the stake. Among those killed were Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury and an advisor to kings Henry VIII and Edward VI, Mary’s father and brother. Cranmer had declared the marriage of Mary’s parents unlawful so Henry could wed Anne Boleyn, and during the reign of Edward the archbishop promoted Protestantism. In the end, Mary’s goal of a Catholic England failed, as her successor, Queen Elizabeth I, took the nation back to Protestantism.
7. Mary lost England’s last territory in France.
The queen was dealt a blow in 1558 when the French captured Calais, a port town referred to as “the brightest jewel in the English crown.” A gateway for trade, Calais had been under English control since the 14th century. Upon learning the news that England had lost its last possession in France, Mary is alleged to have responded: “When I am dead and opened, you shall find Philip and Calais lying in my heart.”
8. She was overshadowed by her younger sister.
Mary’s five-year reign ended when she died during an influenza epidemic in 1558 at age 42 at St. James’s Palace in London. She was succeeded by her younger sister, Elizabeth, who ruled until her death in 1603. Elizabeth’s successor, James I, commanded that her coffin be placed on top of Mary’s in a vault at Westminster Abbey and had a large monument to Elizabeth erected at the site, while Mary only warranted a mention in an inscription on the monument. The gesture was symbolic of how Mary, the first English queen to rule in her own right, was overshadowed by Elizabeth, whose long reign is considered one of the greatest in the nation’s history. The Elizabethan era included voyages of discovery by such explorers as Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh, the defeat of the Spanish Armada and a flourishing of the arts, with Shakespeare producing a number of works during this period. | 1,622 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women During World War I Their role in the progressive era The period from through was known as the Progressive Era in America, an age of increased industrialization and production. Social problems such as labor conditions for children and women, and public health and safety, became prominent national issues. The National Association of Colored Women was organized to respond to racism and other social issues impacting African-American women and their families. There were no laws restricting children from working six days a week for 10 hours or more.
Temporary Men One immediate result of the war's outbreak was the rise in female unemployment, especially among the servants, whose jobs were lost to the middle-classes' wish to economise.
However, it was soon seen that the only option to replace the volunteers gone to the front was employing women in the jobs they had left behind; conscription only made this need even more urgent as had the Munitions of Work Act by which munitions factories had fallen under the sole control of the Government.
As the main historian of women's work, Gail Braybon, claims, for many women the war was "a genuinely liberating experience" link that made them feel useful as citizens but that also gave them the freedom and the wages only men had enjoyed so far.
Approximately 1, women joined the workforce between and in Government departments, public transport, the post office, as clerks in business, as land workers and in factories, especially in the dangerous munitions factories, which were employingwomen by Armistice Day as compared toin Germany.
Women's job mobility also increased enormously, with Women at work ww1 large number of women abandoning service for factory work never to return to it to the chagrin of the middle-class women that were left without home help in many cases. In general, women did very well, surprising men with their ability to undertake heavy work and with their efficiency.
By the middle of the war they were already regarded as a force to be proud of, part of the glory of Britain. However, their entrance into the workforce was initially greeted with hostility for the usual sexist reasons and also because male workers worried that women's willingness to work for lower wages would put them out of work.
The Government, besides, combined a welfare policy offering subsidies to families with husbands at the front with increasing female work in order to conscript skilled workers formerly regarded as indispensable to the war effort.
To make up for the loss in the skilled workforce the entry of women in factories was often facilitated by 'dilution', that is to say, the breaking down of complex tasks into simpler activities that non-skilled women workers could easily carry out.
The women employed in munitions factories, popularly known as munitionettes have became the most visible face of the woman worker in WWI, though doubt remains as to whether their motivation was patriotic or simply economic.
The factories they manned had been seized by Lloyd George's Government and he also caused suspension of all trade union activities in them.
Although this can be seen as a gauge of their will to sacrifice everything for Britain it should be read, rather, as part of their treatment as cheap, easily replaceable labour.
The public recognition and sympathy that the 'canaries' thus nicknamed for the yellow tinge that skin exposed to sulphur acquired received could not make up for their work conditions. Leading trade-unionist Mary MacArthur, Secretary since of the Women's Trade Union League, led an energetic campaign to demand they were paid as much as the men employed in the same industry - the women only got half the men's wages - but by the end of the war the proportion was roughly still the same.
The Government also invited women to join the ranks of the Women's Land Army, an organisation that offered cheap female labour to farmers not always keen to employ women. Thevolunteers that made up the WLA were given little more than a uniform and orders to work hard as the fuel restrictions made a return to manual agricultural labour unavoidable; unless, that is, the Government used this as an excuse, counting on these women's cheerful acceptance of any hardship to make working the land as cheap as possible.
It's hard to say whether women workers understood from the beginning that their employment could only be temporary but so it was.
The same situation was repeated in the main belligerent countries: There are, besides, disagreements among historians, depending on whether they call themselves feminist or not, as to how much resentment this return home generated.
We must assume single women in families with no male casualties must have been more resentful than married women whose families had faced important loses or whose husbands had returned safely from the front. It's important to remember at any rate, as Joanna Bourke does, that for women "Even more traumatic [than losing jobs] was the painful process of readjusting to the return of loved ones from the battlefields.Women and domestic labour.
This was a total war because it involved all sectors of society, including men, women and children. Some of the roles that women played were novel, many were not.
The British textile and clothing trades, in particular, employed far more women than men and were regarded as 'women's work'. While some women managed to enter the traditionally male career paths, women, for the most part, were expected to be primarily involved in "duties at home" and "women's work".
Canadian women in the World . Mar 03, · World War One forced unions to deal with the issue of women's work. The scale of women's employment could no longer be denied and rising levels of women left unmarried or widowed by the war forced.
Women's work in WW1 During WWI (), large numbers of women were recruited into jobs vacated by men who had gone to fight in the war. New jobs were also created as part of the war effort, for example in munitions factories.
Women worked doing many jobs during World War 1 when men were away fighting. They worked as members of the land army (farming), as nurses, in munitions factories, in public transport, as police women, in post offices and making weapons. Mar 03, · World War One forced unions to deal with the issue of women's work.
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0.2293469011783599... | 1 | Women During World War I Their role in the progressive era The period from through was known as the Progressive Era in America, an age of increased industrialization and production. Social problems such as labor conditions for children and women, and public health and safety, became prominent national issues. The National Association of Colored Women was organized to respond to racism and other social issues impacting African-American women and their families. There were no laws restricting children from working six days a week for 10 hours or more.
Temporary Men One immediate result of the war's outbreak was the rise in female unemployment, especially among the servants, whose jobs were lost to the middle-classes' wish to economise.
However, it was soon seen that the only option to replace the volunteers gone to the front was employing women in the jobs they had left behind; conscription only made this need even more urgent as had the Munitions of Work Act by which munitions factories had fallen under the sole control of the Government.
As the main historian of women's work, Gail Braybon, claims, for many women the war was "a genuinely liberating experience" link that made them feel useful as citizens but that also gave them the freedom and the wages only men had enjoyed so far.
Approximately 1, women joined the workforce between and in Government departments, public transport, the post office, as clerks in business, as land workers and in factories, especially in the dangerous munitions factories, which were employingwomen by Armistice Day as compared toin Germany.
Women's job mobility also increased enormously, with Women at work ww1 large number of women abandoning service for factory work never to return to it to the chagrin of the middle-class women that were left without home help in many cases. In general, women did very well, surprising men with their ability to undertake heavy work and with their efficiency.
By the middle of the war they were already regarded as a force to be proud of, part of the glory of Britain. However, their entrance into the workforce was initially greeted with hostility for the usual sexist reasons and also because male workers worried that women's willingness to work for lower wages would put them out of work.
The Government, besides, combined a welfare policy offering subsidies to families with husbands at the front with increasing female work in order to conscript skilled workers formerly regarded as indispensable to the war effort.
To make up for the loss in the skilled workforce the entry of women in factories was often facilitated by 'dilution', that is to say, the breaking down of complex tasks into simpler activities that non-skilled women workers could easily carry out.
The women employed in munitions factories, popularly known as munitionettes have became the most visible face of the woman worker in WWI, though doubt remains as to whether their motivation was patriotic or simply economic.
The factories they manned had been seized by Lloyd George's Government and he also caused suspension of all trade union activities in them.
Although this can be seen as a gauge of their will to sacrifice everything for Britain it should be read, rather, as part of their treatment as cheap, easily replaceable labour.
The public recognition and sympathy that the 'canaries' thus nicknamed for the yellow tinge that skin exposed to sulphur acquired received could not make up for their work conditions. Leading trade-unionist Mary MacArthur, Secretary since of the Women's Trade Union League, led an energetic campaign to demand they were paid as much as the men employed in the same industry - the women only got half the men's wages - but by the end of the war the proportion was roughly still the same.
The Government also invited women to join the ranks of the Women's Land Army, an organisation that offered cheap female labour to farmers not always keen to employ women. Thevolunteers that made up the WLA were given little more than a uniform and orders to work hard as the fuel restrictions made a return to manual agricultural labour unavoidable; unless, that is, the Government used this as an excuse, counting on these women's cheerful acceptance of any hardship to make working the land as cheap as possible.
It's hard to say whether women workers understood from the beginning that their employment could only be temporary but so it was.
The same situation was repeated in the main belligerent countries: There are, besides, disagreements among historians, depending on whether they call themselves feminist or not, as to how much resentment this return home generated.
We must assume single women in families with no male casualties must have been more resentful than married women whose families had faced important loses or whose husbands had returned safely from the front. It's important to remember at any rate, as Joanna Bourke does, that for women "Even more traumatic [than losing jobs] was the painful process of readjusting to the return of loved ones from the battlefields.Women and domestic labour.
This was a total war because it involved all sectors of society, including men, women and children. Some of the roles that women played were novel, many were not.
The British textile and clothing trades, in particular, employed far more women than men and were regarded as 'women's work'. While some women managed to enter the traditionally male career paths, women, for the most part, were expected to be primarily involved in "duties at home" and "women's work".
Canadian women in the World . Mar 03, · World War One forced unions to deal with the issue of women's work. The scale of women's employment could no longer be denied and rising levels of women left unmarried or widowed by the war forced.
Women's work in WW1 During WWI (), large numbers of women were recruited into jobs vacated by men who had gone to fight in the war. New jobs were also created as part of the war effort, for example in munitions factories.
Women worked doing many jobs during World War 1 when men were away fighting. They worked as members of the land army (farming), as nurses, in munitions factories, in public transport, as police women, in post offices and making weapons. Mar 03, · World War One forced unions to deal with the issue of women's work.
The scale of women's employment could no longer be denied and rising levels of women left unmarried or widowed by the war forced. | 1,287 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the beginning, the Lord God created man in Adams County, Ohio, just north of Peebles and south of Chillicothe.
On the very western edge of the Appalachians, in the craggy countryside of southern Ohio, the three branches of a small river called Brush Creek converge in a valley lined with pitch pine and chestnut oak trees. A steep rocky bluff rises one hundred feet above the riverbed. And on top of this bluff lies an ancient mound of soil, waist high, built in the shape of a serpent. The snake’s head—120 feet long and 60 feet wide—faces the north end of the bluff, overlooking the river. From there, the snake’s body stretches southward 1,300 feet in loose waves, and ends in a tightly curled triple spiral.
The Serpent Mound, one of the largest Native American earthworks in North America, was opened up to the public in 1901. At the time, archaeologists knew it was the work of an ancient tribe they called the “Mound Builders.” But no one could say for sure who the Mound Builders were, what they believed, or why they built a 1,300-foot serpent on a cliff overlooking a river. There were many theories, but only one that involved fruit, temptation, and sin.
The Reverend Edmund Landon West, a preacher born and raised in Adams County, believed the Mound marked the actual site of the Garden of Eden, and in 1901 he began to spread the word.
“There is now, yet to be seen on the Earth’s Surface, and near Lovett’s Post Office, in Adams County, Ohio, the figured lesson of a large Serpent, which gives wonderfully clear and faithful testimony to the facts given by Moses.” The facts as West saw them: Adam and Eve were given eternal life, but the serpent of sin tempted Eve, they ate of the forbidden fruit, and as punishment, God took away human immortality. Since then, we have been cursed with death—not to mention war, slavery, and all the other sins. West believed the snake was created “either by God himself or by man inspired by Him” in the early days of Creation—not the first day, but soon thereafter—as a “mighty object lesson” in the dangers of sin. Let all humanity, for all ages, know that the wages of sin are death: it happened here first.
The whole story was right there in the shape of the mound itself. According to West, the triangle shape emerging out of the snake’s long neck was its open jaws, and the soil oval just north of the jaws had to be the “fruit of deception,” which the snake was in the process of eating.
For if God were going to use an image of the Serpent to symbolize the Fall of Man, as a warning that it should not happen again, how better to represent the “one sad event” than to show the serpent “in the act of itself eating fruit, when it is well known that serpents do not eat fruit?” The three coils at the end of the serpent’s tail represent “the writhings and twistings of the body” in the painful throes of its inevitable demise.
Though the mark of Eden was now plain as day to West, it had taken him years to recognize the serpent lesson. He was born in 1841 and grew up “attending school and Sunday School . . . within one mile and in sight of the Serpent.” Both sides of his family had been farming in the Brush Creek Valley for two generations. And yet, as a boy, he had heard very little about this unusual local landmark near the post office. Its mysteries, he assumed, were “sealed thoughts intended for others.” He went about his life, eking out a living on the hilly Appalachian farmland. The serpent’s meaning wouldn’t be revealed to West for decades, and it would happen through a unique collaboration of science and religion.
In 1861, when West was twenty, he attended school in nearby New Vienna, Ohio. The New Vienna Academy was founded by James Quinter, a preacher in the German Baptist Brethren Church, which traced its roots directly back to eight religious dissidents in Schwarzenau, Germany, in 1708. The academy was the first German Baptist school in existence. The German Baptists were against anything that made their church more worldly, including, as they saw it, paid ministry, missionary work, or religious education—including even Sunday school. The Brethren believed in simplicity. They needed no other creed, no other text, no education other than the Bible itself. They wanted only to follow the life of Jesus, as expressed in the New Testament, word for word.
The “Schwarzenau Brethren” had first split from the predominant German Lutheran church over the sacrament of baptism—who should receive it, and how it should be performed. Brethren believed the Bible prescribed baptism only for adults able to make a conscious choice—not infants. And because in Romans 6:1-4 it is written “we are baptized into [Christ’s] death,” and because at the moment of his death, Jesus’ head fell forward, the Brethren baptized believers by immersing them in water in a forward direction, not backwards, as was traditional. These practices made the Brethren outcasts subject to persecution, and in the early eighteenth century much of the Brethren community immigrated to the United States, where they formed close-knit religious communities in Pennsylvania.
But by the late nineteenth century, the Brethren, like seemingly everyone else in America, were moving westward, and James Quinter saw the need for more formal religious training and wider communication. He would spend thirty years as editor of the major Brethren newspaper The Gospel Messenger. But his school in New Vienna lasted only three years; in 1864 church pressures and the strain of the Civil War forced Quinter to close its doors. But Quinter’s school had made an impression on Landon West.
Perhaps he was attracted to the simplicity of the Brethren way of life. No complex theology was needed; deeds were more important than words. The Brethren of southern Ohio, unlike other Christian denominations, wore their faith on the outside, in their everyday life and practice. Women covered their heads. Men had beards, trimmed square, starting further down on the cheeks so that believers could exchange the traditional cheek-kiss known as the “kiss of peace.” German Baptists did not wear mustaches alone, because in ancestral Germany only the military wore mustaches—and the German Baptists were pacifists: Along with the Mennonites and Quakers, they are one of the historic “peace churches” who have categorically condemned war in all cases as sin.
Still, during the Civil War, some Brethren felt that the sin of slavery trumped the sin of war. Some enlisted but refused to kill. Landon West made a different compromise. At age twenty he was stricken with typhoid, which kept him bedridden for months and left him too weak to join the Union Army. However, he did pay for a substitute to take his place. Several months later, twenty-one and recovered, West was baptized into the German Baptist Brethren Church. He dove into his new religious life with conviction and tremendous energy. His friend John Garman had overseen the building of a new German Baptist meetinghouse in the Brush Creek Valley, and West was the first person elected to the ministry in the new church. He also married John’s daughter Salomé, and with his father-in-law he traveled the area every Sunday preaching humility, denouncing evil, and urging a return to the basic truths of the Bible. As he would write later, “The Bible is our main witness, the faithful and the true one, and is always good and always sure. It tells nothing, promises nothing, and proves nothing but what is both good and sure.” We need all of it, and we need not a word more “to insure to us the favor of Heaven’s King.”
In an early photograph, West’s scraggly beard crawls up his cheeks, and he does wear a faint mustache, which accentuates his pronounced frown. His heavy-lidded eyes bore into the camera as if scrutinizing its soul and finding it severely wanting. This was a man who’d survived typhoid and would suffer for years from arterial sclerosis and other health conditions. He came by the unblinking intensity honestly, and it served the hard work of building churches in farm villages.
West described himself as a “Minister of the Gospell,” but the Brethren did not have a paid clergy—they feared that paid ministers would become “merchants” of God’s Word, beholden to their consumers rather than God Himself. Pastors had to find ways to make a living outside the church, which wasn’t always easy. Since Brethren congregations in Ohio villages were tiny, it was normal for congregations to join forces with other local churches on Sundays, creating a larger, collective congregation. West helped establish new churches at Strait Creek, Marble Furnace, and May Hill, and they all joined his Sunday rotation. At one point he had six congregations to visit every week. His wife Salomé died young in 1873, and West regrouped, bringing his three children to live with his brother.
In 1877 he was inducted into the second level of the ministry, which allowed him to administer baptisms and the twice-a-year ritual replication of Jesus’ Last Supper called the “love feast,” where believers washed each other’s feet, ate together, and received communion. Soon West became an elder, responsible for his congregations’ spiritual health, and for representing them at the church-wide Annual Conference in Elgin, Illinois, where rulings on theological and practical issues were hammered out in discussion by consensus.
In the 1880s however, consensus was getting harder to achieve. Aside from the longstanding debates over Sunday schools and the paid ministry, the Brethren had to reckon with the many modern innovations that some perceived to be encroaching on their hard-won, sacred simplicity. What was to be made of carpeting or credit unions? Did the installation of a lightning rod in a farmhouse imply simple practicality or a lack of trust in God’s providence? This last question acted, literally, as a lightning rod, catalyzing days of impassioned—sometimes tearful—debate.
During this tumultuous period, certain factions of West’s church began to lobby for opening the sacred “love feast” and its attendant communion to non-members of the German Baptist church. They thought this might give outsiders a better impression of the practices they knew looked bizarre from the outside. And besides, if there was only “one faith,” the faith of Christ, then all men should be one, whether church members or not.
West struggled with these issues, and ended up coming down on the side of keeping the ceremony private. He did believe there was only one true faith, but he knew that even within a small community like the farming towns of southern Ohio, friends and neighbors could hold wildly differing religious views. As he wrote in his 1880 pamphlet called Close Communion, “One need not go to China, or to Salt Lake City, to find extremes in doctrine, for these can be found here.” So while an open communion might be an agreeable idea, we’ll never know, because “We cannot know the tree but by its fruits.”
The only fruits the German Baptists could trust were those of their own tree. Church members adhered to a rigorous moral code, holding themselves upright above “the evildoers who abound everywhere.” What if the non-member attending communion had, unbeknownst to the German Baptists, committed adultery, or some other sin? Allowing such criminals in the eyes of God to participate in the love feast would be the end of the church altogether. No, concluded West with determination, “We must know who is in and who is out to have a church at all.”
His words were sadly prescient. Soon enough the German Baptist Brethren would know who was in and who was out. In 1881, the year after Close Communion was published, the church formally split into three groups. A conservative leader so frustrated by the Annual Conference’s refusal to condemn liberalism split off and created the Old German Baptist Brethren. At the same time, a liberal church leader was “disfellowshipped” from the main church and formed his own denomination, The Brethren Church.
The four German Baptist churches in Adams County, which had shared congregations and pastors, became divided. Landon West found himself pulled in two directions. He was conservative—he opposed open communion and paid ministers. He was progressive—a stalwart advocate of Sunday-school education and of opening the faith to the “colored” who had endured the horrors of slavery. So he stayed put with the middle-ground group of Brethren, still the largest division of the three. Since many of the best pastors in Adams County had gone with the new progressive church, West took on preaching duties at even more congregations.
In this active period in the wake of the split, West met and married Barbara Landis, daughter of two prominent German Baptist families from Miami County, about a hundred miles northwest of Adams County. In 1882 they moved to a farm near Barbara’s family in Pleasant Hill. There they had five more children.
Around this time, the Serpent Mound began to get renewed attention. It had been surveyed and documented in accounts of Native American culture long before, but in 1885 Francis Ward Putnam, Professor of American Archaeology and Anthropology at Harvard’s famed Peabody Museum, passed through Brush Creek Township on a field mission. He marveled at the amazing size of the remarkable earthwork, which was then suffering “the effects of age and neglect” on the property of Mr. Lovett—owner, presumably, of Lovett’s Post Office. Upon Putnam’s return to Boston, he drafted a letter to the Boston Herald setting forth the Mound’s value as a Native American artifact. The letter, widely republished, came to the attention of Miss Alice Fletcher, described by an Ohio historian as “a noted Indian enthusiast.”
Miss Fletcher brought the matter of the Mound’s preservation up for discussion at a lunch party in Newport, Rhode Island, with some of Boston’s leading ladies, who promptly printed a circular and raised six thousand dollars for the restoration of the site, which was in turn promptly undertaken by the Peabody Museum. The Mound—which had been damaged by a tornado in the 1880s and neglected by Lovett—was returned to “a most excellent and attractive condition.”
As the Mound was restored, West’s health was failing. He suffered from recurrent bouts of erysipelas, a severe and contagious disease that caused his skin to turn red, swell, and peel. Though his presence in church was no longer an everyday occurrence, he was still well enough to appear on special occasions. He preached the first services at Cassel’s Run in 1887 and organized another new church in 1888. In 1890 he conducted a revival in New Carlisle along with Pastor Hixson, one of those progressive pastors who had left the Adams County Brethren church years earlier. Perhaps in his worsening physical condition, church divisions started to seem less important to West.
In the meantime, Professor Putnam had visited Columbus, Ohio, for a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, where he met Mr. E.O. Randall, Secretary of the Ohio Historical and Archaeological Society. They struck up a conversation about the Serpent Mound. Putnam made Randall a deal: if the Society could agree to “accept, repair and suitably preserve and guard the property,” Harvard would turn the ownership of the property over to them. Randall and the Society got to work on their end of the deal.
In 1890, in his late 40s, West officially—if reluctantly—retired as presiding elder at his Twin Valley and Circleville ministries. He still attended the Annual Conference, and was part of a special delegation to Canada to advocate for missionary work, but gone were the days of circulating between six hill-country congregations every Sunday. Barbara West purchased from her brothers a fifty-acre parcel of her family’s land just north of town, less than a mile from the Pleasant Hill German Baptist Church. West could preach, farm, and live all within a twenty-minute horse-and-buggy ride. His physical radius thus reduced, West’s mental energies began to roam, and his thoughts turned to the Serpent Mound.
Though he no longer lived in Adams County, he had been paying attention to the news about the Serpent Mound in the intervening years. That first fall in Pleasant Hill, in 1901, West started talking to newspaper reporters about Eden.
He had heard various theories about the purpose and origins of the Mound, but he didn’t believe them. It could not be a large gathering place—there was not enough room on either side of the snake mound for large crowds to gather without falling off the cliff. He had heard that the “snake” might be a made-up symbol; he wasn’t having it. The soil-serpent’s jaws, he said, were in realistic proportion to the rest of the snake’s body. How did he determine this? He went out and “measured living serpents.” A daunting task, but one that proved to West that this snake wasn’t just some figurative rendering, it was meant to represent the “real” snake of the Garden of Eden.
Reverend West even incorporated Professor Putnam’s research into his own. Putnam had tested the soil of the Mound to determine its age, and he discovered that the soil of the mound was much older than the soil nurturing the trees and farms in the surrounding area. Therefore, according to West, the snake must have existed before Noah’s Flood, which would have washed away all the rest of the topsoil around, leaving only the Mark of Eden.
Native Americans could not have built it. No, the “noble dimensions and perfect proportions of this majestic figure” suggested to West “the hand and intelligence of a divine creator with limitless resources.” This left West in a quandary, since even by the late nineteenth century it was well-known that the Serpent Mound was created by Native Americans, and “fairly intelligent” ones at that, as the New York Times put it in 1894, when it reported a local fox-hunter’s discovery of Native grave sites near the Mound.
West neatly solved this problem by agreeing with the scientists: the “Mound Builders,” not the Native Americans, built the Serpent Mound. Of course the scientists believed that the Mound Builders were Native Americans, but West saw things differently. He believed that the Mound Builders were America’s first people: Christian people who “most assuredly” knew something of the Bible events recorded in the Serpent Mound.
And because of those burial sites discovered nearby, we could tell for sure that the Mound Builders “had wars, and burials, thus showing that they were of the one human family,” the family that began with Adam and Eve. They were just like us: they died because they had sinned in the eyes of God. They made their mark, and then they were swept away by Noah’s flood. The Indians—the ones who “yet dwelt” in parts of America in 1901—didn’t show up until after the Flood. (West didn’t say so, but it was implied that these “Red men” were not like us.)
West wasn’t the first to draw a line between imagined ancient Americans and the present-day Indians who “yet dwelt” in America, nor would he be the last. It was a useful divide. If America was a land unspoiled by human contact—a renewed Eden—what were the settlers to make of the Native Americans who were already here? Were they an idyllic race representing a pre-Fall Paradise? Or were they a troubling reminder that the land was not in fact laid out by God for Europeans? Splitting Native American history in two—pre-Flood and post-Flood, as West would put it—allowed West to have it both ways.
And now, at the turn of the twentieth century, the American Eden had yet another new beginning in store. Ohio’s population was starting to expand, bringing in not just German Baptists from Pennsylvania but other “Pilgrims” from Europe, “in various tongues and colors,” in search of an independent way of life. These new immigrants had found “a free and peaceful home in the wilderness of America.” And hadn’t the prophet Isaiah foretold that in the last days, all Earth’s “wilderness should be made like Eden”?
Ohio had Eden’s requisite abundance: hills, valleys, rivers, forests. An unexpectedly wide variety of trees grows near the Serpent Mound, including chestnut, pine, sourwood, red cedar, yellow oak, maple, willow, sycamore, elm, cork elm, cottonwood, and the Ohio buckeye. That’s almost—as the Bible describes Eden—“every tree that is pleasant to the eye and good for food.”
West even had an Ohioan solution to the problem of the four rivers of paradise. One mile north of the serpent, he said, the three main streams of the Brush Creek all come together and flow southward, where they join the fourth branch of the Creek near the snake’s head. “Thus giving four streams of water, as Moses names, to form a Union of one stream, at the very head of the serpent, which here marks the land of Eden.”
West believed in the literal truth of every word of the Bible. But he also paid careful attention to what the Bible didn’t say. When reporters asked him how he could go against the commonly held belief that Eden was somewhere in “the East,” in Asia, West noted, accurately, that nowhere in the Bible does Moses actually write that Eden was in Asia.
According to West, people only assume that the Garden of Eden was in Asia because the Bible says that Noah’s Ark landed on top of Mount Ararat, and there is a Mount Ararat in what’s now Armenia. But Noah didn’t start out on Mount Ararat. God created Adam in Ohio, and all the generations between Adam and Noah lived there. Then came the Flood, which lasted five months. Noah built his Ark on the Mississippi River and was “given a floating” downriver with the help of the prevailing currents, which were doubtless strong during such calamitous rainfall. For the sake of argument, West assumed that at an average speed “of only two miles per hour,” Noah could travel 48 miles a day. So 7,500 miles in five months—the distance between the Gulf of Mexico and Armenia—was hardly a stretch.
Once you start to take the Bible at its word, you can get in trouble. Strictly speaking, the Bible doesn’t say “Armenia” either. It says the Ark settled in “the mountains of Ararat,” which some scholars think is actually an ancient typo. If you accept the premise that the Bible’s Eden story originated with the Babylonians—and most scholars would—the geography doesn’t fit neatly. The mountains of Armenia were outside the known world of the ancient Babylonians. On the other hand, the mountains of “Urartu,” in the northern part of what’s now Iraq, were not. Hebrew words consist only of consonants, and in translation, sometimes the wrong vowels get assigned. That’s what likely happened with Noah’s arrival point. The mountain now known as Ararat was likely named after the Biblical typo; Armenians nearby still refer to it as Mount Massis.
But wherever the Ark landed, said West, from the time of the Flood to the time of Plymouth Rock, people had had to rely on oral tradition to perpetuate the Eden story. This was unfortunate, because for all those years the Serpent Mound, “this perfect illustration of thought and of history” was right here in Ohio. “For people to now say there was no such a land as Eden is no honor to them, to our race, or to our Creator, who has been so careful of it as to locate it, to name it, to describe it, to mark it and preserve it even until now.”
The Columbus correspondent for the St. Louis Republic wrote a lengthy article expounding on West’s theory: “Preacher Says Ohio Was Garden of Eden; holds that the Famous Serpent Mound Marks the Exact Home of Adam and Eve.” The story was picked up in Chicago, Omaha, and even as far away as New York. The Elyria [Ohio] Reporter ran a story from the Chicago Record-Herald in which West’s theory is considered “certainly ingenious if not always convincing.” Still, the reporter recommended keeping an open mind.
“It certainly cannot be maintained by any good American that there are insurmountable reasons why the Garden of Eden should have been located in some Turkish province rather than in the grand old State of Ohio. Let us not, therefore, be too ready to cry down the theory of the Rev. Mr. West.” (Had the Elyria Reporter known of Dr. George C. Allen’s nineteenth-century theory that the Garden of Eden had begun at the North Pole and then rotated around the world and landed under Cincinnati, he doubtless would have considered it to be corroborating evidence.)
The good-humored Secretary of the Ohio Historical Society, Mr. E.O. Randall, played a large role in propagating West’s theory. First he printed the Herald article in the quarterly journal of the Ohio Historical Society. Then he reprinted the theory—or as he called it, a “fancy”—in the annual anthology of the journal the following April of 1902, with a caveat: “The following article is not exactly archaeology nor history though it contains something of each. It is, however, so unique and entertaining that we reproduce it as it has been given to the public in the daily press. Here is food for the ‘higher critics,’ the Egyptologists, archaeologists and the Biblical students of all classes.”
West was proud that his theory had reached those outside of the church. He kept multiple copies of the Historical Society publications. The entry for Landon West in the Brethren Encyclopedia notes that he received “wide recognition” for his “carefully presented” theory. At a time when European critics and archaeologists were getting worldwide attention for shaking up our ideas about the Bible, and attaching them to the faraway banks of the Euphrates, in some Turkish province, this German Baptist preacher had come up with a homegrown solution. And who wouldn’t rather have Eden nearby?
A sixty-mile state road had just been built passing right over the Brush Creek. You could drive right up to the Serpent, through the new gateway, onto the grassy lawn “where the serpent picture lies for all to see.”
In October 1907, Randall published the second edition of a 128-page booklet about the Mound—“an attempt to present in popular form all that is worthy of publication” about the Mound, “the origin and purpose of which was still a mystery.” It was a popular mystery; the first 1,000-copy edition of the booklet had apparently sold out, and visitors were clamoring for more. On page 93, under the heading “Curious Theories,” Randall again reprinted West’s Garden of Eden fancy. Randall called West’s idea “amusing,” “ridiculous,” “curious” and “fantastic.” But he still published it. He was willing to do anything to bring more people and more attention to the Mound.
Early in 1908, Randall successfully lobbied the Ohio General Assembly for the then-lavish sum of $500 to build an observation tower overlooking the earthwork. The Columbus Wire and Iron Works Company won the contract, and the 6,000-pound tower—twenty-five feet tall with an eight-square-foot platform on top—was transported south to Adams County and erected near the Serpent’s tail.
Finally, reported Randall, “from the platform the observer may see and carefully study the entire length of the serpent which heretofore could not be viewed entire from any one point, owing to the irregular convolutions of the Serpent.” The new development wasn’t lost on West. He took the new visibility as his opportunity to finally broadcast his theory himself. He had an 18-page pamphlet entitled Eden’s Land and Garden with Their Marks Yet to Be Seen printed for him by a friend in nearby Troy (one copy by mail: 6 cents). He printed his pamphlet because he hoped that people would see the marks. And now they could.
West didn’t want others to make the mistake he had as a boy, of assuming the “serpent lesson” was “sealed,” or “intended for others.” West had given up trying to keep communion closed. His lesson was intended for everybody, German Baptist or not. His pamphlet reads more as a sermon than a theory. It repeats itself. There are lots of exclamation marks. Rules of evidence do not apply. Because Reverend West used the word “fruit” for “sin” and the word “death” for “losing our immortality,” it is easy to misread his pamphlet as a treatise against the consumption of poisonous fruit. Like a sermon, West’s theory is original and deeply felt. And like sermons, the Eden theories of Bible believers like West are only as convincing as the person behind them. Reverend West believed that the Bible is the Word of God, and Moses was a “writer of history.” Given these beliefs, when confronted by an unexplained thousand-foot-long snake, what was the preacher supposed to think? The way he saw it, he hadn’t gone out in search of Eden, Eden had come to find him.
The Mound, this majestic symbol of ancient history, needed a spokesperson. “It has not sought to court or please the opinions of people but to teach and give faith to all people.” Now that Eden had been “definitely located,” what did he want to happen next? According to West, all of mankind, whether they were church members or not, Bible-readers or not, had a tremendous opportunity to learn the “object lesson” of the Serpent Mound. The lesson was simple: sin no more. And stick together. In the chaos at the turn of the century, the need for stability was strong. When West was a boy, the whole of Adams County had consisted of just a few farming families, many of whom had belonged to the four united German Baptist churches. Now there were “over 500 styles of religion” in the world and fifteen houses of worship in Brush Creek Township alone. In fact, Brush Creek Township didn’t even exist anymore; now it was called Peebles. In 1908, West’s church had agreed to change its name from “German Baptist Brethren” to the “Church of the Brethren” to avoid confusion with either Germans or Baptists. Everything seemed to be changing at all times. His country, his family, and his church had all split and re-formed themselves in his lifetime. Even God’s Word did not mean what it used to. But the Serpent hadn’t changed; it hadn’t crumbled, split, or been washed away. Indeed, it had been restored to its past glory and become more and more prominent. This gigantic mark, universally readable, had clearly survived for eons, “through floods and flames.”
And now, finally, its day had come. The earthbound illustration had “even more power than is now shown in the Bible.” Much as it must have saddened him to say so, West now realized that “the Bible cannot unite the people on any one thing.”
If the Bible wasn’t universal and transparent, that left the serpent lesson as “the only mark of unity that our world, with its nations, races, and religions, now has.” What was the lesson of the traditional symbol of original sin? “This great serpent lesson shows the mark to unite all humanity in one line of descent that goes back to creation, showing things in common to all people.”
One might have expected a message along the lines of “Repent, ye sinners, or burn in hell!” But by 1908, Reverend Landon West was sixty-seven years old. He would live for eight more years, eventually dying of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1916, but his constant poor health may have made every day feel like his last. His daughters had married, his sons were seeking education elsewhere. He had once been full of hellfire and brimstone, but it had all been preached out of him. He just wanted humanity to have a second chance to follow the rules. “Had Eden’s tempted ones stood united in loyalty, to God’s law, their peace, their liberty and happiness would have continued.” And as long as humanity refused to give up sin, the serpent lesson would stand.
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0.08930... | 12 | In the beginning, the Lord God created man in Adams County, Ohio, just north of Peebles and south of Chillicothe.
On the very western edge of the Appalachians, in the craggy countryside of southern Ohio, the three branches of a small river called Brush Creek converge in a valley lined with pitch pine and chestnut oak trees. A steep rocky bluff rises one hundred feet above the riverbed. And on top of this bluff lies an ancient mound of soil, waist high, built in the shape of a serpent. The snake’s head—120 feet long and 60 feet wide—faces the north end of the bluff, overlooking the river. From there, the snake’s body stretches southward 1,300 feet in loose waves, and ends in a tightly curled triple spiral.
The Serpent Mound, one of the largest Native American earthworks in North America, was opened up to the public in 1901. At the time, archaeologists knew it was the work of an ancient tribe they called the “Mound Builders.” But no one could say for sure who the Mound Builders were, what they believed, or why they built a 1,300-foot serpent on a cliff overlooking a river. There were many theories, but only one that involved fruit, temptation, and sin.
The Reverend Edmund Landon West, a preacher born and raised in Adams County, believed the Mound marked the actual site of the Garden of Eden, and in 1901 he began to spread the word.
“There is now, yet to be seen on the Earth’s Surface, and near Lovett’s Post Office, in Adams County, Ohio, the figured lesson of a large Serpent, which gives wonderfully clear and faithful testimony to the facts given by Moses.” The facts as West saw them: Adam and Eve were given eternal life, but the serpent of sin tempted Eve, they ate of the forbidden fruit, and as punishment, God took away human immortality. Since then, we have been cursed with death—not to mention war, slavery, and all the other sins. West believed the snake was created “either by God himself or by man inspired by Him” in the early days of Creation—not the first day, but soon thereafter—as a “mighty object lesson” in the dangers of sin. Let all humanity, for all ages, know that the wages of sin are death: it happened here first.
The whole story was right there in the shape of the mound itself. According to West, the triangle shape emerging out of the snake’s long neck was its open jaws, and the soil oval just north of the jaws had to be the “fruit of deception,” which the snake was in the process of eating.
For if God were going to use an image of the Serpent to symbolize the Fall of Man, as a warning that it should not happen again, how better to represent the “one sad event” than to show the serpent “in the act of itself eating fruit, when it is well known that serpents do not eat fruit?” The three coils at the end of the serpent’s tail represent “the writhings and twistings of the body” in the painful throes of its inevitable demise.
Though the mark of Eden was now plain as day to West, it had taken him years to recognize the serpent lesson. He was born in 1841 and grew up “attending school and Sunday School . . . within one mile and in sight of the Serpent.” Both sides of his family had been farming in the Brush Creek Valley for two generations. And yet, as a boy, he had heard very little about this unusual local landmark near the post office. Its mysteries, he assumed, were “sealed thoughts intended for others.” He went about his life, eking out a living on the hilly Appalachian farmland. The serpent’s meaning wouldn’t be revealed to West for decades, and it would happen through a unique collaboration of science and religion.
In 1861, when West was twenty, he attended school in nearby New Vienna, Ohio. The New Vienna Academy was founded by James Quinter, a preacher in the German Baptist Brethren Church, which traced its roots directly back to eight religious dissidents in Schwarzenau, Germany, in 1708. The academy was the first German Baptist school in existence. The German Baptists were against anything that made their church more worldly, including, as they saw it, paid ministry, missionary work, or religious education—including even Sunday school. The Brethren believed in simplicity. They needed no other creed, no other text, no education other than the Bible itself. They wanted only to follow the life of Jesus, as expressed in the New Testament, word for word.
The “Schwarzenau Brethren” had first split from the predominant German Lutheran church over the sacrament of baptism—who should receive it, and how it should be performed. Brethren believed the Bible prescribed baptism only for adults able to make a conscious choice—not infants. And because in Romans 6:1-4 it is written “we are baptized into [Christ’s] death,” and because at the moment of his death, Jesus’ head fell forward, the Brethren baptized believers by immersing them in water in a forward direction, not backwards, as was traditional. These practices made the Brethren outcasts subject to persecution, and in the early eighteenth century much of the Brethren community immigrated to the United States, where they formed close-knit religious communities in Pennsylvania.
But by the late nineteenth century, the Brethren, like seemingly everyone else in America, were moving westward, and James Quinter saw the need for more formal religious training and wider communication. He would spend thirty years as editor of the major Brethren newspaper The Gospel Messenger. But his school in New Vienna lasted only three years; in 1864 church pressures and the strain of the Civil War forced Quinter to close its doors. But Quinter’s school had made an impression on Landon West.
Perhaps he was attracted to the simplicity of the Brethren way of life. No complex theology was needed; deeds were more important than words. The Brethren of southern Ohio, unlike other Christian denominations, wore their faith on the outside, in their everyday life and practice. Women covered their heads. Men had beards, trimmed square, starting further down on the cheeks so that believers could exchange the traditional cheek-kiss known as the “kiss of peace.” German Baptists did not wear mustaches alone, because in ancestral Germany only the military wore mustaches—and the German Baptists were pacifists: Along with the Mennonites and Quakers, they are one of the historic “peace churches” who have categorically condemned war in all cases as sin.
Still, during the Civil War, some Brethren felt that the sin of slavery trumped the sin of war. Some enlisted but refused to kill. Landon West made a different compromise. At age twenty he was stricken with typhoid, which kept him bedridden for months and left him too weak to join the Union Army. However, he did pay for a substitute to take his place. Several months later, twenty-one and recovered, West was baptized into the German Baptist Brethren Church. He dove into his new religious life with conviction and tremendous energy. His friend John Garman had overseen the building of a new German Baptist meetinghouse in the Brush Creek Valley, and West was the first person elected to the ministry in the new church. He also married John’s daughter Salomé, and with his father-in-law he traveled the area every Sunday preaching humility, denouncing evil, and urging a return to the basic truths of the Bible. As he would write later, “The Bible is our main witness, the faithful and the true one, and is always good and always sure. It tells nothing, promises nothing, and proves nothing but what is both good and sure.” We need all of it, and we need not a word more “to insure to us the favor of Heaven’s King.”
In an early photograph, West’s scraggly beard crawls up his cheeks, and he does wear a faint mustache, which accentuates his pronounced frown. His heavy-lidded eyes bore into the camera as if scrutinizing its soul and finding it severely wanting. This was a man who’d survived typhoid and would suffer for years from arterial sclerosis and other health conditions. He came by the unblinking intensity honestly, and it served the hard work of building churches in farm villages.
West described himself as a “Minister of the Gospell,” but the Brethren did not have a paid clergy—they feared that paid ministers would become “merchants” of God’s Word, beholden to their consumers rather than God Himself. Pastors had to find ways to make a living outside the church, which wasn’t always easy. Since Brethren congregations in Ohio villages were tiny, it was normal for congregations to join forces with other local churches on Sundays, creating a larger, collective congregation. West helped establish new churches at Strait Creek, Marble Furnace, and May Hill, and they all joined his Sunday rotation. At one point he had six congregations to visit every week. His wife Salomé died young in 1873, and West regrouped, bringing his three children to live with his brother.
In 1877 he was inducted into the second level of the ministry, which allowed him to administer baptisms and the twice-a-year ritual replication of Jesus’ Last Supper called the “love feast,” where believers washed each other’s feet, ate together, and received communion. Soon West became an elder, responsible for his congregations’ spiritual health, and for representing them at the church-wide Annual Conference in Elgin, Illinois, where rulings on theological and practical issues were hammered out in discussion by consensus.
In the 1880s however, consensus was getting harder to achieve. Aside from the longstanding debates over Sunday schools and the paid ministry, the Brethren had to reckon with the many modern innovations that some perceived to be encroaching on their hard-won, sacred simplicity. What was to be made of carpeting or credit unions? Did the installation of a lightning rod in a farmhouse imply simple practicality or a lack of trust in God’s providence? This last question acted, literally, as a lightning rod, catalyzing days of impassioned—sometimes tearful—debate.
During this tumultuous period, certain factions of West’s church began to lobby for opening the sacred “love feast” and its attendant communion to non-members of the German Baptist church. They thought this might give outsiders a better impression of the practices they knew looked bizarre from the outside. And besides, if there was only “one faith,” the faith of Christ, then all men should be one, whether church members or not.
West struggled with these issues, and ended up coming down on the side of keeping the ceremony private. He did believe there was only one true faith, but he knew that even within a small community like the farming towns of southern Ohio, friends and neighbors could hold wildly differing religious views. As he wrote in his 1880 pamphlet called Close Communion, “One need not go to China, or to Salt Lake City, to find extremes in doctrine, for these can be found here.” So while an open communion might be an agreeable idea, we’ll never know, because “We cannot know the tree but by its fruits.”
The only fruits the German Baptists could trust were those of their own tree. Church members adhered to a rigorous moral code, holding themselves upright above “the evildoers who abound everywhere.” What if the non-member attending communion had, unbeknownst to the German Baptists, committed adultery, or some other sin? Allowing such criminals in the eyes of God to participate in the love feast would be the end of the church altogether. No, concluded West with determination, “We must know who is in and who is out to have a church at all.”
His words were sadly prescient. Soon enough the German Baptist Brethren would know who was in and who was out. In 1881, the year after Close Communion was published, the church formally split into three groups. A conservative leader so frustrated by the Annual Conference’s refusal to condemn liberalism split off and created the Old German Baptist Brethren. At the same time, a liberal church leader was “disfellowshipped” from the main church and formed his own denomination, The Brethren Church.
The four German Baptist churches in Adams County, which had shared congregations and pastors, became divided. Landon West found himself pulled in two directions. He was conservative—he opposed open communion and paid ministers. He was progressive—a stalwart advocate of Sunday-school education and of opening the faith to the “colored” who had endured the horrors of slavery. So he stayed put with the middle-ground group of Brethren, still the largest division of the three. Since many of the best pastors in Adams County had gone with the new progressive church, West took on preaching duties at even more congregations.
In this active period in the wake of the split, West met and married Barbara Landis, daughter of two prominent German Baptist families from Miami County, about a hundred miles northwest of Adams County. In 1882 they moved to a farm near Barbara’s family in Pleasant Hill. There they had five more children.
Around this time, the Serpent Mound began to get renewed attention. It had been surveyed and documented in accounts of Native American culture long before, but in 1885 Francis Ward Putnam, Professor of American Archaeology and Anthropology at Harvard’s famed Peabody Museum, passed through Brush Creek Township on a field mission. He marveled at the amazing size of the remarkable earthwork, which was then suffering “the effects of age and neglect” on the property of Mr. Lovett—owner, presumably, of Lovett’s Post Office. Upon Putnam’s return to Boston, he drafted a letter to the Boston Herald setting forth the Mound’s value as a Native American artifact. The letter, widely republished, came to the attention of Miss Alice Fletcher, described by an Ohio historian as “a noted Indian enthusiast.”
Miss Fletcher brought the matter of the Mound’s preservation up for discussion at a lunch party in Newport, Rhode Island, with some of Boston’s leading ladies, who promptly printed a circular and raised six thousand dollars for the restoration of the site, which was in turn promptly undertaken by the Peabody Museum. The Mound—which had been damaged by a tornado in the 1880s and neglected by Lovett—was returned to “a most excellent and attractive condition.”
As the Mound was restored, West’s health was failing. He suffered from recurrent bouts of erysipelas, a severe and contagious disease that caused his skin to turn red, swell, and peel. Though his presence in church was no longer an everyday occurrence, he was still well enough to appear on special occasions. He preached the first services at Cassel’s Run in 1887 and organized another new church in 1888. In 1890 he conducted a revival in New Carlisle along with Pastor Hixson, one of those progressive pastors who had left the Adams County Brethren church years earlier. Perhaps in his worsening physical condition, church divisions started to seem less important to West.
In the meantime, Professor Putnam had visited Columbus, Ohio, for a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, where he met Mr. E.O. Randall, Secretary of the Ohio Historical and Archaeological Society. They struck up a conversation about the Serpent Mound. Putnam made Randall a deal: if the Society could agree to “accept, repair and suitably preserve and guard the property,” Harvard would turn the ownership of the property over to them. Randall and the Society got to work on their end of the deal.
In 1890, in his late 40s, West officially—if reluctantly—retired as presiding elder at his Twin Valley and Circleville ministries. He still attended the Annual Conference, and was part of a special delegation to Canada to advocate for missionary work, but gone were the days of circulating between six hill-country congregations every Sunday. Barbara West purchased from her brothers a fifty-acre parcel of her family’s land just north of town, less than a mile from the Pleasant Hill German Baptist Church. West could preach, farm, and live all within a twenty-minute horse-and-buggy ride. His physical radius thus reduced, West’s mental energies began to roam, and his thoughts turned to the Serpent Mound.
Though he no longer lived in Adams County, he had been paying attention to the news about the Serpent Mound in the intervening years. That first fall in Pleasant Hill, in 1901, West started talking to newspaper reporters about Eden.
He had heard various theories about the purpose and origins of the Mound, but he didn’t believe them. It could not be a large gathering place—there was not enough room on either side of the snake mound for large crowds to gather without falling off the cliff. He had heard that the “snake” might be a made-up symbol; he wasn’t having it. The soil-serpent’s jaws, he said, were in realistic proportion to the rest of the snake’s body. How did he determine this? He went out and “measured living serpents.” A daunting task, but one that proved to West that this snake wasn’t just some figurative rendering, it was meant to represent the “real” snake of the Garden of Eden.
Reverend West even incorporated Professor Putnam’s research into his own. Putnam had tested the soil of the Mound to determine its age, and he discovered that the soil of the mound was much older than the soil nurturing the trees and farms in the surrounding area. Therefore, according to West, the snake must have existed before Noah’s Flood, which would have washed away all the rest of the topsoil around, leaving only the Mark of Eden.
Native Americans could not have built it. No, the “noble dimensions and perfect proportions of this majestic figure” suggested to West “the hand and intelligence of a divine creator with limitless resources.” This left West in a quandary, since even by the late nineteenth century it was well-known that the Serpent Mound was created by Native Americans, and “fairly intelligent” ones at that, as the New York Times put it in 1894, when it reported a local fox-hunter’s discovery of Native grave sites near the Mound.
West neatly solved this problem by agreeing with the scientists: the “Mound Builders,” not the Native Americans, built the Serpent Mound. Of course the scientists believed that the Mound Builders were Native Americans, but West saw things differently. He believed that the Mound Builders were America’s first people: Christian people who “most assuredly” knew something of the Bible events recorded in the Serpent Mound.
And because of those burial sites discovered nearby, we could tell for sure that the Mound Builders “had wars, and burials, thus showing that they were of the one human family,” the family that began with Adam and Eve. They were just like us: they died because they had sinned in the eyes of God. They made their mark, and then they were swept away by Noah’s flood. The Indians—the ones who “yet dwelt” in parts of America in 1901—didn’t show up until after the Flood. (West didn’t say so, but it was implied that these “Red men” were not like us.)
West wasn’t the first to draw a line between imagined ancient Americans and the present-day Indians who “yet dwelt” in America, nor would he be the last. It was a useful divide. If America was a land unspoiled by human contact—a renewed Eden—what were the settlers to make of the Native Americans who were already here? Were they an idyllic race representing a pre-Fall Paradise? Or were they a troubling reminder that the land was not in fact laid out by God for Europeans? Splitting Native American history in two—pre-Flood and post-Flood, as West would put it—allowed West to have it both ways.
And now, at the turn of the twentieth century, the American Eden had yet another new beginning in store. Ohio’s population was starting to expand, bringing in not just German Baptists from Pennsylvania but other “Pilgrims” from Europe, “in various tongues and colors,” in search of an independent way of life. These new immigrants had found “a free and peaceful home in the wilderness of America.” And hadn’t the prophet Isaiah foretold that in the last days, all Earth’s “wilderness should be made like Eden”?
Ohio had Eden’s requisite abundance: hills, valleys, rivers, forests. An unexpectedly wide variety of trees grows near the Serpent Mound, including chestnut, pine, sourwood, red cedar, yellow oak, maple, willow, sycamore, elm, cork elm, cottonwood, and the Ohio buckeye. That’s almost—as the Bible describes Eden—“every tree that is pleasant to the eye and good for food.”
West even had an Ohioan solution to the problem of the four rivers of paradise. One mile north of the serpent, he said, the three main streams of the Brush Creek all come together and flow southward, where they join the fourth branch of the Creek near the snake’s head. “Thus giving four streams of water, as Moses names, to form a Union of one stream, at the very head of the serpent, which here marks the land of Eden.”
West believed in the literal truth of every word of the Bible. But he also paid careful attention to what the Bible didn’t say. When reporters asked him how he could go against the commonly held belief that Eden was somewhere in “the East,” in Asia, West noted, accurately, that nowhere in the Bible does Moses actually write that Eden was in Asia.
According to West, people only assume that the Garden of Eden was in Asia because the Bible says that Noah’s Ark landed on top of Mount Ararat, and there is a Mount Ararat in what’s now Armenia. But Noah didn’t start out on Mount Ararat. God created Adam in Ohio, and all the generations between Adam and Noah lived there. Then came the Flood, which lasted five months. Noah built his Ark on the Mississippi River and was “given a floating” downriver with the help of the prevailing currents, which were doubtless strong during such calamitous rainfall. For the sake of argument, West assumed that at an average speed “of only two miles per hour,” Noah could travel 48 miles a day. So 7,500 miles in five months—the distance between the Gulf of Mexico and Armenia—was hardly a stretch.
Once you start to take the Bible at its word, you can get in trouble. Strictly speaking, the Bible doesn’t say “Armenia” either. It says the Ark settled in “the mountains of Ararat,” which some scholars think is actually an ancient typo. If you accept the premise that the Bible’s Eden story originated with the Babylonians—and most scholars would—the geography doesn’t fit neatly. The mountains of Armenia were outside the known world of the ancient Babylonians. On the other hand, the mountains of “Urartu,” in the northern part of what’s now Iraq, were not. Hebrew words consist only of consonants, and in translation, sometimes the wrong vowels get assigned. That’s what likely happened with Noah’s arrival point. The mountain now known as Ararat was likely named after the Biblical typo; Armenians nearby still refer to it as Mount Massis.
But wherever the Ark landed, said West, from the time of the Flood to the time of Plymouth Rock, people had had to rely on oral tradition to perpetuate the Eden story. This was unfortunate, because for all those years the Serpent Mound, “this perfect illustration of thought and of history” was right here in Ohio. “For people to now say there was no such a land as Eden is no honor to them, to our race, or to our Creator, who has been so careful of it as to locate it, to name it, to describe it, to mark it and preserve it even until now.”
The Columbus correspondent for the St. Louis Republic wrote a lengthy article expounding on West’s theory: “Preacher Says Ohio Was Garden of Eden; holds that the Famous Serpent Mound Marks the Exact Home of Adam and Eve.” The story was picked up in Chicago, Omaha, and even as far away as New York. The Elyria [Ohio] Reporter ran a story from the Chicago Record-Herald in which West’s theory is considered “certainly ingenious if not always convincing.” Still, the reporter recommended keeping an open mind.
“It certainly cannot be maintained by any good American that there are insurmountable reasons why the Garden of Eden should have been located in some Turkish province rather than in the grand old State of Ohio. Let us not, therefore, be too ready to cry down the theory of the Rev. Mr. West.” (Had the Elyria Reporter known of Dr. George C. Allen’s nineteenth-century theory that the Garden of Eden had begun at the North Pole and then rotated around the world and landed under Cincinnati, he doubtless would have considered it to be corroborating evidence.)
The good-humored Secretary of the Ohio Historical Society, Mr. E.O. Randall, played a large role in propagating West’s theory. First he printed the Herald article in the quarterly journal of the Ohio Historical Society. Then he reprinted the theory—or as he called it, a “fancy”—in the annual anthology of the journal the following April of 1902, with a caveat: “The following article is not exactly archaeology nor history though it contains something of each. It is, however, so unique and entertaining that we reproduce it as it has been given to the public in the daily press. Here is food for the ‘higher critics,’ the Egyptologists, archaeologists and the Biblical students of all classes.”
West was proud that his theory had reached those outside of the church. He kept multiple copies of the Historical Society publications. The entry for Landon West in the Brethren Encyclopedia notes that he received “wide recognition” for his “carefully presented” theory. At a time when European critics and archaeologists were getting worldwide attention for shaking up our ideas about the Bible, and attaching them to the faraway banks of the Euphrates, in some Turkish province, this German Baptist preacher had come up with a homegrown solution. And who wouldn’t rather have Eden nearby?
A sixty-mile state road had just been built passing right over the Brush Creek. You could drive right up to the Serpent, through the new gateway, onto the grassy lawn “where the serpent picture lies for all to see.”
In October 1907, Randall published the second edition of a 128-page booklet about the Mound—“an attempt to present in popular form all that is worthy of publication” about the Mound, “the origin and purpose of which was still a mystery.” It was a popular mystery; the first 1,000-copy edition of the booklet had apparently sold out, and visitors were clamoring for more. On page 93, under the heading “Curious Theories,” Randall again reprinted West’s Garden of Eden fancy. Randall called West’s idea “amusing,” “ridiculous,” “curious” and “fantastic.” But he still published it. He was willing to do anything to bring more people and more attention to the Mound.
Early in 1908, Randall successfully lobbied the Ohio General Assembly for the then-lavish sum of $500 to build an observation tower overlooking the earthwork. The Columbus Wire and Iron Works Company won the contract, and the 6,000-pound tower—twenty-five feet tall with an eight-square-foot platform on top—was transported south to Adams County and erected near the Serpent’s tail.
Finally, reported Randall, “from the platform the observer may see and carefully study the entire length of the serpent which heretofore could not be viewed entire from any one point, owing to the irregular convolutions of the Serpent.” The new development wasn’t lost on West. He took the new visibility as his opportunity to finally broadcast his theory himself. He had an 18-page pamphlet entitled Eden’s Land and Garden with Their Marks Yet to Be Seen printed for him by a friend in nearby Troy (one copy by mail: 6 cents). He printed his pamphlet because he hoped that people would see the marks. And now they could.
West didn’t want others to make the mistake he had as a boy, of assuming the “serpent lesson” was “sealed,” or “intended for others.” West had given up trying to keep communion closed. His lesson was intended for everybody, German Baptist or not. His pamphlet reads more as a sermon than a theory. It repeats itself. There are lots of exclamation marks. Rules of evidence do not apply. Because Reverend West used the word “fruit” for “sin” and the word “death” for “losing our immortality,” it is easy to misread his pamphlet as a treatise against the consumption of poisonous fruit. Like a sermon, West’s theory is original and deeply felt. And like sermons, the Eden theories of Bible believers like West are only as convincing as the person behind them. Reverend West believed that the Bible is the Word of God, and Moses was a “writer of history.” Given these beliefs, when confronted by an unexplained thousand-foot-long snake, what was the preacher supposed to think? The way he saw it, he hadn’t gone out in search of Eden, Eden had come to find him.
The Mound, this majestic symbol of ancient history, needed a spokesperson. “It has not sought to court or please the opinions of people but to teach and give faith to all people.” Now that Eden had been “definitely located,” what did he want to happen next? According to West, all of mankind, whether they were church members or not, Bible-readers or not, had a tremendous opportunity to learn the “object lesson” of the Serpent Mound. The lesson was simple: sin no more. And stick together. In the chaos at the turn of the century, the need for stability was strong. When West was a boy, the whole of Adams County had consisted of just a few farming families, many of whom had belonged to the four united German Baptist churches. Now there were “over 500 styles of religion” in the world and fifteen houses of worship in Brush Creek Township alone. In fact, Brush Creek Township didn’t even exist anymore; now it was called Peebles. In 1908, West’s church had agreed to change its name from “German Baptist Brethren” to the “Church of the Brethren” to avoid confusion with either Germans or Baptists. Everything seemed to be changing at all times. His country, his family, and his church had all split and re-formed themselves in his lifetime. Even God’s Word did not mean what it used to. But the Serpent hadn’t changed; it hadn’t crumbled, split, or been washed away. Indeed, it had been restored to its past glory and become more and more prominent. This gigantic mark, universally readable, had clearly survived for eons, “through floods and flames.”
And now, finally, its day had come. The earthbound illustration had “even more power than is now shown in the Bible.” Much as it must have saddened him to say so, West now realized that “the Bible cannot unite the people on any one thing.”
If the Bible wasn’t universal and transparent, that left the serpent lesson as “the only mark of unity that our world, with its nations, races, and religions, now has.” What was the lesson of the traditional symbol of original sin? “This great serpent lesson shows the mark to unite all humanity in one line of descent that goes back to creation, showing things in common to all people.”
One might have expected a message along the lines of “Repent, ye sinners, or burn in hell!” But by 1908, Reverend Landon West was sixty-seven years old. He would live for eight more years, eventually dying of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1916, but his constant poor health may have made every day feel like his last. His daughters had married, his sons were seeking education elsewhere. He had once been full of hellfire and brimstone, but it had all been preached out of him. He just wanted humanity to have a second chance to follow the rules. “Had Eden’s tempted ones stood united in loyalty, to God’s law, their peace, their liberty and happiness would have continued.” And as long as humanity refused to give up sin, the serpent lesson would stand.
Brook Wilensky-Lanford is the author of Paradise Lust: Searching for the Garden of Eden. | 6,914 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1933, Nazi students at more than 30 German universities pillaged libraries in search of books they considered to be "un-German." Among the literary and political writings they threw into the flames were the works of Theodore Dreiser.
And out of Russia, as out of no other country today, I feel, are destined to come great things, mentally as well as practically.
—Sowjet Russland (Dreiser Looks at Russia), 1929
All works published before May 1933
American author Theodore Dreiser (1871–1945) grew up in a German-speaking environment in Terre Haute, Indiana. One of ten children born to an impoverished German immigrant family, he was largely self-educated. Censorship and bans accompanied him all of his life. He began his writing career as a reporter for a number of Chicago and St. Louis newspapers. Dreiser was a pioneer of American naturalist fiction and a lifelong foe of censorship. In 1900 his first novel, Sister Carrie, was withheld from general distribution by the publisher due to the work's perceived amoral content. Later novels were censured by the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice and banned in Boston. Dreiser's work became increasingly political, as his interest in socialism and Communism deepened. His works were banned and burned in Nazi Germany.
Critical Thinking Questions
- If Jews were the principal target during the Holocaust, why were books written by non-Jewish authors burned?
- How did the German public react to the book burnings? What were some of the reactions outside of Germany?
- Why do oppressive regimes promote or support censorship and book burning? How might this be a warning sign of mass atrocity? | <urn:uuid:4d8c2cf1-f809-4322-afef-8b7c4e0863d7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/theodore-dreiser | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.984962 | 347 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.179364010... | 6 | In 1933, Nazi students at more than 30 German universities pillaged libraries in search of books they considered to be "un-German." Among the literary and political writings they threw into the flames were the works of Theodore Dreiser.
And out of Russia, as out of no other country today, I feel, are destined to come great things, mentally as well as practically.
—Sowjet Russland (Dreiser Looks at Russia), 1929
All works published before May 1933
American author Theodore Dreiser (1871–1945) grew up in a German-speaking environment in Terre Haute, Indiana. One of ten children born to an impoverished German immigrant family, he was largely self-educated. Censorship and bans accompanied him all of his life. He began his writing career as a reporter for a number of Chicago and St. Louis newspapers. Dreiser was a pioneer of American naturalist fiction and a lifelong foe of censorship. In 1900 his first novel, Sister Carrie, was withheld from general distribution by the publisher due to the work's perceived amoral content. Later novels were censured by the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice and banned in Boston. Dreiser's work became increasingly political, as his interest in socialism and Communism deepened. His works were banned and burned in Nazi Germany.
Critical Thinking Questions
- If Jews were the principal target during the Holocaust, why were books written by non-Jewish authors burned?
- How did the German public react to the book burnings? What were some of the reactions outside of Germany?
- Why do oppressive regimes promote or support censorship and book burning? How might this be a warning sign of mass atrocity? | 366 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Genghis Khan was born in the North Central Mongolia in 1162. His mother Hoelun, who was from the Merkit community, was kidnapped by his father Yesukhei, the chief of Borijin clan, a nomadic community, as she and her former husband were travelling home after their wedding. She became the second wife of the king. Khan was born few months after the union.
He was the 2nd son in the family and was named Temujin after his birth. He was born bearing a blood clot in his fist, which symbolized leadership. In his community, there was a legend that if a child will born having a clot of some blood in his fist, he would grow up to be a leader. His mother taught him the ways of the tribe and guided him on what was expected from him (Benjamin 12).
Buy Bibliography and Early Life of Genghis Khan essay paper online
At the age of 9 years, his father took him to a neighboring community where he was supposed to work for some years. He was also expected to get himself a bride from this community. Yesukhei, his father, had chosen a girl for him who was slightly older and called Borje.
Unfortunately, his father died on his way home after he was poisoned by his contender who had invited him to their home for an assuaging meal. Temujin returned home to his mother after receiving the sad news. He wanted to be recognized as the new chief. Instead, the Borijins chased their family away from their community leaving them to die. The family went through much trouble and at times used to have lack food to eat. Sometimes, they had to survive eating roots, rodents and fish. Temujin was apprehended as a slave for more than five years (Harold, 43). This was a punishment that was given to him after taking part in the killing of his elder brother, Begter. They argued who had won after a hunting expedition. When the two, failed to agree, Temujin with the help of his brother Khasar performed the ungodly act.
Temujin was released from captivity when he was at the age of 16. He went back to the neighboring community to look for a wife. Luckily he found Borje. Soon after their marriage, the Merkit kidnapped Borje. This was as a revenge on Temujin’s community for what his father did to his mother, Hoelun. With the help of his brother, Jamuka, Temujin rescued Borje who had been given to the clan leader for a wife (Harold, 34).
Temujin lived with Jamuka after the rescue. It did not take long before the two started to argue. Jamuka wanted to be the leader of the group. Temujin did not approve this. The argument ran for two decades. Lastly, then Temujin decided to leave the place for another area. He moved from the camp carrying with him jamuka’s followers and livestock and went to an area where he formed his own empire.
In the year 1190, Jamuka took revenge and raided Temujin's camp. He inflicted a severe punishment and boiled alive his captives. This turned many own followers to turn against him for that inhuman act. Later on, the united Mongols defeated their neighbors, the Tatars and the Jurkins respectively. On the other hand, Temujin Khan made up their mind to assimilate their group rather than having to follow steppe culture of looting and leaving them. Jamuka approached and attacked Temujin and Ong Khan in 1201. Despite being shot by an arrow to his neck, Temujin assimilated the remaining warriors of Jamuka after the defeat.
At 27 years, Temujin was elected khan of the Mongols. He granted his relatives as well as those who were loyal to him well paying jobs in high offices. He became very successful. His empire was the largest and lasted long even after his death.
The Importance that Genghis Khan had for its Time
This great name echoed throughout Asia and Europe especially, due to its drumbeat of horse-hooves. This was accompanied by the wails of doomed townspeople. Incredibly, in a period of only 25 years, Genghis Khan had conquered a big region and greater population than their fellow Romans did in four good centuries. To thousands of people he conquered, he was evil incarnate.
The unification of Mongolia ended up in 1204 when Genghis Khan defeated the powerful clan of Naiman. About two years down that line, he was confirmed as the leader of all Mongolia. Five years later, the Mongols had captured much of modern Chinese Xinjiang and Siberia.
He went on and defeated the Tangut, their tributaries. In 1214, he conquered 50 million citizens of the Jurchens, whereas the army of Mongol just numbered 100,000. The tribes that lived as far away as Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan have heard about Great Khan, and decided to overthrow their Buddhist leaders to join his growing empire. By the year 1219, this great warrior had ruled from Afghan border to the northern China and Tibet to the border of Siberia (John, 45).
Great Khan sought a trade alliance with the Khwarizm Empire, which held the power in Central Asia from the Black Sea to the Afghanistan. Before that year ended, the wrathful Khan had detained every Khwarizm city, thus, adding lands from Russia to Turkey to his realm. Within Mongolia, he reformed traditional law and revolutionized the social structure.
Genghis Khan held an egalitarian society whereby the humblest slave could come up to be a commander of an army if he showed enough skill or bravery. War booty used to be divided equally among all warriors, in spite of the social status. Unlike many rulers of the time, the warrior trusted loyal followers more than his family members.
The Great Khan made it illegal to kidnap women, probably, due to his wife's experience who had been kidnapped during his early age. Kidnapping of women could lead to warfare among various Mongol groups. He outlawed livestock rustling due to this warfare as well. Genghis Khan also declared that hunting would only take place in winter in order to preserve game for the hot seasons.
Contrary to his barbaric and ruthless reputation in the west, he promulgated a number of policies that would not commonly be practice in Europe for a number of centuries. Genghis Khan guaranteed religious freedom, thus protecting the rights of Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus alike. He worshiped the sky, but did not allow the killing of any priest, mullahs, monks, nuns and any other holy people.
The Great Khan also guarded the enemy ambassadors and envoys, no matter what type of message they brought. Unlike most defeated people, the Mongols eschewed mutilation and torture of prisoners. The united Mongols defeated the neighboring Jurkins and Tatars soon. Genghis Khan opted to assimilate their people instead of following steppe culture of looting and leaving.
Importance of Genghis Khan in our Time
Great Khan is today remembered as a blood-thirsty tyrant, but, in the real sense, he was a practical conqueror who was more interested in goods than killing. He, therefore, had risen from poverty and slavery to ruling the world. Genghis Khan, the brave Mongolian warrior of the thirteenth century, may have achieved more than rule the biggest empire in the world; a recent genetic study has shown that he may have helped populate the empire too.
An international group of geneticists that carried out the study of the Y-chromosome data discovered that nearly 8 % of the men living in the former Great Khan empire are carrying y-chromosomes that are almost identical. That translates to about a half percent of men population in the global world. Roughly about 16 million descendants live up to date (Stephen, 19).
The spread of this chromosome has resulted to natural selection. In this, a very fit individual is in a position of passing on some biological advantage. The authors tend to think that this scenario is unlikely. They recommend that the set of circumstances that surrounds the Mongol empire establishment led to the spread. To have such an amazing impact on a population a special set of circumstances was needed. These are all met by Genghis Khan and his men (Stanley, 34).
When Khan was dying, his empire extended across the whole of Asia, from the sea of Caspian to the Pacific Ocean. His military were characterized by the vanquished wholesale slaughter. His descendants expanded the empire and maintained this great power in the area for several hundred years, in developments in which concubines and harems were the norm. Human males appeared to be markedly prolific.
In conclusion, Genghis Khan has presented a clear example that custom plays a great role in genetic variation patterns as well as diversity in human populations. This has been the first case to be documented when the culture of human has lead to a single lineage of genetics to rise to such a huge extent in just a few 100 years.
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-0.0532865077257... | 1 | Genghis Khan was born in the North Central Mongolia in 1162. His mother Hoelun, who was from the Merkit community, was kidnapped by his father Yesukhei, the chief of Borijin clan, a nomadic community, as she and her former husband were travelling home after their wedding. She became the second wife of the king. Khan was born few months after the union.
He was the 2nd son in the family and was named Temujin after his birth. He was born bearing a blood clot in his fist, which symbolized leadership. In his community, there was a legend that if a child will born having a clot of some blood in his fist, he would grow up to be a leader. His mother taught him the ways of the tribe and guided him on what was expected from him (Benjamin 12).
Buy Bibliography and Early Life of Genghis Khan essay paper online
At the age of 9 years, his father took him to a neighboring community where he was supposed to work for some years. He was also expected to get himself a bride from this community. Yesukhei, his father, had chosen a girl for him who was slightly older and called Borje.
Unfortunately, his father died on his way home after he was poisoned by his contender who had invited him to their home for an assuaging meal. Temujin returned home to his mother after receiving the sad news. He wanted to be recognized as the new chief. Instead, the Borijins chased their family away from their community leaving them to die. The family went through much trouble and at times used to have lack food to eat. Sometimes, they had to survive eating roots, rodents and fish. Temujin was apprehended as a slave for more than five years (Harold, 43). This was a punishment that was given to him after taking part in the killing of his elder brother, Begter. They argued who had won after a hunting expedition. When the two, failed to agree, Temujin with the help of his brother Khasar performed the ungodly act.
Temujin was released from captivity when he was at the age of 16. He went back to the neighboring community to look for a wife. Luckily he found Borje. Soon after their marriage, the Merkit kidnapped Borje. This was as a revenge on Temujin’s community for what his father did to his mother, Hoelun. With the help of his brother, Jamuka, Temujin rescued Borje who had been given to the clan leader for a wife (Harold, 34).
Temujin lived with Jamuka after the rescue. It did not take long before the two started to argue. Jamuka wanted to be the leader of the group. Temujin did not approve this. The argument ran for two decades. Lastly, then Temujin decided to leave the place for another area. He moved from the camp carrying with him jamuka’s followers and livestock and went to an area where he formed his own empire.
In the year 1190, Jamuka took revenge and raided Temujin's camp. He inflicted a severe punishment and boiled alive his captives. This turned many own followers to turn against him for that inhuman act. Later on, the united Mongols defeated their neighbors, the Tatars and the Jurkins respectively. On the other hand, Temujin Khan made up their mind to assimilate their group rather than having to follow steppe culture of looting and leaving them. Jamuka approached and attacked Temujin and Ong Khan in 1201. Despite being shot by an arrow to his neck, Temujin assimilated the remaining warriors of Jamuka after the defeat.
At 27 years, Temujin was elected khan of the Mongols. He granted his relatives as well as those who were loyal to him well paying jobs in high offices. He became very successful. His empire was the largest and lasted long even after his death.
The Importance that Genghis Khan had for its Time
This great name echoed throughout Asia and Europe especially, due to its drumbeat of horse-hooves. This was accompanied by the wails of doomed townspeople. Incredibly, in a period of only 25 years, Genghis Khan had conquered a big region and greater population than their fellow Romans did in four good centuries. To thousands of people he conquered, he was evil incarnate.
The unification of Mongolia ended up in 1204 when Genghis Khan defeated the powerful clan of Naiman. About two years down that line, he was confirmed as the leader of all Mongolia. Five years later, the Mongols had captured much of modern Chinese Xinjiang and Siberia.
He went on and defeated the Tangut, their tributaries. In 1214, he conquered 50 million citizens of the Jurchens, whereas the army of Mongol just numbered 100,000. The tribes that lived as far away as Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan have heard about Great Khan, and decided to overthrow their Buddhist leaders to join his growing empire. By the year 1219, this great warrior had ruled from Afghan border to the northern China and Tibet to the border of Siberia (John, 45).
Great Khan sought a trade alliance with the Khwarizm Empire, which held the power in Central Asia from the Black Sea to the Afghanistan. Before that year ended, the wrathful Khan had detained every Khwarizm city, thus, adding lands from Russia to Turkey to his realm. Within Mongolia, he reformed traditional law and revolutionized the social structure.
Genghis Khan held an egalitarian society whereby the humblest slave could come up to be a commander of an army if he showed enough skill or bravery. War booty used to be divided equally among all warriors, in spite of the social status. Unlike many rulers of the time, the warrior trusted loyal followers more than his family members.
The Great Khan made it illegal to kidnap women, probably, due to his wife's experience who had been kidnapped during his early age. Kidnapping of women could lead to warfare among various Mongol groups. He outlawed livestock rustling due to this warfare as well. Genghis Khan also declared that hunting would only take place in winter in order to preserve game for the hot seasons.
Contrary to his barbaric and ruthless reputation in the west, he promulgated a number of policies that would not commonly be practice in Europe for a number of centuries. Genghis Khan guaranteed religious freedom, thus protecting the rights of Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus alike. He worshiped the sky, but did not allow the killing of any priest, mullahs, monks, nuns and any other holy people.
The Great Khan also guarded the enemy ambassadors and envoys, no matter what type of message they brought. Unlike most defeated people, the Mongols eschewed mutilation and torture of prisoners. The united Mongols defeated the neighboring Jurkins and Tatars soon. Genghis Khan opted to assimilate their people instead of following steppe culture of looting and leaving.
Importance of Genghis Khan in our Time
Great Khan is today remembered as a blood-thirsty tyrant, but, in the real sense, he was a practical conqueror who was more interested in goods than killing. He, therefore, had risen from poverty and slavery to ruling the world. Genghis Khan, the brave Mongolian warrior of the thirteenth century, may have achieved more than rule the biggest empire in the world; a recent genetic study has shown that he may have helped populate the empire too.
An international group of geneticists that carried out the study of the Y-chromosome data discovered that nearly 8 % of the men living in the former Great Khan empire are carrying y-chromosomes that are almost identical. That translates to about a half percent of men population in the global world. Roughly about 16 million descendants live up to date (Stephen, 19).
The spread of this chromosome has resulted to natural selection. In this, a very fit individual is in a position of passing on some biological advantage. The authors tend to think that this scenario is unlikely. They recommend that the set of circumstances that surrounds the Mongol empire establishment led to the spread. To have such an amazing impact on a population a special set of circumstances was needed. These are all met by Genghis Khan and his men (Stanley, 34).
When Khan was dying, his empire extended across the whole of Asia, from the sea of Caspian to the Pacific Ocean. His military were characterized by the vanquished wholesale slaughter. His descendants expanded the empire and maintained this great power in the area for several hundred years, in developments in which concubines and harems were the norm. Human males appeared to be markedly prolific.
In conclusion, Genghis Khan has presented a clear example that custom plays a great role in genetic variation patterns as well as diversity in human populations. This has been the first case to be documented when the culture of human has lead to a single lineage of genetics to rise to such a huge extent in just a few 100 years.
Related Free Informative Essays
- Argumentation of Why Marijuana should be Legalized
- Future of Food
- Elder Abuse
- The Issue of Diversity in the Workplace
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Most popular orders | 2,018 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Garrett Morgan Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Garrett Morgan was an African-American inventor born on March 4th, 1877. He was also a community leader best remembered for his 1916 heroic rescue. The rescue involved employees who were trapped in a water tunnel beneath Lake Erie. Three others assisted him in the rescue which involved the use of safety hood device which he invented. Supposedly, the workers were trapped after fire broke out following a natural gas explosion. Besides the rescue, Garrett Morgan is also remembered for inventing a chemical used for hair straightening.
Garrett Morgan made history when he became the first African-American ever to possess an automobile in Cleveland, Ohio. The 2002 book by Molefi Kete Asante listed him along with George Washington Carver among the 100 Greatest African Americans. The US government also honored him for the traffic signal invention which he invented. This invention led to the rescue of many lives globally.
Garrett Morgan was born on March 4th, 1877 in Claysville. This was a place occupied by African-American community situated in Kentucky, Paris in the United States. His father Sydney Morgan was previously Confederate Colonel John Morgan’s slave. Elizabeth Reed was his mother. She was also a former slave. Morgan’s maternal grandfather was Rev. Garrett Reed. He had a brother namely Frank who aided him in the Lake Erie rescue.
Garrett Morgan attended Branch Elementary School in Claysville where he attained 6th-grade education. At the age of 16, he relocated to Cincinnati in Ohio in search of a job.
After Garrett Morgan shifted to Cincinnati, he was lucky to find a job as a handyman for a landowner. Meanwhile, he hired a tutor from his savings. He was determined to continue with his studies. Later in 1895, he moved to Cleveland still in Ohio. This is where he worked for a clothing manufacturer. His major work was in repairing sewing machines. His skill at fixing things gradually gained much fame within Cleveland.
In 1907, Garrett Morgan had attained much experience in repairing sewing machines. Therefore, he opened his shoe and sewing machine repair shop. In 1908, he founded the Cleveland Association of Colored Men. With the help of Marry Anne, his wife, he expanded his business in 1909. As a result, their enterprise Morgan's Cut Rate Ladies Clothing Store came into being. He had a total of 39 employees at the shop. Together they made dresses, suites and various other clothing.
Garrett Morgan was behind the existence of G. A. Morgan Hair Refining Company. This was after he discovered a chemical that could straighten hair. He also discovered black hair dye. In 1910, he came up with a curved tooth comb used for straightening of hair.
In 1914, he launched National Safety Device Company to help market his safety hood smoke protection device. His motivation came from seeing firefighters struggle from smoke that they encounter in their line of duty. This device has since then helped many people from all over the world.
Sadly, Garrett Morgan later developed Glaucoma which led to his blindness in 1943. Since then, he suffered from poor health for the remaining years of his existence. However, this did not stop him from moving forward. He even developed a self-extinguishing cigarette among his last inventions.
Garrett Morgan tied the knot with Madge Nelson his first wife in 1896. The couple later divorced. In 1908, he married for the second time to Mary Hassek. Together they had three children.
Later Life And Death
In his later years, Garrett Morgan developed glaucoma. This was in 1943. As a result, the great inventor lost a high percentage of his sight. On July 27th, 1963, he took his last breath. It was shortly before the Emancipation Proclamation centennial celebration, a celebration he was greatly longing for. His death occurred in Cleveland situated in Ohio.
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Garrett Morgan was an African-American inventor born on March 4th, 1877. He was also a community leader best remembered for his 1916 heroic rescue. The rescue involved employees who were trapped in a water tunnel beneath Lake Erie. Three others assisted him in the rescue which involved the use of safety hood device which he invented. Supposedly, the workers were trapped after fire broke out following a natural gas explosion. Besides the rescue, Garrett Morgan is also remembered for inventing a chemical used for hair straightening.
Garrett Morgan made history when he became the first African-American ever to possess an automobile in Cleveland, Ohio. The 2002 book by Molefi Kete Asante listed him along with George Washington Carver among the 100 Greatest African Americans. The US government also honored him for the traffic signal invention which he invented. This invention led to the rescue of many lives globally.
Garrett Morgan was born on March 4th, 1877 in Claysville. This was a place occupied by African-American community situated in Kentucky, Paris in the United States. His father Sydney Morgan was previously Confederate Colonel John Morgan’s slave. Elizabeth Reed was his mother. She was also a former slave. Morgan’s maternal grandfather was Rev. Garrett Reed. He had a brother namely Frank who aided him in the Lake Erie rescue.
Garrett Morgan attended Branch Elementary School in Claysville where he attained 6th-grade education. At the age of 16, he relocated to Cincinnati in Ohio in search of a job.
After Garrett Morgan shifted to Cincinnati, he was lucky to find a job as a handyman for a landowner. Meanwhile, he hired a tutor from his savings. He was determined to continue with his studies. Later in 1895, he moved to Cleveland still in Ohio. This is where he worked for a clothing manufacturer. His major work was in repairing sewing machines. His skill at fixing things gradually gained much fame within Cleveland.
In 1907, Garrett Morgan had attained much experience in repairing sewing machines. Therefore, he opened his shoe and sewing machine repair shop. In 1908, he founded the Cleveland Association of Colored Men. With the help of Marry Anne, his wife, he expanded his business in 1909. As a result, their enterprise Morgan's Cut Rate Ladies Clothing Store came into being. He had a total of 39 employees at the shop. Together they made dresses, suites and various other clothing.
Garrett Morgan was behind the existence of G. A. Morgan Hair Refining Company. This was after he discovered a chemical that could straighten hair. He also discovered black hair dye. In 1910, he came up with a curved tooth comb used for straightening of hair.
In 1914, he launched National Safety Device Company to help market his safety hood smoke protection device. His motivation came from seeing firefighters struggle from smoke that they encounter in their line of duty. This device has since then helped many people from all over the world.
Sadly, Garrett Morgan later developed Glaucoma which led to his blindness in 1943. Since then, he suffered from poor health for the remaining years of his existence. However, this did not stop him from moving forward. He even developed a self-extinguishing cigarette among his last inventions.
Garrett Morgan tied the knot with Madge Nelson his first wife in 1896. The couple later divorced. In 1908, he married for the second time to Mary Hassek. Together they had three children.
Later Life And Death
In his later years, Garrett Morgan developed glaucoma. This was in 1943. As a result, the great inventor lost a high percentage of his sight. On July 27th, 1963, he took his last breath. It was shortly before the Emancipation Proclamation centennial celebration, a celebration he was greatly longing for. His death occurred in Cleveland situated in Ohio.
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Annie Jump Cannon | 870 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prenatal cocaine exposure
Prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) occurs when a pregnant woman uses cocaine and thereby exposes her fetus to the drug. ""Crack baby"" was a term coined to describe children who were exposed to crack (freebase cocaine in smokable form) as fetuses; the concept of the crack baby emerged in the US during the 1980s and 1990s in the midst of a crack epidemic. Early studies reported that people who had been exposed to crack in utero would be severely emotionally, mentally, and physically disabled; this belief became common in the scientific and lay communities. Fears were widespread that a generation of crack babies were going to put severe strain on society and social services as they grew up. Later studies failed to substantiate the findings of earlier ones that PCE has severe disabling consequences; these earlier studies had been methodologically flawed (e.g. with small sample sizes and confounding factors). Scientists have come to understand that the findings of the early studies were vastly overstated and that most people who were exposed to cocaine in utero do not have disabilities.No specific disorders or conditions have been found to result for people whose mothers used cocaine while pregnant. Studies focusing on children of six years and younger have not shown any direct, long-term effects of PCE on language, growth, or development as measured by test scores. PCE also appears to have little effect on infant growth.However, PCE is associated with premature birth, birth defects, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and other conditions. The effects of cocaine on a fetus are thought to be similar to those of tobacco and less severe than those of alcohol. No scientific evidence has shown a difference in harm to a fetus of crack and powder cocaine.PCE is very difficult to study because it very rarely occurs in isolation: usually it coexists with a variety of other factors, which may confound a study's results. For example, pregnant mothers who use cocaine often use other drugs in addition, or they may be malnourished and lacking in medical care. Children in households where cocaine is abused are at risk of violence and neglect, and those in foster care may experience problems due to unstable family situations. Thus researchers have had difficulty in determining which effects result from PCE and which result from other factors in the children's histories. | <urn:uuid:4726ebb4-8972-4eee-816c-addca285412d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studyres.com/concepts/11537/prenatal-cocaine-exposure | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.981709 | 472 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.4958868324756... | 3 | Prenatal cocaine exposure
Prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) occurs when a pregnant woman uses cocaine and thereby exposes her fetus to the drug. ""Crack baby"" was a term coined to describe children who were exposed to crack (freebase cocaine in smokable form) as fetuses; the concept of the crack baby emerged in the US during the 1980s and 1990s in the midst of a crack epidemic. Early studies reported that people who had been exposed to crack in utero would be severely emotionally, mentally, and physically disabled; this belief became common in the scientific and lay communities. Fears were widespread that a generation of crack babies were going to put severe strain on society and social services as they grew up. Later studies failed to substantiate the findings of earlier ones that PCE has severe disabling consequences; these earlier studies had been methodologically flawed (e.g. with small sample sizes and confounding factors). Scientists have come to understand that the findings of the early studies were vastly overstated and that most people who were exposed to cocaine in utero do not have disabilities.No specific disorders or conditions have been found to result for people whose mothers used cocaine while pregnant. Studies focusing on children of six years and younger have not shown any direct, long-term effects of PCE on language, growth, or development as measured by test scores. PCE also appears to have little effect on infant growth.However, PCE is associated with premature birth, birth defects, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and other conditions. The effects of cocaine on a fetus are thought to be similar to those of tobacco and less severe than those of alcohol. No scientific evidence has shown a difference in harm to a fetus of crack and powder cocaine.PCE is very difficult to study because it very rarely occurs in isolation: usually it coexists with a variety of other factors, which may confound a study's results. For example, pregnant mothers who use cocaine often use other drugs in addition, or they may be malnourished and lacking in medical care. Children in households where cocaine is abused are at risk of violence and neglect, and those in foster care may experience problems due to unstable family situations. Thus researchers have had difficulty in determining which effects result from PCE and which result from other factors in the children's histories. | 475 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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The Siege of Leiden occurred during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War in 1573 and 1574, when the Spanish under Francisco de Valdez attempted to capture the rebellious city of Leiden, South Holland, the Netherlands. The siege failed when the city was successfully relieved in October 1574.
In the war (eventually called the Eighty Years' War) that had broken out, Dutch rebels took up arms against the Habsburg king of Spain, whose family had inherited the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. Most of the counties of Holland and Zeeland were occupied by rebels in 1572, who sought to end the harsh rule of the Spanish Duke of Alba, governor-general of the Netherlands. The territory had a high density of cities, which were protected by defense works and by the low-lying boglands, which could easily be flooded by opening the dykes and letting in the sea.
The Duke of Alba tried to break resistance using brute force. He used Amsterdam as a base, as this was the only city in the county of Holland that had remained loyal to the Spanish government. Alba's cruel treatment of the populations after the sieges of Naarden and Haarlem was notorious. The rebels learned that no mercy was shown there and were determined to hold out as long as possible. The county of Holland was split in two when Haarlem was taken by the Spanish after a seven-month siege. Alba then attempted to take Alkmaar in the north, but the city withstood the Spanish attack. Alba then sent his officer Francisco de Valdez to attack the southern rebel territory, starting with Leiden. In the meantime, due to his failure to quell the rebellion as quickly as he had intended, Alba submitted his resignation, which king Philip accepted in December. The less harsh and more politic Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens replaced him as governor-general.
The city of Leiden had plenty of food stored for the siege when it started in October 1573. The siege was very difficult for the Spanish, because the soil was too loose to dig trenches, and the city's defense works were hard to break. Defending Leiden was a Dutch States rebel army consisting of English, Scottish and Huguenot French troops.The leader of the Dutch rebels, William the Silent, Prince of Orange, attempted a relief of Leiden by sending an army into the Netherlands under the command of his brother, Louis of Nassau. Valdez lifted the siege in April 1574 to face the invading rebel troops, but Sancho d'Avila reached them first and defeated them in the Battle of Mookerheyde, where Louis was killed.
During the brief respite from the siege, Orange counselled the citizens of Leiden to restock their city with supplies, and take in a larger garrison to help defend the town. They disregarded his advice however, so when Valdez' army returned to renew the siege on May 26, 1574, they were in as poor a condition as they had previously been. The city considered surrendering, as there was almost no chance of relief and supplies were dwindling. The defeat of Louis' army was also a blow to morale.
The Prince of Orange, however, was determined to relieve the city. Therefore, he sent a carrier pigeon into the city pleading for it to hold out for three months. To fulfil this promise, he planned to breach the dykes to allow the sea to flood the low-lying land. The siege could then be lifted using the rebel fleet, and the Spaniards would be forced to retire before the incoming sea. This tactic had also been used to relieve Alkmaar. The damage to the surrounding countryside would be enormous, and therefore the population of the area resisted the breaching of the dykes. However, in the end, the Prince prevailed and the outer dykes were broken on August 3. Previously, the Prince's Admiral Louis Boisot had assembled a fleet of more than two hundred small flat-bottomed vessels, manned by 2,500 veteran Dutch seamen, and carrying a large store of provisions for the starving townspeople of Leiden. Soon after the first dykes were broken, the Prince of Orange came down with a violent fever which brought operations to a halt. More importantly, the flooding of the countryside took longer than expected because of unfavorable winds. On August 21, the inhabitants of Leiden sent a message to the Prince saying that they had held out for three months, two with food and one without food. The Prince answered them, again by carrier pigeon, that the dykes had all been pierced and relief would come soon.
However, only by the first day of September, when the Prince had recovered from his ailment, did the expedition continue in earnest. More than 15 miles lay between the relieving rebel fleet and Leiden, but ten miles were covered without difficulty. On the night of September 10, the fleet came upon the Landscheiding, which blocked their path to Leiden and captured it in a night-time surprise attack. The Spaniards had neglected to strongly fortify this important point. The next morning, the Spaniards tried to regain the position but were repulsed with the loss of several hundred men. The dyke was breached and the fleet proceeded ttowards Leiden.
Admiral Boisot and the Prince of Orange had been misinformed as to the lie of the lands, and had assumed that the rupture of the Land-scheiding would flood the country inland all the way to Leiden. Instead, the rebel flotilla once again found their path blocked, this time by the Greenway dike, less than a mile inland of the Land-scheiding, which was still a foot above the water level. Again however the Spaniards had left the dike largely undefended, and the Dutch broke through it without much difficulty. Due to easterly winds driving the water back seawards, and the ever growing surface area of the land that the water covered, the flooding was by this time so shallow that the fleet was all but stranded. The only way that was deep enough for them to proceed was by a canal, leading to a large inland lake called the Zoetermeer (freshwater lake). This canal, and the bridge over it, were strongly defended by the Spaniards, and after a brief amphibious struggle, the Admiral gave up the venture. He dispatched a despondent message to the Prince, saying that unless the wind turned, and they could sail around the canal, they were lost.
Meanwhile, in the city, the inhabitants clamoured for surrender when they saw that their countrymen had run aground. But Mayor van der Werff inspired his citizens to hold on, telling them they would have to kill him before the city could surrender, and that they could eat his arm if they were really that desperate. In fact thousands of inhabitants died of starvation. To add to their troubles, as so often happened in that age, the plague appeared in the city streets and near eight thousand died from that cause alone. The city only held out because they knew that the Spanish soldiers would massacre the whole population in any case, to set an example to the rest of the country, as had happened in Naarden and the other cities that had been sacked. Admiral Boisot sent a dove into the town, assuring them of speedy succour.
On the 18th the wind shifted again, and blowing strongly from the west, piled the sea against the dams. With the rising water level, the flotilla was soon able to make a circuit around the bridge and canal, and successfully enter the Zoetermeer. In October, the Dutch patriots lead by William the Silent destroyed the dykes on 4 locations in order to form an obstacle the Spanish troops could not overcome. As a result of this and the coming of a strong wind from the West, the water rose and Spanish troops lost their mobility. On one of these 4 locations, a monument has been established in remembrance of what happened called the Groenedijk Monument. The Sea Beggars had ships to successfully use the water to their advantage.A succession of fortified villages now stood in the way of the patriot fleet, and the Dutch Admiral was afraid even now of losing his prize, but the Spaniards, panicked by the rising waters, barely offered any resistance. Every one of their strongholds, now become islands, were deserted by the Royalist troops in their flight, except for the village of Lammen. This was a small fort under the command of Colonel Borgia, and situated about three-quarters of a mile from the walls of Leiden.
This was a formidable obstacle, but the Spaniards, adept at land fighting and not amphibious warfare, had despaired of maintaining so unequal a contest against the combined forces of the sea and the veteran Dutch seamen. Accordingly, the Spanish commander Valdez ordered a retreat in the night of October 2, and the army fled, rendered more fearful by a terrible crash they heard from the city, and assumed to be the men of Leiden breaking still another dam upon them. In fact, part of the wall of Leiden, eroded by the sea water, had fallen, leaving the city completely vulnerable to attack, had any chosen to remain.
The next day, the relieving rebels arrived at the city, feeding the citizens with herring and white bread. The people also feasted on hutspot (carrot and onion stew) in the evening. According to legend, a little orphan boy named Cornelis Joppenszoon found a cooking pot full with hutspot that the Spaniards had had to leave behind when they left their camp, the Lammenschans, in a hurry to escape from the rising waters.
In 1575, the Spanish treasury ran dry, so that the Spanish army could not be paid anymore and it mutinied. After the pillaging of Antwerp, the whole of the Netherlands rebelled against Spain. Leiden was once again safe.
The Leiden University was founded by William of Orange in recognition of the city's sacrifice in the siege. According to the ironical fiction still maintained by the Prince, that he was acting in behalf of his master Philip of Spain, against whom he was in fact in open rebellion, the university was endowed in the King's name.
The 3 October Festival is celebrated every year in Leiden. It is a festival, with a funfair and a dozen open air discos in the night.The municipality gives free herring and white bread to the citizens of Leiden.
William I, Prince of Orange, also known as William the Silent or William the Taciturn, or more commonly known as William of Orange, was the main leader of the Dutch Revolt against the Spanish Habsburgs that set off the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1581. He was born in the House of Nassau as Count of Nassau-Dillenburg. He became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branch House of Orange-Nassau and the ancestor of the monarchy of the Netherlands. Within the Netherlands, he is also known as Father of the Fatherland.
Louis of Nassau was the third son of William, Count of Nassau and Juliana of Stolberg, and the younger brother of Prince William of Orange Nassau.
Hutspot (Dutch), hochepot (French), or hotchpotch (English), is a dish of boiled and mashed potatoes, carrots, and onions with a long history in traditional Dutch cuisine.
Paulus Buys, heer van Zevenhoven andCapelle ter Vliet was Grand Pensionary of Holland between 1572 and 1584.
The Battle of the Scheldt also known as the Battle of Walcharen was a naval battle that took place on 29 January 1574 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The battle was fought between a Dutch rebel Sea Beggar fleet under Lodewijk van Boisot and a Spanish fleet under Julián Romero. The Spanish fleet was attempting to relieve the Spanish held town of Middelburg which was under siege but the fleet under Boisot intercepted them and were victorious with the destruction or capture of nearly fifteen ships. Middelburg as a result then surrendered only nine days later along with Arnemuiden.
Juan Del Águila y Arellano was a Spanish general. He commanded the Spanish expeditionary Tercio troops in Sicily then in Brittany, before serving as general of the Spanish armies in the invasion of Ireland (1600–1602). As a soldier, and subsequently Field Master of the Tercios, he was posted to Sicily, Africa, Malta, Corsica, Milan, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, France and Ireland, where he participated in major military events of his time, such as the Siege of Malta, the Looting of Antwerp, the Siege of Antwerp, the Miracle of Empel, the Expedition in support of French Catholics, the Battle of Cornwall and the Expedition to support the Irish.
In August 1572, during the course of the Eighty Years' War, the city of Goes, in the Spanish Netherlands, was besieged by Dutch forces with the support of English troops sent by Queen Elizabeth I. This was a menace to the safety of the nearby city of Middelburg, also under siege. Given the impossibility of rescue of Goes by sea, 3,000 soldiers of the Spanish Tercios under the command of Cristóbal de Mondragón waded across the river Scheldt at its mouth, walking 15 miles overnight in water up to chest deep. The surprise arrival of the Tercios forced the withdrawal of the Anglo-Dutch troops from Goes, allowing the Spanish to maintain control of Middelburg, capital of Walcheren Island.
The Siege of Zierikzee was a siege in the Eighty Years' War between October 1575 – and July 1576.
The Siege of Mons of 1572 took place at Mons, capital of the County of Hainaut, Spanish Netherlands, between 23 June and 19 September 1572, as part of the Eighty Years' War, the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), and the French Wars of Religion. In the spring of 1572, after the capture of Valenciennes by a Protestant force under Louis of Nassau, the Dutch commander continued with his offensive and took Mons by surprise on 24 May. After three months of siege, and the defeats of the armies of Jean de Hangest, seigneur d'Yvoy and Genlis, and William the Silent, Prince of Orange (Dutch: Willem van Oranje), by the Spanish army led by Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba, Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands, and his son, Don Fadrique de Toledo, Louis of Nassau's forces, isolated and without any hope of help, surrendered Mons to the Duke of Alba on 19 September.
The 3 October Festival is a festival in Leiden, the Netherlands. It is held annually during the days leading up to the 3rd and often concludes that evening or the following day. It has been a local tradition since 1886.
The Siege of Steenwijk took place from October 18, 1580 – February 23, 1581 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War, between a besieging Spanish force under turncoat George van Lalaing against a Dutch rebel garrison at Steenwijk under Johan van den Kornput. An English and Dutch rebel force under John Norreys successfully relieved the town on January 24, and the Spanish in addition to ill-health and lack of supplies subsequently lifted the siege in February.
The Siege of Middelburg (1572–1574) was a siege that lasted two years and took place in the years between 1572 and 1574 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). A Dutch rebel army with the support of English laid siege to Middelburg which was being held by Spanish forces under Cristóbal de Mondragón. The Spanish held out and only capitulated when news of the relief effort to save Middelburg was defeated at Rimmerswiel.
In Dutch and English historiography the Dutch struggle for independence from the Spanish Crown in the 16th and 17th century was long known as the Eighty Years' War. More recently, the initial part of this period has become known as the Dutch Revolt. This concept covers the period between the initial insurrection of Netherlandish Calvinists against the regime of the Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, Margaret of Parma, in 1566, and the conclusion of the so-called Twelve Years' Truce in 1609 between the Spanish Crown and the Dutch Republic. The historiography of this period covers both political and diplomatic developments, and events in military history. But the period of the Truce, and the military events that followed after the Truce had ended and the war was resumed, until the conclusion of the Peace of Münster in 1648, still form one continuous whole with the Dutch Revolt, and this continuous narrative, spanning the period 1566–1648, is still known as the Eighty Years' War.
The Siege of Grave, also known as the Capture of Grave of 1586, took place from mid-February – 7 June 1586 at Grave, Duchy of Brabant, Low Countries, between the Spanish army led by Governor-General Don Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, and the Dutch-States and English forces under Baron Peter van Hemart, Governor of Grave, during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604).
The Siege of Huy of 1595, also known as the Assault of Huy, was a Spanish victory that took place between 7 and 20 March 1595, at Huy, Archbishopric of Liège, Low Countries, as part of the Eighty Years' War, the French Wars of Religion, and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604).
The Capture of Valkenburg of 1574, took place in early February 1574, at Valkenburg, South Holland, during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), in the context of the Siege of Leiden. The fortress of Valkenburg, garrisoned by five English companies commanded by Colonel Edward Chester, was of strategic importance to facilitate the Spanish efforts at Leiden. In early February, when the Spanish troops advanced over Valkenburg Castle, the English troops surrendered the fortress to the Spaniards and fled towards Leiden. Then, the Spanish forces entered and took possession of the fortress. For the cowardice demonstrated at Valkenburg, the English troops were rejected by the Dutch rebel army at Leiden, and finally Chester's troops surrendered to the Spanish army.
The Capture of Geertruidenberg was a military event that took place on August 28, 1573 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The capture was conducted by an English, French Huguenot and Fleming force led by Colonel de Poyet. A small assault force led by Walter Morgan captured the main gate which enabled the complete surprise of the garrison, most of whom were put to the sword.
The Battle of Delft also known as the Defence of Delft was a military engagement that fought during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War which took place in October 1573 in and outside the city of Delft. The battle was fought by a small Anglo-Dutch force under Thomas Morgan and an attacking Spanish force under Francisco de Valdez. The Spanish were repelled and forced to retreat.
The Groenedijk Monument also known as the Dukdalf, is a monument in Capelle aan den IJssel which serves as a memorial for the events that took place in 1574 related to the Dutch Tachtigjarige Oorlog; internationally known as the Dutch Revolt. During the conflict, William the Silent ordered the destruction of several dykes in order to stop the Spaniards who were at that time surrounding the Dutch city of Leiden. This tactic proved to be successful as the Spanish troops were greatly affected by the incoming water that took them by surprise. The Spanish troops lost their mobility whereas the troops mustered by William the Silent had prepared for the water using small ships. With the help of the controlled destruction of dykes in 4 strategic locations, the city of Leiden could be freed with the help of the Sea Beggars, better known as the Geuzen. Now, the people in Leiden who had been starving for months could be fed with herring, which became a Dutch tradition in the remembrance of The Siege of Leiden.
The Battle of Cape St. Vincent was a naval engagement that took place on 16 June or 6 October 1606, during the Eighty Years' War. A Spanish fleet under Admiral Luis Fajardo attacked the Dutch fleet led by Admiral Heer Haultain and Vice Admiral Regnier Klaazoon, which was blocking the Portuguese coast to intercept the Spanish treasure fleet. The battle concluded in a Spanish victory; in which Klaazoon's flagship was destroyed, two ships were captured and Haultain fled with the rest of the fleet to his country without having achieved his purpose. | <urn:uuid:54c1b0aa-2257-440c-96bf-b80940254a99> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Siege_of_Leiden | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.981551 | 4,495 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.4246468544006... | 1 | This article needs additional citations for verification . (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Siege of Leiden occurred during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War in 1573 and 1574, when the Spanish under Francisco de Valdez attempted to capture the rebellious city of Leiden, South Holland, the Netherlands. The siege failed when the city was successfully relieved in October 1574.
In the war (eventually called the Eighty Years' War) that had broken out, Dutch rebels took up arms against the Habsburg king of Spain, whose family had inherited the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. Most of the counties of Holland and Zeeland were occupied by rebels in 1572, who sought to end the harsh rule of the Spanish Duke of Alba, governor-general of the Netherlands. The territory had a high density of cities, which were protected by defense works and by the low-lying boglands, which could easily be flooded by opening the dykes and letting in the sea.
The Duke of Alba tried to break resistance using brute force. He used Amsterdam as a base, as this was the only city in the county of Holland that had remained loyal to the Spanish government. Alba's cruel treatment of the populations after the sieges of Naarden and Haarlem was notorious. The rebels learned that no mercy was shown there and were determined to hold out as long as possible. The county of Holland was split in two when Haarlem was taken by the Spanish after a seven-month siege. Alba then attempted to take Alkmaar in the north, but the city withstood the Spanish attack. Alba then sent his officer Francisco de Valdez to attack the southern rebel territory, starting with Leiden. In the meantime, due to his failure to quell the rebellion as quickly as he had intended, Alba submitted his resignation, which king Philip accepted in December. The less harsh and more politic Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens replaced him as governor-general.
The city of Leiden had plenty of food stored for the siege when it started in October 1573. The siege was very difficult for the Spanish, because the soil was too loose to dig trenches, and the city's defense works were hard to break. Defending Leiden was a Dutch States rebel army consisting of English, Scottish and Huguenot French troops.The leader of the Dutch rebels, William the Silent, Prince of Orange, attempted a relief of Leiden by sending an army into the Netherlands under the command of his brother, Louis of Nassau. Valdez lifted the siege in April 1574 to face the invading rebel troops, but Sancho d'Avila reached them first and defeated them in the Battle of Mookerheyde, where Louis was killed.
During the brief respite from the siege, Orange counselled the citizens of Leiden to restock their city with supplies, and take in a larger garrison to help defend the town. They disregarded his advice however, so when Valdez' army returned to renew the siege on May 26, 1574, they were in as poor a condition as they had previously been. The city considered surrendering, as there was almost no chance of relief and supplies were dwindling. The defeat of Louis' army was also a blow to morale.
The Prince of Orange, however, was determined to relieve the city. Therefore, he sent a carrier pigeon into the city pleading for it to hold out for three months. To fulfil this promise, he planned to breach the dykes to allow the sea to flood the low-lying land. The siege could then be lifted using the rebel fleet, and the Spaniards would be forced to retire before the incoming sea. This tactic had also been used to relieve Alkmaar. The damage to the surrounding countryside would be enormous, and therefore the population of the area resisted the breaching of the dykes. However, in the end, the Prince prevailed and the outer dykes were broken on August 3. Previously, the Prince's Admiral Louis Boisot had assembled a fleet of more than two hundred small flat-bottomed vessels, manned by 2,500 veteran Dutch seamen, and carrying a large store of provisions for the starving townspeople of Leiden. Soon after the first dykes were broken, the Prince of Orange came down with a violent fever which brought operations to a halt. More importantly, the flooding of the countryside took longer than expected because of unfavorable winds. On August 21, the inhabitants of Leiden sent a message to the Prince saying that they had held out for three months, two with food and one without food. The Prince answered them, again by carrier pigeon, that the dykes had all been pierced and relief would come soon.
However, only by the first day of September, when the Prince had recovered from his ailment, did the expedition continue in earnest. More than 15 miles lay between the relieving rebel fleet and Leiden, but ten miles were covered without difficulty. On the night of September 10, the fleet came upon the Landscheiding, which blocked their path to Leiden and captured it in a night-time surprise attack. The Spaniards had neglected to strongly fortify this important point. The next morning, the Spaniards tried to regain the position but were repulsed with the loss of several hundred men. The dyke was breached and the fleet proceeded ttowards Leiden.
Admiral Boisot and the Prince of Orange had been misinformed as to the lie of the lands, and had assumed that the rupture of the Land-scheiding would flood the country inland all the way to Leiden. Instead, the rebel flotilla once again found their path blocked, this time by the Greenway dike, less than a mile inland of the Land-scheiding, which was still a foot above the water level. Again however the Spaniards had left the dike largely undefended, and the Dutch broke through it without much difficulty. Due to easterly winds driving the water back seawards, and the ever growing surface area of the land that the water covered, the flooding was by this time so shallow that the fleet was all but stranded. The only way that was deep enough for them to proceed was by a canal, leading to a large inland lake called the Zoetermeer (freshwater lake). This canal, and the bridge over it, were strongly defended by the Spaniards, and after a brief amphibious struggle, the Admiral gave up the venture. He dispatched a despondent message to the Prince, saying that unless the wind turned, and they could sail around the canal, they were lost.
Meanwhile, in the city, the inhabitants clamoured for surrender when they saw that their countrymen had run aground. But Mayor van der Werff inspired his citizens to hold on, telling them they would have to kill him before the city could surrender, and that they could eat his arm if they were really that desperate. In fact thousands of inhabitants died of starvation. To add to their troubles, as so often happened in that age, the plague appeared in the city streets and near eight thousand died from that cause alone. The city only held out because they knew that the Spanish soldiers would massacre the whole population in any case, to set an example to the rest of the country, as had happened in Naarden and the other cities that had been sacked. Admiral Boisot sent a dove into the town, assuring them of speedy succour.
On the 18th the wind shifted again, and blowing strongly from the west, piled the sea against the dams. With the rising water level, the flotilla was soon able to make a circuit around the bridge and canal, and successfully enter the Zoetermeer. In October, the Dutch patriots lead by William the Silent destroyed the dykes on 4 locations in order to form an obstacle the Spanish troops could not overcome. As a result of this and the coming of a strong wind from the West, the water rose and Spanish troops lost their mobility. On one of these 4 locations, a monument has been established in remembrance of what happened called the Groenedijk Monument. The Sea Beggars had ships to successfully use the water to their advantage.A succession of fortified villages now stood in the way of the patriot fleet, and the Dutch Admiral was afraid even now of losing his prize, but the Spaniards, panicked by the rising waters, barely offered any resistance. Every one of their strongholds, now become islands, were deserted by the Royalist troops in their flight, except for the village of Lammen. This was a small fort under the command of Colonel Borgia, and situated about three-quarters of a mile from the walls of Leiden.
This was a formidable obstacle, but the Spaniards, adept at land fighting and not amphibious warfare, had despaired of maintaining so unequal a contest against the combined forces of the sea and the veteran Dutch seamen. Accordingly, the Spanish commander Valdez ordered a retreat in the night of October 2, and the army fled, rendered more fearful by a terrible crash they heard from the city, and assumed to be the men of Leiden breaking still another dam upon them. In fact, part of the wall of Leiden, eroded by the sea water, had fallen, leaving the city completely vulnerable to attack, had any chosen to remain.
The next day, the relieving rebels arrived at the city, feeding the citizens with herring and white bread. The people also feasted on hutspot (carrot and onion stew) in the evening. According to legend, a little orphan boy named Cornelis Joppenszoon found a cooking pot full with hutspot that the Spaniards had had to leave behind when they left their camp, the Lammenschans, in a hurry to escape from the rising waters.
In 1575, the Spanish treasury ran dry, so that the Spanish army could not be paid anymore and it mutinied. After the pillaging of Antwerp, the whole of the Netherlands rebelled against Spain. Leiden was once again safe.
The Leiden University was founded by William of Orange in recognition of the city's sacrifice in the siege. According to the ironical fiction still maintained by the Prince, that he was acting in behalf of his master Philip of Spain, against whom he was in fact in open rebellion, the university was endowed in the King's name.
The 3 October Festival is celebrated every year in Leiden. It is a festival, with a funfair and a dozen open air discos in the night.The municipality gives free herring and white bread to the citizens of Leiden.
William I, Prince of Orange, also known as William the Silent or William the Taciturn, or more commonly known as William of Orange, was the main leader of the Dutch Revolt against the Spanish Habsburgs that set off the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1581. He was born in the House of Nassau as Count of Nassau-Dillenburg. He became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branch House of Orange-Nassau and the ancestor of the monarchy of the Netherlands. Within the Netherlands, he is also known as Father of the Fatherland.
Louis of Nassau was the third son of William, Count of Nassau and Juliana of Stolberg, and the younger brother of Prince William of Orange Nassau.
Hutspot (Dutch), hochepot (French), or hotchpotch (English), is a dish of boiled and mashed potatoes, carrots, and onions with a long history in traditional Dutch cuisine.
Paulus Buys, heer van Zevenhoven andCapelle ter Vliet was Grand Pensionary of Holland between 1572 and 1584.
The Battle of the Scheldt also known as the Battle of Walcharen was a naval battle that took place on 29 January 1574 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The battle was fought between a Dutch rebel Sea Beggar fleet under Lodewijk van Boisot and a Spanish fleet under Julián Romero. The Spanish fleet was attempting to relieve the Spanish held town of Middelburg which was under siege but the fleet under Boisot intercepted them and were victorious with the destruction or capture of nearly fifteen ships. Middelburg as a result then surrendered only nine days later along with Arnemuiden.
Juan Del Águila y Arellano was a Spanish general. He commanded the Spanish expeditionary Tercio troops in Sicily then in Brittany, before serving as general of the Spanish armies in the invasion of Ireland (1600–1602). As a soldier, and subsequently Field Master of the Tercios, he was posted to Sicily, Africa, Malta, Corsica, Milan, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, France and Ireland, where he participated in major military events of his time, such as the Siege of Malta, the Looting of Antwerp, the Siege of Antwerp, the Miracle of Empel, the Expedition in support of French Catholics, the Battle of Cornwall and the Expedition to support the Irish.
In August 1572, during the course of the Eighty Years' War, the city of Goes, in the Spanish Netherlands, was besieged by Dutch forces with the support of English troops sent by Queen Elizabeth I. This was a menace to the safety of the nearby city of Middelburg, also under siege. Given the impossibility of rescue of Goes by sea, 3,000 soldiers of the Spanish Tercios under the command of Cristóbal de Mondragón waded across the river Scheldt at its mouth, walking 15 miles overnight in water up to chest deep. The surprise arrival of the Tercios forced the withdrawal of the Anglo-Dutch troops from Goes, allowing the Spanish to maintain control of Middelburg, capital of Walcheren Island.
The Siege of Zierikzee was a siege in the Eighty Years' War between October 1575 – and July 1576.
The Siege of Mons of 1572 took place at Mons, capital of the County of Hainaut, Spanish Netherlands, between 23 June and 19 September 1572, as part of the Eighty Years' War, the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), and the French Wars of Religion. In the spring of 1572, after the capture of Valenciennes by a Protestant force under Louis of Nassau, the Dutch commander continued with his offensive and took Mons by surprise on 24 May. After three months of siege, and the defeats of the armies of Jean de Hangest, seigneur d'Yvoy and Genlis, and William the Silent, Prince of Orange (Dutch: Willem van Oranje), by the Spanish army led by Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba, Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands, and his son, Don Fadrique de Toledo, Louis of Nassau's forces, isolated and without any hope of help, surrendered Mons to the Duke of Alba on 19 September.
The 3 October Festival is a festival in Leiden, the Netherlands. It is held annually during the days leading up to the 3rd and often concludes that evening or the following day. It has been a local tradition since 1886.
The Siege of Steenwijk took place from October 18, 1580 – February 23, 1581 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War, between a besieging Spanish force under turncoat George van Lalaing against a Dutch rebel garrison at Steenwijk under Johan van den Kornput. An English and Dutch rebel force under John Norreys successfully relieved the town on January 24, and the Spanish in addition to ill-health and lack of supplies subsequently lifted the siege in February.
The Siege of Middelburg (1572–1574) was a siege that lasted two years and took place in the years between 1572 and 1574 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). A Dutch rebel army with the support of English laid siege to Middelburg which was being held by Spanish forces under Cristóbal de Mondragón. The Spanish held out and only capitulated when news of the relief effort to save Middelburg was defeated at Rimmerswiel.
In Dutch and English historiography the Dutch struggle for independence from the Spanish Crown in the 16th and 17th century was long known as the Eighty Years' War. More recently, the initial part of this period has become known as the Dutch Revolt. This concept covers the period between the initial insurrection of Netherlandish Calvinists against the regime of the Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, Margaret of Parma, in 1566, and the conclusion of the so-called Twelve Years' Truce in 1609 between the Spanish Crown and the Dutch Republic. The historiography of this period covers both political and diplomatic developments, and events in military history. But the period of the Truce, and the military events that followed after the Truce had ended and the war was resumed, until the conclusion of the Peace of Münster in 1648, still form one continuous whole with the Dutch Revolt, and this continuous narrative, spanning the period 1566–1648, is still known as the Eighty Years' War.
The Siege of Grave, also known as the Capture of Grave of 1586, took place from mid-February – 7 June 1586 at Grave, Duchy of Brabant, Low Countries, between the Spanish army led by Governor-General Don Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, and the Dutch-States and English forces under Baron Peter van Hemart, Governor of Grave, during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604).
The Siege of Huy of 1595, also known as the Assault of Huy, was a Spanish victory that took place between 7 and 20 March 1595, at Huy, Archbishopric of Liège, Low Countries, as part of the Eighty Years' War, the French Wars of Religion, and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604).
The Capture of Valkenburg of 1574, took place in early February 1574, at Valkenburg, South Holland, during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), in the context of the Siege of Leiden. The fortress of Valkenburg, garrisoned by five English companies commanded by Colonel Edward Chester, was of strategic importance to facilitate the Spanish efforts at Leiden. In early February, when the Spanish troops advanced over Valkenburg Castle, the English troops surrendered the fortress to the Spaniards and fled towards Leiden. Then, the Spanish forces entered and took possession of the fortress. For the cowardice demonstrated at Valkenburg, the English troops were rejected by the Dutch rebel army at Leiden, and finally Chester's troops surrendered to the Spanish army.
The Capture of Geertruidenberg was a military event that took place on August 28, 1573 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The capture was conducted by an English, French Huguenot and Fleming force led by Colonel de Poyet. A small assault force led by Walter Morgan captured the main gate which enabled the complete surprise of the garrison, most of whom were put to the sword.
The Battle of Delft also known as the Defence of Delft was a military engagement that fought during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War which took place in October 1573 in and outside the city of Delft. The battle was fought by a small Anglo-Dutch force under Thomas Morgan and an attacking Spanish force under Francisco de Valdez. The Spanish were repelled and forced to retreat.
The Groenedijk Monument also known as the Dukdalf, is a monument in Capelle aan den IJssel which serves as a memorial for the events that took place in 1574 related to the Dutch Tachtigjarige Oorlog; internationally known as the Dutch Revolt. During the conflict, William the Silent ordered the destruction of several dykes in order to stop the Spaniards who were at that time surrounding the Dutch city of Leiden. This tactic proved to be successful as the Spanish troops were greatly affected by the incoming water that took them by surprise. The Spanish troops lost their mobility whereas the troops mustered by William the Silent had prepared for the water using small ships. With the help of the controlled destruction of dykes in 4 strategic locations, the city of Leiden could be freed with the help of the Sea Beggars, better known as the Geuzen. Now, the people in Leiden who had been starving for months could be fed with herring, which became a Dutch tradition in the remembrance of The Siege of Leiden.
The Battle of Cape St. Vincent was a naval engagement that took place on 16 June or 6 October 1606, during the Eighty Years' War. A Spanish fleet under Admiral Luis Fajardo attacked the Dutch fleet led by Admiral Heer Haultain and Vice Admiral Regnier Klaazoon, which was blocking the Portuguese coast to intercept the Spanish treasure fleet. The battle concluded in a Spanish victory; in which Klaazoon's flagship was destroyed, two ships were captured and Haultain fled with the rest of the fleet to his country without having achieved his purpose. | 4,650 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Small pot works were built in a hamlet that became known as Potovens, on the Wakefield Outwood in the Middle Ages. The area is now known as Wrenthorpe. The pot ovens or kilns were built where raw materials, clay and fuel, were available and often worked by one man on a part-time basis. Potters or “cuppers” built the small bee hive kilns, to make pots for local use.
The name survives in local placenames such as Potovens Lane.
In 1556 Wakefield Burgess court ordered the cuppers not to remove clay close to the public highway. In 1608 a survey of the Outwood recorded five cuppers, Richard Andrew, Henry Glover, Henry Gill, Thomas Glover and Richard Eshall, living at Potovens where they dug clay from pits. They paid rent of eight shillings per year. When the Outwood was enclosed in 1666, the potters paid £10 per year for their land. The Manor survey in 1709 mentioned cottagers on the Outwood and an earthenware manufactory making all sorts of pots from clay and lead. The earliest kilns were multi-flued, circular in plan, about 3 to 4 feet high with thick stone walls and a stone or clay dome with a central vent. They were fired using local coal. Another type of kiln was used from the early 16th century in which pots in saggers were stacked on the ground and covered by a layer of broken saggers, clay and earth. It was fired through flues in gaps in the sagger stacks. The kiln was rebuilt for each firing.
Potovens pottery has been found at Sandal CastleA ruined medieval castle in Sandal Magna, Wakefield in West Yorkshire, England. One of two castles built overlooking the River Calder, it was built by the Warrennes, the Earls of Surrey who were Lords of the Manor of Wakefield., Elland and Thornhill. Four generations of the Glover family had a kiln at Potovens; the Willans and other families also had kilns. At first each pottery specialised in making one type of ware, from course kitchenware to fine cups in Cistercian wareA type of earthenware pottery manufactured in England in the 16th and 17th centuries., but over time there was less specialisation. Plates were made in the late 16th century and decorated with slip from about 1640. Cistercian ware vessels were manufactured in large numbers from small rounded cups with flared rims, tall cups and tygs[a]cups with more than one handle, some very large, were made. The potteries were at their most productive in the late 17th century, but declined after pottery was brought in from nearby LeedsPottery established in 1770 in Hunslet, South Leeds notable for intricate pierced creamware known as Leedsware. and Rothwell, and as transport improved, from Staffordshire. The potteries had closed by 1785. Several sites have been excavated.
Notes [ + ]
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0.414286851882... | 3 | Small pot works were built in a hamlet that became known as Potovens, on the Wakefield Outwood in the Middle Ages. The area is now known as Wrenthorpe. The pot ovens or kilns were built where raw materials, clay and fuel, were available and often worked by one man on a part-time basis. Potters or “cuppers” built the small bee hive kilns, to make pots for local use.
The name survives in local placenames such as Potovens Lane.
In 1556 Wakefield Burgess court ordered the cuppers not to remove clay close to the public highway. In 1608 a survey of the Outwood recorded five cuppers, Richard Andrew, Henry Glover, Henry Gill, Thomas Glover and Richard Eshall, living at Potovens where they dug clay from pits. They paid rent of eight shillings per year. When the Outwood was enclosed in 1666, the potters paid £10 per year for their land. The Manor survey in 1709 mentioned cottagers on the Outwood and an earthenware manufactory making all sorts of pots from clay and lead. The earliest kilns were multi-flued, circular in plan, about 3 to 4 feet high with thick stone walls and a stone or clay dome with a central vent. They were fired using local coal. Another type of kiln was used from the early 16th century in which pots in saggers were stacked on the ground and covered by a layer of broken saggers, clay and earth. It was fired through flues in gaps in the sagger stacks. The kiln was rebuilt for each firing.
Potovens pottery has been found at Sandal CastleA ruined medieval castle in Sandal Magna, Wakefield in West Yorkshire, England. One of two castles built overlooking the River Calder, it was built by the Warrennes, the Earls of Surrey who were Lords of the Manor of Wakefield., Elland and Thornhill. Four generations of the Glover family had a kiln at Potovens; the Willans and other families also had kilns. At first each pottery specialised in making one type of ware, from course kitchenware to fine cups in Cistercian wareA type of earthenware pottery manufactured in England in the 16th and 17th centuries., but over time there was less specialisation. Plates were made in the late 16th century and decorated with slip from about 1640. Cistercian ware vessels were manufactured in large numbers from small rounded cups with flared rims, tall cups and tygs[a]cups with more than one handle, some very large, were made. The potteries were at their most productive in the late 17th century, but declined after pottery was brought in from nearby LeedsPottery established in 1770 in Hunslet, South Leeds notable for intricate pierced creamware known as Leedsware. and Rothwell, and as transport improved, from Staffordshire. The potteries had closed by 1785. Several sites have been excavated.
Notes [ + ]
|a.||^||cups with more than one handle| | 679 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day in 1192, King Richard I was captured in the Austrian town of Vienna whilst on his way home from crusade by King Leopold V of Austria.
Following his departure from the Holy land in the October, Richard the Lionheart was travelling in a disguise when he was captured and imprisoned. The English king was held hostage until February 1194, a ransom was eventually paid to release the king, part of which was used to build the Austrian town Wiener Neusdadt.
Henry of Huntington, the 12th century English chronicler wrote that Henry I was endowed with three gifts, that of wisdom,
victory and riches, but he also writes that these were offset with three vices, avarice, cruelty and lust.
Henry was cruel, on one occasion he sanctioned an act of vengeance, ordering the blinding of his own granddaughters when
he discovered a similar atrocity had befallen the son of one of his courtiers. In 1124, he had 44 thieves hanged on the same day. Henry the lustful he most certainly was, however Henry the romantic he was not despite the stories we've heard of the Welsh beauty Nest ferch Rhys and his long term mistress Sybil Corbit. Henry worked his way through a stream of women, from other men's wives to abbesses. He did acknowledge fifteen illegitimate children, the sons he placed in important positions and the daughters he married off to wealthy nobles, the others, another nine or so he had little or no time for.
Henry ability to father children goes without question, it is a puzzle then, that with his first wife Matilda, he only fathered two children in their eighteen year marriage and he fathered none with his second wife, the very young and beautiful Adeliza of Louvain in their fifteen years of marriage.
Henry was good administrator, and as we have seen he was cruel and harsh, he demanded loyalty, but was known to return
the latter to those who served him well, the result of which was from 1103 until his death, there were no significant uprisings during his reign.
The beginning of the end of Henry's thirty-five years on the throne of England came in the November of 1135 at a hunting
lodge at Lyons la Foret in France when death knocked on his door. According to his doctors Henry had been well, but Henry
of Huntingdon wrote the king became ill during the night after
he partook of some lampreys, of which he was fond, though they always disagreed with him; and though his physician recommended him to abstain, the king would not submit to his salutary advice… This repast bringing on ill humours,
and violently exciting similar symptoms, caused a sudden and extreme disturbance, under which his aged frame sunk
into adeathly torpor
A few days later, on the 1st December the king was dead, as was the stability of his realm.
Henry I was buried at Reading Abbey.
On the 15th August 1100, Bishop Ranulf Flambard was imprisoned in the Tower of London by Henry I on charges of embezzlement.
In the February of the following year, Flambard invited his guards to join him in his cell for a quick glass of vino collapso to celebrate Candlemas. While his inept guards guzzled down their wine, Flambard surreptitiously poured his into his favourite potted plant.
Later that evening, with the plant looking a bit worse for wear and the guards fallen into a drunken stupor, Flambard used a rope that had been smuggled in a gallon of wine to make his escape down the walls of the tower, and on reaching the ground he hot footed it to Normandy where he was welcomed by Henry's brother and rival Robert Curthose.
On receiving the news of Flambard's escape Henry was furious, and it was one William de Mandeville, who was in charge of the tower at that time, who felt the wrath of the king. Henry knew that there was more to it than meets the eye, and just like me, he knew that there is no way you could hide enough rope to scale the walls of large tower in one gallon of wine, and make such a quick get away without being seen.
Some one was in on it!
Henry suspected that Mandeville was involved, however nothing was proved, but he confiscated three of Mandevilles manors anyway and booted him out of his important position within the tower.
Ranulf Flambard was the first person to be imprisoned within the Tower's walls, he was also the first to escape.
Eventually, Flambard arrived back in England and died in Durham in 1128, but what of William de Mandeville?
Well he went on to organise the wedding of his daughter Beatrice, and thank goodness he did, or else I wouldn't be here!
Born on the 7th February in 1102, Matilda was the eldest child of Henry I and Matilda of Scotland, the death of her younger brother William Adelin, on the 25th November 1120 caused a succession crisis, known to us today as The Anarchy.
King Henry I’s only son and heir had perished when the ship in which he was travelling sank in the English Channel.
Following this tragedy, Henry made his daughter Matilda his heir when she married Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou.
In support of Matilda, Henry made the leading barons of the realm, including his nephew Stephen of Blois, swear an oath to accept Matilda as his rightful heir, these oaths were taken in 1127, 1128 and 1131. The Kings decision was not popular for
two reasons, firstly, Matilda was a woman and secondly, Anjou was the sworn enemy of the Normandy. When Henry I died
in 1135 disregarding the oaths previously taken, Stephen travelled from Boulogne to England’s capital and was crowned king, in justification of this Stephen stated that Henry, on his deathbed, had had a change of heart and named him as his successor, the fact that he was not present at his uncles demise did not deter him.
To support his claim Stephen called one Hugh Bigod, who stated that he was witness to Henry’s change of mind, not surprisingly Stephen did not summon those men who actually attended the king on his death, an archbishop, a bishop and four earls. Ulger, Bishop of Angers who supported Geoffrey Plantagenet and subsequently Matilda too, was highly suspicious and later put it to another who also claimed to be at the kings death.
‘As for your statement that the King changed his mind, it is proved false by those who were present at the Kings death, neither you nor Hugh could possibly know his last request, because neither of you were there”
R. H. C. Davis in his book ‘King Stephen’ suggests that Bigod and others were present when the King was dying but not present at his death and therefore not witness to a 'last minute change of heart' as they had left to inform Stephen of the news. At this time Matilda was in Anjou with her husband, on hearing that Stephen had usurped the throne she left there for Normandy and in 1139 she set out, with her half brother, Robert of Gloucester, for England.
Henry I making Matilda his heir in 1120, proved to be nothing but trouble, a woman ruler was unprecedented and also her marriage, as previously stated, was unpopular.
Following the Battle of Lincoln in 1141, Stephen was captured and imprisoned and Matilda made her play for the crown, but
her advantage lasted only a few months, she marched on London under the title of Lady of the English and the city was ready with their support. However, she refused the people’s request to have their taxes halved and on arrival in London she found the gates shut, the civil war reignited on 24 June 1141. Helen Castor writes
"Matilda did not ‘fit’ the crown she claimed" and she was seen by chroniclers as having "intolerable pride and wilfulness”,
By November, Stephen was free, having been exchanged for the captured Robert of Gloucester. A year after Stephen
regained his throne the tables were turned and Matilda was captured, she eventually escaped from her guards at Devizes
by disguising herself as a corpse and being carried out for burial. The year 1142 saw Matilda based at Oxford Castle but by Christmas it was surrounded by Stephen's men, it was at this time that Matilda made her most famous daring escape. She
is said to have lowered herself down the castle wall in the dead of night, dressed only in white as camouflage against the snow. Matilda then crossed an icy river, past the royal army to safety.
This is a lovely story, but its highly unlikely that Matilda would have left the castle out of the highest window, it is more
than likely that she used was is known as a Postern Gate, a door that is hidden from view which allows people to come
and go without being seen.
Stephen later recognised Matilda's son Henry as his heir, following this Matilda spent the rest of her life in Normandy where she died on the 10th September 1167.
Part of the epitaph on Matilda's tomb at Bec Abbey in France, reads
"Great by birth, greater by marriage, greatest in her offspring: here lies Matilda, the daughter, wife, and mother of Henry",
Matilda's tomb was damaged by fire ninety-six years after her death, twice in the following decades her remains were disturbed and lost, eventually they were found and she was finally laid to rest in 1846 in Rouen Cathedral.
King Richard I was a rebellious young man who had frequently challenged his fathers authority and had continuously been a thorn in his side. At the age of sixteen, Richard joined both his brothers, Henry and Geoffrey, in a revolt against their father whom they sought to dethrone.
At an early age he showed significant political and military ability, becoming noted for his chivalry and courage, along with his physical presence, he was said to be very attractive; with hair that was between red and blond, light blue eyes and a pale complexion, these facts secured his popularity with the masses. He was also a vicious and cruel man. When crowned King of England, he barred all Jews and women from the coronation ceremony, some Jewish leaders nevertheless arrived to present gifts for the new king. On his orders Richard's courtiers stripped and flogged the Jews, then flung them out. When a rumour spread that Richard had ordered all Jews to be killed, the people of London began a massacre. Many Jews were beaten to death, robbed and burned alive, many Jewish homes were burned down, and several Jews were forcibly baptised, some sought sanctuary in the Tower of London others managed to escape.
Baldwin of Exeter the Archbishop of Canterbury reacted by replying
"If the King is not God's man, he had better be the devil's”
Richard soon realised that his actions could destabilise his realm, on the eve of his departure on crusade, Richard ordered the execution of those responsible for the murders and persecutions. Those who were hanged were not his henchmen, but rioters who had accidentally burned down Christian homes, and to make sure that people took him serious in his actions he issued a royal writ demanding that the Jews be left alone. Not surprisingly this was not taken seriously, the following March there was further violence, including a massacre at York. Richard swore an oath to renounce his past wickedness in order to show himself worthy to take the cross. He started to raise and equip a new crusader army. He spent most of his father's treasury, raised taxes and sold official positions and lands to those interested in them. Even those already appointed were forced to pay huge sums to retain their posts including the Bishop of Ely who bid £3,000. William Longchamp coughed up an equal amount to remain as Chancellor.
Instead of leaving his younger brother John in control of England in his absence he appointed as regents Hugh, Bishop of Durham and William de Mandeville who soon died and was replaced by William Longchamp. It comes a no surprise then, that John was not satisfied by this decision and attempted to overthrow Longchamp, John was more popular than Longchamp in London, and in October 1191 the city opened the gates to him while Longchamp was confined in the tower. John promised the city the right to govern itself in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive. Some were in support of John as Richard only spent six months of his reign in England and emptied the kingdom's coffers to pay for his crusade. According to William Stubbs in The Constitutional History of England
“ He was a bad king: his great exploits, his military skill, his splendour and extravagance, his poetical tastes, his
adventurous spirit, do not serve to cloak his entire want of sympathy, or even consideration, for his people. He was no Englishman, but it does not follow that he gave to Normandy, Anjou, or Aquitaine the love or care that he denied to his
kingdom. His ambition was that of a mere warrior: he would fight for anything whatever, but he would sell everything
that was worth fighting for.The glory that he sought was that of victory rather than conquest. ”
Richard said of England it is "cold and always raining," and when it came to raising funds for his Crusade, he was said to declare,"I would have sold London if I could find a buyer." But what we should remember is that to the king, his nobles and royal household, England was just a part of the vast estate they governed, Richard felt more French than English and therefore put the people of this land second. The Plantagenet kings before the 14th century had no need to learn the English, a language of a people they really new nothing about.
Although England was a major part of his territories Richard faced no major internal or external threats during his reign, it was his French territories where he felt that he was needed. He left England in the hands of various officials, including, at times his mother. This meant that Richard was far more concerned with his more extensive French lands and he either did not know or care that the people of England were being subjected to the greed of feudal barons, contemptuous sheriffs and as history puts it the ’wicked and cowardly John’.
John was no hero he was untrusting and he too was selfish but he took it upon himself to take control of a country that might have easily fallen into the hands of unscrupulous barons. Of course, that's another story.
Richard I's life is viewed by his exploits whist on crusade where a great piece of medieval PR by Richard de Templo, makes the king sound like some sort of superman.
"King Richard pursued the Turks with singular ferocity, fell upon them and scattered them across the ground. No one
escaped when his sword made contact with them; wherever he went his brandished sword cleared a wide path on all sides. Continuing his advance with untiring sword strokes, he cut down that unspeakable race as if he were reaping the harvest
with a sickle, so that the corpses of Turks he had killed covered the ground everywhere for the space of half a mile."
But just as Aeschylus wrote in 458 BC "By the sword you did your work, and by the sword you die." Richard I died when he was struck down when suppressing a revolt in Limousin in France in 1199.
In the March he had arrived at Chalus Chabrol Castle, it was while Richard was walking the castle's perimeter that he was struck by a crossbow bolt in the left shoulder just below his neck, fired by an archer named Pierre Basile. An attempt was made to remove the bolt but "extracted the wood only, while the iron remained in the flesh... but after this butcher had carelessly mangled the King's arm in every part, he at last extracted the arrow."
Richard's wound soon became gangrenous and he died on the 6th of April 1199.
One can picture the scene, a golden light shining through the castle window, the king in the arms of his mother, his blooded three lion tabard placed over a chair, he heroically gestures towards the door as his pardoned enemy walks away clutching a bag of gold. The last breath of a king drowned in the wailing of his mother.
The story, that from his death bed Richard pardoned the man who fired the bolt looks like a public relations stunt to me,
what better way to reinforce the idea that Richard was the magnificent king his subjects always thought he was. My problem with this story is, how did anyone know exactly who fired that fatal crossbow bolt from out of the many armed men at ground level, the truth is of course, they probably did not. How Pierre Basile arrived at the kings beside goes unrecorded, but it is said that he was paid handsomely and sent on his way, only the very next day the poor man was flayed alive.
Richard may well have ordered the death of this unfortunate archer, a young man in the wrong place at the wrong time, if he did then it was an act of vengeance, after all Richard had made grand gestures before only to go back on them later, however I believe we should look to Richard's mother, the fiery strong willed Eleanor, his most ardent supporter, as the person who ordered this man death.
As was the norm Richard's heart was taken to Rouen and the rest of his body to Fontevraud Abbey in Anjou and while his mortal remains turned to dust his reputation as a handsome and mighty crusading king is as solid today as it was then.
With the arrival of William the Conqueror, many of England's forests were used by the Norman kings for hunting and hawking. The New Forest in Hampshire was one of these. Today, the New Forest is one of the largest remaining areas of open pasture land, heath and forest, and in the 12th century most of England would have looked something like this.
It was on the 2nd of August in 1100 that William Rufus, the Conqueror's second son, died whilst hunting, murdered, it has been suggested by Walter Tirel on the orders of William's younger brother the future Henry I. However the Anglo Saxon Chronicle states that the king was slain by one of his own men. Another theory is that he was killed on the order of Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury.
There are lots of interesting theories as to who ended the life of the king, and there are even more fascinating reasons why it was done, all have one thing in common though, that is William Rufus was an angry, over confident and nasty man who history deems got what he deserved.
As a child I was told by my grandfather that it was an ancestor of ours who found William Rufus on the floor of the forest. Intrigued, I searched among books to see if this was true, and indeed my grandfathers tale has a basis in fact for, legend has
it, that a man did come across the dead king and took him to Winchester in his cart, his name was Purkis.
My family story may or may not be true, however my grandfathers surname was Purches, and his grandfather's family are all Hampshire born and their surname of Purches is derived from the surname Purkis.
Maybe it's a true story after all.
William Rufus remains lie in Winchester Cathedral.
On the 27th May 1199, John the youngest son of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine, was crowned King of England.
John can often be found at the top of the leader board when there is a vote for England's worst king, and this always
irritates me. John was disadvantaged from the start: Squabbling parents, youngest son, a spoilt and show off older brother, grumpy barons and a bankrupt country. Richard I, England's blue eyed boy, was a hard act to follow and I quote from W L Warren who, like me, has some sympathy for John.
In regard to Richard he writes:
"If Richard had lived another five years, there would have been one notable difference in the course of the campaign. The
king himself would have been on the heights above Les Andelys and even when all else had gone, Richard would have been
urging the citizens of Rouen to arms, parrying the first assault with blows of his great sword..."
This then is how history views Richard, Warren then goes on to write:
"By comparison with Richard, then, John has been seen as a weedy little tick"
England's problems, created by Richard, were blamed on John and when he had difficulty dealing with them he is
labeled a bad king.
Henry II was born the eldest of three sons to Empress Matilda and Geoffrey, Count of Anjou.
Henry II, as king of England, owes his place on the throne to the early death of William Adelin, his uncle and King Henry I’s only son and heir, who had perished when a ship in which he was travelling sank in the English Channel. What followed is known as the Anarchy, an era of broken promises and a major fallout between cousins
King Henry II was no clotheshorse, he cared little for appearance and he did love kingship, or at least everything that came with it. He was often rude and had a quick temper, quite a match for the wonderfully feisty Eleanor of Aquitaine who he married in the May of 1152. His children with Eleanor, among others, were Henry, Richard, Geoffrey and John.
Henry II was often unfaithful to Eleanor, their relationship was unsettled and stormy and this eventually lead to Eleanor being placed under arrest after she encouraged her children to rebel against their father. During the years of their marriage Eleanor gave her love to Richard, whilst Henry’s affections were with John, even though John was his father's favourite he was given nothing in regards to lands and estates.
Henry's family are a prime example of a dysfunctional one and this lead to problems on many different levels, especially in regard to their children. To many people John was cruel, greedy and ultimately a failure as king, the exact copy of his brother Richard, yet Richard is seen as a hero and John a villain...but that's another story!
Both sons disagreed with their father's policies and had fallen out with him over them. Richard rebelled and took up arms against his father, John conspired sometimes with and sometimes against his elder brothers.
Henry was not oblivious of this, he made a curious statement regarding a painting in a chamber of Winchester Castle, depicting an eagle being attacked by three of its chicks, while a fourth crouched chick waits for its chance to strike. When asked the meaning of this picture, King Henry said:
"The four young ones of the eagle are my four sons who will not cease persecuting me even unto death.
And the youngest, whom I now embrace with such tender affection, will someday afflict me more grievously and perilously than all the others."
Henry's involvement in the death of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170, is what Henry is most famous for, yet there was so much more to this king than that.
The word Stannary means 'belonging to tin mines' and is taken from the Latin word Stanum.
The areas in Cornwall, where tin was extracted, were known as Stannaries and the law that affected them were known as Stannary Law. These Cornish Stannaries form part of the Duchy of Cornwall, an estate which was created by Edward III in 1337 when he granted his son, Edward, the Black Prince Duke of Cornwall.
Tin mining in Cornwall is ancient, and employed men in remote and outlying areas away from the main towns, and therefore they had their own rules and regulations. The early Earls and Dukes of this distant county reaped great rewards from mining and since early times the mines and the men working them have been protected by the crown. This institution had its its head wardens who were governed by the Lord Warden of the Stannaries.
The writ appointing the Lord Warden covered the
"just and ancient customs and liberties of miners, smelters and merchants of tin."
The first to hold this title was William de Wrotham who was given this title on the 20th November 1197 during the reign of King Richard I. In 1198, juries of miners at Launceston, stood before Wrotham to swear by the law and practice of the tin mines.
Over the years, Royal Charters issued by Edward I in 1305, Edward IV in 1466, and Henry VII in 1508 have changed and
added to the laws within the Stannaries. King John, often seen as a selfish and greedy king, was not slow to see the attraction of the Cornish tin industry. In 1201 he issued the first charter to the Stannaries. By 1214, production of tin had risen to six hundred tons, the result of this saw many men, who once worked on the land, move to mining. One of the clauses of Magna Carta was that no lord shoud lose the service of his men whether he dug tin or not. Henry III confired his fathers charter, and
the Stannaries soon had their own taxation, no acknowledged lord and were 'a law unto themselves.' By the end of the 13th century the Stannaries were under the control of Richard, the second son of King John and his son Edmund as the Earls of Cornwall.
In 1225, Richard, at just sixteen, was granted the County of Cornwall and all its tin works, and following that the Earldom of Cornwall. Later Edward I granted privileges to tinners to be tried by their own courts and benefit from the exemption of taxation.
The above image records one John Gurney’s appointment as Vicewarden of the Stannaries for Devon and explains the differences between the courts in Cornwall and Devon.
Featuring Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland. 1938
The Victorians would have loved this film, it a romantic romp and probably owes much to the stories of Sir Walter Scott and the illustrations of Howard Pyle rather than Robin Hood's 'true' tale.
"Its injustice I hate, not the Normans" Robin says
Which is just as well, as Flynn's Robin doesn't take much of a stand against John, and the Crusades only get a passing mention and as usual 'good' King Richard swans in an out of the film just as he swanned in and out of the country in real life!
None the less, its a decent, rousing swashbuckling film, and really not a bad way to spend a Sunday afternoon.
The story of Robin Hood, a local hero, who took on the might of the realm, has its roots in late 15th century to early 16th century English ballads.
Walter Bower, a Scottish abbot of Inchcolm Abbey wrote in 1440
"Then arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads."
This film is proof that Bower was not wrong.
The Adventures of Robin Hood is a bit of a fairy tale, Errol Flynn, with sword in one hand and his eye of the beautiful Maid Marion, jumps from the highest branches of trees, managing to land with both feet firmly on the ground and both hands on his hips, all this without his plucky little grin ever leaving his face.
What a hero!
After ten years in the workplace I became a mother to three very beautiful daughters, I was fortunate enough to have been able to stay at home and spend my time with them as they grew into the young women they are now. I am still in the position of being able to be at home and pursue all the interests I have previously mentioned. We live in a beautiful Victorian spa town with wooded walks for the dog, lovely shops and a host of lovely people, what more could I ask for.
All works © Andrea Povey 2014. Please do not reproduce without the expressed written consent of Andrea Povey.
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- Scoboryo of St Columb Major >
Thomas Vaughan: An Introduction
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0.17273958027362... | 1 | On this day in 1192, King Richard I was captured in the Austrian town of Vienna whilst on his way home from crusade by King Leopold V of Austria.
Following his departure from the Holy land in the October, Richard the Lionheart was travelling in a disguise when he was captured and imprisoned. The English king was held hostage until February 1194, a ransom was eventually paid to release the king, part of which was used to build the Austrian town Wiener Neusdadt.
Henry of Huntington, the 12th century English chronicler wrote that Henry I was endowed with three gifts, that of wisdom,
victory and riches, but he also writes that these were offset with three vices, avarice, cruelty and lust.
Henry was cruel, on one occasion he sanctioned an act of vengeance, ordering the blinding of his own granddaughters when
he discovered a similar atrocity had befallen the son of one of his courtiers. In 1124, he had 44 thieves hanged on the same day. Henry the lustful he most certainly was, however Henry the romantic he was not despite the stories we've heard of the Welsh beauty Nest ferch Rhys and his long term mistress Sybil Corbit. Henry worked his way through a stream of women, from other men's wives to abbesses. He did acknowledge fifteen illegitimate children, the sons he placed in important positions and the daughters he married off to wealthy nobles, the others, another nine or so he had little or no time for.
Henry ability to father children goes without question, it is a puzzle then, that with his first wife Matilda, he only fathered two children in their eighteen year marriage and he fathered none with his second wife, the very young and beautiful Adeliza of Louvain in their fifteen years of marriage.
Henry was good administrator, and as we have seen he was cruel and harsh, he demanded loyalty, but was known to return
the latter to those who served him well, the result of which was from 1103 until his death, there were no significant uprisings during his reign.
The beginning of the end of Henry's thirty-five years on the throne of England came in the November of 1135 at a hunting
lodge at Lyons la Foret in France when death knocked on his door. According to his doctors Henry had been well, but Henry
of Huntingdon wrote the king became ill during the night after
he partook of some lampreys, of which he was fond, though they always disagreed with him; and though his physician recommended him to abstain, the king would not submit to his salutary advice… This repast bringing on ill humours,
and violently exciting similar symptoms, caused a sudden and extreme disturbance, under which his aged frame sunk
into adeathly torpor
A few days later, on the 1st December the king was dead, as was the stability of his realm.
Henry I was buried at Reading Abbey.
On the 15th August 1100, Bishop Ranulf Flambard was imprisoned in the Tower of London by Henry I on charges of embezzlement.
In the February of the following year, Flambard invited his guards to join him in his cell for a quick glass of vino collapso to celebrate Candlemas. While his inept guards guzzled down their wine, Flambard surreptitiously poured his into his favourite potted plant.
Later that evening, with the plant looking a bit worse for wear and the guards fallen into a drunken stupor, Flambard used a rope that had been smuggled in a gallon of wine to make his escape down the walls of the tower, and on reaching the ground he hot footed it to Normandy where he was welcomed by Henry's brother and rival Robert Curthose.
On receiving the news of Flambard's escape Henry was furious, and it was one William de Mandeville, who was in charge of the tower at that time, who felt the wrath of the king. Henry knew that there was more to it than meets the eye, and just like me, he knew that there is no way you could hide enough rope to scale the walls of large tower in one gallon of wine, and make such a quick get away without being seen.
Some one was in on it!
Henry suspected that Mandeville was involved, however nothing was proved, but he confiscated three of Mandevilles manors anyway and booted him out of his important position within the tower.
Ranulf Flambard was the first person to be imprisoned within the Tower's walls, he was also the first to escape.
Eventually, Flambard arrived back in England and died in Durham in 1128, but what of William de Mandeville?
Well he went on to organise the wedding of his daughter Beatrice, and thank goodness he did, or else I wouldn't be here!
Born on the 7th February in 1102, Matilda was the eldest child of Henry I and Matilda of Scotland, the death of her younger brother William Adelin, on the 25th November 1120 caused a succession crisis, known to us today as The Anarchy.
King Henry I’s only son and heir had perished when the ship in which he was travelling sank in the English Channel.
Following this tragedy, Henry made his daughter Matilda his heir when she married Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou.
In support of Matilda, Henry made the leading barons of the realm, including his nephew Stephen of Blois, swear an oath to accept Matilda as his rightful heir, these oaths were taken in 1127, 1128 and 1131. The Kings decision was not popular for
two reasons, firstly, Matilda was a woman and secondly, Anjou was the sworn enemy of the Normandy. When Henry I died
in 1135 disregarding the oaths previously taken, Stephen travelled from Boulogne to England’s capital and was crowned king, in justification of this Stephen stated that Henry, on his deathbed, had had a change of heart and named him as his successor, the fact that he was not present at his uncles demise did not deter him.
To support his claim Stephen called one Hugh Bigod, who stated that he was witness to Henry’s change of mind, not surprisingly Stephen did not summon those men who actually attended the king on his death, an archbishop, a bishop and four earls. Ulger, Bishop of Angers who supported Geoffrey Plantagenet and subsequently Matilda too, was highly suspicious and later put it to another who also claimed to be at the kings death.
‘As for your statement that the King changed his mind, it is proved false by those who were present at the Kings death, neither you nor Hugh could possibly know his last request, because neither of you were there”
R. H. C. Davis in his book ‘King Stephen’ suggests that Bigod and others were present when the King was dying but not present at his death and therefore not witness to a 'last minute change of heart' as they had left to inform Stephen of the news. At this time Matilda was in Anjou with her husband, on hearing that Stephen had usurped the throne she left there for Normandy and in 1139 she set out, with her half brother, Robert of Gloucester, for England.
Henry I making Matilda his heir in 1120, proved to be nothing but trouble, a woman ruler was unprecedented and also her marriage, as previously stated, was unpopular.
Following the Battle of Lincoln in 1141, Stephen was captured and imprisoned and Matilda made her play for the crown, but
her advantage lasted only a few months, she marched on London under the title of Lady of the English and the city was ready with their support. However, she refused the people’s request to have their taxes halved and on arrival in London she found the gates shut, the civil war reignited on 24 June 1141. Helen Castor writes
"Matilda did not ‘fit’ the crown she claimed" and she was seen by chroniclers as having "intolerable pride and wilfulness”,
By November, Stephen was free, having been exchanged for the captured Robert of Gloucester. A year after Stephen
regained his throne the tables were turned and Matilda was captured, she eventually escaped from her guards at Devizes
by disguising herself as a corpse and being carried out for burial. The year 1142 saw Matilda based at Oxford Castle but by Christmas it was surrounded by Stephen's men, it was at this time that Matilda made her most famous daring escape. She
is said to have lowered herself down the castle wall in the dead of night, dressed only in white as camouflage against the snow. Matilda then crossed an icy river, past the royal army to safety.
This is a lovely story, but its highly unlikely that Matilda would have left the castle out of the highest window, it is more
than likely that she used was is known as a Postern Gate, a door that is hidden from view which allows people to come
and go without being seen.
Stephen later recognised Matilda's son Henry as his heir, following this Matilda spent the rest of her life in Normandy where she died on the 10th September 1167.
Part of the epitaph on Matilda's tomb at Bec Abbey in France, reads
"Great by birth, greater by marriage, greatest in her offspring: here lies Matilda, the daughter, wife, and mother of Henry",
Matilda's tomb was damaged by fire ninety-six years after her death, twice in the following decades her remains were disturbed and lost, eventually they were found and she was finally laid to rest in 1846 in Rouen Cathedral.
King Richard I was a rebellious young man who had frequently challenged his fathers authority and had continuously been a thorn in his side. At the age of sixteen, Richard joined both his brothers, Henry and Geoffrey, in a revolt against their father whom they sought to dethrone.
At an early age he showed significant political and military ability, becoming noted for his chivalry and courage, along with his physical presence, he was said to be very attractive; with hair that was between red and blond, light blue eyes and a pale complexion, these facts secured his popularity with the masses. He was also a vicious and cruel man. When crowned King of England, he barred all Jews and women from the coronation ceremony, some Jewish leaders nevertheless arrived to present gifts for the new king. On his orders Richard's courtiers stripped and flogged the Jews, then flung them out. When a rumour spread that Richard had ordered all Jews to be killed, the people of London began a massacre. Many Jews were beaten to death, robbed and burned alive, many Jewish homes were burned down, and several Jews were forcibly baptised, some sought sanctuary in the Tower of London others managed to escape.
Baldwin of Exeter the Archbishop of Canterbury reacted by replying
"If the King is not God's man, he had better be the devil's”
Richard soon realised that his actions could destabilise his realm, on the eve of his departure on crusade, Richard ordered the execution of those responsible for the murders and persecutions. Those who were hanged were not his henchmen, but rioters who had accidentally burned down Christian homes, and to make sure that people took him serious in his actions he issued a royal writ demanding that the Jews be left alone. Not surprisingly this was not taken seriously, the following March there was further violence, including a massacre at York. Richard swore an oath to renounce his past wickedness in order to show himself worthy to take the cross. He started to raise and equip a new crusader army. He spent most of his father's treasury, raised taxes and sold official positions and lands to those interested in them. Even those already appointed were forced to pay huge sums to retain their posts including the Bishop of Ely who bid £3,000. William Longchamp coughed up an equal amount to remain as Chancellor.
Instead of leaving his younger brother John in control of England in his absence he appointed as regents Hugh, Bishop of Durham and William de Mandeville who soon died and was replaced by William Longchamp. It comes a no surprise then, that John was not satisfied by this decision and attempted to overthrow Longchamp, John was more popular than Longchamp in London, and in October 1191 the city opened the gates to him while Longchamp was confined in the tower. John promised the city the right to govern itself in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive. Some were in support of John as Richard only spent six months of his reign in England and emptied the kingdom's coffers to pay for his crusade. According to William Stubbs in The Constitutional History of England
“ He was a bad king: his great exploits, his military skill, his splendour and extravagance, his poetical tastes, his
adventurous spirit, do not serve to cloak his entire want of sympathy, or even consideration, for his people. He was no Englishman, but it does not follow that he gave to Normandy, Anjou, or Aquitaine the love or care that he denied to his
kingdom. His ambition was that of a mere warrior: he would fight for anything whatever, but he would sell everything
that was worth fighting for.The glory that he sought was that of victory rather than conquest. ”
Richard said of England it is "cold and always raining," and when it came to raising funds for his Crusade, he was said to declare,"I would have sold London if I could find a buyer." But what we should remember is that to the king, his nobles and royal household, England was just a part of the vast estate they governed, Richard felt more French than English and therefore put the people of this land second. The Plantagenet kings before the 14th century had no need to learn the English, a language of a people they really new nothing about.
Although England was a major part of his territories Richard faced no major internal or external threats during his reign, it was his French territories where he felt that he was needed. He left England in the hands of various officials, including, at times his mother. This meant that Richard was far more concerned with his more extensive French lands and he either did not know or care that the people of England were being subjected to the greed of feudal barons, contemptuous sheriffs and as history puts it the ’wicked and cowardly John’.
John was no hero he was untrusting and he too was selfish but he took it upon himself to take control of a country that might have easily fallen into the hands of unscrupulous barons. Of course, that's another story.
Richard I's life is viewed by his exploits whist on crusade where a great piece of medieval PR by Richard de Templo, makes the king sound like some sort of superman.
"King Richard pursued the Turks with singular ferocity, fell upon them and scattered them across the ground. No one
escaped when his sword made contact with them; wherever he went his brandished sword cleared a wide path on all sides. Continuing his advance with untiring sword strokes, he cut down that unspeakable race as if he were reaping the harvest
with a sickle, so that the corpses of Turks he had killed covered the ground everywhere for the space of half a mile."
But just as Aeschylus wrote in 458 BC "By the sword you did your work, and by the sword you die." Richard I died when he was struck down when suppressing a revolt in Limousin in France in 1199.
In the March he had arrived at Chalus Chabrol Castle, it was while Richard was walking the castle's perimeter that he was struck by a crossbow bolt in the left shoulder just below his neck, fired by an archer named Pierre Basile. An attempt was made to remove the bolt but "extracted the wood only, while the iron remained in the flesh... but after this butcher had carelessly mangled the King's arm in every part, he at last extracted the arrow."
Richard's wound soon became gangrenous and he died on the 6th of April 1199.
One can picture the scene, a golden light shining through the castle window, the king in the arms of his mother, his blooded three lion tabard placed over a chair, he heroically gestures towards the door as his pardoned enemy walks away clutching a bag of gold. The last breath of a king drowned in the wailing of his mother.
The story, that from his death bed Richard pardoned the man who fired the bolt looks like a public relations stunt to me,
what better way to reinforce the idea that Richard was the magnificent king his subjects always thought he was. My problem with this story is, how did anyone know exactly who fired that fatal crossbow bolt from out of the many armed men at ground level, the truth is of course, they probably did not. How Pierre Basile arrived at the kings beside goes unrecorded, but it is said that he was paid handsomely and sent on his way, only the very next day the poor man was flayed alive.
Richard may well have ordered the death of this unfortunate archer, a young man in the wrong place at the wrong time, if he did then it was an act of vengeance, after all Richard had made grand gestures before only to go back on them later, however I believe we should look to Richard's mother, the fiery strong willed Eleanor, his most ardent supporter, as the person who ordered this man death.
As was the norm Richard's heart was taken to Rouen and the rest of his body to Fontevraud Abbey in Anjou and while his mortal remains turned to dust his reputation as a handsome and mighty crusading king is as solid today as it was then.
With the arrival of William the Conqueror, many of England's forests were used by the Norman kings for hunting and hawking. The New Forest in Hampshire was one of these. Today, the New Forest is one of the largest remaining areas of open pasture land, heath and forest, and in the 12th century most of England would have looked something like this.
It was on the 2nd of August in 1100 that William Rufus, the Conqueror's second son, died whilst hunting, murdered, it has been suggested by Walter Tirel on the orders of William's younger brother the future Henry I. However the Anglo Saxon Chronicle states that the king was slain by one of his own men. Another theory is that he was killed on the order of Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury.
There are lots of interesting theories as to who ended the life of the king, and there are even more fascinating reasons why it was done, all have one thing in common though, that is William Rufus was an angry, over confident and nasty man who history deems got what he deserved.
As a child I was told by my grandfather that it was an ancestor of ours who found William Rufus on the floor of the forest. Intrigued, I searched among books to see if this was true, and indeed my grandfathers tale has a basis in fact for, legend has
it, that a man did come across the dead king and took him to Winchester in his cart, his name was Purkis.
My family story may or may not be true, however my grandfathers surname was Purches, and his grandfather's family are all Hampshire born and their surname of Purches is derived from the surname Purkis.
Maybe it's a true story after all.
William Rufus remains lie in Winchester Cathedral.
On the 27th May 1199, John the youngest son of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine, was crowned King of England.
John can often be found at the top of the leader board when there is a vote for England's worst king, and this always
irritates me. John was disadvantaged from the start: Squabbling parents, youngest son, a spoilt and show off older brother, grumpy barons and a bankrupt country. Richard I, England's blue eyed boy, was a hard act to follow and I quote from W L Warren who, like me, has some sympathy for John.
In regard to Richard he writes:
"If Richard had lived another five years, there would have been one notable difference in the course of the campaign. The
king himself would have been on the heights above Les Andelys and even when all else had gone, Richard would have been
urging the citizens of Rouen to arms, parrying the first assault with blows of his great sword..."
This then is how history views Richard, Warren then goes on to write:
"By comparison with Richard, then, John has been seen as a weedy little tick"
England's problems, created by Richard, were blamed on John and when he had difficulty dealing with them he is
labeled a bad king.
Henry II was born the eldest of three sons to Empress Matilda and Geoffrey, Count of Anjou.
Henry II, as king of England, owes his place on the throne to the early death of William Adelin, his uncle and King Henry I’s only son and heir, who had perished when a ship in which he was travelling sank in the English Channel. What followed is known as the Anarchy, an era of broken promises and a major fallout between cousins
King Henry II was no clotheshorse, he cared little for appearance and he did love kingship, or at least everything that came with it. He was often rude and had a quick temper, quite a match for the wonderfully feisty Eleanor of Aquitaine who he married in the May of 1152. His children with Eleanor, among others, were Henry, Richard, Geoffrey and John.
Henry II was often unfaithful to Eleanor, their relationship was unsettled and stormy and this eventually lead to Eleanor being placed under arrest after she encouraged her children to rebel against their father. During the years of their marriage Eleanor gave her love to Richard, whilst Henry’s affections were with John, even though John was his father's favourite he was given nothing in regards to lands and estates.
Henry's family are a prime example of a dysfunctional one and this lead to problems on many different levels, especially in regard to their children. To many people John was cruel, greedy and ultimately a failure as king, the exact copy of his brother Richard, yet Richard is seen as a hero and John a villain...but that's another story!
Both sons disagreed with their father's policies and had fallen out with him over them. Richard rebelled and took up arms against his father, John conspired sometimes with and sometimes against his elder brothers.
Henry was not oblivious of this, he made a curious statement regarding a painting in a chamber of Winchester Castle, depicting an eagle being attacked by three of its chicks, while a fourth crouched chick waits for its chance to strike. When asked the meaning of this picture, King Henry said:
"The four young ones of the eagle are my four sons who will not cease persecuting me even unto death.
And the youngest, whom I now embrace with such tender affection, will someday afflict me more grievously and perilously than all the others."
Henry's involvement in the death of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170, is what Henry is most famous for, yet there was so much more to this king than that.
The word Stannary means 'belonging to tin mines' and is taken from the Latin word Stanum.
The areas in Cornwall, where tin was extracted, were known as Stannaries and the law that affected them were known as Stannary Law. These Cornish Stannaries form part of the Duchy of Cornwall, an estate which was created by Edward III in 1337 when he granted his son, Edward, the Black Prince Duke of Cornwall.
Tin mining in Cornwall is ancient, and employed men in remote and outlying areas away from the main towns, and therefore they had their own rules and regulations. The early Earls and Dukes of this distant county reaped great rewards from mining and since early times the mines and the men working them have been protected by the crown. This institution had its its head wardens who were governed by the Lord Warden of the Stannaries.
The writ appointing the Lord Warden covered the
"just and ancient customs and liberties of miners, smelters and merchants of tin."
The first to hold this title was William de Wrotham who was given this title on the 20th November 1197 during the reign of King Richard I. In 1198, juries of miners at Launceston, stood before Wrotham to swear by the law and practice of the tin mines.
Over the years, Royal Charters issued by Edward I in 1305, Edward IV in 1466, and Henry VII in 1508 have changed and
added to the laws within the Stannaries. King John, often seen as a selfish and greedy king, was not slow to see the attraction of the Cornish tin industry. In 1201 he issued the first charter to the Stannaries. By 1214, production of tin had risen to six hundred tons, the result of this saw many men, who once worked on the land, move to mining. One of the clauses of Magna Carta was that no lord shoud lose the service of his men whether he dug tin or not. Henry III confired his fathers charter, and
the Stannaries soon had their own taxation, no acknowledged lord and were 'a law unto themselves.' By the end of the 13th century the Stannaries were under the control of Richard, the second son of King John and his son Edmund as the Earls of Cornwall.
In 1225, Richard, at just sixteen, was granted the County of Cornwall and all its tin works, and following that the Earldom of Cornwall. Later Edward I granted privileges to tinners to be tried by their own courts and benefit from the exemption of taxation.
The above image records one John Gurney’s appointment as Vicewarden of the Stannaries for Devon and explains the differences between the courts in Cornwall and Devon.
Featuring Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland. 1938
The Victorians would have loved this film, it a romantic romp and probably owes much to the stories of Sir Walter Scott and the illustrations of Howard Pyle rather than Robin Hood's 'true' tale.
"Its injustice I hate, not the Normans" Robin says
Which is just as well, as Flynn's Robin doesn't take much of a stand against John, and the Crusades only get a passing mention and as usual 'good' King Richard swans in an out of the film just as he swanned in and out of the country in real life!
None the less, its a decent, rousing swashbuckling film, and really not a bad way to spend a Sunday afternoon.
The story of Robin Hood, a local hero, who took on the might of the realm, has its roots in late 15th century to early 16th century English ballads.
Walter Bower, a Scottish abbot of Inchcolm Abbey wrote in 1440
"Then arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads."
This film is proof that Bower was not wrong.
The Adventures of Robin Hood is a bit of a fairy tale, Errol Flynn, with sword in one hand and his eye of the beautiful Maid Marion, jumps from the highest branches of trees, managing to land with both feet firmly on the ground and both hands on his hips, all this without his plucky little grin ever leaving his face.
What a hero!
After ten years in the workplace I became a mother to three very beautiful daughters, I was fortunate enough to have been able to stay at home and spend my time with them as they grew into the young women they are now. I am still in the position of being able to be at home and pursue all the interests I have previously mentioned. We live in a beautiful Victorian spa town with wooded walks for the dog, lovely shops and a host of lovely people, what more could I ask for.
All works © Andrea Povey 2014. Please do not reproduce without the expressed written consent of Andrea Povey.
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Exercise 1-13: Variable Stress
Notice how the meaning of the following sentence changes each time we change the stress pattern. You should be starting to feel in control of your sentences now.
1. What would you like ?
This is the most common version of the sentence, and it is just a simple request for information.
2. What would you like?
This is to single out an individual from a group.
3. What would you like?
You've been discussing the kinds of things he might like and you want to determine his specific desires: "Now that you mention it, what would you like?"
He has rejected several things and a little exasperated, you ask, "If you don't want any of these, what would you like?"
4. What would you like?
You didn't hear and you would like the speaker to repeat herself.
You can't believe what you heard: "I'd like strawberry jam on my asparagus."
— "What would you like ?"
+ Turn off the CD and repeat the four sentences. | <urn:uuid:2d804dd1-fd14-4e56-afaf-e65365b91642> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://oral.bigear.cn/oral-1027.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.980823 | 224 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.026597511023283005,
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0.1588104516267... | 1 | Exercise 1-13: Variable Stress
Notice how the meaning of the following sentence changes each time we change the stress pattern. You should be starting to feel in control of your sentences now.
1. What would you like ?
This is the most common version of the sentence, and it is just a simple request for information.
2. What would you like?
This is to single out an individual from a group.
3. What would you like?
You've been discussing the kinds of things he might like and you want to determine his specific desires: "Now that you mention it, what would you like?"
He has rejected several things and a little exasperated, you ask, "If you don't want any of these, what would you like?"
4. What would you like?
You didn't hear and you would like the speaker to repeat herself.
You can't believe what you heard: "I'd like strawberry jam on my asparagus."
— "What would you like ?"
+ Turn off the CD and repeat the four sentences. | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
David Dickson, (born July 6, 1809, Hancock county, Georgia, U.S.—died February 18, 1885, Hancock county), American farmer and writer on agriculture. A prosperous and respected cotton farmer both before and after the American Civil War, he became known throughout his home state for his progressive farming methods and for his enlightened use of slave and (after Emancipation) tenant labour. Upon his death he shocked plantation society by leaving most of his estate to his daughter, born to him before the Civil War by a slave girl.
Dickson’s father, Thomas, moved from Virginia to Georgia soon after the American Revolution. As a young man, David Dickson received a patrimony, which he used to establish himself as a trader. He and a partner opened a store in Sparta, the seat of Hancock county, in 1835. Eleven years later he sold his business and purchased land, equipment, livestock, and slaves and began to farm. His emphasis on efficiency in organization and labour were remarkable, and some of his methods of farming were original; he was the first to introduce to the South the use of guano as a fertilizer. Dickson’s private correspondence as well as his careful records and his letters to farming journals were a great influence on agricultural practices in the cotton-growing states. He wrote on a variety of subjects from seed selection to the advisability of mixed (rather than single-crop) farming.
After the Civil War began, Dickson used his land to grow provisions for the Confederate army. Though he lost much of his land in Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman’s “March to the Sea,” Dickson prospered once more after the war. He is noted for having bred a variety of cotton called “Dickson’s Select.” In 1870 his writings were published as A Practical Treatise on Agriculture: to Which is Added the Author’s Published Letters.
On his death he scandalized Hancock county society by bequeathing the vast bulk of his estate (a share with a value estimated at more than $300,000) to his only child, Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893). Her mother, a slave belonging to his mother, had been raped at age 12 or 13 by David Dickson. Amanda Dickson’s white relatives contested the will, but she successfully defended her inheritance all the way to the state Supreme Court, which ruled that the legal rights of inheritance applied equally to each race. Amanda Dickson lived the rest of her life in a sumptuous home in Augusta, Georgia. Her story and that of her father are studied today as an example of both the close bonds and deep divisions that existed between blacks and whites in the antebellum and Reconstruction-era South.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Cotton, seed-hair fibre of several species of plants of the genus Gossypium,belonging to the hibiscus, or mallow, family (Malvaceae). Cotton, one of the world’s leading agricultural crops, is plentiful and economically produced, making cotton products relatively inexpensive. The fibres can be made into…
American Civil War
American Civil War, four-year war (1861–65) between the United States and 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America.…
Slavery, condition in which one human being was owned by another. A slave was considered by law as property, or chattel, and was deprived of most of the rights ordinarily held by free persons.… | <urn:uuid:9b9eb807-ba9b-46fb-a60f-529945caec62> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Dickson | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.981554 | 792 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.066851913928... | 2 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
David Dickson, (born July 6, 1809, Hancock county, Georgia, U.S.—died February 18, 1885, Hancock county), American farmer and writer on agriculture. A prosperous and respected cotton farmer both before and after the American Civil War, he became known throughout his home state for his progressive farming methods and for his enlightened use of slave and (after Emancipation) tenant labour. Upon his death he shocked plantation society by leaving most of his estate to his daughter, born to him before the Civil War by a slave girl.
Dickson’s father, Thomas, moved from Virginia to Georgia soon after the American Revolution. As a young man, David Dickson received a patrimony, which he used to establish himself as a trader. He and a partner opened a store in Sparta, the seat of Hancock county, in 1835. Eleven years later he sold his business and purchased land, equipment, livestock, and slaves and began to farm. His emphasis on efficiency in organization and labour were remarkable, and some of his methods of farming were original; he was the first to introduce to the South the use of guano as a fertilizer. Dickson’s private correspondence as well as his careful records and his letters to farming journals were a great influence on agricultural practices in the cotton-growing states. He wrote on a variety of subjects from seed selection to the advisability of mixed (rather than single-crop) farming.
After the Civil War began, Dickson used his land to grow provisions for the Confederate army. Though he lost much of his land in Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman’s “March to the Sea,” Dickson prospered once more after the war. He is noted for having bred a variety of cotton called “Dickson’s Select.” In 1870 his writings were published as A Practical Treatise on Agriculture: to Which is Added the Author’s Published Letters.
On his death he scandalized Hancock county society by bequeathing the vast bulk of his estate (a share with a value estimated at more than $300,000) to his only child, Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893). Her mother, a slave belonging to his mother, had been raped at age 12 or 13 by David Dickson. Amanda Dickson’s white relatives contested the will, but she successfully defended her inheritance all the way to the state Supreme Court, which ruled that the legal rights of inheritance applied equally to each race. Amanda Dickson lived the rest of her life in a sumptuous home in Augusta, Georgia. Her story and that of her father are studied today as an example of both the close bonds and deep divisions that existed between blacks and whites in the antebellum and Reconstruction-era South.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Cotton, seed-hair fibre of several species of plants of the genus Gossypium,belonging to the hibiscus, or mallow, family (Malvaceae). Cotton, one of the world’s leading agricultural crops, is plentiful and economically produced, making cotton products relatively inexpensive. The fibres can be made into…
American Civil War
American Civil War, four-year war (1861–65) between the United States and 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America.…
Slavery, condition in which one human being was owned by another. A slave was considered by law as property, or chattel, and was deprived of most of the rights ordinarily held by free persons.… | 784 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Ancient Rome, January was a month of new beginnings, just as it is for us now. January was named after the god Janus – god of change and new beginnings in ancient mythology. Janus is represented by the image of a two-faced god, looking back at the past and facing the future at the same time. The image is also often taken to represent deceit or being “two-faced”.
Some commentators believe that January – Ianuarius in Latin – was actually one of the last months of the year, along with February.
The earliest Roman calendar is supposed to have been the handiwork of Romulus – one of the founders of Rome – and pre-dates Christianity. The year began in March – making January the penultimate month of the year. The year also only consisted of 304 days comprising ten months.
The second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, is said to have extended it by two months to 354 days – further calculations and reductions in the length of each month left just 56 days to divvy up between January and February.
Ancient Romans used to consider even numbers unlucky, so January was given 31 days, with an extra one added. February was left with an even number of days. February is dedicated to the infernal gods and is the month of purification. An infernal god literally lives in an inferno – what is seen as “hell” or “damnation” – so the Romans thought that leaving February with an even but unlucky number of days was appropriate.
It is clear to see that Ancient Romans were very adept at changing things to suit their beliefs – and justifying other things that might not reflect a belief!
The calendar was tinkered with by various rulers until Julius Caesar got his hands on it in 46 BC – and alternated months with 31 days with those having 30 days, leaving February with 28 days, except for a Leap Year every four years to take into account the earth’s rotation. This calendar is known as the Julian calendar.
January had become the first month of the year in 715–673 BC, but this was later changed back to the former calendar’s starting month of March.
It was only in 1570 when Pope Gregory restored January 1 as the first day of the new year that the New Year as we now know it became the norm. His changes resulted in the Gregorian Calendar – although the Julian Calendar is still in use and established the year as we know it as having 365 days a year, except for Leap Years.
England adopted the new year as beginning on January 1 in 1752. Until then, March 25 had signalled the start of the New Year in England and its American colonies.
January is now thought of as a month of new beginnings – and new resolutions, most of them good! If you find it hard to keep your resolutions, be comforted by the fact that Ancient Romans also sometimes adapted their beliefs to accommodate how they were feeling at the time.
So if you find it hard to keep your New Year’s resolution in January, perhaps revert to the old Roman calendar and try again on March 25! | <urn:uuid:eb9c66ac-ecf7-4270-8741-628f8401461c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://novelromealone.com/2020/01/02/january-the-month-of-new-beginnings-in-ancient-rome/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00109.warc.gz | en | 0.988429 | 649 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.3244902789... | 16 | In Ancient Rome, January was a month of new beginnings, just as it is for us now. January was named after the god Janus – god of change and new beginnings in ancient mythology. Janus is represented by the image of a two-faced god, looking back at the past and facing the future at the same time. The image is also often taken to represent deceit or being “two-faced”.
Some commentators believe that January – Ianuarius in Latin – was actually one of the last months of the year, along with February.
The earliest Roman calendar is supposed to have been the handiwork of Romulus – one of the founders of Rome – and pre-dates Christianity. The year began in March – making January the penultimate month of the year. The year also only consisted of 304 days comprising ten months.
The second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, is said to have extended it by two months to 354 days – further calculations and reductions in the length of each month left just 56 days to divvy up between January and February.
Ancient Romans used to consider even numbers unlucky, so January was given 31 days, with an extra one added. February was left with an even number of days. February is dedicated to the infernal gods and is the month of purification. An infernal god literally lives in an inferno – what is seen as “hell” or “damnation” – so the Romans thought that leaving February with an even but unlucky number of days was appropriate.
It is clear to see that Ancient Romans were very adept at changing things to suit their beliefs – and justifying other things that might not reflect a belief!
The calendar was tinkered with by various rulers until Julius Caesar got his hands on it in 46 BC – and alternated months with 31 days with those having 30 days, leaving February with 28 days, except for a Leap Year every four years to take into account the earth’s rotation. This calendar is known as the Julian calendar.
January had become the first month of the year in 715–673 BC, but this was later changed back to the former calendar’s starting month of March.
It was only in 1570 when Pope Gregory restored January 1 as the first day of the new year that the New Year as we now know it became the norm. His changes resulted in the Gregorian Calendar – although the Julian Calendar is still in use and established the year as we know it as having 365 days a year, except for Leap Years.
England adopted the new year as beginning on January 1 in 1752. Until then, March 25 had signalled the start of the New Year in England and its American colonies.
January is now thought of as a month of new beginnings – and new resolutions, most of them good! If you find it hard to keep your resolutions, be comforted by the fact that Ancient Romans also sometimes adapted their beliefs to accommodate how they were feeling at the time.
So if you find it hard to keep your New Year’s resolution in January, perhaps revert to the old Roman calendar and try again on March 25! | 662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As the newly established Cuban Revolution drifted towards a Marxist-Leninist political system in the early months of the new decade, relations with the U.S. grew cold and stale, and came to an abrupt end in early 1961.
Upper class and professional Cubans were leaving the island in droves, as the new government seemed to embody a disturbing new ideology. By mid 1960, Cuba and the Soviet Union had established formal diplomatic relations, and oil companies owned by Shell, Esso and Texaco, were nationalized after they refused to refine Soviet oil.
In December 1959 Cubans began to send their children to the U.S., afraid of "loosing them to communism." (Over 14,000 Cuban children who came to the U.S. in this manner are now remembered as the Pedro Pan kids.) At the same time, various newspapers in the U.S., Mexico, and Latin America were running articles warning of an imminent U.S. attack on Cuba.
The recently elected Kennedy administration denied emphatically that an attack on Cuba was planned, but in mid-April an attack took place at Bay of Pigs. The invasion was easily defeated by the Cubans, who were prepared, lacking only knowledge of exactly where and when the attack would take place. About 1,200 Cuban counterrevolutionaries were taken prisoner, and among the 200 or so who died in battle, four were American pilots.
Eighteen months later the Crisis of October, known in the U.S. as the missile crisis, brought the world to the brink of a nuclear showdown, eventually ending in the withdrawal of Soviet nuclear missiles from Cuba, and a U.S. promise to not attack Cuba again.
The rest of the decade didn't change much for Cuba, who pursued relations with Soviet Bloc nations while the U.S. pursued a tract of covert hostility and isolationism against "Castro's government."
The embargo that began in 1960 soon was cranked up to the next level, and Cubans were forced to scramble for food and consumer goods. Relations with the Soviet bloc also went up a notch, and Cuba got center-stage attention from the whole world as she tried to survive U.S. and counterrevolutionary hostilities.
There were also problems with the Soviets, with whom the Cubans did not always get along. In January 1968, thirty-seven members of the Cuban Communist Party were charged with treason for conspiring with the Soviets against the Cuban government. Eight were found guilty and expelled from the island.
The decade ended with the widely lauded goal of a 10-million-ton sugar crop for 1970. It became the holy grail of the Revolution on its tenth birthday, and turned out to be 1.5 million tons short.
Cubans, by this time, were used to major disappointments. But, as always, they managed to survive the difficult times by looking forward to a more prosperous future that might or might not come, and living today to the fullest extent possible.
The Timetable - 1960
The Cuban Missile Crisis aka The October Crisis of 1962: An Introduction | A Timeline | Lessons of the Missile Crisis - Excerpt from: Sad and Luminous Days: Cuba's Secret Struggles witht the Superpowers After the Cuban Missile Crisis
Castro sends a verbal message to President Lyndon B. Johnson
Excerpt from SARTRE on Cuba
Use of this site implies full agreement with the terms and conditions under which this site is available. | <urn:uuid:76057825-6407-4cba-8bc8-f67b088c5c1a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://historyofcuba.com/history/havana/sixties.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.981296 | 706 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.22150832414627075... | 6 | As the newly established Cuban Revolution drifted towards a Marxist-Leninist political system in the early months of the new decade, relations with the U.S. grew cold and stale, and came to an abrupt end in early 1961.
Upper class and professional Cubans were leaving the island in droves, as the new government seemed to embody a disturbing new ideology. By mid 1960, Cuba and the Soviet Union had established formal diplomatic relations, and oil companies owned by Shell, Esso and Texaco, were nationalized after they refused to refine Soviet oil.
In December 1959 Cubans began to send their children to the U.S., afraid of "loosing them to communism." (Over 14,000 Cuban children who came to the U.S. in this manner are now remembered as the Pedro Pan kids.) At the same time, various newspapers in the U.S., Mexico, and Latin America were running articles warning of an imminent U.S. attack on Cuba.
The recently elected Kennedy administration denied emphatically that an attack on Cuba was planned, but in mid-April an attack took place at Bay of Pigs. The invasion was easily defeated by the Cubans, who were prepared, lacking only knowledge of exactly where and when the attack would take place. About 1,200 Cuban counterrevolutionaries were taken prisoner, and among the 200 or so who died in battle, four were American pilots.
Eighteen months later the Crisis of October, known in the U.S. as the missile crisis, brought the world to the brink of a nuclear showdown, eventually ending in the withdrawal of Soviet nuclear missiles from Cuba, and a U.S. promise to not attack Cuba again.
The rest of the decade didn't change much for Cuba, who pursued relations with Soviet Bloc nations while the U.S. pursued a tract of covert hostility and isolationism against "Castro's government."
The embargo that began in 1960 soon was cranked up to the next level, and Cubans were forced to scramble for food and consumer goods. Relations with the Soviet bloc also went up a notch, and Cuba got center-stage attention from the whole world as she tried to survive U.S. and counterrevolutionary hostilities.
There were also problems with the Soviets, with whom the Cubans did not always get along. In January 1968, thirty-seven members of the Cuban Communist Party were charged with treason for conspiring with the Soviets against the Cuban government. Eight were found guilty and expelled from the island.
The decade ended with the widely lauded goal of a 10-million-ton sugar crop for 1970. It became the holy grail of the Revolution on its tenth birthday, and turned out to be 1.5 million tons short.
Cubans, by this time, were used to major disappointments. But, as always, they managed to survive the difficult times by looking forward to a more prosperous future that might or might not come, and living today to the fullest extent possible.
The Timetable - 1960
The Cuban Missile Crisis aka The October Crisis of 1962: An Introduction | A Timeline | Lessons of the Missile Crisis - Excerpt from: Sad and Luminous Days: Cuba's Secret Struggles witht the Superpowers After the Cuban Missile Crisis
Castro sends a verbal message to President Lyndon B. Johnson
Excerpt from SARTRE on Cuba
Use of this site implies full agreement with the terms and conditions under which this site is available. | 735 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cupid and Psyche are characters in a myth told by the Roman writer Apuleius. Psyche was the youngest and most beautiful of a king’s three daughters. She was so beautiful that humans ceased worshiping Venus (the goddess of beauty, whom the Greeks called Aphrodite). This angered Venus, who told her son Cupid, the god of love, to make Psyche fall in love with the ugliest creature in the world. But Cupid fell in love with Psyche himself and asked the god Apollo to help him win her.
Apollo ordered Psyche’s father to take her to a mountain where a winged serpent would take her for his wife. From the mountain, Psyche was taken instead on a gentle breeze to a fabulous palace. There a voice told her the palace belonged to her and that her every desire would be fulfilled. That night, Cupid came to her in the dark and told her that as long as she did not try to see him or find out who he was, she would be happy forever.
Psyche soon became lonely, however, and asked if her sisters might be allowed to visit her. When her sisters saw the palace, they became jealous and plotted to destroy her happiness. They discovered that Psyche had never seen her husband and convinced her that he was a serpent who would kill her. That night, Psyche took a lamp and a dagger to her bedroom, planning to kill her husband while he was asleep. As she lit the lamp, she saw that he was no serpent but was the handsome Cupid. Cupid awoke and, realizing that Psyche had discovered his identity, fled from her.
Psyche searched for Cupid but was unable to find him. She asked the gods for help, but none of them wanted to anger Venus by helping Psyche. Finally, she offered herself as a servant to Venus, hoping to soften the goddess’s anger. Venus, however, was still angry at Psyche and ordered her to perform several seemingly impossible tasks. Psyche managed to complete the tasks, aided each time by friendly spirits. Her final task was to bring Venus a box from Proserpina, queen of Hades (the kingdom of the dead). Psyche, curious about the contents of the box, opened it and was overcome by a deadly sleep. Cupid found the sleeping Psyche and woke her. He then convinced Jupiter, king of the gods, to make Psyche immortal*.
Now that Psyche was a goddess, Venus consented to her marriage to Cupid. This story has often been interpreted as an allegory* that tells how love (Cupid) and the soul (Psyche) overcome all obstacles to find each other. (See also Divinities; Myths, Roman.)
* immortal living forever
* allegory literary device in which characters represent an idea or a religious or moral principle | <urn:uuid:2c1cdc8c-79a8-4363-942c-ff709052ffbd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/ancient/ancient-greece-and-rome-an-encyclopedia-for-students-4-volume-set/116.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.98738 | 592 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.35502642393112... | 5 | Cupid and Psyche are characters in a myth told by the Roman writer Apuleius. Psyche was the youngest and most beautiful of a king’s three daughters. She was so beautiful that humans ceased worshiping Venus (the goddess of beauty, whom the Greeks called Aphrodite). This angered Venus, who told her son Cupid, the god of love, to make Psyche fall in love with the ugliest creature in the world. But Cupid fell in love with Psyche himself and asked the god Apollo to help him win her.
Apollo ordered Psyche’s father to take her to a mountain where a winged serpent would take her for his wife. From the mountain, Psyche was taken instead on a gentle breeze to a fabulous palace. There a voice told her the palace belonged to her and that her every desire would be fulfilled. That night, Cupid came to her in the dark and told her that as long as she did not try to see him or find out who he was, she would be happy forever.
Psyche soon became lonely, however, and asked if her sisters might be allowed to visit her. When her sisters saw the palace, they became jealous and plotted to destroy her happiness. They discovered that Psyche had never seen her husband and convinced her that he was a serpent who would kill her. That night, Psyche took a lamp and a dagger to her bedroom, planning to kill her husband while he was asleep. As she lit the lamp, she saw that he was no serpent but was the handsome Cupid. Cupid awoke and, realizing that Psyche had discovered his identity, fled from her.
Psyche searched for Cupid but was unable to find him. She asked the gods for help, but none of them wanted to anger Venus by helping Psyche. Finally, she offered herself as a servant to Venus, hoping to soften the goddess’s anger. Venus, however, was still angry at Psyche and ordered her to perform several seemingly impossible tasks. Psyche managed to complete the tasks, aided each time by friendly spirits. Her final task was to bring Venus a box from Proserpina, queen of Hades (the kingdom of the dead). Psyche, curious about the contents of the box, opened it and was overcome by a deadly sleep. Cupid found the sleeping Psyche and woke her. He then convinced Jupiter, king of the gods, to make Psyche immortal*.
Now that Psyche was a goddess, Venus consented to her marriage to Cupid. This story has often been interpreted as an allegory* that tells how love (Cupid) and the soul (Psyche) overcome all obstacles to find each other. (See also Divinities; Myths, Roman.)
* immortal living forever
* allegory literary device in which characters represent an idea or a religious or moral principle | 582 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Major Indigenous languages include Oshiwambo, Herrero, Nama, Damara, various San languages, and Silozi.
English is the official language and is widely spoken. However, the majority of older Namibians (those educated before independence) speak English only as a third language; therefore, the standard is fairly poor. English is more widely spoken in the north, as it was adopted as a medium of instruction earlier than in the south. Older Namibians in the South are more likely to speak Afrikaans or German.
Afrikaans is spoken by many and is the first language of the Coloureds as well as the Afrikaners. English is spoken as a first language by the remaining English families, and German is spoken by the Namibians of German descent, who tend to be in Windhoek, Swakopmund and various farms scattered through the country. German is one of the leading commercial languages as well. Portuguese is spoken by immigrants from Angola. | <urn:uuid:3a4d91b2-2efc-4945-846c-15999f8b9e63> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.travelshelper.com/destinations/africa/namibia/namibia-language/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.982215 | 203 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1175884157419204... | 2 | Major Indigenous languages include Oshiwambo, Herrero, Nama, Damara, various San languages, and Silozi.
English is the official language and is widely spoken. However, the majority of older Namibians (those educated before independence) speak English only as a third language; therefore, the standard is fairly poor. English is more widely spoken in the north, as it was adopted as a medium of instruction earlier than in the south. Older Namibians in the South are more likely to speak Afrikaans or German.
Afrikaans is spoken by many and is the first language of the Coloureds as well as the Afrikaners. English is spoken as a first language by the remaining English families, and German is spoken by the Namibians of German descent, who tend to be in Windhoek, Swakopmund and various farms scattered through the country. German is one of the leading commercial languages as well. Portuguese is spoken by immigrants from Angola. | 203 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1866, just about 18 months after the Civil War, the U.S. military suffered its worst defeat in the West until 10 years later when LTC George Custer and the men of the 7th Cavalry would be wiped out at the Little Big Horn.
The defeat took place in Wyoming along the Bozeman Trail. Here, Crazy Horse, displaying classic guerrilla warfare tactics, with just 10 warriors, lured Captain William Fetterman and 80 of his troopers into a fatal ambush where 1000-2000 warriors were waiting and the army troops were wiped out to a man. This caused the United States to pull out of the area.
Tensions among the Indians had been deteriorating for three years after John Bozeman blazed a trail thru American Indian territory to help Americans rushing to the gold fields of Montana. The land was deeded to the Crow Indian tribe from the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty. But due to dwindling herds of buffalo, the Arapaho, Cheyenne and Lakota Sioux were all encroaching upon Crow land. By 1860, the tribes had taken the hunting grounds west of the Powder River.
With the discovery of gold in Montana, there was a massive influx of settlers pouring into the area, in clear violation of the treaty. Rather than dissuade the settlers from encroaching on Indian land, the government sent U.S. Army troops under the command of Colonel Henry Carrington from Fort Laramie to protect the settlers. He moved into the Powder River area with 1000 people (700 soldiers, 300 civilians) under his command.
Carrington and the army, exploiting legalese in the treaty that allowed them to “establish roads, military, and other posts” built three forts along the trail including his headquarters which was named Fort Phil Kearny, located near present-day Buffalo, Wyoming. He posted about 400 soldiers and almost all of the civilians there.
The Indians wasted no time in making their displeasure felt; in the few months it took to construct his forts, Carrington’s troops were attacked no less than 50 times and the army lost 20 troopers and civilians. While Carrington had the army in a defensive posture, that was soon about to change.
In November 1866, Carrington was reinforced with 63 additional cavalry troopers under the command of Lt. Horatio Bingham. Accompanying the troopers were two Captains from the 18th Infantry, William J. Fetterman and James W. Powell.
Both Fetterman and Bingham were Civil War veterans. Fetterman came from a military family both his father and his uncle (who he lived with for a time) were West Point graduates. When the Civil War began, Fetterman enlisted in May 1861 and was given a commission as a 1LT. He was assigned to the 18th Infantry and served thru the entire war, being twice breveted for gallant conduct. At the war’s end, his rank was that of an LTC of Volunteers. Fetterman was like many officers of his generation. They were all prone to self-promoting, bombastic remarks. Or as we’d say today, “they liked to talk S**T!”
Soon after arriving, Fetterman urged his commander to be more aggressive and reportedly made the remark “with 80 men, I could ride through the whole Sioux Nation.” Of course, no mention of his remark was made until about 40 years later. Carrington, in an effort to protect his own legacy, threw Fetterman under the bus, saying that the Captain was reckless and disobeyed orders. However, after nearly getting caught in an ambush earlier in December, Fetterman reportedly told Carrington that “learned a lesson, and that this Indian war has become a hand-to-hand fight, requiring the utmost caution.”
So then came the events of December 21, 1866. A large band of Cheyenne and Sioux warriors under the command of Red Cloud which included Crazy Horse numbering between 1000-2000 warriors were going to lay a trap for the troopers.
Crazy Horse had earlier ran a successful ambush where he had enticed troopers to follow a small band of warriors into a kill zone where a large number of their tribe would await. On December 6, they killed several troopers that way including Bingham, the cavalry commander. This one would be on a much grander scale.
The Indians who knew the land well picked out a perfect ambush site about 4-5 miles north of Fort Kearny and along the Bozeman trail north of Lodge Trail ridge. At 10 a.m. on the 21st, about 90 soldiers and a wagon train left the fort to go to what was described as a “pinery”, where there was ample supply of wood for the fort.
Only about an hour after they left, pickets reported that the wood detail was under attack. Carrington immediately ordered a quick reaction force composed of 49 infantrymen of the 18th Infantry and 27 mounted troopers of the 2nd Cavalry to be commanded by Captain James Powell. However, Fetterman asked for and was given command of the rescue party, claiming seniority. Lieutenant George Grummond, led the cavalry, which had been leaderless since Bingham’s death two weeks prior. Captain Frederick Brown, the post quartermaster and two civilians, James Wheatley and Isaac Fisher, joined Fetterman, bringing the relief force up to 81 officers and men. The infantry marched out first; the cavalry after mounting their horses would catch up on the march.
Carrington later testified to the inquiry after the battle that his orders were quite clear. “Under no circumstances” was the rescue to “pursue over the ridge, that is Lodge Trail Ridge”. Lieutenant Grummond’s wife, later wrote in a book that Carrington’s statement was true. She said these orders were given twice, the second time by Carrington from the sentry walk after ordering the soldiers to halt as they left the front gate of the fort, to drive home the point. Mrs. Grummond wrote that everyone present could hear the orders from Carrington.
But once he left the fort, Fetterman did, in fact, take the Lodge Trail north rather than the other trail northwest which ran to the “pinery” where the troops on the lumber detail had been attacked. At the time Carrington assumed that Fetterman was attempting to approach from the Indians’ rear area.
Around 11:30 a.m., the garrison watched Fetterman’s command, with Grummond’s cavalry out in front on the flanks, cross out of sight over the ridge in pursuit of 10 Indians, who were the decoys. As soon as they entered the kill zone, the large Indian contingent expertly caught them in the open, quickly wiping out the entire command.
So how did this happen? Grummond who was both reckless and unfamiliar with Indian tactics had ridden out ahead of Fetterman’s infantry. So while Fetterman did truly disobey his orders, the tactical situation had changed. The woodcutting detail was no longer under attack and was proceeding to the “pineries” unhindered. The Indians were retreating over the ridgeline toward Lodge Trail Ridge.
Fetterman was going to attempt to seize the initiative and was going to attempt to catch the Indians before they could get away. He had no way of knowing his men were about to enter a maelstrom with about 1000-2000 Indian warriors awaiting.
His men had followed the 10 Indian decoys until they reached a spot where the decoys signaled the Indians waiting on both sides of the trail. Fetterman’s troops were quickly overwhelmed and they were found in a tight circle where the Indians overwhelmed them. Few of the Indians had firearms, most fought with bow and arrow, war clubs and knives. Only six troopers were found killed by firearms. It took all of 20 minutes to kill all of the infantry. The cavalry under Grummond was a mile ahead and the same fate befell them as well. It took just another 20 minutes for the troopers to be overwhelmed.
The last man to die was the bugler Adolph Metzger. His bugle, likely his only weapon was found smashed. But the Indians, in a show of respect for a lone man fighting against huge odds, didn’t mutilate his body but covered it with buffalo hide.
About noon, Carrington assembled about 75 troopers under Captain Ten Eyck to investigate where Fetterman’s troops were. Shortly afterward, they were joined by 40 more. They reached the top of the Lodge Trail about 12:45 p.m. In the valley below, they observed a large group of Indian warriors. As the Indians dispersed, the troops moved down into the valley.
They found the remains of all 81 of Fetterman’s command. They’d all be stripped naked, mutilated in the ritual fashion. Hands, noses, and ears cut off, eyes gouged out. Private parts severed. Brains removed and laid on rocks. They dispatched wagons to bring back their dead.
Indian casualties ranged from between 14 -100 dead with about 150 wounded.
By 1868 Fort Kearny was abandoned.
This was a classic guerrilla operation, unfortunately, it was and still is a hard lesson for the U.S. Army to learn. The conventional “Big Army” still hasn’t mastered how to win a guerrilla war over 150 years later.
Illustration: Kim Douglas/Wyoming History | <urn:uuid:841e043a-525c-4bd2-a52c-d0323cd554c0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sofrep.com/specialoperations/crazy-horse-kills-81-us-troopers-in-the-fetterman-massacre-dec-21-1866/?post_id=33878 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.983652 | 1,999 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.244157314300... | 7 | In 1866, just about 18 months after the Civil War, the U.S. military suffered its worst defeat in the West until 10 years later when LTC George Custer and the men of the 7th Cavalry would be wiped out at the Little Big Horn.
The defeat took place in Wyoming along the Bozeman Trail. Here, Crazy Horse, displaying classic guerrilla warfare tactics, with just 10 warriors, lured Captain William Fetterman and 80 of his troopers into a fatal ambush where 1000-2000 warriors were waiting and the army troops were wiped out to a man. This caused the United States to pull out of the area.
Tensions among the Indians had been deteriorating for three years after John Bozeman blazed a trail thru American Indian territory to help Americans rushing to the gold fields of Montana. The land was deeded to the Crow Indian tribe from the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty. But due to dwindling herds of buffalo, the Arapaho, Cheyenne and Lakota Sioux were all encroaching upon Crow land. By 1860, the tribes had taken the hunting grounds west of the Powder River.
With the discovery of gold in Montana, there was a massive influx of settlers pouring into the area, in clear violation of the treaty. Rather than dissuade the settlers from encroaching on Indian land, the government sent U.S. Army troops under the command of Colonel Henry Carrington from Fort Laramie to protect the settlers. He moved into the Powder River area with 1000 people (700 soldiers, 300 civilians) under his command.
Carrington and the army, exploiting legalese in the treaty that allowed them to “establish roads, military, and other posts” built three forts along the trail including his headquarters which was named Fort Phil Kearny, located near present-day Buffalo, Wyoming. He posted about 400 soldiers and almost all of the civilians there.
The Indians wasted no time in making their displeasure felt; in the few months it took to construct his forts, Carrington’s troops were attacked no less than 50 times and the army lost 20 troopers and civilians. While Carrington had the army in a defensive posture, that was soon about to change.
In November 1866, Carrington was reinforced with 63 additional cavalry troopers under the command of Lt. Horatio Bingham. Accompanying the troopers were two Captains from the 18th Infantry, William J. Fetterman and James W. Powell.
Both Fetterman and Bingham were Civil War veterans. Fetterman came from a military family both his father and his uncle (who he lived with for a time) were West Point graduates. When the Civil War began, Fetterman enlisted in May 1861 and was given a commission as a 1LT. He was assigned to the 18th Infantry and served thru the entire war, being twice breveted for gallant conduct. At the war’s end, his rank was that of an LTC of Volunteers. Fetterman was like many officers of his generation. They were all prone to self-promoting, bombastic remarks. Or as we’d say today, “they liked to talk S**T!”
Soon after arriving, Fetterman urged his commander to be more aggressive and reportedly made the remark “with 80 men, I could ride through the whole Sioux Nation.” Of course, no mention of his remark was made until about 40 years later. Carrington, in an effort to protect his own legacy, threw Fetterman under the bus, saying that the Captain was reckless and disobeyed orders. However, after nearly getting caught in an ambush earlier in December, Fetterman reportedly told Carrington that “learned a lesson, and that this Indian war has become a hand-to-hand fight, requiring the utmost caution.”
So then came the events of December 21, 1866. A large band of Cheyenne and Sioux warriors under the command of Red Cloud which included Crazy Horse numbering between 1000-2000 warriors were going to lay a trap for the troopers.
Crazy Horse had earlier ran a successful ambush where he had enticed troopers to follow a small band of warriors into a kill zone where a large number of their tribe would await. On December 6, they killed several troopers that way including Bingham, the cavalry commander. This one would be on a much grander scale.
The Indians who knew the land well picked out a perfect ambush site about 4-5 miles north of Fort Kearny and along the Bozeman trail north of Lodge Trail ridge. At 10 a.m. on the 21st, about 90 soldiers and a wagon train left the fort to go to what was described as a “pinery”, where there was ample supply of wood for the fort.
Only about an hour after they left, pickets reported that the wood detail was under attack. Carrington immediately ordered a quick reaction force composed of 49 infantrymen of the 18th Infantry and 27 mounted troopers of the 2nd Cavalry to be commanded by Captain James Powell. However, Fetterman asked for and was given command of the rescue party, claiming seniority. Lieutenant George Grummond, led the cavalry, which had been leaderless since Bingham’s death two weeks prior. Captain Frederick Brown, the post quartermaster and two civilians, James Wheatley and Isaac Fisher, joined Fetterman, bringing the relief force up to 81 officers and men. The infantry marched out first; the cavalry after mounting their horses would catch up on the march.
Carrington later testified to the inquiry after the battle that his orders were quite clear. “Under no circumstances” was the rescue to “pursue over the ridge, that is Lodge Trail Ridge”. Lieutenant Grummond’s wife, later wrote in a book that Carrington’s statement was true. She said these orders were given twice, the second time by Carrington from the sentry walk after ordering the soldiers to halt as they left the front gate of the fort, to drive home the point. Mrs. Grummond wrote that everyone present could hear the orders from Carrington.
But once he left the fort, Fetterman did, in fact, take the Lodge Trail north rather than the other trail northwest which ran to the “pinery” where the troops on the lumber detail had been attacked. At the time Carrington assumed that Fetterman was attempting to approach from the Indians’ rear area.
Around 11:30 a.m., the garrison watched Fetterman’s command, with Grummond’s cavalry out in front on the flanks, cross out of sight over the ridge in pursuit of 10 Indians, who were the decoys. As soon as they entered the kill zone, the large Indian contingent expertly caught them in the open, quickly wiping out the entire command.
So how did this happen? Grummond who was both reckless and unfamiliar with Indian tactics had ridden out ahead of Fetterman’s infantry. So while Fetterman did truly disobey his orders, the tactical situation had changed. The woodcutting detail was no longer under attack and was proceeding to the “pineries” unhindered. The Indians were retreating over the ridgeline toward Lodge Trail Ridge.
Fetterman was going to attempt to seize the initiative and was going to attempt to catch the Indians before they could get away. He had no way of knowing his men were about to enter a maelstrom with about 1000-2000 Indian warriors awaiting.
His men had followed the 10 Indian decoys until they reached a spot where the decoys signaled the Indians waiting on both sides of the trail. Fetterman’s troops were quickly overwhelmed and they were found in a tight circle where the Indians overwhelmed them. Few of the Indians had firearms, most fought with bow and arrow, war clubs and knives. Only six troopers were found killed by firearms. It took all of 20 minutes to kill all of the infantry. The cavalry under Grummond was a mile ahead and the same fate befell them as well. It took just another 20 minutes for the troopers to be overwhelmed.
The last man to die was the bugler Adolph Metzger. His bugle, likely his only weapon was found smashed. But the Indians, in a show of respect for a lone man fighting against huge odds, didn’t mutilate his body but covered it with buffalo hide.
About noon, Carrington assembled about 75 troopers under Captain Ten Eyck to investigate where Fetterman’s troops were. Shortly afterward, they were joined by 40 more. They reached the top of the Lodge Trail about 12:45 p.m. In the valley below, they observed a large group of Indian warriors. As the Indians dispersed, the troops moved down into the valley.
They found the remains of all 81 of Fetterman’s command. They’d all be stripped naked, mutilated in the ritual fashion. Hands, noses, and ears cut off, eyes gouged out. Private parts severed. Brains removed and laid on rocks. They dispatched wagons to bring back their dead.
Indian casualties ranged from between 14 -100 dead with about 150 wounded.
By 1868 Fort Kearny was abandoned.
This was a classic guerrilla operation, unfortunately, it was and still is a hard lesson for the U.S. Army to learn. The conventional “Big Army” still hasn’t mastered how to win a guerrilla war over 150 years later.
Illustration: Kim Douglas/Wyoming History | 2,058 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King's Chapel Burying Ground is located at Tremont and School Streets in Downtown Boston. The cemetery is the final resting place of Puritan Governor John Winthrop and Reverend John Cotton. The graveyard dates back to the earliest days of the colony (1630).
In about 1810, the Superintendent of Burials moved most of the headstones, and laid them out into neat rows. A few decades later, the markers in the center of the graveyard were also moved. Respect for the dead was not the highest priority for many years after the Revolution. An old legend was that moving the headstones confused the spirits, and have ever since endlessly wandered around looking for their graves. For those who believe in ghosts, one can speculate whether restless spirits remain at King's Chapel Burying Ground.
There are two legends associated with the graveyard. The first story is that of an African-American woman who died. A careless carpenter built her coffin too short, and to conceal his blunder, had severed the head of her body, and placed it between her legs to take up less space. The coffin was nailed shut, and she was buried this way.
The second story is about a man that may have been buried alive in about 1820:
"Some old woman was certain, that a person, lately buried, was not exactly dead. She gave utterance to this certainty—there was no evidence, and ample room therefore for faith. The defunct had a little property—it was a clear case, of course—[that] his relatives had buried him alive, to get possession! A mob gathered, in King's Chapel yard; and, to appease their righteous indignation, the grave was opened, the body exposed, doctors examined, and the mob was respectfully assured, that the man was dead—dead as a door nail. A proposition to bury the old woman, in revenge, was rejected immediately. But she did not give up the point—they never do. She admitted, that the party was dead, but persisted, that his death was caused, by being buried alive."
Burying people alive by mistake occurred occasionally until modern times. The November 6, 1874 Boston Globe describes such an event in Montreal: "A horrible case of a person being buried alive has just come to light. A women who died suddenly was about being re-interred in a Roman Catholic cemetery, last Friday, when a near relative arrived from a distance and desired to see her face. On opening the coffin, the body was found to have turned on its side. The woman in her struggles had bitten her arm and torn the grave clothes. Her face bore the expression of unutterable agony."
This editor has experienced one strange incident at the burying ground. After making about 20 digital videos at the cemetery on one visit, I reviewed the videos on the flash card. On my 2nd inspection, half the videos were missing. The flash card was replaced immediately, and software was later used to see what videos were recoverable. Well, the videos from that day, and unrelated videos from the previous week that had been deleted, were recovered from the card, but those 10 videos had vanished! They were filmed along the path parallel to the church. Even though this editor does not believe in spirits, I pondered at that time if Elizabeth Pain was asking for me to clear her name: Nathaniel Hawthorne had used her headstone and not her life—as inspiration for the Scarlet Letter.
King's Chapel Burying Ground
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0.3955335021018... | 5 | King's Chapel Burying Ground is located at Tremont and School Streets in Downtown Boston. The cemetery is the final resting place of Puritan Governor John Winthrop and Reverend John Cotton. The graveyard dates back to the earliest days of the colony (1630).
In about 1810, the Superintendent of Burials moved most of the headstones, and laid them out into neat rows. A few decades later, the markers in the center of the graveyard were also moved. Respect for the dead was not the highest priority for many years after the Revolution. An old legend was that moving the headstones confused the spirits, and have ever since endlessly wandered around looking for their graves. For those who believe in ghosts, one can speculate whether restless spirits remain at King's Chapel Burying Ground.
There are two legends associated with the graveyard. The first story is that of an African-American woman who died. A careless carpenter built her coffin too short, and to conceal his blunder, had severed the head of her body, and placed it between her legs to take up less space. The coffin was nailed shut, and she was buried this way.
The second story is about a man that may have been buried alive in about 1820:
"Some old woman was certain, that a person, lately buried, was not exactly dead. She gave utterance to this certainty—there was no evidence, and ample room therefore for faith. The defunct had a little property—it was a clear case, of course—[that] his relatives had buried him alive, to get possession! A mob gathered, in King's Chapel yard; and, to appease their righteous indignation, the grave was opened, the body exposed, doctors examined, and the mob was respectfully assured, that the man was dead—dead as a door nail. A proposition to bury the old woman, in revenge, was rejected immediately. But she did not give up the point—they never do. She admitted, that the party was dead, but persisted, that his death was caused, by being buried alive."
Burying people alive by mistake occurred occasionally until modern times. The November 6, 1874 Boston Globe describes such an event in Montreal: "A horrible case of a person being buried alive has just come to light. A women who died suddenly was about being re-interred in a Roman Catholic cemetery, last Friday, when a near relative arrived from a distance and desired to see her face. On opening the coffin, the body was found to have turned on its side. The woman in her struggles had bitten her arm and torn the grave clothes. Her face bore the expression of unutterable agony."
This editor has experienced one strange incident at the burying ground. After making about 20 digital videos at the cemetery on one visit, I reviewed the videos on the flash card. On my 2nd inspection, half the videos were missing. The flash card was replaced immediately, and software was later used to see what videos were recoverable. Well, the videos from that day, and unrelated videos from the previous week that had been deleted, were recovered from the card, but those 10 videos had vanished! They were filmed along the path parallel to the church. Even though this editor does not believe in spirits, I pondered at that time if Elizabeth Pain was asking for me to clear her name: Nathaniel Hawthorne had used her headstone and not her life—as inspiration for the Scarlet Letter.
King's Chapel Burying Ground
58 Tremont Street, Boston, MA 02108 | 739 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Specimen exam question 2: recruitment
a. Use sources A and B.
i) Describe two kinds of recruiting propaganda aimed at British women. (2 marks)
In source A, there is text that implies women’s thoughts and ideas about the war. The text reads, “Women of Britain say – “GO!””. The use of “GO!” with the exclamation mark and it is also in capital letters asserts the women’s thoughts as dominant and persuasive. This use of propaganda persuades men to enlist in the war because it implies this will make them happy. The second use of propaganda is seen in source B. Source B provides a clear example of how the military was desperate for the making of Munition by trying to persuade women to do “their bit” in the war by trying to get women to “Learn to make munitions”. This propaganda was due to the declining of men because they would be sent to war whilst women were left at home, due to this munitions was declining and therefore the military introduced this.
ii) What were the two ways in which women contributed to the war effort? (2 marks)
Two ways in which women contributed in the war is making munitions as seen in source B, and enlisting in the war hospitals. By contributing the making of munitions the men at war were able to load their weapons and have a fighting chance at winning the wat. The second way in which women contributed in the war effort was in the hospitals both on land and on boats. This would give men who were injured a chance to rest and have chance to recover before being sent home to their loved ones if the injury was significant.
iii) What kinds of images do he women in Source A and Source B represent? (6 marks)
The women in the images in source A and source B represents the changing image of women in the war, who before, weren’t allowed to associate with the war. But due to the shortages of men in the workforce such as making of munitions. Women were seen as a new workforce to replace the men as seen in source B. It is similarly seen in source A where women are seen as a reason for men to go to war, this was represented in the poster in source A where the women and the child are looking at the soldiers going to war. The emotion of the two women is represented through the body language of the women which is not slouched which would represent sadness, but their body language is strong and tall as well as their heads not facing down but straight, ‘on towards the war’ this is represented as well through the text that says, “GO!”.
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-0.043561823666... | 1 | Specimen exam question 2: recruitment
a. Use sources A and B.
i) Describe two kinds of recruiting propaganda aimed at British women. (2 marks)
In source A, there is text that implies women’s thoughts and ideas about the war. The text reads, “Women of Britain say – “GO!””. The use of “GO!” with the exclamation mark and it is also in capital letters asserts the women’s thoughts as dominant and persuasive. This use of propaganda persuades men to enlist in the war because it implies this will make them happy. The second use of propaganda is seen in source B. Source B provides a clear example of how the military was desperate for the making of Munition by trying to persuade women to do “their bit” in the war by trying to get women to “Learn to make munitions”. This propaganda was due to the declining of men because they would be sent to war whilst women were left at home, due to this munitions was declining and therefore the military introduced this.
ii) What were the two ways in which women contributed to the war effort? (2 marks)
Two ways in which women contributed in the war is making munitions as seen in source B, and enlisting in the war hospitals. By contributing the making of munitions the men at war were able to load their weapons and have a fighting chance at winning the wat. The second way in which women contributed in the war effort was in the hospitals both on land and on boats. This would give men who were injured a chance to rest and have chance to recover before being sent home to their loved ones if the injury was significant.
iii) What kinds of images do he women in Source A and Source B represent? (6 marks)
The women in the images in source A and source B represents the changing image of women in the war, who before, weren’t allowed to associate with the war. But due to the shortages of men in the workforce such as making of munitions. Women were seen as a new workforce to replace the men as seen in source B. It is similarly seen in source A where women are seen as a reason for men to go to war, this was represented in the poster in source A where the women and the child are looking at the soldiers going to war. The emotion of the two women is represented through the body language of the women which is not slouched which would represent sadness, but their body language is strong and tall as well as their heads not facing down but straight, ‘on towards the war’ this is represented as well through the text that says, “GO!”.
b. Explain changing methods of recruitment into the British armed services... | 545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The samurai were élite warriors in Japan during the 1200’s to the early 1700’s. Fifth century Japan saw conflicts with Korea and China, but Japan had a very untrained army, with a clumsy Calvary, and poor infantry men (Blumberg 1). The reason was that horses were seen as a burden and were never bred to be strong, fast, and large for war purposes (Blumberg 2). In the 6th and 9th centuries, a series of rebellions in Japan began from the Emishi people of the northern home islands; these country people were very well-trained in mounted archery. The nimble Emishi would defeat the Japanese riders with ease (Blumberg 2). But during the war against the Emishi, Japan learned to breed horses for fighting, adapted new fighting methods, and developed new weapons. They replaced the slow, straight-sword with two curved blades that were faster and lighter. For the next 350 years, infantry was replaced with mounted archers, and we start to see the 13th century samurai form (Blumberg 3). The Bushido Code, the code that all samurai follow, helped form medieval Japan.
The warrior class and ruling class in the 13th century to the 17th century were known as the samurai (Clark 1). The samurai were skilled in archery, swordsmanship, horseback riding, and martial arts: the ability to kill with their bare hands (Clark 2). The two swords that the samurai used were the katana, a curved, medium-sized blade used for two-handed combat, and the wakizashi, a dagger or small-bladed weapon for thrusting (Blumberg 7). The samurai specialized in mounted archery as well. They had a medium sized, very flexible bow that made firing arrows from a horse easier. With
Japan's newly trained and bred horses, along with the discipline of the samurai, it made for an unstoppable combination (Blumberg 7). Most of the time when samurai decided to fight, it was alone, one on one. When the samurai were about to engage in battle, most of them would state their rank, family name, and accomplishments. If the samurai was a high-ranked officer, the winner of the duel would have to send the head of the defeated to the capital city where the city officials and the people could see it (Clark 4). However, if the samurai was not killed by his opponent, he had to commit seppuku. Seppuku, also known as harakiri, is when a samurai must commit suicide by stabbing a knife into his abdomen and disemboweling himself. A kinsmen or friend would then cut off their heads. Seppuku was seen as more honorable than getting captured in battle or being forgiven from dishonor by an upper rank (Clark 5). It was also seen as more honorable to commit seppuku than dishonor the Bushido Code.
Bushido comes from medieval Japan, but until the 1600's it was something that had to be taught by a master. It was later written down for everyone to see and understand (Hurst 16). Bushido comes from all kinds of traits. It comes from Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shintoism. All these schools of thought and religion has... | <urn:uuid:d79d003f-55d5-4575-ac22-01ad5ea7b839> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-samurai-and-the-bushido-code | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.98779 | 678 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.628045558... | 1 | The samurai were élite warriors in Japan during the 1200’s to the early 1700’s. Fifth century Japan saw conflicts with Korea and China, but Japan had a very untrained army, with a clumsy Calvary, and poor infantry men (Blumberg 1). The reason was that horses were seen as a burden and were never bred to be strong, fast, and large for war purposes (Blumberg 2). In the 6th and 9th centuries, a series of rebellions in Japan began from the Emishi people of the northern home islands; these country people were very well-trained in mounted archery. The nimble Emishi would defeat the Japanese riders with ease (Blumberg 2). But during the war against the Emishi, Japan learned to breed horses for fighting, adapted new fighting methods, and developed new weapons. They replaced the slow, straight-sword with two curved blades that were faster and lighter. For the next 350 years, infantry was replaced with mounted archers, and we start to see the 13th century samurai form (Blumberg 3). The Bushido Code, the code that all samurai follow, helped form medieval Japan.
The warrior class and ruling class in the 13th century to the 17th century were known as the samurai (Clark 1). The samurai were skilled in archery, swordsmanship, horseback riding, and martial arts: the ability to kill with their bare hands (Clark 2). The two swords that the samurai used were the katana, a curved, medium-sized blade used for two-handed combat, and the wakizashi, a dagger or small-bladed weapon for thrusting (Blumberg 7). The samurai specialized in mounted archery as well. They had a medium sized, very flexible bow that made firing arrows from a horse easier. With
Japan's newly trained and bred horses, along with the discipline of the samurai, it made for an unstoppable combination (Blumberg 7). Most of the time when samurai decided to fight, it was alone, one on one. When the samurai were about to engage in battle, most of them would state their rank, family name, and accomplishments. If the samurai was a high-ranked officer, the winner of the duel would have to send the head of the defeated to the capital city where the city officials and the people could see it (Clark 4). However, if the samurai was not killed by his opponent, he had to commit seppuku. Seppuku, also known as harakiri, is when a samurai must commit suicide by stabbing a knife into his abdomen and disemboweling himself. A kinsmen or friend would then cut off their heads. Seppuku was seen as more honorable than getting captured in battle or being forgiven from dishonor by an upper rank (Clark 5). It was also seen as more honorable to commit seppuku than dishonor the Bushido Code.
Bushido comes from medieval Japan, but until the 1600's it was something that had to be taught by a master. It was later written down for everyone to see and understand (Hurst 16). Bushido comes from all kinds of traits. It comes from Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shintoism. All these schools of thought and religion has... | 715 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A little girl had a doll. She loved it so much that she would treat it with great care, even though her friends would laugh at her for being so careful.
As time passed, the girl grew up, moved houses, became an adult, married, had children, and finally became a lovely little old woman with many grandchildren.
One day, she returned to her hometown, found her original house, and went in. Among hundreds of old things, the now－old little girl found her doll. It was as well looked after as before. She took it home with her and gave it to her granddaughter. Her granddaughter loved it.
Each time the old woman saw her granddaughter playing with the doll, tears of joy would roll down her cheeks(脸颊). She was so glad to see now it was in the hands of her granddaughter.
21. The little girl’s friends laughed at her because she ____.
A. looked so thin and ugly B. didn’t get on well with her friends
C. treated her doll so carefully D. didn’t like to play games with them
22. What does the underlined word “original” mean in the third paragraph?
A.豪华的 B.原来的 C. 新建的 D. 木质的
23. When the old woman found her doll, ____.
A. it looked old and terrible B. she threw it away
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0.0372544750... | 2 | A little girl had a doll. She loved it so much that she would treat it with great care, even though her friends would laugh at her for being so careful.
As time passed, the girl grew up, moved houses, became an adult, married, had children, and finally became a lovely little old woman with many grandchildren.
One day, she returned to her hometown, found her original house, and went in. Among hundreds of old things, the now－old little girl found her doll. It was as well looked after as before. She took it home with her and gave it to her granddaughter. Her granddaughter loved it.
Each time the old woman saw her granddaughter playing with the doll, tears of joy would roll down her cheeks(脸颊). She was so glad to see now it was in the hands of her granddaughter.
21. The little girl’s friends laughed at her because she ____.
A. looked so thin and ugly B. didn’t get on well with her friends
C. treated her doll so carefully D. didn’t like to play games with them
22. What does the underlined word “original” mean in the third paragraph?
A.豪华的 B.原来的 C. 新建的 D. 木质的
23. When the old woman found her doll, ____.
A. it looked old and terrible B. she threw it away
C. it was as well looked after as before D. she took it home and kept it herself | 302 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Teaching learning in a classroom setting must not be complete and fair if individual students are not satisfied in terms of their learning needs and preferences being addressed. There is an old saying that ‘one size may not fit all’. Similarly, in a classroom only one teaching method may not be effective for all children. According to Cooley, “It is important to recognize that ‘fairness’ in education does not mean that all children have to be taught in the exact same way. Instead it means accounting for the needs of individual students and adjusting the curriculum accordingly”. Therefore, in a classroom teaching learning will only be successful if individuality of students is recognized and addressed through customized classroom instructions. Now, the questions come along: is it possible? in all contexts? what if it is a large classroom?
The answers to these questions have been explored in this report, in the context of Bangladesh, through a classroom observation and interview with teacher, conducted in the pre-primary classroom of a government school. This particular pre-primary school was initially implemented under a national NGO named Shurovi in partnership with Plan Bangladesh. However, it has been registered as a government pre-primary school in 2014.
Tools and Techniques
To explore individualized teaching in a classroom setting two qualitative techniques have been used: i) Observation, and ii) Interview. For observation, a simple checklist has been used to identify individual differences among the children and scope challenges and supports available for individualized teaching in the classroom. The observation started from 8:30am and continued up to 10:45am. There were one teacher and 38 children, 15 male and rest of them female, present out of 40 on that particular day of observation. After the observation the teacher has been interviewed with permission. An open ended questionnaire has been used as a tool for conducting the interview.
Physical Environment of the Classroom
The classroom was a large rectangular room with six big windows and one door leading to a thin veranda opening up in a big play ground. The windows allowed plenty of light and air in the classroom. The room had cemented floor and had furniture for sitting for children, a chair for the teacher, a shelf right next to the board for keeping books and biscuits (as snack for children) and a trunk for keeping materials. There was a blackboard in one wall facing the direction where children were sitting. A class routine was hung high up at the right side board. On the right corner of the board the total number of children, number of children present and the date was written by the teacher. The classroom also had lights and a fan (however, the fan was not working). The detail observation of the physical environment of the class has been organized in the following sections:
Sitting arrangement: There were six wooden rectangular shaped tables and six thin benches and available for the children. 5/6 children occupied one table. The tables and chairs were age appropriate.
Play area: There was plenty of space in front of the board for activities with body movements or play inside the classroom. However, the space was yet a little tight for having all children involved in any large group activities. There is a large playground outside which would allow outdoor activities and play for all children.
Corners: There were three corners that had been identified during the observation. The names of the corners were written on each of the walls. There were a book corner, a block corner and a thinking corner. However, no related materials could be found in any of the corners. The children did not use any of the corners during observation. According to the teacher, the children sometimes use these corners whenever they feel like.
Materials: There were a number of different materials available in the classroom. There were a couple of charts on the walls available including charts of English and Bengali alphabets and a picture of a tree showing the different parts of it. However, the use of these charts could not be observed during the observation period and the charts were not hung at the eye level of the children. There was a list of story books hung up on the wall at the book corner. There were also blocks, flash cards and some other play materials available in the trunk. Only the block set was given to the children at the end of the class for few minutes.
The major findings from the observation of the classroom and the interview with the teacher are discussed in a thematic manner in this section. This section will reveal the individual differences available in the class and the way the teacher was trying to address those. It will also discuss about the challenges and opportunities the teacher had faced during the class on that particular day.
Identifying Individual Differences
In that classroom full of 38 children, diverse characteristics and individual differences were visible among the children that included different gender, age group, personality, social and family background, learning preferences, interest and intelligence. The first and easily distinguishable individual differences among the children were gender and age.
There were 15 male and the rest were female students. The age group of the children varied from 3 to 5 year old according to the teacher. It was apparent from the observation that the younger children needed more support, guidance and clarity of instruction than the older children. The older age group, who are about 5 year old could catch the instructions promptly and also could finish the work on time. This can completely be related to what Piaget proposed in his theory of cognitive development that maturation plays a key role with active experience in children’s development.
There were also identifiable variations among children’s personality. A group of hyper, shy, calm, friendly and compassionate, and moody children were identified. There were 3 or 4 hyper children who became too restless when they had to sit in one place for drawing or writing. One restless child hit another child during this time. There were a number of shy kids who seemed uncomfortable when the teacher was asking them to come to the board. There was one particular child who was very prompt in his responses and very friendly and compassionate at the same time. He tried to help his friend to complete his task and then he started his own because he was very confident about the task. A couple of kids were not participating in any anything in particular because they were not interested or did not have the mood on that particular day as explained by the teacher because they usually participate in other days. The teacher explained children are usually moody and their interests vary with their mood changes. However, their mood is usually connected to their personal or family situations. She mentioned that one particular child who was not willing to participate because his mother just went away for work and he was still coping with the situation.
Apart from differences in personality or temperament, subtle differences in social class and family background were visible; however, this may be a subject to further in depth analysis. Most of the children were either from lower or from lower middle class socio-economic background. It was found from the interview with the teacher that in some of the families both parents are working and away from the family and the children are raised with grandmother or other extended family members. In these cases the children are usually not organized; they tend to lose their books, pencils and exercise copies at times due to lack of proper supervision at home. In some families, only the father is the earning member. In some cases the children are raised with single parents. In most cases mothers, at times both of the parents, are just primary or secondary school graduates. However, in some families mothers are very keen about their children’s education according to the teacher. According to the teacher, these children always have their books and exercise copies in place. Some of the protective mothers spend a substantial amount of time in the school premises outside the classroom presumably to see how their children are coping or learning which was witnessed during the observation period.
Most of the children in kindergarten are kinesthetic learners , and it has been quite visible and proved again in the observed classroom that children indeed enjoy learning by doing when it comes to learning style preferences. The children were very excited when it came to do activities with body movements and writing on the board. The observation revealed a mix of visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners available in the classroom. Some children could easily understand the instruction by listening to the teacher while others had to wait for the teacher to show it on the board or on their copies indicating the different learning preferences between auditory and visual learners. However, most of the children were responding more when they were given a task of performing with body movement, drawing on the copy or writing on the board, indicating a kinesthetic preference in learning.
Similarly, multiple intelligence could be identified from observing children engaged in different types of activities. When asked to tell the rhymes, some children could easily retell the rhymes which can be assumed as having linguistic intelligence. While others showed bodily-kinesthetic intelligence through body movements during the rhymes session. Some of the children were actively engaged in drawing and a couple of them could produce very nice pieces of art work showing spatial intelligence. Some of the children showed logical-mathematical intelligence during an analytical problem solving task on the board. The task was to identify what was different among four or five similar type of objects and explain why it was different. There were a couple of children who showed their intra-personal intelligence through efficiency in their task when they were given individual task to perform. Most of the children showed good level of interpersonal intelligence in the group works.
In this way, children with different types of abilities, personalities and backgrounds could be easily identified from the classroom observed. The next section will reveal how the teacher had or had not managed to address these individual differences through classroom instruction.
Teacher’s Response to Individual Differences
To address the individual needs of children, coming from various background, the teacher have to be creative at the same time diligent to design classroom instruction such that it can ensure positive learning experience for all children. In this section how far the teacher could address this issue has been explored.
Dealing with children of varied age group: Since there were children aged 3-5 year old in the classroom, the teacher had to pay attention to all age groups equally. However, she was putting in more effort and attention towards the younger children because according to her they need the extra support for coping in the classroom environment with the older aged children. It was apparent that the children who were 5 or close to 5 year old could understand the classroom instruction faster than the younger children. Whereas, children younger than this age group were struggling more to understand the classroom instruction and engaging in individual or group work accordingly. The teacher was calling the younger children to the board equally with the older ones. She was also moving from group to group and scaffolding the younger children with clues and questions.
Dealing with children with different personalities: To manage the hyper children, the teacher most of the time tried to keep them engaged in activities. However, the attempts did not work effectively due to the large number of children. At one point when a child hit another one, she had to separate them in different tables. With regard to the shy children, the teacher called their names and gave them task on the board or asked them to tell the rhymes. To engage the moody child, who was not participating in any task, the teacher did not put much effort to engage him and let him be.
Dealing with children with different learning preferences: The teacher had a mix of visual, auditory and kinesthetic teaching-learning techniques in her classroom instructions. For the visual learners she had problem solving tasks on the board with pictures that the children could easily solve. She also showed on the board the writing style maintaining margins which the students later followed and did on their copy. For the auditory learners she was verbally expressing and repeating whatever she was writing on the board. The verbal instructions along with visual cues were effective for both types of learners. For the kinesthetic learners the teacher had given task to do on the board and on their exercise copies as well. She also kept all children engaged in rhymes and games with body movement most of the time.
Considering the needs of the children with multiple intelligence: It was found from the classroom observation that the classroom instruction had different activities to address the needs for children with multiple intelligence. The rhymes and games with songs were supportive for the children with linguistic intelligence and also for children with musical intelligence. The teacher gave a problem solving task on the board where the children had to think analytically to find out what was different from a set of similar objects drawn on the board. This activity was definitely interesting for the children with logical-mathematical intelligence. The task of freehand drawing was supportive for the children with spatial intelligence. The activities with body movement were attractive for the children with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. There were scope of working in groups and also scope for individual task which were supportive for children with interpersonal and interpersonal intelligence respectively. During the observation no instructional technique could be identified to address the needs of the children with naturalistic, moral and spiritual intelligence. However, the teacher mentioned that she sometimes takes them outside in the playground for showing or comparing shapes or objects with the natural environment.
Considering social class and family culture: When asked how the teacher takes into consideration the social class and family culture during the teaching learning activities, she mentioned that since most of the children come from a lower or lower middle socio-economic background she does not put much emphasis on homework considering there might not be anyone educated at home to support these kids. She also mentioned that she puts emphasis on cleanliness because most of these children live in a slum and cleanliness is not always a priority for all parents. In terms of family culture, the teacher mentioned that she regularly keeps contact with the parents to understand their family culture and manages the children accordingly.
Use of positive/negative phrases: The teacher was frequently using appreciative phases such as: ‘very good’, ‘good job’, ‘beautiful work’ when some of the children were showing their work or being disciplined. However, at times when the class was becoming very noisy she would lose her patience and use negative phrases, swearing and also threatened to beat them up.
• The major challenge for the teacher was managing 38 kids all alone without any assistance from an assistant teacher. She could not pay attention to all the kids when they were engaged in the activities. Some children were enthusiastically doing the work, but some were not interested at all and talking/playing/fighting among themselves, when a couple of them actually did not attempt to do anything. Overall, the classroom was noisy all along.
• The children were not coming to school on time. Some of the children came really late because of which the teacher had a hard time settling them down.
• Few of the children were too young for the class which was another challenge for the teacher to make instructional adjustments for them. One young child came late and was not letting her mother to leave while she kept crying most of the time.
• Some of the children did not bring any book or exercise copy with them. The teacher explained that most of these children were raised by extended family members or working single parents and therefore do not have sufficient supervision at home.
There were some scopes of improvement, or opportunities that the teachers might have missed, that have been identified and described as follows:
• Pair work: The teacher did not introduce pair work as part of the teaching learning process on that particular day. During the drawing session when children were drawing as they like individually, some of the children started drawing in each other’s copies. While some of them started discussing among themselves about what they want to draw. Therefore, the need for pair work had been identified at some point of the free hand drawing activity. Through pair work the children could have shared about their art work with each other. A couple of children were not drawing anything. In this case, a pair work could have engaged them effectively.
• Mixed ability grouping: Since there were children from various backgrounds and individual differences present in the class, the teacher could have distributed their seating arrangements considering the different types of abilities in them. During the group works and other activities children sitting in groups could have been reshuffled according to their abilities so that mixed ability groups could have been created. In this way the teacher could have managed the large classroom full of 38 children more efficiently.
• Story telling: Story telling could have been an effective teaching learning technique for large classroom management. It could also be attractive for the children with linguistic intelligence as well as for auditory learners because only rhymes have been used for these children. Story telling with role play or body movement could also have been effective and engaging for the kinesthetic learners.
• Use of corners: Although there were four visible corners with names marked in posters, the use of those corners could not be observed on that particular day. The effective use of those corners in groups could have helped the teacher to manage the large number of children.
• Use of materials: There were quite a few play materials available in the trunk. However, the teacher put out only a couple of sets of blocks at the end of the class which were given to all the children. Few of the children got engaged with the blocks. But most of the children did not get to play and eventually left the premise as their guardians came to pick them up. If the teacher could have used play materials and other teaching learning materials such as: pictures, flash cards, charts etc. the class could have been a more manageable and effective in terms of individualized teaching.
Implementing effective individualized teaching in a large classroom of a government pre-primary school in Bangladesh is indeed a challenging task for a teacher. According to Glen Heathers, “Individualization must not be viewed as all-or-none.” In this regard, the teacher was successful to some extent to support the children through individualized instructions. However, the observed pre-primary class could have been made even more successful and effective, in terms of addressing individuality of the students, if the number of children would have been less and if all the opportunities available could have been used properly. The teacher was trained in individualized teaching methods and was confident in her ability to address children’s individual needs. This is what made her efforts responsive towards her students’ needs, interests and learning preferences in spite of all the challenges.
RAFIATH RASHID: Programme Manager – Education, BRAC International, Dhaka, Bangladesh. | <urn:uuid:abbcf822-6b97-4c58-ad68-d8459799232a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bdeduarticle.com/exploring-individualized-teaching-in-a-government-pre-primary-classroom-in-bangladesh/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00334.warc.gz | en | 0.985945 | 3,778 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.61604720354... | 4 | Teaching learning in a classroom setting must not be complete and fair if individual students are not satisfied in terms of their learning needs and preferences being addressed. There is an old saying that ‘one size may not fit all’. Similarly, in a classroom only one teaching method may not be effective for all children. According to Cooley, “It is important to recognize that ‘fairness’ in education does not mean that all children have to be taught in the exact same way. Instead it means accounting for the needs of individual students and adjusting the curriculum accordingly”. Therefore, in a classroom teaching learning will only be successful if individuality of students is recognized and addressed through customized classroom instructions. Now, the questions come along: is it possible? in all contexts? what if it is a large classroom?
The answers to these questions have been explored in this report, in the context of Bangladesh, through a classroom observation and interview with teacher, conducted in the pre-primary classroom of a government school. This particular pre-primary school was initially implemented under a national NGO named Shurovi in partnership with Plan Bangladesh. However, it has been registered as a government pre-primary school in 2014.
Tools and Techniques
To explore individualized teaching in a classroom setting two qualitative techniques have been used: i) Observation, and ii) Interview. For observation, a simple checklist has been used to identify individual differences among the children and scope challenges and supports available for individualized teaching in the classroom. The observation started from 8:30am and continued up to 10:45am. There were one teacher and 38 children, 15 male and rest of them female, present out of 40 on that particular day of observation. After the observation the teacher has been interviewed with permission. An open ended questionnaire has been used as a tool for conducting the interview.
Physical Environment of the Classroom
The classroom was a large rectangular room with six big windows and one door leading to a thin veranda opening up in a big play ground. The windows allowed plenty of light and air in the classroom. The room had cemented floor and had furniture for sitting for children, a chair for the teacher, a shelf right next to the board for keeping books and biscuits (as snack for children) and a trunk for keeping materials. There was a blackboard in one wall facing the direction where children were sitting. A class routine was hung high up at the right side board. On the right corner of the board the total number of children, number of children present and the date was written by the teacher. The classroom also had lights and a fan (however, the fan was not working). The detail observation of the physical environment of the class has been organized in the following sections:
Sitting arrangement: There were six wooden rectangular shaped tables and six thin benches and available for the children. 5/6 children occupied one table. The tables and chairs were age appropriate.
Play area: There was plenty of space in front of the board for activities with body movements or play inside the classroom. However, the space was yet a little tight for having all children involved in any large group activities. There is a large playground outside which would allow outdoor activities and play for all children.
Corners: There were three corners that had been identified during the observation. The names of the corners were written on each of the walls. There were a book corner, a block corner and a thinking corner. However, no related materials could be found in any of the corners. The children did not use any of the corners during observation. According to the teacher, the children sometimes use these corners whenever they feel like.
Materials: There were a number of different materials available in the classroom. There were a couple of charts on the walls available including charts of English and Bengali alphabets and a picture of a tree showing the different parts of it. However, the use of these charts could not be observed during the observation period and the charts were not hung at the eye level of the children. There was a list of story books hung up on the wall at the book corner. There were also blocks, flash cards and some other play materials available in the trunk. Only the block set was given to the children at the end of the class for few minutes.
The major findings from the observation of the classroom and the interview with the teacher are discussed in a thematic manner in this section. This section will reveal the individual differences available in the class and the way the teacher was trying to address those. It will also discuss about the challenges and opportunities the teacher had faced during the class on that particular day.
Identifying Individual Differences
In that classroom full of 38 children, diverse characteristics and individual differences were visible among the children that included different gender, age group, personality, social and family background, learning preferences, interest and intelligence. The first and easily distinguishable individual differences among the children were gender and age.
There were 15 male and the rest were female students. The age group of the children varied from 3 to 5 year old according to the teacher. It was apparent from the observation that the younger children needed more support, guidance and clarity of instruction than the older children. The older age group, who are about 5 year old could catch the instructions promptly and also could finish the work on time. This can completely be related to what Piaget proposed in his theory of cognitive development that maturation plays a key role with active experience in children’s development.
There were also identifiable variations among children’s personality. A group of hyper, shy, calm, friendly and compassionate, and moody children were identified. There were 3 or 4 hyper children who became too restless when they had to sit in one place for drawing or writing. One restless child hit another child during this time. There were a number of shy kids who seemed uncomfortable when the teacher was asking them to come to the board. There was one particular child who was very prompt in his responses and very friendly and compassionate at the same time. He tried to help his friend to complete his task and then he started his own because he was very confident about the task. A couple of kids were not participating in any anything in particular because they were not interested or did not have the mood on that particular day as explained by the teacher because they usually participate in other days. The teacher explained children are usually moody and their interests vary with their mood changes. However, their mood is usually connected to their personal or family situations. She mentioned that one particular child who was not willing to participate because his mother just went away for work and he was still coping with the situation.
Apart from differences in personality or temperament, subtle differences in social class and family background were visible; however, this may be a subject to further in depth analysis. Most of the children were either from lower or from lower middle class socio-economic background. It was found from the interview with the teacher that in some of the families both parents are working and away from the family and the children are raised with grandmother or other extended family members. In these cases the children are usually not organized; they tend to lose their books, pencils and exercise copies at times due to lack of proper supervision at home. In some families, only the father is the earning member. In some cases the children are raised with single parents. In most cases mothers, at times both of the parents, are just primary or secondary school graduates. However, in some families mothers are very keen about their children’s education according to the teacher. According to the teacher, these children always have their books and exercise copies in place. Some of the protective mothers spend a substantial amount of time in the school premises outside the classroom presumably to see how their children are coping or learning which was witnessed during the observation period.
Most of the children in kindergarten are kinesthetic learners , and it has been quite visible and proved again in the observed classroom that children indeed enjoy learning by doing when it comes to learning style preferences. The children were very excited when it came to do activities with body movements and writing on the board. The observation revealed a mix of visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners available in the classroom. Some children could easily understand the instruction by listening to the teacher while others had to wait for the teacher to show it on the board or on their copies indicating the different learning preferences between auditory and visual learners. However, most of the children were responding more when they were given a task of performing with body movement, drawing on the copy or writing on the board, indicating a kinesthetic preference in learning.
Similarly, multiple intelligence could be identified from observing children engaged in different types of activities. When asked to tell the rhymes, some children could easily retell the rhymes which can be assumed as having linguistic intelligence. While others showed bodily-kinesthetic intelligence through body movements during the rhymes session. Some of the children were actively engaged in drawing and a couple of them could produce very nice pieces of art work showing spatial intelligence. Some of the children showed logical-mathematical intelligence during an analytical problem solving task on the board. The task was to identify what was different among four or five similar type of objects and explain why it was different. There were a couple of children who showed their intra-personal intelligence through efficiency in their task when they were given individual task to perform. Most of the children showed good level of interpersonal intelligence in the group works.
In this way, children with different types of abilities, personalities and backgrounds could be easily identified from the classroom observed. The next section will reveal how the teacher had or had not managed to address these individual differences through classroom instruction.
Teacher’s Response to Individual Differences
To address the individual needs of children, coming from various background, the teacher have to be creative at the same time diligent to design classroom instruction such that it can ensure positive learning experience for all children. In this section how far the teacher could address this issue has been explored.
Dealing with children of varied age group: Since there were children aged 3-5 year old in the classroom, the teacher had to pay attention to all age groups equally. However, she was putting in more effort and attention towards the younger children because according to her they need the extra support for coping in the classroom environment with the older aged children. It was apparent that the children who were 5 or close to 5 year old could understand the classroom instruction faster than the younger children. Whereas, children younger than this age group were struggling more to understand the classroom instruction and engaging in individual or group work accordingly. The teacher was calling the younger children to the board equally with the older ones. She was also moving from group to group and scaffolding the younger children with clues and questions.
Dealing with children with different personalities: To manage the hyper children, the teacher most of the time tried to keep them engaged in activities. However, the attempts did not work effectively due to the large number of children. At one point when a child hit another one, she had to separate them in different tables. With regard to the shy children, the teacher called their names and gave them task on the board or asked them to tell the rhymes. To engage the moody child, who was not participating in any task, the teacher did not put much effort to engage him and let him be.
Dealing with children with different learning preferences: The teacher had a mix of visual, auditory and kinesthetic teaching-learning techniques in her classroom instructions. For the visual learners she had problem solving tasks on the board with pictures that the children could easily solve. She also showed on the board the writing style maintaining margins which the students later followed and did on their copy. For the auditory learners she was verbally expressing and repeating whatever she was writing on the board. The verbal instructions along with visual cues were effective for both types of learners. For the kinesthetic learners the teacher had given task to do on the board and on their exercise copies as well. She also kept all children engaged in rhymes and games with body movement most of the time.
Considering the needs of the children with multiple intelligence: It was found from the classroom observation that the classroom instruction had different activities to address the needs for children with multiple intelligence. The rhymes and games with songs were supportive for the children with linguistic intelligence and also for children with musical intelligence. The teacher gave a problem solving task on the board where the children had to think analytically to find out what was different from a set of similar objects drawn on the board. This activity was definitely interesting for the children with logical-mathematical intelligence. The task of freehand drawing was supportive for the children with spatial intelligence. The activities with body movement were attractive for the children with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. There were scope of working in groups and also scope for individual task which were supportive for children with interpersonal and interpersonal intelligence respectively. During the observation no instructional technique could be identified to address the needs of the children with naturalistic, moral and spiritual intelligence. However, the teacher mentioned that she sometimes takes them outside in the playground for showing or comparing shapes or objects with the natural environment.
Considering social class and family culture: When asked how the teacher takes into consideration the social class and family culture during the teaching learning activities, she mentioned that since most of the children come from a lower or lower middle socio-economic background she does not put much emphasis on homework considering there might not be anyone educated at home to support these kids. She also mentioned that she puts emphasis on cleanliness because most of these children live in a slum and cleanliness is not always a priority for all parents. In terms of family culture, the teacher mentioned that she regularly keeps contact with the parents to understand their family culture and manages the children accordingly.
Use of positive/negative phrases: The teacher was frequently using appreciative phases such as: ‘very good’, ‘good job’, ‘beautiful work’ when some of the children were showing their work or being disciplined. However, at times when the class was becoming very noisy she would lose her patience and use negative phrases, swearing and also threatened to beat them up.
• The major challenge for the teacher was managing 38 kids all alone without any assistance from an assistant teacher. She could not pay attention to all the kids when they were engaged in the activities. Some children were enthusiastically doing the work, but some were not interested at all and talking/playing/fighting among themselves, when a couple of them actually did not attempt to do anything. Overall, the classroom was noisy all along.
• The children were not coming to school on time. Some of the children came really late because of which the teacher had a hard time settling them down.
• Few of the children were too young for the class which was another challenge for the teacher to make instructional adjustments for them. One young child came late and was not letting her mother to leave while she kept crying most of the time.
• Some of the children did not bring any book or exercise copy with them. The teacher explained that most of these children were raised by extended family members or working single parents and therefore do not have sufficient supervision at home.
There were some scopes of improvement, or opportunities that the teachers might have missed, that have been identified and described as follows:
• Pair work: The teacher did not introduce pair work as part of the teaching learning process on that particular day. During the drawing session when children were drawing as they like individually, some of the children started drawing in each other’s copies. While some of them started discussing among themselves about what they want to draw. Therefore, the need for pair work had been identified at some point of the free hand drawing activity. Through pair work the children could have shared about their art work with each other. A couple of children were not drawing anything. In this case, a pair work could have engaged them effectively.
• Mixed ability grouping: Since there were children from various backgrounds and individual differences present in the class, the teacher could have distributed their seating arrangements considering the different types of abilities in them. During the group works and other activities children sitting in groups could have been reshuffled according to their abilities so that mixed ability groups could have been created. In this way the teacher could have managed the large classroom full of 38 children more efficiently.
• Story telling: Story telling could have been an effective teaching learning technique for large classroom management. It could also be attractive for the children with linguistic intelligence as well as for auditory learners because only rhymes have been used for these children. Story telling with role play or body movement could also have been effective and engaging for the kinesthetic learners.
• Use of corners: Although there were four visible corners with names marked in posters, the use of those corners could not be observed on that particular day. The effective use of those corners in groups could have helped the teacher to manage the large number of children.
• Use of materials: There were quite a few play materials available in the trunk. However, the teacher put out only a couple of sets of blocks at the end of the class which were given to all the children. Few of the children got engaged with the blocks. But most of the children did not get to play and eventually left the premise as their guardians came to pick them up. If the teacher could have used play materials and other teaching learning materials such as: pictures, flash cards, charts etc. the class could have been a more manageable and effective in terms of individualized teaching.
Implementing effective individualized teaching in a large classroom of a government pre-primary school in Bangladesh is indeed a challenging task for a teacher. According to Glen Heathers, “Individualization must not be viewed as all-or-none.” In this regard, the teacher was successful to some extent to support the children through individualized instructions. However, the observed pre-primary class could have been made even more successful and effective, in terms of addressing individuality of the students, if the number of children would have been less and if all the opportunities available could have been used properly. The teacher was trained in individualized teaching methods and was confident in her ability to address children’s individual needs. This is what made her efforts responsive towards her students’ needs, interests and learning preferences in spite of all the challenges.
RAFIATH RASHID: Programme Manager – Education, BRAC International, Dhaka, Bangladesh. | 3,722 | ENGLISH | 1 |
35. 28 shows that the Old Testament prophets represented the Lord in respect to the Word and therefore meant the teaching of the church drawn from the Word, and that because of this they were addressed as “children of humanity.” It follows from this that by the various things they suffered and endured they represented the violence done to the literal meaning of the Word by Jews. Isaiah, for example, took the sackcloth off his waist and the sandals off his feet and went naked and barefoot for three years (Isaiah 20:2-3). Similarly, Ezekiel the prophet took a barber’s razor to his head and his beard, burned a third of the hair in the middle of the city, struck a third with a sword, and scattered a third to the wind; also, he bound a few hairs in his hems and eventually threw a few into the midst of a fire and burned them (Ezekiel 5:1-4).
Since the prophets represented the Word and therefore meant the teaching of the church drawn from the Word (as just noted), and since the head means wisdom from the Word, the hair and the beard mean the outermost form of truth. It is because of this meaning that inflicting baldness on yourself was a sign of immense grief and being discovered to be bald was an immense disgrace. This and this alone is why the prophet shaved off his hair and his beard - to represent the state of the Jewish church in regard to the Word. This and this alone is why two she-bears tore apart forty-two boys who called Elisha bald (2 Kings 2:23-25)-because as just noted the prophet represented the Word, and his baldness signified the Word without an outermost meaning.
We shall see in §49 below that the Nazirites represented the Lord’s Word in its outermost forms, which is why they were commanded to let their hair grow and not to shave any of it. In Hebrew, “Nazirite” actually means “hair.” It was commanded also that the high priest was not to shave his head (Leviticus 21:10) and that the fathers of their families as well were not to do so (Leviticus 21:5).
That is why they regarded baldness as such an immense disgrace, as we can tell from the following passages:
There will be baldness upon all heads, and every beard will be cut off. (Isaiah 15:2; Jeremiah 48:37)
There will be shame upon all faces and baldness on all heads. (Ezekiel 7:18)
Every head was made bald and every shoulder hairless. (Ezekiel 29:18)
I will put sackcloth around all waists and baldness upon every head. (Amos 8:10)
Make yourself bald and cut off your hair because of your precious children; make yourself still more bald, because they have left you and gone into exile. (Micah 1:16)
Here making yourself bald and making yourself still more bald means distorting truths of the Word in its outermost forms. Once they have been distorted, as was done by Jews, the whole Word is ruined, because the outermost forms of the Word are what it rests on and what holds it up. In fact, every word in it is a base and support for the Word’s heavenly and spiritual truths.
Since a head of hair means truth in its outermost forms, in the spiritual world everyone who trivializes the Word and distorts its literal meaning looks bald; but those who respect and love it have good-looking hair. On this, see §49 below.
(Odkazy: Teachings about the Lord 28)
221. I am now allowed to disclose two secrets that can be brought within comprehension through what has just been said.
The first is that the Word finds its fullest expression and power in its literal meaning. There are three meanings in the Word answering to the three levels--a heavenly meaning, a spiritual meaning, and an earthly meaning. Since the Word contains these three meanings by the three vertical levels and their union is through correspondence, the final meaning, the earthly one that we call the literal meaning, is not only the composite, vessel, and foundation of the deeper, corresponding meanings, it is also the Word in its fullest expression and its full power. There is an abundance of evidence and support for this in Teachings for the New Jerusalem on Sacred Scripture 27-35 [27-36], 36-49 [37-49], 50-61, and 62-69.
The second secret is that the Lord came into the world and took on a human nature in order to gain access to the power to conquer the hells and bring everything in the heavens and on earth back into order. He put on this human nature over the human nature he had before. The human nature he put on in the world was like our own worldly nature, but each nature was still divine and therefore infinitely transcendent of our own and angels' finite human nature. Further, since he completely transformed his physical human level all the way to its limits, he, unlike anyone else, rose from death with his whole body. By taking on this human nature he clothed himself with a divine omnipotence not only for the conquest of the hells and the reordering of the heavens but also for keeping the hells subject forever and saving us. This power is what is meant by his sitting at the right hand of the power and might of God.
Since the Lord made himself divine truth in ultimate form by taking on a physical human nature, he is called "the Word," and it says that the Word was made flesh. Divine truth in its ultimate form is the Word in its literal meaning. He made himself that Word by fulfilling everything about himself in the Word, in Moses and the prophets.
Everyone is his or her own good and true nature. Nothing else makes us human. Because he took on a physical human nature, the Lord is divine good and divine truth itself, or in other words, divine love and divine wisdom itself, in both their primal and their ultimate forms. This is why he looks like a sun in the angelic heavens with greater glory and fuller brilliance after his coming into the world than before his coming. This is a secret that can be brought within comprehension by the principle of levels.
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-0.177234381437... | 1 | 35. 28 shows that the Old Testament prophets represented the Lord in respect to the Word and therefore meant the teaching of the church drawn from the Word, and that because of this they were addressed as “children of humanity.” It follows from this that by the various things they suffered and endured they represented the violence done to the literal meaning of the Word by Jews. Isaiah, for example, took the sackcloth off his waist and the sandals off his feet and went naked and barefoot for three years (Isaiah 20:2-3). Similarly, Ezekiel the prophet took a barber’s razor to his head and his beard, burned a third of the hair in the middle of the city, struck a third with a sword, and scattered a third to the wind; also, he bound a few hairs in his hems and eventually threw a few into the midst of a fire and burned them (Ezekiel 5:1-4).
Since the prophets represented the Word and therefore meant the teaching of the church drawn from the Word (as just noted), and since the head means wisdom from the Word, the hair and the beard mean the outermost form of truth. It is because of this meaning that inflicting baldness on yourself was a sign of immense grief and being discovered to be bald was an immense disgrace. This and this alone is why the prophet shaved off his hair and his beard - to represent the state of the Jewish church in regard to the Word. This and this alone is why two she-bears tore apart forty-two boys who called Elisha bald (2 Kings 2:23-25)-because as just noted the prophet represented the Word, and his baldness signified the Word without an outermost meaning.
We shall see in §49 below that the Nazirites represented the Lord’s Word in its outermost forms, which is why they were commanded to let their hair grow and not to shave any of it. In Hebrew, “Nazirite” actually means “hair.” It was commanded also that the high priest was not to shave his head (Leviticus 21:10) and that the fathers of their families as well were not to do so (Leviticus 21:5).
That is why they regarded baldness as such an immense disgrace, as we can tell from the following passages:
There will be baldness upon all heads, and every beard will be cut off. (Isaiah 15:2; Jeremiah 48:37)
There will be shame upon all faces and baldness on all heads. (Ezekiel 7:18)
Every head was made bald and every shoulder hairless. (Ezekiel 29:18)
I will put sackcloth around all waists and baldness upon every head. (Amos 8:10)
Make yourself bald and cut off your hair because of your precious children; make yourself still more bald, because they have left you and gone into exile. (Micah 1:16)
Here making yourself bald and making yourself still more bald means distorting truths of the Word in its outermost forms. Once they have been distorted, as was done by Jews, the whole Word is ruined, because the outermost forms of the Word are what it rests on and what holds it up. In fact, every word in it is a base and support for the Word’s heavenly and spiritual truths.
Since a head of hair means truth in its outermost forms, in the spiritual world everyone who trivializes the Word and distorts its literal meaning looks bald; but those who respect and love it have good-looking hair. On this, see §49 below.
(Odkazy: Teachings about the Lord 28)
221. I am now allowed to disclose two secrets that can be brought within comprehension through what has just been said.
The first is that the Word finds its fullest expression and power in its literal meaning. There are three meanings in the Word answering to the three levels--a heavenly meaning, a spiritual meaning, and an earthly meaning. Since the Word contains these three meanings by the three vertical levels and their union is through correspondence, the final meaning, the earthly one that we call the literal meaning, is not only the composite, vessel, and foundation of the deeper, corresponding meanings, it is also the Word in its fullest expression and its full power. There is an abundance of evidence and support for this in Teachings for the New Jerusalem on Sacred Scripture 27-35 [27-36], 36-49 [37-49], 50-61, and 62-69.
The second secret is that the Lord came into the world and took on a human nature in order to gain access to the power to conquer the hells and bring everything in the heavens and on earth back into order. He put on this human nature over the human nature he had before. The human nature he put on in the world was like our own worldly nature, but each nature was still divine and therefore infinitely transcendent of our own and angels' finite human nature. Further, since he completely transformed his physical human level all the way to its limits, he, unlike anyone else, rose from death with his whole body. By taking on this human nature he clothed himself with a divine omnipotence not only for the conquest of the hells and the reordering of the heavens but also for keeping the hells subject forever and saving us. This power is what is meant by his sitting at the right hand of the power and might of God.
Since the Lord made himself divine truth in ultimate form by taking on a physical human nature, he is called "the Word," and it says that the Word was made flesh. Divine truth in its ultimate form is the Word in its literal meaning. He made himself that Word by fulfilling everything about himself in the Word, in Moses and the prophets.
Everyone is his or her own good and true nature. Nothing else makes us human. Because he took on a physical human nature, the Lord is divine good and divine truth itself, or in other words, divine love and divine wisdom itself, in both their primal and their ultimate forms. This is why he looks like a sun in the angelic heavens with greater glory and fuller brilliance after his coming into the world than before his coming. This is a secret that can be brought within comprehension by the principle of levels.
I will be discussing later his omnipotence before his coming into the world. | 1,351 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jewish mysticism is a belief practiced by the Jews that is often called Cabbala. This idea teaches that the mysteries of God are all around us, always within us and that the goal of religious study is to approach these mysteries and, in doing so, to better understand the mystical secrets of divine nature and of the world around us. Eliezer is a boy struggling to maintain his faith through the Holocaust. In the beginning of his experiences with the Nazi's, Eliezer did not think of them as monsters. However as the time went on and they were taken to the camp and were treated like animals, Eliezer began to lose his faith in God. As even more time passed, Eliezer lost total faith in Him. The Jews had to experience many instances where they were stripped from their pride. They were completely humiliated at the camps. In Night, Elie Wiesel portrays how the Jews remained dignified in the face of inhuman cruelty.
Eliezer's first experience with the Nazi's was not a horrible one. To him, they did not appear to be mean or cruel at all. "Our first impressions with the Germans were most reassuring their attitudes toward their hosts was distant, but polite" (Wiesel 7). Eliezer and his family were not treated very badly until they reached the camp. The harshness of the camp got Eliezer to question his faith.
His feelings are that if the world is so disgusting and cruel than God must either be disgusting and cruel or he just does not exist at all. As his time at the camp progressed, Eliezer began to question faith more and more. He saw things happen that a young boy should never have to see in his life time. Even the first night at camp and watching the people be hanged, Eliezer comes to grips with faith. When Moshe the Beadle asks Eliezer why he prays he answers, "Why did I pray? . Why did I live? Why did I breathe?" (Wiesel 11). Praying and asking questions is an important part in his faith. His experience with the Holocaust forces him to ask many questions about the nature of good and evil, and about whether God exists. | <urn:uuid:4732d9df-1787-4a00-b1f8-fdf30582a181> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/29738.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.991351 | 451 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.349898427724838... | 2 | Jewish mysticism is a belief practiced by the Jews that is often called Cabbala. This idea teaches that the mysteries of God are all around us, always within us and that the goal of religious study is to approach these mysteries and, in doing so, to better understand the mystical secrets of divine nature and of the world around us. Eliezer is a boy struggling to maintain his faith through the Holocaust. In the beginning of his experiences with the Nazi's, Eliezer did not think of them as monsters. However as the time went on and they were taken to the camp and were treated like animals, Eliezer began to lose his faith in God. As even more time passed, Eliezer lost total faith in Him. The Jews had to experience many instances where they were stripped from their pride. They were completely humiliated at the camps. In Night, Elie Wiesel portrays how the Jews remained dignified in the face of inhuman cruelty.
Eliezer's first experience with the Nazi's was not a horrible one. To him, they did not appear to be mean or cruel at all. "Our first impressions with the Germans were most reassuring their attitudes toward their hosts was distant, but polite" (Wiesel 7). Eliezer and his family were not treated very badly until they reached the camp. The harshness of the camp got Eliezer to question his faith.
His feelings are that if the world is so disgusting and cruel than God must either be disgusting and cruel or he just does not exist at all. As his time at the camp progressed, Eliezer began to question faith more and more. He saw things happen that a young boy should never have to see in his life time. Even the first night at camp and watching the people be hanged, Eliezer comes to grips with faith. When Moshe the Beadle asks Eliezer why he prays he answers, "Why did I pray? . Why did I live? Why did I breathe?" (Wiesel 11). Praying and asking questions is an important part in his faith. His experience with the Holocaust forces him to ask many questions about the nature of good and evil, and about whether God exists. | 455 | ENGLISH | 1 |
B Cador: September 2019
Base 2 have had a busy few days focusing on 'birds' as part of our Explorers theme. We thought about how aeroplanes and birds were alike and came up with two facts: they both have wings and both can fly.
We started by listening to the story The New Bird King and had great fun retelling the story in small groups
and performing for each other. Mrs Winward and I were very impressed how well they organised themselves and recounted the story. We then wrote about our favourite bird in the story. Was it the toucan with the very big beak or the myna bird who could talk to all the creatures? You'll have to read our sentences to find out!
The children then looked at a book called The Extinct Book of Boids and talked about some of the very witty illustrations by Ralph Steadman of birds that have become extinct. There were all sorts of birds in all sorts of habitats. The children were then tasked with creating their own bird and deciding on the habitat it would live in. They were given inks and acrylic paints to create their own habitats for their bird; they painted, washed, sponged, scraped, splattered, flicked and dotted the paint to create their backgrounds. They were then tasked with using oil pastels to draw and colour their birds — what an eclectic gallery we have!
Enjoy a taster of our art work so far...there will be more as our artistic masterpieces are finished and put on display!
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
So, where did that week go? We have had another great, busy, fun-filled week in school. Our music, RE and writing in particular this week has just blown me away. The children have been continuing with their singing, this time adding rap to to their repertoire ! I can't believe they managed to say all those words so well! I loved to see you guys bobbing and moving to the beat; wonderful! We...
A great week of learning in Base 4 this week — we've been working incredibly hard on our learning journey and getting creative in Music too.We returned to the feast at Heorot, only to find that the mead-hall had been destroyed by the foul beast, Grendel. We learnt more about Grendel and banked lots of wonderful language to describe him.Our Maths has focused on tenths and hundredths. ...
What an amazing week at Wrenbury Primary School! A huge congratulations to all our award winners.Also, a big well done to Base 4 for winning the golden ticket, with 98.3% attendance this... | <urn:uuid:a9ad71e3-7045-4df2-b609-7626bac087be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/base-2-september.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.98523 | 544 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.4202220... | 1 | B Cador: September 2019
Base 2 have had a busy few days focusing on 'birds' as part of our Explorers theme. We thought about how aeroplanes and birds were alike and came up with two facts: they both have wings and both can fly.
We started by listening to the story The New Bird King and had great fun retelling the story in small groups
and performing for each other. Mrs Winward and I were very impressed how well they organised themselves and recounted the story. We then wrote about our favourite bird in the story. Was it the toucan with the very big beak or the myna bird who could talk to all the creatures? You'll have to read our sentences to find out!
The children then looked at a book called The Extinct Book of Boids and talked about some of the very witty illustrations by Ralph Steadman of birds that have become extinct. There were all sorts of birds in all sorts of habitats. The children were then tasked with creating their own bird and deciding on the habitat it would live in. They were given inks and acrylic paints to create their own habitats for their bird; they painted, washed, sponged, scraped, splattered, flicked and dotted the paint to create their backgrounds. They were then tasked with using oil pastels to draw and colour their birds — what an eclectic gallery we have!
Enjoy a taster of our art work so far...there will be more as our artistic masterpieces are finished and put on display!
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
So, where did that week go? We have had another great, busy, fun-filled week in school. Our music, RE and writing in particular this week has just blown me away. The children have been continuing with their singing, this time adding rap to to their repertoire ! I can't believe they managed to say all those words so well! I loved to see you guys bobbing and moving to the beat; wonderful! We...
A great week of learning in Base 4 this week — we've been working incredibly hard on our learning journey and getting creative in Music too.We returned to the feast at Heorot, only to find that the mead-hall had been destroyed by the foul beast, Grendel. We learnt more about Grendel and banked lots of wonderful language to describe him.Our Maths has focused on tenths and hundredths. ...
What an amazing week at Wrenbury Primary School! A huge congratulations to all our award winners.Also, a big well done to Base 4 for winning the golden ticket, with 98.3% attendance this... | 544 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Since the first local superintendent role was created in the 1830s, it has drastically evolved to keep pace with the rapidly changing needs and demands of society. Here is a look at how the role of superintendent has evolved throughout the years.
1830s-1860s: Clerical Role
The earliest known local school district superintendent positions date back to 1837. During this time, some of the larger cities began hiring superintendents. These roles were created by the local school boards to handle some of the daily challenges they faced.
Up until the 1870s, the primary duties district superintendents performed were implementing mandated state curriculum and supervising teachers. The power that superintendents held in early years varied by district, but for the most part, researchers agree that it was limited and most were relegated to performing clerical and practical tasks.
1870s – 1890s: Master Teacher Role
Between 1870 and 1910, many rural school districts began consolidating into larger districts and it was becoming difficult to manage the numerous state and federal demands placed on them. By the end of this time period, most city school districts had a superintendent.
In 1865, the National Education Association created a Superintendent’s Division which further solidified it as a profession. Rather than being consumed with clerical work, superintendents began to gain power in the educational world. They were often seen as “master” teachers and most were responsible for supervising and training teachers. Many superintendents also published different research and journal pieces. Although superintendents had influence as educators, they avoided the perception of being a manager or politician.
1900s – 1920s: Manager Role
At the turn of the century, school boards and political elites began to demand that superintendents incorporate scientific management in their administration. This effort was supported by scholars and many universities quickly began offering graduate degrees in school management.
Under immense pressure, superintendents’ work heavily revolved around budget management and operations standardization. They also became much more involved with personnel and faculty management. By the 1920s, the role of superintendent had completely transformed from master teacher into business manager.
1930s – Early 1950s: Political Leader Role
In the wake of the Great Depression, many political leaders and community members began to call into question the role of superintendents. The concept of “business manager” became heavily debated and many protested the powers superintendents held. In the early 1930s there was also more competition for federal funding forcing school officials to lobby for funds.
Financial stress and backlash from professional educators and communities prompted a shift in the role of superintendent. Superintendents soon began to take on the role of democratic leaders and became one of the most influential individuals in a school district. They were often occupied with balancing the needs of their school district and community while facing pressure from interest groups and policy makers.
Late 1950s – Early 1980s: Applied Social Scientist Role
During the mid-1950s, the role of superintended transformed once again. With the first wave of baby boomers starting school and the end of school segregation nearing, enrollment was up and school districts faced unique challenges that many did not feel superintendents were capable of handling. During this same time period, there was also millions of dollars being invested in researching social sciences as it relates to school administration.
The world was changing and traditional school board members were being replaced by parents and community members who were advocates for students. Students began to receive more rights and the public began to lose trust in school leadership. In turn, superintendents lost some power and were expected to take a scientific approach to problem solving and decision making. It also became an expectation that superintendents would be aware of sensitive issues such as poverty, racism, and drugs. An emphasis was placed on schools being socially just and productive.
Late 1980s- 2010s: Communicator Role
By the 1980s, the superintendent role was changing again as we transitioned from a manufacturing society into an era of information. Rapid technological advances were taking place and with a renewed public and political interest in public schools, educational reform began to take place. By the end of the 1990s, the federal government began setting state standards and assessments, and students with disabilities were introduced into mainstream schools.
Throughout this time, superintendents began to take on the role of a communicator. Superintendents began to reshape the culture of school districts and increase communication with stakeholders for strategic planning, fundraising, and much more. Topics of conflict began to be discussed openly with internal and external stakeholders and an emphasis was placed on relationship building.
Today and Beyond
Today, superintendents wear many hats. We are in the information era and being a communicator is an essential role that superintendents will continue to play in coming years. Technology has increased communication expectations tremendously with social media. Being visible to the community and easily accessible is more important than ever to develop strong relationships with the media, parents, teachers’ unions, and other stakeholders. | <urn:uuid:54b4805c-df3c-4771-9127-280c69b9c62b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.scriptapp.com/general/the-evolution-of-a-school-superintendent-a-brief-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00378.warc.gz | en | 0.983861 | 1,025 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.0170398... | 2 | Since the first local superintendent role was created in the 1830s, it has drastically evolved to keep pace with the rapidly changing needs and demands of society. Here is a look at how the role of superintendent has evolved throughout the years.
1830s-1860s: Clerical Role
The earliest known local school district superintendent positions date back to 1837. During this time, some of the larger cities began hiring superintendents. These roles were created by the local school boards to handle some of the daily challenges they faced.
Up until the 1870s, the primary duties district superintendents performed were implementing mandated state curriculum and supervising teachers. The power that superintendents held in early years varied by district, but for the most part, researchers agree that it was limited and most were relegated to performing clerical and practical tasks.
1870s – 1890s: Master Teacher Role
Between 1870 and 1910, many rural school districts began consolidating into larger districts and it was becoming difficult to manage the numerous state and federal demands placed on them. By the end of this time period, most city school districts had a superintendent.
In 1865, the National Education Association created a Superintendent’s Division which further solidified it as a profession. Rather than being consumed with clerical work, superintendents began to gain power in the educational world. They were often seen as “master” teachers and most were responsible for supervising and training teachers. Many superintendents also published different research and journal pieces. Although superintendents had influence as educators, they avoided the perception of being a manager or politician.
1900s – 1920s: Manager Role
At the turn of the century, school boards and political elites began to demand that superintendents incorporate scientific management in their administration. This effort was supported by scholars and many universities quickly began offering graduate degrees in school management.
Under immense pressure, superintendents’ work heavily revolved around budget management and operations standardization. They also became much more involved with personnel and faculty management. By the 1920s, the role of superintendent had completely transformed from master teacher into business manager.
1930s – Early 1950s: Political Leader Role
In the wake of the Great Depression, many political leaders and community members began to call into question the role of superintendents. The concept of “business manager” became heavily debated and many protested the powers superintendents held. In the early 1930s there was also more competition for federal funding forcing school officials to lobby for funds.
Financial stress and backlash from professional educators and communities prompted a shift in the role of superintendent. Superintendents soon began to take on the role of democratic leaders and became one of the most influential individuals in a school district. They were often occupied with balancing the needs of their school district and community while facing pressure from interest groups and policy makers.
Late 1950s – Early 1980s: Applied Social Scientist Role
During the mid-1950s, the role of superintended transformed once again. With the first wave of baby boomers starting school and the end of school segregation nearing, enrollment was up and school districts faced unique challenges that many did not feel superintendents were capable of handling. During this same time period, there was also millions of dollars being invested in researching social sciences as it relates to school administration.
The world was changing and traditional school board members were being replaced by parents and community members who were advocates for students. Students began to receive more rights and the public began to lose trust in school leadership. In turn, superintendents lost some power and were expected to take a scientific approach to problem solving and decision making. It also became an expectation that superintendents would be aware of sensitive issues such as poverty, racism, and drugs. An emphasis was placed on schools being socially just and productive.
Late 1980s- 2010s: Communicator Role
By the 1980s, the superintendent role was changing again as we transitioned from a manufacturing society into an era of information. Rapid technological advances were taking place and with a renewed public and political interest in public schools, educational reform began to take place. By the end of the 1990s, the federal government began setting state standards and assessments, and students with disabilities were introduced into mainstream schools.
Throughout this time, superintendents began to take on the role of a communicator. Superintendents began to reshape the culture of school districts and increase communication with stakeholders for strategic planning, fundraising, and much more. Topics of conflict began to be discussed openly with internal and external stakeholders and an emphasis was placed on relationship building.
Today and Beyond
Today, superintendents wear many hats. We are in the information era and being a communicator is an essential role that superintendents will continue to play in coming years. Technology has increased communication expectations tremendously with social media. Being visible to the community and easily accessible is more important than ever to develop strong relationships with the media, parents, teachers’ unions, and other stakeholders. | 1,100 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (906 words)
During the late 16th century and into the 17th century, two colonies emerged from England in the New World.
The two colonies were called the Chesapeake and New England colonies. Even though the two areas were formed and governed by the English, the colonies had similarities as well as differences. Differences in geography, religion, politics, economic, and nationalities, were responsible for molding the colonies. These differences came from one major factor: the very reason the English settlers came to the New World. The Chesapeake colonies were primarily created by ompanies interested in profiting from the natural resources of the New World such as gold or silver to bring back to England. The New England colonies were primarily created to escaped religious persecution and set up a haven for people of their faith. The inhabitants of the New England area were far healthier. Their clean water supply was a sharp contrast to the contaminated waters of Chesapeake Bay. The cool climate had a good impact on colonists because it prevented the spread of life-threatening diseases.
Because of New England’s cool climate, many people died during severe inters. Chesapeake’s climate had positive and negative factors as well. The warm, moist climate in the Chesapeake colonies carried diseases that killed many of the colonists. In contrast to the New England colonists, the Chesapeake colonists did not have to worry as much about surviving cold winters. The natural resources of the Chesapeake Colonies included rich farmland and forests. The colonists in the Chesapeake region started to make a profit with Tobacco.
Many farmers moved farther and farther out of the colony for more land. This way they could produce ore products The geography in the New England colonies was a lot different. Because of poor, rocky soil and the short growing season, the land was not very good for farming, but there were a lot of forests and natural ports. These features made that area ideal for shipbuilding and fishing. So the northern colonies became a big shipbuilding industry. Both colonies shared the similarity in suffering from diseases because of their climate. The religion of the two areas differed greatly as well.
The New Englanders were very religious-based, and claimed that they were far more odly than all other colonists. Religion was family-based and with extreme faithfulness. In the Chesapeake, religion was much less severe. The established church was the Church of England, but only became so after 1692. The religious tone was low, and many people did not participate in the church. 0Both colonies practiced religion at their own pace and based it upon their society at their own rate. The New England colonies had developed into a religion and family based society comprised of mostly middle class families.
The economy was based on fishing, shipbuilding, and arming. The farming in New England was done on a much smaller scale. Because the society was so family-orientated, they grew much of their own food and the farms were normally self-sufficient. It was nowhere near the size of the vast plantations in the Chesapeake. This was simply because New England’s focus was not on economic gain. The Chesapeake region developed into a land of plantations and money-driven the population. The economy revolved around the tobacco industry.
Slave trade relied fully on the tobacco plantation owners as a market to sell the slaves to. In addition, the tobacco raised enough to finance the importation of indentured servants, who would then go to work the tobacco, increasing the production further. Both colonies were an experiment as a “new society’ for colonization. In New England, the population was almost entirely English and white. Religious families, including Puritans, Quakers, and Catholics made up a large percentage of the population due to the reputation the New England colonies had as a place of religious freedom.
In the Chesapeake colonies, the population was a majority white ndentured servants and later had more black-slaves. With the boom in the tobacco industry, plantation owners relied on the cheap labor slaves or indentured servants provided. Both colonies take lead in driving off the natives and seizing their own land. Most of the population in both colonies were English/White. The political difference between the New England and Chesapeake region was that New England government associate more with religious matter than the Chesapeake government. The type of government was a theocratic environment.
Each town, which was filled ith educated people, had a local authority and held monthly town meetings in the meeting hall. The Chesapeake Colonies was a legislative owned by aristocrats. The county governments were more spread out; therefore the backcountry farmers were underrepresented. Both colonies had their set way of organizing their government. The New England and the Chesapeake colonies differed in numerous ways. These differences included geography, religion, economics, nationalities, and politics, which created the contrasting societies.
The differences involved almost every aspect of the ocieties from which they all originated from one initial difference between the two: the very reason the colonists came. Therefore, it cannot be denied as a significant cause of the contrast. The fortune-seeking colonists in the Chesapeake created a society based around economic growth, which affected their entire community. The New Englanders, looking for religious freedom, wanted to create a very different society that was centered around religion, not economic gain. It is because of these motives that the Chesapeake and the New England regions of the New World became so different by 1700.
Cite this page
Chesapeake Colonies vs. New England Colonies. (2018, Oct 12). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/chesapeake-colonies-vs-new-england-colonies-essay | <urn:uuid:4dd5bcc2-992d-434d-b9b0-c364b6ef9669> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/chesapeake-colonies-vs-new-england-colonies-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.981929 | 1,174 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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During the late 16th century and into the 17th century, two colonies emerged from England in the New World.
The two colonies were called the Chesapeake and New England colonies. Even though the two areas were formed and governed by the English, the colonies had similarities as well as differences. Differences in geography, religion, politics, economic, and nationalities, were responsible for molding the colonies. These differences came from one major factor: the very reason the English settlers came to the New World. The Chesapeake colonies were primarily created by ompanies interested in profiting from the natural resources of the New World such as gold or silver to bring back to England. The New England colonies were primarily created to escaped religious persecution and set up a haven for people of their faith. The inhabitants of the New England area were far healthier. Their clean water supply was a sharp contrast to the contaminated waters of Chesapeake Bay. The cool climate had a good impact on colonists because it prevented the spread of life-threatening diseases.
Because of New England’s cool climate, many people died during severe inters. Chesapeake’s climate had positive and negative factors as well. The warm, moist climate in the Chesapeake colonies carried diseases that killed many of the colonists. In contrast to the New England colonists, the Chesapeake colonists did not have to worry as much about surviving cold winters. The natural resources of the Chesapeake Colonies included rich farmland and forests. The colonists in the Chesapeake region started to make a profit with Tobacco.
Many farmers moved farther and farther out of the colony for more land. This way they could produce ore products The geography in the New England colonies was a lot different. Because of poor, rocky soil and the short growing season, the land was not very good for farming, but there were a lot of forests and natural ports. These features made that area ideal for shipbuilding and fishing. So the northern colonies became a big shipbuilding industry. Both colonies shared the similarity in suffering from diseases because of their climate. The religion of the two areas differed greatly as well.
The New Englanders were very religious-based, and claimed that they were far more odly than all other colonists. Religion was family-based and with extreme faithfulness. In the Chesapeake, religion was much less severe. The established church was the Church of England, but only became so after 1692. The religious tone was low, and many people did not participate in the church. 0Both colonies practiced religion at their own pace and based it upon their society at their own rate. The New England colonies had developed into a religion and family based society comprised of mostly middle class families.
The economy was based on fishing, shipbuilding, and arming. The farming in New England was done on a much smaller scale. Because the society was so family-orientated, they grew much of their own food and the farms were normally self-sufficient. It was nowhere near the size of the vast plantations in the Chesapeake. This was simply because New England’s focus was not on economic gain. The Chesapeake region developed into a land of plantations and money-driven the population. The economy revolved around the tobacco industry.
Slave trade relied fully on the tobacco plantation owners as a market to sell the slaves to. In addition, the tobacco raised enough to finance the importation of indentured servants, who would then go to work the tobacco, increasing the production further. Both colonies were an experiment as a “new society’ for colonization. In New England, the population was almost entirely English and white. Religious families, including Puritans, Quakers, and Catholics made up a large percentage of the population due to the reputation the New England colonies had as a place of religious freedom.
In the Chesapeake colonies, the population was a majority white ndentured servants and later had more black-slaves. With the boom in the tobacco industry, plantation owners relied on the cheap labor slaves or indentured servants provided. Both colonies take lead in driving off the natives and seizing their own land. Most of the population in both colonies were English/White. The political difference between the New England and Chesapeake region was that New England government associate more with religious matter than the Chesapeake government. The type of government was a theocratic environment.
Each town, which was filled ith educated people, had a local authority and held monthly town meetings in the meeting hall. The Chesapeake Colonies was a legislative owned by aristocrats. The county governments were more spread out; therefore the backcountry farmers were underrepresented. Both colonies had their set way of organizing their government. The New England and the Chesapeake colonies differed in numerous ways. These differences included geography, religion, economics, nationalities, and politics, which created the contrasting societies.
The differences involved almost every aspect of the ocieties from which they all originated from one initial difference between the two: the very reason the colonists came. Therefore, it cannot be denied as a significant cause of the contrast. The fortune-seeking colonists in the Chesapeake created a society based around economic growth, which affected their entire community. The New Englanders, looking for religious freedom, wanted to create a very different society that was centered around religion, not economic gain. It is because of these motives that the Chesapeake and the New England regions of the New World became so different by 1700.
Cite this page
Chesapeake Colonies vs. New England Colonies. (2018, Oct 12). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/chesapeake-colonies-vs-new-england-colonies-essay | 1,166 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The birth of Jesus Christ, the son of Mary, globally celebrated on the 25th of every December has no scriptural basis neither does it have a clear historical or calendrical explanation that is out-rightly convincing. In fact, history teaches he was not born in December.
History unfolds that the 25th of December was already a popular date in pagan celebration as the birthday of the Sun.
So how do we know when Jesus was born?
The Bible does not state expressly when Jesus was born, but with a few signs, we can hazard a scientific answer, which gives us a more accurate date than December 25. According to Luke 1:24-36, we see clearly that John the Baptist, the forerunner of Jesus Christ, was conceived six months before Mary the mother of Christ became pregnant by the Holy Ghost.
If we are able to ascertain when John the Baptist was born, figuring the birth of Jesus should be less of an ordeal.
Going by details shared in the Bible in Luke1:5, Zachariah, the father of John, was a serving priest in the time of Herod, King of Judea. “In the time of Herod king of Judea there was a priest named Zechariah, who belonged to the priestly division of Abijah; his wife Elizabeth was also a descendant of Aaron.”
According to The Companion Bible, 1974, Appendix 179, P.200, the course of service aligns with June 13-19 in that year. It is also very instructive to note that it was during Zachariah temple service that he learnt that Elizabeth, his wife would have a child.
Upon the completion of his service, he travelled home and Elizabeth conceived. We cannot tell how long it took Zachariah to get home after the service.
The Book of Luke 1:23-24, says “And it came to pass, that, as soon as the days of his ministration were accomplished, he departed to his own house. And after those days his wife Elisabeth conceived, and hid herself five months.”
If Zachariah returned home at the end of June to be with his wife, Elizabeth, it might be safe to conclude that John’s conception took place near the end of June, which then implies that he was born at the end of March the following year.
Adding the difference in the conception of John the Baptist and when the angel appeared to Mary, Jesus must have been born towards the end of September.
It will remain a demanding task for historians to figure out Jesus’ exact date of birth, but there are several indications to buttress that Christ wasn’t born on the 25th of December like we have all been made to believe.
At the time of Jesus’ birth according to Luke 2: 7-8, shepherds were watching their flocks. But the month of December doesn’t depict when Shepherds stay all night in the field, the month of December is wet and cold in Judea, therefore, rather than stay awake to watch their flocks, Shepherds would have secured shelter for their flocks.
In line with the weather condition, the reports according to the book of Luke has it that Jesus’ parents came to Bethlehem to register in a Roman census, but historians are of the strong opinion that census couldn’t have taken place in winter due to the drop in temperature which sometimes might be below freezing points. That such an attempt will be futile.
The bottom line is that no one knows for sure why December 25th is celebrated as the Birth of Jesus, and till date, no Christian journal has succeeded in providing useful clarifications.
But there seems to be a great connection between the celebration of solstice and Jesus’ birth. Therefore, could it be that the birth of Christ was intentionally used to replace the popular pagan celebration of the Sun? Could it also be a sign that the Almighty God chose Christ over all other idols?
Lanre Olagunju is a Lagos based Fact Checker. He is @Lanre_Olagunju on Twitter. | <urn:uuid:8a424fa9-60a7-43b4-968c-d292ef9f2780> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tosinadeda.com/fact-check-was-jesus-really-born-on-december-25-lanre-olagunju/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00449.warc.gz | en | 0.986176 | 853 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.069315016269683... | 15 | The birth of Jesus Christ, the son of Mary, globally celebrated on the 25th of every December has no scriptural basis neither does it have a clear historical or calendrical explanation that is out-rightly convincing. In fact, history teaches he was not born in December.
History unfolds that the 25th of December was already a popular date in pagan celebration as the birthday of the Sun.
So how do we know when Jesus was born?
The Bible does not state expressly when Jesus was born, but with a few signs, we can hazard a scientific answer, which gives us a more accurate date than December 25. According to Luke 1:24-36, we see clearly that John the Baptist, the forerunner of Jesus Christ, was conceived six months before Mary the mother of Christ became pregnant by the Holy Ghost.
If we are able to ascertain when John the Baptist was born, figuring the birth of Jesus should be less of an ordeal.
Going by details shared in the Bible in Luke1:5, Zachariah, the father of John, was a serving priest in the time of Herod, King of Judea. “In the time of Herod king of Judea there was a priest named Zechariah, who belonged to the priestly division of Abijah; his wife Elizabeth was also a descendant of Aaron.”
According to The Companion Bible, 1974, Appendix 179, P.200, the course of service aligns with June 13-19 in that year. It is also very instructive to note that it was during Zachariah temple service that he learnt that Elizabeth, his wife would have a child.
Upon the completion of his service, he travelled home and Elizabeth conceived. We cannot tell how long it took Zachariah to get home after the service.
The Book of Luke 1:23-24, says “And it came to pass, that, as soon as the days of his ministration were accomplished, he departed to his own house. And after those days his wife Elisabeth conceived, and hid herself five months.”
If Zachariah returned home at the end of June to be with his wife, Elizabeth, it might be safe to conclude that John’s conception took place near the end of June, which then implies that he was born at the end of March the following year.
Adding the difference in the conception of John the Baptist and when the angel appeared to Mary, Jesus must have been born towards the end of September.
It will remain a demanding task for historians to figure out Jesus’ exact date of birth, but there are several indications to buttress that Christ wasn’t born on the 25th of December like we have all been made to believe.
At the time of Jesus’ birth according to Luke 2: 7-8, shepherds were watching their flocks. But the month of December doesn’t depict when Shepherds stay all night in the field, the month of December is wet and cold in Judea, therefore, rather than stay awake to watch their flocks, Shepherds would have secured shelter for their flocks.
In line with the weather condition, the reports according to the book of Luke has it that Jesus’ parents came to Bethlehem to register in a Roman census, but historians are of the strong opinion that census couldn’t have taken place in winter due to the drop in temperature which sometimes might be below freezing points. That such an attempt will be futile.
The bottom line is that no one knows for sure why December 25th is celebrated as the Birth of Jesus, and till date, no Christian journal has succeeded in providing useful clarifications.
But there seems to be a great connection between the celebration of solstice and Jesus’ birth. Therefore, could it be that the birth of Christ was intentionally used to replace the popular pagan celebration of the Sun? Could it also be a sign that the Almighty God chose Christ over all other idols?
Lanre Olagunju is a Lagos based Fact Checker. He is @Lanre_Olagunju on Twitter. | 846 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Montesquieu, in full Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu, (born January 18, 1689, Chateau La Brède, near Bordeaux, France—died February 10, 1755, Paris), French political philosopher whose principal work, The Spirit of Laws, was a major contribution to political theory.
Where was Montesquieu educated?
Who were Montesquieu’s parents?
What was Montesquieu best known for?
How did Montesquieu get famous?
Early life and career
His father, Jacques de Secondat, belonged to an old military family of modest wealth that had been ennobled in the 16th century for services to the crown, while his mother, Marie-Fran?oise de Pesnel, was a pious lady of partial English extraction. She brought to her husband a great increase in wealth in the valuable wine-producing property of La Brède. When she died in 1696, the barony of La Brède passed to Charles-Louis, who was her eldest child, then aged seven. Educated first at home and then in the village, he was sent away to school in 1700. The school was the Collège de Juilly, close to Paris and in the diocese of Meaux. It was much patronized by the prominent families of Bordeaux, and the priests of the Oratory, to whom it belonged, provided a sound education on enlightened and modern lines.
Charles-Louis left Juilly in 1705, continued his studies at the faculty of law at the University of Bordeaux, graduated, and became an advocate in 1708; soon after he appears to have moved to Paris in order to obtain practical experience in law. He was called back to Bordeaux by the death of his father in 1713. Two years later he married Jeanne de Lartigue, a wealthy Protestant, who brought him a respectable dowry of 100,000 livres and in due course presented him with two daughters and a son, Jean-Baptiste. Charles-Louis admired and exploited his wife’s business skill and readily left her in charge of the property on his visits to Paris. But he does not appear to have been either faithful or greatly devoted to her. In 1716 his uncle, Jean-Baptiste, baron de Montesquieu, died and left to his nephew his estates, with the barony of Montesquieu, near Agen, and the office of deputy president in the Parlement of Bordeaux. His position was one of some dignity. It carried a stipend but was no sinecure.
The young Montesquieu, at 27, was now socially and financially secure. He settled down to exercise his judicial function (engaging to this end in the minute study of Roman law), to administer his property, and to advance his knowledge of the sciences—especially of geology, biology, and physics—which he studied in the newly formed academy of Bordeaux.
In 1721 he surprised all but a few close friends by publishing his Lettres persanes (Persian Letters, 1722), in which he gave a brilliant satirical portrait of French and particularly Parisian civilization, supposedly seen through the eyes of two Persian travellers. This exceedingly successful work mocks the reign of Louis XIV, which had only recently ended; pokes fun at all social classes; discusses, in its allegorical story of the Troglodytes, the theories of Thomas Hobbes relating to the state of nature. It also makes an original, if naive, contribution to the new science of demography; continually compares Islam and Christianity; reflects the controversy about the papal bull Unigenitus, which was directed against the dissident Catholic group known as the Jansenists; satirizes Roman Catholic doctrine; and is infused throughout with a new spirit of vigorous, disrespectful, and iconoclastic criticism. The work’s anonymity was soon penetrated, and Montesquieu became famous. The new ideas fermenting in Paris had received their most-scintillating expression.
Montesquieu now sought to reinforce his literary achievement with social success. Going to Paris in 1722, he was assisted in entering court circles by the duke of Berwick, the exiled Stuart prince whom he had known when Berwick was military governor at Bordeaux. The tone of life at court was set by the rakish regent, the duc d’Orléans, and Montesquieu did not disdain its dissipations. It was during this period that he made the acquaintance of the English politician Viscount Bolingbroke, whose political views were later to be reflected in Montesquieu’s analysis of the English constitution.
In Paris his interest in the routine activities of the Parlement in Bordeaux, however, had dwindled. He resented seeing that his intellectual inferiors were more successful than he in court. His office was marketable, and in 1726 he sold it, a move that served both to reestablish his fortunes, depleted by life in the capital, and to assist him, by lending colour to his claim to be resident in Paris, in his attempt to enter the Académie Fran?aise. A vacancy there arose in October 1727. Montesquieu had powerful supporters, with Madame de Lambert’s salon firmly pressing his claims, and he was elected, taking his seat on January 24, 1728.
This official recognition of his talent might have caused him to remain in Paris to enjoy it. On the contrary, though older than most noblemen starting on the grand tour, he resolved to complete his education by foreign travel. Leaving his wife at La Brède with full powers over the estate, he set off for Vienna in April 1728, with Lord Waldegrave, nephew of Berwick and lately British ambassador in Paris, as travelling companion. He wrote an account of his travels as interesting as any other of the 18th century. In Vienna he met the soldier and statesman Prince Eugene of Savoy and discussed French politics with him. He made a surprising detour into Hungary to examine the mines. He entered Italy, and, after tasting the pleasures of Venice, proceeded to visit most of the other cities. Conscientiously examining the galleries of Florence, notebook in hand, he developed his aesthetic sense. In Rome he heard the French minister Cardinal Polignac and read his unpublished Latin poem Anti-Lucretius. In Naples he skeptically witnessed the liquefaction of the blood of the city’s patron saint. From Italy he moved through Germany to Holland and thence (at the end of October 1729), in the company of the statesman and wit Lord Chesterfield, to England, where he remained until the spring of 1731.
Montesquieu had a wide circle of acquaintances in England. He was presented at court, and he was received by the prince of Wales, at whose request he later made an anthology of French songs. He became a close friend of the dukes of Richmond and Montagu. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He attended parliamentary debates and read the political journals of the day. He became a Freemason. He bought extensively for his library. His stay in England was one of the most formative periods of his life. | <urn:uuid:9de40648-08c0-475d-b192-36b80347e554> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.miyl6.com/biography/Montesquieu | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00198.warc.gz | en | 0.984195 | 1,570 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.1167710870504379... | 2 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Montesquieu, in full Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu, (born January 18, 1689, Chateau La Brède, near Bordeaux, France—died February 10, 1755, Paris), French political philosopher whose principal work, The Spirit of Laws, was a major contribution to political theory.
Where was Montesquieu educated?
Who were Montesquieu’s parents?
What was Montesquieu best known for?
How did Montesquieu get famous?
Early life and career
His father, Jacques de Secondat, belonged to an old military family of modest wealth that had been ennobled in the 16th century for services to the crown, while his mother, Marie-Fran?oise de Pesnel, was a pious lady of partial English extraction. She brought to her husband a great increase in wealth in the valuable wine-producing property of La Brède. When she died in 1696, the barony of La Brède passed to Charles-Louis, who was her eldest child, then aged seven. Educated first at home and then in the village, he was sent away to school in 1700. The school was the Collège de Juilly, close to Paris and in the diocese of Meaux. It was much patronized by the prominent families of Bordeaux, and the priests of the Oratory, to whom it belonged, provided a sound education on enlightened and modern lines.
Charles-Louis left Juilly in 1705, continued his studies at the faculty of law at the University of Bordeaux, graduated, and became an advocate in 1708; soon after he appears to have moved to Paris in order to obtain practical experience in law. He was called back to Bordeaux by the death of his father in 1713. Two years later he married Jeanne de Lartigue, a wealthy Protestant, who brought him a respectable dowry of 100,000 livres and in due course presented him with two daughters and a son, Jean-Baptiste. Charles-Louis admired and exploited his wife’s business skill and readily left her in charge of the property on his visits to Paris. But he does not appear to have been either faithful or greatly devoted to her. In 1716 his uncle, Jean-Baptiste, baron de Montesquieu, died and left to his nephew his estates, with the barony of Montesquieu, near Agen, and the office of deputy president in the Parlement of Bordeaux. His position was one of some dignity. It carried a stipend but was no sinecure.
The young Montesquieu, at 27, was now socially and financially secure. He settled down to exercise his judicial function (engaging to this end in the minute study of Roman law), to administer his property, and to advance his knowledge of the sciences—especially of geology, biology, and physics—which he studied in the newly formed academy of Bordeaux.
In 1721 he surprised all but a few close friends by publishing his Lettres persanes (Persian Letters, 1722), in which he gave a brilliant satirical portrait of French and particularly Parisian civilization, supposedly seen through the eyes of two Persian travellers. This exceedingly successful work mocks the reign of Louis XIV, which had only recently ended; pokes fun at all social classes; discusses, in its allegorical story of the Troglodytes, the theories of Thomas Hobbes relating to the state of nature. It also makes an original, if naive, contribution to the new science of demography; continually compares Islam and Christianity; reflects the controversy about the papal bull Unigenitus, which was directed against the dissident Catholic group known as the Jansenists; satirizes Roman Catholic doctrine; and is infused throughout with a new spirit of vigorous, disrespectful, and iconoclastic criticism. The work’s anonymity was soon penetrated, and Montesquieu became famous. The new ideas fermenting in Paris had received their most-scintillating expression.
Montesquieu now sought to reinforce his literary achievement with social success. Going to Paris in 1722, he was assisted in entering court circles by the duke of Berwick, the exiled Stuart prince whom he had known when Berwick was military governor at Bordeaux. The tone of life at court was set by the rakish regent, the duc d’Orléans, and Montesquieu did not disdain its dissipations. It was during this period that he made the acquaintance of the English politician Viscount Bolingbroke, whose political views were later to be reflected in Montesquieu’s analysis of the English constitution.
In Paris his interest in the routine activities of the Parlement in Bordeaux, however, had dwindled. He resented seeing that his intellectual inferiors were more successful than he in court. His office was marketable, and in 1726 he sold it, a move that served both to reestablish his fortunes, depleted by life in the capital, and to assist him, by lending colour to his claim to be resident in Paris, in his attempt to enter the Académie Fran?aise. A vacancy there arose in October 1727. Montesquieu had powerful supporters, with Madame de Lambert’s salon firmly pressing his claims, and he was elected, taking his seat on January 24, 1728.
This official recognition of his talent might have caused him to remain in Paris to enjoy it. On the contrary, though older than most noblemen starting on the grand tour, he resolved to complete his education by foreign travel. Leaving his wife at La Brède with full powers over the estate, he set off for Vienna in April 1728, with Lord Waldegrave, nephew of Berwick and lately British ambassador in Paris, as travelling companion. He wrote an account of his travels as interesting as any other of the 18th century. In Vienna he met the soldier and statesman Prince Eugene of Savoy and discussed French politics with him. He made a surprising detour into Hungary to examine the mines. He entered Italy, and, after tasting the pleasures of Venice, proceeded to visit most of the other cities. Conscientiously examining the galleries of Florence, notebook in hand, he developed his aesthetic sense. In Rome he heard the French minister Cardinal Polignac and read his unpublished Latin poem Anti-Lucretius. In Naples he skeptically witnessed the liquefaction of the blood of the city’s patron saint. From Italy he moved through Germany to Holland and thence (at the end of October 1729), in the company of the statesman and wit Lord Chesterfield, to England, where he remained until the spring of 1731.
Montesquieu had a wide circle of acquaintances in England. He was presented at court, and he was received by the prince of Wales, at whose request he later made an anthology of French songs. He became a close friend of the dukes of Richmond and Montagu. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He attended parliamentary debates and read the political journals of the day. He became a Freemason. He bought extensively for his library. His stay in England was one of the most formative periods of his life. | 1,586 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Wars of the Roses were a series of clashes between the two dynasties of medieval England during the 15th century. The wars took place between the two branches of the royal House of Plantagenets, the houses of York and Lancaster. The conflict mainly emerged from the troubling conditions that resulted from the Hundred Years’ War and was further intensified by the weak rule of Henry VI.
The actual history of the Wars of the Roses began in 1455, although there was related fighting before that too. Given the weak rule of Henry VI and the financial troubles resulting from the Hundred Years’ War, Richard from the House of York renewed his claim to the throne. The Wars of the Roses continued until 1487 when the final victory fell into the hands of Henry Tudor from the House of Lancaster.
The Wars of the Roses is one of the most famous dynastic clashes in the history of England. It ended with the emergence of Henry Tudor who laid the basis for the Tudor Dynasty to rule England for more than a century. The war also united the two rival houses of York and Lancaster when Henry Tudor married Elizabeth of York.
The timeline of the Wars of the Roses can be traced back to 1399 when Henry of Bolingbroke deposed his cousin Richard II and ascended to the throne. Henry VI was from the same line but he was a weak king with little hold on the throne. This gave rise to the rival claims on throne which eventually led to the war in 1455. The war continued for 32 years and ended in 1487 with the victory of Henry Tudor.
The main reason behind the Wars of the Roses was rival claims to the throne of England. From the House of Lancaster, John of Gaunt claimed his right to the throne as he was the descendant of Edward III. Richard, Duke of York, also challenged Henry VI’s claim to the throne and thus there were multiple rivals who were ready to go to war to get their own way.
The armies that took part in the Wars of the Roses mainly consisted of landed aristocracy and the armies of the feudal retainers. Besides, some foreign mercenaries also took part from both sides. Large numbers of men-at-arms were hired by both sides and this reduced the royal authority to nil. Sometimes, the nobles also switched sides during the battles.
Several major battles were fought during the Wars of the Roses. The battles began with Battle of First St. Albans on 22 May 1455 which resulted in the victory of the House of York. Subsequent battles include Blore Heath, Ludford Bridge, Towton, Hexham, and others. The final battle was the Battle of Stoke in 1487 after which Henry Tudor became the king.
The Wars of the Roses were a series of battles fought between the Houses of Lancaster and York, the two rival claimants to the throne of England. Rival claims to the throne emerged as a result of the weak rule of Henry VI. The Wars of the Roses ended with the victory of the Lancastrian party, with Henry Tudor becoming the new king. | <urn:uuid:be84757b-2137-41ee-921a-f2291343c2d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-battles-wars/wars-of-the-roses/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.980476 | 629 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.3199343681335... | 3 | The Wars of the Roses were a series of clashes between the two dynasties of medieval England during the 15th century. The wars took place between the two branches of the royal House of Plantagenets, the houses of York and Lancaster. The conflict mainly emerged from the troubling conditions that resulted from the Hundred Years’ War and was further intensified by the weak rule of Henry VI.
The actual history of the Wars of the Roses began in 1455, although there was related fighting before that too. Given the weak rule of Henry VI and the financial troubles resulting from the Hundred Years’ War, Richard from the House of York renewed his claim to the throne. The Wars of the Roses continued until 1487 when the final victory fell into the hands of Henry Tudor from the House of Lancaster.
The Wars of the Roses is one of the most famous dynastic clashes in the history of England. It ended with the emergence of Henry Tudor who laid the basis for the Tudor Dynasty to rule England for more than a century. The war also united the two rival houses of York and Lancaster when Henry Tudor married Elizabeth of York.
The timeline of the Wars of the Roses can be traced back to 1399 when Henry of Bolingbroke deposed his cousin Richard II and ascended to the throne. Henry VI was from the same line but he was a weak king with little hold on the throne. This gave rise to the rival claims on throne which eventually led to the war in 1455. The war continued for 32 years and ended in 1487 with the victory of Henry Tudor.
The main reason behind the Wars of the Roses was rival claims to the throne of England. From the House of Lancaster, John of Gaunt claimed his right to the throne as he was the descendant of Edward III. Richard, Duke of York, also challenged Henry VI’s claim to the throne and thus there were multiple rivals who were ready to go to war to get their own way.
The armies that took part in the Wars of the Roses mainly consisted of landed aristocracy and the armies of the feudal retainers. Besides, some foreign mercenaries also took part from both sides. Large numbers of men-at-arms were hired by both sides and this reduced the royal authority to nil. Sometimes, the nobles also switched sides during the battles.
Several major battles were fought during the Wars of the Roses. The battles began with Battle of First St. Albans on 22 May 1455 which resulted in the victory of the House of York. Subsequent battles include Blore Heath, Ludford Bridge, Towton, Hexham, and others. The final battle was the Battle of Stoke in 1487 after which Henry Tudor became the king.
The Wars of the Roses were a series of battles fought between the Houses of Lancaster and York, the two rival claimants to the throne of England. Rival claims to the throne emerged as a result of the weak rule of Henry VI. The Wars of the Roses ended with the victory of the Lancastrian party, with Henry Tudor becoming the new king. | 648 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 10/06/2011)
The Marathas rallied at Laswari, thirty miles north-west of Agra, where Gerard Lake came upon them at sunrise, November. They were strongly posted and had cut a reservoir's banks, to flood the approaches. Without waiting for his infantry, whom he had left toiling far behind, Lake flung his cavalry at the enemy's artillery position. The gunners held their fire until the cavalry were within twenty yards; and they fought with such desperation that after the battle Lake enlisted their survivors in the Company's service.
Gerard Lake did what was the equivalent in the First World War of attacking without artillery preparation, and the cavalry failed to oust the enemy. The infantry arrived about eleven o'clock, breathless and dusty. The Marathas faltered, and opened negotiations, being given an hour, which both sides used to strengthen themselves. During the noon, Lake guided the infantry into their last mile, of which they managed to traverse most unseen, by using nullas and luxuriant grasses. On emergence they were met with a terrific fire, which ravaged the devoted 76th Regiment in particular. Lake's charger was killed, and his son, Major Lake, dismounting to offer his own, was struck down. Lake could not pause for even his wounded son but had to gallop off to bring up the 12th and 16th Native Infantry to assist the 76th. An attack made by Maratha cavalry on the flank was feeble and the battle began to fade out from Laswari. It gathered vigour in the village of Malpur, where resistance continued until four in the afternoon and till then the Maratha ruin was complete. The loss came to the British heavily and over 800 people lied dead and wounded, but their opponents' losses were immense, believed to be close on 7,000 killed alone.
During the battle of Laswari, seventy-one cannon were captured and immense stores of ammunition, in addition to an unascertainable amount blown up. The ground presently became so offensive with its rotting thousands that the victors had to march away from it. As Sindhia had meanwhile lost the battle of Assaye to Arthur Wellesley, his power lay prostrate, and the armies which his predecessor and he had made through so many years were shattered beyond repair.
After the Battle of Laswari, Raghuji Bhonsale (II) of Nagpur signed the Treaty of Deogaon with the British on 17 December 1803 and gave up the province of Cuttack including Balasore. | <urn:uuid:c3d76f83-7e03-44e8-b2eb-97f7b72119bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/42/battle_laswari.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.989836 | 531 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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The Marathas rallied at Laswari, thirty miles north-west of Agra, where Gerard Lake came upon them at sunrise, November. They were strongly posted and had cut a reservoir's banks, to flood the approaches. Without waiting for his infantry, whom he had left toiling far behind, Lake flung his cavalry at the enemy's artillery position. The gunners held their fire until the cavalry were within twenty yards; and they fought with such desperation that after the battle Lake enlisted their survivors in the Company's service.
Gerard Lake did what was the equivalent in the First World War of attacking without artillery preparation, and the cavalry failed to oust the enemy. The infantry arrived about eleven o'clock, breathless and dusty. The Marathas faltered, and opened negotiations, being given an hour, which both sides used to strengthen themselves. During the noon, Lake guided the infantry into their last mile, of which they managed to traverse most unseen, by using nullas and luxuriant grasses. On emergence they were met with a terrific fire, which ravaged the devoted 76th Regiment in particular. Lake's charger was killed, and his son, Major Lake, dismounting to offer his own, was struck down. Lake could not pause for even his wounded son but had to gallop off to bring up the 12th and 16th Native Infantry to assist the 76th. An attack made by Maratha cavalry on the flank was feeble and the battle began to fade out from Laswari. It gathered vigour in the village of Malpur, where resistance continued until four in the afternoon and till then the Maratha ruin was complete. The loss came to the British heavily and over 800 people lied dead and wounded, but their opponents' losses were immense, believed to be close on 7,000 killed alone.
During the battle of Laswari, seventy-one cannon were captured and immense stores of ammunition, in addition to an unascertainable amount blown up. The ground presently became so offensive with its rotting thousands that the victors had to march away from it. As Sindhia had meanwhile lost the battle of Assaye to Arthur Wellesley, his power lay prostrate, and the armies which his predecessor and he had made through so many years were shattered beyond repair.
After the Battle of Laswari, Raghuji Bhonsale (II) of Nagpur signed the Treaty of Deogaon with the British on 17 December 1803 and gave up the province of Cuttack including Balasore. | 554 | ENGLISH | 1 |
James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny was one of the most important inventions of the 18th century that massively improved the weaving industry, and that signaled the onset of the Industrial Revolution. After John Kay’s Flying Shuttle, Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny is one of the essential improvements to weaving machinery at the time. Not everyone accepted his invention when introduced.
Before James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny, most of the work occurred was done by hand. The weaving process was significantly slower and demanded much more attention from the workers. The Spinning Jenny industrialized the weaving industry and enabled a production on a mass scale.
James Hargreaves was the first inventor responsible for developing the spinning mechanism that would revolutionize the textile industry. His concept was later built on and improved by many subsequent inventors: most notably, Richard Arkwright and Samuel Compton.
The modest life of a revolutionary
What was the life of James Hargreaves, one of the most revolutionary people in history? How did he invent the spinning wheel? Hargreaves was not like some other inventors from the 18th century, who were well-educated or came from prominent families.
James Hargreaves was born in 1720 in Oswaldtwistle in Lancashire, United Kingdom. He lived in a region where industrialization was beginning to happen which meant that many inventors came from this area. Manual work was still the predominant way of working but this would change drastically in the 18th century thanks to inventors like Hargreaves. While we do not know much about the early life of James Hargreaves, he was a part of the working class.
James Hargreaves’ early life
Hargreaves was born into a working-class family. He began laboring as a handloom weaver at a very young age. Hargreaves was not an educated man – he received no formal education, which was quite common at the time. This was not a rarity in the early 18th century, as many people could not afford it. But even with little education, he was always very interested in engineering and improving the things around him.
Surprisingly still, Hargreaves could not read nor write. His family was poor, which is why he had to start working very early. There was no time to educate himself, as James had to help his family earn enough to survive. He worked as a talented weaver for most of his life. The work he did and all the skills he had he taught himself.
Fortunately, James was determined to learn the skill of weaving. He was also very interested in engineering from an early age and was always curious about how things worked. This sort of thinking inspired him to invent the spinning jenny.
Work and family in the textile industry
For most of his life, James Hargreaves worked in the textile industry. He was very competent at using a handloom. The majority of the population in his town was involved in the textile industry one way or another. Even the children and women of the towns worked in this industry. Lancashire, in general, was a very productive place in England before the Industrial Revolution.
Another famous inventor, John Kay, originated from a town nearby. Kay was also involved in the weaving industry and invented the flying shuttle. It is possible that Hargreaves got his inspiration in some way by Kay, who was active many years before Hargreaves patented his idea.
Hargreaves knew that the loom equipment of the time was not able to keep up with the demands of factory workers and merchants. As the supply requirements grew, more and more production output was necessary. Hargreaves and his coworkers struggled to meet those needs.
Many workers were starting to get frustrated and something needed to change. The flying shuttle was only the first step in the industrialization; many more inventions would improve weaving machinery, including James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny.
It was at this time that Hargreaves married Elizabeth Grimshaw, and they had 13 children. The family lived in a small home in Stanhill. James had to do a lot of work to support his family; the wages were measly, so they lived a mediocre life. This could also be the reason he was inspired to become an inventor.
The right place at the right time
The story behind Hargreaves’s getting the idea for the Spinning Jenny is quite a bizarre one. It was a typical day for Hargreaves, working hard on his handloom for most of the time. During those days, Hargreaves was one of the rare people that owned a handloom at their homes. But that was the day that would turn out to change his life.
To better understand how Hargreaves came to the idea of the Spinning Jenny, we must first take a look at how handlooms operated were before this invention. Weaving had already been industrialized to some extent, but many people were still using looms in their homes. Weaving and spinning was a cottage industry in many ways. A loom had to be operated by up to seven people – one person for spinning, three for providing the roving, and three to give the yarn for the spinner. Hargreaves’ family members likely helped him with this task. The loom used a spinning wheel with a single thread and a spindle that collected the yarn.
Hargreaves was hard at work in 1764 when suddenly, his daughter inadvertently overturned the spinning wheel on the floor. That is the moment of inspired genius for Hargreaves. When the loom was toppled on its side, the spinning wheel kept spinning. At the time, a common misconception was that the wheel stops revolving if it was not in a horizontal position. James saw an opportunity to add additional spindles to the spinning wheel and place them in a vertical position.
James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny
This minor accident was to be the moment that would change Hargreaves’ life and the textile industry forever. James saw the opportunity to improve the spinning wheel massively. Adding more spindles would allow for the use of additional yarn. More fabric could then be produced. This improvement significantly reduced the need for workers.
It is believed that the machine was named after his daughter Jenny, that overturned the spinning wheel. Other people think that the name means the “spinning machine,” as the word “jenny” is a slang word for the “engine” in British English.
Hargreaves originally created a new machine for his use initially. The Spinning Jenny was built with a metal frame where a spinning wheel would rest. The spinner had to manually move the spinning wheel with his right hand, causing the eight or more threads to rotate through the spindles. There were now eight spindles in the Spinning Jenny, compared to just a single one beforehand. James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny was a very revolutionary design which would be improved later on – eventually, there would be 120 spindles used, allowing for even more productivity.
This invention may have been a stroke of luck for James but he also sought solutions to simple problems. This story has a lesson for all of us as inventors – always look for inventions, even in the modest or simplest of places.
From local to international demand
Initially, Hargreaves designed the machine for his use and to support his own family. He soon saw the profits rise quickly and knew that his invention was going to be a great success. His productivity increased significantly, in addition to his earnings. The only downside of the new device was that the fabric that it produced was still quite low in quality and not very cohesive. It was eventually improved by adding more spindles to the machine.
Hargreaves started selling the product to neighbors and other handloom users within the local community. The results were astounding as many people saw the profits increase significantly. More and more yarn started to be used, the Spinning Jenny spread like wildfire. Many more people craved for this machine. As the popularity of the device grew, the prices for yarn started to drop dramatically.
As demand for workers decreased, more and more manufacturers started using his design. Like the robots of our time, consequently, many people lost their jobs due to this invention. Spinners were soon up in arms. Yarn makers were also not happy; the situation only slightly improved for them with increased production. Manufacturers were pleased with the invention, but the spinners who lost their jobs were not.
Hargreaves was soon under a lot of pressure from spinners. He received many threats at that time; it all escalated in 1768 when a group of spinners broke into his home, destroyed his equipment, and many Spinning Jennys. After this, he decided to relocate to Nottingham, where he would be able to work on his inventions.
Move to Nottingham and his patent
Hargreaves moved to Nottingham in 1768. He started looking for potential business partners and also sought to improve the Spinning Jenny. He found a partner in Thomas James. Their collaboration was profitable as they established a mill where they would test and improve their new devices.
In 1770, Hargreaves filed a patent for a version of the Spinning Jenny that had 16 spindles. He secured this patent to recoup the money he lost when manufacturers used his design illegally. Hargreaves took the infringing people to court but they offered him a large sum of 3000 British Pounds to settle the matter first. He refused, and he ended losing the case because he had already sold too many machines in what now what be known as a “prior art” patent claim. As a result, the Spinning Jenny never received a patent approval.
The legacy of the Spinning Jenny
The spinning Jenny would prove to be one of the most important inventions that would bring on the Industrial Revolution. It revolutionized the textile industry by improving the speed of work, decreased the number of workers, and increased productivity. The machine received many subsequent improvements later; at the start, it used eight spindles but was improved to use 16, 24, 80 and eventually, 120. Because this invention was not patented, many people tried to stake a claim as the inventor. Richard Arkwright made one of those claims because he designed the water frame, which helped the Spinning Jenny work more effectively.
James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny turned out to be one of the essential inventions that sparked the Industrial Revolution. It provided a basis to work on and further improve many machines in the textile industry.
What can we learn from James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny and his life?
- Look for inspiration from ordinary things.
- Understand the equipment that is already in use.
- Examine the market.
- Know where something can be improved. | <urn:uuid:f59ee42e-4b4d-4716-b88a-0ecd858c4c98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inventiontherapy.com/james-hargreaves-spinning-jenny/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00530.warc.gz | en | 0.988636 | 2,279 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.2418294548... | 7 | James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny was one of the most important inventions of the 18th century that massively improved the weaving industry, and that signaled the onset of the Industrial Revolution. After John Kay’s Flying Shuttle, Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny is one of the essential improvements to weaving machinery at the time. Not everyone accepted his invention when introduced.
Before James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny, most of the work occurred was done by hand. The weaving process was significantly slower and demanded much more attention from the workers. The Spinning Jenny industrialized the weaving industry and enabled a production on a mass scale.
James Hargreaves was the first inventor responsible for developing the spinning mechanism that would revolutionize the textile industry. His concept was later built on and improved by many subsequent inventors: most notably, Richard Arkwright and Samuel Compton.
The modest life of a revolutionary
What was the life of James Hargreaves, one of the most revolutionary people in history? How did he invent the spinning wheel? Hargreaves was not like some other inventors from the 18th century, who were well-educated or came from prominent families.
James Hargreaves was born in 1720 in Oswaldtwistle in Lancashire, United Kingdom. He lived in a region where industrialization was beginning to happen which meant that many inventors came from this area. Manual work was still the predominant way of working but this would change drastically in the 18th century thanks to inventors like Hargreaves. While we do not know much about the early life of James Hargreaves, he was a part of the working class.
James Hargreaves’ early life
Hargreaves was born into a working-class family. He began laboring as a handloom weaver at a very young age. Hargreaves was not an educated man – he received no formal education, which was quite common at the time. This was not a rarity in the early 18th century, as many people could not afford it. But even with little education, he was always very interested in engineering and improving the things around him.
Surprisingly still, Hargreaves could not read nor write. His family was poor, which is why he had to start working very early. There was no time to educate himself, as James had to help his family earn enough to survive. He worked as a talented weaver for most of his life. The work he did and all the skills he had he taught himself.
Fortunately, James was determined to learn the skill of weaving. He was also very interested in engineering from an early age and was always curious about how things worked. This sort of thinking inspired him to invent the spinning jenny.
Work and family in the textile industry
For most of his life, James Hargreaves worked in the textile industry. He was very competent at using a handloom. The majority of the population in his town was involved in the textile industry one way or another. Even the children and women of the towns worked in this industry. Lancashire, in general, was a very productive place in England before the Industrial Revolution.
Another famous inventor, John Kay, originated from a town nearby. Kay was also involved in the weaving industry and invented the flying shuttle. It is possible that Hargreaves got his inspiration in some way by Kay, who was active many years before Hargreaves patented his idea.
Hargreaves knew that the loom equipment of the time was not able to keep up with the demands of factory workers and merchants. As the supply requirements grew, more and more production output was necessary. Hargreaves and his coworkers struggled to meet those needs.
Many workers were starting to get frustrated and something needed to change. The flying shuttle was only the first step in the industrialization; many more inventions would improve weaving machinery, including James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny.
It was at this time that Hargreaves married Elizabeth Grimshaw, and they had 13 children. The family lived in a small home in Stanhill. James had to do a lot of work to support his family; the wages were measly, so they lived a mediocre life. This could also be the reason he was inspired to become an inventor.
The right place at the right time
The story behind Hargreaves’s getting the idea for the Spinning Jenny is quite a bizarre one. It was a typical day for Hargreaves, working hard on his handloom for most of the time. During those days, Hargreaves was one of the rare people that owned a handloom at their homes. But that was the day that would turn out to change his life.
To better understand how Hargreaves came to the idea of the Spinning Jenny, we must first take a look at how handlooms operated were before this invention. Weaving had already been industrialized to some extent, but many people were still using looms in their homes. Weaving and spinning was a cottage industry in many ways. A loom had to be operated by up to seven people – one person for spinning, three for providing the roving, and three to give the yarn for the spinner. Hargreaves’ family members likely helped him with this task. The loom used a spinning wheel with a single thread and a spindle that collected the yarn.
Hargreaves was hard at work in 1764 when suddenly, his daughter inadvertently overturned the spinning wheel on the floor. That is the moment of inspired genius for Hargreaves. When the loom was toppled on its side, the spinning wheel kept spinning. At the time, a common misconception was that the wheel stops revolving if it was not in a horizontal position. James saw an opportunity to add additional spindles to the spinning wheel and place them in a vertical position.
James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny
This minor accident was to be the moment that would change Hargreaves’ life and the textile industry forever. James saw the opportunity to improve the spinning wheel massively. Adding more spindles would allow for the use of additional yarn. More fabric could then be produced. This improvement significantly reduced the need for workers.
It is believed that the machine was named after his daughter Jenny, that overturned the spinning wheel. Other people think that the name means the “spinning machine,” as the word “jenny” is a slang word for the “engine” in British English.
Hargreaves originally created a new machine for his use initially. The Spinning Jenny was built with a metal frame where a spinning wheel would rest. The spinner had to manually move the spinning wheel with his right hand, causing the eight or more threads to rotate through the spindles. There were now eight spindles in the Spinning Jenny, compared to just a single one beforehand. James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny was a very revolutionary design which would be improved later on – eventually, there would be 120 spindles used, allowing for even more productivity.
This invention may have been a stroke of luck for James but he also sought solutions to simple problems. This story has a lesson for all of us as inventors – always look for inventions, even in the modest or simplest of places.
From local to international demand
Initially, Hargreaves designed the machine for his use and to support his own family. He soon saw the profits rise quickly and knew that his invention was going to be a great success. His productivity increased significantly, in addition to his earnings. The only downside of the new device was that the fabric that it produced was still quite low in quality and not very cohesive. It was eventually improved by adding more spindles to the machine.
Hargreaves started selling the product to neighbors and other handloom users within the local community. The results were astounding as many people saw the profits increase significantly. More and more yarn started to be used, the Spinning Jenny spread like wildfire. Many more people craved for this machine. As the popularity of the device grew, the prices for yarn started to drop dramatically.
As demand for workers decreased, more and more manufacturers started using his design. Like the robots of our time, consequently, many people lost their jobs due to this invention. Spinners were soon up in arms. Yarn makers were also not happy; the situation only slightly improved for them with increased production. Manufacturers were pleased with the invention, but the spinners who lost their jobs were not.
Hargreaves was soon under a lot of pressure from spinners. He received many threats at that time; it all escalated in 1768 when a group of spinners broke into his home, destroyed his equipment, and many Spinning Jennys. After this, he decided to relocate to Nottingham, where he would be able to work on his inventions.
Move to Nottingham and his patent
Hargreaves moved to Nottingham in 1768. He started looking for potential business partners and also sought to improve the Spinning Jenny. He found a partner in Thomas James. Their collaboration was profitable as they established a mill where they would test and improve their new devices.
In 1770, Hargreaves filed a patent for a version of the Spinning Jenny that had 16 spindles. He secured this patent to recoup the money he lost when manufacturers used his design illegally. Hargreaves took the infringing people to court but they offered him a large sum of 3000 British Pounds to settle the matter first. He refused, and he ended losing the case because he had already sold too many machines in what now what be known as a “prior art” patent claim. As a result, the Spinning Jenny never received a patent approval.
The legacy of the Spinning Jenny
The spinning Jenny would prove to be one of the most important inventions that would bring on the Industrial Revolution. It revolutionized the textile industry by improving the speed of work, decreased the number of workers, and increased productivity. The machine received many subsequent improvements later; at the start, it used eight spindles but was improved to use 16, 24, 80 and eventually, 120. Because this invention was not patented, many people tried to stake a claim as the inventor. Richard Arkwright made one of those claims because he designed the water frame, which helped the Spinning Jenny work more effectively.
James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny turned out to be one of the essential inventions that sparked the Industrial Revolution. It provided a basis to work on and further improve many machines in the textile industry.
What can we learn from James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny and his life?
- Look for inspiration from ordinary things.
- Understand the equipment that is already in use.
- Examine the market.
- Know where something can be improved. | 2,258 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While the American Revolution won the 13 colonies freedom from British rule officially, England continued to treat the United States as a colony. France and England were at war, and while each nation wanted to use the United States against the other, the British took their mistreatment of Americans much farther. Under President James Madison, the United States went to war with England again. The War of 1812 didn’t end the worst of the British abuses, but it’s still considered the second war of independence by many people.
Causes of War
There were several reasons the United States declared war on England in 1812, and almost all of them were about the British not respecting the United States as its own country, neutral in the war between England and France. The British Parliament passed laws to stop Americans from trading with any other nation. It pushed some of the Native Americans to attack the United States. The biggest issue, however, was impressment – the British Navy capturing American sailors and forcing them to serve on British ships.
A Back and Forth War
Early in the war, the Americans did not do well against the British or the Natives, except for the Navy. Although the British Navy was the most powerful in the world at the time, American ships managed to win most one-on-one battles. The British Navy eventually stopped fighting one-to-one with American ships and began setting up blockades instead. This allowed it to leverage the fact that it had far more ships than the Americans.
In 1814, though, the old American commanders were replaced with new ones, who did much better. The United States began winning back some of what it lost to the British. At that point, the British won their war with France, freeing them to send more people to the war in America. They entered the Chesapeake Bay and burned Washington D.C., then made it as far as Baltimore before American troops stopped them.
The Hartford Convention
The war with England was most popular with the southern and western states, but it was not well liked in New England. The remaining Federalists opposed the conflict, which they called “Mr. Madison’s War.” The Hartford Convention was a series of meetings in 1814-15 at which many of these New England Federalists unsuccessfully tried to stop the war. Their failure to convince the public of their side led to the end of the Federalist Party, as it became seen as a party of cowards. Also, though none actually went through with it, this was the first time states discussed the option of leaving the Union.
Ghent and New Orleans
The United States was almost out of money and it didn’t seem like it could keep up the war. So President Madison started peace talks at Ghent, Belgium. The Treaty of Ghent officially ended the war on December 24, 1814, but the news didn’t travel fast enough to stop the fighting. The British invaded New Orleans in January but were defeated by Major General Andrew Jackson on January 8.
The Treaty of Ghent didn’t mention two of the main causes for the war – the freedom of American ships and the impressment of sailors – but it did grant much of the Great Lakes region to the United States, and so it was still considered by many a diplomatic victory. | <urn:uuid:f6571eb7-0586-4eea-b338-3e935aa48f0b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lngenz.com/the-war-of-1812-a-second-fight-for-independence-high/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.986329 | 678 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.2020626664... | 3 | While the American Revolution won the 13 colonies freedom from British rule officially, England continued to treat the United States as a colony. France and England were at war, and while each nation wanted to use the United States against the other, the British took their mistreatment of Americans much farther. Under President James Madison, the United States went to war with England again. The War of 1812 didn’t end the worst of the British abuses, but it’s still considered the second war of independence by many people.
Causes of War
There were several reasons the United States declared war on England in 1812, and almost all of them were about the British not respecting the United States as its own country, neutral in the war between England and France. The British Parliament passed laws to stop Americans from trading with any other nation. It pushed some of the Native Americans to attack the United States. The biggest issue, however, was impressment – the British Navy capturing American sailors and forcing them to serve on British ships.
A Back and Forth War
Early in the war, the Americans did not do well against the British or the Natives, except for the Navy. Although the British Navy was the most powerful in the world at the time, American ships managed to win most one-on-one battles. The British Navy eventually stopped fighting one-to-one with American ships and began setting up blockades instead. This allowed it to leverage the fact that it had far more ships than the Americans.
In 1814, though, the old American commanders were replaced with new ones, who did much better. The United States began winning back some of what it lost to the British. At that point, the British won their war with France, freeing them to send more people to the war in America. They entered the Chesapeake Bay and burned Washington D.C., then made it as far as Baltimore before American troops stopped them.
The Hartford Convention
The war with England was most popular with the southern and western states, but it was not well liked in New England. The remaining Federalists opposed the conflict, which they called “Mr. Madison’s War.” The Hartford Convention was a series of meetings in 1814-15 at which many of these New England Federalists unsuccessfully tried to stop the war. Their failure to convince the public of their side led to the end of the Federalist Party, as it became seen as a party of cowards. Also, though none actually went through with it, this was the first time states discussed the option of leaving the Union.
Ghent and New Orleans
The United States was almost out of money and it didn’t seem like it could keep up the war. So President Madison started peace talks at Ghent, Belgium. The Treaty of Ghent officially ended the war on December 24, 1814, but the news didn’t travel fast enough to stop the fighting. The British invaded New Orleans in January but were defeated by Major General Andrew Jackson on January 8.
The Treaty of Ghent didn’t mention two of the main causes for the war – the freedom of American ships and the impressment of sailors – but it did grant much of the Great Lakes region to the United States, and so it was still considered by many a diplomatic victory. | 675 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today we went for a little field trip to spotted lake to show the students this unique/amazing lake and to talk to them about about its historical significance and how it was important for the local First Nations people.
What actually happens with the lake is that it is comprised of many different and highly concentrated minerals. Magnesium, Calcium and Sodium Sulfates are some of the largest minerals included here. In the summer months most of the lake water evaporates and leaves the minerals behind. These minerals crystallize and large spots begin to appears. The colours will vary as each spot will change as the mineral composition changes at different times throughout the summer. This colourful lake, know to the First Nations People as 'Khiluk', was considered a sacred site. The waters were therapeutic and had healing powers to them. There were even truces made between tribes at war so that the warriors could visit the lake and heal their wounds. There are 365 spots in total representing each day of the year. It is said that if you have an injury or are suffering from some kind of ailment you can go to the lake and you will find the right spot you seek to be healed.
The lake still looked amazing but since there was a lot of water in the lake the spots were not as prominent as they could have been if the water level was lower. | <urn:uuid:f12ad1a4-4148-4249-a371-5dc621ba3ee6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://epic2016.blogspot.com/2016/06/trip-to-spotted-lake.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00548.warc.gz | en | 0.98944 | 272 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.40966328978538... | 1 | Today we went for a little field trip to spotted lake to show the students this unique/amazing lake and to talk to them about about its historical significance and how it was important for the local First Nations people.
What actually happens with the lake is that it is comprised of many different and highly concentrated minerals. Magnesium, Calcium and Sodium Sulfates are some of the largest minerals included here. In the summer months most of the lake water evaporates and leaves the minerals behind. These minerals crystallize and large spots begin to appears. The colours will vary as each spot will change as the mineral composition changes at different times throughout the summer. This colourful lake, know to the First Nations People as 'Khiluk', was considered a sacred site. The waters were therapeutic and had healing powers to them. There were even truces made between tribes at war so that the warriors could visit the lake and heal their wounds. There are 365 spots in total representing each day of the year. It is said that if you have an injury or are suffering from some kind of ailment you can go to the lake and you will find the right spot you seek to be healed.
The lake still looked amazing but since there was a lot of water in the lake the spots were not as prominent as they could have been if the water level was lower. | 271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Celebrate it with our Cinco de Mayo package: 5 classes, $55 each! #spanishtutoring #onlinespanishtutoring #spanishtutor #learnspanish
Offer valid until the end of May.
It’s not Mexico’s Independence Day. Contrary to popular belief, Cinco de Mayo is NOT a celebration of Mexican independence. Rather, it is a celebration of Mexico’s victory over France in the battle at Puebla during the Franco-Mexican war (1861-1867). Mexico’s defeat over France in the battle at Pueblo came as a surprise, due to the small militia Mexico employed in contrast to the heavily outfitted French militia, which had 2,000 more troops than the Mexican Army. Although the Mexican militia won the battle they would go on to lose the war. Napoleon III, then leader of France, instituted his relative, Archduke Maximilian of Austria as the ruler of Mexico. Maximillian was executed by firing squad 6 years later, when the US forced France to remove their troops and President Benito Juárez took leadership of the country. The battle at Puebla however, remained a source of great pride for the country, and is still celebrated as a state holiday in Puebla and Veracruz. The holiday of course is known as Cinco de Mayo. Why did France invade in the first place? In 1821 after a battle for their independence from Spain, Mexico broke free and descended into years of internal political takeovers and wars including the Mexican Civil War and the Mexican-American War. After years of war and struggle, as Mexico attempted to find its footing since being annexed from Spain, debts began to accumulate, sharply. By this point Mexico was heavily indebted to Spain, England, and France. All three countries wanted their money back and sent naval forces to Veracruz to demand repayment. Spain and England were able to negotiate with Mexico upon learning of France’s true intents and peacefully withdrew their forces. France, however, under the rule of Napoleon III wanted to expand their empire and saw this as the perfect opportunity to do so. Napoleon IIIsaw the conquest of Mexico as a step not only towards expanding his empire but also towards establishing a link to the United States where he planned to support the confederate army in an attempt to keep the U.S. split into two less powerful entities. Mexico was broke and France was moving in. What’s the US got to do with it? While all this was going on in Mexico, close by in the U.S. the Civil War had begun and it looked like the confederacy was winning. Only a year into the war and the confederacy had already expanded into New Mexico and Arizona, headed for California, or more specifically Los Angeles. As the war raged on, Latinos in the western states grew more and more concerned that slavery was coming for them. In response, large populations of Latinos in California enrolled in the U.S. Army, organizing cavalry in California and New Mexico. In both the U.S. and in Mexico, wars were being waged for freedom, democracy and equality. Latinos in the U.S. felt both wars acutely. Their home country of Mexico had overturned slavery 50 years earlier and was running under a democratic government that was now being threatened by France. As LA Times writer, David E. Hayes-Bautista put it, “Cinco de Mayo was made in America, by Latinos who proudly bore the U.S. and Mexican flags to show their support for both the Union and its values and for the Mexican victory over the French, who sought to undermine those values.” The battle at Puebla was a significant victory not only for the underdog Mexican army and their fight for independence, but also because it closed off a major access point to the U.S. that Napoleon had hoped to take advantage of in order to further his support for the confederacy during the U.S. Civil War. One final reason why Cinco de Mayo is celebrated with such veracity in the U.S. is the “Good Neighbor Policy” which President Franklin Roosevelt enacted in 1933 in his first inaugural address to encourage and improve relations with Latin American countries. Cinco de Mayo became a popular celebration of Mexican heritage and picked up steam in the United States during this period. So there you have it—the history of Cinco de Mayo. Now you have all the knowledge you need to impress your friends at your next Cinco de Mayo celebration. Happy Cinco de Mayo! | <urn:uuid:b1b7c47f-22cd-41c4-960e-825c17fda6c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.toniferrerstudio.com/single-post/2016/05/05/Cinco-de-Mayo-Why-do-we-celebrate-this-beloved-holiday | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00184.warc.gz | en | 0.980995 | 954 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.160565853118... | 4 | Celebrate it with our Cinco de Mayo package: 5 classes, $55 each! #spanishtutoring #onlinespanishtutoring #spanishtutor #learnspanish
Offer valid until the end of May.
It’s not Mexico’s Independence Day. Contrary to popular belief, Cinco de Mayo is NOT a celebration of Mexican independence. Rather, it is a celebration of Mexico’s victory over France in the battle at Puebla during the Franco-Mexican war (1861-1867). Mexico’s defeat over France in the battle at Pueblo came as a surprise, due to the small militia Mexico employed in contrast to the heavily outfitted French militia, which had 2,000 more troops than the Mexican Army. Although the Mexican militia won the battle they would go on to lose the war. Napoleon III, then leader of France, instituted his relative, Archduke Maximilian of Austria as the ruler of Mexico. Maximillian was executed by firing squad 6 years later, when the US forced France to remove their troops and President Benito Juárez took leadership of the country. The battle at Puebla however, remained a source of great pride for the country, and is still celebrated as a state holiday in Puebla and Veracruz. The holiday of course is known as Cinco de Mayo. Why did France invade in the first place? In 1821 after a battle for their independence from Spain, Mexico broke free and descended into years of internal political takeovers and wars including the Mexican Civil War and the Mexican-American War. After years of war and struggle, as Mexico attempted to find its footing since being annexed from Spain, debts began to accumulate, sharply. By this point Mexico was heavily indebted to Spain, England, and France. All three countries wanted their money back and sent naval forces to Veracruz to demand repayment. Spain and England were able to negotiate with Mexico upon learning of France’s true intents and peacefully withdrew their forces. France, however, under the rule of Napoleon III wanted to expand their empire and saw this as the perfect opportunity to do so. Napoleon IIIsaw the conquest of Mexico as a step not only towards expanding his empire but also towards establishing a link to the United States where he planned to support the confederate army in an attempt to keep the U.S. split into two less powerful entities. Mexico was broke and France was moving in. What’s the US got to do with it? While all this was going on in Mexico, close by in the U.S. the Civil War had begun and it looked like the confederacy was winning. Only a year into the war and the confederacy had already expanded into New Mexico and Arizona, headed for California, or more specifically Los Angeles. As the war raged on, Latinos in the western states grew more and more concerned that slavery was coming for them. In response, large populations of Latinos in California enrolled in the U.S. Army, organizing cavalry in California and New Mexico. In both the U.S. and in Mexico, wars were being waged for freedom, democracy and equality. Latinos in the U.S. felt both wars acutely. Their home country of Mexico had overturned slavery 50 years earlier and was running under a democratic government that was now being threatened by France. As LA Times writer, David E. Hayes-Bautista put it, “Cinco de Mayo was made in America, by Latinos who proudly bore the U.S. and Mexican flags to show their support for both the Union and its values and for the Mexican victory over the French, who sought to undermine those values.” The battle at Puebla was a significant victory not only for the underdog Mexican army and their fight for independence, but also because it closed off a major access point to the U.S. that Napoleon had hoped to take advantage of in order to further his support for the confederacy during the U.S. Civil War. One final reason why Cinco de Mayo is celebrated with such veracity in the U.S. is the “Good Neighbor Policy” which President Franklin Roosevelt enacted in 1933 in his first inaugural address to encourage and improve relations with Latin American countries. Cinco de Mayo became a popular celebration of Mexican heritage and picked up steam in the United States during this period. So there you have it—the history of Cinco de Mayo. Now you have all the knowledge you need to impress your friends at your next Cinco de Mayo celebration. Happy Cinco de Mayo! | 934 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Two Cruel Punishments in Norse Mythology
For those who had done something wrong, punishment should be applied. This was one of the most common thinking ways in any mythologies. Same things happened in Norse mythology. In this blog post, we will discover two cruel punishments that you might encounter when reading Norse mythology.
The Vanir gods beheaded Mimir
Long long ago, there was a war between the gods. There were two god tribes in Norse mythology and before they could sit along in one feasting table, they had declared war on one another.
Wars carried on after wars. And there came a day when the gods felt tired about what they had been doing. They decided to draw the white flags and assembled for a peace treaty.
The way to seal peace for both parties according to the gods was to exchange hosts. The Aesir gods named Hoenir and Mimir would come to Vanaheim to live and the Vanir gods named Njord, Freyr, and Freya would come to Asgard. The point was, three of the Vanir gods were respectively the chief god, the prince, and the princess of Vanaheim. Meanwhile, Hoenir and Mimir were only minor gods.
Coming to Vanaheim, both Aesir gods were welcomed, especially Hoenir who managed to persuade the Vanir gods that he was the most benevolent figure in the cosmos. Vanir gods thought that Hoenir could answer any question but they didn't think that Hoenir could do because Mimir told him the answer. And the truth was revealed when Mimir didn't accompany Hoenir.
Vanir gods came to realize that they had been tricked with this hostage exchange. They decided to behead Mimir immediately. The body of Mimir was thrown away while the head was sent back to Asgard, straight to Odin the Allfather.
Mimir was beheaded by the Vanir gods
Aesir gods punished Loki
Loki was the one who must take responsibility for the death of Baldur - son of Odin. When the gods knew Loki was culprit, they set out to capture this trickster.
The gods found Loki hiding on the top of a mountain, capturing him and bringing him to a dark cave.
They also brought the sons of Loki to the cave as well. Their names were Nari or Narfi (according to Snorri Sturluson). The gods turned one of Loki's sons into a wolf and did some magic to make the siblings kill one another. And the wolf killed his brother. And there came the punishment of Loki.
The punishment of Loki
Loki then was bound to the rock with the entrails of his own son. Skadi the giantess of ice and frost placed a snake just above the head of Loki. The snake dropped its venom to the face of the trickster. Every time the venom touched the face of Loki, it caused him in great pain.
If it had not been for the help of Loki's faithful wife, Sygin, Loki would have endured tons of pain. Sigyn accompanied Loki in his punishment holding a bowl to collect all drops of venom. Whenever Sigyn turned away to empty the bowl, the venom dripped on Loki's face leaving him in great pain. | <urn:uuid:41949dce-6f5c-49fc-8e88-bda2cb308314> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bavipower.com/blogs/bavipower-viking-blog/two-cruel-punishments-in-norse-mythology | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.983686 | 675 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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For those who had done something wrong, punishment should be applied. This was one of the most common thinking ways in any mythologies. Same things happened in Norse mythology. In this blog post, we will discover two cruel punishments that you might encounter when reading Norse mythology.
The Vanir gods beheaded Mimir
Long long ago, there was a war between the gods. There were two god tribes in Norse mythology and before they could sit along in one feasting table, they had declared war on one another.
Wars carried on after wars. And there came a day when the gods felt tired about what they had been doing. They decided to draw the white flags and assembled for a peace treaty.
The way to seal peace for both parties according to the gods was to exchange hosts. The Aesir gods named Hoenir and Mimir would come to Vanaheim to live and the Vanir gods named Njord, Freyr, and Freya would come to Asgard. The point was, three of the Vanir gods were respectively the chief god, the prince, and the princess of Vanaheim. Meanwhile, Hoenir and Mimir were only minor gods.
Coming to Vanaheim, both Aesir gods were welcomed, especially Hoenir who managed to persuade the Vanir gods that he was the most benevolent figure in the cosmos. Vanir gods thought that Hoenir could answer any question but they didn't think that Hoenir could do because Mimir told him the answer. And the truth was revealed when Mimir didn't accompany Hoenir.
Vanir gods came to realize that they had been tricked with this hostage exchange. They decided to behead Mimir immediately. The body of Mimir was thrown away while the head was sent back to Asgard, straight to Odin the Allfather.
Mimir was beheaded by the Vanir gods
Aesir gods punished Loki
Loki was the one who must take responsibility for the death of Baldur - son of Odin. When the gods knew Loki was culprit, they set out to capture this trickster.
The gods found Loki hiding on the top of a mountain, capturing him and bringing him to a dark cave.
They also brought the sons of Loki to the cave as well. Their names were Nari or Narfi (according to Snorri Sturluson). The gods turned one of Loki's sons into a wolf and did some magic to make the siblings kill one another. And the wolf killed his brother. And there came the punishment of Loki.
The punishment of Loki
Loki then was bound to the rock with the entrails of his own son. Skadi the giantess of ice and frost placed a snake just above the head of Loki. The snake dropped its venom to the face of the trickster. Every time the venom touched the face of Loki, it caused him in great pain.
If it had not been for the help of Loki's faithful wife, Sygin, Loki would have endured tons of pain. Sigyn accompanied Loki in his punishment holding a bowl to collect all drops of venom. Whenever Sigyn turned away to empty the bowl, the venom dripped on Loki's face leaving him in great pain. | 668 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Quiz:
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was a great patriot and brave freedom fighter of the India. He was a symbol to the nationalism and vibrant patriotism. Every children of India knows about him and his inspiring works for the freedom of India. He was born to the Indian Hindu family in Cuttack, Orissa on January 23rd in 1897. His early schooling was completed to his hometown however he did his matriculation from Presidency College, Kolkata and graduation in Philosophy from Scottish Church College, University of Calcutta. Later he went to England and passed the Indian Civil Service Examination with 4th position.
He was very disappointed with the miserable conditions of the other countrymen because of the bad and cruel behaviour by the Britishers. He decided to join the nationalist movement instead civil service to help people of India through freedom of India. He was influenced a lot with patriot Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das and later elected as Mayor of Kolkata and then President of Indian National Congress. Later he left the party because of the opinion difference with Mahatma Gandhi in 1939. After leaving the congress party, he found his own Forward Bloc party.
He believed that non-violence movement is not enough to get freedom from the British rule so he chose violence movement to bring freedom in the country. He went away from India to Germany and then Japan where he made his own Indian National Army, also known as Azad Hind Fauj. He had included Indian prisoners of war and Indian residents of those countries in his Azad hind Fauj to fight bravely from the British rule. He gave slogan to his army named Delhi Chalo and Jai Hind. He had inspired his army men through his great words of “Give me blood and I will give you freedom” to make his motherland free from the rule of Britishers.
It is considered that Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was died in a plane crash in 1945. The bad news of his death had ended all the hopes of his Indian National Army to fight from British rule. Even after his death, he is still alive with his vibrant nationalism in the heart of Indian people as an everlasting inspiration. According to the scholarly opinion, he died because of the third-degree burn due to the overloaded Japanese plane crash. The great works and contributions of the Netaji have been marked in the Indian history as an unforgettable event. | <urn:uuid:93d12023-aa6a-408e-b50a-120b9fde0e36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.4to40.com/quizzes-for-kids/subhas-chandra-bose-quiz/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.988727 | 498 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was a great patriot and brave freedom fighter of the India. He was a symbol to the nationalism and vibrant patriotism. Every children of India knows about him and his inspiring works for the freedom of India. He was born to the Indian Hindu family in Cuttack, Orissa on January 23rd in 1897. His early schooling was completed to his hometown however he did his matriculation from Presidency College, Kolkata and graduation in Philosophy from Scottish Church College, University of Calcutta. Later he went to England and passed the Indian Civil Service Examination with 4th position.
He was very disappointed with the miserable conditions of the other countrymen because of the bad and cruel behaviour by the Britishers. He decided to join the nationalist movement instead civil service to help people of India through freedom of India. He was influenced a lot with patriot Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das and later elected as Mayor of Kolkata and then President of Indian National Congress. Later he left the party because of the opinion difference with Mahatma Gandhi in 1939. After leaving the congress party, he found his own Forward Bloc party.
He believed that non-violence movement is not enough to get freedom from the British rule so he chose violence movement to bring freedom in the country. He went away from India to Germany and then Japan where he made his own Indian National Army, also known as Azad Hind Fauj. He had included Indian prisoners of war and Indian residents of those countries in his Azad hind Fauj to fight bravely from the British rule. He gave slogan to his army named Delhi Chalo and Jai Hind. He had inspired his army men through his great words of “Give me blood and I will give you freedom” to make his motherland free from the rule of Britishers.
It is considered that Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was died in a plane crash in 1945. The bad news of his death had ended all the hopes of his Indian National Army to fight from British rule. Even after his death, he is still alive with his vibrant nationalism in the heart of Indian people as an everlasting inspiration. According to the scholarly opinion, he died because of the third-degree burn due to the overloaded Japanese plane crash. The great works and contributions of the Netaji have been marked in the Indian history as an unforgettable event. | 500 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Sasanian Empire (224 CE – 651 CE), which was a contemporary of the Roman and later Byzantine Empires, was once a great power. And like other great powers it built great walls to mark and control its borders. These included the Wall of the Arabs (in the southwest), Walls of Derbent (in the northwest at the Caspian Mountains) and Great Wall of Gorgan (in the northeast). Remains of the Sasanian border walls still exist, particularly in Derbent where they are a UNESCO world heritage site.
This snapshot shows the greatest territorial extent of the Sasanians, circa 620 to 627 CE.
It was the last great empire in the Middle East before Islam. The Sasanians were locked into a struggle with the Byzantine Empire, which made both weaker when the Islamic army swept out of the Arabian peninsula.
PEOPLE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD: Shapur I (King of the Sasanian Empire)
SHAPUR I (240-270 CE) was the son of Ardashir (224 – c. 241 CE), the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, who made him his co-ruler and brought him on campaigns to learn the art of war. Ardashir was a skilled military leader who not only defeated the Parthian king Artabanus V (c. 208-224 CE) in numerous battles but finally killed him and brought down the Parthian Empire, replacing it with his own. Shapur I learned the lessons his father taught well and used them effectively against his own enemies, most notably Rome.
In the course of his wars with Rome, Shapur I proved himself a clever and unpredictable adversary. He held the distinction of being the first foreign ruler to capture a Roman emperor in battle (the emperor Valerian, 253-260 CE) and was doing well in his war of conquest against Rome until he made an enemy of the Roman governor of Syria, Odaenathus (died c. 267 CE), who defeated him in battle and drove him from Roman territory. After Odaenathus, Shapur I made no further moves against Rome, nor did his son and successor Hormizd I (270 – c. 273 CE) who maintained an uneasy truce with Rome throughout his reign. | <urn:uuid:4f943eb4-b561-4059-b3bc-e34255f82f36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.blogberth.com/category/sasanian-empire/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00366.warc.gz | en | 0.983924 | 466 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.33575457334518... | 1 | The Sasanian Empire (224 CE – 651 CE), which was a contemporary of the Roman and later Byzantine Empires, was once a great power. And like other great powers it built great walls to mark and control its borders. These included the Wall of the Arabs (in the southwest), Walls of Derbent (in the northwest at the Caspian Mountains) and Great Wall of Gorgan (in the northeast). Remains of the Sasanian border walls still exist, particularly in Derbent where they are a UNESCO world heritage site.
This snapshot shows the greatest territorial extent of the Sasanians, circa 620 to 627 CE.
It was the last great empire in the Middle East before Islam. The Sasanians were locked into a struggle with the Byzantine Empire, which made both weaker when the Islamic army swept out of the Arabian peninsula.
PEOPLE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD: Shapur I (King of the Sasanian Empire)
SHAPUR I (240-270 CE) was the son of Ardashir (224 – c. 241 CE), the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, who made him his co-ruler and brought him on campaigns to learn the art of war. Ardashir was a skilled military leader who not only defeated the Parthian king Artabanus V (c. 208-224 CE) in numerous battles but finally killed him and brought down the Parthian Empire, replacing it with his own. Shapur I learned the lessons his father taught well and used them effectively against his own enemies, most notably Rome.
In the course of his wars with Rome, Shapur I proved himself a clever and unpredictable adversary. He held the distinction of being the first foreign ruler to capture a Roman emperor in battle (the emperor Valerian, 253-260 CE) and was doing well in his war of conquest against Rome until he made an enemy of the Roman governor of Syria, Odaenathus (died c. 267 CE), who defeated him in battle and drove him from Roman territory. After Odaenathus, Shapur I made no further moves against Rome, nor did his son and successor Hormizd I (270 – c. 273 CE) who maintained an uneasy truce with Rome throughout his reign. | 504 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Photos by Kayla Morrell
By Kayla Morrell
This year's level 1 Biomed class made 22 miniature crime scenes including four pages of background knowledge. Classes regularly went to the library at an available time to glance over it.
This project was based on the work of Francis Glessner Lee, a woman who studied explained deaths and decided to explore them from a new angle-- making mini-crime scenes. These models are used to help figure out deaths--in most cases, a murder.
Ms. Corb, Biomed teacher, designed the project. This is her first year having the kids design their own. In years past, she only had a lesson on it with experiments. According to Ms. Corb, “I don't have an exam for the first quarter. Instead, it is a major project grade. PBS students have to complete one group project per quarter--this was the first quarter's project.” In the past, she had made them optional and used for extra credit.
Ms. Corb noted that her instructions were very strict and included many guidelines--for beneficial reasons. She was very intrigued and admired the work her students did. It wasn’t just the crime scenes that needed to be met in the models but the background stories, too. That goes deep into a murder case, as well--the suspects, times, personal background, setting, and medical history. There can be reasons for death other than murder. That is why not every case for the project was, in fact, a murder.
The idea came to Ms. Corb when she realized she needed to include forensics into her teaching. She decided to teach it in a way she thought would be interesting for her class, so she researched ideas and came to Francis Glessner Lee. Corb said, “(She) made miniature versions of real crime scenes in order to help detectives solve cases without bias. Her ‘Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death’ were so detailed and realistic that they became a large training tool for detectives--still used today!”
Ms. Corb took the time to make her own Nutshell, miniature crime scene, three years ago. She had a wonderful time doing it and loved the look. That is when she decided to have her classes make their own.
This way, students are learning that every detail is very important. Whether a knife was on the bed or dresser is something that goes into account when solving a murder. When students made these models, they had to make sure every small detail and where they put things contributed to their story. Students needed it all to make sense and to agree with the background story.
The model lesson also teaches a life lesson. Not every student will go into a career that involves solving a murder, but almost everyone will go into a job that holds them responsible for attention to detail. | <urn:uuid:a9b09d3b-e119-4478-9fb2-7990b8756eb2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lusherpostdiluvian.com/features-and-editorials/22-murder-mysteries-to-be-solved-in-the-library | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00165.warc.gz | en | 0.98026 | 594 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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By Kayla Morrell
This year's level 1 Biomed class made 22 miniature crime scenes including four pages of background knowledge. Classes regularly went to the library at an available time to glance over it.
This project was based on the work of Francis Glessner Lee, a woman who studied explained deaths and decided to explore them from a new angle-- making mini-crime scenes. These models are used to help figure out deaths--in most cases, a murder.
Ms. Corb, Biomed teacher, designed the project. This is her first year having the kids design their own. In years past, she only had a lesson on it with experiments. According to Ms. Corb, “I don't have an exam for the first quarter. Instead, it is a major project grade. PBS students have to complete one group project per quarter--this was the first quarter's project.” In the past, she had made them optional and used for extra credit.
Ms. Corb noted that her instructions were very strict and included many guidelines--for beneficial reasons. She was very intrigued and admired the work her students did. It wasn’t just the crime scenes that needed to be met in the models but the background stories, too. That goes deep into a murder case, as well--the suspects, times, personal background, setting, and medical history. There can be reasons for death other than murder. That is why not every case for the project was, in fact, a murder.
The idea came to Ms. Corb when she realized she needed to include forensics into her teaching. She decided to teach it in a way she thought would be interesting for her class, so she researched ideas and came to Francis Glessner Lee. Corb said, “(She) made miniature versions of real crime scenes in order to help detectives solve cases without bias. Her ‘Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death’ were so detailed and realistic that they became a large training tool for detectives--still used today!”
Ms. Corb took the time to make her own Nutshell, miniature crime scene, three years ago. She had a wonderful time doing it and loved the look. That is when she decided to have her classes make their own.
This way, students are learning that every detail is very important. Whether a knife was on the bed or dresser is something that goes into account when solving a murder. When students made these models, they had to make sure every small detail and where they put things contributed to their story. Students needed it all to make sense and to agree with the background story.
The model lesson also teaches a life lesson. Not every student will go into a career that involves solving a murder, but almost everyone will go into a job that holds them responsible for attention to detail. | 577 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 as Sigismund Schlomo Freud, in Freiberg, which is now the Příbor, in the Czech Republic, but at the time of his birth it was part of the Austrian Empire. He was born to Hasidic Jewish parents, and he spent the majority of his life in Vienna, until the Nazi occupation (Anschluß – Annexation of Austria).
As a boy he attended the respectable school of Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, in Vienna, where he graduated as an outstanding pupil in 1873, and his love of literature and language saw him fluent in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. At age 17 he enrolled in the University of Vienna, where he studied philosophy, physiology, and zoology, where he was introduced to Darwinism. After graduating University, and deciding to pursue medicine as a career, he started work in 1877 at a laboratory run by Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke, who was a well respected physiologist, and here he spent several years studying and dissecting brains, and compared deceased human and animal brains to attempt to discover mutual correlation.
In 1882 he started working at the General Hospital in Vienna, where he trained under psychologists Theodor Meynert, and Hermann Nothnagel, and just several years later he became a neuropathology lecturer. In 1895 he wrote, Entwurf einer Psychologie, but wasn’t published for a further 55 years, and in this he studied and questioned whether psychoanalysis was a science, and the divide between neurophysiology and psychology. The same year he co-wrote, Studien über Hysterie, with Josef Breuer, that studied the realm of the psyche, or what Freud liked to call it; the unconscious mind, which he coined the term ‘Psychoanalysis‘.
Freud believed that the unconscious were ‘thoughts below the surface‘, in which how suggested the best example were dreams, where we had no control over our thoughts. Here Freud considered ways in which he could access our preconscious, which is found between our consciousness and unconsciousness, and here an example of this is repression, and this is often the result of a trauma where the mind attempts to subdue or block out a memory. Even though the mind acted like they weren’t there anymore, and the consciousness of an individual may have no recollection, these thoughts can’t be banished and Freud studied his subjects to find patterns of how repression worked. He discovered that people weren’t able to directly repress thoughts, it was a subconscious defence mechanism that his subjects weren’t aware of happening.
“Religion is a system of wishful illusions together with a disavowal of reality, such as we find nowhere else but in a state of blissful hallucinatory confusion. Religion’s eleventh commandment is “Thou shalt not question.
Freud’s seduction theory (Verführungstheorie) was a hypothesis that Freud was working on towards to start of the 20th century, which involved his theory of the shaping of the mind through experience, or trauma. He presented his paper The Aetiology of Hysteria (Über die Ätiologie der Hysterie) in Vienna, at the Society for Psychiatry and Neurology, where he suggested that sexual abuse of pre-pubescent children is likely to cause metal health issues in later life, and he had studied 18 adults who’d all experienced this. He said that neurosis was caused from repressed trauma, but he never published his papers and reversed his theory and eventually abandoned it without reason, other than his findings were inconclusive.
The Œdipus complex (Oedipus complex) is another theory that Freud engaged with, in which a psychosexual feelings of a child towards the opposite sex parent, and bitterness and jealousy towards the same sex parent.. ie: a boy feels like he is competing with his father for his mother’s affections, which Freud discussed in his 1899 book, The Interpretation of Dreams, which became part of which is known as Freudian psychology. At the time it was considered groundbreaking, but the theories that Freud had, whilst plausible, haven’t aged well, and are perhaps verging on the ‘a bit weird‘.
“Oedipus accidentally fulfilled a prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother, thereby bringing disaster to his city and family.” – Source
Freud has been heavily criticised over the years for his suggestion that children have sexual desires, and that children, especially boys, desire incest and that they must repress these thoughts. Freud’s mission was to bring out these suppressed emotions through ‘transference‘.
“The redirection to a substitute, usually a therapist, of emotions that were originally felt in childhood (in a phase of analysis called transference neurosis ).” – Oxford Dictionary
In 1902 he became ‘professor extraordinarius‘ at Vienna university where at the start he gave speeches at the lecture hall, and every Wednesday he invited physicians over to discuss psychology and neuropathology (Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft) He held the post of Professor for 36 years, despite the university and its medical establishment continuously disagreeing with his controversial theories. In 1910 the ‘InternationalPsychoanalytic Association‘ was founded with Carl Jung who was a Swiss psychiatrist and a close associate of Freud.
Freud’s relationship with Jung deteriorated over time, and their partnership dissolved and Jung went on to develop analytical psychology, that went on to be incredibly influential in several fields. Freud went on to promote his theory of the unconscious mind, where he described it like an iceberg.
And in 1923 he came up with the theory of ‘Superego–Ego–Id’
In 1932, Freud began an exchange of letters with Albert Einstein regarding the subject of war, and the methods of avoidance, but a year later Hitler became chancellor of the Reich, and the newly empowered Nazi party seized and confiscated Freud’s books, and any other books written by anyone with Jewish heritage. In 1938, despite his stubbornness to remain in Vienna, he was forced to retreat to London, as the Nazi’s grip was getting tighter, and their anti-Semitic acts of brutality more frequent; any Jew in Austria was in potential danger. In 1939, not long after the outbreak of World War 2, he lost his battle with mouth cancer, and he died aged 83, on the 23rd September, in his home in Hampstead, which is now the Freud Museum.
Freud was recognised at one of the most important, and influential thinkers of the 20th century. He was a writer, a physiologist, a medical doctor, a theorist, philosopher and the father of psychoanalysis, which had become a standard in psychiatry and psychopathology, which involves dialogue between the doctor and the patient.
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... | 9 | Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 as Sigismund Schlomo Freud, in Freiberg, which is now the Příbor, in the Czech Republic, but at the time of his birth it was part of the Austrian Empire. He was born to Hasidic Jewish parents, and he spent the majority of his life in Vienna, until the Nazi occupation (Anschluß – Annexation of Austria).
As a boy he attended the respectable school of Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, in Vienna, where he graduated as an outstanding pupil in 1873, and his love of literature and language saw him fluent in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. At age 17 he enrolled in the University of Vienna, where he studied philosophy, physiology, and zoology, where he was introduced to Darwinism. After graduating University, and deciding to pursue medicine as a career, he started work in 1877 at a laboratory run by Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke, who was a well respected physiologist, and here he spent several years studying and dissecting brains, and compared deceased human and animal brains to attempt to discover mutual correlation.
In 1882 he started working at the General Hospital in Vienna, where he trained under psychologists Theodor Meynert, and Hermann Nothnagel, and just several years later he became a neuropathology lecturer. In 1895 he wrote, Entwurf einer Psychologie, but wasn’t published for a further 55 years, and in this he studied and questioned whether psychoanalysis was a science, and the divide between neurophysiology and psychology. The same year he co-wrote, Studien über Hysterie, with Josef Breuer, that studied the realm of the psyche, or what Freud liked to call it; the unconscious mind, which he coined the term ‘Psychoanalysis‘.
Freud believed that the unconscious were ‘thoughts below the surface‘, in which how suggested the best example were dreams, where we had no control over our thoughts. Here Freud considered ways in which he could access our preconscious, which is found between our consciousness and unconsciousness, and here an example of this is repression, and this is often the result of a trauma where the mind attempts to subdue or block out a memory. Even though the mind acted like they weren’t there anymore, and the consciousness of an individual may have no recollection, these thoughts can’t be banished and Freud studied his subjects to find patterns of how repression worked. He discovered that people weren’t able to directly repress thoughts, it was a subconscious defence mechanism that his subjects weren’t aware of happening.
“Religion is a system of wishful illusions together with a disavowal of reality, such as we find nowhere else but in a state of blissful hallucinatory confusion. Religion’s eleventh commandment is “Thou shalt not question.
Freud’s seduction theory (Verführungstheorie) was a hypothesis that Freud was working on towards to start of the 20th century, which involved his theory of the shaping of the mind through experience, or trauma. He presented his paper The Aetiology of Hysteria (Über die Ätiologie der Hysterie) in Vienna, at the Society for Psychiatry and Neurology, where he suggested that sexual abuse of pre-pubescent children is likely to cause metal health issues in later life, and he had studied 18 adults who’d all experienced this. He said that neurosis was caused from repressed trauma, but he never published his papers and reversed his theory and eventually abandoned it without reason, other than his findings were inconclusive.
The Œdipus complex (Oedipus complex) is another theory that Freud engaged with, in which a psychosexual feelings of a child towards the opposite sex parent, and bitterness and jealousy towards the same sex parent.. ie: a boy feels like he is competing with his father for his mother’s affections, which Freud discussed in his 1899 book, The Interpretation of Dreams, which became part of which is known as Freudian psychology. At the time it was considered groundbreaking, but the theories that Freud had, whilst plausible, haven’t aged well, and are perhaps verging on the ‘a bit weird‘.
“Oedipus accidentally fulfilled a prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother, thereby bringing disaster to his city and family.” – Source
Freud has been heavily criticised over the years for his suggestion that children have sexual desires, and that children, especially boys, desire incest and that they must repress these thoughts. Freud’s mission was to bring out these suppressed emotions through ‘transference‘.
“The redirection to a substitute, usually a therapist, of emotions that were originally felt in childhood (in a phase of analysis called transference neurosis ).” – Oxford Dictionary
In 1902 he became ‘professor extraordinarius‘ at Vienna university where at the start he gave speeches at the lecture hall, and every Wednesday he invited physicians over to discuss psychology and neuropathology (Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft) He held the post of Professor for 36 years, despite the university and its medical establishment continuously disagreeing with his controversial theories. In 1910 the ‘InternationalPsychoanalytic Association‘ was founded with Carl Jung who was a Swiss psychiatrist and a close associate of Freud.
Freud’s relationship with Jung deteriorated over time, and their partnership dissolved and Jung went on to develop analytical psychology, that went on to be incredibly influential in several fields. Freud went on to promote his theory of the unconscious mind, where he described it like an iceberg.
And in 1923 he came up with the theory of ‘Superego–Ego–Id’
In 1932, Freud began an exchange of letters with Albert Einstein regarding the subject of war, and the methods of avoidance, but a year later Hitler became chancellor of the Reich, and the newly empowered Nazi party seized and confiscated Freud’s books, and any other books written by anyone with Jewish heritage. In 1938, despite his stubbornness to remain in Vienna, he was forced to retreat to London, as the Nazi’s grip was getting tighter, and their anti-Semitic acts of brutality more frequent; any Jew in Austria was in potential danger. In 1939, not long after the outbreak of World War 2, he lost his battle with mouth cancer, and he died aged 83, on the 23rd September, in his home in Hampstead, which is now the Freud Museum.
Freud was recognised at one of the most important, and influential thinkers of the 20th century. He was a writer, a physiologist, a medical doctor, a theorist, philosopher and the father of psychoanalysis, which had become a standard in psychiatry and psychopathology, which involves dialogue between the doctor and the patient.
“Most people do not really want freedom, because freedom involves responsibility, and most people are frightened of responsibility.” – Sigmund Freud | 1,496 | ENGLISH | 1 |
6 Read Alouds for Discussing Personal Narratives
July is a good time to start thinking about the read alouds that you will use in your classroom. At the beginning of the school year, I like to start with students writing personal narratives because I think this genre helps students to ease into their upcoming writing lives. I tell my students that a personal narrative is a story that has happened to them.
Read alouds are one way to create discussions around personal narratives. They can be used to spark writing ideas that students can brainstorm in their writer’s notebooks, and students can make personal connections to the experiences of the characters and situations. For example, after reading Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge, students can discuss their own memories. They could write about the ones that mean the most to them.
Here are 6 read aloud suggestions that can help you get started with your read aloud collection.
Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge by Mem Fox
A small boy lives next door to an old people’s home. Miss Nancy is his favorite person to visit at the home. He learns that she has lost her memory. He asks the people in the home, “What’s a memory?” and gets lots of examples of things that make memories. He sets about to gather memories for Miss Nancy. When he gives her his box of memories, Miss Nancy finds her memories.
My Very Own Room by Amada Irma Perez
The author shares her experience of growing up in a tiny, two bedroom house with a large family. In the story, she is almost nine years old and shares a room with her five little brothers. They often have visitors that make the house even more crowded. She longs for a room of her own where she can read, write and dream, but their house is too small. She spies a tiny closet and with her family she turns it into a tiny bedroom just for her.
This story is told in English and Spanish.
Amazing Grace by Mary Hoffman
Grace loves stories and acting them out. She wants to play Peter Pan in the school play. One classmate tells her she cannot be Peter Pan because she is a girl. Another tells her that she cannot be Peter Pan because she is black. Her family helps her overcome these opinions and she realizes that she can be anything that she wants. She auditions for the play and gets the part she desires.
Where’s Rodney? by Carmen Bogan
Rodney is easily distracted when he is in the classroom because he loves to be outside. The class is to go on a field trip, but Rodney is not excited because he thinks he knows all about parks. In his experience, they are no big deal! When they go on the field trip Rodney is in for a big surprise. He is able to experience the outside like never before.
Enemy Pie by Derek Munson
The main character has only one enemy, Jeremy Ross, and he wants to get rid of him. His dad tells him the fastest way for that to happen is for Jeremy to eat Enemy Pie. His dad offers to make the pie but for it to be successful, the two boys must spend the day together. The plan is put into action, but there is an unexpected outcome.
My Name is Sangoel by Karen Lynn Williams
Eight-year-old Sangoel is from Sudan. He is a refugee. He leaves the refugee camp with his mother and little sister for America. His name is very important to him because it is the name of his ancestors. In America, he learns the American way of life. Each time his name is said, it is mispronounced by everyone he meets, he quietly corrects them but it continues. He begins to feel that he is losing his name and his identity. Then he gets an idea to help people understand how to say his name. His idea works.
Anchor charts can be created with possible writing ideas suggested by students and displayed in the classroom as go to charts for when students need inspiration.
Also, read alouds are a great time to discuss story elements: characters, setting, plot, problem, solution, theme, and change. The constant reference to story elements will help students understand that these should be found in all stories including the ones they write. | <urn:uuid:9097edf6-9aef-4ccb-bcc3-85d2c334652a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ourwritingspace.com/2018/07/6-read-alouds-for-discussing-personal-narratives/?unapproved=481&moderation-hash=3270f9a0950eafaefbc1c4b86d105d5a | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.980616 | 880 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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... | 7 | 6 Read Alouds for Discussing Personal Narratives
July is a good time to start thinking about the read alouds that you will use in your classroom. At the beginning of the school year, I like to start with students writing personal narratives because I think this genre helps students to ease into their upcoming writing lives. I tell my students that a personal narrative is a story that has happened to them.
Read alouds are one way to create discussions around personal narratives. They can be used to spark writing ideas that students can brainstorm in their writer’s notebooks, and students can make personal connections to the experiences of the characters and situations. For example, after reading Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge, students can discuss their own memories. They could write about the ones that mean the most to them.
Here are 6 read aloud suggestions that can help you get started with your read aloud collection.
Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge by Mem Fox
A small boy lives next door to an old people’s home. Miss Nancy is his favorite person to visit at the home. He learns that she has lost her memory. He asks the people in the home, “What’s a memory?” and gets lots of examples of things that make memories. He sets about to gather memories for Miss Nancy. When he gives her his box of memories, Miss Nancy finds her memories.
My Very Own Room by Amada Irma Perez
The author shares her experience of growing up in a tiny, two bedroom house with a large family. In the story, she is almost nine years old and shares a room with her five little brothers. They often have visitors that make the house even more crowded. She longs for a room of her own where she can read, write and dream, but their house is too small. She spies a tiny closet and with her family she turns it into a tiny bedroom just for her.
This story is told in English and Spanish.
Amazing Grace by Mary Hoffman
Grace loves stories and acting them out. She wants to play Peter Pan in the school play. One classmate tells her she cannot be Peter Pan because she is a girl. Another tells her that she cannot be Peter Pan because she is black. Her family helps her overcome these opinions and she realizes that she can be anything that she wants. She auditions for the play and gets the part she desires.
Where’s Rodney? by Carmen Bogan
Rodney is easily distracted when he is in the classroom because he loves to be outside. The class is to go on a field trip, but Rodney is not excited because he thinks he knows all about parks. In his experience, they are no big deal! When they go on the field trip Rodney is in for a big surprise. He is able to experience the outside like never before.
Enemy Pie by Derek Munson
The main character has only one enemy, Jeremy Ross, and he wants to get rid of him. His dad tells him the fastest way for that to happen is for Jeremy to eat Enemy Pie. His dad offers to make the pie but for it to be successful, the two boys must spend the day together. The plan is put into action, but there is an unexpected outcome.
My Name is Sangoel by Karen Lynn Williams
Eight-year-old Sangoel is from Sudan. He is a refugee. He leaves the refugee camp with his mother and little sister for America. His name is very important to him because it is the name of his ancestors. In America, he learns the American way of life. Each time his name is said, it is mispronounced by everyone he meets, he quietly corrects them but it continues. He begins to feel that he is losing his name and his identity. Then he gets an idea to help people understand how to say his name. His idea works.
Anchor charts can be created with possible writing ideas suggested by students and displayed in the classroom as go to charts for when students need inspiration.
Also, read alouds are a great time to discuss story elements: characters, setting, plot, problem, solution, theme, and change. The constant reference to story elements will help students understand that these should be found in all stories including the ones they write. | 854 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When talking about parenting, the phrase ‘the real world’ is often tossed around. But what does this phrase mean? It means life; the roller coaster of emotions and the experiences that are learned. Parents wish to protect their child from the bad experiences they themselves have had, while still teaching them the important lessons learned along the way. The closest way to make this possible is through sports.
Participating in a sport teaches children many life lessons that will stick with them for the rest of their lives. They will get to experience these life lessons first hand, but on a smaller scale.
By the time children reach parenthood, they have come to understand what it means to work hard and the importance of it. Participating in a sport will teach the child that if he wants to win, he has to practice. This is a metaphor for life. If he wants the job, he has to prepare.
The child gets to see for himself how much he improves throughout the season with practice. These improvements are rewarded in games, by winning. As the child gets older, the sports become more competitive. There will be competition between teammates as well as other teams. The child will be forced to work hard in order to earn a spot on the team, to beat out an opponent. He will realize that there will always be someone who is better than him and always someone who is worse. He then must decide how hard he is willing to work to be as good as he possibly can.
Playing a sport is often the first time a child is accountable to anyone but himself. If he fails to turn his homework in, he is the only one who gets a poor grade. However, if the child shows up to a game and puts no effort in, he is letting his team down. The team and coach will be disappointed in him, and it is likely he will get taken out. The child learns to be accountable for his actions and consider how others will be affected. This leads to teamwork.
Playing a team sport is very important as it teaches a lesson that many children today seem to have overlooked. Every child is told they are special. Although this is true, they do not realize that every other child is special as well. This is where teamwork comes into play. Every player has a role on the team. Each role is important and when everyone comes together and does their particular job, it breeds success! With teamwork, comes communication.
Communication is an important component in every team sport. If a child is open for a shot and wants the ball, he must speak up. This teaches the child to go after what he wants, rather than waiting for it come to him. Children are humans too. Meaning, it is human nature to be selfish and for a child to want to take the shot himself so he can be the star. The other children learn that unless they ask for it, nothing will be given to them. Unfortunately, this does not change as they mature. Whether they make the shot or not, they had an opportunity and they took the risk of failing.
Failure is inevitable. Although many parents are in denial of this, and manage to “protect” their kids until they are told no for the first time when they are 18 and denied from their dream school. Failure is a part of life. The sooner the child recognizes this, the better. Why? Because along with failure comes rebound. The 18 year old who gets their first glimpse of failure when it comes to something that affects the rest of their life will not know how to deal with it. Whereas, although a child who has played sports and understands the concept of failure and persistence, will still be disappointed when he is denied, he will recognize that he has felt this way before and he recovered and moved on. When a child loses his first game he will most likely be upset. Eventually he will move on and experience a win. They will realize the joy they feel from winning was worth the pain they felt from the loss.
A child who has played sports his whole life understands the value of risk. Everything in life involves risk. There is risk in business, risk in friendship, and risk in love. The winning and losing metaphor correlates and the child realizes that the joy and pride he feels from getting a job is worth the possibility of pain and disappointment when getting denied. | <urn:uuid:5fcdb441-a423-4db3-b89f-d9f21c1f8916> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yakmax.com/why-every-child-should-play-a-sport/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00553.warc.gz | en | 0.986914 | 884 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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... | 4 | When talking about parenting, the phrase ‘the real world’ is often tossed around. But what does this phrase mean? It means life; the roller coaster of emotions and the experiences that are learned. Parents wish to protect their child from the bad experiences they themselves have had, while still teaching them the important lessons learned along the way. The closest way to make this possible is through sports.
Participating in a sport teaches children many life lessons that will stick with them for the rest of their lives. They will get to experience these life lessons first hand, but on a smaller scale.
By the time children reach parenthood, they have come to understand what it means to work hard and the importance of it. Participating in a sport will teach the child that if he wants to win, he has to practice. This is a metaphor for life. If he wants the job, he has to prepare.
The child gets to see for himself how much he improves throughout the season with practice. These improvements are rewarded in games, by winning. As the child gets older, the sports become more competitive. There will be competition between teammates as well as other teams. The child will be forced to work hard in order to earn a spot on the team, to beat out an opponent. He will realize that there will always be someone who is better than him and always someone who is worse. He then must decide how hard he is willing to work to be as good as he possibly can.
Playing a sport is often the first time a child is accountable to anyone but himself. If he fails to turn his homework in, he is the only one who gets a poor grade. However, if the child shows up to a game and puts no effort in, he is letting his team down. The team and coach will be disappointed in him, and it is likely he will get taken out. The child learns to be accountable for his actions and consider how others will be affected. This leads to teamwork.
Playing a team sport is very important as it teaches a lesson that many children today seem to have overlooked. Every child is told they are special. Although this is true, they do not realize that every other child is special as well. This is where teamwork comes into play. Every player has a role on the team. Each role is important and when everyone comes together and does their particular job, it breeds success! With teamwork, comes communication.
Communication is an important component in every team sport. If a child is open for a shot and wants the ball, he must speak up. This teaches the child to go after what he wants, rather than waiting for it come to him. Children are humans too. Meaning, it is human nature to be selfish and for a child to want to take the shot himself so he can be the star. The other children learn that unless they ask for it, nothing will be given to them. Unfortunately, this does not change as they mature. Whether they make the shot or not, they had an opportunity and they took the risk of failing.
Failure is inevitable. Although many parents are in denial of this, and manage to “protect” their kids until they are told no for the first time when they are 18 and denied from their dream school. Failure is a part of life. The sooner the child recognizes this, the better. Why? Because along with failure comes rebound. The 18 year old who gets their first glimpse of failure when it comes to something that affects the rest of their life will not know how to deal with it. Whereas, although a child who has played sports and understands the concept of failure and persistence, will still be disappointed when he is denied, he will recognize that he has felt this way before and he recovered and moved on. When a child loses his first game he will most likely be upset. Eventually he will move on and experience a win. They will realize the joy they feel from winning was worth the pain they felt from the loss.
A child who has played sports his whole life understands the value of risk. Everything in life involves risk. There is risk in business, risk in friendship, and risk in love. The winning and losing metaphor correlates and the child realizes that the joy and pride he feels from getting a job is worth the possibility of pain and disappointment when getting denied. | 876 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles I.—How a Woman Struck a Blow for Freedom
L IKE Queen Elizabeth, King James had favourites. But unfortunately the favourites he chose were not good and wise men who helped him to govern well, but men who although clever were bad, and who thought only of themselves. Some of these men liked money and fine clothes, and James spent so much on them that he was always poor and in debt, and this led him into quarrels with the people and Parliament.
The Tudors had been a very autocratic race of kings. Autocratic is a word made from Greek words and means that the Tudors wanted to rule quite by themselves without help or advice from any one. During the time of the Tudors, especially in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, the power of Parliament had been much lessened. James tried to lessen it still more.
James knew how autocratic Elizabeth had been, and he meant to be the same. But Elizabeth, although she had her own way in many things, knew when to yield and let the people have their way. James did not know how to yield. He wanted to be a despot which is another word taken from Greek and really means "master," but has come to mean "cruel master." "The King can do no wrong," said James. "What he does must be right and the people must obey and ask no questions."
King James wrote several books, and in one of them he set down his ideas about the power of a king. But the people did not agree with these ideas. They thought many of the things which the King did were wrong. As they would not do everything he wished them to do, James dismissed Parliament and ruled for many years without calling another.
When James died, in 1625 A.D., no one was very sorry. He had reigned for fifty-eight years—thirty-six years as King of Scotland and twenty-two as King of Great Britain and Ireland, and his people, English, Scots, and Irish, were discontented with his rule. Yet in spite of all he had tried to do, the people were really nearer freedom than before, for they had shown that they would not quietly submit to the rule of a despot.
James was succeeded by his son Charles. He had been taught by his father to believe that the King could do no wrong, and like his father, Charles wanted to be autocratic.
Charles, too, dismissed Parliament, because he could not have entirely his own way. He tried to make the people pay taxes and give him money without the consent of Parliament, and this made them very angry.
Like King James, King Charles had bad advisers, and one of the worst, perhaps, was his own wife, of whom he was very fond. She was a French princess called Henrietta Maria and was a Roman Catholic. She hated the Puritans, who were growing more and more important in England. Charles hated them too, and, with the advice of Archbishop Laud, who was one of his chief advisers, he treated the Puritans very hardly.
Many of the people in Scotland had become Protestant. They were called Presbyterians, and like the Puritans, they chose to have a very simple form of worship, and very simple churches. This did not please Charles. He said that the Scottish Church must use the same service as the English Church. He ordered a new Prayer Book to be made which was almost the same as the English Prayer Book. This he sent to all the Scottish ministers commanding them to begin to use it on Sunday, 23rd July 1637 A.D.
There was great excitement among the Scottish people when this order became known. On the Sunday morning many crowded to the Cathedral of St. Giles in Edinburgh, wondering what would happen.
When the Dean entered, it was seen that he was wearing a white robe instead of the black one in which the Scottish clergy usually preached.
The Dean little knew of the anger which was rising in the hearts of the stern-faced men and women round him as the words of the new prayers rang strangely through the silent church.
He began the service, using the new Prayer Book. But he had not gone far when an old woman called Jenny Geddes sprang up. "Thou false thief," she cried, "wilt thou say Mass at my ear?" and with that she threw the stool upon which she had been sitting at the Dean's head.
In a moment the whole church was in confusion. "The Mass! the Mass! popery! popery!" shouted the people. "Down with the Pope! down with him!" The women rushed at the Dean and tore his white surplice from his shoulders, and he was so hardly used that he ran the risk of being killed. The Bishop of Edinburgh went into the pulpit and tried to calm the people. But they would not listen to him. "A Pope! a Pope!" they cried, "down with him! down with him!"
At last soldiers were sent for, the church was cleared, the doors were locked and the new service was read to the few who were in favour of it. Outside the crowd yelled and hooted, breaking the windows with stones and hammering on the doors, which were locked and barred against them.
The Bishop barely escaped with his life. He was carried through the crowd surrounded by soldiers with drawn swords in their hands.
All Scotland was in arms. High and low banded together to resist the King. They drew up a paper which was signed by thousands, binding themselves to fight for the freedom of religion. This paper was called the National Covenant, and the people who signed it the Covenanters. Scotland was ready for war, and Charles was forced to recall the Prayer Book and allow the Scottish Church to be free.
Charles promised the Scottish Church freedom, but he could never keep his word. Soon he raised an army intending to force them to do as he wished. But the Scots were ready to fight and they marched into England to meet Charles. The English Puritans were on the side of the Scots and for the first time in all history a Scottish army coming into England was welcomed by the English. The fighting ended in a victory for the Scots, and once more Charles promised them freedom in religion.
If you should ever go to St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh you will see there a brass plate in memory of Jenny Geddes and her deed. It is set there, not because it is right or wrong to use a Prayer Book, not because it is better to worship God in one way rather than another, but because it is right that people should be free to pray to God and worship God in their own way. Neither Pope nor King has a right to say how any man or woman shall pray, and it is not because Jenny Geddes fought against a Prayer Book, but because she struck a blow for freedom, that we remember her. | <urn:uuid:25e4d7d4-f86c-4e62-99a7-30efc4b58823> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=blow | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00548.warc.gz | en | 0.994065 | 1,429 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.130507513880... | 1 | Charles I.—How a Woman Struck a Blow for Freedom
L IKE Queen Elizabeth, King James had favourites. But unfortunately the favourites he chose were not good and wise men who helped him to govern well, but men who although clever were bad, and who thought only of themselves. Some of these men liked money and fine clothes, and James spent so much on them that he was always poor and in debt, and this led him into quarrels with the people and Parliament.
The Tudors had been a very autocratic race of kings. Autocratic is a word made from Greek words and means that the Tudors wanted to rule quite by themselves without help or advice from any one. During the time of the Tudors, especially in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, the power of Parliament had been much lessened. James tried to lessen it still more.
James knew how autocratic Elizabeth had been, and he meant to be the same. But Elizabeth, although she had her own way in many things, knew when to yield and let the people have their way. James did not know how to yield. He wanted to be a despot which is another word taken from Greek and really means "master," but has come to mean "cruel master." "The King can do no wrong," said James. "What he does must be right and the people must obey and ask no questions."
King James wrote several books, and in one of them he set down his ideas about the power of a king. But the people did not agree with these ideas. They thought many of the things which the King did were wrong. As they would not do everything he wished them to do, James dismissed Parliament and ruled for many years without calling another.
When James died, in 1625 A.D., no one was very sorry. He had reigned for fifty-eight years—thirty-six years as King of Scotland and twenty-two as King of Great Britain and Ireland, and his people, English, Scots, and Irish, were discontented with his rule. Yet in spite of all he had tried to do, the people were really nearer freedom than before, for they had shown that they would not quietly submit to the rule of a despot.
James was succeeded by his son Charles. He had been taught by his father to believe that the King could do no wrong, and like his father, Charles wanted to be autocratic.
Charles, too, dismissed Parliament, because he could not have entirely his own way. He tried to make the people pay taxes and give him money without the consent of Parliament, and this made them very angry.
Like King James, King Charles had bad advisers, and one of the worst, perhaps, was his own wife, of whom he was very fond. She was a French princess called Henrietta Maria and was a Roman Catholic. She hated the Puritans, who were growing more and more important in England. Charles hated them too, and, with the advice of Archbishop Laud, who was one of his chief advisers, he treated the Puritans very hardly.
Many of the people in Scotland had become Protestant. They were called Presbyterians, and like the Puritans, they chose to have a very simple form of worship, and very simple churches. This did not please Charles. He said that the Scottish Church must use the same service as the English Church. He ordered a new Prayer Book to be made which was almost the same as the English Prayer Book. This he sent to all the Scottish ministers commanding them to begin to use it on Sunday, 23rd July 1637 A.D.
There was great excitement among the Scottish people when this order became known. On the Sunday morning many crowded to the Cathedral of St. Giles in Edinburgh, wondering what would happen.
When the Dean entered, it was seen that he was wearing a white robe instead of the black one in which the Scottish clergy usually preached.
The Dean little knew of the anger which was rising in the hearts of the stern-faced men and women round him as the words of the new prayers rang strangely through the silent church.
He began the service, using the new Prayer Book. But he had not gone far when an old woman called Jenny Geddes sprang up. "Thou false thief," she cried, "wilt thou say Mass at my ear?" and with that she threw the stool upon which she had been sitting at the Dean's head.
In a moment the whole church was in confusion. "The Mass! the Mass! popery! popery!" shouted the people. "Down with the Pope! down with him!" The women rushed at the Dean and tore his white surplice from his shoulders, and he was so hardly used that he ran the risk of being killed. The Bishop of Edinburgh went into the pulpit and tried to calm the people. But they would not listen to him. "A Pope! a Pope!" they cried, "down with him! down with him!"
At last soldiers were sent for, the church was cleared, the doors were locked and the new service was read to the few who were in favour of it. Outside the crowd yelled and hooted, breaking the windows with stones and hammering on the doors, which were locked and barred against them.
The Bishop barely escaped with his life. He was carried through the crowd surrounded by soldiers with drawn swords in their hands.
All Scotland was in arms. High and low banded together to resist the King. They drew up a paper which was signed by thousands, binding themselves to fight for the freedom of religion. This paper was called the National Covenant, and the people who signed it the Covenanters. Scotland was ready for war, and Charles was forced to recall the Prayer Book and allow the Scottish Church to be free.
Charles promised the Scottish Church freedom, but he could never keep his word. Soon he raised an army intending to force them to do as he wished. But the Scots were ready to fight and they marched into England to meet Charles. The English Puritans were on the side of the Scots and for the first time in all history a Scottish army coming into England was welcomed by the English. The fighting ended in a victory for the Scots, and once more Charles promised them freedom in religion.
If you should ever go to St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh you will see there a brass plate in memory of Jenny Geddes and her deed. It is set there, not because it is right or wrong to use a Prayer Book, not because it is better to worship God in one way rather than another, but because it is right that people should be free to pray to God and worship God in their own way. Neither Pope nor King has a right to say how any man or woman shall pray, and it is not because Jenny Geddes fought against a Prayer Book, but because she struck a blow for freedom, that we remember her. | 1,413 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The command now fell upon the subject of these pages; his feelings may be easier felt than described. The number of messmates and shipmates, among which was a brother and no less than three captains, that he had lost, all in the short space of two months and eight days, was sufficient, indeed, to cause an excess of sorrow of heart; and nothing but the obligations he owed to his country and the service could have enabled him to undergo the charge of conducting a sinking ship across the Atlantic; so that the more the danger, the more his feelings [were] overcome by a sense of duty.
Naval officers led hard lives. The sea and the wind were a daily threat, not to mention the enemy. Disease killed the most, as George Pringle recounts in the passage above. Not only did he lose his brother and his patron in an outbreak of yellow fever in 1804, but also his leaky ship was left dangerously short-handed. Pringle's mission, to carry French prisoners from the West Indies back to Britain, did him no favours; to keep ahead of the water seeping into the hold, Pringle fed the prisoners full rations and put them to the pumps for the duration of the transatlantic voyage. They were lucky to survive. Success in a naval career required toughness; Pringle suggests it also required a belief that the privations were worth enduring for the sake of a higher calling.
Commissioned officers left their families as boys in the hopes of finding adventure, only to endure experiences like Pringle's: an adventure, to be sure, but not the stuff of Nelsonic legend. To survive, they needed to learn the rhythms of shipboard life and the skills of their profession. To protect the nation's enormous investment in men and materiel, the navy tested officers to ensure they had learned the required skills. Newly-commissioned lieutenants strapped swords around their waists and draped blue coats over their shoulders. They were now qualified to stand a watch on a ship at sea; they were also now gentlemen. | <urn:uuid:5cc89fb3-a421-4a1c-a56e-c8152e67eb9c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://core-cms.prod.aop.cambridge.org/core/books/social-history-of-british-naval-officers-17751815/conclusion/8E707F09300C87A43E83FD22B89C1D57 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.98595 | 420 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.0860710889101... | 1 | The command now fell upon the subject of these pages; his feelings may be easier felt than described. The number of messmates and shipmates, among which was a brother and no less than three captains, that he had lost, all in the short space of two months and eight days, was sufficient, indeed, to cause an excess of sorrow of heart; and nothing but the obligations he owed to his country and the service could have enabled him to undergo the charge of conducting a sinking ship across the Atlantic; so that the more the danger, the more his feelings [were] overcome by a sense of duty.
Naval officers led hard lives. The sea and the wind were a daily threat, not to mention the enemy. Disease killed the most, as George Pringle recounts in the passage above. Not only did he lose his brother and his patron in an outbreak of yellow fever in 1804, but also his leaky ship was left dangerously short-handed. Pringle's mission, to carry French prisoners from the West Indies back to Britain, did him no favours; to keep ahead of the water seeping into the hold, Pringle fed the prisoners full rations and put them to the pumps for the duration of the transatlantic voyage. They were lucky to survive. Success in a naval career required toughness; Pringle suggests it also required a belief that the privations were worth enduring for the sake of a higher calling.
Commissioned officers left their families as boys in the hopes of finding adventure, only to endure experiences like Pringle's: an adventure, to be sure, but not the stuff of Nelsonic legend. To survive, they needed to learn the rhythms of shipboard life and the skills of their profession. To protect the nation's enormous investment in men and materiel, the navy tested officers to ensure they had learned the required skills. Newly-commissioned lieutenants strapped swords around their waists and draped blue coats over their shoulders. They were now qualified to stand a watch on a ship at sea; they were also now gentlemen. | 419 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women's Rights on Trial: 101 Historic Trials from Anne Hutchinson to the Virginia Military institute Cadets
by Elizabth Frost-Knappman
and Kathryn Cullen-DuPont
From "Crimes of Conscience and Nonconformity":
American history is replete with tales of women who lived bravely and in defiance of the "rules of conduct" for their sex. Many had to answer for their actions in court, and at least one had to answer with her life.
In 1637, Anne Hutchinson was clearly and willingly at odds with the male Puritan establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Living in a society that demanded subordination of its women and religious conformity for all, she dared to hold and preach dissenting views. She was exiled from the Colony following a civil trial and excommunicated from the church following a religious one. Twenty-two years later, Mary Dyer ran spiritually afoul of the Bay Colony's leadership as well. Convicted and once nearly hanged for her Quaker beliefs, she too was banished from the Colony. Dyer did not accept her exile; instead, she returned to "look the bloody [anti-Quaker] laws in the face," an act she knew would result in her certain execution....
Our earliest non-religious case of female conscience in conflict with the law is Crandall v. Connecticut. Crandall went to jail in 1834 for teaching young African-American girls in her boarding school, instruction that was forbidden by Connecticut's "Black Law." Although this law was ultimately found unconstitutional, Crandall was forced by arsonists to abandon her school.
Margaret Sanger was also moved by the plight of others: among them were her many nursing patients, including a young woman who died following a self-induced abortion, and her own mother, who died too young after eighteen pregnancies. Sanger went to jail at least nine times in her quest to make contraceptives available to American women....
Two additional cases, forty-four years apart, concern women taking desparate measures to secure suffrage. In 1873, Susan B. Anthony was convicted of illegally casting a ballot in a presidential election. Denied the vote because she was a woman, Anthony did not have the right to testify in her own defense because of her sex. In 1917, Alice Paul and 167 other members of the National Woman's Party went to jail for obstructing a sidewalk. The sidewalk in question was in front of the White House, and the "obstructing" was actually caused by their picketing to demand suffrage. Although picketing was perfectly legal in the United States--and a sidewalk obstruction would seem a minor infration of the traffic rules--the women remained in jail for up to seven months. They also became the first American citizens to claim that the United States held them as political prisoners.
Copyright 1997 New England Publishing Associates, Inc., and Kathryn Cullen-DuPont | <urn:uuid:06176d5e-83ea-4c77-8489-d7472d643b3f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.womenandhistory.com/women_s_rights_on_trial_7687.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.984881 | 595 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.11832481622... | 3 | Women's Rights on Trial: 101 Historic Trials from Anne Hutchinson to the Virginia Military institute Cadets
by Elizabth Frost-Knappman
and Kathryn Cullen-DuPont
From "Crimes of Conscience and Nonconformity":
American history is replete with tales of women who lived bravely and in defiance of the "rules of conduct" for their sex. Many had to answer for their actions in court, and at least one had to answer with her life.
In 1637, Anne Hutchinson was clearly and willingly at odds with the male Puritan establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Living in a society that demanded subordination of its women and religious conformity for all, she dared to hold and preach dissenting views. She was exiled from the Colony following a civil trial and excommunicated from the church following a religious one. Twenty-two years later, Mary Dyer ran spiritually afoul of the Bay Colony's leadership as well. Convicted and once nearly hanged for her Quaker beliefs, she too was banished from the Colony. Dyer did not accept her exile; instead, she returned to "look the bloody [anti-Quaker] laws in the face," an act she knew would result in her certain execution....
Our earliest non-religious case of female conscience in conflict with the law is Crandall v. Connecticut. Crandall went to jail in 1834 for teaching young African-American girls in her boarding school, instruction that was forbidden by Connecticut's "Black Law." Although this law was ultimately found unconstitutional, Crandall was forced by arsonists to abandon her school.
Margaret Sanger was also moved by the plight of others: among them were her many nursing patients, including a young woman who died following a self-induced abortion, and her own mother, who died too young after eighteen pregnancies. Sanger went to jail at least nine times in her quest to make contraceptives available to American women....
Two additional cases, forty-four years apart, concern women taking desparate measures to secure suffrage. In 1873, Susan B. Anthony was convicted of illegally casting a ballot in a presidential election. Denied the vote because she was a woman, Anthony did not have the right to testify in her own defense because of her sex. In 1917, Alice Paul and 167 other members of the National Woman's Party went to jail for obstructing a sidewalk. The sidewalk in question was in front of the White House, and the "obstructing" was actually caused by their picketing to demand suffrage. Although picketing was perfectly legal in the United States--and a sidewalk obstruction would seem a minor infration of the traffic rules--the women remained in jail for up to seven months. They also became the first American citizens to claim that the United States held them as political prisoners.
Copyright 1997 New England Publishing Associates, Inc., and Kathryn Cullen-DuPont | 614 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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