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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bullying is a serious issue and needs to be dealt with accordingly. I, myself, have had a bad experience of dealing with it. Bullying is universal, meaning it happens everywhere across nationalities in schools, colleges and families. The article suggests and advises on how to deal with bullying at school.
UNESCO reports in 2019, that one in every three children experiences some form of bullying. SEEDS (Sustainable Environment and Ecological Development) with HoneyWell India conducted a survey which found out 19 percent of the families in Delhi fears that their child might be subjected to bullying.
What is bullying?
Merriam Webster defines bullying as an abuse or mistreatment of someone who is perceived as vulnerable or weak by someone who identifies as stronger.
Since, bullying can occur both silently and overtly, it becomes difficult to describe. Cyber bullying is a malicious form of bullying which occurs mostly on social media. One report cities India as top ranking country when it comes to cyber bullying.
Bullying can be verbal, physical or even psychological. It can occur in combination or in form only.
There is another type of bullying which occurs, it uses silence as a tool to bully someone. This type of behavior is categorized as passive aggressive behavior.
Bullying in any form is dangerous. It affects and changes one’s personality and can have serious psychological and physiological impact.
At school it can occur at any age and it also can happen during college time. During college time, it can occur in form of ragging. Supreme court of India had passed a ruling regarding ragging which sought to eliminate it and was taken into cognizance by universities and various authorities including police. The Media had also helped in the matter by making public aware of the matter.
UGC had passed a regulation which penalized University by reducing their funds if found guilty of ragging.
Bullying at school
Bullying can happen at any age. That it is to say that it can happen to primary, secondary and higher secondary level students. It should be emphasized that people at any age can be victims of bullying and not just school or college. The school is a place to learn and grow. Perhaps even to get cultured to develop into ideal citizens of the country. School imbibes discipline and virtue in students. They are creator of national wealth.
Another very important point to understand is that victim and bully categories are not clearly defined. This means a child who is bullied in school can bully his/her siblings at home. There can be a definite possibility that person who was once bullied, can bully others later on. That is too say that a child during his early school years may be victim but becomes a bully as he/she grows up and bullies others in school, later on in life.
What to do if you are a parent and concerned about bullying ?
The most important factor is communication and oversight over children. Being engaged with them and being engaged with their day to day happenings in school. Mothers are very good at it and great at maintaining a comfort with children. My mother used to talk about my day to day school experiences. This helped me share my problems with her as and when it arose during my school days.
Be engaged with your child.
Observe him/her from time to time.
Invite his/her friends and form associations with them and their parents.
Be mindful of their general behavior when they are at home.
What to do if you are a student ?
As a student it’s a complex issue to deal with. No one solution can work here. But what to do when one is faced with a bully? I myself was bullied a lot in school. From many I’d like to share two experiences which were
School Teacher as bully
Student As bully
Unfortunate but a grim reality in many cases is that school teachers are bullies. I remember a case where I saw parents taking up class of a teacher who used to pick up this one student every time and make an example of him. On parent teachers day, I watched as his parents took class of the teacher. It was a sight to see. The point I am trying to make is that the best solution is to tell your parents.
When a peer/student bullies you,
- Tell your class teacher about it. No matter how embarrassing the situation is tell her/him. If she doesn’t listen then go up to the principle. I did this when my teacher was not listening. I went up to vice principal and told her about it. My problem was resolved as it was made sure that the bully maintained distance.
Yes, it dented my image where I was then understood as a weak individual but thankfully after the vice principal heard it, it was dealt with strictness and oversight measures which ensured that the boy who was bullying was taught a good lesson. Vice Principle had called parents of bully made sure they were made aware of their child’s idiocy. She also made an example of him by calling him out in during assembly and scolding him.
If you can’t talk to the teacher.
Then tell your parents. By keeping it to yourself it will only worsen. In my own experience one cannot escape a bully. They will find you and put you down for no reason. If you raise your voice you will get beaten if you are passive then your made an example for no reason.
From my experience there seems to be no escape from a bully. Example : I did it once in my life also I wished had done more. I stood up to 3 bullies at one time I fought them took a beating but felt good. After that they never took my case. But I don’t recommend it because not every case is the same. I suggest, that informing teachers, parents and higher authority is the best way to address it before it gets worse. Sure, you may be called out as weak or whinny but its its the solution that actually solves your case. Like I had mentioned that informing Vice principle was a good decision, I made a wise decision.
Do visit our site Brainpundits
Good luck !!! | <urn:uuid:5f9f8771-ad39-4861-a1e9-9df60f63ce64> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.brainpundits.com/category/blog/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.986802 | 1,262 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.0627064928412437... | 3 | Bullying is a serious issue and needs to be dealt with accordingly. I, myself, have had a bad experience of dealing with it. Bullying is universal, meaning it happens everywhere across nationalities in schools, colleges and families. The article suggests and advises on how to deal with bullying at school.
UNESCO reports in 2019, that one in every three children experiences some form of bullying. SEEDS (Sustainable Environment and Ecological Development) with HoneyWell India conducted a survey which found out 19 percent of the families in Delhi fears that their child might be subjected to bullying.
What is bullying?
Merriam Webster defines bullying as an abuse or mistreatment of someone who is perceived as vulnerable or weak by someone who identifies as stronger.
Since, bullying can occur both silently and overtly, it becomes difficult to describe. Cyber bullying is a malicious form of bullying which occurs mostly on social media. One report cities India as top ranking country when it comes to cyber bullying.
Bullying can be verbal, physical or even psychological. It can occur in combination or in form only.
There is another type of bullying which occurs, it uses silence as a tool to bully someone. This type of behavior is categorized as passive aggressive behavior.
Bullying in any form is dangerous. It affects and changes one’s personality and can have serious psychological and physiological impact.
At school it can occur at any age and it also can happen during college time. During college time, it can occur in form of ragging. Supreme court of India had passed a ruling regarding ragging which sought to eliminate it and was taken into cognizance by universities and various authorities including police. The Media had also helped in the matter by making public aware of the matter.
UGC had passed a regulation which penalized University by reducing their funds if found guilty of ragging.
Bullying at school
Bullying can happen at any age. That it is to say that it can happen to primary, secondary and higher secondary level students. It should be emphasized that people at any age can be victims of bullying and not just school or college. The school is a place to learn and grow. Perhaps even to get cultured to develop into ideal citizens of the country. School imbibes discipline and virtue in students. They are creator of national wealth.
Another very important point to understand is that victim and bully categories are not clearly defined. This means a child who is bullied in school can bully his/her siblings at home. There can be a definite possibility that person who was once bullied, can bully others later on. That is too say that a child during his early school years may be victim but becomes a bully as he/she grows up and bullies others in school, later on in life.
What to do if you are a parent and concerned about bullying ?
The most important factor is communication and oversight over children. Being engaged with them and being engaged with their day to day happenings in school. Mothers are very good at it and great at maintaining a comfort with children. My mother used to talk about my day to day school experiences. This helped me share my problems with her as and when it arose during my school days.
Be engaged with your child.
Observe him/her from time to time.
Invite his/her friends and form associations with them and their parents.
Be mindful of their general behavior when they are at home.
What to do if you are a student ?
As a student it’s a complex issue to deal with. No one solution can work here. But what to do when one is faced with a bully? I myself was bullied a lot in school. From many I’d like to share two experiences which were
School Teacher as bully
Student As bully
Unfortunate but a grim reality in many cases is that school teachers are bullies. I remember a case where I saw parents taking up class of a teacher who used to pick up this one student every time and make an example of him. On parent teachers day, I watched as his parents took class of the teacher. It was a sight to see. The point I am trying to make is that the best solution is to tell your parents.
When a peer/student bullies you,
- Tell your class teacher about it. No matter how embarrassing the situation is tell her/him. If she doesn’t listen then go up to the principle. I did this when my teacher was not listening. I went up to vice principal and told her about it. My problem was resolved as it was made sure that the bully maintained distance.
Yes, it dented my image where I was then understood as a weak individual but thankfully after the vice principal heard it, it was dealt with strictness and oversight measures which ensured that the boy who was bullying was taught a good lesson. Vice Principle had called parents of bully made sure they were made aware of their child’s idiocy. She also made an example of him by calling him out in during assembly and scolding him.
If you can’t talk to the teacher.
Then tell your parents. By keeping it to yourself it will only worsen. In my own experience one cannot escape a bully. They will find you and put you down for no reason. If you raise your voice you will get beaten if you are passive then your made an example for no reason.
From my experience there seems to be no escape from a bully. Example : I did it once in my life also I wished had done more. I stood up to 3 bullies at one time I fought them took a beating but felt good. After that they never took my case. But I don’t recommend it because not every case is the same. I suggest, that informing teachers, parents and higher authority is the best way to address it before it gets worse. Sure, you may be called out as weak or whinny but its its the solution that actually solves your case. Like I had mentioned that informing Vice principle was a good decision, I made a wise decision.
Do visit our site Brainpundits
Good luck !!! | 1,232 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From the time the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan up to 1988, it was impossible to sign any political treaties with the Soviets. The events that preceded the end of the Cold War began with President Reagan’s trip to Moscow. For the first time in history, President Reagan spent a number of days in Moscow visiting different sites and meeting with Soviet people in the company of Gorbachev, the general secretary of the Soviet Union. This meeting fostered good relationship with Russia and the Soviet society. The end of the Cold War was preceded by three major acts signed between 1989 and 1991. After the visit by President Reagan, Gorbachev conducted several concessions on arms control and pledged to reduce the number of Soviet forces by half a million. He also withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan and accepted ‘par human values’ to replace class warfare. Being convinced that Gorbachev was ready for compromise and dialogue, and having suffered disappointments with ditente’, President George Bush set high rules for negotiations. They were surprised when the Soviet Union was willing to pay the price.
In the fall of 1989, the Soviet outer empire collapsed. This was followed by a collapse and later dissolution of Warsaw Pact. In addition, another treaty was signed which reduced the superiority of Soviets in Europe. This strengthened the Western alliances to an extent that the US withdrew its troops from Europe to Persian Gulf to war against Iraq.
Struggling with your essay?
Ask professionals to help you?
The final act saw the dissolution of the USSR. The Soviet nations started advocating for sovereignty and secession from Moscow. During the same period, Gorbachev had initiated domestic reforms. He faced a setback with hardliners that slowed down reforms and the population that demanded quick reforms. Gorbachev’s political life started dwindling. He attempted to convince the Communist Party to abandon their political dominance and accept free elections. This appeal led to a struggle between him and the Communist Party’s loyalists, who culminated to an attempted coup. For three consecutive days, there was a lot of confusion on who exactly was in charge and what steps the military would have to take. Yeltsin took advantage of the opportunity and positioned himself ready to replace Gorbachev. However, the military backed off and the ousting attempt failed. Yeltsin gained popularity and, in 1991, Gorbachev resigned from his position of General Secretary of Soviet Union. This saw the collapse of the Soviet Union and the onset of nationalism in Eastern Europe. On 25th December 1991, the Soviet flag was lowered and replaced by Russian banner. A few states opted for independence while the majority of the republics became members of a loose confederation which was termed as Commonwealth of Independent States. The USSR was officially dissolved on 31st December 1991. This marked the historic end of the Cold War.
Beyond The Cold War
The Cold War was a huge financial outlet for the Russian government. The USSR heavily invested into the continuing arms race with the USA. The end of the Cold War was marked with a huge reduction in the arms financing. The USSR cut down their spending on weapons. This was a plan aimed at helping their economy to recover. The economy had been crippled by the heavy financing towards arms. The funds were then diverted to constructive economic policies that would bring success. The heavy investment in arms had hurt the USSR economy rather significantly. The situation could not even be compared with the Great Depression that hit the USA and Germany in the 1930s. Many people were jobless at the time.
The end of the Cold War saw the USSR break into several independent states. Each satellite state crumbled for independence from the central USSR control. This saw the independence of countries like Hungary, Slovakia, and Czech Republic among the rest. Some countries became independent soon after the end of the Cold War while others demanded for their independence much later. Slovakia is an example of a country that demanded for its independence many years after the end of the Cold War. Most of the countries that initially formed the USSR formally joined the newly formed European Union. The EU became the largest trading block in the western region.
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Get your 15% OFF the first order!
Rapid change of political standings became evident in the USSR states. This region has previously been governed by communism ideologies. All industries and investments belonged to the government. Capitalism and nationalism approaches soon took the center stage. The nationalism ideology also created renewed push for independence among the USSR members’ states. The disintegration of the USSR should, however, not be confused for a split in the world. It is important to note that globalization soon became common. Globalization was a fresh philosophy of unity. There was a move to have the whole world unite into one unit. Trade was to go on from country to country. Business men from foreign countries also moved in to invest in other countries. This was the new phase of the world.
Globalization also took effect in Russia. The newly formed Russian government opened its shores to international students and investors. The USA became the only superpower with its military support to many nations. The USA created military allies all over the world. This was, however, not meant for war purposes. The Russian companies soon started looking for raw materials from foreign lands. This was another form of globalization. The newly formed states also engaged in business within the EU umbrella. Each state soon became strong and sovereign. Some are very stable world economies as of today. | <urn:uuid:744e155e-a14e-4cd7-b516-a338ec072587> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bestwritinghelp.org/essays/russia-the-end-of-the-cold-war-and-beyond/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.980261 | 1,103 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.551218390464... | 5 | From the time the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan up to 1988, it was impossible to sign any political treaties with the Soviets. The events that preceded the end of the Cold War began with President Reagan’s trip to Moscow. For the first time in history, President Reagan spent a number of days in Moscow visiting different sites and meeting with Soviet people in the company of Gorbachev, the general secretary of the Soviet Union. This meeting fostered good relationship with Russia and the Soviet society. The end of the Cold War was preceded by three major acts signed between 1989 and 1991. After the visit by President Reagan, Gorbachev conducted several concessions on arms control and pledged to reduce the number of Soviet forces by half a million. He also withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan and accepted ‘par human values’ to replace class warfare. Being convinced that Gorbachev was ready for compromise and dialogue, and having suffered disappointments with ditente’, President George Bush set high rules for negotiations. They were surprised when the Soviet Union was willing to pay the price.
In the fall of 1989, the Soviet outer empire collapsed. This was followed by a collapse and later dissolution of Warsaw Pact. In addition, another treaty was signed which reduced the superiority of Soviets in Europe. This strengthened the Western alliances to an extent that the US withdrew its troops from Europe to Persian Gulf to war against Iraq.
Struggling with your essay?
Ask professionals to help you?
The final act saw the dissolution of the USSR. The Soviet nations started advocating for sovereignty and secession from Moscow. During the same period, Gorbachev had initiated domestic reforms. He faced a setback with hardliners that slowed down reforms and the population that demanded quick reforms. Gorbachev’s political life started dwindling. He attempted to convince the Communist Party to abandon their political dominance and accept free elections. This appeal led to a struggle between him and the Communist Party’s loyalists, who culminated to an attempted coup. For three consecutive days, there was a lot of confusion on who exactly was in charge and what steps the military would have to take. Yeltsin took advantage of the opportunity and positioned himself ready to replace Gorbachev. However, the military backed off and the ousting attempt failed. Yeltsin gained popularity and, in 1991, Gorbachev resigned from his position of General Secretary of Soviet Union. This saw the collapse of the Soviet Union and the onset of nationalism in Eastern Europe. On 25th December 1991, the Soviet flag was lowered and replaced by Russian banner. A few states opted for independence while the majority of the republics became members of a loose confederation which was termed as Commonwealth of Independent States. The USSR was officially dissolved on 31st December 1991. This marked the historic end of the Cold War.
Beyond The Cold War
The Cold War was a huge financial outlet for the Russian government. The USSR heavily invested into the continuing arms race with the USA. The end of the Cold War was marked with a huge reduction in the arms financing. The USSR cut down their spending on weapons. This was a plan aimed at helping their economy to recover. The economy had been crippled by the heavy financing towards arms. The funds were then diverted to constructive economic policies that would bring success. The heavy investment in arms had hurt the USSR economy rather significantly. The situation could not even be compared with the Great Depression that hit the USA and Germany in the 1930s. Many people were jobless at the time.
The end of the Cold War saw the USSR break into several independent states. Each satellite state crumbled for independence from the central USSR control. This saw the independence of countries like Hungary, Slovakia, and Czech Republic among the rest. Some countries became independent soon after the end of the Cold War while others demanded for their independence much later. Slovakia is an example of a country that demanded for its independence many years after the end of the Cold War. Most of the countries that initially formed the USSR formally joined the newly formed European Union. The EU became the largest trading block in the western region.
New to BestWritingHelp?
Get your 15% OFF the first order!
Rapid change of political standings became evident in the USSR states. This region has previously been governed by communism ideologies. All industries and investments belonged to the government. Capitalism and nationalism approaches soon took the center stage. The nationalism ideology also created renewed push for independence among the USSR members’ states. The disintegration of the USSR should, however, not be confused for a split in the world. It is important to note that globalization soon became common. Globalization was a fresh philosophy of unity. There was a move to have the whole world unite into one unit. Trade was to go on from country to country. Business men from foreign countries also moved in to invest in other countries. This was the new phase of the world.
Globalization also took effect in Russia. The newly formed Russian government opened its shores to international students and investors. The USA became the only superpower with its military support to many nations. The USA created military allies all over the world. This was, however, not meant for war purposes. The Russian companies soon started looking for raw materials from foreign lands. This was another form of globalization. The newly formed states also engaged in business within the EU umbrella. Each state soon became strong and sovereign. Some are very stable world economies as of today. | 1,131 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pince-nez ( or , plural form same as singular;French pronunciation: [ps'ne]) is a style of glasses, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, that are supported without earpieces, by pinching the bridge of the nose. The name comes from French pincer, "to pinch", and nez, "nose".
Although pince-nez were used in Europe since the late 14th century, modern ones appeared in the 1840s and reached their peak popularity around 1880 to 1900. Because they did not always stay on the nose when placed, and because of the stigma sometimes attached to the constant wearing of eyeglasses, pince-nez were often connected to the wearer's clothing or ear via a suspension chain, cord, or ribbon so that they could be easily removed and not lost.
The earliest form of eyewear for which any archaeological record exists comes from the middle of the 15th century. It is a primitive pince-nez whose frames were made from pieces of either metacarpal bone from the forelimb of a bull or from large pieces of antler. The two pieces were each paddle-shaped and were joined by an iron rivet which provided the tension over the nose and allowed the lenses to be folded together. The purpose of the three holes at the place where the handle connects to the hinge is uncertain, though they may have been used for pinhole vision, a principle which was known from ancient times. Each paddle was split at one end to allow for the insertion of a lens, and the split was closed by a piece of copper wire. The frames were extremely light, but the tension in the rivet would have loosened over time making them unable to stay on the nose. Paintings depicting such frames date from as early as 1392 CE.
Subsequent frames were made from cattle horn or from wood, but were consistently designed with a connecting rivet for tension.
These pince-nez possess a C-shaped bridge composed of a curved, flexible piece of metal which provided tension to clip the lenses on the wearer's nose. They were in wide use from the 1820s to the 1940s and were available in a variety of styles - ranging from the early nose-padless type of the 19th century to the gutta-percha variety of the American Civil War era and then on to the plaquette variety of the 20th century. The bridges were subject to constant wear from repeated flexing when being set and removed from the face, so would frequently break or lose their tension. An advantage of this variety was that one size could fit a variety of nose bridges but its inability to manage astigmatism or maintain a fixed pupillary distance meant that it was fundamentally flawed for a large proportion of wearers.
The "astig"--so called for its ability to manage astigmatism--or "bar-spring" pince-nez consists of a sliding bar and spring connecting the lenses which can be separated by gently pulling the lenses away from each other, then placed on the bridge of the nose and released. The tension in the spring then clips the device in place. The nose pads were traditionally made of cork, were attached directly to the frames, and were either hinged or stationary. This variety was popular from the 1890s to the 1930s, after which they were seldom seen. They were created and marketed as 'sporting pince-nez', which were purportedly more difficult to jar from the face than the other varieties as well as being more comfortable to wear for longer periods. The principal advantage was that unlike the C-bridge pince-nez, whose lenses rotated slightly as they were placed on the nose, the astig's lenses did not rotate and therefore could correct for astigmatism in ways that were impossible with most other varieties of pince-nez--however, they still did not account for pupillary distance.
In 1893 a Frenchman named Jules Cottet developed and patented a finger-piece eyeglass which functioned by connecting the two lenses by a hard, unflexing bridge and clipping onto the bridge of the nose via springs located in the nose-rests. The wearer could pinch onto a pair of levers located above or in front of the bridge to open the planquettes, and release the levers to allow them to close onto the nose of the wearer. Because the lenses did not rotate, these devices could correct for astigmatism, and because they did not move in relation to each other, they could also account for the user's pupillary distance. Cottet registered his patent in France, England, and the United States but did not pursue production and eventually sold the patent to a London-based eyewear manufacturer who in turn sold it to an American firm. The design remained unused for years until it was acquired by American Optical who successfully marketed it under the brand name "Fits-U". In this guise, it quickly replaced most other nose-pinching varieties of eyewear.
The difference between Oxford spectacles (or "Oxfords" for short) and the pince-nez is not frequently drawn. The style was supposedly developed in the 19th century when a professor at Oxford University accidentally broke off the handle from a pair of lorgnette spectacles and reputedly affixed two small nose-pads to the frame and found that he could use the tension in the folding spring to perch them on his nose, though the authenticity of the story has never been verified. Oxfords are descended from the lorgnette, as early examples of them often had handles in addition to nose-pads. In style Oxfords are much like the C-bridge as the tension is provided by a flexible, sprung piece of metal; however, they also resemble the astig, as the spring connecting the two lenses is distinct from the nose-pieces. Oxfords were popular in Europe and the Americas up until the 1930s.
Pince-nez is central to the murder mystery in the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Golden Pince-Nez. Another murder mystery, Whose Body? by Dorothy L. Sayers, features a victim found dead in a bathtub wearing nothing but a pair of pince-nez.
Numerous fictional characters have been depicted as wearing pince-nez. These include Hercule Poirot in the television series Agatha Christie's Poirot, who wears a pince-nez that is attached to a cord around his neck;Morpheus in the Matrix film trilogy, who wears reflective-lensed pince-nez sunglasses when he appears in The Matrix;Don Knotts title-character in The Incredible Mr. Limpet, who wears them both as a man and a fish; The Walt Disney cartoon character Scrooge McDuck; Professor Frost in the C. S. Lewis novel That Hideous Strength, who is identified multiple times by his wearing a pair of pince-nez; Koroviev/Fagott, a member of Satan's entourage in Mikhail Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita; Roger Swindon in Under Wildwood, the second novel in Colin Meloy's "Wildwood" trilogy; and Dr.Eggman/Robotnik from Sonic the Hedgehog. Throughout Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon reference is made to the fact that the main character, Rubashov, wears pince-nez and uses them to tap on the pipes in his cell to communicate with fellow prisoners. Gomez Addams (The Addams Family) frequently pulled a pair of pince-nez glasses from his inside left jacket pocket including a reference to the spectacles by Doctor Motley in Season 2, Episode 17, "Fester Goes on a Diet." | <urn:uuid:430308f8-082d-44db-9dac-4a75d514cc6a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Pince-nez | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.981267 | 1,617 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.393714487552642... | 1 | Pince-nez ( or , plural form same as singular;French pronunciation: [ps'ne]) is a style of glasses, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, that are supported without earpieces, by pinching the bridge of the nose. The name comes from French pincer, "to pinch", and nez, "nose".
Although pince-nez were used in Europe since the late 14th century, modern ones appeared in the 1840s and reached their peak popularity around 1880 to 1900. Because they did not always stay on the nose when placed, and because of the stigma sometimes attached to the constant wearing of eyeglasses, pince-nez were often connected to the wearer's clothing or ear via a suspension chain, cord, or ribbon so that they could be easily removed and not lost.
The earliest form of eyewear for which any archaeological record exists comes from the middle of the 15th century. It is a primitive pince-nez whose frames were made from pieces of either metacarpal bone from the forelimb of a bull or from large pieces of antler. The two pieces were each paddle-shaped and were joined by an iron rivet which provided the tension over the nose and allowed the lenses to be folded together. The purpose of the three holes at the place where the handle connects to the hinge is uncertain, though they may have been used for pinhole vision, a principle which was known from ancient times. Each paddle was split at one end to allow for the insertion of a lens, and the split was closed by a piece of copper wire. The frames were extremely light, but the tension in the rivet would have loosened over time making them unable to stay on the nose. Paintings depicting such frames date from as early as 1392 CE.
Subsequent frames were made from cattle horn or from wood, but were consistently designed with a connecting rivet for tension.
These pince-nez possess a C-shaped bridge composed of a curved, flexible piece of metal which provided tension to clip the lenses on the wearer's nose. They were in wide use from the 1820s to the 1940s and were available in a variety of styles - ranging from the early nose-padless type of the 19th century to the gutta-percha variety of the American Civil War era and then on to the plaquette variety of the 20th century. The bridges were subject to constant wear from repeated flexing when being set and removed from the face, so would frequently break or lose their tension. An advantage of this variety was that one size could fit a variety of nose bridges but its inability to manage astigmatism or maintain a fixed pupillary distance meant that it was fundamentally flawed for a large proportion of wearers.
The "astig"--so called for its ability to manage astigmatism--or "bar-spring" pince-nez consists of a sliding bar and spring connecting the lenses which can be separated by gently pulling the lenses away from each other, then placed on the bridge of the nose and released. The tension in the spring then clips the device in place. The nose pads were traditionally made of cork, were attached directly to the frames, and were either hinged or stationary. This variety was popular from the 1890s to the 1930s, after which they were seldom seen. They were created and marketed as 'sporting pince-nez', which were purportedly more difficult to jar from the face than the other varieties as well as being more comfortable to wear for longer periods. The principal advantage was that unlike the C-bridge pince-nez, whose lenses rotated slightly as they were placed on the nose, the astig's lenses did not rotate and therefore could correct for astigmatism in ways that were impossible with most other varieties of pince-nez--however, they still did not account for pupillary distance.
In 1893 a Frenchman named Jules Cottet developed and patented a finger-piece eyeglass which functioned by connecting the two lenses by a hard, unflexing bridge and clipping onto the bridge of the nose via springs located in the nose-rests. The wearer could pinch onto a pair of levers located above or in front of the bridge to open the planquettes, and release the levers to allow them to close onto the nose of the wearer. Because the lenses did not rotate, these devices could correct for astigmatism, and because they did not move in relation to each other, they could also account for the user's pupillary distance. Cottet registered his patent in France, England, and the United States but did not pursue production and eventually sold the patent to a London-based eyewear manufacturer who in turn sold it to an American firm. The design remained unused for years until it was acquired by American Optical who successfully marketed it under the brand name "Fits-U". In this guise, it quickly replaced most other nose-pinching varieties of eyewear.
The difference between Oxford spectacles (or "Oxfords" for short) and the pince-nez is not frequently drawn. The style was supposedly developed in the 19th century when a professor at Oxford University accidentally broke off the handle from a pair of lorgnette spectacles and reputedly affixed two small nose-pads to the frame and found that he could use the tension in the folding spring to perch them on his nose, though the authenticity of the story has never been verified. Oxfords are descended from the lorgnette, as early examples of them often had handles in addition to nose-pads. In style Oxfords are much like the C-bridge as the tension is provided by a flexible, sprung piece of metal; however, they also resemble the astig, as the spring connecting the two lenses is distinct from the nose-pieces. Oxfords were popular in Europe and the Americas up until the 1930s.
Pince-nez is central to the murder mystery in the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Golden Pince-Nez. Another murder mystery, Whose Body? by Dorothy L. Sayers, features a victim found dead in a bathtub wearing nothing but a pair of pince-nez.
Numerous fictional characters have been depicted as wearing pince-nez. These include Hercule Poirot in the television series Agatha Christie's Poirot, who wears a pince-nez that is attached to a cord around his neck;Morpheus in the Matrix film trilogy, who wears reflective-lensed pince-nez sunglasses when he appears in The Matrix;Don Knotts title-character in The Incredible Mr. Limpet, who wears them both as a man and a fish; The Walt Disney cartoon character Scrooge McDuck; Professor Frost in the C. S. Lewis novel That Hideous Strength, who is identified multiple times by his wearing a pair of pince-nez; Koroviev/Fagott, a member of Satan's entourage in Mikhail Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita; Roger Swindon in Under Wildwood, the second novel in Colin Meloy's "Wildwood" trilogy; and Dr.Eggman/Robotnik from Sonic the Hedgehog. Throughout Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon reference is made to the fact that the main character, Rubashov, wears pince-nez and uses them to tap on the pipes in his cell to communicate with fellow prisoners. Gomez Addams (The Addams Family) frequently pulled a pair of pince-nez glasses from his inside left jacket pocket including a reference to the spectacles by Doctor Motley in Season 2, Episode 17, "Fester Goes on a Diet." | 1,622 | ENGLISH | 1 |
M K Gandhi is best known for his practice of ahimsa, or nonviolence apart from the lead role he played in India’s independence movement. There are many interesting stories about Gandhiji related to nonviolence and nonattachment. One day, as Gandhiji started to board a train, one of his shoes slipped off and got caught on the track. He was unable to free the shoe from the track; so he took off the other shoe and threw it also on the track right at the spot where the first one was stuck. The astonished passengers asked, “Why are you throwing the other shoe onto the track?” He replied, “The poor man who finds the shoe lying on the track will now have a pair he can use."
There are many lessons in that one incident. First, most people would be so upset about losing their one shoe that their brain would only dwell on that loss. What did Gandhiji do? He did not let the loss of the shoe affect the clarity of his thoughts. Rather, he weighed the situation, and came up with a compassionate idea. Rather than be angry or anxious, he was generous and caring.
He thought he could use this opportunity to make a contribution to a needy person who might need shoes and happen to have the good luck of finding them.
How many of us take a bad situation and turn it into a good one? How many of us can see the bright side of a difficult situation? How many of us can turn a negative into a positive? Gandhiji’s attitude points the way for us to learn how to use problems to our benefit or the benefit of others.
The anecdote about Gandhi also shows us another aspect of his life, which is nonattachment. If someone were attached to his shoes, then his whole train ride and rest of the day would have been caught up in a web of anger, despair, and hopelessness. By releasing his shoes, Gandhi showed he was not attached to them. He could give them up and move on. He could spend the rest of his time in productive thoughts and not be a victim of circumstance.
Let us think about how many attachments we have in our lives that keep us in bondage. Some of us may be attached to our money and other possessions. The loss of money might devastate us. The current moment in which we can get to work to make more money is instead spent in worry and anxiety. We dwell on what we lost instead of turning it into an opportunity to continue to gain.
Some people are attached to name and fame. They are so concerned about their reputation and what others think of them that if someone says something critical about them, they crack. Instead of taking the situation and turning it into a positive one, they are devastated.
Instead of losing their life breaths over worry and hurt, they could look at what was said about them in a calm, rational manner, and see if there is a grain of truth there. They can use that as an opportunity to work on themselves to make their lives better. They can improve their lives. If after examining what was said about them and they find no truth there, they can take it as a misunderstanding on the part of the other person. They can choose to fix the misunderstanding and move on, or just ignore it.
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View More Deals | <urn:uuid:69153c9a-240b-4de4-93a9-0c52e0af2891> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.speakingtree.in/blog/benefits-of-nonviolence-and-nonattachment-580253 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00332.warc.gz | en | 0.981201 | 808 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.5056388378143... | 1 | M K Gandhi is best known for his practice of ahimsa, or nonviolence apart from the lead role he played in India’s independence movement. There are many interesting stories about Gandhiji related to nonviolence and nonattachment. One day, as Gandhiji started to board a train, one of his shoes slipped off and got caught on the track. He was unable to free the shoe from the track; so he took off the other shoe and threw it also on the track right at the spot where the first one was stuck. The astonished passengers asked, “Why are you throwing the other shoe onto the track?” He replied, “The poor man who finds the shoe lying on the track will now have a pair he can use."
There are many lessons in that one incident. First, most people would be so upset about losing their one shoe that their brain would only dwell on that loss. What did Gandhiji do? He did not let the loss of the shoe affect the clarity of his thoughts. Rather, he weighed the situation, and came up with a compassionate idea. Rather than be angry or anxious, he was generous and caring.
He thought he could use this opportunity to make a contribution to a needy person who might need shoes and happen to have the good luck of finding them.
How many of us take a bad situation and turn it into a good one? How many of us can see the bright side of a difficult situation? How many of us can turn a negative into a positive? Gandhiji’s attitude points the way for us to learn how to use problems to our benefit or the benefit of others.
The anecdote about Gandhi also shows us another aspect of his life, which is nonattachment. If someone were attached to his shoes, then his whole train ride and rest of the day would have been caught up in a web of anger, despair, and hopelessness. By releasing his shoes, Gandhi showed he was not attached to them. He could give them up and move on. He could spend the rest of his time in productive thoughts and not be a victim of circumstance.
Let us think about how many attachments we have in our lives that keep us in bondage. Some of us may be attached to our money and other possessions. The loss of money might devastate us. The current moment in which we can get to work to make more money is instead spent in worry and anxiety. We dwell on what we lost instead of turning it into an opportunity to continue to gain.
Some people are attached to name and fame. They are so concerned about their reputation and what others think of them that if someone says something critical about them, they crack. Instead of taking the situation and turning it into a positive one, they are devastated.
Instead of losing their life breaths over worry and hurt, they could look at what was said about them in a calm, rational manner, and see if there is a grain of truth there. They can use that as an opportunity to work on themselves to make their lives better. They can improve their lives. If after examining what was said about them and they find no truth there, they can take it as a misunderstanding on the part of the other person. They can choose to fix the misunderstanding and move on, or just ignore it.
Today's Shopping Deals
Aesthetic Decors Om with Round Stand₹ 522.00 ₹ 799.00BUY
LIELA - Garden and Outdoor Incense Sticks ; Mosquito Repellent 7 Sticks Fragrance Citronella and Lemon Grass; Each 16-Inch -Set of 2₹ 248.00 ₹ 398.00BUY
Plusvalue Feng Shui Bagua Pakua Convex Mirror Deflect Negative Energy & Protection 4.5inches₹ 499.00 ₹ 1,500.00BUY
View More Deals | 804 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In many countries, children between 5-8 years had less gender stereotypes than the adults and it was strong in male dominated societies. Though there were some differences which showed than some children do learn gender stereotype earlier, the pattern was very much common in adults. Every society has its own values and norms. This means that the society can shape one’s emotional makeup and behaviour. Advocates of nature believe that children learn their gender roles right from an early age.
The stimulation in the environment helps the individual by improving their behaviour, say, learning a language. It is urged that if it was a genetic creation, it would have been impossible or difficult for a child to learn the language and speak. Take for instance the story of ‘Genie’ who grew up in the jungle and could not speak and also had poor language abilities.
Researchers do believe that biological influence plays a very important role in early stage to bring about such behaviour. Campbell (1996), who studied babies as young as seven months, says that they prefer their own sex mates.
8 THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN SHAPING GENDER ROLES
Media has played a very important role in the development of gender behaviour. A lot of research has been made to find out if consistent viewing of television does create gender roles to change. Manstead and McCulloch (1981) found that stereotypes on television often do not reflect the reality. Men were portrayed as powerful and are always in control while women were seen as homemakers and mothers. Children tend to copy new fusions, designs and life styles of celebrities. This is most commonly found in young adults.
9. GENDER ROLE IN THE 20th AND 21st CENTURY
As soon as the ‘winds’ of industrialisation started blowing across the world, human behaviour and gender roles started to change. Prior to the 20th century, men and women have had specific roles to play in society. Men were seen as ‘breadwinners’, that is, they were responsible to look after their families financially while women were supposed to care and look after the children at home.
Women did not participate in politics, hunting and any physical activities, which can endanger their body. But now that that myth is gone, women are present in politics and are in forefront in decision making and running house activities that used to be the domain of men.
Women can now decide not to get married or not have children naturally. They might opt for artificial insemination or choose to adopt a child. Many women are now single mothers and a significant minority are now lesbians as well.
In England, gender roles have changed as well. In some societies marriage is done on contract basis, that is, a man and a woman can decide for how long they can be married and when to separate.
Also, subjects that were regarded to be a women‘s subjects like nursing, social work, catering, now see the involvement of men. | <urn:uuid:bb678c85-f293-422b-827b-a82e9a8e9921> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jottedlines.com/the-development-of-gender/7/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.985527 | 609 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.206221997737884... | 5 | In many countries, children between 5-8 years had less gender stereotypes than the adults and it was strong in male dominated societies. Though there were some differences which showed than some children do learn gender stereotype earlier, the pattern was very much common in adults. Every society has its own values and norms. This means that the society can shape one’s emotional makeup and behaviour. Advocates of nature believe that children learn their gender roles right from an early age.
The stimulation in the environment helps the individual by improving their behaviour, say, learning a language. It is urged that if it was a genetic creation, it would have been impossible or difficult for a child to learn the language and speak. Take for instance the story of ‘Genie’ who grew up in the jungle and could not speak and also had poor language abilities.
Researchers do believe that biological influence plays a very important role in early stage to bring about such behaviour. Campbell (1996), who studied babies as young as seven months, says that they prefer their own sex mates.
8 THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN SHAPING GENDER ROLES
Media has played a very important role in the development of gender behaviour. A lot of research has been made to find out if consistent viewing of television does create gender roles to change. Manstead and McCulloch (1981) found that stereotypes on television often do not reflect the reality. Men were portrayed as powerful and are always in control while women were seen as homemakers and mothers. Children tend to copy new fusions, designs and life styles of celebrities. This is most commonly found in young adults.
9. GENDER ROLE IN THE 20th AND 21st CENTURY
As soon as the ‘winds’ of industrialisation started blowing across the world, human behaviour and gender roles started to change. Prior to the 20th century, men and women have had specific roles to play in society. Men were seen as ‘breadwinners’, that is, they were responsible to look after their families financially while women were supposed to care and look after the children at home.
Women did not participate in politics, hunting and any physical activities, which can endanger their body. But now that that myth is gone, women are present in politics and are in forefront in decision making and running house activities that used to be the domain of men.
Women can now decide not to get married or not have children naturally. They might opt for artificial insemination or choose to adopt a child. Many women are now single mothers and a significant minority are now lesbians as well.
In England, gender roles have changed as well. In some societies marriage is done on contract basis, that is, a man and a woman can decide for how long they can be married and when to separate.
Also, subjects that were regarded to be a women‘s subjects like nursing, social work, catering, now see the involvement of men. | 595 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On January 3 1841, writer Herman Melville ships out on the whaler Acushnet to the South Seas.
Melville was born in New York City in 1819. A childhood bout of scarlet fever permanently weakened his eyesight. He went to sea at age 19, as a cabin boy on a ship bound for Liverpool. Two years later, he sailed for the South Seas.
The Acushnet anchored in Polynesia, where Melville took part in a mutiny. He was thrown in jail in Tahiti, escaped, and wandered around the South Sea islands for two years. In 1846, he published his first novel, Typee, based on his Polynesian adventures. His second book, Omoo (1847), also dealt with the region. Moby-Dick—his third novel, and the one he's most famous for—initially flopped and was not recognized as a classic for many years.
Meanwhile, Melville bought a farm near Nathaniel Hawthorne’s house in Massachusetts, and the two became close friends. Melville continued writing novels and highly acclaimed short stories. Putnam’s Monthly published “Bartleby the Scrivener” in 1853 and “Benito Cereno” in 1855.
In 1866, Melville won appointment as a customs inspector in New York, which brought him a stable income. He published several volumes of poetry. He continued to write until his death in 1891, and his last novel, Billy Budd, was not published until 1924. | <urn:uuid:c3952ac3-3d80-49d9-bd6f-198642f2c278> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/herman-melville-sails-for-the-south-seas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.987993 | 321 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4032... | 20 | On January 3 1841, writer Herman Melville ships out on the whaler Acushnet to the South Seas.
Melville was born in New York City in 1819. A childhood bout of scarlet fever permanently weakened his eyesight. He went to sea at age 19, as a cabin boy on a ship bound for Liverpool. Two years later, he sailed for the South Seas.
The Acushnet anchored in Polynesia, where Melville took part in a mutiny. He was thrown in jail in Tahiti, escaped, and wandered around the South Sea islands for two years. In 1846, he published his first novel, Typee, based on his Polynesian adventures. His second book, Omoo (1847), also dealt with the region. Moby-Dick—his third novel, and the one he's most famous for—initially flopped and was not recognized as a classic for many years.
Meanwhile, Melville bought a farm near Nathaniel Hawthorne’s house in Massachusetts, and the two became close friends. Melville continued writing novels and highly acclaimed short stories. Putnam’s Monthly published “Bartleby the Scrivener” in 1853 and “Benito Cereno” in 1855.
In 1866, Melville won appointment as a customs inspector in New York, which brought him a stable income. He published several volumes of poetry. He continued to write until his death in 1891, and his last novel, Billy Budd, was not published until 1924. | 340 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The structure of a text refers to the way in which events are organised inside the novel as a whole. The most commonly used structure in novels is chronological, where events are told to the reader in the order in which they have happened. However, the structure of Frankenstein is much more complex as Mary Shelley uses a technique called embedded narrative. In an embedded narrative, the main story is told within a framing narrative (think of a painting in a frame which makes up the whole picture). In Frankenstein, Mary Shelley starts with a framing narrative (Walton's letters to his sister), before moving to the main narrative (Victor's story) and then contained within this is the Monster's story of survival and how he learns from the De Lacey family.
There are three separate narrators. As readers, we learn directly about Robert Walton's expedition in his own words. He then meets Victor Frankenstein and his narrative is told to us through the letters which Robert Walton is writing to his sister. Finally, we hear the Monster's account of his development, but this is conveyed to us by Victor, which is in turn told to Walton who is telling it both to his sister and to us as readers. The novel then returns to Victor's point of view and then finally to Walton's framing narrative. This is complicated and very clever!
By using such a complex narrative structure, Mary Shelley is able to lead the reader gradually to the central ideas of the novel which, if introduced suddenly, might be dismissed as being beyond belief. By the time we get to the Monster's story in its own words, we are ready to believe that not only can it speak but that it can argue in a logical and rational manner.
Shelley also uses the three varied narrative perspectives to highlight the themes of the novel from a number of different viewpoints.
Finally we may, of course, not entirely trust what we are being told by any one particular individual (a risk-taking explorer with a one-track mind, a sometimes mad scientist who breaks nature's laws and a hideously deformed and murderous Monster). In this way, the reader becomes like a scientist trying to piece together the evidence in order to get at the truth.
Examining structure in a text can also refer to looking at the writer's deliberate arrangement of sentences and paragraphs. This is known as syntax. Here is an example of how such a piece of text might be analysed:
Of my creation and creator I was absolutely ignorant, but I knew that I possessed no money, no friends, no kind of property. I was, besides, endued with a figure hideously deformed and loathsome; I was not even of the same nature as man. I was more agile than they and could subsist upon coarser diet; I bore the extremes of heat and cold with less injury to my frame; my stature far exceeded theirs. When I looked around I saw and heard of none like me. Was I, then, a monster, a blot upon the earth, from which all men fled and whom all men disowned?The Monster | <urn:uuid:a1b1f4b2-9661-47ae-904a-64b83b3836bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zpc8hv4/revision/2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.98081 | 625 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.141670659184... | 1 | The structure of a text refers to the way in which events are organised inside the novel as a whole. The most commonly used structure in novels is chronological, where events are told to the reader in the order in which they have happened. However, the structure of Frankenstein is much more complex as Mary Shelley uses a technique called embedded narrative. In an embedded narrative, the main story is told within a framing narrative (think of a painting in a frame which makes up the whole picture). In Frankenstein, Mary Shelley starts with a framing narrative (Walton's letters to his sister), before moving to the main narrative (Victor's story) and then contained within this is the Monster's story of survival and how he learns from the De Lacey family.
There are three separate narrators. As readers, we learn directly about Robert Walton's expedition in his own words. He then meets Victor Frankenstein and his narrative is told to us through the letters which Robert Walton is writing to his sister. Finally, we hear the Monster's account of his development, but this is conveyed to us by Victor, which is in turn told to Walton who is telling it both to his sister and to us as readers. The novel then returns to Victor's point of view and then finally to Walton's framing narrative. This is complicated and very clever!
By using such a complex narrative structure, Mary Shelley is able to lead the reader gradually to the central ideas of the novel which, if introduced suddenly, might be dismissed as being beyond belief. By the time we get to the Monster's story in its own words, we are ready to believe that not only can it speak but that it can argue in a logical and rational manner.
Shelley also uses the three varied narrative perspectives to highlight the themes of the novel from a number of different viewpoints.
Finally we may, of course, not entirely trust what we are being told by any one particular individual (a risk-taking explorer with a one-track mind, a sometimes mad scientist who breaks nature's laws and a hideously deformed and murderous Monster). In this way, the reader becomes like a scientist trying to piece together the evidence in order to get at the truth.
Examining structure in a text can also refer to looking at the writer's deliberate arrangement of sentences and paragraphs. This is known as syntax. Here is an example of how such a piece of text might be analysed:
Of my creation and creator I was absolutely ignorant, but I knew that I possessed no money, no friends, no kind of property. I was, besides, endued with a figure hideously deformed and loathsome; I was not even of the same nature as man. I was more agile than they and could subsist upon coarser diet; I bore the extremes of heat and cold with less injury to my frame; my stature far exceeded theirs. When I looked around I saw and heard of none like me. Was I, then, a monster, a blot upon the earth, from which all men fled and whom all men disowned?The Monster | 619 | ENGLISH | 1 |
STEP 1: LISTEN TO THE AUDIO
STEP 2: STUDY VOCABULARY
My sister won the school spelling bee. She entered the competition with ten of her classmates. She said she was very nervous on stage. I could tell by her hands. They were shaking. She said she guessed the winning word and won by chance. I don't think she won by chance at all. She worked hard and won with true effort. I am so proud of her. The words were very difficult. They were given by the school principal. The principal repeated the words several times and used them in sentences. That made the contest very long. It lasted over two hours. Some people were getting tired. Other people moved by the door and windows to get some fresh air. After she spelled the winning word, the audience stood with applause. It was a great moment for her. There is going to be a ceremony tomorrow night. The principal will present her with a big trophy with her name on it. It is going to be a special time for my family.
Watch a slide show of all the vocabulary words in this lesson.
If you would like more vocabulary practice, go to the vocabulary flashcard page and study each word separately. After studying the vocabulary, practice speaking in the next ESL study session. | <urn:uuid:a51435cf-f5bc-468b-aebd-f609f93ca387> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://skesl.com/esl/lesson/spelling-bee | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00030.warc.gz | en | 0.992198 | 266 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.10265329... | 3 | STEP 1: LISTEN TO THE AUDIO
STEP 2: STUDY VOCABULARY
My sister won the school spelling bee. She entered the competition with ten of her classmates. She said she was very nervous on stage. I could tell by her hands. They were shaking. She said she guessed the winning word and won by chance. I don't think she won by chance at all. She worked hard and won with true effort. I am so proud of her. The words were very difficult. They were given by the school principal. The principal repeated the words several times and used them in sentences. That made the contest very long. It lasted over two hours. Some people were getting tired. Other people moved by the door and windows to get some fresh air. After she spelled the winning word, the audience stood with applause. It was a great moment for her. There is going to be a ceremony tomorrow night. The principal will present her with a big trophy with her name on it. It is going to be a special time for my family.
Watch a slide show of all the vocabulary words in this lesson.
If you would like more vocabulary practice, go to the vocabulary flashcard page and study each word separately. After studying the vocabulary, practice speaking in the next ESL study session. | 264 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article has been edited and was first published on April 27, 2018.
It’s been 59 years since Togo gained its independence from France.
The country, which was severely hit by the slave trade in the 16th century, was once a protectorate of Germany until the Germans were defeated by the French and British military forces after World War I in 1914.
In 1922, the western part of the country was handed to Britain while France was given the eastern area by a mandate from the League of Nations.
More about this
The country was primarily divided into the British administrative region and the French administrative region.
Togo at the time had a major problem. Its major tribe, the Ewes were divided by the boundaries of British and French Togoland.
Then emerged Sylvanus Olympio, a Lome citizen whose main concern was to unite the Ewe people.
The resident of the French area of the country was the leader of the Committee of Togolese Unity after World War II and was elected president of the first territorial assembly in 1946.
A year after, Olympio, who had Togolese and British education, began having issues with the Togoland’s French colonial administration.
With this and his wish to unite Ewes, Olympio joined the Comité de l’Unité (CUT), an association dedicated to Ewe reunification. The association also opposed closer links between Togo and the French Empire.
As president of the Togo Assembly after 1946, and later a deputy to the French Assembly, he appeared a number of times before the United Nations, stressing the need for Ewe unification.
However, his wish to unite the Ewes did not materialize when in 1956, the British Togoland voted by plebiscite to join the Gold Coast which later became independent Ghana.
In 1956 French Togo received limited autonomy. It subsequently held elections which were won by the Parti Togolaise du Progrès, and Olympio’s rival, Nicholas Grunitzky became prime minister.
But Olympio and the CUT protested the election to the United Nations till another election, this time supervised by the UN, was organized in 1958.
Olympio and his CUT won that election and he became prime minister.
Togo was granted independence on April 27, 1960. A year later, it became a republic with Olympio as its president.
Due to dissatisfaction with some of his policies and pro-French attitude, Olympio was assassinated in a coup on January 13, 1963.
Fast forward and the country is still struggling to have a stable economy, with many protesting against what they call the dynasty rule of the Eyademas. | <urn:uuid:d7c33727-c7cc-4a28-a806-36cd2fb6f563> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://face2faceafrica.com/article/togo-the-former-german-colony-that-gained-independence-from-france-in-1960 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00510.warc.gz | en | 0.986934 | 566 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.5134599208831... | 4 | This article has been edited and was first published on April 27, 2018.
It’s been 59 years since Togo gained its independence from France.
The country, which was severely hit by the slave trade in the 16th century, was once a protectorate of Germany until the Germans were defeated by the French and British military forces after World War I in 1914.
In 1922, the western part of the country was handed to Britain while France was given the eastern area by a mandate from the League of Nations.
More about this
The country was primarily divided into the British administrative region and the French administrative region.
Togo at the time had a major problem. Its major tribe, the Ewes were divided by the boundaries of British and French Togoland.
Then emerged Sylvanus Olympio, a Lome citizen whose main concern was to unite the Ewe people.
The resident of the French area of the country was the leader of the Committee of Togolese Unity after World War II and was elected president of the first territorial assembly in 1946.
A year after, Olympio, who had Togolese and British education, began having issues with the Togoland’s French colonial administration.
With this and his wish to unite Ewes, Olympio joined the Comité de l’Unité (CUT), an association dedicated to Ewe reunification. The association also opposed closer links between Togo and the French Empire.
As president of the Togo Assembly after 1946, and later a deputy to the French Assembly, he appeared a number of times before the United Nations, stressing the need for Ewe unification.
However, his wish to unite the Ewes did not materialize when in 1956, the British Togoland voted by plebiscite to join the Gold Coast which later became independent Ghana.
In 1956 French Togo received limited autonomy. It subsequently held elections which were won by the Parti Togolaise du Progrès, and Olympio’s rival, Nicholas Grunitzky became prime minister.
But Olympio and the CUT protested the election to the United Nations till another election, this time supervised by the UN, was organized in 1958.
Olympio and his CUT won that election and he became prime minister.
Togo was granted independence on April 27, 1960. A year later, it became a republic with Olympio as its president.
Due to dissatisfaction with some of his policies and pro-French attitude, Olympio was assassinated in a coup on January 13, 1963.
Fast forward and the country is still struggling to have a stable economy, with many protesting against what they call the dynasty rule of the Eyademas. | 591 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Proverbs are words of wisdom or simple home truths expressed in a sentence…often metaphoric in nature.
Bird in Hand is Worth Two in the Bush. This proverb literally means that if you have one bird in hand be content with it. In the process of trying to grab the birds in the bush you might land up losing the one in hand too. One day Akila and Geetha were on their way to write an important exam and were waiting at the bus stop.
All the buses were crowded but since they had to reach the examination hall on time. Akila insisted that they travel by one of the buses. Geetha was not interested.
She kept insisting that a less crowded bus would come along and that they should wait for one since they had a lot of time. Geetha wanted to travel by a bus which offered them seats to sit. Akila was uneasy since she knew that with the passage of time buses could only get more crowded.
She tried to reason it out with Geetha who refused to listen. Akila was angry with Geetha and decided to board the bus that came next. She did not want to be late for the exam. Because of her timely decision, Akila took a bus which was crowded and reached the exam-hall in time.
She wrote the exam with peace of mind. She came out in flying colour. Geetha waited for the next half an hour but there was no sign of the bus that she wanted to take.
She was getting anxious as she realized that a lot of time had elapsed. Finally a bus arrived but it was so crowded that Geetha could not even get in. Geetha realized her foolishness. But it was too late and she had to finally catch a taxi to travel to her destination. She not only lost valuable money by spending more but also lost out on precious time by landing up late for her exam.
Because of coming late to the exam-hall, Geetha did not write her exam with a peace of mind. She was nervous and tense through out the exam. Although she went through the exam with the minimum marks, she was not happy with her performance in that particular exam.
Akila on the other hand had reached on time and was able to write her exam well.A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush definition is - —used to say that it is better to hold onto something one has than to risk losing it by trying to get something better. PROVERBS A-L.
A bad cause requires many words.
German Proverb. A book is like a garden carried in the pocket. Arab Proverb.
A bird in the hand is worth two in a bush. Paremiology Proverbs are words of wisdom or simple home truths expressed in a sentence often metaphoric in nature. They basically deal with dictates on the disciplined and proper conduct of one’s life.
Story Relating To The Proverb A Bird In Hand Is Worth Two In Bush Low risk suggested by the Greek proverb ——A bird in hand is worth two in the bush As the saying goes “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush ”, which is popularly applied to variety of daily life, because it warns us about the effects of greed, we can conclude from.
Aug 04, · a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Proverb. a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
(a bird in one hand is worth more than a hundred in flight) Swedish: bättre en fågel i handen än tio i skogen; Turkish. “A bird in the hand was worth two in the bush, he told her, to which she retorted that a proverb was the last refuge of the mentally destitute.” ― W.
Somerset Maugham, The Painted Veil tags: humor, . | <urn:uuid:7b71e84e-158c-456d-a461-da1ad2f1566a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qelocajuled.barnweddingvt.com/story-relating-to-the-proverb-a-bird-in-hand-is-worth-two-in-bush-48211fe.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.988042 | 822 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.250593304634... | 1 | Proverbs are words of wisdom or simple home truths expressed in a sentence…often metaphoric in nature.
Bird in Hand is Worth Two in the Bush. This proverb literally means that if you have one bird in hand be content with it. In the process of trying to grab the birds in the bush you might land up losing the one in hand too. One day Akila and Geetha were on their way to write an important exam and were waiting at the bus stop.
All the buses were crowded but since they had to reach the examination hall on time. Akila insisted that they travel by one of the buses. Geetha was not interested.
She kept insisting that a less crowded bus would come along and that they should wait for one since they had a lot of time. Geetha wanted to travel by a bus which offered them seats to sit. Akila was uneasy since she knew that with the passage of time buses could only get more crowded.
She tried to reason it out with Geetha who refused to listen. Akila was angry with Geetha and decided to board the bus that came next. She did not want to be late for the exam. Because of her timely decision, Akila took a bus which was crowded and reached the exam-hall in time.
She wrote the exam with peace of mind. She came out in flying colour. Geetha waited for the next half an hour but there was no sign of the bus that she wanted to take.
She was getting anxious as she realized that a lot of time had elapsed. Finally a bus arrived but it was so crowded that Geetha could not even get in. Geetha realized her foolishness. But it was too late and she had to finally catch a taxi to travel to her destination. She not only lost valuable money by spending more but also lost out on precious time by landing up late for her exam.
Because of coming late to the exam-hall, Geetha did not write her exam with a peace of mind. She was nervous and tense through out the exam. Although she went through the exam with the minimum marks, she was not happy with her performance in that particular exam.
Akila on the other hand had reached on time and was able to write her exam well.A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush definition is - —used to say that it is better to hold onto something one has than to risk losing it by trying to get something better. PROVERBS A-L.
A bad cause requires many words.
German Proverb. A book is like a garden carried in the pocket. Arab Proverb.
A bird in the hand is worth two in a bush. Paremiology Proverbs are words of wisdom or simple home truths expressed in a sentence often metaphoric in nature. They basically deal with dictates on the disciplined and proper conduct of one’s life.
Story Relating To The Proverb A Bird In Hand Is Worth Two In Bush Low risk suggested by the Greek proverb ——A bird in hand is worth two in the bush As the saying goes “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush ”, which is popularly applied to variety of daily life, because it warns us about the effects of greed, we can conclude from.
Aug 04, · a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Proverb. a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
(a bird in one hand is worth more than a hundred in flight) Swedish: bättre en fågel i handen än tio i skogen; Turkish. “A bird in the hand was worth two in the bush, he told her, to which she retorted that a proverb was the last refuge of the mentally destitute.” ― W.
Somerset Maugham, The Painted Veil tags: humor, . | 795 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Even though minorities served in the U.S. military since the Revolutionary War, they were usually not given the needed training and support compared to their white folks.
That was William Henry Johnson’s situation from the beginning. The Albany, New York native had enlisted in the all-black 15th New York National Guard Regiment, which was renamed the 369th Infantry Regiment when it shipped out to France.
The unit performed menial jobs as members were poorly trained but it was later lent to the French Fourth Army, which was experiencing a shortage of men.
More about this
With the French Army, Johnson would perform an act of heroism, earning him praise from then-President Theodore Roosevelt who eventually called him one of the “five bravest Americans” to serve in World War I.
What was this brave act? Johnson fought off scores of Germans single-handedly in the Forest of Argonne in 1918 during World War I.
Having joined the French Fourth Army, Johnson and his men who became the Harlem Hellfighters, were sent to the front lines in March 1918. They learned enough French words to be able to understand commands from superiors. They were given French rifles and helmets, even though they held on to the bolo knives used by the U.S. Army.
Alongside Needham Roberts, a man from Trenton, Johnson was assigned sentry duty on the western edge of the Forest of Argonne in 1918.
Johnson and Roberts were given the late shift; they were to patrol until midnight on the evening of May 14. They weren’t on duty long when the Germans started attacking them.
It first started with strange noises late into the night. Hearing these, Johnson urged Roberts, who was then tired and resting, to get up. But Roberts ignored, thinking his fellow soldier was just nervous.
Johnson, nevertheless, began “piling up his assortment of grenades and rifle cartridges within arm’s reach. If someone was coming, he would be ready,” writes Mental Floss.
Then he began to hear rustling noises, which ultimately became German soldiers who were rushing through the darkness. Realizing they were surrounded, Johnson urged Roberts to run and get help. This was around 2.am.
Roberts didn’t go far before he decided to return to help Johnson fight off the Germans, who had then begun firing at them.
Roberts was hit with a grenade in the process and got badly wounded to the extent that he couldn’t fight. Lying in the trench, Johnson handed him grenades, which he threw at the Germans.
But the German forces were too many, and they were advancing from every direction. Soon, Johnson ran out of grenades.
“He took German bullets in the head and lip but fired his rifle into the darkness. He took more bullets in his side, then his hand, but kept shooting until he shoved an American cartridge clip into his French rifle and it jammed,” an article on Smithsonian Magazine said.
“By now, the Germans were on top of him. Johnson swung his rifle like a club and kept them at bay until the stock of his rifle splintered; then he went down with a blow to his head. Overwhelmed, he saw that the Germans were trying to take Roberts prisoner. The only weapon Johnson had left was a bolo knife, so he climbed up from the ground and charged, hacking away at the Germans before they could get clean shot at him,” the article added.
Stabbing the German forces, including one in the ribs who had climbed on his back, Johnson was able to drag Roberts away from the Germans. After about an hour, the Germans retreated when they heard French and American forces advancing.
When reinforcements finally arrived, Johnson and Roberts were given medical attention. By day, officials found out Johnson had killed four Germans and wounded about 24 others.
Despite suffering 21 wounds, Johnson had prevented the Germans from breaking the French line.
“There wasn’t anything so fine about it,” he said later. “Just fought for my life. A rabbit would have done that.”
Having grabbed the unofficial label “the Black Death” and the official rank of sergeant, Johnson and his fellow soldiers prepared to return home to New York.
But before then, the French honored Johnson and Roberts with the Croix de Guerre, one of France’s highest awards for valor. They became the first two Americans to receive it. Johnson’s medal, however, included the coveted Gold Palm, for extraordinary valor.
In February 1919 when Johnson and the Harlem Hellfighters returned to New York, a parade to honor them was held at Fifth Avenue, with Johnson leading the procession in an open-top Cadillac while thousands celebrated them for their bravery.
But this bravery resulted in difficulties for most of them, especially Johnson.
He had returned from the war with bullets striking both feet, his thigh, his arm, and his head. A scar stretched over his lip, and he had to have a metal plate inserted into his left foot, according to Mental Floss.
These injuries prevented him from grabbing many employment opportunities and sources say his wife and three children subsequently left him.
Even after his death on July 1, 1929, it was unclear where his remains were until historians at the New York Division of Military and Naval Affairs found out in 2001 that he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery with full military honors.
The following year, the New York native, who grew up doing many odd jobs before becoming a soldier, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. In 2015, then-President Barack Obama topped it with the award of the Medal of Honor.
What is more, every June 5, Albany celebrates Henry Johnson Day to acknowledge the day he enlisted while the city has an award under his name for people who make contributions to the area’s development. | <urn:uuid:559a465f-0f35-45b6-aec7-937c368e71d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://face2faceafrica.com/article/fighting-off-german-soldiers-single-handedly-during-wwi-meet-the-one-man-army-henry-johnson | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.990615 | 1,217 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.4579747915... | 4 | Even though minorities served in the U.S. military since the Revolutionary War, they were usually not given the needed training and support compared to their white folks.
That was William Henry Johnson’s situation from the beginning. The Albany, New York native had enlisted in the all-black 15th New York National Guard Regiment, which was renamed the 369th Infantry Regiment when it shipped out to France.
The unit performed menial jobs as members were poorly trained but it was later lent to the French Fourth Army, which was experiencing a shortage of men.
More about this
With the French Army, Johnson would perform an act of heroism, earning him praise from then-President Theodore Roosevelt who eventually called him one of the “five bravest Americans” to serve in World War I.
What was this brave act? Johnson fought off scores of Germans single-handedly in the Forest of Argonne in 1918 during World War I.
Having joined the French Fourth Army, Johnson and his men who became the Harlem Hellfighters, were sent to the front lines in March 1918. They learned enough French words to be able to understand commands from superiors. They were given French rifles and helmets, even though they held on to the bolo knives used by the U.S. Army.
Alongside Needham Roberts, a man from Trenton, Johnson was assigned sentry duty on the western edge of the Forest of Argonne in 1918.
Johnson and Roberts were given the late shift; they were to patrol until midnight on the evening of May 14. They weren’t on duty long when the Germans started attacking them.
It first started with strange noises late into the night. Hearing these, Johnson urged Roberts, who was then tired and resting, to get up. But Roberts ignored, thinking his fellow soldier was just nervous.
Johnson, nevertheless, began “piling up his assortment of grenades and rifle cartridges within arm’s reach. If someone was coming, he would be ready,” writes Mental Floss.
Then he began to hear rustling noises, which ultimately became German soldiers who were rushing through the darkness. Realizing they were surrounded, Johnson urged Roberts to run and get help. This was around 2.am.
Roberts didn’t go far before he decided to return to help Johnson fight off the Germans, who had then begun firing at them.
Roberts was hit with a grenade in the process and got badly wounded to the extent that he couldn’t fight. Lying in the trench, Johnson handed him grenades, which he threw at the Germans.
But the German forces were too many, and they were advancing from every direction. Soon, Johnson ran out of grenades.
“He took German bullets in the head and lip but fired his rifle into the darkness. He took more bullets in his side, then his hand, but kept shooting until he shoved an American cartridge clip into his French rifle and it jammed,” an article on Smithsonian Magazine said.
“By now, the Germans were on top of him. Johnson swung his rifle like a club and kept them at bay until the stock of his rifle splintered; then he went down with a blow to his head. Overwhelmed, he saw that the Germans were trying to take Roberts prisoner. The only weapon Johnson had left was a bolo knife, so he climbed up from the ground and charged, hacking away at the Germans before they could get clean shot at him,” the article added.
Stabbing the German forces, including one in the ribs who had climbed on his back, Johnson was able to drag Roberts away from the Germans. After about an hour, the Germans retreated when they heard French and American forces advancing.
When reinforcements finally arrived, Johnson and Roberts were given medical attention. By day, officials found out Johnson had killed four Germans and wounded about 24 others.
Despite suffering 21 wounds, Johnson had prevented the Germans from breaking the French line.
“There wasn’t anything so fine about it,” he said later. “Just fought for my life. A rabbit would have done that.”
Having grabbed the unofficial label “the Black Death” and the official rank of sergeant, Johnson and his fellow soldiers prepared to return home to New York.
But before then, the French honored Johnson and Roberts with the Croix de Guerre, one of France’s highest awards for valor. They became the first two Americans to receive it. Johnson’s medal, however, included the coveted Gold Palm, for extraordinary valor.
In February 1919 when Johnson and the Harlem Hellfighters returned to New York, a parade to honor them was held at Fifth Avenue, with Johnson leading the procession in an open-top Cadillac while thousands celebrated them for their bravery.
But this bravery resulted in difficulties for most of them, especially Johnson.
He had returned from the war with bullets striking both feet, his thigh, his arm, and his head. A scar stretched over his lip, and he had to have a metal plate inserted into his left foot, according to Mental Floss.
These injuries prevented him from grabbing many employment opportunities and sources say his wife and three children subsequently left him.
Even after his death on July 1, 1929, it was unclear where his remains were until historians at the New York Division of Military and Naval Affairs found out in 2001 that he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery with full military honors.
The following year, the New York native, who grew up doing many odd jobs before becoming a soldier, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. In 2015, then-President Barack Obama topped it with the award of the Medal of Honor.
What is more, every June 5, Albany celebrates Henry Johnson Day to acknowledge the day he enlisted while the city has an award under his name for people who make contributions to the area’s development. | 1,188 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tuesday, September 30, 2008
We have just finished completing our Narrative Writing Rubric. It has taken a little over a week of mini lessons to get it together, but it was well worth the time. Each day, several examples in literature were used to explain certain aspects of their writing narrative. For instance, when teaching "great beginnings," several examples (Mem Fox)and non examples (Level A, B readers) were used to explain the meaning of a "great beginning." Actual student writing was also used to teach specific rubric elements. Students learned that a "great beginning" should have a time and place to help the reader with his/her mental image of the story. When this was understood, the process of getting the information on a chart was the next step. First students discussed what pictures should represent the writing at varying levels. They decided on the stages of a kangaroo. The approaching standard "great beginning" is represented by the kangaroo with a joey in the pouch #1; the standard writing is a picture of young kangaroo hopping out for the first time #2; and the above standard piece is a picture of a kangaroo off on his own #3. The beginning can range from a #1 - "I went"; #2 - "I went to a party"; or #3 - "It was a hot, sunny day and I was invited to a pool party."
After many examples, through numerous read alouds and writers sharing their writing, these concepts are finally understood. Like what happened one Writer's Workshop a few days ago, a student shouted out, "Oh, I get it...now I understand what the rubric does..." with a big smile on his face. (Then covered his mouth for calling out without raising his hand...but who could get upset at that!!)
Friday, September 26, 2008
Our Mem Fox Author Celebration Day was full of learning, fun and activities. Children listened to books about Australian animals, completed word searches, and had plenty of arts and crafts projects to make the day a success. Taste testing the lamington was a big hit (for all those who don't mind coconut). Students made didgeridoos, boomerang pins, Aussie hats, and platypus puppets. We also read books that our celebrated author wrote that we hadn't visited in our author study. Mem Fox will surely be remembered as a favorite author of our class and one of Australia's finest story tellers. We salute and thank you Mem for writing books that children all around the world enjoy and love!
Thursday, September 25, 2008
In Reader's Workshop today, students practiced a retelling of "Hattie and the Fox" by Mem Fox. The children put on a Reader's Theater play in which they had the opportunity to play a part in the story. This is a rhythmic book which is bouncy and repetitive. It is based on the traditional hen-and-fox tale. The animals on the farm do not heed Hattie's warning of seeing a strange creature in the bushes. When warned the animals chant: "Good grief," said the goose; "Well, well," said the pig; "Who cares," said the sheep; "So what," said the horse; "What next?" said the cow. This refrain is repeated several times during the story until the animals scramble when Hattie screams, "It's a fox...it's a fox!!" This was a wonderful book to read during this last week of our author study because it was so different from the other stories we have read by her. Tomorrow will be our Author Celebration Day! We are planning lots of fun activities to compliment our new favorite author, Mem Fox!
Wednesday, September 24, 2008
After several math lessons, students have the opportunity to revisit what was learned through practice in what is called "Math Choice Time." Today was a "Choice Day." Students were invited to choose an activity that has been taught in the past week and work with a partner on this math activity. These Math "games" included: Counters in a Cup, Combinations of 10, Off/On, and Double Compare. All of these "games" are used to teach while having some fun with a partner. Students have the opportunity to play the game, discuss their strategies, and share their findings with the class.
In the game "Counters in a Cup" partners are given ten chips, a plastic cup and a sheet to log information. One student hides some of the 10 chips under a cup. The other student counts the chips that he/she sees and the figures out how many are under the cup. The data is entered on the sheet. In Combinations of Ten, students had the opportunity to make up their own word problems and figure out the answer. For instance, Carson's problem read, "I have 10 suns and moons. How many of each could I have?" In this way, many of the combinations of ten are discovered. The game On/Off is similar to Counters in a Cup. Ten chips are given to each partner group. They take turns tossing some counters on the paper and some fall off the paper. They add the number that is on and off the paper and log it on the sheet. Finally, the game of "Double Compare." Each partner group is given a about 20 number cards, they flip two over at the same time. The person who has more (or less depending on the game) says, "Me".
Math Choice Centers are a way that students have the opportunity to choose an activity, get lots of hands on practice, and have fun with a friend. A whole new world of numbers is being explored.
Saturday, September 20, 2008
Do you remember using Venn diagrams in school? It is a great graphic organizer and one that students of all ages like to use. After using them in Kindergarten, via Reader's Workshop by comparing Eric Carle books, Venn diagrams were utilized again, using two Mem Fox books. The students compared the books "Possum Magic" and "Koala Lou." They were asked to work in table groups. Each was given a drawn Venn Diagram and invited to write the titles of the books on each circle. Then reminded to write what is different about each book under the titles and in the middle, what the two books shared. Post it notes and copies of each book were supplied to each table so that each child could write their thoughts and place it in the corresponding circle. To hear and see the conversations about each book, the accountable talk, and the ability to work as a small group was amazing. What helped this activity run so smoothly was the student's familiarity and understanding of each book. They have heard them read several times either by us or online. They have written responses to these books and have acted them out. In all of these ways, students have internalized the stories and when it came time to list similarities and differences between them, it came very naturally. Afterwards, each group was called to the front and they eagerly shared their diagram with the class.
Friday, September 19, 2008
Today during Writer's Workshop, student's were busy finishing up their pieces from this week. As some students were finishing, others were ready to start a new piece of writing. One child (video) asked if I would listen to his "planning of the story" that he is going to write. The lesson on "Planning Details" was a mini lesson about a week ago and how happy we are that it is now internalized. This student is looking at blank pages and telling what he is going to write on each page. This lesson was meant to encourage children to plan detailed stories before writing them. We have found that when students learn how to plan their writing, step by step and page by page, it helps them focus on the act of writing. As evidenced in the video, A. is busy planning the details that he is excited to write about. Planning - the key to a great Writer's Workshop. (FYI - the video will buffer the first time.)
Monday, September 15, 2008
Today one of our read alouds was the book, "Do You Do A Didgeridoo?" by Nick Page. It was about a man who was looking for a didgeridoo in a music store. He begged, pleaded, and continually asked the owner, "Do You Do a Didgeridoo?" and the owner answered, "I didgeridon't!" At the end of the book, the owner found one in his store, and the man who once wanted it so badly, changed his mind. The children loved the sing/song rhythm of the book and of course, the topic of the didgeridoo. After the book was read, students learned that this instrument, used by the Aboriginal Australians, is made from tree branches that have been hollowed out by insects. There are no reliable sources stating the didgeridoo's exact age, though it is commonly claimed to be the world's oldest wind instrument.
The biggest surprise was yet to come. A student knew someone who had a didgeridoo and he brought it in to share with the class. It was a wonderful opportunity for everyone to see. hear, and feel this instrument up close. So, "Do You Do a Didgeridoo?
Friday, September 12, 2008
The children in our class have been writing since the first day of school and it is amazing to see the growth in just a few short weeks. They show an eagerness and confidence when asked to write a personal narrative and many of their stories span several pages. They are confident and happy writers and love sharing their "small moments" at the end of the workshop. By having the opportunity to write for forty minutes a day, students generate and produce stories that have great beginnings and lots of details. They are also learning how to reread and edit their work.
Today in Writer's Workshop, students had the opportunity to share their finished pieces with a friend. Each child had a partner and they took turns sharing their stories. They were encouraged to comment on their friend's writing, help to edit the piece, and compliment their partner's efforts. Afterwards, we came together and shared what our writer's have learned from this activity. "Writing for Readers" isn't that what it's all about?
Wednesday, September 10, 2008
We were very fortunate to have a guest speaker today. Dr. B. is a professor at the University of North Florida's Department of Economics and Geography (and also one of our student's father.) Dr. B. came to talk to the class about Australia's geography. A globe was used to explain the northern and southern hemispheres. It was explained that when it is summer here, it is winter there. During the presentation, Dr. B. showed maps comparing Australia's land mass with the United States. He showed both countries from space where students were able to tell green and brown coloring (vegetation and desert areas.) Students were shown elevation zones and pointed out the mountains and plains between both countries. There were rainfall and temperature maps where children discovered the climate differences between the two countries. All during the presentation, students asked questions and offered their knowledge of Australia. It was a wonderful way for First Grade students to learn about the geography of the "Land Down Under."
Thursday, September 4, 2008
For the next few weeks, we will be reading, studying and learning about the works of our author for our author study, Mem Fox. Mem was born in Melbourne, Australia in March 1946. Mem Fox declares herself first a teacher and then a writer. Her first book, Possum Magic, was rejected nine times over five years but went on to become (and continues to be, to this day) the best-selling children’s book in Australia, with over two million copies sold. Since Possum Magic, she has written 28 books for children.
The purpose of this author study is to guide and support student's comprehension and in-depth thinking as a response to literature. In this study, they will see how Mem Fox draws upon her everyday life to create her stories. Her themes include family love, birth and dying, and relationships between the old and young.
Today in Reader's Workshop, students were given baskets of Mem Fox books and invited to explore them. They noticed the characters: "Look how big his hands are!"; settings, "This looks like the Outback"; and Australian animals, "I've seen an emu before." Afterwards, we had a discussion about their explorations, wonderings and noticings about the books they scanned. Information was recorded on an "About Mem Fox" chart and students began to make connections and discoveries about the literature of Mem Fox. Our author study will continue through the month of September and already we can tell that we have made a good friend!
Wednesday, September 3, 2008
One of the most important components to the Writer's Workshop is the "share time" at the end of a lesson. This is where the teacher gets the opportunity to see if the mini lesson was understood by the student. A tool we use to share the actual writing is called an "Elmo." The children are very familiar with this technology because it is used quite frequently in the classroom. A child or two is invited to share his/her paper with the class when he/she has implemented the lesson taught. Students have the opportunity to see their writing up on a big screen and read it to the class. Their classmates can read along with the student and see the writing that their peers are producing. Having this visual helps other students improve upon their own works. After the writer reads his/her piece, the children give meaningful compliments on their friend's stories. For instance, "I like how you "stayed in the moment" or "You did a great job on punctuation." Being able to see a student's work clearly on the "Elmo" gives us a chance to look at writing in a whole new way. Writer's love sharing their writing using this technology!
Our tribe this year was the Inuit. Our students learned about the Inuit culture which included their food, housing and shelter. They sang ...
Our "Welcome Back" bulletin board boasts the Wizard of Oz characters, a hot air balloon, and welcome back messages to each of o...
We have had several requests for the above "Letter Combination" chart. We alternate this chart with the below "Blends" ...
This was the first year that we took pictures of our Standards-based bulletin boards every month (well almost every month) and I'm s... | <urn:uuid:446f4dfc-c651-4993-a345-d37167dedd3e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://mallonmessages.blogspot.com/2008/09/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00007.warc.gz | en | 0.981954 | 3,013 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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We have just finished completing our Narrative Writing Rubric. It has taken a little over a week of mini lessons to get it together, but it was well worth the time. Each day, several examples in literature were used to explain certain aspects of their writing narrative. For instance, when teaching "great beginnings," several examples (Mem Fox)and non examples (Level A, B readers) were used to explain the meaning of a "great beginning." Actual student writing was also used to teach specific rubric elements. Students learned that a "great beginning" should have a time and place to help the reader with his/her mental image of the story. When this was understood, the process of getting the information on a chart was the next step. First students discussed what pictures should represent the writing at varying levels. They decided on the stages of a kangaroo. The approaching standard "great beginning" is represented by the kangaroo with a joey in the pouch #1; the standard writing is a picture of young kangaroo hopping out for the first time #2; and the above standard piece is a picture of a kangaroo off on his own #3. The beginning can range from a #1 - "I went"; #2 - "I went to a party"; or #3 - "It was a hot, sunny day and I was invited to a pool party."
After many examples, through numerous read alouds and writers sharing their writing, these concepts are finally understood. Like what happened one Writer's Workshop a few days ago, a student shouted out, "Oh, I get it...now I understand what the rubric does..." with a big smile on his face. (Then covered his mouth for calling out without raising his hand...but who could get upset at that!!)
Friday, September 26, 2008
Our Mem Fox Author Celebration Day was full of learning, fun and activities. Children listened to books about Australian animals, completed word searches, and had plenty of arts and crafts projects to make the day a success. Taste testing the lamington was a big hit (for all those who don't mind coconut). Students made didgeridoos, boomerang pins, Aussie hats, and platypus puppets. We also read books that our celebrated author wrote that we hadn't visited in our author study. Mem Fox will surely be remembered as a favorite author of our class and one of Australia's finest story tellers. We salute and thank you Mem for writing books that children all around the world enjoy and love!
Thursday, September 25, 2008
In Reader's Workshop today, students practiced a retelling of "Hattie and the Fox" by Mem Fox. The children put on a Reader's Theater play in which they had the opportunity to play a part in the story. This is a rhythmic book which is bouncy and repetitive. It is based on the traditional hen-and-fox tale. The animals on the farm do not heed Hattie's warning of seeing a strange creature in the bushes. When warned the animals chant: "Good grief," said the goose; "Well, well," said the pig; "Who cares," said the sheep; "So what," said the horse; "What next?" said the cow. This refrain is repeated several times during the story until the animals scramble when Hattie screams, "It's a fox...it's a fox!!" This was a wonderful book to read during this last week of our author study because it was so different from the other stories we have read by her. Tomorrow will be our Author Celebration Day! We are planning lots of fun activities to compliment our new favorite author, Mem Fox!
Wednesday, September 24, 2008
After several math lessons, students have the opportunity to revisit what was learned through practice in what is called "Math Choice Time." Today was a "Choice Day." Students were invited to choose an activity that has been taught in the past week and work with a partner on this math activity. These Math "games" included: Counters in a Cup, Combinations of 10, Off/On, and Double Compare. All of these "games" are used to teach while having some fun with a partner. Students have the opportunity to play the game, discuss their strategies, and share their findings with the class.
In the game "Counters in a Cup" partners are given ten chips, a plastic cup and a sheet to log information. One student hides some of the 10 chips under a cup. The other student counts the chips that he/she sees and the figures out how many are under the cup. The data is entered on the sheet. In Combinations of Ten, students had the opportunity to make up their own word problems and figure out the answer. For instance, Carson's problem read, "I have 10 suns and moons. How many of each could I have?" In this way, many of the combinations of ten are discovered. The game On/Off is similar to Counters in a Cup. Ten chips are given to each partner group. They take turns tossing some counters on the paper and some fall off the paper. They add the number that is on and off the paper and log it on the sheet. Finally, the game of "Double Compare." Each partner group is given a about 20 number cards, they flip two over at the same time. The person who has more (or less depending on the game) says, "Me".
Math Choice Centers are a way that students have the opportunity to choose an activity, get lots of hands on practice, and have fun with a friend. A whole new world of numbers is being explored.
Saturday, September 20, 2008
Do you remember using Venn diagrams in school? It is a great graphic organizer and one that students of all ages like to use. After using them in Kindergarten, via Reader's Workshop by comparing Eric Carle books, Venn diagrams were utilized again, using two Mem Fox books. The students compared the books "Possum Magic" and "Koala Lou." They were asked to work in table groups. Each was given a drawn Venn Diagram and invited to write the titles of the books on each circle. Then reminded to write what is different about each book under the titles and in the middle, what the two books shared. Post it notes and copies of each book were supplied to each table so that each child could write their thoughts and place it in the corresponding circle. To hear and see the conversations about each book, the accountable talk, and the ability to work as a small group was amazing. What helped this activity run so smoothly was the student's familiarity and understanding of each book. They have heard them read several times either by us or online. They have written responses to these books and have acted them out. In all of these ways, students have internalized the stories and when it came time to list similarities and differences between them, it came very naturally. Afterwards, each group was called to the front and they eagerly shared their diagram with the class.
Friday, September 19, 2008
Today during Writer's Workshop, student's were busy finishing up their pieces from this week. As some students were finishing, others were ready to start a new piece of writing. One child (video) asked if I would listen to his "planning of the story" that he is going to write. The lesson on "Planning Details" was a mini lesson about a week ago and how happy we are that it is now internalized. This student is looking at blank pages and telling what he is going to write on each page. This lesson was meant to encourage children to plan detailed stories before writing them. We have found that when students learn how to plan their writing, step by step and page by page, it helps them focus on the act of writing. As evidenced in the video, A. is busy planning the details that he is excited to write about. Planning - the key to a great Writer's Workshop. (FYI - the video will buffer the first time.)
Monday, September 15, 2008
Today one of our read alouds was the book, "Do You Do A Didgeridoo?" by Nick Page. It was about a man who was looking for a didgeridoo in a music store. He begged, pleaded, and continually asked the owner, "Do You Do a Didgeridoo?" and the owner answered, "I didgeridon't!" At the end of the book, the owner found one in his store, and the man who once wanted it so badly, changed his mind. The children loved the sing/song rhythm of the book and of course, the topic of the didgeridoo. After the book was read, students learned that this instrument, used by the Aboriginal Australians, is made from tree branches that have been hollowed out by insects. There are no reliable sources stating the didgeridoo's exact age, though it is commonly claimed to be the world's oldest wind instrument.
The biggest surprise was yet to come. A student knew someone who had a didgeridoo and he brought it in to share with the class. It was a wonderful opportunity for everyone to see. hear, and feel this instrument up close. So, "Do You Do a Didgeridoo?
Friday, September 12, 2008
The children in our class have been writing since the first day of school and it is amazing to see the growth in just a few short weeks. They show an eagerness and confidence when asked to write a personal narrative and many of their stories span several pages. They are confident and happy writers and love sharing their "small moments" at the end of the workshop. By having the opportunity to write for forty minutes a day, students generate and produce stories that have great beginnings and lots of details. They are also learning how to reread and edit their work.
Today in Writer's Workshop, students had the opportunity to share their finished pieces with a friend. Each child had a partner and they took turns sharing their stories. They were encouraged to comment on their friend's writing, help to edit the piece, and compliment their partner's efforts. Afterwards, we came together and shared what our writer's have learned from this activity. "Writing for Readers" isn't that what it's all about?
Wednesday, September 10, 2008
We were very fortunate to have a guest speaker today. Dr. B. is a professor at the University of North Florida's Department of Economics and Geography (and also one of our student's father.) Dr. B. came to talk to the class about Australia's geography. A globe was used to explain the northern and southern hemispheres. It was explained that when it is summer here, it is winter there. During the presentation, Dr. B. showed maps comparing Australia's land mass with the United States. He showed both countries from space where students were able to tell green and brown coloring (vegetation and desert areas.) Students were shown elevation zones and pointed out the mountains and plains between both countries. There were rainfall and temperature maps where children discovered the climate differences between the two countries. All during the presentation, students asked questions and offered their knowledge of Australia. It was a wonderful way for First Grade students to learn about the geography of the "Land Down Under."
Thursday, September 4, 2008
For the next few weeks, we will be reading, studying and learning about the works of our author for our author study, Mem Fox. Mem was born in Melbourne, Australia in March 1946. Mem Fox declares herself first a teacher and then a writer. Her first book, Possum Magic, was rejected nine times over five years but went on to become (and continues to be, to this day) the best-selling children’s book in Australia, with over two million copies sold. Since Possum Magic, she has written 28 books for children.
The purpose of this author study is to guide and support student's comprehension and in-depth thinking as a response to literature. In this study, they will see how Mem Fox draws upon her everyday life to create her stories. Her themes include family love, birth and dying, and relationships between the old and young.
Today in Reader's Workshop, students were given baskets of Mem Fox books and invited to explore them. They noticed the characters: "Look how big his hands are!"; settings, "This looks like the Outback"; and Australian animals, "I've seen an emu before." Afterwards, we had a discussion about their explorations, wonderings and noticings about the books they scanned. Information was recorded on an "About Mem Fox" chart and students began to make connections and discoveries about the literature of Mem Fox. Our author study will continue through the month of September and already we can tell that we have made a good friend!
Wednesday, September 3, 2008
One of the most important components to the Writer's Workshop is the "share time" at the end of a lesson. This is where the teacher gets the opportunity to see if the mini lesson was understood by the student. A tool we use to share the actual writing is called an "Elmo." The children are very familiar with this technology because it is used quite frequently in the classroom. A child or two is invited to share his/her paper with the class when he/she has implemented the lesson taught. Students have the opportunity to see their writing up on a big screen and read it to the class. Their classmates can read along with the student and see the writing that their peers are producing. Having this visual helps other students improve upon their own works. After the writer reads his/her piece, the children give meaningful compliments on their friend's stories. For instance, "I like how you "stayed in the moment" or "You did a great job on punctuation." Being able to see a student's work clearly on the "Elmo" gives us a chance to look at writing in a whole new way. Writer's love sharing their writing using this technology!
Our tribe this year was the Inuit. Our students learned about the Inuit culture which included their food, housing and shelter. They sang ...
Our "Welcome Back" bulletin board boasts the Wizard of Oz characters, a hot air balloon, and welcome back messages to each of o...
We have had several requests for the above "Letter Combination" chart. We alternate this chart with the below "Blends" ...
This was the first year that we took pictures of our Standards-based bulletin boards every month (well almost every month) and I'm s... | 3,048 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why Great Britain Colonized Australia
Captain James Cook had sailed along 2,000 miles of the east coast in 1770, landing at Botany Bay (as named by him) and briefly on the coast of what is now Queensland. He claimed the whole coastline for the British crown, but it was another 18 years before any attempt was made to site a colony at Botany Bay. He thought that the southern coastline was reminiscent of South Wales, and “New South Wales” it has been ever since.
A Perfect Colony?
What made Australia perfect for colonization was that it was an untouched, empty continent that the British could occupy without opposition. Although Dutch navigators had discovered parts of Australia long before Cook arrived, their countrymen made no attempt at settling there. Cook had noticed that there was a native population, but they proved to be largely docile and to have no intention of resisting any incursions by Europeans.
On the other hand, as the first settlers soon discovered, this new continent proved to be an unfriendly host. The natives were hunter-gatherers who had made no attempt to cultivate the land or build settled communities, so there was no infrastructure to take over or imitate. The wildlife was impossible to tame or farm (you can’t milk a kangaroo), and there were many species of snake, spider and scorpion that were armed with deadly venom. The climate was baking hot away from the coast, and although several fairly large rivers disgorged into the sea close to Botany Bay, others proved to be highly seasonal, drying up completely for many months of the year. There were no obvious natural resources that anyone would want to exploit and send back to England. So what reason could there possibly be for wanting to colonize this place?
The answer was precisely its remoteness and harshness. These properties were exactly what were needed when the old country wanted to export its most troublesome commodity, namely its criminals and undesirables. Australia was perfectly suited to becoming a penal colony.
Somewhere to Send British Criminals
This function had previously been taken by the American colonies, particularly those of Georgia and the Carolinas, although Newfoundland was also used for this purpose. With American independence, a new convict settlement was needed, and Botany Bay sounded just about right, although nearby Sydney Cove turned out to be more suitable for building a settlement.
The Salisbury and Winchester Journal of 25 April 1785 stated that: “Michael Dennison (from Poole), for having broken open a sloop, from which he stole several articles, was sentenced to be transported for seven years”. He made the journey aboard the Alexander, which was one of the ships of the “First Fleet” that arrived at its destination in January 1788 with its thousand or so convicts, soldiers and officials. Although 28 convicts died on board the Alexander during the passage, Michael Dennison survived to become one of the first white Australians.
Who Were The Convicts?
The convicts were, generally speaking, from the lowest rungs of the English social ladder, who were used to living hard lives and settling disputes with their fists.
Although the convicts were often tough people, and were transported for having committed offences, many of the crimes would strike us today as being mild in the extreme. Stealing as little as a shilling, for a first offence, could land someone in Australia. There was a case in my wife’s family history of a girl of fifteen who was asked to a hold a horse for a man who had just ridden up and dismounted next to where she was standing. The horse had been stolen, and when the constable arrived she was arrested for being in possession of stolen property. The girl later became one of Australia’s matriarchs and the ancestor of a great Australian dynasty.
In the 19th century, many transportees were political prisoners, notable among which were the “Tolpuddle Martyrs” from Dorset who were transported in 1834 for organising themselves into an agricultural trade union. They were later reprieved and returned to England.
In Australia, discipline was often harsh, although there were other colonies, such as nearby Norfolk Island, where life was even tougher due to the brutality of the regime. If anyone could survive and make a living in Australia, the English criminal courts had chosen their candidates well. It was soon apparent to the convicts that, because escape was impossible in that there was nowhere to escape to, they might as well make the best of a bad job. Although transportation was not usually for life, seven years being the almost universal term, convicts who had served their sentence often chose not to return, preferring to make a new life for themselves in a new country.
The suggestion has been made that the penal colony was in fact originally planned as a colonial establishment, and that it was always the intention to build an outpost of Empire on the far side of the world. That is hard to establish, given that at the time of the First Fleet nobody knew anything about the conditions that would be found there, or even whether survival was possible at all. The officials and soldiers who travelled with the prisoners must have been every bit as apprehensive as their charges.
Building New Colonies
Later fleets took supplies with them that made it more likely that permanent colonies would be established. These supplies included cattle and sheep, which proved to be far more adaptable to the conditions than might have been imagined. There is a story that, when explorers tried to find a route to the interior through the notoriously difficult Blue Mountains, they discovered a herd of wild cattle on the other side, these being descendants of the original cattle that had found their own way round the mountains rather than across them!
In time, Australia did reveal its natural resources, such as gold, sapphires, opals, coal and iron (much later discoveries included uranium and natural gas). These made the early colonies much more valuable than simply a place to dump exiles from the home country. It did not take long before Australia became a place of voluntary emigration for people who wanted to make a fresh start, with more than 500,000 colonists arriving from the United Kingdom between 1851 and 1861. Many incentives were offered down the years to persuade people to go there, and it has only been relatively recently that immigration has had to be capped.
Transportation to New South Wales ended in 1840, by which time the colony was well established as the home of free people.
The Australian continent was never the scene of colonial rivalry between the European powers, with non-British immigration being unknown until the 20th century. The Australian colonies became an untouchable British preserve, with Britain as their sole export market and the one source of commodity imports. The way of life of the colonists was British in all but name, and they also became annoyingly good at playing cricket!
Questions & Answers
Why couldn't the Europeans make Australia like England?
The climate - the geography - the wildlife - all are very different and could never lead to "another England." However, conditions in parts of New Zealand do have similarities with Great Britain in several respects, and the settlers did tend to try to make their new home as much like their old one as they could.Helpful 40
Who was Captain Cook?
That would be the subject for a different article! Captain Cook was an 18th century Navy captain who made several voyages to the Pacific and discovered many places that had previously been unknown to Europeans. He was killed by natives on Hawaii in 1779.Helpful 34 | <urn:uuid:96145d21-fa4b-4266-960d-95ee9791ad4f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/Why-Great-Britain-Colonized-Australia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.990529 | 1,556 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.433976173400... | 1 | Why Great Britain Colonized Australia
Captain James Cook had sailed along 2,000 miles of the east coast in 1770, landing at Botany Bay (as named by him) and briefly on the coast of what is now Queensland. He claimed the whole coastline for the British crown, but it was another 18 years before any attempt was made to site a colony at Botany Bay. He thought that the southern coastline was reminiscent of South Wales, and “New South Wales” it has been ever since.
A Perfect Colony?
What made Australia perfect for colonization was that it was an untouched, empty continent that the British could occupy without opposition. Although Dutch navigators had discovered parts of Australia long before Cook arrived, their countrymen made no attempt at settling there. Cook had noticed that there was a native population, but they proved to be largely docile and to have no intention of resisting any incursions by Europeans.
On the other hand, as the first settlers soon discovered, this new continent proved to be an unfriendly host. The natives were hunter-gatherers who had made no attempt to cultivate the land or build settled communities, so there was no infrastructure to take over or imitate. The wildlife was impossible to tame or farm (you can’t milk a kangaroo), and there were many species of snake, spider and scorpion that were armed with deadly venom. The climate was baking hot away from the coast, and although several fairly large rivers disgorged into the sea close to Botany Bay, others proved to be highly seasonal, drying up completely for many months of the year. There were no obvious natural resources that anyone would want to exploit and send back to England. So what reason could there possibly be for wanting to colonize this place?
The answer was precisely its remoteness and harshness. These properties were exactly what were needed when the old country wanted to export its most troublesome commodity, namely its criminals and undesirables. Australia was perfectly suited to becoming a penal colony.
Somewhere to Send British Criminals
This function had previously been taken by the American colonies, particularly those of Georgia and the Carolinas, although Newfoundland was also used for this purpose. With American independence, a new convict settlement was needed, and Botany Bay sounded just about right, although nearby Sydney Cove turned out to be more suitable for building a settlement.
The Salisbury and Winchester Journal of 25 April 1785 stated that: “Michael Dennison (from Poole), for having broken open a sloop, from which he stole several articles, was sentenced to be transported for seven years”. He made the journey aboard the Alexander, which was one of the ships of the “First Fleet” that arrived at its destination in January 1788 with its thousand or so convicts, soldiers and officials. Although 28 convicts died on board the Alexander during the passage, Michael Dennison survived to become one of the first white Australians.
Who Were The Convicts?
The convicts were, generally speaking, from the lowest rungs of the English social ladder, who were used to living hard lives and settling disputes with their fists.
Although the convicts were often tough people, and were transported for having committed offences, many of the crimes would strike us today as being mild in the extreme. Stealing as little as a shilling, for a first offence, could land someone in Australia. There was a case in my wife’s family history of a girl of fifteen who was asked to a hold a horse for a man who had just ridden up and dismounted next to where she was standing. The horse had been stolen, and when the constable arrived she was arrested for being in possession of stolen property. The girl later became one of Australia’s matriarchs and the ancestor of a great Australian dynasty.
In the 19th century, many transportees were political prisoners, notable among which were the “Tolpuddle Martyrs” from Dorset who were transported in 1834 for organising themselves into an agricultural trade union. They were later reprieved and returned to England.
In Australia, discipline was often harsh, although there were other colonies, such as nearby Norfolk Island, where life was even tougher due to the brutality of the regime. If anyone could survive and make a living in Australia, the English criminal courts had chosen their candidates well. It was soon apparent to the convicts that, because escape was impossible in that there was nowhere to escape to, they might as well make the best of a bad job. Although transportation was not usually for life, seven years being the almost universal term, convicts who had served their sentence often chose not to return, preferring to make a new life for themselves in a new country.
The suggestion has been made that the penal colony was in fact originally planned as a colonial establishment, and that it was always the intention to build an outpost of Empire on the far side of the world. That is hard to establish, given that at the time of the First Fleet nobody knew anything about the conditions that would be found there, or even whether survival was possible at all. The officials and soldiers who travelled with the prisoners must have been every bit as apprehensive as their charges.
Building New Colonies
Later fleets took supplies with them that made it more likely that permanent colonies would be established. These supplies included cattle and sheep, which proved to be far more adaptable to the conditions than might have been imagined. There is a story that, when explorers tried to find a route to the interior through the notoriously difficult Blue Mountains, they discovered a herd of wild cattle on the other side, these being descendants of the original cattle that had found their own way round the mountains rather than across them!
In time, Australia did reveal its natural resources, such as gold, sapphires, opals, coal and iron (much later discoveries included uranium and natural gas). These made the early colonies much more valuable than simply a place to dump exiles from the home country. It did not take long before Australia became a place of voluntary emigration for people who wanted to make a fresh start, with more than 500,000 colonists arriving from the United Kingdom between 1851 and 1861. Many incentives were offered down the years to persuade people to go there, and it has only been relatively recently that immigration has had to be capped.
Transportation to New South Wales ended in 1840, by which time the colony was well established as the home of free people.
The Australian continent was never the scene of colonial rivalry between the European powers, with non-British immigration being unknown until the 20th century. The Australian colonies became an untouchable British preserve, with Britain as their sole export market and the one source of commodity imports. The way of life of the colonists was British in all but name, and they also became annoyingly good at playing cricket!
Questions & Answers
Why couldn't the Europeans make Australia like England?
The climate - the geography - the wildlife - all are very different and could never lead to "another England." However, conditions in parts of New Zealand do have similarities with Great Britain in several respects, and the settlers did tend to try to make their new home as much like their old one as they could.Helpful 40
Who was Captain Cook?
That would be the subject for a different article! Captain Cook was an 18th century Navy captain who made several voyages to the Pacific and discovered many places that had previously been unknown to Europeans. He was killed by natives on Hawaii in 1779.Helpful 34 | 1,567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Carmen and Teresa were surprised when they arrived to class. There were green streamers and green plastic material all over the place. It covered the desks, chairs, bookshelves, and was even on some trash items scattered on the floor. “What happened?” they wondered while excitedly discussing with their classmates.
Carmen and Teresa were 5th graders in Heather Creelman’s class at Goshen Post Elementary, a wall-to-wall PBL school in Loudoun County Public Schools, Virginia. It was launch day for a new project focused on food webs, oceans, and photosynthesis. The “green” represented algae that was out of control at Virginia Beach, located three hours away from their school. Students had many questions:
- Why was there so much algae?
- What caused it to spread?
- What are the uses of algae?
- What are the results of over production of algae?
- Does it matter if there is so much algae?
Students were already familiar with the PBL process and started generating Need to Know questions. The discussion on the causes and effects of the algae led to how problems in the food chain can lead to an overpopulation of algae due to a lack of oxygen produced by plankton. Students followed up the food chain from plankton to sharks and realized that a shortage of sharks led to a ripple effect down. At this point Creelman showed a video on shark thinning and how the species was moving toward endangerment. She then asked the Driving Question: “How can we as stewards of the ocean advocate for the protection of sharks?”
Creelman and her colleagues had planned this project to focus on an authentic problem that matched standards in science, technology, and ELA. They knew that sharks would be the focus and that students would create a brochure of their learning and have a verbal presentation, but they didn’t know what direction students would take the project and who the audience would be. They left that up to the students to decide.
Through research students soon discovered that sharks were often hunted specifically for their dorsal fin. Fisherman would cut it off to be sold to restaurants for shark fin soup and throw the rest of the shark back into the ocean. They were not happy about this practice! Carmen looked into the law and discovered that Virginia already had a law prohibiting shark fishing, but it had a loophole: restaurants could still buy shark fins harvested elsewhere. Teresa discovered that there was a restaurant an hour away that actually served shark fin soup.
Students were outraged and decided that they needed to take action. They wanted to educate the public and change the law. Students discussed who the authentic audience should be, and they immediately decided that the president must act! The teachers dialed down their expectations to a local official. Students researched and found their State Representative Jennifer Wexton and sent an email inviting her to their classroom to hear about the sale of shark fins. A few days later, Rep. Wexton responded yes and a date was set.
Carmen and Teresa were so excited! They knew that their work on sharks would be shared with a celebrity. This wasn’t a make believe project. They would have the ear of an actual government official. Carmen and Teresa worked hard on their brochure and elevator pitch. They gave and received feedback to their classmates through the Tuning Protocol. They revised their work so that they could present a factual and motivational presentation on why shark products should not be sold.
The big day came for Rep. Wexton to visit. Carmen and Teresa were nervous, but confident because they believed in the urgency of their pitch and were well prepared. When it was their turn, they shook Rep. Wexton’s hand and delivered their elevator pitch. It was a great day for Goshen Post Elementary to be proud of!
Fast forward a year later when out of the blue, Creelman received a tweet with a video in it from Rep. Wexton revealing that the House in Virginia had passed the Shark Fin Sale Elimination Act, a bill banning the commercial sale of shark fins and products containing shark fins.
When Creelman shared the news with Carmen and Teresa and the rest of the now 6th grade students, they were overjoyed! They beamed with confidence from what they had achieved.
Responsible Decision Making
The Shark Fin Project is an exemplary example of how PBL can be used to develop the Social and Emotional Skills of Responsible Decision Making. Students were identifying problems, analyzing situations, solving problems, and evaluating during the entire project. From the launch students were asking questions and actively investigating the root cause of too much algae at the beach. They were exploring an authentic problem near them and looked to solve it.
Inquiry throughout the project had them discovering and analyzing the sale of shark fins in their state and concluding the action needed was to pass a new law. Through the Tuning Protocol, students evaluated each other’s work. Students reflected on changes they needed to make to their final presentations.
The ultimate result of this project was that students not only learned about, but practiced ethical responsibility. They took on the task of making a change in their state laws. During final reflection Carmen said, “This made me see that people will actually listen to me even though I am only 10.” Teresa agreed adding, “I am going to vote someday because it does make a difference.”
Creelman shared that in her ten years of teaching, students have never been more empowered because they knew they were making a real impact. As teachers we don’t need to focus on preparing students for the future, they can make a difference RIGHT NOW if only given the opportunity! | <urn:uuid:e4a33f42-da7d-4e5c-bf1e-c31ae455e42b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.michaelkaechele.com/tag/sel/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.984164 | 1,176 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.119898490607... | 5 | Carmen and Teresa were surprised when they arrived to class. There were green streamers and green plastic material all over the place. It covered the desks, chairs, bookshelves, and was even on some trash items scattered on the floor. “What happened?” they wondered while excitedly discussing with their classmates.
Carmen and Teresa were 5th graders in Heather Creelman’s class at Goshen Post Elementary, a wall-to-wall PBL school in Loudoun County Public Schools, Virginia. It was launch day for a new project focused on food webs, oceans, and photosynthesis. The “green” represented algae that was out of control at Virginia Beach, located three hours away from their school. Students had many questions:
- Why was there so much algae?
- What caused it to spread?
- What are the uses of algae?
- What are the results of over production of algae?
- Does it matter if there is so much algae?
Students were already familiar with the PBL process and started generating Need to Know questions. The discussion on the causes and effects of the algae led to how problems in the food chain can lead to an overpopulation of algae due to a lack of oxygen produced by plankton. Students followed up the food chain from plankton to sharks and realized that a shortage of sharks led to a ripple effect down. At this point Creelman showed a video on shark thinning and how the species was moving toward endangerment. She then asked the Driving Question: “How can we as stewards of the ocean advocate for the protection of sharks?”
Creelman and her colleagues had planned this project to focus on an authentic problem that matched standards in science, technology, and ELA. They knew that sharks would be the focus and that students would create a brochure of their learning and have a verbal presentation, but they didn’t know what direction students would take the project and who the audience would be. They left that up to the students to decide.
Through research students soon discovered that sharks were often hunted specifically for their dorsal fin. Fisherman would cut it off to be sold to restaurants for shark fin soup and throw the rest of the shark back into the ocean. They were not happy about this practice! Carmen looked into the law and discovered that Virginia already had a law prohibiting shark fishing, but it had a loophole: restaurants could still buy shark fins harvested elsewhere. Teresa discovered that there was a restaurant an hour away that actually served shark fin soup.
Students were outraged and decided that they needed to take action. They wanted to educate the public and change the law. Students discussed who the authentic audience should be, and they immediately decided that the president must act! The teachers dialed down their expectations to a local official. Students researched and found their State Representative Jennifer Wexton and sent an email inviting her to their classroom to hear about the sale of shark fins. A few days later, Rep. Wexton responded yes and a date was set.
Carmen and Teresa were so excited! They knew that their work on sharks would be shared with a celebrity. This wasn’t a make believe project. They would have the ear of an actual government official. Carmen and Teresa worked hard on their brochure and elevator pitch. They gave and received feedback to their classmates through the Tuning Protocol. They revised their work so that they could present a factual and motivational presentation on why shark products should not be sold.
The big day came for Rep. Wexton to visit. Carmen and Teresa were nervous, but confident because they believed in the urgency of their pitch and were well prepared. When it was their turn, they shook Rep. Wexton’s hand and delivered their elevator pitch. It was a great day for Goshen Post Elementary to be proud of!
Fast forward a year later when out of the blue, Creelman received a tweet with a video in it from Rep. Wexton revealing that the House in Virginia had passed the Shark Fin Sale Elimination Act, a bill banning the commercial sale of shark fins and products containing shark fins.
When Creelman shared the news with Carmen and Teresa and the rest of the now 6th grade students, they were overjoyed! They beamed with confidence from what they had achieved.
Responsible Decision Making
The Shark Fin Project is an exemplary example of how PBL can be used to develop the Social and Emotional Skills of Responsible Decision Making. Students were identifying problems, analyzing situations, solving problems, and evaluating during the entire project. From the launch students were asking questions and actively investigating the root cause of too much algae at the beach. They were exploring an authentic problem near them and looked to solve it.
Inquiry throughout the project had them discovering and analyzing the sale of shark fins in their state and concluding the action needed was to pass a new law. Through the Tuning Protocol, students evaluated each other’s work. Students reflected on changes they needed to make to their final presentations.
The ultimate result of this project was that students not only learned about, but practiced ethical responsibility. They took on the task of making a change in their state laws. During final reflection Carmen said, “This made me see that people will actually listen to me even though I am only 10.” Teresa agreed adding, “I am going to vote someday because it does make a difference.”
Creelman shared that in her ten years of teaching, students have never been more empowered because they knew they were making a real impact. As teachers we don’t need to focus on preparing students for the future, they can make a difference RIGHT NOW if only given the opportunity! | 1,137 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was for the first time in history that the suppressed men raised their voices against the government thus rising into power and prosperity. The literature of the period is romantic but what is remarkable about the period and what is beautifully portrayed by the novel by Dickens is the struggle of the oppressed classes of the society and also the ruthlessness of the oppressors.
The oppressors sacrificed their spiritualistitc and materialistic values in oppressing the weak sections of the society. The struggle of the downtrodden is the theme of the novel and dickens has beautifully portrayed the theme. The readers are mesmerized by the writing and can really feel the pain of these oppressed classes when they read about their conditions. There was a time when false religious dogmas prevailed in the society and thus class distinction was considered to be obvious.
What was made clear in this age of transformation was the fact that it is the birth right of every human being to enjoy an equal status in the society and he or she is equal in the eyes of law. People overthrew the capitalist system and equality was now established.
Industrial revolution and political, economic and social unrest is visible in the society of 19th Century. Dickens has portrayed the struggle of the oppressed. This scenario is still true for the people who today are poor and have to live according to the wishes of the rich.
The poor people are forced to work for low wages because they have no other means of livelihood. The novel “Hard Times” has a deep hidden meaning. Each and every human being has to face struggle at one point of his or her life. If that individual decides to give up a miserable life awaits and if that individual decides to fight the adverse circumstances, victory is sure to happen. Dickens in a way motivates the readers not to give up at any point of time to succeed in life. | <urn:uuid:32e91392-5059-437a-b848-c8df23114e48> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://taxteaparty.com/short-summary-of-hard-times-by-charles-dickens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.982224 | 374 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.22241759300231934... | 2 | It was for the first time in history that the suppressed men raised their voices against the government thus rising into power and prosperity. The literature of the period is romantic but what is remarkable about the period and what is beautifully portrayed by the novel by Dickens is the struggle of the oppressed classes of the society and also the ruthlessness of the oppressors.
The oppressors sacrificed their spiritualistitc and materialistic values in oppressing the weak sections of the society. The struggle of the downtrodden is the theme of the novel and dickens has beautifully portrayed the theme. The readers are mesmerized by the writing and can really feel the pain of these oppressed classes when they read about their conditions. There was a time when false religious dogmas prevailed in the society and thus class distinction was considered to be obvious.
What was made clear in this age of transformation was the fact that it is the birth right of every human being to enjoy an equal status in the society and he or she is equal in the eyes of law. People overthrew the capitalist system and equality was now established.
Industrial revolution and political, economic and social unrest is visible in the society of 19th Century. Dickens has portrayed the struggle of the oppressed. This scenario is still true for the people who today are poor and have to live according to the wishes of the rich.
The poor people are forced to work for low wages because they have no other means of livelihood. The novel “Hard Times” has a deep hidden meaning. Each and every human being has to face struggle at one point of his or her life. If that individual decides to give up a miserable life awaits and if that individual decides to fight the adverse circumstances, victory is sure to happen. Dickens in a way motivates the readers not to give up at any point of time to succeed in life. | 370 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Free Theme of Revenge Essay Sample
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Buy Cheap Theme of Revenge Essay
In Euripides' Electra, King Agamemnon is murdered by his wife, Clytemnestra, and Aegisthus, her lover. Electra, daughter to Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, is not happy and wishes for revenge. In Odyssey, Odysseus goes to the Trojan War but takes ten years to return to his home. Meanwhile, a number of suitors force his wife to choose among them who she can marry, thinking that Odyssey had died in the war. Odyssey learns of this and plans on how to kill all the suitors for their behavior. Because both were wronged in a certain way, Electra was determined to avenge his murdered father while Odyssey wanted to kill a group of unruly suitors who had taken over his home.
Odyssey took part in the Trojan War that took ten years for it to end. However, he takes another ten years to return to his homeland as he encounters a number of obstacles in his journey back. In his absence, Telemachus, Odysseus' son and Penelope, Odysseus wife, have to deal with a group of suitors who have camped in his home. They aim at persuading Penelope to accept marrying one of them, while they eat up Odysseus wealth. This angers Odyssey who had sacrificed his time and life to fight in the Trojan War. He is motivated by the fact that his wife and son are still alive and have not fallen into the suitors' demands. On the other hand, Electra is angered by the fact that her mother did conspire with her lover to kill Electra's father. She is sent away with her brother, Orestes, who was removed from the court after Agamemnon's murder. She is encouraged by the fact that Orestes is willing to avenge their father's death.
The similarity between Electra and Odyssey is that they both have accomplices in their revenge missions. Electra has her brother, Orestes, while Odyssey is helped by his son Telemachus, who has all along been planning on a way to deal with the suitors who had taken over his father's home. The difference comes in the way they undergo their missions. Electra waits for her brother's return from where he had been taken to. Now grown, Orestes travels to Argos, with his companion Pylades, and end up at Electra's house. The two have concealed their identities so as not to be recognized easily. They try to get information by claiming that they are messengers from Orestes, with important news from the boy. However, Electra recognizes his brother and they are united while they make plans on what to do next. This is how they end up getting re-united with her brother.
On the other hand, Odyssey encounters a lot of misfortunes on his way back. However, he is helped by the Phaeacians, who deliver him at night to a harbor on Ithaca. It is here that Odyssey meets with his son, Telemachus, who was sailing home from Sparta. He had disembarked at the coast of Ithaca and went to Eumaeus's hut. Though disguised, Odyssey identifies himself to his son and they start planning on how to kill the suitors. In Euripides's Electra, an old servant goes to Clytemnestra to lure her into Electra's house; he tells her that her daughter has had a new born baby. Clytemnestra gets into the trap and she sets off to see her daughter. Meanwhile, Orestes goes to kill Aegisthus and comes back with the body. When Clytemnestra arrives at the house, she is killed by Electra and Orestes. They both kill her by pushing a sharp sword down her throat.
In Odyssey, Telemachus returns home the first. Odysseus then comes later accompanied by Eumaeus, still pretending to be a poor beggar. The Suitors do not hesitate and begin to tease him. This is what gets him more hungry and he plans on their death. By this time, Penelope had not yet recognized her husband. The next day, Penelope makes the suitors compete for her hand in marriage with an archery competition. They are all required to use Odysseus' bow. The one who shoots through a dozen axe heads will be announced the winner and marry Penelope. Odysseus also takes part in the competition. However, he is the only one strong among the group, and who can string the bow and shoot it that far. He therefore becomes the winner of the match. He then kills all the suitors by using his arrow with the help of Telemachus, Athena, Eumaeus, and Philoteus. Odysseus and his son then hung twelve maids, who had betrayed Penelope in one way or the other. They also kill and mutilate Melanthius, who had abuse Odysseus when he had pretended to be a beggar. In the end, they get re-united with Penelope.
The two characters feel satisfied with their vengeance. They seem happy to have accomplished their deeds. However, after some time, Electra and Orestes feel oppressive guilt. Castor and Polydeuces, Clytemnestra's deified brothers, appear after they have killed her. They acknowledge the fact that Clytemnestra, Electra and Orestes's mother, has received a just punishment. However, they tell them that their act was still shameful and not warranted. The two then instruct the siblings to perform a number of things to atone and also purge their souls of the crime they just got involved in. Odysseus is also satisfied with his vengefulness. However, the citizens of Ithaca plan to avenge the killings of the suitors, who had been their sons. They claim that a generation had been wiped out by Odysseus, but the goddess Athena intervenes and calls for peace between the two sides.
Electra's hate towards her mother and the desire for revenge show powerful changes in her psyche that point on how revenge can influence an individual. In the beginning, Electra seems to be very much in support of justice. She increasingly becomes irrational as time for revenge approaches. The powerful effect of vengeance is brought out clearly when she happily listens to the cries of her mother as she dies and the way she threw Aegisthus body to scavengers.Odyssey portrays revenge as the only way of regaining any reputation that had been lost, as well as, re-establishing political power and social standing and credibility above or within the community. Odysseus, blinded by his rage and vengeance, follows this belief and goes out against those who perpetrated offences against his family, realm, possessions and oikos.
In conclusion, In Euripides' Electra, King Agamemnon is murdered by his wife, Clytemnestra, and Aegisthus, her lover. Electra, daughter to Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, is not happy and wishes for revenge. In Odyssey, Odysseus goes to the Trojan War but takes ten years to return to his home. Meanwhile, a number of suitors force hi wife to choose among them who she can marry thinking that Odyssey was died in the war. Odyssey learns of this and plans on how to kill all the suitors for their behavior. Both characters show that vengeance does not take notice of behavioral changes by the offenders. Revenge seems to have no concern for consciousness or culpability, motive or willingness. Taking revenge appears to be a matter of honor in which one can either kill or forgive the offender, but the characters chose to kill. Honor is a course that must be reinstated in a way that can restore the image and status of a king or the relatives. | <urn:uuid:0bfb06da-194c-4ff4-b80f-9a48135d2a2b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bestwritingservice.com/essays/Literature/Theme-of-Revenge.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.985535 | 1,672 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.130666494369... | 3 | Free Theme of Revenge Essay Sample
|← Use of Language to Develop Meaning||William Shakespeare →|
Buy Cheap Theme of Revenge Essay
In Euripides' Electra, King Agamemnon is murdered by his wife, Clytemnestra, and Aegisthus, her lover. Electra, daughter to Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, is not happy and wishes for revenge. In Odyssey, Odysseus goes to the Trojan War but takes ten years to return to his home. Meanwhile, a number of suitors force his wife to choose among them who she can marry, thinking that Odyssey had died in the war. Odyssey learns of this and plans on how to kill all the suitors for their behavior. Because both were wronged in a certain way, Electra was determined to avenge his murdered father while Odyssey wanted to kill a group of unruly suitors who had taken over his home.
Odyssey took part in the Trojan War that took ten years for it to end. However, he takes another ten years to return to his homeland as he encounters a number of obstacles in his journey back. In his absence, Telemachus, Odysseus' son and Penelope, Odysseus wife, have to deal with a group of suitors who have camped in his home. They aim at persuading Penelope to accept marrying one of them, while they eat up Odysseus wealth. This angers Odyssey who had sacrificed his time and life to fight in the Trojan War. He is motivated by the fact that his wife and son are still alive and have not fallen into the suitors' demands. On the other hand, Electra is angered by the fact that her mother did conspire with her lover to kill Electra's father. She is sent away with her brother, Orestes, who was removed from the court after Agamemnon's murder. She is encouraged by the fact that Orestes is willing to avenge their father's death.
The similarity between Electra and Odyssey is that they both have accomplices in their revenge missions. Electra has her brother, Orestes, while Odyssey is helped by his son Telemachus, who has all along been planning on a way to deal with the suitors who had taken over his father's home. The difference comes in the way they undergo their missions. Electra waits for her brother's return from where he had been taken to. Now grown, Orestes travels to Argos, with his companion Pylades, and end up at Electra's house. The two have concealed their identities so as not to be recognized easily. They try to get information by claiming that they are messengers from Orestes, with important news from the boy. However, Electra recognizes his brother and they are united while they make plans on what to do next. This is how they end up getting re-united with her brother.
On the other hand, Odyssey encounters a lot of misfortunes on his way back. However, he is helped by the Phaeacians, who deliver him at night to a harbor on Ithaca. It is here that Odyssey meets with his son, Telemachus, who was sailing home from Sparta. He had disembarked at the coast of Ithaca and went to Eumaeus's hut. Though disguised, Odyssey identifies himself to his son and they start planning on how to kill the suitors. In Euripides's Electra, an old servant goes to Clytemnestra to lure her into Electra's house; he tells her that her daughter has had a new born baby. Clytemnestra gets into the trap and she sets off to see her daughter. Meanwhile, Orestes goes to kill Aegisthus and comes back with the body. When Clytemnestra arrives at the house, she is killed by Electra and Orestes. They both kill her by pushing a sharp sword down her throat.
In Odyssey, Telemachus returns home the first. Odysseus then comes later accompanied by Eumaeus, still pretending to be a poor beggar. The Suitors do not hesitate and begin to tease him. This is what gets him more hungry and he plans on their death. By this time, Penelope had not yet recognized her husband. The next day, Penelope makes the suitors compete for her hand in marriage with an archery competition. They are all required to use Odysseus' bow. The one who shoots through a dozen axe heads will be announced the winner and marry Penelope. Odysseus also takes part in the competition. However, he is the only one strong among the group, and who can string the bow and shoot it that far. He therefore becomes the winner of the match. He then kills all the suitors by using his arrow with the help of Telemachus, Athena, Eumaeus, and Philoteus. Odysseus and his son then hung twelve maids, who had betrayed Penelope in one way or the other. They also kill and mutilate Melanthius, who had abuse Odysseus when he had pretended to be a beggar. In the end, they get re-united with Penelope.
The two characters feel satisfied with their vengeance. They seem happy to have accomplished their deeds. However, after some time, Electra and Orestes feel oppressive guilt. Castor and Polydeuces, Clytemnestra's deified brothers, appear after they have killed her. They acknowledge the fact that Clytemnestra, Electra and Orestes's mother, has received a just punishment. However, they tell them that their act was still shameful and not warranted. The two then instruct the siblings to perform a number of things to atone and also purge their souls of the crime they just got involved in. Odysseus is also satisfied with his vengefulness. However, the citizens of Ithaca plan to avenge the killings of the suitors, who had been their sons. They claim that a generation had been wiped out by Odysseus, but the goddess Athena intervenes and calls for peace between the two sides.
Electra's hate towards her mother and the desire for revenge show powerful changes in her psyche that point on how revenge can influence an individual. In the beginning, Electra seems to be very much in support of justice. She increasingly becomes irrational as time for revenge approaches. The powerful effect of vengeance is brought out clearly when she happily listens to the cries of her mother as she dies and the way she threw Aegisthus body to scavengers.Odyssey portrays revenge as the only way of regaining any reputation that had been lost, as well as, re-establishing political power and social standing and credibility above or within the community. Odysseus, blinded by his rage and vengeance, follows this belief and goes out against those who perpetrated offences against his family, realm, possessions and oikos.
In conclusion, In Euripides' Electra, King Agamemnon is murdered by his wife, Clytemnestra, and Aegisthus, her lover. Electra, daughter to Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, is not happy and wishes for revenge. In Odyssey, Odysseus goes to the Trojan War but takes ten years to return to his home. Meanwhile, a number of suitors force hi wife to choose among them who she can marry thinking that Odyssey was died in the war. Odyssey learns of this and plans on how to kill all the suitors for their behavior. Both characters show that vengeance does not take notice of behavioral changes by the offenders. Revenge seems to have no concern for consciousness or culpability, motive or willingness. Taking revenge appears to be a matter of honor in which one can either kill or forgive the offender, but the characters chose to kill. Honor is a course that must be reinstated in a way that can restore the image and status of a king or the relatives. | 1,660 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In customary international law, an enemy alien is any native, citizen, denizen or subject of any foreign nation or government with which a domestic nation or government is in conflict with and who are liable to be apprehended, restrained, secured and removed. Usually, but not always, the countries are in a state of declared war.
Enemy alien Wikipedia
At the outbreak of World War II, in 1939, the United Kingdom had become a place of refuge for people who had fled Nazi persecution, including Jews and political refugees. At first, the authorities interned these refugees with other enemy residents, without distinction. Later on, when Italy also declared war, significant numbers of Italian residents were also interned.
The Isle of Man, relatively isolated from the British mainland and with a useful amount of holiday accommodation was used to provide housing for the "Alien Civilians" (as it had in World War I). There were also efforts to move internees from Britain. In July, 1940, the Arandora Star was torpedoed and sunk while transporting Italian and German aliens to North America; 743 died, including prisoners, crew and guards. The 813 surviving prisoners were subsequently included in the 2,500 men transported by HMT Dunera for internment in Hay, New South Wales.
The Pioneer Corps was apparently the only British unit that enemy aliens could serve in early in the war. Many thousands of Germans and Austrians joined the Pioneer Corps to assist the Allied war efforts and liberation of their home countries. These were mainly Jews and political opponents of the Nazi Regime who had fled to Britain while it was still possible, and included the cinematographer Ken Adam, writer George Clare and publisher Robert Maxwell. These men - often dubbed "The King's Most Loyal Enemy Aliens" - later moved on to serve in fighting units. Some were recruited by Special Operations Executive (S.O.E.) as secret agents. They were instructed to choose an "English" name using their old initials.
Serving as German nationals in the British forces was particularly dangerous, since, in case of taken captive, with a high probability they would have been executed as traitors by the Germans. Also, the number of German-born Jews joining the British forces was exceptionally high; by the end of the war, one in seven Jewish refugees from Germany had joined the British forces. Their profound knowledge of the German language and customs proved useful. A lot of them served in the administration of the British occupation army in Germany and Austria after the war.
A well-known example of enemy aliens were the Japanese citizens residing in the United States during World War II. Many of these Japanese and Japanese Americans were imprisoned in internment camps by President Roosevelt during wartime, alongside many German- and Italian-Americans. However, many Japanese Americans and Italian-Americans were not actually "aliens", as they held American citizenship. The term "enemy alien" referred only to non-American citizens who were nationals of Axis countries. Included in this number were thousands of resident aliens who were prohibited from applying for citizenship by race-based naturalization laws; when war was declared against their native countries, their status changed from "resident" to "enemy" alien. Therefore, German American, Italian American and Japanese American permanent residents were classified as enemy aliens and interned as such. In total 10,905 Italian Americans and approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans were interned in many different camps and sites across the country. German Americans were held in more than 50 different locations.
Citizens of an enemy country who lived in the USA during World War II, were required to have a "Enemy Alien" card and register monthly with the authorities. Similar regulations existed in Canada and Mexico. | <urn:uuid:b10952f0-ba71-4d65-b105-2ba70007e3ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Enemy-alien | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.986572 | 753 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.2727479338645... | 1 | In customary international law, an enemy alien is any native, citizen, denizen or subject of any foreign nation or government with which a domestic nation or government is in conflict with and who are liable to be apprehended, restrained, secured and removed. Usually, but not always, the countries are in a state of declared war.
Enemy alien Wikipedia
At the outbreak of World War II, in 1939, the United Kingdom had become a place of refuge for people who had fled Nazi persecution, including Jews and political refugees. At first, the authorities interned these refugees with other enemy residents, without distinction. Later on, when Italy also declared war, significant numbers of Italian residents were also interned.
The Isle of Man, relatively isolated from the British mainland and with a useful amount of holiday accommodation was used to provide housing for the "Alien Civilians" (as it had in World War I). There were also efforts to move internees from Britain. In July, 1940, the Arandora Star was torpedoed and sunk while transporting Italian and German aliens to North America; 743 died, including prisoners, crew and guards. The 813 surviving prisoners were subsequently included in the 2,500 men transported by HMT Dunera for internment in Hay, New South Wales.
The Pioneer Corps was apparently the only British unit that enemy aliens could serve in early in the war. Many thousands of Germans and Austrians joined the Pioneer Corps to assist the Allied war efforts and liberation of their home countries. These were mainly Jews and political opponents of the Nazi Regime who had fled to Britain while it was still possible, and included the cinematographer Ken Adam, writer George Clare and publisher Robert Maxwell. These men - often dubbed "The King's Most Loyal Enemy Aliens" - later moved on to serve in fighting units. Some were recruited by Special Operations Executive (S.O.E.) as secret agents. They were instructed to choose an "English" name using their old initials.
Serving as German nationals in the British forces was particularly dangerous, since, in case of taken captive, with a high probability they would have been executed as traitors by the Germans. Also, the number of German-born Jews joining the British forces was exceptionally high; by the end of the war, one in seven Jewish refugees from Germany had joined the British forces. Their profound knowledge of the German language and customs proved useful. A lot of them served in the administration of the British occupation army in Germany and Austria after the war.
A well-known example of enemy aliens were the Japanese citizens residing in the United States during World War II. Many of these Japanese and Japanese Americans were imprisoned in internment camps by President Roosevelt during wartime, alongside many German- and Italian-Americans. However, many Japanese Americans and Italian-Americans were not actually "aliens", as they held American citizenship. The term "enemy alien" referred only to non-American citizens who were nationals of Axis countries. Included in this number were thousands of resident aliens who were prohibited from applying for citizenship by race-based naturalization laws; when war was declared against their native countries, their status changed from "resident" to "enemy" alien. Therefore, German American, Italian American and Japanese American permanent residents were classified as enemy aliens and interned as such. In total 10,905 Italian Americans and approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans were interned in many different camps and sites across the country. German Americans were held in more than 50 different locations.
Citizens of an enemy country who lived in the USA during World War II, were required to have a "Enemy Alien" card and register monthly with the authorities. Similar regulations existed in Canada and Mexico. | 765 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What was the level of political complexity of the culture? What portions of the archaeological record is used to support this conclusion?
Political complexity is when a society has institutionalized decision-making structures. The Aztec empire had a hierarchical government and were made up of a number of city-states. City-states are a city that becomes an independent state or country. A large city that ruled the area existed at the center of each city-state. The city-states were known as altepetl which also means water-mountain and each altepetl was led by a supreme leader and supreme judge and administrator. The supreme leader was known as tlatoani and the supreme judge and administrator were known as cihuacoatl. The emperor, Huey tlatoani served as the supreme leader of the capital city of Tenochtitlan. The ultimate owner of all land in the city-state was the tlatoani and received tribute, oversaw markets and temples, led the military, and resolved judicial disputes. The lineage groups in which the Aztecs had been organized in their ancestral homeland and during their long migration to the Valley of Mexico were called capulli.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Aztec Political Structure" essay for youCreate order
The supreme leaders were required to be of noble blood and of royal lineage. Once a supreme leader was chosen, they were required to serve the city-state for life. Second in command was the cihuacoatl and served as the supreme judge for the court system. The cihuacoatl also chose all lower court judges, and took care of financial affairs of the altepetl. Four nobles who were related to the family of the previous leader were chosen to elect new emperors. The new emperors were chosen from the brothers or sons of the previous leader. The requirements to be the new emperor consisted of being nobles, over the age of 30, educated, and had to have experience of the military. The emperor was believed to be a descendent of God and had absolute power.
Evidence of this political structure comes from the Codex Mendoza. The Codex Mendoza provides images of conquests, daily life, and the tributes paid to central empire. The image below from The Codex Mendoza and it depicts The Palace of Montecuhzoma. The emperor sitting at the top of the palace and the judicial council is in the chamber on the lower right. The four nobles are represented at the bottom of the picture.
Is there evidence of the gendered division of labor? If so, what components of the archaeological record are interpreted as supporting this conclusion?
Gender division of labor is how work is divided between men and women by what is suitable for a male and what is suitable for a woman. Both men and women could hold administrative roles in the market. Women also worked as midwives and priestesses and archeological artifacts show that women raised the girls, and men raised the boys. The statue of Aztec earth goddess Cihuacoatl, shows that women were depicted as goddesses in sculptures and artwork. Archeological evidence such as spindle whorls found in homes where women and girls lived showed roles of women and girls as spinners and weavers. Women and men were considered equally important to the Aztec community and artwork has shown women as administrators that controlled assets and wealth. The military was one area that was closed off to women and women were not permitted to be warriors. Images in the Aztec codices show sculptures and images of women as weavers.
Is there evidence of craft specialization in this culture? Describe the evidence used to support that conclusion.
Craft specialization is the making of crafts by specific people in the community.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | <urn:uuid:0a5bb7b2-17c0-4c4e-9c4c-d95390725bca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydriver.com/aztec-political-structure/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00523.warc.gz | en | 0.983682 | 801 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.40129148960113525... | 1 | What was the level of political complexity of the culture? What portions of the archaeological record is used to support this conclusion?
Political complexity is when a society has institutionalized decision-making structures. The Aztec empire had a hierarchical government and were made up of a number of city-states. City-states are a city that becomes an independent state or country. A large city that ruled the area existed at the center of each city-state. The city-states were known as altepetl which also means water-mountain and each altepetl was led by a supreme leader and supreme judge and administrator. The supreme leader was known as tlatoani and the supreme judge and administrator were known as cihuacoatl. The emperor, Huey tlatoani served as the supreme leader of the capital city of Tenochtitlan. The ultimate owner of all land in the city-state was the tlatoani and received tribute, oversaw markets and temples, led the military, and resolved judicial disputes. The lineage groups in which the Aztecs had been organized in their ancestral homeland and during their long migration to the Valley of Mexico were called capulli.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Aztec Political Structure" essay for youCreate order
The supreme leaders were required to be of noble blood and of royal lineage. Once a supreme leader was chosen, they were required to serve the city-state for life. Second in command was the cihuacoatl and served as the supreme judge for the court system. The cihuacoatl also chose all lower court judges, and took care of financial affairs of the altepetl. Four nobles who were related to the family of the previous leader were chosen to elect new emperors. The new emperors were chosen from the brothers or sons of the previous leader. The requirements to be the new emperor consisted of being nobles, over the age of 30, educated, and had to have experience of the military. The emperor was believed to be a descendent of God and had absolute power.
Evidence of this political structure comes from the Codex Mendoza. The Codex Mendoza provides images of conquests, daily life, and the tributes paid to central empire. The image below from The Codex Mendoza and it depicts The Palace of Montecuhzoma. The emperor sitting at the top of the palace and the judicial council is in the chamber on the lower right. The four nobles are represented at the bottom of the picture.
Is there evidence of the gendered division of labor? If so, what components of the archaeological record are interpreted as supporting this conclusion?
Gender division of labor is how work is divided between men and women by what is suitable for a male and what is suitable for a woman. Both men and women could hold administrative roles in the market. Women also worked as midwives and priestesses and archeological artifacts show that women raised the girls, and men raised the boys. The statue of Aztec earth goddess Cihuacoatl, shows that women were depicted as goddesses in sculptures and artwork. Archeological evidence such as spindle whorls found in homes where women and girls lived showed roles of women and girls as spinners and weavers. Women and men were considered equally important to the Aztec community and artwork has shown women as administrators that controlled assets and wealth. The military was one area that was closed off to women and women were not permitted to be warriors. Images in the Aztec codices show sculptures and images of women as weavers.
Is there evidence of craft specialization in this culture? Describe the evidence used to support that conclusion.
Craft specialization is the making of crafts by specific people in the community.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 784 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shoals extending out ten miles into the Atlantic make this area around Cape Lookout extremely hazardous to shipping especially in the early days of sail and steam. It was nicknamed the “Horrible Headland” by many mariners and a necessary place for a lighthouse. The first lighthouse at this site was built in 1912 and was quite different than other lighthouses of the day. It had an inner tower built of brick with an outer shell constructed of wood. It rose to a height of 104 feet but its light was not very effective and seamen often complained about it. It was replaced in 1859 with the current lighthouse rising 150 feet high and crowned with a first-order Fresnel lens. During the Civil War the Confederates badly damaged the lens and a third-order lens was put in its place. After the war the first-order lens was repaired and is back and operating to this day. The wooden staircase up the lighthouse was used only four years when it was replaced with a metal one to lessen the fire hazard.
Erosion is always a threat to lighthouses and the Cape Lookout lighthouse hasn’t escaped mother natures plans. It’s been a little different here however, as it is not the Atlantic side of the island that is disappearing. In fact the ocean side has actually built up over past years. It’s the inlet side, nearer to the lighthouse that is loosing ground. The channel and tidal currents have cut almost a thousand feet of beach from in front of the lighthouse in recent years. The keepers house now stands only about twenty feet from the high tide mark. In order to help save what is left of the beach, an old channel was dredged and reopened diverting much of the water flow to other areas and somewhat reduced the risk of further erosion to the beach.
The lighthouse doesn’t have many trees or vegetation around it like so many other lighthouses I have visited so the full impact of its size and strength can be realized when looking at it from most any angle. Being an old sign painter, I wondered how they drew those large black and white diamond patterns on the lighthouse but it occurred to me that they are just two opposing spirals that intersect each other. I haven’t found out how they first actually layout the spiral pattern to paint but it appears that the painter would perhaps measure down eight bricks and over four and strike a point. That would give him an angle to draw a straight line. He would then repeat the same procedure all the way down. The spirals appear to be at forty-five degree angles, so if a brick is twice as long as it is high then that formula would be about right. The diamond pattern was painted on the tower in 1873 to increase its effectiveness as a daymark and the nearby town of Diamond City got its name because of the lighthouse pattern.
You won’t be driving your car to Cape Lookout but several ferry services that run from Harkers Island will take you there for a small fee. | <urn:uuid:33b957ec-9a1e-4937-96e7-d7770ee967b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bansemer.com/painting/cape-lookout-lighthouse/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00540.warc.gz | en | 0.980303 | 622 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.4099017977714... | 14 | Shoals extending out ten miles into the Atlantic make this area around Cape Lookout extremely hazardous to shipping especially in the early days of sail and steam. It was nicknamed the “Horrible Headland” by many mariners and a necessary place for a lighthouse. The first lighthouse at this site was built in 1912 and was quite different than other lighthouses of the day. It had an inner tower built of brick with an outer shell constructed of wood. It rose to a height of 104 feet but its light was not very effective and seamen often complained about it. It was replaced in 1859 with the current lighthouse rising 150 feet high and crowned with a first-order Fresnel lens. During the Civil War the Confederates badly damaged the lens and a third-order lens was put in its place. After the war the first-order lens was repaired and is back and operating to this day. The wooden staircase up the lighthouse was used only four years when it was replaced with a metal one to lessen the fire hazard.
Erosion is always a threat to lighthouses and the Cape Lookout lighthouse hasn’t escaped mother natures plans. It’s been a little different here however, as it is not the Atlantic side of the island that is disappearing. In fact the ocean side has actually built up over past years. It’s the inlet side, nearer to the lighthouse that is loosing ground. The channel and tidal currents have cut almost a thousand feet of beach from in front of the lighthouse in recent years. The keepers house now stands only about twenty feet from the high tide mark. In order to help save what is left of the beach, an old channel was dredged and reopened diverting much of the water flow to other areas and somewhat reduced the risk of further erosion to the beach.
The lighthouse doesn’t have many trees or vegetation around it like so many other lighthouses I have visited so the full impact of its size and strength can be realized when looking at it from most any angle. Being an old sign painter, I wondered how they drew those large black and white diamond patterns on the lighthouse but it occurred to me that they are just two opposing spirals that intersect each other. I haven’t found out how they first actually layout the spiral pattern to paint but it appears that the painter would perhaps measure down eight bricks and over four and strike a point. That would give him an angle to draw a straight line. He would then repeat the same procedure all the way down. The spirals appear to be at forty-five degree angles, so if a brick is twice as long as it is high then that formula would be about right. The diamond pattern was painted on the tower in 1873 to increase its effectiveness as a daymark and the nearby town of Diamond City got its name because of the lighthouse pattern.
You won’t be driving your car to Cape Lookout but several ferry services that run from Harkers Island will take you there for a small fee. | 625 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How did the arms race between the U. S. and the Soviet Union arise?
At the end of World War II the first nuclear bombs made their appearance when the U. S. dropped them on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It was a fact that both the Soviet Union and the United States did not want to actually engage in a war destroying the world with nuclear bombs. However, the proclivity of President Truman to exaggerate the powers he held and the suspicious nature of Stalin regarding capitalist power and the fear of anything foreign brewed a race to see who was more powerful in regards to weaponry.
The United States wanted nothing to do with the spread of communism and wanted to maintain its influence throughout the world. President Truman was under the belief “that the Soviet Union was plotting to take over the world.” The Soviet Union believed that the United States clearly already having developed nuclear weaponry was trying to scare them into being diplomatic with all other countries. When the Baruch plan was introduced in 1946 “which provided for U. S. abandonment of its atomic monopoly only after the world’s fissionable materials were controlled by an international agency”, the Soviet Union became angered that this would only inhibit their ability to develop nuclear capabilities while the U. S continued to build.
How did ideological conflicts contribute to tensions in the Cold War?
President Truman, was a leader who believed in democracy and capitalism and wanted to ensure those beliefs for not only the United States but other countries to which he pledged support. He and his team had developed what they called the policy of containment. This policy was “designed to confront the Russians with unalterable counterforce at every point where they show signs of encroaching upon the interests of a peaceful and stable world. ” This policy became one of the driving guides throughout the cold war, which in turn fueled the arms race. Dominance in Europe at the time drove competing plans between the United States and the Soviet Union.
The United States developed a plan for Western Europe called the Marshall Plan which was designed to speed the recovery of post war torn areas by providing financial aid, and also control the spread of communism. The Soviet Union countered by coming up with its own economic plan called the Warsaw Pact. Joseph Stalin, an authoritarian dictator of the Soviet Union and proponent of communism, did not want the Americans or their culture to take the parts of Central and Eastern Europe that they considered their territories. They also didn’t believe in rapid rebuilding of war torn areas. Neither country wanted to the other country to even have the appearance of being more powerful than them. These few examples show why it became a race to maintain power by escalating the power of the weapon and the better way to deliver the weapon.
How the Cold War affected American culture, politics, and everyday life?
The Cold War had a profound effect on every aspect of American society, from everyday life to popular culture, to the politics of the day. The fear of communism and anything that the Soviet Union was involved in dominated conversations, actions, home life and child’s play. The government revived the House Un-American Committee whose main goal was to fish out those that they believed were communist sympathizers. As the people and culture of the United States were strongly influenced by the movies and shows that came out of Hollywood, much like today, the committee focused on the film industry as those that might sway the public towards communism.
There were “ten screenwriters and directors, known as the “Hollywood Ten,” sent to prison for contempt of Congress when they refused to “name names” of suspected communists.” There were people that were simply suspected of communist affiliations, with no real evidence, who could no longer find work and whose careers were over because of the implications of the HUAC.
Another political change (although driven by a religious group) due to the scare of communism, was the changing of The Pledge of Allegiance and the importance placed on it being said daily by all American children. The Knights of Columbus was a Catholic mens group that was worried that our pledge had nothing to separate our Christian belief system in America from the atheist regime in the Soviet Union. They submitted a bill, that was signed by President Eisenhower, to change the wording to “One Nation, Under God.” Eisenhower was quick to support the bill and stated that we should “strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country’s most powerful resource in peace and war. ” Changes that appeared more in the everyday lives of Americans were driven by a fear of nuclear warfare, rather than communism per se. The appearance of fallout shelters happened during this timeframe.
Advertised on T. V. as “blueprints for survival in the age of atomic peril”, it would appear that it was a necessary purchase for survival, supported and designed by the U. S. Government. The governments fascination with the Sputnik satellite was also trickled down into society as businesses jumped on the bandwagon. There were toys created by all different retail companies to turn the children into rocket scientists at play. The retail giant Macy’s had a Sputnik store that had the ever so recognizable beep playing in their store and sales people dressed in spacesuits. The idea that the Soviet Union could engage or encroach on the United States at any time had created a daily awareness of the Cold War whether the American public wanted it or not. | <urn:uuid:a8d687d4-9e2f-43a7-90d1-7392fdc85d04> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayhub.net/essays/the-ways-the-cold-war-emerged | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.982874 | 1,115 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.275403171777725... | 3 | How did the arms race between the U. S. and the Soviet Union arise?
At the end of World War II the first nuclear bombs made their appearance when the U. S. dropped them on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It was a fact that both the Soviet Union and the United States did not want to actually engage in a war destroying the world with nuclear bombs. However, the proclivity of President Truman to exaggerate the powers he held and the suspicious nature of Stalin regarding capitalist power and the fear of anything foreign brewed a race to see who was more powerful in regards to weaponry.
The United States wanted nothing to do with the spread of communism and wanted to maintain its influence throughout the world. President Truman was under the belief “that the Soviet Union was plotting to take over the world.” The Soviet Union believed that the United States clearly already having developed nuclear weaponry was trying to scare them into being diplomatic with all other countries. When the Baruch plan was introduced in 1946 “which provided for U. S. abandonment of its atomic monopoly only after the world’s fissionable materials were controlled by an international agency”, the Soviet Union became angered that this would only inhibit their ability to develop nuclear capabilities while the U. S continued to build.
How did ideological conflicts contribute to tensions in the Cold War?
President Truman, was a leader who believed in democracy and capitalism and wanted to ensure those beliefs for not only the United States but other countries to which he pledged support. He and his team had developed what they called the policy of containment. This policy was “designed to confront the Russians with unalterable counterforce at every point where they show signs of encroaching upon the interests of a peaceful and stable world. ” This policy became one of the driving guides throughout the cold war, which in turn fueled the arms race. Dominance in Europe at the time drove competing plans between the United States and the Soviet Union.
The United States developed a plan for Western Europe called the Marshall Plan which was designed to speed the recovery of post war torn areas by providing financial aid, and also control the spread of communism. The Soviet Union countered by coming up with its own economic plan called the Warsaw Pact. Joseph Stalin, an authoritarian dictator of the Soviet Union and proponent of communism, did not want the Americans or their culture to take the parts of Central and Eastern Europe that they considered their territories. They also didn’t believe in rapid rebuilding of war torn areas. Neither country wanted to the other country to even have the appearance of being more powerful than them. These few examples show why it became a race to maintain power by escalating the power of the weapon and the better way to deliver the weapon.
How the Cold War affected American culture, politics, and everyday life?
The Cold War had a profound effect on every aspect of American society, from everyday life to popular culture, to the politics of the day. The fear of communism and anything that the Soviet Union was involved in dominated conversations, actions, home life and child’s play. The government revived the House Un-American Committee whose main goal was to fish out those that they believed were communist sympathizers. As the people and culture of the United States were strongly influenced by the movies and shows that came out of Hollywood, much like today, the committee focused on the film industry as those that might sway the public towards communism.
There were “ten screenwriters and directors, known as the “Hollywood Ten,” sent to prison for contempt of Congress when they refused to “name names” of suspected communists.” There were people that were simply suspected of communist affiliations, with no real evidence, who could no longer find work and whose careers were over because of the implications of the HUAC.
Another political change (although driven by a religious group) due to the scare of communism, was the changing of The Pledge of Allegiance and the importance placed on it being said daily by all American children. The Knights of Columbus was a Catholic mens group that was worried that our pledge had nothing to separate our Christian belief system in America from the atheist regime in the Soviet Union. They submitted a bill, that was signed by President Eisenhower, to change the wording to “One Nation, Under God.” Eisenhower was quick to support the bill and stated that we should “strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country’s most powerful resource in peace and war. ” Changes that appeared more in the everyday lives of Americans were driven by a fear of nuclear warfare, rather than communism per se. The appearance of fallout shelters happened during this timeframe.
Advertised on T. V. as “blueprints for survival in the age of atomic peril”, it would appear that it was a necessary purchase for survival, supported and designed by the U. S. Government. The governments fascination with the Sputnik satellite was also trickled down into society as businesses jumped on the bandwagon. There were toys created by all different retail companies to turn the children into rocket scientists at play. The retail giant Macy’s had a Sputnik store that had the ever so recognizable beep playing in their store and sales people dressed in spacesuits. The idea that the Soviet Union could engage or encroach on the United States at any time had created a daily awareness of the Cold War whether the American public wanted it or not. | 1,078 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hearing hell! The woman who heard too much
BACKGROUND: Superhero hearing may not be such a good thing. The condition is called Superior Canal Dehiscence Syndrome (SCD). SCD (discovered in 1998) is where the vestibular and auditory symptoms and signs can result from a dehiscence (opening) in the bone overlaying the superior semicircular canal of the inner ear. Patients with SCD will experience vertigo and oscillopsia (the motion of stationary objects) with heightened loud noises and maneuvers that change middle-ear pressure (like coughing, sneezing, and straining). Auditory consequences of this syndrome include the increased resonance of one's own voice, hypersensitivity to bone-conducted sounds, and hearing loss. (Source: vestibular.org)
RISK FACTORS: With an opening in the bone that is usually supposed to cover the semicircular canal, the fluid in the membranous superior canal can be displaced by pressure and sound. Usually there are only two points of increased pressure in the inner ear: the oval window (through which sound energy is transmitted into the inner ear) and the round window (through which sound energy is dissipated from the inner ear). SCD creates a third mobile window. Symptoms of this syndrome result from the physiological consequences. Those who are diagnosed with SCD are around 45 years old. Patients can experience it unilaterally or bilaterally. About one-third have the condition bilaterally. A common notion of this SCD is that it is due to a developmental abnormality. Studies show that approximately 1-2% of the population has abnormally thin bone overlying the superior canal. A thin layer of the canal suggests that trauma or perhaps over time the pressure of the overlying temporal lobe of the brain that leads to the onset of symptoms. (Source: vestibular.org)
SYMPTOMS: Most of the time patients seek medical attention as soon as they notice the debilitating effects. Specifically, patients note that loud noises cause them to see things move and when they cough, sneeze, or strain. Sometimes patients perceive objects to be moving in the same time with their pulse. Also patients can experience a feeling of constant imbalance. (Source: vestibular.org)
NEW TECHNOLOGY: Treatment options include surgical correction for those who are severely affected by SCD. The middle cranial fossa approach has been used mostly. Plugging of the canal with fibrous tissue has been shown to be more effective than canal resurfacing. Most surgeries involve going through the cranial fossa craniotomy on the affected side (surgery through the brain). The temporal lobe is retracted. The opening in the superior canal can be covered with bone wax, bone cement, or fascia; a small procedure that can fix a life altering condition. (Source: emedicine.medscape.com)
Quinton Gopen, M.D., Neurotologist at UCLA Medical Center, Department of Head and Neck Surgery talks about a procedure to repair a hole inside the ear.
When you first met Kerrie what was she like?
Dr. Gopen: Kerrie is a very nice woman. She had been seen by many doctors that I don't think indentified the condition that she had and she was frustrated. I would say she was at her wits end for lack of a better term. She was really quite bothered by her symptoms. She was hearing her heartbeat in her ear and when she would talk she would hear an echoing in her ear. She had hearing loss and dizziness problems so she was pretty beaten down. She had lost a lot of weight and she had been to the emergency room on a number of occasions. When the condition was not identified, it was suggested that maybe it was all in her mind, that she had psychiatric problems.
How many patients like Kerrie have you seen before?
Dr. Gopen: Roughly one or two a month. So a reasonable estimate would be between ten and twenty patients in a year.
She said she walked in and within thirty seconds after almost a year of non diagnosis you said I know what your problem is.
Dr. Gopen: This isone of those conditions that is pretty unique so there's not a lot of people that have those symptoms. When someone says that I hear my heartbeat in my ear that is an uncommon symptom. When Kerrie went on to describe other sounds that were amplified along with having dizziness problems, you're building a case pretty convincingly at that point that she has this condition. At that point the scans are more a confirmation of what you suspect than anything else. There's just not a lot of conditions that present in that manner. And I think one of the reasons why it's not well known is it was discovered fairly recently.
What's it called?
Dr. Gopen: It's called superior semicircular canal dehiscence.
Is it something that can heal itself?
Dr. Gopen: It does not. It is usually an acquired lesion. At some point, for unknown reasons, a small pore or hole opens up into the balance chamber. That is when patients become symptomatic. Some people theorize it's from the pulsations of the brain wearing a small hole in the bone over time. The bone in that area is like a little peak and it wears down a little thin spot in the bone. But once you have that it doesn't heal spontaneously and the only treatment for that is surgery. There are no medications that you can give a patient that are going to make them feel better or lessen their symptoms. You have to go in there and block that anatomical defect and once you do that the symptoms do improve.
Where is the hole exactly and what is it called, where does it go to and from?
Dr. Gopen: The medical term for hole is dehiscence so that's the first part. The anatomical location is the superior semi-circular canal. That's where the balance chamber is. You have three perpendicular chambers that are in charge of sensing different types of spinning rotation. So you can imagine doing summersaults is one, doing cartwheels would be another one and a pirouette would be the third one. Each canal roughly senses a different type of angular rotation. And the superior canal is the one that sticks straight up and so that is the one that is actually going up underneath where your brain rests. And that is the one which is the most likely to open over time. Now you can have abnormal openings in to the other semi circular canals as well, but that is much less common.
It can happen to anybody?
Dr. Gopen: It can happen to anyone at anytime although the factors that provoke it are still unclear. And we do even have a pediatric series and then there are some kids that are born with it. So they have a congenital opening in the inner ear and that is less common than the adult version.
Wouldn't that be really hard if you're born with it because babies can't tell you?
Dr. Gopen: Yes. They don't complain about it and as they are growing up their brain takes a lot of what it's given. And so they don't understand that it's not normal to hear their heartbeat in their ear or they don't understand that their hearing should be better. So unlike an adult who complains about hearing loss pretty much immediately kids don't tend to complain about hearing loss. And that does make it more tricky and difficult to diagnose the condition in the pediatric population.
Is it sometimes caught as a learning disability?
Dr. Gopen: Certainly. Hearing loss often is perceived as a delay and so they think that the child is slow or there's some developmental difficulty and it's really just hearing loss. It tends to occur with some balance problems so the kid can be a late walker. Instead of walking at twelve months or fourteen months they might not walk until they're two years of age. And no one really at the time thinks much of it but in retrospect in some of these cases it's very clear that they walked very late and they do have hearing loss and it's from this condition.
With Kerrie's ear you said the hole was just two millimeters. Can you put that in perspective for people? How do you find a hole that small?
Dr. Gopen: It's a pretty tiny little hole. When I'm seeing patients in the clinic I give them a demonstration. I say this hole is smaller than the tip of my pen. Two or three millimeters is a very small little pore that's opening. So even on the CAT scans it's hard to appreciate exactly how big that hole is. But it's a very, very small little pore. One of the main challenges with the surgery is to find that little opening. Part of what helps is just knowing the anatomy and with the CT scan you can look at it ahead of time and see what is the topography of that person and the floor of the skull base how does it look and where are the peaks and valleys. And this particular opening is almost always in one of the main little prominences in the bone called the arcuate eminence and so you look for that. And there are things that you can use intraoperatively to find that spot. There is image guidance which helps you to precisely say okay, where am I at on the scans. And that can be helpful although there is some play with that system. But it's just really knowing the anatomy, knowing where the structure is supposed to be and then looking for that little pore. In some cases it's pretty obvious and in Kerrie's it was very obvious. But in other cases especially when it's smaller and not as big a defect as she has it can be challenging to find that little spot.
So what do you do once you find the hole?
Dr. Gopen: In order to block it there's been many ways that have been described but the way that I prefer to do it is to take a little bone wax which is a sort of tacky like material and to gently force it in to that small opening and that's a water tight seal. I then line the area above that with fascia which is some of the lining of muscle. Then I take a small piece of bone which I get from the craniotomy which is the little plate of bone that's removed from the side of the head and I take a small chip of that and place that over the area. And the purpose of that is really to block a new pressure from eroding a new location in to the inner ear. And that seems to be very effective at solving this problem. The patients wake up pretty much immediately with the resolution of their symptoms.
So is it an invasive surgery because you have to go through the skull?
Dr. Gopen: Yes, it's a craniotomy. That's what the neurosurgeons use to do brain surgery. So you're talking about making a window in the side of the bone here, retracting the brain over about a couple of centimeters to get access to the floor where the brain rests and find that little pore. You can use a different technique to come in through the ear but that is more dangerous to the hearing because you actually have to drill through the inner ear to get to that little opening and block it off. And not as physiologic as just covering up the top part of the opening. You have to block off the hole from the outside.
Does it fix the problem forever?
Dr. Gopen: It usually does. There have not been a lot of recurrences of this. The condition was discovered in nineteen ninety eight so we don't have long term follow up data to know twenty, thirty years out how these patients are doing. But in my experience I haven't seen patients that have had the repair done successfully and then relapse later on the same side. I've had some contralateral sides come up with a new condition on the opposite ear but not on the same side that's been repaired.
There's not a lot of surgeries that are that invasive that you can do and the person wakes up and the problem is completely gone.
Dr. Gopen: Usually it's more of a waiting game that's right. I've had times where people wake up in tears not from pain but from joy because the noise is gone immediately after the surgery. It's rare that you know the solution will be such a quick and dramatic improvement.
You changed Kerrie's life. She said she's a different person.
Dr. Gopen: Yes. She's much better off now than she was back then that's for sure.
You get a person like Kerrie who said she was contemplating suicide and now she's out playing Frisbee and eating ice cream with her daughter and back to normal.
Dr. Gopen: Well it's nice, it's nice to be able to see that. Obviously it's not something that's happening every single day but it's worth the time and the effort for sure.
She went to doctors for years. Why was it so tough?
Dr. Gopen: It's certainly not a common condition. The more common the condition you have the more likely you are to get the standard of care. Certainly if you have a heart attack and you go to the emergency room you're going to get a standard set of blood work done and treatment for that. This is a condition that is not super rare but rare enough that most people don't know to look for it. Also, being in a location like UCLA where we're dealing with tertiary referrals from all over the world these rare conditions are bunched up and you see them from time to time and then you're more prepared to deal with them and better off at identifying them. I would encourage patients that until they're fixed keep seeking out treatment. Keep pushing until you get the answers that you need to get. In some cases it can be a little bit of a battle but the end point is making people better. And until you're better it's worth pushing.
FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT:
Quinton Gopen, MD
UCLA Medical Center
Copyright 2012 by Ivanhoe Broadcast News and KSAT.com. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. | <urn:uuid:0bcec4f5-1510-4265-9d8e-37663ee756c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ksat.com/health/2012/12/07/hearing-hell-the-woman-who-heard-too-much/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.980498 | 2,965 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.27777513861... | 1 | Hearing hell! The woman who heard too much
BACKGROUND: Superhero hearing may not be such a good thing. The condition is called Superior Canal Dehiscence Syndrome (SCD). SCD (discovered in 1998) is where the vestibular and auditory symptoms and signs can result from a dehiscence (opening) in the bone overlaying the superior semicircular canal of the inner ear. Patients with SCD will experience vertigo and oscillopsia (the motion of stationary objects) with heightened loud noises and maneuvers that change middle-ear pressure (like coughing, sneezing, and straining). Auditory consequences of this syndrome include the increased resonance of one's own voice, hypersensitivity to bone-conducted sounds, and hearing loss. (Source: vestibular.org)
RISK FACTORS: With an opening in the bone that is usually supposed to cover the semicircular canal, the fluid in the membranous superior canal can be displaced by pressure and sound. Usually there are only two points of increased pressure in the inner ear: the oval window (through which sound energy is transmitted into the inner ear) and the round window (through which sound energy is dissipated from the inner ear). SCD creates a third mobile window. Symptoms of this syndrome result from the physiological consequences. Those who are diagnosed with SCD are around 45 years old. Patients can experience it unilaterally or bilaterally. About one-third have the condition bilaterally. A common notion of this SCD is that it is due to a developmental abnormality. Studies show that approximately 1-2% of the population has abnormally thin bone overlying the superior canal. A thin layer of the canal suggests that trauma or perhaps over time the pressure of the overlying temporal lobe of the brain that leads to the onset of symptoms. (Source: vestibular.org)
SYMPTOMS: Most of the time patients seek medical attention as soon as they notice the debilitating effects. Specifically, patients note that loud noises cause them to see things move and when they cough, sneeze, or strain. Sometimes patients perceive objects to be moving in the same time with their pulse. Also patients can experience a feeling of constant imbalance. (Source: vestibular.org)
NEW TECHNOLOGY: Treatment options include surgical correction for those who are severely affected by SCD. The middle cranial fossa approach has been used mostly. Plugging of the canal with fibrous tissue has been shown to be more effective than canal resurfacing. Most surgeries involve going through the cranial fossa craniotomy on the affected side (surgery through the brain). The temporal lobe is retracted. The opening in the superior canal can be covered with bone wax, bone cement, or fascia; a small procedure that can fix a life altering condition. (Source: emedicine.medscape.com)
Quinton Gopen, M.D., Neurotologist at UCLA Medical Center, Department of Head and Neck Surgery talks about a procedure to repair a hole inside the ear.
When you first met Kerrie what was she like?
Dr. Gopen: Kerrie is a very nice woman. She had been seen by many doctors that I don't think indentified the condition that she had and she was frustrated. I would say she was at her wits end for lack of a better term. She was really quite bothered by her symptoms. She was hearing her heartbeat in her ear and when she would talk she would hear an echoing in her ear. She had hearing loss and dizziness problems so she was pretty beaten down. She had lost a lot of weight and she had been to the emergency room on a number of occasions. When the condition was not identified, it was suggested that maybe it was all in her mind, that she had psychiatric problems.
How many patients like Kerrie have you seen before?
Dr. Gopen: Roughly one or two a month. So a reasonable estimate would be between ten and twenty patients in a year.
She said she walked in and within thirty seconds after almost a year of non diagnosis you said I know what your problem is.
Dr. Gopen: This isone of those conditions that is pretty unique so there's not a lot of people that have those symptoms. When someone says that I hear my heartbeat in my ear that is an uncommon symptom. When Kerrie went on to describe other sounds that were amplified along with having dizziness problems, you're building a case pretty convincingly at that point that she has this condition. At that point the scans are more a confirmation of what you suspect than anything else. There's just not a lot of conditions that present in that manner. And I think one of the reasons why it's not well known is it was discovered fairly recently.
What's it called?
Dr. Gopen: It's called superior semicircular canal dehiscence.
Is it something that can heal itself?
Dr. Gopen: It does not. It is usually an acquired lesion. At some point, for unknown reasons, a small pore or hole opens up into the balance chamber. That is when patients become symptomatic. Some people theorize it's from the pulsations of the brain wearing a small hole in the bone over time. The bone in that area is like a little peak and it wears down a little thin spot in the bone. But once you have that it doesn't heal spontaneously and the only treatment for that is surgery. There are no medications that you can give a patient that are going to make them feel better or lessen their symptoms. You have to go in there and block that anatomical defect and once you do that the symptoms do improve.
Where is the hole exactly and what is it called, where does it go to and from?
Dr. Gopen: The medical term for hole is dehiscence so that's the first part. The anatomical location is the superior semi-circular canal. That's where the balance chamber is. You have three perpendicular chambers that are in charge of sensing different types of spinning rotation. So you can imagine doing summersaults is one, doing cartwheels would be another one and a pirouette would be the third one. Each canal roughly senses a different type of angular rotation. And the superior canal is the one that sticks straight up and so that is the one that is actually going up underneath where your brain rests. And that is the one which is the most likely to open over time. Now you can have abnormal openings in to the other semi circular canals as well, but that is much less common.
It can happen to anybody?
Dr. Gopen: It can happen to anyone at anytime although the factors that provoke it are still unclear. And we do even have a pediatric series and then there are some kids that are born with it. So they have a congenital opening in the inner ear and that is less common than the adult version.
Wouldn't that be really hard if you're born with it because babies can't tell you?
Dr. Gopen: Yes. They don't complain about it and as they are growing up their brain takes a lot of what it's given. And so they don't understand that it's not normal to hear their heartbeat in their ear or they don't understand that their hearing should be better. So unlike an adult who complains about hearing loss pretty much immediately kids don't tend to complain about hearing loss. And that does make it more tricky and difficult to diagnose the condition in the pediatric population.
Is it sometimes caught as a learning disability?
Dr. Gopen: Certainly. Hearing loss often is perceived as a delay and so they think that the child is slow or there's some developmental difficulty and it's really just hearing loss. It tends to occur with some balance problems so the kid can be a late walker. Instead of walking at twelve months or fourteen months they might not walk until they're two years of age. And no one really at the time thinks much of it but in retrospect in some of these cases it's very clear that they walked very late and they do have hearing loss and it's from this condition.
With Kerrie's ear you said the hole was just two millimeters. Can you put that in perspective for people? How do you find a hole that small?
Dr. Gopen: It's a pretty tiny little hole. When I'm seeing patients in the clinic I give them a demonstration. I say this hole is smaller than the tip of my pen. Two or three millimeters is a very small little pore that's opening. So even on the CAT scans it's hard to appreciate exactly how big that hole is. But it's a very, very small little pore. One of the main challenges with the surgery is to find that little opening. Part of what helps is just knowing the anatomy and with the CT scan you can look at it ahead of time and see what is the topography of that person and the floor of the skull base how does it look and where are the peaks and valleys. And this particular opening is almost always in one of the main little prominences in the bone called the arcuate eminence and so you look for that. And there are things that you can use intraoperatively to find that spot. There is image guidance which helps you to precisely say okay, where am I at on the scans. And that can be helpful although there is some play with that system. But it's just really knowing the anatomy, knowing where the structure is supposed to be and then looking for that little pore. In some cases it's pretty obvious and in Kerrie's it was very obvious. But in other cases especially when it's smaller and not as big a defect as she has it can be challenging to find that little spot.
So what do you do once you find the hole?
Dr. Gopen: In order to block it there's been many ways that have been described but the way that I prefer to do it is to take a little bone wax which is a sort of tacky like material and to gently force it in to that small opening and that's a water tight seal. I then line the area above that with fascia which is some of the lining of muscle. Then I take a small piece of bone which I get from the craniotomy which is the little plate of bone that's removed from the side of the head and I take a small chip of that and place that over the area. And the purpose of that is really to block a new pressure from eroding a new location in to the inner ear. And that seems to be very effective at solving this problem. The patients wake up pretty much immediately with the resolution of their symptoms.
So is it an invasive surgery because you have to go through the skull?
Dr. Gopen: Yes, it's a craniotomy. That's what the neurosurgeons use to do brain surgery. So you're talking about making a window in the side of the bone here, retracting the brain over about a couple of centimeters to get access to the floor where the brain rests and find that little pore. You can use a different technique to come in through the ear but that is more dangerous to the hearing because you actually have to drill through the inner ear to get to that little opening and block it off. And not as physiologic as just covering up the top part of the opening. You have to block off the hole from the outside.
Does it fix the problem forever?
Dr. Gopen: It usually does. There have not been a lot of recurrences of this. The condition was discovered in nineteen ninety eight so we don't have long term follow up data to know twenty, thirty years out how these patients are doing. But in my experience I haven't seen patients that have had the repair done successfully and then relapse later on the same side. I've had some contralateral sides come up with a new condition on the opposite ear but not on the same side that's been repaired.
There's not a lot of surgeries that are that invasive that you can do and the person wakes up and the problem is completely gone.
Dr. Gopen: Usually it's more of a waiting game that's right. I've had times where people wake up in tears not from pain but from joy because the noise is gone immediately after the surgery. It's rare that you know the solution will be such a quick and dramatic improvement.
You changed Kerrie's life. She said she's a different person.
Dr. Gopen: Yes. She's much better off now than she was back then that's for sure.
You get a person like Kerrie who said she was contemplating suicide and now she's out playing Frisbee and eating ice cream with her daughter and back to normal.
Dr. Gopen: Well it's nice, it's nice to be able to see that. Obviously it's not something that's happening every single day but it's worth the time and the effort for sure.
She went to doctors for years. Why was it so tough?
Dr. Gopen: It's certainly not a common condition. The more common the condition you have the more likely you are to get the standard of care. Certainly if you have a heart attack and you go to the emergency room you're going to get a standard set of blood work done and treatment for that. This is a condition that is not super rare but rare enough that most people don't know to look for it. Also, being in a location like UCLA where we're dealing with tertiary referrals from all over the world these rare conditions are bunched up and you see them from time to time and then you're more prepared to deal with them and better off at identifying them. I would encourage patients that until they're fixed keep seeking out treatment. Keep pushing until you get the answers that you need to get. In some cases it can be a little bit of a battle but the end point is making people better. And until you're better it's worth pushing.
FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT:
Quinton Gopen, MD
UCLA Medical Center
Copyright 2012 by Ivanhoe Broadcast News and KSAT.com. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. | 2,923 | ENGLISH | 1 |
a) A description of ethics in general and why it is important to employ ethics in health promotion. Ethics are moral principles that controls a person’s behaviour and decisions. In Health and Social care, we should develop an acknowledgment that ethics overlap. Our care for patients and clients should always be based on sound judgement or evidence based practise, this judgement is about having a strong sense of knowing what is right and what is wrong. Having a strong sense of knowing what should be done and shouldn’t be done as Health care workers is important as the code of conduct must be followed and principles must be met. It is also very important that we have a strong sense of what the priorities are. Quick decisions must be made for which there is not always an easy or correct answer for. For example, questions like can Mr Jones manage his own medications safely? Must be taken into consideration. Whatever the decision and action we will still have to be able to explain and account for them. The NMC code can act as a guide which can be seen as a ‘code of ethics’ which is a set of very important principles to help guide nurses in their job. In health and social care, it is important that we are non- maleficence meaning we do not cause harm to others, we don’t incapacitate, we don’t cause offence and we do not deprive people. Non-maleficence is one of the four key ethical principles. Another key ethical principle is beneficence which means doing good to benefit the patient. Justice is also another key ethical principle which results in treating people fairly, not favouring individuals over others which can cause harm because it could lower someone’s self-esteem. Justice also means acting upon things in a non-discriminatory way, respecting people’s rights and respecting the law. There are 6 key values that should be considered when promoting or working in a health base environment these key values are; autonomy, well-being, needs, respect, consent and anti-discrimination. Autonomy is a value in medicine where we should let patients make their own decisions we also need to respect and support these decisions no matter what we personally, believe. Autonomy also means that we should not force things and ‘informed consent’ is a very important outcome of this key value. As well as autonomy being a key value it is also a key ethical principle. The second key value is well-being, this is the state of being comfortable, healthy and happy. The third key value is needs where we must meet the needs of patients within the health and social care sector. The forth key value is respect where we must respect a patient’s choices and the patients in general. Consent is the fifth key value, this is the agreement to something. All of the key values are important in health promotion as they allow us to respect anyone that we were talking to during the campaign. The key values also taught us that no matter what it is extremely important that we do not judge anyone for any apparent reason during the campaign and in health and social care in general. The four ethical rules are veracity, privacy, confidentiality and fidelity. Veracity means telling the truth and having respect for autonomy. Privacy is a person’s right to remain as private as they wish it also means to be concealed from someone else’s view. Confidentiality means only sharing private information when absolutely necessary. Fidelity means loyalty and maintaining the duty to care for others no matter who they are or what they may have done in the past. b) conversations you had in your groups that identified the ethical issues of your campaign. The conversations I had in my group that identified the ethical issues of my campaign were based on what was appropriate for a sexual health campaign. As it was a sexual health campaign we had to be very careful with the information we were displaying as it would be easy to offend someone. We had conversations about the slogan we were going to use because it had to be professional and nothing that was childish or rude. Another conversation we had that was based off the ethical issues of our campaign was about any pictures that we were going to use as we had to make sure we used appropriate pictures and nothing explicit that could have offended anyone or caused damage to the campaign. We also had a conversation about swearing where we discussed that under no circumstances should we include swearing in our campaign as after all we were promoting it in the college so it wouldn’t have been appropriate for it. c) Identify any changes you made to your campaign according to the ethical considerations. Due to our ethical conversations, we made changes to our campaign to benefit us and the people around us. We firstly changed our slogan as it was our biggest problem due to the fact that it was extremely easy for us to come up with things that was unprofessional, we made this change because we understood that we had to take sexual health seriously as it’s such a big problem now. Another change we made was to the images we were going to use as we had to make sure they were not rude in any way whatsoever. d) Explain the damage that might have occurred if you had not changed your campaign to incorporate ethics. If we had never changed our campaign to incorporate ethics then we would have caused a lot of damage to the people around us. Firstly, if we hadn’t changed our slogan to something less childish and more professional then we could have easily offended someone and got into trouble for inappropriate promotion which we did not want to happen. We could have also caused damage to the campaign itself as by using any images that wasn’t appropriate we would have pushed people away from the campaign and not draw them in, as well as this if we had used inappropriate images we probably would have had to stop the campaign all together because it wouldn’t have been college friendly and if this had happened it would have resulted in us failing our health promotion assignments. e) How was the campaign devised what models and approaches were used and explaining your choice for using these The model I used for the campaign was the Prochaska and Di Clemente’s model of behaviour change. I used this model as it encourages people to question there behaviours which was the whole point about the campaign. The model shows the processes in enough detail so I was able to understand it without any difficulties. It is also a positive model because it shows you could fail and still try again for better results next time. The model also doesn’t require a set time so it is very useful for any individual so they could figure out and get over the obstacles to the model in their own time at a preferred pace which will hopefully result in them overcoming them. However, the model does require more time to understand. The model links to my campaign because we were trying to make people think about being more careful and using contraceptives and after they realise there is a reason to change their ways they will go through all of the steps of the model. The models I didn’t use was the Azjen’s theory of planned behaviour and Rosenstock’s Health belief model. I didn’t use the Azjen’s theory of planned behaviour change as the model doesn’t consider factors that could get in the way of behaviour change such as fear and past experiences which would result in whether someone would follow the campaign and start thinking about changing their behaviours. I also didn’t use Rosenstock’s Health belief model as it takes a lot more time to understand than Prochaska and Di Clemente’s model of behaviour change. The cost of actions for this model might have also not have benefited someone listening to a health campaign about sexual health as contraceptives cost money that someone might not have and even though you can get them from the doctors they may not feel comfortable going there. The approaches I used for the campaign was social marketing, role of mass media and two-way communication. The Social marketing approach is a way of helping people make a difference and altar any bad behaviours for the good of people and the entire society. Social Marketing points you in the correct direction and helps you with choosing who is best to work with. It can educate you on what behaviour is best to change, how to change your behaviour and how to measure and evaluate it. Social Marketing tries to make it clear to you how changing your behaviour can benefit you in the short term and long term rather than you going to a doctor who would only tell you not to do a certain something because it’s bad for you. I decided to use the social marketing approach as I knew the campaign could have obtained popularity from it if we had used it correctly. The Mass Media approach is the different ways that information and news come across large groups of people. People receive the information and news through different forms such as T.V, radio, magazines, posters, newspapers, leaflets and billboards. The approach aims to educate by reaching out to people and showing them that changing their behaviours and ways is better for themselves and the people around them, the approach also tries to persuade new attitudes. I used this approach because it could easily raise awareness for health issues, concerning my campaign. It also has the ability to reach a number of people in a short amount of time, another advantage is that Mass Media can convey simple but useful information and it also places health on the public agenda. The Two-way Communication approach is where two people communicate with each other, one of these people being the sender and the other being the receiver. Two people could communicate face to face where one person would be speaking the other would be listening, it can be very easy to tell whether or not someone is actually listening to you whilst you are speaking for example you could tell whether you have someone’s attention through their body language, facial expressions and whether they are or are not making eye contact with you when you are talking. However, many people choose not to make eye contact as they may find it awkward or they may believe that they are making the speaker feel awkward but they are still listening to what someone has to say. I decided to use the mass media approach as it allowed me to be open to instant feedback from anyone listening to the campaign and it can be more democratic. The approach we didn’t use was the community development approach as we didn’t have enough time to include it in our campaign because it’s very time consuming and on a short notice it’s difficult to include it. f) How successful were your aims and objectives (was there anything that was missed out? Did the aims and objectives help with moving the project forward and the overall finished campaign?) My groups SMART aim was to make a lot more people aware of how serious sexual health problems actually are today and how it could affect you in the short term and long term. The three objectives of our campaign were one; to educate people on the different sexually transmitted diseases such as chlamydia and HIV which they could get if they aren’t careful, two; to make people wary of the facts and statistics linking to sexual health and three; to make people think about changing their behaviours. I think that the aims and objectives were overall quite successful as we made a lot of people aware of how sexual health could affect you in the short and long term which hopefully made them think about changing their behaviours. They were also successful as we mainly had positive feedback which shows that the campaign interested people and the campaign followed the aims and objectives so the campaign was a success due to them. I don’t think there was anything missed out of the campaign as we tried to include any information that was relevant so we covered all aspects of sexual health. The aims and objectives helped with moving the project forward and the overall finished campaign as it gave a structure of what to follow so I didn’t go talking about something irrelevant and I stayed with a focus and an aim. g) What do you think is particularly good about your campaign? Why? Is there ANYTHING you could do to improve it? What factors influenced the effectiveness? I think that the information that we were promoting was particularly good about the campaign as we had information on a lot of things that linked to sexual health. By having a lot of information, it was likely that something we had told someone they wouldn’t have known so they could have been more interested. Our posters were also very eye catching as we used bright colours to grab people’s attention which proved to work as they were even reading the information themselves. We also included questionnaires in our campaign which was a huge success to the campaign as people wanted to fill them out without us having to even ask. The questionnaires allowed us to have feedback so we were able to acknowledge on what we could improve and what we did well. The questionnaires also ran out half way through the campaign which shows that they were a benefit to the campaign as people were interested in filling them out. However, we could improve this by printing out more questionnaires so everyone would have a chance to give us their feedback. Our leaflets were also a good thing about the campaign as anyone who came along to the campaign would go away with the important information that we were trying to get across to people hoping they will start thinking about changing their behaviours for the better. The leaflets could have also allowed anyone who didn’t see the campaign to up their knowledge on sexual health as they would have been able to read someone else’s leaflet. Another good thing about the campaign was our logo as we thought creatively to create something that was suitable for the campaign and something that would have made people interested. The factors that influenced the effectiveness were age and location. Location influenced the effectiveness of the campaign as it is where many of the students go on their breaks. Many students walk back and forth there to enter and leave the college so they were likely to see the campaign. Age influenced the effectiveness of the campaign as the age of the college students is probably the most suitable age for the campaign’s target audience as the information would be most useful for them. h) Is there anything you think is poor about your campaign? Why? What could you do to improve it? (Remember, you don’t actually have to make these changes!) identify what could be done differently. There are one or two things that I think was poor about my campaign that could definitely be improved and done differently. One thing that was poor about my campaign is that we didn’t have many resources which was a disadvantage to the campaign because people might have thought that our campaign was less interesting than the rest of the campaigns that used more resources including props. To improve this, we could use more resources and try finding props that would be suitable to the campaign. The place where we were located was somewhat poor due to the fact that we were close to the disabled access door which was being used quite frequently which let in wind which caused destruction to the campaign as our resources such as the leaflets were being blown away. To improve this, we could have moved further up away from the disabled access door if possible. i) Is there anything else you could improve in your campaign? In the campaign, I think I could also improve my confidence as I struggled a bit with talking to people due to it. If I was to improve my confidence I think it would benefit my campaign as I would be able to make people more aware of our aims and objectives to the campaign. j) If money was no object, how would you go about marketing the campaign and getting people to see your campaign? If money was no object, I would use a range of different forms of advertisement that would usually cost a lot of money. The best way for marketing the campaign and getting people to see it would be to use celebrity enforcements as a lot of people look up to celebrities and sees them as role models. Therefore, they would listen to what they have to say and hopefully follow the campaign. Celebrities can also reach a large number of people in a short amount of time due to many having millions of followers on their social media platforms. However, I would have to choose a celebrity wisely because if the celebrity had said or done anything in the past that links to sexual health in a negative way it could cause the campaign to receive negativity from the public. Ed Sheeran is an example of a celebrity that supports campaigns such as campaigns on mental health. Another way for marketing the campaign and getting people to see it would be to use adverts on the tv and other places such as YouTube which is used a lot by the younger generation who happens to be the target audience of the campaign. Social media could also be a great way to market the campaign and getting people to see it as it is very unlikely that the younger age groups would have no social media at all. Social media can also reach a large number of any age groups. Another way to market the campaign and getting people to see it if money was no object is to create leaflets and hand them out to the students in the college as they are the main target audience. Leaflets can be the alternative for anyone who doesn’t have social media or does not watch tv so they are as aware of the campaign as someone who has five social media accounts. To make the leaflets even more effective it could include a coupon or a quiz that requires them to read the leaflet which would result in a prize if answered correctly. Some people might also be more likely to read a leaflet that is given to them directly than reading something online. If money was no object, I could also use billboards to market the campaign as they are usually not hard to miss so it will draw in attention but, as the campaign is focused on sexual health I would have to make sure I use correct wording and keep it very professional. k) If money was no object, how would go about evaluating your campaign to find out what your audience thought when they saw it? If money was no object, I would go about evaluating the campaign to find out what the audience thought in a few different ways for the best feedback possible. One of the best and most effective ways to find out what the audience thought would be to send out questionnaires to the people who received a leaflet having already wrote their names and addresses down when the leaflets were given to them. The questionnaire could include a range of different questions including how useful the information included in the leaflet was where they would circle a number between 1-10, 1 being not very useful and 10 being very useful. The questionnaire could also include a question on how we could improve the campaign if we were to do it again. Included with the questionnaire there could be a free stamp to return the questionnaire or someone could pick them up a week or two after they are sent out. Another way to evaluate the campaign to find out what my audience thought when they saw it can be to create social media polls which will hopefully reach out to those who didn’t receive a leaflet so they are able to give their feedback. Online quizzes can also be used to evaluate the campaign to find out what my audience thought. Online quizzes can be a great way to find out what the audience thought of the campaign as it allows instant feedback and is easily accessible as most people have Wi-Fi or access to Wi-Fi in public places. | <urn:uuid:18506ace-d55d-406f-a609-b3fe545f645b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://caveconspringfield.com/a-not-cause-harm-to-others-we-dont/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00386.warc.gz | en | 0.988767 | 3,933 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3583184480667114... | 2 | a) A description of ethics in general and why it is important to employ ethics in health promotion. Ethics are moral principles that controls a person’s behaviour and decisions. In Health and Social care, we should develop an acknowledgment that ethics overlap. Our care for patients and clients should always be based on sound judgement or evidence based practise, this judgement is about having a strong sense of knowing what is right and what is wrong. Having a strong sense of knowing what should be done and shouldn’t be done as Health care workers is important as the code of conduct must be followed and principles must be met. It is also very important that we have a strong sense of what the priorities are. Quick decisions must be made for which there is not always an easy or correct answer for. For example, questions like can Mr Jones manage his own medications safely? Must be taken into consideration. Whatever the decision and action we will still have to be able to explain and account for them. The NMC code can act as a guide which can be seen as a ‘code of ethics’ which is a set of very important principles to help guide nurses in their job. In health and social care, it is important that we are non- maleficence meaning we do not cause harm to others, we don’t incapacitate, we don’t cause offence and we do not deprive people. Non-maleficence is one of the four key ethical principles. Another key ethical principle is beneficence which means doing good to benefit the patient. Justice is also another key ethical principle which results in treating people fairly, not favouring individuals over others which can cause harm because it could lower someone’s self-esteem. Justice also means acting upon things in a non-discriminatory way, respecting people’s rights and respecting the law. There are 6 key values that should be considered when promoting or working in a health base environment these key values are; autonomy, well-being, needs, respect, consent and anti-discrimination. Autonomy is a value in medicine where we should let patients make their own decisions we also need to respect and support these decisions no matter what we personally, believe. Autonomy also means that we should not force things and ‘informed consent’ is a very important outcome of this key value. As well as autonomy being a key value it is also a key ethical principle. The second key value is well-being, this is the state of being comfortable, healthy and happy. The third key value is needs where we must meet the needs of patients within the health and social care sector. The forth key value is respect where we must respect a patient’s choices and the patients in general. Consent is the fifth key value, this is the agreement to something. All of the key values are important in health promotion as they allow us to respect anyone that we were talking to during the campaign. The key values also taught us that no matter what it is extremely important that we do not judge anyone for any apparent reason during the campaign and in health and social care in general. The four ethical rules are veracity, privacy, confidentiality and fidelity. Veracity means telling the truth and having respect for autonomy. Privacy is a person’s right to remain as private as they wish it also means to be concealed from someone else’s view. Confidentiality means only sharing private information when absolutely necessary. Fidelity means loyalty and maintaining the duty to care for others no matter who they are or what they may have done in the past. b) conversations you had in your groups that identified the ethical issues of your campaign. The conversations I had in my group that identified the ethical issues of my campaign were based on what was appropriate for a sexual health campaign. As it was a sexual health campaign we had to be very careful with the information we were displaying as it would be easy to offend someone. We had conversations about the slogan we were going to use because it had to be professional and nothing that was childish or rude. Another conversation we had that was based off the ethical issues of our campaign was about any pictures that we were going to use as we had to make sure we used appropriate pictures and nothing explicit that could have offended anyone or caused damage to the campaign. We also had a conversation about swearing where we discussed that under no circumstances should we include swearing in our campaign as after all we were promoting it in the college so it wouldn’t have been appropriate for it. c) Identify any changes you made to your campaign according to the ethical considerations. Due to our ethical conversations, we made changes to our campaign to benefit us and the people around us. We firstly changed our slogan as it was our biggest problem due to the fact that it was extremely easy for us to come up with things that was unprofessional, we made this change because we understood that we had to take sexual health seriously as it’s such a big problem now. Another change we made was to the images we were going to use as we had to make sure they were not rude in any way whatsoever. d) Explain the damage that might have occurred if you had not changed your campaign to incorporate ethics. If we had never changed our campaign to incorporate ethics then we would have caused a lot of damage to the people around us. Firstly, if we hadn’t changed our slogan to something less childish and more professional then we could have easily offended someone and got into trouble for inappropriate promotion which we did not want to happen. We could have also caused damage to the campaign itself as by using any images that wasn’t appropriate we would have pushed people away from the campaign and not draw them in, as well as this if we had used inappropriate images we probably would have had to stop the campaign all together because it wouldn’t have been college friendly and if this had happened it would have resulted in us failing our health promotion assignments. e) How was the campaign devised what models and approaches were used and explaining your choice for using these The model I used for the campaign was the Prochaska and Di Clemente’s model of behaviour change. I used this model as it encourages people to question there behaviours which was the whole point about the campaign. The model shows the processes in enough detail so I was able to understand it without any difficulties. It is also a positive model because it shows you could fail and still try again for better results next time. The model also doesn’t require a set time so it is very useful for any individual so they could figure out and get over the obstacles to the model in their own time at a preferred pace which will hopefully result in them overcoming them. However, the model does require more time to understand. The model links to my campaign because we were trying to make people think about being more careful and using contraceptives and after they realise there is a reason to change their ways they will go through all of the steps of the model. The models I didn’t use was the Azjen’s theory of planned behaviour and Rosenstock’s Health belief model. I didn’t use the Azjen’s theory of planned behaviour change as the model doesn’t consider factors that could get in the way of behaviour change such as fear and past experiences which would result in whether someone would follow the campaign and start thinking about changing their behaviours. I also didn’t use Rosenstock’s Health belief model as it takes a lot more time to understand than Prochaska and Di Clemente’s model of behaviour change. The cost of actions for this model might have also not have benefited someone listening to a health campaign about sexual health as contraceptives cost money that someone might not have and even though you can get them from the doctors they may not feel comfortable going there. The approaches I used for the campaign was social marketing, role of mass media and two-way communication. The Social marketing approach is a way of helping people make a difference and altar any bad behaviours for the good of people and the entire society. Social Marketing points you in the correct direction and helps you with choosing who is best to work with. It can educate you on what behaviour is best to change, how to change your behaviour and how to measure and evaluate it. Social Marketing tries to make it clear to you how changing your behaviour can benefit you in the short term and long term rather than you going to a doctor who would only tell you not to do a certain something because it’s bad for you. I decided to use the social marketing approach as I knew the campaign could have obtained popularity from it if we had used it correctly. The Mass Media approach is the different ways that information and news come across large groups of people. People receive the information and news through different forms such as T.V, radio, magazines, posters, newspapers, leaflets and billboards. The approach aims to educate by reaching out to people and showing them that changing their behaviours and ways is better for themselves and the people around them, the approach also tries to persuade new attitudes. I used this approach because it could easily raise awareness for health issues, concerning my campaign. It also has the ability to reach a number of people in a short amount of time, another advantage is that Mass Media can convey simple but useful information and it also places health on the public agenda. The Two-way Communication approach is where two people communicate with each other, one of these people being the sender and the other being the receiver. Two people could communicate face to face where one person would be speaking the other would be listening, it can be very easy to tell whether or not someone is actually listening to you whilst you are speaking for example you could tell whether you have someone’s attention through their body language, facial expressions and whether they are or are not making eye contact with you when you are talking. However, many people choose not to make eye contact as they may find it awkward or they may believe that they are making the speaker feel awkward but they are still listening to what someone has to say. I decided to use the mass media approach as it allowed me to be open to instant feedback from anyone listening to the campaign and it can be more democratic. The approach we didn’t use was the community development approach as we didn’t have enough time to include it in our campaign because it’s very time consuming and on a short notice it’s difficult to include it. f) How successful were your aims and objectives (was there anything that was missed out? Did the aims and objectives help with moving the project forward and the overall finished campaign?) My groups SMART aim was to make a lot more people aware of how serious sexual health problems actually are today and how it could affect you in the short term and long term. The three objectives of our campaign were one; to educate people on the different sexually transmitted diseases such as chlamydia and HIV which they could get if they aren’t careful, two; to make people wary of the facts and statistics linking to sexual health and three; to make people think about changing their behaviours. I think that the aims and objectives were overall quite successful as we made a lot of people aware of how sexual health could affect you in the short and long term which hopefully made them think about changing their behaviours. They were also successful as we mainly had positive feedback which shows that the campaign interested people and the campaign followed the aims and objectives so the campaign was a success due to them. I don’t think there was anything missed out of the campaign as we tried to include any information that was relevant so we covered all aspects of sexual health. The aims and objectives helped with moving the project forward and the overall finished campaign as it gave a structure of what to follow so I didn’t go talking about something irrelevant and I stayed with a focus and an aim. g) What do you think is particularly good about your campaign? Why? Is there ANYTHING you could do to improve it? What factors influenced the effectiveness? I think that the information that we were promoting was particularly good about the campaign as we had information on a lot of things that linked to sexual health. By having a lot of information, it was likely that something we had told someone they wouldn’t have known so they could have been more interested. Our posters were also very eye catching as we used bright colours to grab people’s attention which proved to work as they were even reading the information themselves. We also included questionnaires in our campaign which was a huge success to the campaign as people wanted to fill them out without us having to even ask. The questionnaires allowed us to have feedback so we were able to acknowledge on what we could improve and what we did well. The questionnaires also ran out half way through the campaign which shows that they were a benefit to the campaign as people were interested in filling them out. However, we could improve this by printing out more questionnaires so everyone would have a chance to give us their feedback. Our leaflets were also a good thing about the campaign as anyone who came along to the campaign would go away with the important information that we were trying to get across to people hoping they will start thinking about changing their behaviours for the better. The leaflets could have also allowed anyone who didn’t see the campaign to up their knowledge on sexual health as they would have been able to read someone else’s leaflet. Another good thing about the campaign was our logo as we thought creatively to create something that was suitable for the campaign and something that would have made people interested. The factors that influenced the effectiveness were age and location. Location influenced the effectiveness of the campaign as it is where many of the students go on their breaks. Many students walk back and forth there to enter and leave the college so they were likely to see the campaign. Age influenced the effectiveness of the campaign as the age of the college students is probably the most suitable age for the campaign’s target audience as the information would be most useful for them. h) Is there anything you think is poor about your campaign? Why? What could you do to improve it? (Remember, you don’t actually have to make these changes!) identify what could be done differently. There are one or two things that I think was poor about my campaign that could definitely be improved and done differently. One thing that was poor about my campaign is that we didn’t have many resources which was a disadvantage to the campaign because people might have thought that our campaign was less interesting than the rest of the campaigns that used more resources including props. To improve this, we could use more resources and try finding props that would be suitable to the campaign. The place where we were located was somewhat poor due to the fact that we were close to the disabled access door which was being used quite frequently which let in wind which caused destruction to the campaign as our resources such as the leaflets were being blown away. To improve this, we could have moved further up away from the disabled access door if possible. i) Is there anything else you could improve in your campaign? In the campaign, I think I could also improve my confidence as I struggled a bit with talking to people due to it. If I was to improve my confidence I think it would benefit my campaign as I would be able to make people more aware of our aims and objectives to the campaign. j) If money was no object, how would you go about marketing the campaign and getting people to see your campaign? If money was no object, I would use a range of different forms of advertisement that would usually cost a lot of money. The best way for marketing the campaign and getting people to see it would be to use celebrity enforcements as a lot of people look up to celebrities and sees them as role models. Therefore, they would listen to what they have to say and hopefully follow the campaign. Celebrities can also reach a large number of people in a short amount of time due to many having millions of followers on their social media platforms. However, I would have to choose a celebrity wisely because if the celebrity had said or done anything in the past that links to sexual health in a negative way it could cause the campaign to receive negativity from the public. Ed Sheeran is an example of a celebrity that supports campaigns such as campaigns on mental health. Another way for marketing the campaign and getting people to see it would be to use adverts on the tv and other places such as YouTube which is used a lot by the younger generation who happens to be the target audience of the campaign. Social media could also be a great way to market the campaign and getting people to see it as it is very unlikely that the younger age groups would have no social media at all. Social media can also reach a large number of any age groups. Another way to market the campaign and getting people to see it if money was no object is to create leaflets and hand them out to the students in the college as they are the main target audience. Leaflets can be the alternative for anyone who doesn’t have social media or does not watch tv so they are as aware of the campaign as someone who has five social media accounts. To make the leaflets even more effective it could include a coupon or a quiz that requires them to read the leaflet which would result in a prize if answered correctly. Some people might also be more likely to read a leaflet that is given to them directly than reading something online. If money was no object, I could also use billboards to market the campaign as they are usually not hard to miss so it will draw in attention but, as the campaign is focused on sexual health I would have to make sure I use correct wording and keep it very professional. k) If money was no object, how would go about evaluating your campaign to find out what your audience thought when they saw it? If money was no object, I would go about evaluating the campaign to find out what the audience thought in a few different ways for the best feedback possible. One of the best and most effective ways to find out what the audience thought would be to send out questionnaires to the people who received a leaflet having already wrote their names and addresses down when the leaflets were given to them. The questionnaire could include a range of different questions including how useful the information included in the leaflet was where they would circle a number between 1-10, 1 being not very useful and 10 being very useful. The questionnaire could also include a question on how we could improve the campaign if we were to do it again. Included with the questionnaire there could be a free stamp to return the questionnaire or someone could pick them up a week or two after they are sent out. Another way to evaluate the campaign to find out what my audience thought when they saw it can be to create social media polls which will hopefully reach out to those who didn’t receive a leaflet so they are able to give their feedback. Online quizzes can also be used to evaluate the campaign to find out what my audience thought. Online quizzes can be a great way to find out what the audience thought of the campaign as it allows instant feedback and is easily accessible as most people have Wi-Fi or access to Wi-Fi in public places. | 3,849 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Titanic was 268 metres long and weighed over 46,000 tonnes.
Titanic’s hull contained 835 cabins and could accommodate three and half thousand passengers and crew.
The bow section of the Titanic was erected next to Titanic’s dry dock in Belfast, Northern Ireland, as a lasting tribute to the community that made her.
In this episode, sixteen tonnes of steel parts will be assembled in eight days.
A week into the build, the bow section stands at just over 9.4 metres. This structure represents only a fraction of Titanic's vast hull. From the bottom of her keel to the top of her funnels, Titanic stood at 53.34 metres.
The team of experts took five days to make one rib, one plate and part of the stem by hand, 1/19th of the entire section.
Titanic’s stem was 45 metres long.
SHIPPING INDUSTRY AND HARLAND AND WOLFF
Work started on the Titanic’s hull at Harland and Wolff’s shipyard in Belfast, Northern Ireland, in 1909.
On May 31st 1911, after two years of construction, workers, families and dignitaries made their way to the Belfast shipyard to witness the launch of Titanic.
At the time it was finished, Titanic was the heaviest man-made object ever moved.
To build the massive hull, lengths of steel were heated in huge furnaces, then dragged onto pegboards where expert steel workers quickly bent the steel round a guide to the exact curve they needed. The metal could only be worked when red-hot.
4000 men worked on Titanic, making over 600 ribs that formed the shape of the ship. It took in excess of two years to build her giant hull.
15,000 people poured through the gates of Harland and Wolff’s dockyards where Titanic was built every day.
Harland and Wolff built its last ship in 2003. It still exists today, specializing in marine engineering with a workforce of 300.
At 6.20AM the foreman would greet the shipyard workers at the Harland and Wolff gate. Anyone who arrived late would find themselves locked out, with no work and no pay. There was a morning break from twenty past eight until nine o’clock. There was then a lunch from one to two, followed by a short afternoon break.
In the Harland and Wolff shipyard every meal break was strictly regulated, and even toilet breaks were restricted. An attendant would check workers in and out, and each person had just seven minutes in which to do their business.
In 1909, draughtsmen drew many sections of the ship to scale, piece by piece, on the floor of a huge loft, and used these drawings to make wooden templates, which were then used to shape each piece of the ship’s steel frame.
LINEN, TITANIC’S TEXTILES
Titanic's three and half thousand passengers and crew required some 45,000 linen napkins, 18,000 linen bed sheets, and 32,500 linen towels.
In Belfast, linen and textiles were the major employer of women, and was such a big industry that the city itself was referred to as 'Linenopolis.'
In 1911, 40% of the workforce was female. And of this, 75% were employed in textile manufacturing.
Women who worked in the spinning mills often worked in their bare feet. Women would often get trench foot from standing in water, and in the spinning rooms they would have got what was called mill fever. With the noise and the heat, they would feel dizzy and nauseous.
Rivets were the super glue of the industrial age, and held together steel structures from trains to bridges.
Three million rivets were used to make Titanic.
Once hammered together, as the rivet cools down, it shrinks, and gets tighter.
Riveters took five years to master the craft and were highly paid.
Hand riveting on shipyards required a four-man team. One person to run the rivet over with tongs. Another person to hold it on the back with a big hammer. And then two people on the other side smacking it in.
The rivet counter would have clearly set out what needed to be riveted, inspected the finished work, and calculated how much the riveters should be paid.
Rivet squads were paid per rivet and competition between crews was fierce.
An estimated 75% of Titanic's rivets were fixed using hammers and sheer manpower.
DANGERS OF THE SHIPYARD
Eight men died during the building of Titanic.
In 1910, in the shipbuilding industry it was acceptable to incur one death per £100,000 spent on a project. For a construction costing then nearly 1.5 million pounds, the loss of eight lives was considered acceptable.
The 1906 Compensation Act meant employers were now liable for accidents and injuries in the work place. The widow of Robert James Murphy senior received £300 from Harland and Wolff in compensation for her husband’s death, the equivalent of two and half years wages he would have earned as a master of the riveting trade. | <urn:uuid:91001a7c-f757-474d-a785-21d7ecc94222> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.natgeotv.com/int/rebuilding-titanic/raising-the-bow | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.98063 | 1,089 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.2171590775251... | 8 | Titanic was 268 metres long and weighed over 46,000 tonnes.
Titanic’s hull contained 835 cabins and could accommodate three and half thousand passengers and crew.
The bow section of the Titanic was erected next to Titanic’s dry dock in Belfast, Northern Ireland, as a lasting tribute to the community that made her.
In this episode, sixteen tonnes of steel parts will be assembled in eight days.
A week into the build, the bow section stands at just over 9.4 metres. This structure represents only a fraction of Titanic's vast hull. From the bottom of her keel to the top of her funnels, Titanic stood at 53.34 metres.
The team of experts took five days to make one rib, one plate and part of the stem by hand, 1/19th of the entire section.
Titanic’s stem was 45 metres long.
SHIPPING INDUSTRY AND HARLAND AND WOLFF
Work started on the Titanic’s hull at Harland and Wolff’s shipyard in Belfast, Northern Ireland, in 1909.
On May 31st 1911, after two years of construction, workers, families and dignitaries made their way to the Belfast shipyard to witness the launch of Titanic.
At the time it was finished, Titanic was the heaviest man-made object ever moved.
To build the massive hull, lengths of steel were heated in huge furnaces, then dragged onto pegboards where expert steel workers quickly bent the steel round a guide to the exact curve they needed. The metal could only be worked when red-hot.
4000 men worked on Titanic, making over 600 ribs that formed the shape of the ship. It took in excess of two years to build her giant hull.
15,000 people poured through the gates of Harland and Wolff’s dockyards where Titanic was built every day.
Harland and Wolff built its last ship in 2003. It still exists today, specializing in marine engineering with a workforce of 300.
At 6.20AM the foreman would greet the shipyard workers at the Harland and Wolff gate. Anyone who arrived late would find themselves locked out, with no work and no pay. There was a morning break from twenty past eight until nine o’clock. There was then a lunch from one to two, followed by a short afternoon break.
In the Harland and Wolff shipyard every meal break was strictly regulated, and even toilet breaks were restricted. An attendant would check workers in and out, and each person had just seven minutes in which to do their business.
In 1909, draughtsmen drew many sections of the ship to scale, piece by piece, on the floor of a huge loft, and used these drawings to make wooden templates, which were then used to shape each piece of the ship’s steel frame.
LINEN, TITANIC’S TEXTILES
Titanic's three and half thousand passengers and crew required some 45,000 linen napkins, 18,000 linen bed sheets, and 32,500 linen towels.
In Belfast, linen and textiles were the major employer of women, and was such a big industry that the city itself was referred to as 'Linenopolis.'
In 1911, 40% of the workforce was female. And of this, 75% were employed in textile manufacturing.
Women who worked in the spinning mills often worked in their bare feet. Women would often get trench foot from standing in water, and in the spinning rooms they would have got what was called mill fever. With the noise and the heat, they would feel dizzy and nauseous.
Rivets were the super glue of the industrial age, and held together steel structures from trains to bridges.
Three million rivets were used to make Titanic.
Once hammered together, as the rivet cools down, it shrinks, and gets tighter.
Riveters took five years to master the craft and were highly paid.
Hand riveting on shipyards required a four-man team. One person to run the rivet over with tongs. Another person to hold it on the back with a big hammer. And then two people on the other side smacking it in.
The rivet counter would have clearly set out what needed to be riveted, inspected the finished work, and calculated how much the riveters should be paid.
Rivet squads were paid per rivet and competition between crews was fierce.
An estimated 75% of Titanic's rivets were fixed using hammers and sheer manpower.
DANGERS OF THE SHIPYARD
Eight men died during the building of Titanic.
In 1910, in the shipbuilding industry it was acceptable to incur one death per £100,000 spent on a project. For a construction costing then nearly 1.5 million pounds, the loss of eight lives was considered acceptable.
The 1906 Compensation Act meant employers were now liable for accidents and injuries in the work place. The widow of Robert James Murphy senior received £300 from Harland and Wolff in compensation for her husband’s death, the equivalent of two and half years wages he would have earned as a master of the riveting trade. | 1,110 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ever wonder where the word Saxophone came from? Me either, but here’s your answer.
Antoine-Joseph “Adolphe” Sax (6 November 1814 – c. 7 February 1894) was a Belgian musical instrument designer and musician who played the flute and clarinet, and is well known for having invented the saxophone.
Adolphe Sax was born in Dinant, Belgium. His father, Charles-Joseph Sax, was an instrument designer himself, who made several changes to the design of the horn. Adolphe began to make his own instruments at an early age, entering two of his flutes and a clarinet into a competition at the age of 15. He subsequently studied those two instruments at the Royal Conservatory of Brussels.
Having left the school, Sax began to experiment with new instrument designs, while his father continued to make conventional instruments to bring money into the household. Adolphe’s first important invention was an improvement of the bass clarinet design, which he patented at the age of 24. Sax relocated permanently to Paris in 1841 and began working on a new set of instruments exhibited there in 1844. These were valved bugles, and although he had not invented the instrument itself, his examples were so much more successful than those of his rivals that they became known as saxhorns. They range in approximately seven different sizes, and paved the path to the creation of the flugelhorn. Saxhorns are widely used today in concert bands and sometimes in orchestras. The saxhorn also laid the groundwork for the modern euphonium.
Sax also developed the saxotromba family, valved brass instruments with narrower bore than the saxhorns, in 1845, though they survived only briefly.
Saxhorn instruments spread rapidly throughout the world. The saxhorn valves were accepted as state of the art and are largely unchanged today. The advances made by Adolphe Sax were soon followed by the British brass band movement which exclusively adopted the saxhorn range. The Jedforest Instrumental Band formed in 1854 and The Hawick Saxhorn Band formed in 1855, within the Scottish Borders, a decade after saxhorn models became available.
The period around 1840 saw Sax inventing the clarinette-bourdon, an early unsuccessful design of contrabass clarinet. He developed around this time the instrument for which he is now best known, the saxophone, patented on June 28, 1846. The saxophone was invented for use in both orchestras and concert bands. Composer Hector Berlioz wrote approvingly of the new instrument in 1842. By 1846 Sax had designed, on paper, a full range of saxophones (from sopranino to subcontrabass). Although they never became standard orchestral instruments, the saxophones made his reputation and secured him a job, teaching at the Paris Conservatoire in 1857.
Sax continued to make instruments later in life and presided over a new saxophone class at the Paris Conservatoire. Rival instrument makers attacked the legitimacy of his patents and mounted a long campaign of litigation against Sax and his company. He was driven into bankruptcy in 1856 and again in 1873.
Sax suffered from lip cancer between 1853 and 1858 but made a full recovery. He died in 1894 in Paris and was interred in section 5 (Avenue de Montebello) at the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris.
So that’s how the saxophone was invented and where the name came from. Here at Moeller/Willis Music West Chester we have one of the best selections of saxes I’ve ever seen. Come in and check them out today! | <urn:uuid:d6f6bdc2-af17-42a4-a61a-b8ef68d43538> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://willismusic.com/adolphe-sax-guy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.983363 | 771 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.325143903493... | 2 | Ever wonder where the word Saxophone came from? Me either, but here’s your answer.
Antoine-Joseph “Adolphe” Sax (6 November 1814 – c. 7 February 1894) was a Belgian musical instrument designer and musician who played the flute and clarinet, and is well known for having invented the saxophone.
Adolphe Sax was born in Dinant, Belgium. His father, Charles-Joseph Sax, was an instrument designer himself, who made several changes to the design of the horn. Adolphe began to make his own instruments at an early age, entering two of his flutes and a clarinet into a competition at the age of 15. He subsequently studied those two instruments at the Royal Conservatory of Brussels.
Having left the school, Sax began to experiment with new instrument designs, while his father continued to make conventional instruments to bring money into the household. Adolphe’s first important invention was an improvement of the bass clarinet design, which he patented at the age of 24. Sax relocated permanently to Paris in 1841 and began working on a new set of instruments exhibited there in 1844. These were valved bugles, and although he had not invented the instrument itself, his examples were so much more successful than those of his rivals that they became known as saxhorns. They range in approximately seven different sizes, and paved the path to the creation of the flugelhorn. Saxhorns are widely used today in concert bands and sometimes in orchestras. The saxhorn also laid the groundwork for the modern euphonium.
Sax also developed the saxotromba family, valved brass instruments with narrower bore than the saxhorns, in 1845, though they survived only briefly.
Saxhorn instruments spread rapidly throughout the world. The saxhorn valves were accepted as state of the art and are largely unchanged today. The advances made by Adolphe Sax were soon followed by the British brass band movement which exclusively adopted the saxhorn range. The Jedforest Instrumental Band formed in 1854 and The Hawick Saxhorn Band formed in 1855, within the Scottish Borders, a decade after saxhorn models became available.
The period around 1840 saw Sax inventing the clarinette-bourdon, an early unsuccessful design of contrabass clarinet. He developed around this time the instrument for which he is now best known, the saxophone, patented on June 28, 1846. The saxophone was invented for use in both orchestras and concert bands. Composer Hector Berlioz wrote approvingly of the new instrument in 1842. By 1846 Sax had designed, on paper, a full range of saxophones (from sopranino to subcontrabass). Although they never became standard orchestral instruments, the saxophones made his reputation and secured him a job, teaching at the Paris Conservatoire in 1857.
Sax continued to make instruments later in life and presided over a new saxophone class at the Paris Conservatoire. Rival instrument makers attacked the legitimacy of his patents and mounted a long campaign of litigation against Sax and his company. He was driven into bankruptcy in 1856 and again in 1873.
Sax suffered from lip cancer between 1853 and 1858 but made a full recovery. He died in 1894 in Paris and was interred in section 5 (Avenue de Montebello) at the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris.
So that’s how the saxophone was invented and where the name came from. Here at Moeller/Willis Music West Chester we have one of the best selections of saxes I’ve ever seen. Come in and check them out today! | 812 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Brown-Proctor House is significant more for one of its owners, John F. Proctor, than its architecture. It was built in 1881 by John A. Brown and later bought by Proctor in 1907. Proctor, who worked as an attorney, modified the house to what it appears today. In the 1890s, he served both Alabama's House of Representatives and the Senate. He was the court-appointed lawyer for the Scottsboro Boys (see below) during their first trial in 1931. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. Since 1985, the house has been the Scottsboro-Jackson Heritage Center which preserves the history, customs, traditions and art of Jackson County. Exhibits feature artifacts and information about the Native Americans who inhabited the area, the pioneer settlers, the Civil War and the house itself.
The Scottsboro Boys was a group of nine African American teenage boys—one was 12—accused of raping two white women on a train. All but the the 12 year-old were convicted to death. However, court battles in the following years, which included rulings from the U.S. Supreme Court, ultimately proved the boys' innocence. The two women eventually retracted their stories. | <urn:uuid:6573cedd-a90e-43dc-aa40-a1d512bd3213> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/21016 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.987609 | 255 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.3264149427... | 1 | The Brown-Proctor House is significant more for one of its owners, John F. Proctor, than its architecture. It was built in 1881 by John A. Brown and later bought by Proctor in 1907. Proctor, who worked as an attorney, modified the house to what it appears today. In the 1890s, he served both Alabama's House of Representatives and the Senate. He was the court-appointed lawyer for the Scottsboro Boys (see below) during their first trial in 1931. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. Since 1985, the house has been the Scottsboro-Jackson Heritage Center which preserves the history, customs, traditions and art of Jackson County. Exhibits feature artifacts and information about the Native Americans who inhabited the area, the pioneer settlers, the Civil War and the house itself.
The Scottsboro Boys was a group of nine African American teenage boys—one was 12—accused of raping two white women on a train. All but the the 12 year-old were convicted to death. However, court battles in the following years, which included rulings from the U.S. Supreme Court, ultimately proved the boys' innocence. The two women eventually retracted their stories. | 276 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Dublin, Irish nationalists led by Patrick Pearse launch the Easter Rebellion against British rule.
The nationalists attacked British provincial government headquarters across the Irish capital and seized the Dublin post office. Following these successes, they proclaimed the independence of Ireland, and by the next morning were in control of much of the city. Later that day, however, British authorities launched a counteroffensive, and by April 29 the uprising had been crushed.
Pearce and 14 other nationalist leaders were executed for their parts in the Easter Rebellion, and were held up as martyrs by many in Ireland. Armed protest continued, and in 1922 most of Ireland won independence with the declaration of the Irish Free State. Six northern counties of the island remained part of United Kingdom, and some nationalists reorganized themselves into the Irish Republican Army (IRA) to continue their struggle for Irish independence. | <urn:uuid:e2e8e0cb-0951-483f-b85d-b646368f4068> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historychannel.com.au/this-day-in-history/easter-rebellion-in-ireland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00059.warc.gz | en | 0.985006 | 171 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.41173985600... | 1 | In Dublin, Irish nationalists led by Patrick Pearse launch the Easter Rebellion against British rule.
The nationalists attacked British provincial government headquarters across the Irish capital and seized the Dublin post office. Following these successes, they proclaimed the independence of Ireland, and by the next morning were in control of much of the city. Later that day, however, British authorities launched a counteroffensive, and by April 29 the uprising had been crushed.
Pearce and 14 other nationalist leaders were executed for their parts in the Easter Rebellion, and were held up as martyrs by many in Ireland. Armed protest continued, and in 1922 most of Ireland won independence with the declaration of the Irish Free State. Six northern counties of the island remained part of United Kingdom, and some nationalists reorganized themselves into the Irish Republican Army (IRA) to continue their struggle for Irish independence. | 177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Orange Crayon Clip ArtWiki info
Contemporary crayons are purported to have originated in Europe, where some of the first cylinder-shaped crayons were made with charcoal and oil. Pastels are an art medium having roots with the modern crayon and stem back to Leonardo da Vinci in 1495. Conté crayons, out of Paris, are a hybrid between a pastel and a conventional crayon, used since the late 1790s as a drawing crayon for artists. Later, various hues of powdered pigment eventually replaced the primary charcoal ingredient found in most early 19th century products. References to crayons in literature appear as early as 1813 in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice. Joseph Lemercier (born in Paris 1803—died 1884), considered by some of his contemporaries to be "the soul of lithography", was also one of the founders of the modern crayon. Through his Paris business circa 1828 he produced a variety of crayon and color related products. But even as those in Europe were discovering that substituting wax for the oil strengthened the crayon, various efforts in the United States were also developing. | <urn:uuid:2f6ad405-87cc-40db-a949-03bb0e3b01e7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://stop-ciberbullying.info/orange-crayon-clip-art/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.982753 | 248 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.533021152... | 1 | Orange Crayon Clip ArtWiki info
Contemporary crayons are purported to have originated in Europe, where some of the first cylinder-shaped crayons were made with charcoal and oil. Pastels are an art medium having roots with the modern crayon and stem back to Leonardo da Vinci in 1495. Conté crayons, out of Paris, are a hybrid between a pastel and a conventional crayon, used since the late 1790s as a drawing crayon for artists. Later, various hues of powdered pigment eventually replaced the primary charcoal ingredient found in most early 19th century products. References to crayons in literature appear as early as 1813 in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice. Joseph Lemercier (born in Paris 1803—died 1884), considered by some of his contemporaries to be "the soul of lithography", was also one of the founders of the modern crayon. Through his Paris business circa 1828 he produced a variety of crayon and color related products. But even as those in Europe were discovering that substituting wax for the oil strengthened the crayon, various efforts in the United States were also developing. | 256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mut is the Egyptian mother goddess who came to prominence during the New Kingdom (c. 1550 – c. 1070 BC) as a result of her relationship with the god Amun. She is often represented as a woman, sometimes with wings, or a vulture.
Later, as she took on the attributes of other Egyptian goddesses, she was also depicted as a woman with a lion’s head. Sometimes she wore the royal crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt and sometimes the vulture headdress of the queens of the New Kingdom.
Mut is believed to have originated as a local goddess in the Nile River delta, after which she replaced and assimilated many other Egyptian goddesses over the course of millennia. She was originally linked to the primeval waters of the universe, from which all things were born. Her identity as mother of the cosmos gave her aspects of a creator goddess.
Mut became a national goddess when Amun, king of the gods and god of the wind, became patron of Thebes during the Eleventh Dynasty around the 21st century B.C. She took the place of Amun’s original wife Amaunet, the invisible goddess. With Amun being the god of the pharaohs, she became their mother and was closely associated with the queens.
After Amun’s authority waned and he merged with the son god Ra, Mut was assimilated into Hathor, the mother of Horus, who was also identified as Ra’s wife. She was later absorbed into the Heliopolitan Ennead.
Myth has it that as the great mother from who everyone was brought forth, Mut had no parents. In some depictions of her she also has male parts. Although she was the mother goddess, she did not give birth to her own children. Instead, she first adopted Menthu, the war god, and then Khonsu, the moon god.
Mut is most often affiliated with vultures. Other animals she may be affiliated with include cobras and lionesses.
Mut, Amun, and their son Khonsu were worshiped as the Triad of Waset. Waset was the ancient Egyptian name for Thebes, and became the capital of the pharaohs during the New Kingdom. A large temple complex, commonly referred to as the Temple of Karnak, was constructed in Waset (Thebes) to worship the triad.
The Karnak Temple Complex consists of various precincts, one of which is the Mut Precinct. The other two precincts are the Precinct of Amun-Ra and the Precinct of Montu.
Inside the Mut Precinct are six temples. These include Mut Temple Proper, the Contra Temple, and temples labeled as A, B, C and D. All six of these temples are surrounded by a wall made of mud and mud-brick.1
The Mut Temple Proper is surrounded by a lake in the shape of a horseshoe. During the festival of Mut, a boat with a statue of the goddess was sailed around the lake. Interior reliefs from the temple in Karnak show evidence of daily devotions by the queen and her priestesses. No other examples exist of exclusively female worship in ancient Egypt.
Evidence exists that it was the pharaohs Hatshepsut and Thothmose III who were responsible for the earliest versions of the Mut Precinct. Excavations at the precinct first led archeologists to believe that the temples were built by Amenhotep III because of the presence of several statues of the goddess Sekhmet bearing his name. However, it is now believed that they were brought here after his death at a time when Mut and Sekhmet were closely associated.
Over the centuries, more additions and improvements to the Mut temple precinct were done by pharaohs such as Rameses II, Rameses III, and Taharqa, who was also king of the Kush.
Facts About Mut
- Mut’s name is written with the hieroglyph for vulture;
- The many titles given to Mut over the years included Mother of the Gods, World-Mother, and Lady of Heaven;
- Mut became the eye of Ra after Amun merged with Ra;
- The custom of depicting Mut wearing the Double Crown of Egypt was begun by Hatshepsut. Stating that she was one of Mut’s descendants, Hatshepsut brought prominence to the goddess in the ancient Egyptian pantheon;
- One of the many aspects of Mut was a composite deity by the name of Mut-Isis-Nekhbet, known as the Great Mother and Lady. In this form she was depicted as a winged goddess with three heads – that of a lion, a vulture, and a woman with different headdresses. She also had lion-like feet and an erect penis;
- Her’s temple precinct at Karnak was called an Isheru and remained an important religious center for nearly 2,000 years. Fed by an underground spring, it is the largest preserved Isheru in Egypt today;
- The Greek Ptolemaic dynasty maintained the temple of Mut, adding their own decorations;
- After the conquest of Egypt by Rome at around 30 BC, the Roman emperor Tiberius rebuilt the site when it was flooded. While some of his successors maintained its upkeep, it eventually fell into disuse.
Link/cite this page
If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source.
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0.00969108752906... | 1 | Mut is the Egyptian mother goddess who came to prominence during the New Kingdom (c. 1550 – c. 1070 BC) as a result of her relationship with the god Amun. She is often represented as a woman, sometimes with wings, or a vulture.
Later, as she took on the attributes of other Egyptian goddesses, she was also depicted as a woman with a lion’s head. Sometimes she wore the royal crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt and sometimes the vulture headdress of the queens of the New Kingdom.
Mut is believed to have originated as a local goddess in the Nile River delta, after which she replaced and assimilated many other Egyptian goddesses over the course of millennia. She was originally linked to the primeval waters of the universe, from which all things were born. Her identity as mother of the cosmos gave her aspects of a creator goddess.
Mut became a national goddess when Amun, king of the gods and god of the wind, became patron of Thebes during the Eleventh Dynasty around the 21st century B.C. She took the place of Amun’s original wife Amaunet, the invisible goddess. With Amun being the god of the pharaohs, she became their mother and was closely associated with the queens.
After Amun’s authority waned and he merged with the son god Ra, Mut was assimilated into Hathor, the mother of Horus, who was also identified as Ra’s wife. She was later absorbed into the Heliopolitan Ennead.
Myth has it that as the great mother from who everyone was brought forth, Mut had no parents. In some depictions of her she also has male parts. Although she was the mother goddess, she did not give birth to her own children. Instead, she first adopted Menthu, the war god, and then Khonsu, the moon god.
Mut is most often affiliated with vultures. Other animals she may be affiliated with include cobras and lionesses.
Mut, Amun, and their son Khonsu were worshiped as the Triad of Waset. Waset was the ancient Egyptian name for Thebes, and became the capital of the pharaohs during the New Kingdom. A large temple complex, commonly referred to as the Temple of Karnak, was constructed in Waset (Thebes) to worship the triad.
The Karnak Temple Complex consists of various precincts, one of which is the Mut Precinct. The other two precincts are the Precinct of Amun-Ra and the Precinct of Montu.
Inside the Mut Precinct are six temples. These include Mut Temple Proper, the Contra Temple, and temples labeled as A, B, C and D. All six of these temples are surrounded by a wall made of mud and mud-brick.1
The Mut Temple Proper is surrounded by a lake in the shape of a horseshoe. During the festival of Mut, a boat with a statue of the goddess was sailed around the lake. Interior reliefs from the temple in Karnak show evidence of daily devotions by the queen and her priestesses. No other examples exist of exclusively female worship in ancient Egypt.
Evidence exists that it was the pharaohs Hatshepsut and Thothmose III who were responsible for the earliest versions of the Mut Precinct. Excavations at the precinct first led archeologists to believe that the temples were built by Amenhotep III because of the presence of several statues of the goddess Sekhmet bearing his name. However, it is now believed that they were brought here after his death at a time when Mut and Sekhmet were closely associated.
Over the centuries, more additions and improvements to the Mut temple precinct were done by pharaohs such as Rameses II, Rameses III, and Taharqa, who was also king of the Kush.
Facts About Mut
- Mut’s name is written with the hieroglyph for vulture;
- The many titles given to Mut over the years included Mother of the Gods, World-Mother, and Lady of Heaven;
- Mut became the eye of Ra after Amun merged with Ra;
- The custom of depicting Mut wearing the Double Crown of Egypt was begun by Hatshepsut. Stating that she was one of Mut’s descendants, Hatshepsut brought prominence to the goddess in the ancient Egyptian pantheon;
- One of the many aspects of Mut was a composite deity by the name of Mut-Isis-Nekhbet, known as the Great Mother and Lady. In this form she was depicted as a winged goddess with three heads – that of a lion, a vulture, and a woman with different headdresses. She also had lion-like feet and an erect penis;
- Her’s temple precinct at Karnak was called an Isheru and remained an important religious center for nearly 2,000 years. Fed by an underground spring, it is the largest preserved Isheru in Egypt today;
- The Greek Ptolemaic dynasty maintained the temple of Mut, adding their own decorations;
- After the conquest of Egypt by Rome at around 30 BC, the Roman emperor Tiberius rebuilt the site when it was flooded. While some of his successors maintained its upkeep, it eventually fell into disuse.
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If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source.
Link will appear as Mut: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020 | 1,163 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Roman Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum in 80 A.D It is located near the very center of Rome, or modern day Rome, Italy. It is a beautiful aspect of the Roman architecture, with many arches and 160 statues. The Colosseum could also hold up to 55,000 people at a time, where they could watch many famous gladiator battles and games, like the hundred-day games that were performed by Titus. It was four stories high, and 48 meters (159 feet) tall. An awning called the Velarium could shade the audience from the harsh sun. When parts of the Southern wall broke off of the Colosseum in an 847 A.D. earthquake, some of the marble was used to construct other monuments including St. Peter’s Bascilia and Palazzo Farnese. The Colosseum was originally named The Flavian Amphitheater. It is still standing today.
The Arch of Titus
Roman Emperor Domitian built the Arch of Titus in 81 A.D It is located in the center of Rome, near the Colosseum, in modern day Rome, Italy. The Arch of Titus was built as a reminder of Emperor Titus’ successful attempt to stop the Jewish Zealot revolt in 66 A.D. The arch stands 15 meters (about 50 feet) tall, with a great view of the Colosseum. It was built with Pentelic marble, a type of marble found in Greece’s Penteliko Mountains. It is also one of the oldest Roman arches surviving, standing tall for over 1,900 years. “On a tour to Rome, visiting the Arch of Titus is considered as important as touring the Colosseum, the Pantheon, and the Pyramid of Cestius.” (4) Passing directly underneath it is the highest peak of the Via Sacra road. The Arch of Titus is also a part of the Forum Romanum. Giuseppe Valadier restored the Arch of Titus in 1821, to the beautiful state it is still in today.
The Roman Emperor Hadrian built the Pantheon between 118 and 125 A.D It was originally built in between 27 and 25 B.C. by general Marcus Agrippa, but was burnt down in 80 A.D. It was then reconstructed by Emperor Domitian, and was again destroyed in 110 A.D. by lightning. The new circular design that Emperor Hadrian gave it has left the Pantheon still standing to this day, although a lighter concrete was used on the dome because of its weight. The portico’s columns weighed 60 tons each, all sixteen of them imported from Egypt. The geometric-patterned marble flooring is still intact today. It is also located in the middle of Rome’s historical center, near the famed Piazzo Navona square.
The Theater of Marcellus
The Theater of Marcellus is a symbolic monument that was originally built for Julius Caesar, after he had defeated his former friend Pompey, because Julius had wanted to build a more popular theater than Pompey’s. But when Julius was killed in 44 B.C, Emperor Augustus decided to take over the construction and dedicate the theater to his late nephew, Marcellus. It was built in 13 B.C. and completed in 11 B.C. It was also the largest theater in ancient Rome at the time. The theater had three levels,... | <urn:uuid:6d632a01-31dd-45e3-b5ca-9809073ca6a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/roman-tour-venture | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00059.warc.gz | en | 0.981996 | 718 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.371566921472549... | 1 | Roman Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum in 80 A.D It is located near the very center of Rome, or modern day Rome, Italy. It is a beautiful aspect of the Roman architecture, with many arches and 160 statues. The Colosseum could also hold up to 55,000 people at a time, where they could watch many famous gladiator battles and games, like the hundred-day games that were performed by Titus. It was four stories high, and 48 meters (159 feet) tall. An awning called the Velarium could shade the audience from the harsh sun. When parts of the Southern wall broke off of the Colosseum in an 847 A.D. earthquake, some of the marble was used to construct other monuments including St. Peter’s Bascilia and Palazzo Farnese. The Colosseum was originally named The Flavian Amphitheater. It is still standing today.
The Arch of Titus
Roman Emperor Domitian built the Arch of Titus in 81 A.D It is located in the center of Rome, near the Colosseum, in modern day Rome, Italy. The Arch of Titus was built as a reminder of Emperor Titus’ successful attempt to stop the Jewish Zealot revolt in 66 A.D. The arch stands 15 meters (about 50 feet) tall, with a great view of the Colosseum. It was built with Pentelic marble, a type of marble found in Greece’s Penteliko Mountains. It is also one of the oldest Roman arches surviving, standing tall for over 1,900 years. “On a tour to Rome, visiting the Arch of Titus is considered as important as touring the Colosseum, the Pantheon, and the Pyramid of Cestius.” (4) Passing directly underneath it is the highest peak of the Via Sacra road. The Arch of Titus is also a part of the Forum Romanum. Giuseppe Valadier restored the Arch of Titus in 1821, to the beautiful state it is still in today.
The Roman Emperor Hadrian built the Pantheon between 118 and 125 A.D It was originally built in between 27 and 25 B.C. by general Marcus Agrippa, but was burnt down in 80 A.D. It was then reconstructed by Emperor Domitian, and was again destroyed in 110 A.D. by lightning. The new circular design that Emperor Hadrian gave it has left the Pantheon still standing to this day, although a lighter concrete was used on the dome because of its weight. The portico’s columns weighed 60 tons each, all sixteen of them imported from Egypt. The geometric-patterned marble flooring is still intact today. It is also located in the middle of Rome’s historical center, near the famed Piazzo Navona square.
The Theater of Marcellus
The Theater of Marcellus is a symbolic monument that was originally built for Julius Caesar, after he had defeated his former friend Pompey, because Julius had wanted to build a more popular theater than Pompey’s. But when Julius was killed in 44 B.C, Emperor Augustus decided to take over the construction and dedicate the theater to his late nephew, Marcellus. It was built in 13 B.C. and completed in 11 B.C. It was also the largest theater in ancient Rome at the time. The theater had three levels,... | 744 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- In the New World, many tribes would grow beans together with maize (corn), and squash. The corn would not be planted in rows as is done by European agriculture, but in a checkerboard/hex fashion across a field, in separate patches of one to six stalks each.
- Beans would be planted around the base of the developing stalks, and would vine their way up as the stalks grew. All American beans at that time were vine plants, "bush beans" having been bred only more recently. The cornstalks would work as a trellis for the beans, and the beans would provide much-needed nitrogen for the corn.
- Squash would be planted in the spaces between the patches of corn in the field. They would be provided slight shelter from the sun by the corn, would shade the soil and reduce evaporation, and would deter many animals from attacking the corn and beans because their coarse, hairy vines and broad, stiff leaves are difficult or uncomfortable for animals such as deer and raccoons to walk through, crows to land on, etc.
I can't help but think, that this is both a very clever idea, and rather like communities of people. Clever because while it might not be at the scale of modern industrial agriculture, it's kind of genius to try such an experiment and see if it really works. Like communities of people because we're likely stronger when we grow together rather than gutting anyone who disagrees. | <urn:uuid:037dd4f4-d403-4d48-9985-72f2b5dc614b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.spidey01.com/2019/12/til-three-sisters.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.982117 | 301 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.111378073692321... | 9 | - In the New World, many tribes would grow beans together with maize (corn), and squash. The corn would not be planted in rows as is done by European agriculture, but in a checkerboard/hex fashion across a field, in separate patches of one to six stalks each.
- Beans would be planted around the base of the developing stalks, and would vine their way up as the stalks grew. All American beans at that time were vine plants, "bush beans" having been bred only more recently. The cornstalks would work as a trellis for the beans, and the beans would provide much-needed nitrogen for the corn.
- Squash would be planted in the spaces between the patches of corn in the field. They would be provided slight shelter from the sun by the corn, would shade the soil and reduce evaporation, and would deter many animals from attacking the corn and beans because their coarse, hairy vines and broad, stiff leaves are difficult or uncomfortable for animals such as deer and raccoons to walk through, crows to land on, etc.
I can't help but think, that this is both a very clever idea, and rather like communities of people. Clever because while it might not be at the scale of modern industrial agriculture, it's kind of genius to try such an experiment and see if it really works. Like communities of people because we're likely stronger when we grow together rather than gutting anyone who disagrees. | 297 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He served as an adjutant in the Mexican War and was cited for “gallant service.” It was during this time that he would acquire his nickname of “Rip” for sending out official death notices with the citation “Rest in Peace” written at the top. In 1849, Ford would explore and map the country between El Paso and San Antonio. He would also become a captain in the Texas Rangers and participate in various fights with local Native American tribes. Ford was elected to the Texas Senate in 1852, and in 1858 he led state troops against both Native American and Mexican uprisings.
With the growing tension between North and South escalating in 1861, Ford served as a member of the Secession Convention, and after Texas left the Union, he initiated a trade agreement between the Confederacy and Mexico. Ford served as colonel of the 2nd Texas Cavalry based in the Rio Grande district, and was assigned to protect trade routes with Mexico. Between 1862 and 1865, he was also commandant of conscripts.
Ford’s greatest military exploit was the Battle of Palmito Ranch on May 12-13, 1865, when he defeated attacking Union forces under Colonel Theodore H. Barrett. Barrett had attempted to surprise Confederate forces at Fort Brown, outside Brownsville, but was repulsed by Ford’s daring frontal attack. The battle was considered a Confederate victory, with Union troops retreating and suffering 118 casualties. Ford’s men had an estimated six killed, wounded or missing. Unfortunately for Ford, all Confederate forces in Texas surrendered two weeks later.
After the war, Ford continued his interests in politics and newspaper editing, serving as a delegate to the Democratic convention in 1868, and working on the Brownsville Sentinel. He would become the mayor of Brownsville in 1874, and serve again in the Texas Senate from 1876 to 1879. In his later years, Ford would spend his time writing his memoirs and promoting an interest in Texas history through the Texas State Historical Association. Ford died on November 3, 1897 in San Antonio, having the dubious distinction of being the last victorious Confederate commander of the Civil War. Source | <urn:uuid:62f77e07-11e9-438c-8cdd-e96394ce28aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thetexasunderground.blogspot.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.982828 | 444 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3031685948... | 1 | He served as an adjutant in the Mexican War and was cited for “gallant service.” It was during this time that he would acquire his nickname of “Rip” for sending out official death notices with the citation “Rest in Peace” written at the top. In 1849, Ford would explore and map the country between El Paso and San Antonio. He would also become a captain in the Texas Rangers and participate in various fights with local Native American tribes. Ford was elected to the Texas Senate in 1852, and in 1858 he led state troops against both Native American and Mexican uprisings.
With the growing tension between North and South escalating in 1861, Ford served as a member of the Secession Convention, and after Texas left the Union, he initiated a trade agreement between the Confederacy and Mexico. Ford served as colonel of the 2nd Texas Cavalry based in the Rio Grande district, and was assigned to protect trade routes with Mexico. Between 1862 and 1865, he was also commandant of conscripts.
Ford’s greatest military exploit was the Battle of Palmito Ranch on May 12-13, 1865, when he defeated attacking Union forces under Colonel Theodore H. Barrett. Barrett had attempted to surprise Confederate forces at Fort Brown, outside Brownsville, but was repulsed by Ford’s daring frontal attack. The battle was considered a Confederate victory, with Union troops retreating and suffering 118 casualties. Ford’s men had an estimated six killed, wounded or missing. Unfortunately for Ford, all Confederate forces in Texas surrendered two weeks later.
After the war, Ford continued his interests in politics and newspaper editing, serving as a delegate to the Democratic convention in 1868, and working on the Brownsville Sentinel. He would become the mayor of Brownsville in 1874, and serve again in the Texas Senate from 1876 to 1879. In his later years, Ford would spend his time writing his memoirs and promoting an interest in Texas history through the Texas State Historical Association. Ford died on November 3, 1897 in San Antonio, having the dubious distinction of being the last victorious Confederate commander of the Civil War. Source | 480 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For a long time, the exact number of rats in New York City was unknown, and a common urban legend was that there were up to four times as many rats as people. In 2014, however, scientists more accurately measured the entire city's rat population to be approximately only 25% of the number of humans; i.e., there were approximately 2 million rats to New York's 8.4 million people at the time of the study. The city's rat population is dominated by the brown rat (also known as the Norway rat). The average adult body weight is 350 grams in males and about 250 grams in females. The adult rat can squeeze through holes or gaps the size of a quarter, jump a horizontal distance of up to 4 feet (or vertically from a flat surface to 3 feet), survive a fall from a height of almost 40 feet and tread water for three days. Each litter has up to a dozen kittens. Rats can mate at the age of two or three months and produce a new litter every two months. They live about a year.
Frank is a Sasquatch who lives is New York City. He embodies positivity and equality. | <urn:uuid:f1f68465-a416-44a0-ba1d-ba4703bf85d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.soldmagny.com/single-post/2017/08/20/Did-You-Know-RATS-with-Frank-Ape | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.981495 | 233 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3364860713... | 2 | For a long time, the exact number of rats in New York City was unknown, and a common urban legend was that there were up to four times as many rats as people. In 2014, however, scientists more accurately measured the entire city's rat population to be approximately only 25% of the number of humans; i.e., there were approximately 2 million rats to New York's 8.4 million people at the time of the study. The city's rat population is dominated by the brown rat (also known as the Norway rat). The average adult body weight is 350 grams in males and about 250 grams in females. The adult rat can squeeze through holes or gaps the size of a quarter, jump a horizontal distance of up to 4 feet (or vertically from a flat surface to 3 feet), survive a fall from a height of almost 40 feet and tread water for three days. Each litter has up to a dozen kittens. Rats can mate at the age of two or three months and produce a new litter every two months. They live about a year.
Frank is a Sasquatch who lives is New York City. He embodies positivity and equality. | 249 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I bet you always wanted to know this.
It is pretty common that people want to know the humble beginnings of something that they love to occupy their time with.
Poetry, fiction, movies, T.V., favorite brand, sports… anything.
So, it is perfectly fine if you want to know how basketball was invented.
In this post, I am going to share the history of basketball, who invented it, how it all started and where was it played for the first time.
Do you find this interesting? Well, then keep on reading.
Who Invented Basketball?
Who was the genius who thought that dribbling alone was not enough fun and coupled it with a hoop to dunk?
I mean basketball is not a game like a soccer or baseball – it is not similar to any other game. It is has a league of its own.
Well, the person invented basketball was a college teacher… who’d have thought, right?
His name was James Naismith and he was a Canadian teacher – actually a physical education instructor.
He worked at YMCA Springfield, Massachusetts campus.
How Was Basketball Invented
This is pretty interesting.
You know how they say that basketball is the best game to burn off calories. As a matter of fact, it is the sport suggested to those who want to lose weight.
This physical education teacher noticed that his young students were so full of energy and yet they cannot play outdoor because it was winter.
They were young and they wanted to vent it out, but indoor games were not enough for that.
So, the school asked Naismith to invent an indoor game that demanded the same level of physical exertion that other outdoor games did.
Naismith used to play a rock-tossing sport when he was a kid. The game was called “duck on the rock”. Now he wanted to do something similar with a ball.
The aim of the game was to dribble a ball to the basket and then dunk the hoop.
He and his students/colleagues contributed to the first 13 rules of the new game that he called “basketball”.
Because all it needed (apart from the players) was a ball and a basket.
In those times they did not have poles for the baskets. So Naismith just nailed baskets 10 feet above the ground (in the gym) and the first teams that played this sport consisted of 9 players each.
The gym of YMCA Springfield, Massachusetts was the place where basketball took birth and the date was 21st of December, 1891.
And then it spread like a jungle fire.
Naismith’s students and other people who saw them playing or learned from him become the first players and coaches of this game.
While he was alive and enjoying basketball, the game grew beyond the primordial ooze and witnessed some important changes.
For example, instead of an actual basket, they were not using a net and basketball got a ball that was made for dribbling and shooting.
So, how did you like the story of basketball? Do let me know in the comment box below. | <urn:uuid:d4003669-b7d6-4d39-af7d-39b7548d9c94> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://onecrack.com/basketball-invention/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.985863 | 660 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.1107193157076... | 1 | I bet you always wanted to know this.
It is pretty common that people want to know the humble beginnings of something that they love to occupy their time with.
Poetry, fiction, movies, T.V., favorite brand, sports… anything.
So, it is perfectly fine if you want to know how basketball was invented.
In this post, I am going to share the history of basketball, who invented it, how it all started and where was it played for the first time.
Do you find this interesting? Well, then keep on reading.
Who Invented Basketball?
Who was the genius who thought that dribbling alone was not enough fun and coupled it with a hoop to dunk?
I mean basketball is not a game like a soccer or baseball – it is not similar to any other game. It is has a league of its own.
Well, the person invented basketball was a college teacher… who’d have thought, right?
His name was James Naismith and he was a Canadian teacher – actually a physical education instructor.
He worked at YMCA Springfield, Massachusetts campus.
How Was Basketball Invented
This is pretty interesting.
You know how they say that basketball is the best game to burn off calories. As a matter of fact, it is the sport suggested to those who want to lose weight.
This physical education teacher noticed that his young students were so full of energy and yet they cannot play outdoor because it was winter.
They were young and they wanted to vent it out, but indoor games were not enough for that.
So, the school asked Naismith to invent an indoor game that demanded the same level of physical exertion that other outdoor games did.
Naismith used to play a rock-tossing sport when he was a kid. The game was called “duck on the rock”. Now he wanted to do something similar with a ball.
The aim of the game was to dribble a ball to the basket and then dunk the hoop.
He and his students/colleagues contributed to the first 13 rules of the new game that he called “basketball”.
Because all it needed (apart from the players) was a ball and a basket.
In those times they did not have poles for the baskets. So Naismith just nailed baskets 10 feet above the ground (in the gym) and the first teams that played this sport consisted of 9 players each.
The gym of YMCA Springfield, Massachusetts was the place where basketball took birth and the date was 21st of December, 1891.
And then it spread like a jungle fire.
Naismith’s students and other people who saw them playing or learned from him become the first players and coaches of this game.
While he was alive and enjoying basketball, the game grew beyond the primordial ooze and witnessed some important changes.
For example, instead of an actual basket, they were not using a net and basketball got a ball that was made for dribbling and shooting.
So, how did you like the story of basketball? Do let me know in the comment box below. | 627 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It may seem odd that our representative for Reform Judaism is person who was not a Reform Jew at all. In fact, he died over 20 years before the first Reform temple was created. Well, Mendelssohn is widely (but not universally) considered to be the father of Reform Judaism so that alone should justify the choice. He earned this title for a good reason. It was his unorthodox ideas about Judaism and how it should fit into the modern enlightened world of 18th century Germany that laid the groundwork for the future of Reform Judaism.
Perhaps fate has been cruel to Mendelssohn. He is arguably the most famous personality in a movement that not only would he likely not have supported, but would have been in active opposition. His beliefs really fit squarely into what is now called Modern Orthodox, yet most card-carrying Modern Orthodox Jews would not want to be seen reading one of Mendelssohn’s books. He is probably the only Jewish scholar to be praised by both Orthodox and Reform leaders. Early Reformists revered him, and no less an authority than Samson Rafael Hirsch, though sometimes critical, was nevertheless lavish in his praise.
Mendelssohn was a product of the German Enlightenment Movement, a major component of the general Enlightenment that captivated European intellectuals during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Enlightenment, or Haskalah, was one of the most important intellectual trends in the history of mankind. It represented a radical shift in human thinking, and, to a large degree, has dominated Western thought ever since. It overthrew the dominance of the religion in deciding how human beings should look at the world and their situation in life. The playing field between man and God had been leveled.
Mendelssohn had been educated in the best of Jewish tradition and was an accomplished Torah scholar as a teen. Through tutors and self-education he became an expert in the deepest areas of Enlightenment thought. It was this combination that became his life’s mission – to integrate the two into one magnificent unity. It bore an uncanny resemblance to what illustrious predecessor, Maimonides, for whom Mendelssohn had the greatest respect, had attempted 600 years earlier. Maimonides dealt with the reconciliation of philosophy and Judaism. Mendelssohn faced what may have been a greater challenge – the reconciliation of Judaism with a system of thought that not only had the backing of philosophy, but also of the ever-growing power of science.
Enlightenment thinking was not just pie-in-the-sky theorizing by a few philosophers with their recently translated manuscripts of Aristotle as their chief source. It was the human mind open to new ideas with no limitations and very little restrictions as far as established dogma to contend with. If it made sense rationally, or could be proven scientifically, it was true, regardless of what the Church or the Talmud had to say about it. Not only was scripture and rabbinic literature up for criticism, even God, to some degree, was on trial. This was the battle that would lead many to the inevitable destiny of atheism.
A second challenge that Mendelssohn faced throughout his life was from his many Christian peers and friends. They questioned him as to how he could remain a believing Jew in the face of the many irrational aspects of his religion. They claimed that there was no possible way to remain a faithful Jew and an enlightened thinker. Some went so far as to urge him to convert to Christianity, a faith that, in their eyes had been expunged of its irrational elements and fit perfectly with the rational world they inhabited.
His magnum opus, ‘Jerusalem, or on Religious Power and Judaism’, written around 1782, was composed as a response to both challenges. It is nothing short of magnificent in its creativity and willingness to face tough issues. It deals with Christianity head on and makes a valiant attempt to convert Judaism into a rationally based religion. In it, he introduced his most famous idea – that Judaism is a religion of deed and not creed. In section 15 of the Part II we find the following in response to the difficulty in communicating the essential ideas of religion and life:
‘It was to remedy these defects that the lawgiver of this nation gave the ceremonial law. Religious and moral teachings were to be connected with men’s everyday doings and not-doings. The law didn’t require them to engage in reflection; it prescribed only behavior, only doings and not-doings. The great maxim of this constitution seems to have been: Men must be impelled to perform actions and only induced to engage in reflection. Therefore, each of these prescribed actions, each practice, each ceremony had its meaning, its genuine significance, which was precisely fitted to the theoretical knowledge of religion and the teachings of morality, and would lead a man in search of truth to reflect on these sacred matters or to seek instruction from wise men…’
He further refined this idea in a review he wrote of a book by a Swiss philosopher named Charles Bonnet called ‘Palingenesis’ which attempted to prove the immortality of the soul. ‘Sacred reason gives me the most certain conviction that God calls human beings to salvation through the practice of virtue. The divine religion into which I was born teaches me that all peoples of the earth are saved if they live in accordance with the laws of reason; and that for special purposes God has imposed on my nation alone certain special beliefs and obligatory actions of which He has absolved the rest of the human race.’
The above, is the core of Mendelssohn’s take on Judaism. According to him, religion should never compel anyone to think or believe a certain way. Beliefs are the province of each human being. Of course, there are proper beliefs and improper beliefs, but each person must make their way through that maze and discover the truth on their own. All a religion should do is ‘induce to engage in reflection’. With proper direction through proper ‘ceremonial law’, the Jews would have the wherewithal to discover the essentials of Judaism that would enable them to lead the life that God hoped them to lead. But the choice to search for these essentials and the ultimate conclusions that each person would reach, were entirely in the hands of the individual.
An important component of Mendelssohn’s thought was that the essential truths of reality were accessible to each person through the use of their rational mind. This was vintage Enlightenment. Judaism didn’t offer its adherents anything that natural human reason couldn’t adequately provide, other than a daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, and lifelong program to inculcate these truths into their lives. Judaism, to Mendelssohn, was not a collection of secret truths that were revealed through prophetic or mystical insights. It was bringing rational truths into practice through specific laws and by recalling events of the past through ceremony. Those laws and ceremonies then had to be translated into virtuous deeds in the present.
Mendelssohn, perhaps inadvertently, granted Jews of the future a great amount of freedom in their religious practice. While he himself strongly advocated strict observance of the law, both Biblical and rabbinic, he opened the door for liberal interpretation. Whatever was rational should be retained; whatever wasn’t could be discarded. After all, Mendelssohn himself said that religion could never conflict with rational thought. This was where many scholars of Mendelssohn believed that he ultimately failed. Judaism has a healthy share of irrational practice, let alone irrational beliefs and historical events. At the end of the day one could ask Mendelssohn where he stood on this matter – would he uphold Judaism even when it went against reason, or would he abandon part of it. We know that he remained a faithfully practicing Jew till the end of his life. What we don’t know is what he would have done had he lived another 30 years.
One crucial facet that can be gleaned from these Mendelssohn quotes is his take on the purpose of life. Salvation is to lead a life of virtue. How to do this is ingrained into our minds and learned through a lifetime of thinking, asking, and practicing. But it is within our grasp to find and to do. We need no prophets or sons of God or miracles to figure out what we are supposed to do. All those may help or they may not. Regardless, we still can and must persevere in our task. Virtue is the handmaiden of reason, its royal road to salvation. The marriage of Judaism and Enlightenment, if such a union can be created and not end with divorce, happens through the cultivation of virtue as a life goal. How any person finds virtue is their own task. Jews, he would say, must find it in the context of a Jewish life. Gentiles can find it through their own religion or through the rational wisdom of the human mind. But God’s purpose, the salvation of the human race, could only come about through virtue.
Virtue certainly seems like a noble goal for life. But how does one go about attaining it? To simply stumble around using whatever pieces of wisdom that can be found on subway walls, tenement halls, and boxes of herbal tea seems a little haphazard. To hope that one will somehow figure it out through reason, in the best tradition of Enlightenment, seems kind of outdated. It requires a good deal of diligence, experience, and hard-earned wisdom. It may even require talking to people who are older and wiser, who may have learned a thing or two in the course of their lives. The fact is, there are few things in life worth more than virtue, and perhaps there are none.
If Mendelssohn were alive, he might tell Jews – Reform Jews, Conservative Jews, Reconstructionist Jews, Orthodox Jews, and unaffiliated Jews – that their tradition is rich with things that actively or subtly enhance the drive and the wisdom needed for virtue. Maybe all the Jews who have ignored him for so many years, despite paying lip service to his ideas, should look back at what he actually wrote. They may find that although a good deal of the Torah is irrational and doesn’t fit well into modern life, there is also a good deal that is quite rational and rather wise. They may find that even doing some of those irrational things changes them into a different person, one who is a little more aware of purpose and meaning, and one who cares a little more about where they are heading. They may find that it is a cleansing experience to actually get out and do something that Jews have been doing for a few thousand years which forged them into a unique and worthy people. So far, it’s worked pretty well. Maybe it would make us all a little more virtuous.
Food for Thought
Mendelssohn’s attempt to update Judaism into the rational world of the Enlightenment was unquestionably well-intentioned. But Judaism is loaded with all kinds of non-rational traditions, laws, and customs. Is the attempt to rationalize Judaism an exercise in futility?
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0.128709... | 4 | It may seem odd that our representative for Reform Judaism is person who was not a Reform Jew at all. In fact, he died over 20 years before the first Reform temple was created. Well, Mendelssohn is widely (but not universally) considered to be the father of Reform Judaism so that alone should justify the choice. He earned this title for a good reason. It was his unorthodox ideas about Judaism and how it should fit into the modern enlightened world of 18th century Germany that laid the groundwork for the future of Reform Judaism.
Perhaps fate has been cruel to Mendelssohn. He is arguably the most famous personality in a movement that not only would he likely not have supported, but would have been in active opposition. His beliefs really fit squarely into what is now called Modern Orthodox, yet most card-carrying Modern Orthodox Jews would not want to be seen reading one of Mendelssohn’s books. He is probably the only Jewish scholar to be praised by both Orthodox and Reform leaders. Early Reformists revered him, and no less an authority than Samson Rafael Hirsch, though sometimes critical, was nevertheless lavish in his praise.
Mendelssohn was a product of the German Enlightenment Movement, a major component of the general Enlightenment that captivated European intellectuals during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Enlightenment, or Haskalah, was one of the most important intellectual trends in the history of mankind. It represented a radical shift in human thinking, and, to a large degree, has dominated Western thought ever since. It overthrew the dominance of the religion in deciding how human beings should look at the world and their situation in life. The playing field between man and God had been leveled.
Mendelssohn had been educated in the best of Jewish tradition and was an accomplished Torah scholar as a teen. Through tutors and self-education he became an expert in the deepest areas of Enlightenment thought. It was this combination that became his life’s mission – to integrate the two into one magnificent unity. It bore an uncanny resemblance to what illustrious predecessor, Maimonides, for whom Mendelssohn had the greatest respect, had attempted 600 years earlier. Maimonides dealt with the reconciliation of philosophy and Judaism. Mendelssohn faced what may have been a greater challenge – the reconciliation of Judaism with a system of thought that not only had the backing of philosophy, but also of the ever-growing power of science.
Enlightenment thinking was not just pie-in-the-sky theorizing by a few philosophers with their recently translated manuscripts of Aristotle as their chief source. It was the human mind open to new ideas with no limitations and very little restrictions as far as established dogma to contend with. If it made sense rationally, or could be proven scientifically, it was true, regardless of what the Church or the Talmud had to say about it. Not only was scripture and rabbinic literature up for criticism, even God, to some degree, was on trial. This was the battle that would lead many to the inevitable destiny of atheism.
A second challenge that Mendelssohn faced throughout his life was from his many Christian peers and friends. They questioned him as to how he could remain a believing Jew in the face of the many irrational aspects of his religion. They claimed that there was no possible way to remain a faithful Jew and an enlightened thinker. Some went so far as to urge him to convert to Christianity, a faith that, in their eyes had been expunged of its irrational elements and fit perfectly with the rational world they inhabited.
His magnum opus, ‘Jerusalem, or on Religious Power and Judaism’, written around 1782, was composed as a response to both challenges. It is nothing short of magnificent in its creativity and willingness to face tough issues. It deals with Christianity head on and makes a valiant attempt to convert Judaism into a rationally based religion. In it, he introduced his most famous idea – that Judaism is a religion of deed and not creed. In section 15 of the Part II we find the following in response to the difficulty in communicating the essential ideas of religion and life:
‘It was to remedy these defects that the lawgiver of this nation gave the ceremonial law. Religious and moral teachings were to be connected with men’s everyday doings and not-doings. The law didn’t require them to engage in reflection; it prescribed only behavior, only doings and not-doings. The great maxim of this constitution seems to have been: Men must be impelled to perform actions and only induced to engage in reflection. Therefore, each of these prescribed actions, each practice, each ceremony had its meaning, its genuine significance, which was precisely fitted to the theoretical knowledge of religion and the teachings of morality, and would lead a man in search of truth to reflect on these sacred matters or to seek instruction from wise men…’
He further refined this idea in a review he wrote of a book by a Swiss philosopher named Charles Bonnet called ‘Palingenesis’ which attempted to prove the immortality of the soul. ‘Sacred reason gives me the most certain conviction that God calls human beings to salvation through the practice of virtue. The divine religion into which I was born teaches me that all peoples of the earth are saved if they live in accordance with the laws of reason; and that for special purposes God has imposed on my nation alone certain special beliefs and obligatory actions of which He has absolved the rest of the human race.’
The above, is the core of Mendelssohn’s take on Judaism. According to him, religion should never compel anyone to think or believe a certain way. Beliefs are the province of each human being. Of course, there are proper beliefs and improper beliefs, but each person must make their way through that maze and discover the truth on their own. All a religion should do is ‘induce to engage in reflection’. With proper direction through proper ‘ceremonial law’, the Jews would have the wherewithal to discover the essentials of Judaism that would enable them to lead the life that God hoped them to lead. But the choice to search for these essentials and the ultimate conclusions that each person would reach, were entirely in the hands of the individual.
An important component of Mendelssohn’s thought was that the essential truths of reality were accessible to each person through the use of their rational mind. This was vintage Enlightenment. Judaism didn’t offer its adherents anything that natural human reason couldn’t adequately provide, other than a daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, and lifelong program to inculcate these truths into their lives. Judaism, to Mendelssohn, was not a collection of secret truths that were revealed through prophetic or mystical insights. It was bringing rational truths into practice through specific laws and by recalling events of the past through ceremony. Those laws and ceremonies then had to be translated into virtuous deeds in the present.
Mendelssohn, perhaps inadvertently, granted Jews of the future a great amount of freedom in their religious practice. While he himself strongly advocated strict observance of the law, both Biblical and rabbinic, he opened the door for liberal interpretation. Whatever was rational should be retained; whatever wasn’t could be discarded. After all, Mendelssohn himself said that religion could never conflict with rational thought. This was where many scholars of Mendelssohn believed that he ultimately failed. Judaism has a healthy share of irrational practice, let alone irrational beliefs and historical events. At the end of the day one could ask Mendelssohn where he stood on this matter – would he uphold Judaism even when it went against reason, or would he abandon part of it. We know that he remained a faithfully practicing Jew till the end of his life. What we don’t know is what he would have done had he lived another 30 years.
One crucial facet that can be gleaned from these Mendelssohn quotes is his take on the purpose of life. Salvation is to lead a life of virtue. How to do this is ingrained into our minds and learned through a lifetime of thinking, asking, and practicing. But it is within our grasp to find and to do. We need no prophets or sons of God or miracles to figure out what we are supposed to do. All those may help or they may not. Regardless, we still can and must persevere in our task. Virtue is the handmaiden of reason, its royal road to salvation. The marriage of Judaism and Enlightenment, if such a union can be created and not end with divorce, happens through the cultivation of virtue as a life goal. How any person finds virtue is their own task. Jews, he would say, must find it in the context of a Jewish life. Gentiles can find it through their own religion or through the rational wisdom of the human mind. But God’s purpose, the salvation of the human race, could only come about through virtue.
Virtue certainly seems like a noble goal for life. But how does one go about attaining it? To simply stumble around using whatever pieces of wisdom that can be found on subway walls, tenement halls, and boxes of herbal tea seems a little haphazard. To hope that one will somehow figure it out through reason, in the best tradition of Enlightenment, seems kind of outdated. It requires a good deal of diligence, experience, and hard-earned wisdom. It may even require talking to people who are older and wiser, who may have learned a thing or two in the course of their lives. The fact is, there are few things in life worth more than virtue, and perhaps there are none.
If Mendelssohn were alive, he might tell Jews – Reform Jews, Conservative Jews, Reconstructionist Jews, Orthodox Jews, and unaffiliated Jews – that their tradition is rich with things that actively or subtly enhance the drive and the wisdom needed for virtue. Maybe all the Jews who have ignored him for so many years, despite paying lip service to his ideas, should look back at what he actually wrote. They may find that although a good deal of the Torah is irrational and doesn’t fit well into modern life, there is also a good deal that is quite rational and rather wise. They may find that even doing some of those irrational things changes them into a different person, one who is a little more aware of purpose and meaning, and one who cares a little more about where they are heading. They may find that it is a cleansing experience to actually get out and do something that Jews have been doing for a few thousand years which forged them into a unique and worthy people. So far, it’s worked pretty well. Maybe it would make us all a little more virtuous.
Food for Thought
Mendelssohn’s attempt to update Judaism into the rational world of the Enlightenment was unquestionably well-intentioned. But Judaism is loaded with all kinds of non-rational traditions, laws, and customs. Is the attempt to rationalize Judaism an exercise in futility?
Aren't confident enough to comment? Send an email to the author about any question pertaining to the essay
- Please keep comments and questions short and to the point.
- Try to keep things civil and overall try to keep the conversations respectful.
- No four letter words.
- No missionizing.
- Site moderators reserve the right to delete your comments if they do not follow the guidlines or are off-topic.
There are no Topics to show. Add a Topic to start a specefic discussion
There are no Comments to show. Comment and start the discussion. | 2,380 | ENGLISH | 1 |
With the start of the 20th century music began to play a huge part in the rapidly maturing United States. The music of the 20th century was not only there to entertain the people but it was more. It was used now to influence and manipulate the listeners, the artists had a goal to entertain and to enlighten the listener so that they could get their messages heard. Music is one of the best ways to advertise and to expand ideas, and many artists knew this. Music rapidly influenced every Americans life. It was in their homes, cars, bars, theaters, movies, elevators and countless other places. Music was everywhere it defined what every American loved and worked for, it gave people hope and joy, as well as bringing out every other emotion there is in people. Music was around during the bad times as well as the good, when people were down, there were songs they could relate to, and when they were happy there were songs they could sing and dance to. Many people dont think of how much music brightens and amplifies many things, such as movies; have you ever noticed how the directors always have a song or tune for every part of the movie bringing out just the right emotion in you. Radio, what good would radio be today if music werent here. There were a few major turning points in music history during the century.
A couple of decades after the turn of the century music started to work its way into the homes of people and the invention of the record player was a big advance and people no longer needed an entire orchestra to listen to the music they loved. People still used pianos and various instruments to conduct their own music though. It was often a popular form entertainment people could gather around the musician playing the piano or any other instruments and sing along and dance. Music was becoming more and more popular.
In the 1920s the big bands had already hit the music scene and were a popular choice for many listeners, but new forms of it were branching, swing and jazz were becoming very popular. Although, it was new to the people in the United States it had mostly emerged long before then with the African-Americans, who since the days of slavery had been making there own forms of folk music. Such forms as ragtime, fife and drum bands, string bands and spirituals. Because racism was so high in the 1920s, Jazz was a radical idea many white people, who did not think that African-American music was any good. Despite the racism, though very high at the time, Jazz still exploded though out the United States. Jazz was mainly consisted of several trumpets, saxophones, and even string instruments supported by a deeper brass bass, piano and percussion. Jazz had a huge impact on the people of the early 1900s; it lessened the racism slightly opening people up to dance, which was considered an indecent act among many societies. African-American people also began to gain popularity with their smooth ability to improve the already great sound of Jazz. Such artists as Joe King Oliver and Louis Armstrong were huge and made a big impact on not only jazz, but also many people living in the U.S. at the time. Jazz paved the way for many more new innovative ideas for styles of American music.
After World War I was winding down and Jazz was hitting a peak, anther new kind of music was once again emerging. Rock n Roll was another form of African-American music merged with white-American music. In 1955 rock took of with Bill Haleys song Rock Around the Clock. The American people loved it for its exciting, heavy beat and its hypnotic power over people causing them to dance. Rock was very popular among the younger crowds, especially with the teens. It related to the topics many young people were interested in; it had songs about school, cars and young love. Many teens in the United States at this time loved it because they could relate to what the songs were saying, although this sounds like an improvement on society, some people believed it brought out the worst in people. Parents of the children often thought it gave ideas of rebellion and sin. Later in the century rock really started to have a rebellious theme, it gave American teens incentive to disobey their parents, schools and any authority in general. It was often debated that the Rock n Roll contributed to juvenile delinquency, protest, and wide spread drug use. With the idea that rock was bad, it was in the begging struggling for popularity, but new artists were the answer to the problem. One person named Elvis Presley was a huge influence on rock. His radical danced shocked and amazed everyone; instantaneously people were in love with his music, attitude and view on life. At the arrival of rock and musicians like Elvis Presley the American people were changed forever.
With Rock n Roll now the most popular form of music in the United States, the 1960s were very turbulent and the music was there the whole time supporting the protesting, outrages and violence. War in Vietnam, womens rights, and Black rights were all big issues in the 60s. The people had a new spirit at this time they were very liberal and did not stay quiet, when they felt they had to speak their mind they did. Rock music was the key element that gave the protesting Americans a way to speak out against the government and authority. Without a mass media in the U.S. at the time music was a way for people to learn and keep in touch with their culture. Almost every song in the 60s had a message of protest, especially about Vietnam; peace was on all peoples minds. Bands like Jefferson Airplane, The Beatles and The Who all had songs crying out about peace and stopping the war. One of the most popular protests was the music festival called Woodstock it had great importance in spreading the word of peace and rebellion. The music was very successful in bringing enlightenment on the feelings of the young people during this time. Because of much of musics message of rebellion and protest it often encouraged the use of drugs and free love. If Rock was not around during this time a lot people would not have spoken their mind, many more people may have been killed in Vietnam, and issues very important today may have never been brought to the attention of the people living in the United States.
During all this time a quieter and less popular form of music had already exploded in many community around the country, Gospel. It was a form of spreading religion though exciting and fun preaching in the form of music. It was a change from the restrained singing popular in the 18th century, having loud upbeat rithimes. It was originated by the blacks and was for many years considered disrespectful and rude. Although, it eventually worked its way into every church in America. It offered a new open way of worship.
History has shown us that the music we have loved and hated through out the life of this country has had such an important role in almost every big event in the history of this country that with out it our country may have been very different and maybe even a little dull. If history has tought us anything it is that music is at the top of the list for its importance in American culture, economy and life style.
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-0.0787423178... | 1 | With the start of the 20th century music began to play a huge part in the rapidly maturing United States. The music of the 20th century was not only there to entertain the people but it was more. It was used now to influence and manipulate the listeners, the artists had a goal to entertain and to enlighten the listener so that they could get their messages heard. Music is one of the best ways to advertise and to expand ideas, and many artists knew this. Music rapidly influenced every Americans life. It was in their homes, cars, bars, theaters, movies, elevators and countless other places. Music was everywhere it defined what every American loved and worked for, it gave people hope and joy, as well as bringing out every other emotion there is in people. Music was around during the bad times as well as the good, when people were down, there were songs they could relate to, and when they were happy there were songs they could sing and dance to. Many people dont think of how much music brightens and amplifies many things, such as movies; have you ever noticed how the directors always have a song or tune for every part of the movie bringing out just the right emotion in you. Radio, what good would radio be today if music werent here. There were a few major turning points in music history during the century.
A couple of decades after the turn of the century music started to work its way into the homes of people and the invention of the record player was a big advance and people no longer needed an entire orchestra to listen to the music they loved. People still used pianos and various instruments to conduct their own music though. It was often a popular form entertainment people could gather around the musician playing the piano or any other instruments and sing along and dance. Music was becoming more and more popular.
In the 1920s the big bands had already hit the music scene and were a popular choice for many listeners, but new forms of it were branching, swing and jazz were becoming very popular. Although, it was new to the people in the United States it had mostly emerged long before then with the African-Americans, who since the days of slavery had been making there own forms of folk music. Such forms as ragtime, fife and drum bands, string bands and spirituals. Because racism was so high in the 1920s, Jazz was a radical idea many white people, who did not think that African-American music was any good. Despite the racism, though very high at the time, Jazz still exploded though out the United States. Jazz was mainly consisted of several trumpets, saxophones, and even string instruments supported by a deeper brass bass, piano and percussion. Jazz had a huge impact on the people of the early 1900s; it lessened the racism slightly opening people up to dance, which was considered an indecent act among many societies. African-American people also began to gain popularity with their smooth ability to improve the already great sound of Jazz. Such artists as Joe King Oliver and Louis Armstrong were huge and made a big impact on not only jazz, but also many people living in the U.S. at the time. Jazz paved the way for many more new innovative ideas for styles of American music.
After World War I was winding down and Jazz was hitting a peak, anther new kind of music was once again emerging. Rock n Roll was another form of African-American music merged with white-American music. In 1955 rock took of with Bill Haleys song Rock Around the Clock. The American people loved it for its exciting, heavy beat and its hypnotic power over people causing them to dance. Rock was very popular among the younger crowds, especially with the teens. It related to the topics many young people were interested in; it had songs about school, cars and young love. Many teens in the United States at this time loved it because they could relate to what the songs were saying, although this sounds like an improvement on society, some people believed it brought out the worst in people. Parents of the children often thought it gave ideas of rebellion and sin. Later in the century rock really started to have a rebellious theme, it gave American teens incentive to disobey their parents, schools and any authority in general. It was often debated that the Rock n Roll contributed to juvenile delinquency, protest, and wide spread drug use. With the idea that rock was bad, it was in the begging struggling for popularity, but new artists were the answer to the problem. One person named Elvis Presley was a huge influence on rock. His radical danced shocked and amazed everyone; instantaneously people were in love with his music, attitude and view on life. At the arrival of rock and musicians like Elvis Presley the American people were changed forever.
With Rock n Roll now the most popular form of music in the United States, the 1960s were very turbulent and the music was there the whole time supporting the protesting, outrages and violence. War in Vietnam, womens rights, and Black rights were all big issues in the 60s. The people had a new spirit at this time they were very liberal and did not stay quiet, when they felt they had to speak their mind they did. Rock music was the key element that gave the protesting Americans a way to speak out against the government and authority. Without a mass media in the U.S. at the time music was a way for people to learn and keep in touch with their culture. Almost every song in the 60s had a message of protest, especially about Vietnam; peace was on all peoples minds. Bands like Jefferson Airplane, The Beatles and The Who all had songs crying out about peace and stopping the war. One of the most popular protests was the music festival called Woodstock it had great importance in spreading the word of peace and rebellion. The music was very successful in bringing enlightenment on the feelings of the young people during this time. Because of much of musics message of rebellion and protest it often encouraged the use of drugs and free love. If Rock was not around during this time a lot people would not have spoken their mind, many more people may have been killed in Vietnam, and issues very important today may have never been brought to the attention of the people living in the United States.
During all this time a quieter and less popular form of music had already exploded in many community around the country, Gospel. It was a form of spreading religion though exciting and fun preaching in the form of music. It was a change from the restrained singing popular in the 18th century, having loud upbeat rithimes. It was originated by the blacks and was for many years considered disrespectful and rude. Although, it eventually worked its way into every church in America. It offered a new open way of worship.
History has shown us that the music we have loved and hated through out the life of this country has had such an important role in almost every big event in the history of this country that with out it our country may have been very different and maybe even a little dull. If history has tought us anything it is that music is at the top of the list for its importance in American culture, economy and life style.
Category: Music and Movies | 1,489 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How and Why Did Federation Occur in Australia? Essay
Each and every colony would have had a different system whether it was their laws, taxes, railway systems, tariffs and transport, this was a problem. …show more content…
Other colonies argued that the Federal Government would tighten the immigration laws and said that they were able to cope keeping Australia a “White country all on their own. The year “1846” was the year when the first recorded suggestion for Federation but the idea didn’t click. Until Seventeen years later, in 1863 the first ever conference in Melbourne was held. Many delegates in this conference discussed differing matters regarding Federation.
Sir Henry Parkes, a familiar face, also known as “The Father of Federation” was the Premier of New South Wales who called for a convention on Federation in the year “1889”. As he delivered the speech known as “The Tenterfield Oration” he amazed more and more conventions. Soon after the “The National Australasian Convention” occurred in the city of Sydney. Many delegates approved on the name “The Commonwealth of Australia” afterwards beginning to draft up a constitution.
Sir Henry Parkes lost his office in 1892, and the power towards Federation was temporarily lost. He did however, in June 1892, complete his important work 'Fifty Years in the Making of Australian History', during this year . Meanwhile, Edmund Barton, New South Wales Attorney General, took over as leader of | <urn:uuid:5fadf6fa-471a-4480-a587-708b9dccf09a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/How-And-Why-Did-Federation-Occur/F3CZKQH3XJ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00162.warc.gz | en | 0.980447 | 312 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.5934156775474548,... | 1 | How and Why Did Federation Occur in Australia? Essay
Each and every colony would have had a different system whether it was their laws, taxes, railway systems, tariffs and transport, this was a problem. …show more content…
Other colonies argued that the Federal Government would tighten the immigration laws and said that they were able to cope keeping Australia a “White country all on their own. The year “1846” was the year when the first recorded suggestion for Federation but the idea didn’t click. Until Seventeen years later, in 1863 the first ever conference in Melbourne was held. Many delegates in this conference discussed differing matters regarding Federation.
Sir Henry Parkes, a familiar face, also known as “The Father of Federation” was the Premier of New South Wales who called for a convention on Federation in the year “1889”. As he delivered the speech known as “The Tenterfield Oration” he amazed more and more conventions. Soon after the “The National Australasian Convention” occurred in the city of Sydney. Many delegates approved on the name “The Commonwealth of Australia” afterwards beginning to draft up a constitution.
Sir Henry Parkes lost his office in 1892, and the power towards Federation was temporarily lost. He did however, in June 1892, complete his important work 'Fifty Years in the Making of Australian History', during this year . Meanwhile, Edmund Barton, New South Wales Attorney General, took over as leader of | 306 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Burgeoning ExplorerHis career as a merchant brought Vespucci to Spain, where he opened a partnership with a fellow Florentine-abroad that lasted for several years. in Spain, Vespucci was afforded a number of opportunities to meet with explorers, and one of these was Christopher Columbus. His own fate to be an explorer was by now inevitable. Having worked for the powerful Medici family in Florence at one time, he was assigned to their shipbuilding business in Seville, Spain. Through this role, he acquired much knowledge regarding the trade. Although he had a business to run, he gave his love of exploration the priority, and subsequently went to create history. Vespucci's first voyage was thought to have begun on May 10th, 1497, from Cadiz, Spain. He was searching for Asia, but he bypassed the East by a wide margin. Instead, he happened upon the Cape Verde Islands and Bermuda in the New World.
Making His Mark on HistoryVespucci's second voyage brought him to the Brazilian coast, and two years later was commissioned by Portugal's King Manuel to sail back to Brazil yet again. Along the way and back, he made stops at Cape San Agostino, Argentina, Sierra Leone, the Azores, and the Maracaibo Gulf. Later, his Latinized name, ‘America’, became that of the New World. It was a German cartographer named Martin Waldseemuller who gave the then-nameless Brazil the name of ‘America’. Later, it was another mapmaker, the famous Gerardus Mercator, who made it official. Mercator assigned the name of the ‘Americas’ to the northern and southern portions of the New World alike, not long after their discoveries.
ChallengesLike Columbus, Vespucci was an Italian-raised explorer who went on to serve Spain. Columbus and Vespucci were not enemies, but the public saw Amerigo as someone who was trying to undermine Columbus's land discoveries. However, all he really desired was for the world to remember him as an explorer in his own right. It was suggested by many people during his time that he often discovered several new lands well ahead of Columbus.
Death and LegacyIt was in Spain that Amerigo spent his last years as a ‘Pilot Major’, being appointed to the position in 1508. This honor gave him the duties of standardizing navigational techniques and training new ship pilots. To qualify him for the Pilot Major position, he had to first become a Spanish citizen, which he did in 1505. Seven years later, he succumbed to Malaria, on Feb. 22nd, 1512. Amerigo Vespucci will forever be remembered as a humble navigator who helped discover the New World. He was not as famous as Columbus as an explorer but, nonetheless, he made his own lasting mark in the trade. Many historians today continue to see Vespucci as a man of great abilities. Vespucci's legacy was the result of his ocean explorations, navigational knowledge, and numerous discoveries of new lands alike.
Who Was Amerigo Vespucci?
Amerigo Vespucci was the scion of a prominent Italian family. He was born in Florence, Italy on March 9th, 1454. He is who the continents of "America" are named after.
This page was last updated on April 25, 2017.
By James Burton
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:c1a35684-a3c1-47ec-9cce-c88cb46f6488> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/amerigo-vespucci-famous-explorers-of-the-world.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00000.warc.gz | en | 0.985019 | 743 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.38092163205... | 1 | A Burgeoning ExplorerHis career as a merchant brought Vespucci to Spain, where he opened a partnership with a fellow Florentine-abroad that lasted for several years. in Spain, Vespucci was afforded a number of opportunities to meet with explorers, and one of these was Christopher Columbus. His own fate to be an explorer was by now inevitable. Having worked for the powerful Medici family in Florence at one time, he was assigned to their shipbuilding business in Seville, Spain. Through this role, he acquired much knowledge regarding the trade. Although he had a business to run, he gave his love of exploration the priority, and subsequently went to create history. Vespucci's first voyage was thought to have begun on May 10th, 1497, from Cadiz, Spain. He was searching for Asia, but he bypassed the East by a wide margin. Instead, he happened upon the Cape Verde Islands and Bermuda in the New World.
Making His Mark on HistoryVespucci's second voyage brought him to the Brazilian coast, and two years later was commissioned by Portugal's King Manuel to sail back to Brazil yet again. Along the way and back, he made stops at Cape San Agostino, Argentina, Sierra Leone, the Azores, and the Maracaibo Gulf. Later, his Latinized name, ‘America’, became that of the New World. It was a German cartographer named Martin Waldseemuller who gave the then-nameless Brazil the name of ‘America’. Later, it was another mapmaker, the famous Gerardus Mercator, who made it official. Mercator assigned the name of the ‘Americas’ to the northern and southern portions of the New World alike, not long after their discoveries.
ChallengesLike Columbus, Vespucci was an Italian-raised explorer who went on to serve Spain. Columbus and Vespucci were not enemies, but the public saw Amerigo as someone who was trying to undermine Columbus's land discoveries. However, all he really desired was for the world to remember him as an explorer in his own right. It was suggested by many people during his time that he often discovered several new lands well ahead of Columbus.
Death and LegacyIt was in Spain that Amerigo spent his last years as a ‘Pilot Major’, being appointed to the position in 1508. This honor gave him the duties of standardizing navigational techniques and training new ship pilots. To qualify him for the Pilot Major position, he had to first become a Spanish citizen, which he did in 1505. Seven years later, he succumbed to Malaria, on Feb. 22nd, 1512. Amerigo Vespucci will forever be remembered as a humble navigator who helped discover the New World. He was not as famous as Columbus as an explorer but, nonetheless, he made his own lasting mark in the trade. Many historians today continue to see Vespucci as a man of great abilities. Vespucci's legacy was the result of his ocean explorations, navigational knowledge, and numerous discoveries of new lands alike.
Who Was Amerigo Vespucci?
Amerigo Vespucci was the scion of a prominent Italian family. He was born in Florence, Italy on March 9th, 1454. He is who the continents of "America" are named after.
This page was last updated on April 25, 2017.
By James Burton
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 749 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Robert Smalls first made history by escaping slavery by pretending to be a white ship’s captain, and sailing a boat to freedom during the American Civil War. A school in South Carolina bearing Smalls’ name is mired in a bit of controversy over a school logo that alumni says is offensive to his legacy.
Smalls was born April 5, 1839 to his white slave owner father, Henry McKee, and his mother Lydia Polite, a slave McKee owned who was also a member of the “Gullah” people. In 1861, Smalls was hired as a deckhand for the USS Planter. Unknown to many of his white superiors, Smalls was intelligent and had an intimate knowledge of the waters of the South Carolina coast.
Smalls had been planning for some time to take over the Planter to take his family and several other enslaved families to freedom. On May 12, 1862, officers of the ship stayed on land and Smalls hatched his plan. Smalls used the cover of darkness and his knowledge of the ship captain’s command to slip undetected past the Confederate ships in Charleston Harbor. When Smalls reached Union waters, he surrendered.
Smalls was considered the captain of the Planter and helped the Union Army with inside information that helped them take the Harbor. Smalls then met with President Abraham Lincoln, who some historians said influenced his decision to let Black soldiers into the Union Army.
In 1863, Smalls commandeered the Planter while the ship’s white captain cowered in fear when Confederate forces attacked it. For his efforts, Smalls was made the official captain of the ship, making history once more by becoming the first Black captain to sail for the United States.
Robert Smalls International Academy in Beaufort, S.C. named after the heroic captain, is the center of controversy over the use of its current website logo. The logo features a male figure dressed in Civil War attire sporting a ponytail, and a black-and-white face split down the middle. Former students at the formerly “Blacks-only” school feel that the logo doesn’t accurately represent Smalls’ contributions to South Carolina or add to his impressive legacy. | <urn:uuid:4d13c17f-7294-45cc-b41b-5f691e2cd3eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://955thelou.com/1897841/little-known-black-history-fact-robert-smalls-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.982747 | 458 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.20784102380275... | 6 | Robert Smalls first made history by escaping slavery by pretending to be a white ship’s captain, and sailing a boat to freedom during the American Civil War. A school in South Carolina bearing Smalls’ name is mired in a bit of controversy over a school logo that alumni says is offensive to his legacy.
Smalls was born April 5, 1839 to his white slave owner father, Henry McKee, and his mother Lydia Polite, a slave McKee owned who was also a member of the “Gullah” people. In 1861, Smalls was hired as a deckhand for the USS Planter. Unknown to many of his white superiors, Smalls was intelligent and had an intimate knowledge of the waters of the South Carolina coast.
Smalls had been planning for some time to take over the Planter to take his family and several other enslaved families to freedom. On May 12, 1862, officers of the ship stayed on land and Smalls hatched his plan. Smalls used the cover of darkness and his knowledge of the ship captain’s command to slip undetected past the Confederate ships in Charleston Harbor. When Smalls reached Union waters, he surrendered.
Smalls was considered the captain of the Planter and helped the Union Army with inside information that helped them take the Harbor. Smalls then met with President Abraham Lincoln, who some historians said influenced his decision to let Black soldiers into the Union Army.
In 1863, Smalls commandeered the Planter while the ship’s white captain cowered in fear when Confederate forces attacked it. For his efforts, Smalls was made the official captain of the ship, making history once more by becoming the first Black captain to sail for the United States.
Robert Smalls International Academy in Beaufort, S.C. named after the heroic captain, is the center of controversy over the use of its current website logo. The logo features a male figure dressed in Civil War attire sporting a ponytail, and a black-and-white face split down the middle. Former students at the formerly “Blacks-only” school feel that the logo doesn’t accurately represent Smalls’ contributions to South Carolina or add to his impressive legacy. | 456 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Starting in the 1770s, the French had grown interested in Egypt. They saw this country as a tremendous commercial and agricultural potential because of the Nile Valley. Egypt also had strategic importance to the Anglo-French rivalry. This meant under French control, Egypt could be used to threaten British commercial interests in the region and to block Britain’s overland route to India Before the French Invasion, the country was part of the world’s most powerful empires. Because of low Nile floods, plagues, famine and loss of trade and revenue which in turn caused an economic devastation and civil unrest. France saw this as the perfect time to attack. In May 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte sailed with 328 ships and came to land with 38000 soldiers. With him he also brought a group of 167 scholars which he picked himself. These were mathematicians, zoologists, chemists and engineers. They spent about three years exploring and learning everything about Egypt’s history, culture, environment and resources. By bringing researchers, this was the first large scale systematic study of Egypt. These scholars were later to be known as the Scientific and Artistic Commission, researching for the Institute of Egypt. This research they found wrote the Description de L’Egypt, the most comprehensive information on the monuments and antiquities of Egypt. The researchers did topographical surveys, studied animals and plants that were native to Egypt, collected and classified minerals, and looked at how the country dealt with industry and trade. Through all of this many other discoveries were made that we still study today. Napoleons excavations found the Temple of Luxor, Temple of Philae, and the Temple of Dendera. He also found the Valley of the Kings. As each site was discovered, they were mapped, measured and drawn out to record how they were found.
Even though the military invasion did not follow through, this was a major turning point for the history of Egyptian archeology. Napoleon had a vested interest in the culture and ancient history of Egypt therefore he paved the way for Egypt to be seen in a new light and ensured the history of this new land to be preserved. He had created a new excitement in the people of Europe to learn about the culture and ancient history of Egypt. Napoleon’s appreciation toward the Egyptian culture and history shaped how Europe saw Egypt in the late 1700s and 1800s and how museum studies are done still to this day.
At this time, Egypt was still a mystery to the majority of Europeans. They had seen evidence of mummies, hieroglyphs and the ancient Egyptian monuments that were found. The fact that ancient Egyptians mummified people instead of traditionally burying their dead made the country look even more “exotic” to the Europeans because it was such a foreign idea to them. It was not until after the French invasion that the hieroglyphs were no longer unreadable and were able to be translated. Also I was incredibly hard to believe that men, even thousands of men, were able to create and engineer such grand structures in a time with basically no technology. This all added to the mystery of the culture and its people. | <urn:uuid:927db0d6-50a0-4b8b-98c9-c76886a9e7ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp455-fs12/2012/11/09/proposal-napoleons-effect-on-the-views-of-egyptian-archaeology/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00494.warc.gz | en | 0.983011 | 637 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.23785364627838135... | 2 | Starting in the 1770s, the French had grown interested in Egypt. They saw this country as a tremendous commercial and agricultural potential because of the Nile Valley. Egypt also had strategic importance to the Anglo-French rivalry. This meant under French control, Egypt could be used to threaten British commercial interests in the region and to block Britain’s overland route to India Before the French Invasion, the country was part of the world’s most powerful empires. Because of low Nile floods, plagues, famine and loss of trade and revenue which in turn caused an economic devastation and civil unrest. France saw this as the perfect time to attack. In May 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte sailed with 328 ships and came to land with 38000 soldiers. With him he also brought a group of 167 scholars which he picked himself. These were mathematicians, zoologists, chemists and engineers. They spent about three years exploring and learning everything about Egypt’s history, culture, environment and resources. By bringing researchers, this was the first large scale systematic study of Egypt. These scholars were later to be known as the Scientific and Artistic Commission, researching for the Institute of Egypt. This research they found wrote the Description de L’Egypt, the most comprehensive information on the monuments and antiquities of Egypt. The researchers did topographical surveys, studied animals and plants that were native to Egypt, collected and classified minerals, and looked at how the country dealt with industry and trade. Through all of this many other discoveries were made that we still study today. Napoleons excavations found the Temple of Luxor, Temple of Philae, and the Temple of Dendera. He also found the Valley of the Kings. As each site was discovered, they were mapped, measured and drawn out to record how they were found.
Even though the military invasion did not follow through, this was a major turning point for the history of Egyptian archeology. Napoleon had a vested interest in the culture and ancient history of Egypt therefore he paved the way for Egypt to be seen in a new light and ensured the history of this new land to be preserved. He had created a new excitement in the people of Europe to learn about the culture and ancient history of Egypt. Napoleon’s appreciation toward the Egyptian culture and history shaped how Europe saw Egypt in the late 1700s and 1800s and how museum studies are done still to this day.
At this time, Egypt was still a mystery to the majority of Europeans. They had seen evidence of mummies, hieroglyphs and the ancient Egyptian monuments that were found. The fact that ancient Egyptians mummified people instead of traditionally burying their dead made the country look even more “exotic” to the Europeans because it was such a foreign idea to them. It was not until after the French invasion that the hieroglyphs were no longer unreadable and were able to be translated. Also I was incredibly hard to believe that men, even thousands of men, were able to create and engineer such grand structures in a time with basically no technology. This all added to the mystery of the culture and its people. | 651 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(ca. 300 – 270 BC)
This pioneering dinosaur, who lived some 300 years before Jesus Christ, is the “grandfather” of geometry. Most of his works were lost; but those that survived indicated that he was the first person known to have used logical and exacting proofs in solving theorems and conjectures. He was also the first to prove that prime numbers are infinitely many; as well as the first to define and differentiate axioms from theorems. After cutting his teeth with the works of Pythagoras and Eudoxus, Euclid established the first Mathematics Department at the University of Alexandria, in Egypt. He later authored his thirteen books, (collectively known as The Elements), which served as the world’s standard syllabus for more than 2000 years; and whose basis constitutes part of today’s High School curricula. Likewise, the Systems Definitions and the Geometrical Axioms, which he originated, have served the world for over 2200 years. These helped consolidate his position as the most famous mathematician, the most influential mathematician, and the greatest maths tutor. In addition to geometry, Euclid did significant works on algebra and arithmetic. And based on developmental similarities, as well as on direct references, Apollonius of Perga emulated him. The fact that Euclid was “bred and buttered” in Egypt exposed him to the lofty schools of thoughts which were the world’s bests then. His analytical style is a reminder of the triumphs of the Egyptian Civilization. Simply put, if you are not dripping wet with Euclidean Geometry, you have not bathed in the ocean of mathematics. | <urn:uuid:ef062dfc-3d46-4925-8558-65fb53627670> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sapaviva.com/euclid-of-alexandria-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00340.warc.gz | en | 0.983517 | 346 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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This pioneering dinosaur, who lived some 300 years before Jesus Christ, is the “grandfather” of geometry. Most of his works were lost; but those that survived indicated that he was the first person known to have used logical and exacting proofs in solving theorems and conjectures. He was also the first to prove that prime numbers are infinitely many; as well as the first to define and differentiate axioms from theorems. After cutting his teeth with the works of Pythagoras and Eudoxus, Euclid established the first Mathematics Department at the University of Alexandria, in Egypt. He later authored his thirteen books, (collectively known as The Elements), which served as the world’s standard syllabus for more than 2000 years; and whose basis constitutes part of today’s High School curricula. Likewise, the Systems Definitions and the Geometrical Axioms, which he originated, have served the world for over 2200 years. These helped consolidate his position as the most famous mathematician, the most influential mathematician, and the greatest maths tutor. In addition to geometry, Euclid did significant works on algebra and arithmetic. And based on developmental similarities, as well as on direct references, Apollonius of Perga emulated him. The fact that Euclid was “bred and buttered” in Egypt exposed him to the lofty schools of thoughts which were the world’s bests then. His analytical style is a reminder of the triumphs of the Egyptian Civilization. Simply put, if you are not dripping wet with Euclidean Geometry, you have not bathed in the ocean of mathematics. | 350 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The words are plain, blunt and unequivocal — without literary frill or poetic flourish — a directive intended to put the natural rights of citizens above and beyond the punitive power of the new federal government:
“Congress shall make no law . . . ”
Read aloud, this opening phrase of what would become the First Amendment to the newly ratified Constitution of the United States has almost a ring of harshness in the admonition to officials of the new government. Hands off, the amendment says. Hands off religion! Hands off dissent! Let the people speak out. Let them publish critically about their elected officials, and petition to right whatever wrongs they perceive done them. Let them assemble peaceably to protest injustice. That was the message the members of the First Congress sent in 1789 as they drafted that amendment and the others that would make up the Bill of Rights. If the people of the states decided to ratify the amendments, there indeed could be a “more perfect Union.”
No one should have been surprised by the strong tone and prohibitive tenor of the first 45 words of the Bill of Rights. Two years earlier, meeting in Philadelphia from May until mid-September 1787, the members of the Constitutional Convention had blundered when they refused to include in the proposed national charter specific language that would bar the new government from stripping away the powers of the states or ripping away individual liberties that American citizens claimed were “unalienable.”
There were a handful of delegates who favored such a measure to protect the rights of the states and the people. Luther Martin of Maryland had written a version of a bill of rights but did not introduce it after gauging the negative feelings of the overwhelming majority of his convention peers. Charles Pinckney of South Carolina and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts had made a pass, on August 20, at pushing through a provision assuring freedom of the press, but it was overwhelmingly voted down, as Edward Dumbauld recounts in The Bill of Rights and What It Means Today (1957). Then, a few days before the convention adjourned, George Mason of Virginia warned his colleagues that public discontent was building in opposition to their work and that they needed to add a bill of rights. Anxious to complete their work, the delegates rebuffed Mason, but the four months of secret sessions had taken their toll on the people’s blind support for a new constitution. Americans had fought a revolution to rid themselves of an all-powerful, oppressive central government, insensitive to citizens’ rights. Now, Mason warned, folks were fearful that the 55 delegates, meeting with doors barred and drapes drawn, were drafting a blueprint for the same sort of autocratic bureaucracy.
Although there were no formal reports on the convention’s progress, the walls — as is the case whenever government relies on secret deliberations — had ears. Inevitable leaks must have occurred regarding what was going on behind closed doors. Individual delegates had their own ideas about issues. Some of them had come to Philadelphia merely to improve on the ineffective Articles of Confederation — the country’s initial constitution that failed to provide sufficient power to the central government. There had been a Virginia Plan, a New Jersey Plan, and a Connecticut Compromise for the new government; these related to the structure of the government and congressional representation for the people. There had been the “completely daft” suggestion from Alexander Hamilton, the New York delegate, for a sort of mini-monarchy, mirrored after the British government — which he called “the best in the world.” No wonder, given the delay and uncertainty, that public anxiety, as Mason said, was building. A bill of rights that protected specific individual rights was what the Constitution needed, he said. It would “give great quiet to the people.” It would still the growing public unrest.
Mason realized that his associates were tired from long weeks of work that included emotional discussions. They all had made sacrifices to participate in the convention. Many had traveled long distances to Philadelphia, and they were neglecting familial and business obligations. They were tired. They wanted to wrap up their business and go home. But, Mason argued, composing a federal bill of rights would not be time consuming. Five state constitutions included protections of citizen rights against government oppression. As the chief architect of such a declaration in the Virginia charter, he assured the convention that the addition, based on the bills of several states, could be drafted and grafted onto the proposed constitution “in a few hours.” Gerry made a motion that a committee be selected to draft such a bill. Mason seconded. When the vote was taken, a majority of every state delegation opposed it. Mason, his fellow Virginian Edmund Randolph, and Gerry refused to sign the Constitution. Mason later declared he would chop off his right hand before he put it to such an imperfect document.
In fact, on September 17, 1787, only 39 of the 55 convention delegates put their names to the proposed constitution before George Washington, who had presided over the deliberations, sent the draft to the Continental Congress to be transmitted to the 13 state conventions for ratification. Mason, Gerry, and Randolph flatly and unapologetically stated their reasons for refusal. The other 13 delegates already had left the convention. No doubt some, drawn home by pressing business or financial obligations, simply left before all the “I”s were dot- ted and “T”s crossed. Others could have left their proxy favorable votes — as did John Dickinson of Delaware — but for their own reasons decided not to do so. There were, no doubt, a few among the 55 who worried that the document upon which they finally agreed went far beyond a simple revision of the Articles of Confederation, for which they thought they had convened. Others may have felt that the proposed charter’s language went too far in endangering states’ rights or did not go far enough in assuring citizen liberties.
Before adjournment, Benjamin Franklin, the oldest delegate, pleaded with his colleagues to endorse the document. “I confess,” he said in a personally written entreaty that was read on his behalf, “that there are several parts of this constitution which I do not approve at present.” Franklin added, however, that “with all its faults,” he thought it the very best the convention could create, given the disagreements among the delegates. So with 39 signatures, the proposed constitution was transmitted to the states in hopes that each would call a convention and ratify it. With that, the political campaign either to adopt the draft or to defeat it was on, with newspapers reporting opinions on both sides. There was intense debate in many state capitals, much of it centering on the absence of a bill of rights.
Mason went home to Virginia to join with Patrick Henry in an effort to kill the Constitution there. From France, Thomas Jefferson, the U.S. minister, sent a letter to James Madison asserting that “a bill of rights is what people are entitled to.” Later he wrote to fellow American diplomat David Humphreys: “There are rights that are useless to surrender to the government, and which yet, governments have always been fond to invade. These are the rights of thinking and publishing our thoughts by speaking or writing.” Madison, who turned his back on fellow Virginian Mason when the older man pleaded in the convention for a bill of rights, had committed himself to help get the Constitution ratified as it had been drafted. He must have felt uncomfortable when he realized that Jefferson, his political mentor, agreed with Mason. Madison was less than candid in responding to Jefferson’s letter.
Convinced that a bill of rights was not a crucial ingredient for the Constitution, Madison put his considerable political writing skills into the media campaign for ratification. A bill of rights, he maintained, simply was not needed to protect freedoms that were natural. Madison joined with Hamilton (who had abandoned his nonsensical monarchical affectations early on) and with John Jay (who would soon become first chief justice of the United States) to draft what came to be known as The Federalist Papers. They published the essays under the pen name “Publius,” with Hamilton carrying most of the writing load, Madison sharing some of the heavy lifting, and Jay contributing little. Addressed to “the People of the State of New York,” these 85 well-reasoned essays promoted the values and virtues of the proposed constitution and comprise what Edward Mead Earle has described in The Federalist (1941) as “frankly, a campaign document.” They first were published in New York newspapers in October 1787, just a month after the convention, and continued well into May 1788. They were republished and circulated elsewhere as newspaper articles and in book form.
Mason (sometimes writing as “Cato”) and fellow Virginians Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry, while not so prolific as Madison’s team, launched their own media propaganda campaign against ratification of the Constitution. A contentious partisan press was evolving in the land, and Republican editors welcomed articles and letters from constitutional opponents like Mason, just as Federalist publications took the work of “Publius.” Mason knew that a patriot press had earned the confidence of the people during the revolution, and he warned that without an amendment for protection, newspapers that criticized government would be endangered. At the Virginia ratifying convention, Mason stated, “Now, suppose oppressions should arise under this Government, and any writer should dare to stand forth, and expose to the community at large the abuses of those powers; could not Congress, under the idea of providing for the general welfare . . . say that this was destroying the general peace, encouraging sedition, and poisoning the minds of the people? And could they not . . . lay a dangerous restriction on the press?”
The rhetorical questions needed no verbalization in the minds of many patriots. The opening words of one of Mason’s articles highlighted what he considered the most glaring defect in the drafted constitution. “There is no Bill of Rights,” he wrote, “and the Laws of the General government being paramount to the Laws and Constitutions of the several States, the Declaration of Rights in the separate states are no Security.” He expressed particular concern that there was no statement “of any kind, preserving the Liberty of the Press.” Mason concluded with a dire prediction that without protection for individual liberties, the government would “commence in a moderate Aristocracy. It is at present impossible to tell whether it will, in its Operation, produce . . . a corrupt oppressive monarchy.”
Henry, at the Virginia ratifying convention, warned his fellow Virginians to be “extremely cautious, watchful, jealous of your liberties; for, instead of securing your rights, you may lose them forever.” On the other side, Hamilton waited until his penultimate Federalist essay before he dealt directly with the needling issue that would not go away — a bill of rights. He asserted that “bills of rights, in the sense . . . which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary, but would even be dangerous.” He defined the “zeal” for such restraints on government as “injudicious.” He was particularly critical of any suggestion that press liberty could be assured. “Whatever fine declarations may be inserted in any constitution respecting it,” he said, “must altogether depend on public opinion and the general spirit of the people and the government.”
These contentious points of view, and others on diverse civil liberties questions, found their way into the floor fights at many state conventions before New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, the bar that the delegates had set for ratification. Opposition in many states was heated. Rhode Island, the smallest of the states and fearful of an all-powerful central government, had boycotted the Constitutional Convention; it was the only state to do so. The leaders of tiny “Rogue Island” now refused to call a state conference to consider ratification. Instead, they conducted a town-by-town referendum, and the citizens turned out to vote the Constitution down by a stunning 10-to-1 margin.
North Carolina, where negative views were also strong, called a convention, but participants spent little time talking about ratification. Instead, they mostly discussed the need for a bill of rights and what should be in it. There was heated agitation in Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia — large states where there was strong sentiment for a second national convention to correct the imperfections of the draft so recently completed. In New York, the vote was close; ratification carried by only three votes. Had 6 more of the 368 delegates followed Henry and Mason in Virginia, the Constitution would have been lost there.
In Massachusetts, there were predictions that the state convention would refuse to embrace the Constitution. It was John Hancock who offered a compromise that saved ratification in the Bay State. Hancock, whose scrolled signature was the most prominent among signatories to the rebellious Declaration of Independence, was a strong advocate for a bill of rights. He had served as president of the Continental Congress, and he knew that operating the government under the provisions of the Articles of Confederation was damaging its credibility. He proposed therefore that Massachusetts ratify the Constitution but that its delegates insist that the First Congress, or a new federal convention, draft a bill of rights to be approved by the states. Had 6 delegates among the 168 in Massachusetts failed to follow Hancock’s advice, the Constitution would have failed there.
Of all the founders, Madison played the most important role in helping guide the Constitution through the quagmire of political dissent, then pushing the Bill of Rights through the First Congress. History regards him as the “father of the Bill of Rights.” Having helped craft the seven articles of the Constitution that divide powers between the central government and the states and created three branches of a new government, Madison was determined to be an active player in its affairs. To do so, he had to become an active candidate for the House of Representatives. He faced opposition from another rising political star, James Monroe.
All of Virginia knew that Madison had turned his back when Mason had made his case for a bill of rights in the national convention. Many were aware that he had a hand in writing The Federalist Papers, which called a bill of rights “dangerous.” As he and Monroe campaigned in their congressional district, the voters knew that Monroe was an outspoken proponent for a bill of rights. Now, under pressure of complaints from constituents, including Baptist leaders whose small but growing “sect” had felt the sting of religious persecution in Virginia, Madison flip-flopped. He publicly endorsed amending the Constitution and said that if he were elected to Congress, he would work to provide a bill that assured citizen freedoms. A month before the election, he declared in a letter to George Eve his “sincere opinion that the Constitution ought to be revised, and the first Congress . . . ought to prepare and recommend to the states for ratification the most satisfactory provisions for all essential rights.” He specifically called for religious liberty “to the fullest latitude” and freedom of the press. Madison defeated Monroe by 366 votes.
George Washington, the new president, stated in his inaugural address on April 30, 1789, his preference for the Constitution to be amended by Congress, squelching once and for all the idea of a second constitutional convention. The debate that had raged in many state conventions resulted in eight states submitting as many as 200 proposed constitutional amendments for consideration by the new Congress. Madison went to work examining them and establishing priorities. After duplicate recommendations were consolidated, the number was reduced by about half.
When Congress met in April, Madison discovered that approximately 80 of the 100 requested changes were favored by four or fewer states. From the remaining list, he culled 22 issues and finally proposed that Congress consider 14 amendments. In early May, Madison told his fellow House members that he would have a list of proposed amendments ready for their consideration in a month. Other members of the House and Senate were in no hurry. Many of them had other legislative priorities that dealt with making functional the national government, which had been paralyzed under the now discarded Articles of Confederation. It was clear that many members of Congress would drag their legislative feet on constitutional amendments in favor of government business they thought more important, including the budget, how to fund it, and international affairs.
To convince them that a bill of rights was a pressing issue, Madison borrowed a paragraph from the lecture Mason had given the Constitutional Convention during its delibera-tions. The people were expecting Congress to act, he said, noting the 200 separate demands of amendments that had come in from the states. He spoke to his colleagues, as Mason had spoken to him, of the “anxiety” among citizens that their liberties were unprotected. Members of the public, he said, were waiting for assurances that this government would not abuse their inalienable rights.
“I believe that the great mass of people who opposed the Constitution disliked it because it did not contain effectual provisions against encroachments on particular rights,” he declared. He focused on what he called “the choicest rights”: free expression — speech and press — and religious liberty. Members of the government, he warned, should not assume that such rights were secure “while a great number of our fellow citizens think these securities necessary.”
Five weeks later, Madison presented the House with his honed list of proposals. With some House members still grousing, he again warned them of the feeling among many citizens that the government had let them down. A bill of rights drafted by Congress, he said, “would extinguish from the bosom of every member of the community, any apprehensions that there are those among his countrymen who wish to deprive them of the liberty for which they so valiantly fought and honorably bled.” It also would help unify the land. By this time, Madison’s conversion to the cause for amendments to protect citizen liberties was absolute, and he was well on his way toward becoming “the father of the Bill of Rights.” Among the arguments he relied on to convince his colleagues in Congress was his assertion that a nation of 11 states well might become a nation of 13 with a bill of rights, since Rhode Island and North Carolina had not yet embraced the Constitution. Both, he accurately predicted, would be favorably impressed by the amendments.
Congressional approval, however, was hardly immediate or assured. The debate rattled around the House and then the Senate until late September 1789, when Congress then approved and sent the amendments to the states for ratification. In the resolution offering the bill of rights to the states, Congress candidly acknowledged that public expectations had driven their action; Congress had heard and responded to the voice of the people. The resolution’s preamble stated,
The conventions of a number of the States, having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added, and as extending the ground of public confidence in the government will best insure the beneficent ends of its institution, be it resolved . . .
Now the people would consider Congress’s recommendations. What ultimately emerged as the First Amendment was actually the third amendment of the 12 proposed to the states by Congress. The first two — one dealing with congressional salaries (ratified in 1992 as the 27th Amendment) and the other with apportionment — were rejected by the states. Thus, the third proposed amendment — the 45 words protecting the freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition — became the First Amendment. Within nine months, the Bill of Rights had been ratified; “Rogue Island” became the deciding state on June 7, 1791. With ratification, rights of free expression and the other vital civil liberties set out in the Bill of Rights were made secure. The founders who served in the First Congress were certain of that, but they could not have been more wrong.
The emergence of a competing and politically divided partisan press raised the hackles of politicians who suffered sharp and caustic criticism. Beginning with the second term of George Washington, those in government felt growing resentment toward editors who condemned their actions. Washington, for all his popularity, bristled and sometimes in cabinet meetings exploded at what he believed were unfair criticisms of his leadership by journalists he called “infamous scribblers.” It took only seven years for the Federalist Congress, during the administration of President John Adams, to pass the Sedition Act of 1798. By then, the nation’s relationship with France had deteriorated. Fearing an invasion, Adams sent a request to Congress for funding to enlarge the nation’s military. His actions were criticized sharply by some of the nation’s anti-administration newspapers.
In response, Congress made a law abridging freedom of the press. The government thereby declared war on editors and newspaper owners whose publications belittled, ridiculed, mocked, or denigrated Adams and his administration. There followed a series of federal Sedition Act and common law prosecutions that sent editors to jail, fined them, closed down some publications, and created an environment of hostility among Adams supporters. Gordon Belt, in his essay “The Sedition Act of 1798,” provides detailed scholarship on the litany of abuses the government unloaded on critics of the president and the Federalist Congress. According to Belt, editors were harassed and harried, slugged, indicted, jailed, and fined. The intimidation even extended to a number of the clergy and to ordinary citizens who erected on their property “liberty poles” emblazoned with posters that urged early retirement for Adams and long life to Vice President Thomas Jefferson, already Adams’s rival in the 1800 presidential election. In one notorious incident, Jacob Schneider, a Pennsylvania editor, was grabbed by troops at his place of business, taken to the public whipping post, and beaten with a lash, without any formal judicial hearing or trial.
The most famous prosecution was that of a member of Congress, Matthew Lyon, who also was a Vermont publisher. Lyon, while campaigning for election to the House in 1798, wrote a piece condemning Adams’ “continual grasp for power” and describing the president’s “unbounded thirst for ridiculous pomp, foolish adulation and selfish avarice.” Indicted, Lyon was sentenced by a jury to four months in prison and fined $1,000. A neighboring Vermont editor, Anthony Haswell, attacked the administration for its action against the congressman and called for a lottery to raise money to help Lyon pay his fine. This, the Federalist prosecutor decided, was in violation of the Sedition Act. Haswell was sentenced to two months in jail and a $200 fine.
The most outrageous prosecution involved a group of convivial fellows in a Newark bar, lifting their glasses in a round of toasts. They heard the echo of gunfire as Adams arrived in town to the welcome of a 16-gun salute. One of them, Luther Baldwin, who was “a little merry” according to press accounts, declared (and there is some question about his direct quote) that he would not mind at all if some of the shot lodged in the president’s buttocks. Baldwin and his two pub mates were prosecuted and fined. They were jailed until the fines and court costs were satisfied.
Congress’s law abridging freedom of expression expired with the election of 1800. The new president, Jefferson, pardoned those who had suffered conviction under it. Regardless, that 1798 act would not be the last law made that infringed on free expression. In times of war (both hot and cold) or national crises or national distress, criticism of the government has often not been welcomed by officials. The government has imposed laws or policies limiting rights of free expression, free association, and access to information needed by a self-governing citizenry.
More recently, in the wake of the al-Qaida attacks of September 11, 2001, the government passed the USA Patriot Act of 2001, giving itself extraordinary powers impinging on citizen rights. Presidential executive orders created increased government secrecy. Actions were taken to monitor the telephone conversations of some citizens without warrants. Other measures closed off public and press access to trials in which alleged terrorist “suspects” were secretly deported.
One of the aspects of the Patriot Act that raised protests is the power the law gives the government to review what citizens read. The law requires libraries and bookstores to report what publications a person has checked out or bought if the information is requested by the Federal Bureau of Investigation during an official investigation. In addition, the act allows the use of so-called national security letters to prohibit librarians or booksellers from disclosing such requests. Just as the Sedition Act of 1798 had nothing to do with sedition, some question what the Patriot Act of 2001 has to do with patriotism. Both were rushed through Congress in a time of war fever with little or no public protest by a fearful citizenry. In both instances, there was support for the government, but that gradually dissipated as the breadth of the laws became known. A striking difference, however, can be found in the public’s understanding, then and now, as to what is at stake when freedom of expression comes under attack.
Matthew Lyon was reelected in 1798 while sitting in his jail cell. Two years later, Adams was not. The voters came to understand that they needed to regain the rights of freedom of expression. Most recently, a series of public opinion polls reveal a remarkable absence of support among U.S. citizens for First Amendment rights — and, what is worse — a disturbing lack of knowledge about First Amendment values. These results reflect a marked departure from the public attitudes that changed the mind of Madison and shook the founders from their political complacency in the 1780s. They also starkly contrast the public opinion that resulted in Adams’s defeat.
These polls document that only 3 in 100 Americans can name all five freedoms in the First Amendment. Only 15 percent know that it guarantees freedoms of press and assembly. More than 80 percent fail to list freedom of religion as part of the amendment, and 36 percent do not identify freedom of speech as a First Amendment right. In a separate survey of 100,000 high school students, 36 percent were convinced that journalists should not be allowed to report news without government approval. One in three had no opinion about whether religious liberty, freedoms of speech and the press, and the rights to peaceably assemble and petition the government to correct wrongs were constitutional rights.
Some of the surveys’ results can be explained by the terror that lingers from the September 11 attacks, but regardless, the ignorance that pervades society with regard to rights of free expression is disturbing and dangerous. At such a time, this encyclopedia detailing and defining First Amendment rights could not be more valuable. These volumes, the work of three distinguished First Amendment scholars — John R. Vile, David L. Hudson Jr., and David Schultz—provide an indispensable and lasting resource. In a real sense, their work serves the public interest. | <urn:uuid:a96ea2ca-1c4f-4c2a-9096-c4c7bd0ec645> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brewminate.com/the-first-45-words-how-the-first-amendment-came-to-be/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.980296 | 5,664 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.06567294895648... | 1 | The words are plain, blunt and unequivocal — without literary frill or poetic flourish — a directive intended to put the natural rights of citizens above and beyond the punitive power of the new federal government:
“Congress shall make no law . . . ”
Read aloud, this opening phrase of what would become the First Amendment to the newly ratified Constitution of the United States has almost a ring of harshness in the admonition to officials of the new government. Hands off, the amendment says. Hands off religion! Hands off dissent! Let the people speak out. Let them publish critically about their elected officials, and petition to right whatever wrongs they perceive done them. Let them assemble peaceably to protest injustice. That was the message the members of the First Congress sent in 1789 as they drafted that amendment and the others that would make up the Bill of Rights. If the people of the states decided to ratify the amendments, there indeed could be a “more perfect Union.”
No one should have been surprised by the strong tone and prohibitive tenor of the first 45 words of the Bill of Rights. Two years earlier, meeting in Philadelphia from May until mid-September 1787, the members of the Constitutional Convention had blundered when they refused to include in the proposed national charter specific language that would bar the new government from stripping away the powers of the states or ripping away individual liberties that American citizens claimed were “unalienable.”
There were a handful of delegates who favored such a measure to protect the rights of the states and the people. Luther Martin of Maryland had written a version of a bill of rights but did not introduce it after gauging the negative feelings of the overwhelming majority of his convention peers. Charles Pinckney of South Carolina and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts had made a pass, on August 20, at pushing through a provision assuring freedom of the press, but it was overwhelmingly voted down, as Edward Dumbauld recounts in The Bill of Rights and What It Means Today (1957). Then, a few days before the convention adjourned, George Mason of Virginia warned his colleagues that public discontent was building in opposition to their work and that they needed to add a bill of rights. Anxious to complete their work, the delegates rebuffed Mason, but the four months of secret sessions had taken their toll on the people’s blind support for a new constitution. Americans had fought a revolution to rid themselves of an all-powerful, oppressive central government, insensitive to citizens’ rights. Now, Mason warned, folks were fearful that the 55 delegates, meeting with doors barred and drapes drawn, were drafting a blueprint for the same sort of autocratic bureaucracy.
Although there were no formal reports on the convention’s progress, the walls — as is the case whenever government relies on secret deliberations — had ears. Inevitable leaks must have occurred regarding what was going on behind closed doors. Individual delegates had their own ideas about issues. Some of them had come to Philadelphia merely to improve on the ineffective Articles of Confederation — the country’s initial constitution that failed to provide sufficient power to the central government. There had been a Virginia Plan, a New Jersey Plan, and a Connecticut Compromise for the new government; these related to the structure of the government and congressional representation for the people. There had been the “completely daft” suggestion from Alexander Hamilton, the New York delegate, for a sort of mini-monarchy, mirrored after the British government — which he called “the best in the world.” No wonder, given the delay and uncertainty, that public anxiety, as Mason said, was building. A bill of rights that protected specific individual rights was what the Constitution needed, he said. It would “give great quiet to the people.” It would still the growing public unrest.
Mason realized that his associates were tired from long weeks of work that included emotional discussions. They all had made sacrifices to participate in the convention. Many had traveled long distances to Philadelphia, and they were neglecting familial and business obligations. They were tired. They wanted to wrap up their business and go home. But, Mason argued, composing a federal bill of rights would not be time consuming. Five state constitutions included protections of citizen rights against government oppression. As the chief architect of such a declaration in the Virginia charter, he assured the convention that the addition, based on the bills of several states, could be drafted and grafted onto the proposed constitution “in a few hours.” Gerry made a motion that a committee be selected to draft such a bill. Mason seconded. When the vote was taken, a majority of every state delegation opposed it. Mason, his fellow Virginian Edmund Randolph, and Gerry refused to sign the Constitution. Mason later declared he would chop off his right hand before he put it to such an imperfect document.
In fact, on September 17, 1787, only 39 of the 55 convention delegates put their names to the proposed constitution before George Washington, who had presided over the deliberations, sent the draft to the Continental Congress to be transmitted to the 13 state conventions for ratification. Mason, Gerry, and Randolph flatly and unapologetically stated their reasons for refusal. The other 13 delegates already had left the convention. No doubt some, drawn home by pressing business or financial obligations, simply left before all the “I”s were dot- ted and “T”s crossed. Others could have left their proxy favorable votes — as did John Dickinson of Delaware — but for their own reasons decided not to do so. There were, no doubt, a few among the 55 who worried that the document upon which they finally agreed went far beyond a simple revision of the Articles of Confederation, for which they thought they had convened. Others may have felt that the proposed charter’s language went too far in endangering states’ rights or did not go far enough in assuring citizen liberties.
Before adjournment, Benjamin Franklin, the oldest delegate, pleaded with his colleagues to endorse the document. “I confess,” he said in a personally written entreaty that was read on his behalf, “that there are several parts of this constitution which I do not approve at present.” Franklin added, however, that “with all its faults,” he thought it the very best the convention could create, given the disagreements among the delegates. So with 39 signatures, the proposed constitution was transmitted to the states in hopes that each would call a convention and ratify it. With that, the political campaign either to adopt the draft or to defeat it was on, with newspapers reporting opinions on both sides. There was intense debate in many state capitals, much of it centering on the absence of a bill of rights.
Mason went home to Virginia to join with Patrick Henry in an effort to kill the Constitution there. From France, Thomas Jefferson, the U.S. minister, sent a letter to James Madison asserting that “a bill of rights is what people are entitled to.” Later he wrote to fellow American diplomat David Humphreys: “There are rights that are useless to surrender to the government, and which yet, governments have always been fond to invade. These are the rights of thinking and publishing our thoughts by speaking or writing.” Madison, who turned his back on fellow Virginian Mason when the older man pleaded in the convention for a bill of rights, had committed himself to help get the Constitution ratified as it had been drafted. He must have felt uncomfortable when he realized that Jefferson, his political mentor, agreed with Mason. Madison was less than candid in responding to Jefferson’s letter.
Convinced that a bill of rights was not a crucial ingredient for the Constitution, Madison put his considerable political writing skills into the media campaign for ratification. A bill of rights, he maintained, simply was not needed to protect freedoms that were natural. Madison joined with Hamilton (who had abandoned his nonsensical monarchical affectations early on) and with John Jay (who would soon become first chief justice of the United States) to draft what came to be known as The Federalist Papers. They published the essays under the pen name “Publius,” with Hamilton carrying most of the writing load, Madison sharing some of the heavy lifting, and Jay contributing little. Addressed to “the People of the State of New York,” these 85 well-reasoned essays promoted the values and virtues of the proposed constitution and comprise what Edward Mead Earle has described in The Federalist (1941) as “frankly, a campaign document.” They first were published in New York newspapers in October 1787, just a month after the convention, and continued well into May 1788. They were republished and circulated elsewhere as newspaper articles and in book form.
Mason (sometimes writing as “Cato”) and fellow Virginians Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry, while not so prolific as Madison’s team, launched their own media propaganda campaign against ratification of the Constitution. A contentious partisan press was evolving in the land, and Republican editors welcomed articles and letters from constitutional opponents like Mason, just as Federalist publications took the work of “Publius.” Mason knew that a patriot press had earned the confidence of the people during the revolution, and he warned that without an amendment for protection, newspapers that criticized government would be endangered. At the Virginia ratifying convention, Mason stated, “Now, suppose oppressions should arise under this Government, and any writer should dare to stand forth, and expose to the community at large the abuses of those powers; could not Congress, under the idea of providing for the general welfare . . . say that this was destroying the general peace, encouraging sedition, and poisoning the minds of the people? And could they not . . . lay a dangerous restriction on the press?”
The rhetorical questions needed no verbalization in the minds of many patriots. The opening words of one of Mason’s articles highlighted what he considered the most glaring defect in the drafted constitution. “There is no Bill of Rights,” he wrote, “and the Laws of the General government being paramount to the Laws and Constitutions of the several States, the Declaration of Rights in the separate states are no Security.” He expressed particular concern that there was no statement “of any kind, preserving the Liberty of the Press.” Mason concluded with a dire prediction that without protection for individual liberties, the government would “commence in a moderate Aristocracy. It is at present impossible to tell whether it will, in its Operation, produce . . . a corrupt oppressive monarchy.”
Henry, at the Virginia ratifying convention, warned his fellow Virginians to be “extremely cautious, watchful, jealous of your liberties; for, instead of securing your rights, you may lose them forever.” On the other side, Hamilton waited until his penultimate Federalist essay before he dealt directly with the needling issue that would not go away — a bill of rights. He asserted that “bills of rights, in the sense . . . which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary, but would even be dangerous.” He defined the “zeal” for such restraints on government as “injudicious.” He was particularly critical of any suggestion that press liberty could be assured. “Whatever fine declarations may be inserted in any constitution respecting it,” he said, “must altogether depend on public opinion and the general spirit of the people and the government.”
These contentious points of view, and others on diverse civil liberties questions, found their way into the floor fights at many state conventions before New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, the bar that the delegates had set for ratification. Opposition in many states was heated. Rhode Island, the smallest of the states and fearful of an all-powerful central government, had boycotted the Constitutional Convention; it was the only state to do so. The leaders of tiny “Rogue Island” now refused to call a state conference to consider ratification. Instead, they conducted a town-by-town referendum, and the citizens turned out to vote the Constitution down by a stunning 10-to-1 margin.
North Carolina, where negative views were also strong, called a convention, but participants spent little time talking about ratification. Instead, they mostly discussed the need for a bill of rights and what should be in it. There was heated agitation in Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia — large states where there was strong sentiment for a second national convention to correct the imperfections of the draft so recently completed. In New York, the vote was close; ratification carried by only three votes. Had 6 more of the 368 delegates followed Henry and Mason in Virginia, the Constitution would have been lost there.
In Massachusetts, there were predictions that the state convention would refuse to embrace the Constitution. It was John Hancock who offered a compromise that saved ratification in the Bay State. Hancock, whose scrolled signature was the most prominent among signatories to the rebellious Declaration of Independence, was a strong advocate for a bill of rights. He had served as president of the Continental Congress, and he knew that operating the government under the provisions of the Articles of Confederation was damaging its credibility. He proposed therefore that Massachusetts ratify the Constitution but that its delegates insist that the First Congress, or a new federal convention, draft a bill of rights to be approved by the states. Had 6 delegates among the 168 in Massachusetts failed to follow Hancock’s advice, the Constitution would have failed there.
Of all the founders, Madison played the most important role in helping guide the Constitution through the quagmire of political dissent, then pushing the Bill of Rights through the First Congress. History regards him as the “father of the Bill of Rights.” Having helped craft the seven articles of the Constitution that divide powers between the central government and the states and created three branches of a new government, Madison was determined to be an active player in its affairs. To do so, he had to become an active candidate for the House of Representatives. He faced opposition from another rising political star, James Monroe.
All of Virginia knew that Madison had turned his back when Mason had made his case for a bill of rights in the national convention. Many were aware that he had a hand in writing The Federalist Papers, which called a bill of rights “dangerous.” As he and Monroe campaigned in their congressional district, the voters knew that Monroe was an outspoken proponent for a bill of rights. Now, under pressure of complaints from constituents, including Baptist leaders whose small but growing “sect” had felt the sting of religious persecution in Virginia, Madison flip-flopped. He publicly endorsed amending the Constitution and said that if he were elected to Congress, he would work to provide a bill that assured citizen freedoms. A month before the election, he declared in a letter to George Eve his “sincere opinion that the Constitution ought to be revised, and the first Congress . . . ought to prepare and recommend to the states for ratification the most satisfactory provisions for all essential rights.” He specifically called for religious liberty “to the fullest latitude” and freedom of the press. Madison defeated Monroe by 366 votes.
George Washington, the new president, stated in his inaugural address on April 30, 1789, his preference for the Constitution to be amended by Congress, squelching once and for all the idea of a second constitutional convention. The debate that had raged in many state conventions resulted in eight states submitting as many as 200 proposed constitutional amendments for consideration by the new Congress. Madison went to work examining them and establishing priorities. After duplicate recommendations were consolidated, the number was reduced by about half.
When Congress met in April, Madison discovered that approximately 80 of the 100 requested changes were favored by four or fewer states. From the remaining list, he culled 22 issues and finally proposed that Congress consider 14 amendments. In early May, Madison told his fellow House members that he would have a list of proposed amendments ready for their consideration in a month. Other members of the House and Senate were in no hurry. Many of them had other legislative priorities that dealt with making functional the national government, which had been paralyzed under the now discarded Articles of Confederation. It was clear that many members of Congress would drag their legislative feet on constitutional amendments in favor of government business they thought more important, including the budget, how to fund it, and international affairs.
To convince them that a bill of rights was a pressing issue, Madison borrowed a paragraph from the lecture Mason had given the Constitutional Convention during its delibera-tions. The people were expecting Congress to act, he said, noting the 200 separate demands of amendments that had come in from the states. He spoke to his colleagues, as Mason had spoken to him, of the “anxiety” among citizens that their liberties were unprotected. Members of the public, he said, were waiting for assurances that this government would not abuse their inalienable rights.
“I believe that the great mass of people who opposed the Constitution disliked it because it did not contain effectual provisions against encroachments on particular rights,” he declared. He focused on what he called “the choicest rights”: free expression — speech and press — and religious liberty. Members of the government, he warned, should not assume that such rights were secure “while a great number of our fellow citizens think these securities necessary.”
Five weeks later, Madison presented the House with his honed list of proposals. With some House members still grousing, he again warned them of the feeling among many citizens that the government had let them down. A bill of rights drafted by Congress, he said, “would extinguish from the bosom of every member of the community, any apprehensions that there are those among his countrymen who wish to deprive them of the liberty for which they so valiantly fought and honorably bled.” It also would help unify the land. By this time, Madison’s conversion to the cause for amendments to protect citizen liberties was absolute, and he was well on his way toward becoming “the father of the Bill of Rights.” Among the arguments he relied on to convince his colleagues in Congress was his assertion that a nation of 11 states well might become a nation of 13 with a bill of rights, since Rhode Island and North Carolina had not yet embraced the Constitution. Both, he accurately predicted, would be favorably impressed by the amendments.
Congressional approval, however, was hardly immediate or assured. The debate rattled around the House and then the Senate until late September 1789, when Congress then approved and sent the amendments to the states for ratification. In the resolution offering the bill of rights to the states, Congress candidly acknowledged that public expectations had driven their action; Congress had heard and responded to the voice of the people. The resolution’s preamble stated,
The conventions of a number of the States, having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added, and as extending the ground of public confidence in the government will best insure the beneficent ends of its institution, be it resolved . . .
Now the people would consider Congress’s recommendations. What ultimately emerged as the First Amendment was actually the third amendment of the 12 proposed to the states by Congress. The first two — one dealing with congressional salaries (ratified in 1992 as the 27th Amendment) and the other with apportionment — were rejected by the states. Thus, the third proposed amendment — the 45 words protecting the freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition — became the First Amendment. Within nine months, the Bill of Rights had been ratified; “Rogue Island” became the deciding state on June 7, 1791. With ratification, rights of free expression and the other vital civil liberties set out in the Bill of Rights were made secure. The founders who served in the First Congress were certain of that, but they could not have been more wrong.
The emergence of a competing and politically divided partisan press raised the hackles of politicians who suffered sharp and caustic criticism. Beginning with the second term of George Washington, those in government felt growing resentment toward editors who condemned their actions. Washington, for all his popularity, bristled and sometimes in cabinet meetings exploded at what he believed were unfair criticisms of his leadership by journalists he called “infamous scribblers.” It took only seven years for the Federalist Congress, during the administration of President John Adams, to pass the Sedition Act of 1798. By then, the nation’s relationship with France had deteriorated. Fearing an invasion, Adams sent a request to Congress for funding to enlarge the nation’s military. His actions were criticized sharply by some of the nation’s anti-administration newspapers.
In response, Congress made a law abridging freedom of the press. The government thereby declared war on editors and newspaper owners whose publications belittled, ridiculed, mocked, or denigrated Adams and his administration. There followed a series of federal Sedition Act and common law prosecutions that sent editors to jail, fined them, closed down some publications, and created an environment of hostility among Adams supporters. Gordon Belt, in his essay “The Sedition Act of 1798,” provides detailed scholarship on the litany of abuses the government unloaded on critics of the president and the Federalist Congress. According to Belt, editors were harassed and harried, slugged, indicted, jailed, and fined. The intimidation even extended to a number of the clergy and to ordinary citizens who erected on their property “liberty poles” emblazoned with posters that urged early retirement for Adams and long life to Vice President Thomas Jefferson, already Adams’s rival in the 1800 presidential election. In one notorious incident, Jacob Schneider, a Pennsylvania editor, was grabbed by troops at his place of business, taken to the public whipping post, and beaten with a lash, without any formal judicial hearing or trial.
The most famous prosecution was that of a member of Congress, Matthew Lyon, who also was a Vermont publisher. Lyon, while campaigning for election to the House in 1798, wrote a piece condemning Adams’ “continual grasp for power” and describing the president’s “unbounded thirst for ridiculous pomp, foolish adulation and selfish avarice.” Indicted, Lyon was sentenced by a jury to four months in prison and fined $1,000. A neighboring Vermont editor, Anthony Haswell, attacked the administration for its action against the congressman and called for a lottery to raise money to help Lyon pay his fine. This, the Federalist prosecutor decided, was in violation of the Sedition Act. Haswell was sentenced to two months in jail and a $200 fine.
The most outrageous prosecution involved a group of convivial fellows in a Newark bar, lifting their glasses in a round of toasts. They heard the echo of gunfire as Adams arrived in town to the welcome of a 16-gun salute. One of them, Luther Baldwin, who was “a little merry” according to press accounts, declared (and there is some question about his direct quote) that he would not mind at all if some of the shot lodged in the president’s buttocks. Baldwin and his two pub mates were prosecuted and fined. They were jailed until the fines and court costs were satisfied.
Congress’s law abridging freedom of expression expired with the election of 1800. The new president, Jefferson, pardoned those who had suffered conviction under it. Regardless, that 1798 act would not be the last law made that infringed on free expression. In times of war (both hot and cold) or national crises or national distress, criticism of the government has often not been welcomed by officials. The government has imposed laws or policies limiting rights of free expression, free association, and access to information needed by a self-governing citizenry.
More recently, in the wake of the al-Qaida attacks of September 11, 2001, the government passed the USA Patriot Act of 2001, giving itself extraordinary powers impinging on citizen rights. Presidential executive orders created increased government secrecy. Actions were taken to monitor the telephone conversations of some citizens without warrants. Other measures closed off public and press access to trials in which alleged terrorist “suspects” were secretly deported.
One of the aspects of the Patriot Act that raised protests is the power the law gives the government to review what citizens read. The law requires libraries and bookstores to report what publications a person has checked out or bought if the information is requested by the Federal Bureau of Investigation during an official investigation. In addition, the act allows the use of so-called national security letters to prohibit librarians or booksellers from disclosing such requests. Just as the Sedition Act of 1798 had nothing to do with sedition, some question what the Patriot Act of 2001 has to do with patriotism. Both were rushed through Congress in a time of war fever with little or no public protest by a fearful citizenry. In both instances, there was support for the government, but that gradually dissipated as the breadth of the laws became known. A striking difference, however, can be found in the public’s understanding, then and now, as to what is at stake when freedom of expression comes under attack.
Matthew Lyon was reelected in 1798 while sitting in his jail cell. Two years later, Adams was not. The voters came to understand that they needed to regain the rights of freedom of expression. Most recently, a series of public opinion polls reveal a remarkable absence of support among U.S. citizens for First Amendment rights — and, what is worse — a disturbing lack of knowledge about First Amendment values. These results reflect a marked departure from the public attitudes that changed the mind of Madison and shook the founders from their political complacency in the 1780s. They also starkly contrast the public opinion that resulted in Adams’s defeat.
These polls document that only 3 in 100 Americans can name all five freedoms in the First Amendment. Only 15 percent know that it guarantees freedoms of press and assembly. More than 80 percent fail to list freedom of religion as part of the amendment, and 36 percent do not identify freedom of speech as a First Amendment right. In a separate survey of 100,000 high school students, 36 percent were convinced that journalists should not be allowed to report news without government approval. One in three had no opinion about whether religious liberty, freedoms of speech and the press, and the rights to peaceably assemble and petition the government to correct wrongs were constitutional rights.
Some of the surveys’ results can be explained by the terror that lingers from the September 11 attacks, but regardless, the ignorance that pervades society with regard to rights of free expression is disturbing and dangerous. At such a time, this encyclopedia detailing and defining First Amendment rights could not be more valuable. These volumes, the work of three distinguished First Amendment scholars — John R. Vile, David L. Hudson Jr., and David Schultz—provide an indispensable and lasting resource. In a real sense, their work serves the public interest. | 5,637 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The key to success for beginning readers is recognizing high-frequency words. One of the first hurdles a beginning reader must overcome when learning to read is being able to instantly recognize high-frequency words. The 100 most common high-frequency words make up 65 percent of all written language. If students are to become confident and fluent readers, they need to recognize these words automatically. So how do students acquire this vocabulary? We know from our own experience in the classroom that beginning readers need to read these high-frequency words over and over again so that they are committed to memory and are instantly recognized. Research supports what our experience shows.
Recently, I was taking a Guided Reading lesson with a group of eager prep students - Jessica, Tom, Danni, and Luke. The group was reading a Level 2 book about a girl exploring a park. The students had no problem holding onto the pattern of the text. And, inspired by the engaging photographs, they had lots to say about what the girl was doing and what they liked to do in a park. We were off to a good start.
We were re-reading the book when all of a sudden Danni’s eyes lit up. She pointed to the wordplay in the first sentence. “That says play,” Danni said. Then, she pointed to the wordplay in the second sentence. “And that says play.” It’s always a joy to witness a young reader make a discovery like this - Danni had worked out that she could recognize a word, that she could actually read! The pleasure I got from this small incident was twofold. I was pleased with my role as her teacher. But I was also pleased because I had had a consulting role in the development of the book she was reading. During the publishing process, we paid great attention to the supportive features that would assist students as they learned this foundational vocabulary.
We wrote books in pairs; each pair of books sharing the same high-frequency words but in different sentence structures and text types. We repeated the high-frequency words many times both within each book and across several books. We made sure that there was a low ratio of unfamiliar words, and those words were highly supported with pictures, and by the pattern and the context. We introduced high-frequency words gradually and systematically. It is always a great feeling to see a book do what it should – provide systematic support to beginning readers, as well as interest and excite students.
Lyn Reggett is a literacy and publishing consultant currently working in the United States and Australia. Lyn began her teaching career in New Zealand where she taught mainly in elementary schools and became one of the first Reading Recovery Teacher Leaders in New Zealand. In the United States, she has worked extensively as a consultant in elementary and middle schools particularly in New York City, Seattle, San Diego, and Sacramento. In Australia she continues working as a coach, believing that coaches need to be working actively in classrooms, as well as leading professional development sessions. She has been associated with Eleanor Curtain Publishing since 2009, pursuing her interest in, and passion for literacy teaching and learning. She works as part of a talented and dedicated team to develop and produce high-quality books for students. One of the joys of her job is to field test this material in schools, where students enlighten and teach her.
Lyn joins an outstanding lineup of Presenters at the Third Annual Balanced Literacy Symposium. | <urn:uuid:d10d2803-9561-4295-a842-7eec0f26e29b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://myokapi.com/education/teacher-talk/high-frequency-words-guided-reading/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00415.warc.gz | en | 0.986825 | 704 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.240548551082... | 3 | The key to success for beginning readers is recognizing high-frequency words. One of the first hurdles a beginning reader must overcome when learning to read is being able to instantly recognize high-frequency words. The 100 most common high-frequency words make up 65 percent of all written language. If students are to become confident and fluent readers, they need to recognize these words automatically. So how do students acquire this vocabulary? We know from our own experience in the classroom that beginning readers need to read these high-frequency words over and over again so that they are committed to memory and are instantly recognized. Research supports what our experience shows.
Recently, I was taking a Guided Reading lesson with a group of eager prep students - Jessica, Tom, Danni, and Luke. The group was reading a Level 2 book about a girl exploring a park. The students had no problem holding onto the pattern of the text. And, inspired by the engaging photographs, they had lots to say about what the girl was doing and what they liked to do in a park. We were off to a good start.
We were re-reading the book when all of a sudden Danni’s eyes lit up. She pointed to the wordplay in the first sentence. “That says play,” Danni said. Then, she pointed to the wordplay in the second sentence. “And that says play.” It’s always a joy to witness a young reader make a discovery like this - Danni had worked out that she could recognize a word, that she could actually read! The pleasure I got from this small incident was twofold. I was pleased with my role as her teacher. But I was also pleased because I had had a consulting role in the development of the book she was reading. During the publishing process, we paid great attention to the supportive features that would assist students as they learned this foundational vocabulary.
We wrote books in pairs; each pair of books sharing the same high-frequency words but in different sentence structures and text types. We repeated the high-frequency words many times both within each book and across several books. We made sure that there was a low ratio of unfamiliar words, and those words were highly supported with pictures, and by the pattern and the context. We introduced high-frequency words gradually and systematically. It is always a great feeling to see a book do what it should – provide systematic support to beginning readers, as well as interest and excite students.
Lyn Reggett is a literacy and publishing consultant currently working in the United States and Australia. Lyn began her teaching career in New Zealand where she taught mainly in elementary schools and became one of the first Reading Recovery Teacher Leaders in New Zealand. In the United States, she has worked extensively as a consultant in elementary and middle schools particularly in New York City, Seattle, San Diego, and Sacramento. In Australia she continues working as a coach, believing that coaches need to be working actively in classrooms, as well as leading professional development sessions. She has been associated with Eleanor Curtain Publishing since 2009, pursuing her interest in, and passion for literacy teaching and learning. She works as part of a talented and dedicated team to develop and produce high-quality books for students. One of the joys of her job is to field test this material in schools, where students enlighten and teach her.
Lyn joins an outstanding lineup of Presenters at the Third Annual Balanced Literacy Symposium. | 690 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The concentration camp in Dachau was operative between 1933 and 1945. It is located on the grounds of an abandoned munitions factory near the town of Dachau, about 20km northwest of Munich. It was the first concentration camp established by the national socialists in Germany. Between 1933 and 1945 over 200000 prisoners from more than 30 countries were housed in Dachau; two-thirds were political prisoners and nearly one-third were Jews. 40000 prisoners died here. After WW II the concentration camp was dismantled and later reconstructed in 1965 on the initiative of and in accordance with the plans of the surviving prisoners who had joined together fo form the Comite International de Dachau. The Bavarian state government provided financial support.
Page viewed 39329 times since 27.10.2008
©Copyright Alfred Molon | <urn:uuid:0eb7205e-8b32-4c8e-85c0-008f6024b0eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://molon.de/galleries/Germany/Bavaria/Dachau/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.985876 | 163 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.764796078205... | 1 | The concentration camp in Dachau was operative between 1933 and 1945. It is located on the grounds of an abandoned munitions factory near the town of Dachau, about 20km northwest of Munich. It was the first concentration camp established by the national socialists in Germany. Between 1933 and 1945 over 200000 prisoners from more than 30 countries were housed in Dachau; two-thirds were political prisoners and nearly one-third were Jews. 40000 prisoners died here. After WW II the concentration camp was dismantled and later reconstructed in 1965 on the initiative of and in accordance with the plans of the surviving prisoners who had joined together fo form the Comite International de Dachau. The Bavarian state government provided financial support.
Page viewed 39329 times since 27.10.2008
©Copyright Alfred Molon | 206 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hudson’s western boundary is marked by a delightful section of the Merrimack River; stretching from Litchfield on the north, some 6.5 miles south to the state line with Ma. River crossings to Nashua occur at the Sagamore Bridge at the south near Walmart and at the Taylor’s Falls Bridge and Veterans Memorial Bridge near the Nashua River. There has been a Taylor’s Falls Bridge in this area since 1811. Initially a wooden toll bridge, then an iron bridge, a concrete bridge, and now the southern bridge of the twin span which dates to the 1970’s. So, the question is: Where were the Taylor Falls and what became of them?
The Pawtucket Falls in the Merrimack River at Lowell, MA was an important fishing ground for the Pennacook Indians during the pre-colonial times. “Pawtucket” is an Algonkian word meaning “at the falls in the river”. These falls were a barrier to commercial travel along the river to the early settlers, leading to the construction of the canal in the late 1700’s. In order to maximize the hydro-power and control the flow to the canal, a dam was built at the top of the falls in 1820 and expanded in 1840. The final structure exists in much to same form today, consisting of a stone dam topped with five foot wooded flash boards, This dam had the effect of raising the level of the river some 8 feet near the dam to 4 feet as far north as Cromwell Falls in Merrimack; eliminating any falls or rapids in the river from Lowell to Litchfield/Merrimack.
Besides the Pawtucket Falls there were three sets of rapids or waterfalls of significance to the early settlers; The Wicasuck Falls in Tyngsboro, the Taylor’s Falls in Hudson, and Cromwell’s Falls in Merrimack. The building of the Pawtucket Dam displaced each of these falls.
The Wicasuck Falls were about 4 miles north of Pawtucket where the river swept around a considerable island of the same name. This offered good fishing for the Indians and early settlers. The island played a significant part during King Philip’s War when Captain Jonathan Tyng “overlooked” a party of praying Indians that lived on this island for some 10 years thus keeping them out of the strife. In consideration of this the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony granted this island to him in December 1693, It became known as Tyng’s Inland.
A series of rapids known as Taylor’s Falls were located some 8 miles north of Tyng’s Island and one mile south of the junction of the Nashua and the Merrimack Rivers which is located just north of the Taylor’s Falls Bridge; placing them a little over 1/2 mile below the bridge. John Taylor built a garrison on that part of the Joseph Hills grant that was deeded to Gershom Hills and later the Charles W. Spalding farm. This garrison was built behind the house toward the river. The Spalding farm house is now the site of Continental Academie on Derry Road. Little is known of this John Taylor except that the Taylor’s falls were most likely named for him and clearly the Taylor’s Falls Bridge was name for the falls.
Joseph Cromwell was an early fur trader in Old Dunstable on the Merrimack side of the river. The site of his trading post is identified by a marker between the Anheuser-Bush brewery and the Clydesdale Hamblet in Merrimack. Cromwell Falls was visited by Henry David Thorreau and his brother John in September 1839 and this visit chronicled in his book “A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers”. In this book he stated that the Cromwell Falls were the first falls they met while traveling on the Merrimack; thus indicating that the river level had been raised by that date.
Today the smooth surface of the Merrimack gives no indication of the underlaying rapids and falls were eliminated between Pawtuck and Cromwell Falls. Most of the information in this brief article is from Webster’s History of Hudson. The photo of the Taylor’s Falls bridge in moonlight is from a post card within the collection of the Hudson Historical Society. Researched and written by Ruth Parker.
Baker Street was laid out July 23, 1889 on land owned or previously owned by Kimball Webster. This street went from Main Street (now Ferry Street) near Derry Road and proceeded northward to land set aside for the Methodist Church parsonage and then eastward to Derry Road (now a part of Highland Street). By 1892 when the Hurd Atlas of New Hampshire towns was published there were only four houses on Baker Street; corresponding to 4, 6, 8, and 10 Baker Street of today. Each of these four homes were built between 1889 and 1892 by/for John H. Baker, Ezra A. Martin, Gerry Walker, and Abi A. Sanders restively. . A short time after 1892 a house was built on what is now 12 Baker Street and land at 13 Baker Street (now the corner with Highland Avenue) had been designated as the site of Methodist Church parsonage, replacing their parsonage which was destroyed by fire on Central Street a few years earlier.
Lovisa Underwood (Webster) and John Henry Baker moved from the Pembroke, NH area between 1856 and 1858 with their son John Julian. A daughter Mittie and a son William Wallace were later born in Hudson. John Henry was a stone cutter and a farmer. In October 1888 he purchased a 22,800 square foot lot from his brother-in-law, Kimball Webster. This lot was located near Derry Road on a proposed street to be named Baker Street. His Victorian style home was the first to be built on that street and it became the family home for 3 generations of Bakers. John Henry lived here for the duration of his life; passing in January 1916. His wife, Lovisa pre-deceased him in March 1900. They were laid to rest in Sunnyside Cemetery. This house became home to siblings Mittie and John Julian. Their other sibling, William Wallace, also resided here until his marriage to Sarah Lee Oldell in December 1899 about which time he secured the lot at 6 Baker Street.
After receiving their education John Jullian and William Wallace each spent a few years working for their uncle, Nathan Webster, in his grocery and grain business on Central Street. In 1890 these brothers became business partners as they took over the operation and ownership of the store.
John Julian passed in February 1942 at the age of 89 and Mittie passed in July 1949 at the age of 89. After settling the estate of Mittie Baker title for the home at 4 Baker Street went to her nephew, John Earl. John Earl lived there until August 1965 when the home was sold outside the Baker family to Fred and Hazel Felber. who owned it for 28 years until it was sold from her estate in 1993. In the intervening 26 years to the present time this property had had 3 owners. At the present time it is a 3 family complex.
The first home at 6 Baker Street was built by Ezra A. Martin about 1889 and unfortunately destroyed by fire by in 1890. There is no evidence he rebuilt as the lot was taken over by William Wallace Baker and he built his own residence there in 1899. From this home William Wallace and Sarah (Oldall) Baker raised their family of 3 sons; John Earl (B:1901), Sidney (B:1902), and Walace Grant (B:1907). William Wallace and Sarah continued to reside here. He passed in December 1932 and by October 1941 the house was purchased by James and Ethel Hopwood. James was employed in Wilton, NH and Ethel was teacher in the Hudson School System; teaching primarily at Webster School. By the mid 1950’s they had retired. The Baker Street house was then sold to George A. Fuller and Roland Levesque in November 1961. It was converted to a multi-family residence and has since been owned by members of the Cassavaugh Family and now by Alexander Croker.
Our first photo is from an early 1900 post card of the John Henry residence. The second shows the William Wallace home decorated for the 1933 town bi-centennial. | <urn:uuid:091e9fd3-cfcc-4975-9acd-d7238825873a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rememberhudsonnhwhen.com/2020/01/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.982865 | 1,768 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1014564558863... | 3 | Hudson’s western boundary is marked by a delightful section of the Merrimack River; stretching from Litchfield on the north, some 6.5 miles south to the state line with Ma. River crossings to Nashua occur at the Sagamore Bridge at the south near Walmart and at the Taylor’s Falls Bridge and Veterans Memorial Bridge near the Nashua River. There has been a Taylor’s Falls Bridge in this area since 1811. Initially a wooden toll bridge, then an iron bridge, a concrete bridge, and now the southern bridge of the twin span which dates to the 1970’s. So, the question is: Where were the Taylor Falls and what became of them?
The Pawtucket Falls in the Merrimack River at Lowell, MA was an important fishing ground for the Pennacook Indians during the pre-colonial times. “Pawtucket” is an Algonkian word meaning “at the falls in the river”. These falls were a barrier to commercial travel along the river to the early settlers, leading to the construction of the canal in the late 1700’s. In order to maximize the hydro-power and control the flow to the canal, a dam was built at the top of the falls in 1820 and expanded in 1840. The final structure exists in much to same form today, consisting of a stone dam topped with five foot wooded flash boards, This dam had the effect of raising the level of the river some 8 feet near the dam to 4 feet as far north as Cromwell Falls in Merrimack; eliminating any falls or rapids in the river from Lowell to Litchfield/Merrimack.
Besides the Pawtucket Falls there were three sets of rapids or waterfalls of significance to the early settlers; The Wicasuck Falls in Tyngsboro, the Taylor’s Falls in Hudson, and Cromwell’s Falls in Merrimack. The building of the Pawtucket Dam displaced each of these falls.
The Wicasuck Falls were about 4 miles north of Pawtucket where the river swept around a considerable island of the same name. This offered good fishing for the Indians and early settlers. The island played a significant part during King Philip’s War when Captain Jonathan Tyng “overlooked” a party of praying Indians that lived on this island for some 10 years thus keeping them out of the strife. In consideration of this the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony granted this island to him in December 1693, It became known as Tyng’s Inland.
A series of rapids known as Taylor’s Falls were located some 8 miles north of Tyng’s Island and one mile south of the junction of the Nashua and the Merrimack Rivers which is located just north of the Taylor’s Falls Bridge; placing them a little over 1/2 mile below the bridge. John Taylor built a garrison on that part of the Joseph Hills grant that was deeded to Gershom Hills and later the Charles W. Spalding farm. This garrison was built behind the house toward the river. The Spalding farm house is now the site of Continental Academie on Derry Road. Little is known of this John Taylor except that the Taylor’s falls were most likely named for him and clearly the Taylor’s Falls Bridge was name for the falls.
Joseph Cromwell was an early fur trader in Old Dunstable on the Merrimack side of the river. The site of his trading post is identified by a marker between the Anheuser-Bush brewery and the Clydesdale Hamblet in Merrimack. Cromwell Falls was visited by Henry David Thorreau and his brother John in September 1839 and this visit chronicled in his book “A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers”. In this book he stated that the Cromwell Falls were the first falls they met while traveling on the Merrimack; thus indicating that the river level had been raised by that date.
Today the smooth surface of the Merrimack gives no indication of the underlaying rapids and falls were eliminated between Pawtuck and Cromwell Falls. Most of the information in this brief article is from Webster’s History of Hudson. The photo of the Taylor’s Falls bridge in moonlight is from a post card within the collection of the Hudson Historical Society. Researched and written by Ruth Parker.
Baker Street was laid out July 23, 1889 on land owned or previously owned by Kimball Webster. This street went from Main Street (now Ferry Street) near Derry Road and proceeded northward to land set aside for the Methodist Church parsonage and then eastward to Derry Road (now a part of Highland Street). By 1892 when the Hurd Atlas of New Hampshire towns was published there were only four houses on Baker Street; corresponding to 4, 6, 8, and 10 Baker Street of today. Each of these four homes were built between 1889 and 1892 by/for John H. Baker, Ezra A. Martin, Gerry Walker, and Abi A. Sanders restively. . A short time after 1892 a house was built on what is now 12 Baker Street and land at 13 Baker Street (now the corner with Highland Avenue) had been designated as the site of Methodist Church parsonage, replacing their parsonage which was destroyed by fire on Central Street a few years earlier.
Lovisa Underwood (Webster) and John Henry Baker moved from the Pembroke, NH area between 1856 and 1858 with their son John Julian. A daughter Mittie and a son William Wallace were later born in Hudson. John Henry was a stone cutter and a farmer. In October 1888 he purchased a 22,800 square foot lot from his brother-in-law, Kimball Webster. This lot was located near Derry Road on a proposed street to be named Baker Street. His Victorian style home was the first to be built on that street and it became the family home for 3 generations of Bakers. John Henry lived here for the duration of his life; passing in January 1916. His wife, Lovisa pre-deceased him in March 1900. They were laid to rest in Sunnyside Cemetery. This house became home to siblings Mittie and John Julian. Their other sibling, William Wallace, also resided here until his marriage to Sarah Lee Oldell in December 1899 about which time he secured the lot at 6 Baker Street.
After receiving their education John Jullian and William Wallace each spent a few years working for their uncle, Nathan Webster, in his grocery and grain business on Central Street. In 1890 these brothers became business partners as they took over the operation and ownership of the store.
John Julian passed in February 1942 at the age of 89 and Mittie passed in July 1949 at the age of 89. After settling the estate of Mittie Baker title for the home at 4 Baker Street went to her nephew, John Earl. John Earl lived there until August 1965 when the home was sold outside the Baker family to Fred and Hazel Felber. who owned it for 28 years until it was sold from her estate in 1993. In the intervening 26 years to the present time this property had had 3 owners. At the present time it is a 3 family complex.
The first home at 6 Baker Street was built by Ezra A. Martin about 1889 and unfortunately destroyed by fire by in 1890. There is no evidence he rebuilt as the lot was taken over by William Wallace Baker and he built his own residence there in 1899. From this home William Wallace and Sarah (Oldall) Baker raised their family of 3 sons; John Earl (B:1901), Sidney (B:1902), and Walace Grant (B:1907). William Wallace and Sarah continued to reside here. He passed in December 1932 and by October 1941 the house was purchased by James and Ethel Hopwood. James was employed in Wilton, NH and Ethel was teacher in the Hudson School System; teaching primarily at Webster School. By the mid 1950’s they had retired. The Baker Street house was then sold to George A. Fuller and Roland Levesque in November 1961. It was converted to a multi-family residence and has since been owned by members of the Cassavaugh Family and now by Alexander Croker.
Our first photo is from an early 1900 post card of the John Henry residence. The second shows the William Wallace home decorated for the 1933 town bi-centennial. | 1,866 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It’s 1860 in a small county seat somewhere in the United States. A lawyer has been in his office all day, meeting a few clients and taking care of some paperwork. At some point during the day, his daughter while doing a few errands, stops in to see him. She has her six-month son with her.
Later that afternoon, the lawyer pens part of a legal document for an estate he’s helping settle. The document refers to the children of the deceased as “infant heirs.”
Before he leaves for the day he writes a letter to his sister. In that letter he tells his sister “my daughter brought the baby to see me this afternoon. The infant and mother are doing fine–we are thankful for God’s Blessings and hope you are hale and hearty as well.”
Twice he used the same word: infant.
When he wrote “infant” in the legal document it was used in the legal sense–typically referring to someone under the legal age of majority. That infant could have been as old as 17 or 20, depending upon the time period and the gender.
When he wrote “infant” in the letter to his sister, he used it the way a layman would: someone young enough to wear diapers.
Same word. Two different meanings depending on the context.
Words in legal documents are used in the legal sense. Make certain you know what that sense was. | <urn:uuid:24c9208c-22c4-4f12-85ab-f13c209249b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://genealogytipoftheday.com/index.php/2020/01/06/a-lawyerly-use-of-infant/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.984367 | 308 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.11304073780... | 4 | It’s 1860 in a small county seat somewhere in the United States. A lawyer has been in his office all day, meeting a few clients and taking care of some paperwork. At some point during the day, his daughter while doing a few errands, stops in to see him. She has her six-month son with her.
Later that afternoon, the lawyer pens part of a legal document for an estate he’s helping settle. The document refers to the children of the deceased as “infant heirs.”
Before he leaves for the day he writes a letter to his sister. In that letter he tells his sister “my daughter brought the baby to see me this afternoon. The infant and mother are doing fine–we are thankful for God’s Blessings and hope you are hale and hearty as well.”
Twice he used the same word: infant.
When he wrote “infant” in the legal document it was used in the legal sense–typically referring to someone under the legal age of majority. That infant could have been as old as 17 or 20, depending upon the time period and the gender.
When he wrote “infant” in the letter to his sister, he used it the way a layman would: someone young enough to wear diapers.
Same word. Two different meanings depending on the context.
Words in legal documents are used in the legal sense. Make certain you know what that sense was. | 292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Buddhism teaches you to cleanse your body, and this custom deeply affected the lives of the Shilla people. An interesting fact is the record of the first bath in the literature of the Korean people that was taken by King Park Hyeokgeose, the founder of Shilla, and Queen Aryeong. The bath culture of the Shilla Unification became more popular in the Goryeo Dynasty. GaoliTujing (GoryeoDogyeong) of Xu Jing, who was an envoy from the Song Dynasty of China, stated, “The people of Goryeo bathe 3-4 times a day, and the men and women gather at a big river in Gaeseong to bathe together.” The women at that time went in the water to bathe while wearing ramie skirts. The concept of treating and preventing diseases through bathing was also introduced around that time. According to “GoryeosaJeolyo: Essentials of Goryeo History”, the kings of Goryeo enjoyed going to the hot springs and required the ill servants to take baths in the hot springs. The bath culture of the Korean Peninsula spread to Japan when Baekje brought Buddhism to the country. Japan had a hot and humid climate, as well as many hot spring baths, so the bath culture
became popular in a completely different way. In Korea, we scrub the body until it is completely clean from filth, but the people in Japan simply wash their bodies with water without any scrubbing. While in their homes, they fill the tub with hot water and everyone in the family take turns in going to the tub, starting with the head of the family. In the Joseon Dynasty, exposing the body was considered a taboo because of the influence of Confucianism. As a result, the royal and noble people washed their bodies while in their bathing clothes. Most of the time, it was ‘partial bathing’, which involves using a pail or a bucket, and full-body bathing became a special event for certain occasions. Samjitnal (March 3), Dano (May5), Yudutnal (June 15), and Chilseok (July 7) were holidays during the Joseon Dynasty when all commoners took full-body baths. The use of herbs or spices while bathing became popular in the Goryeo Dynasty. The women used peach blossom water or boiled orchid water in order to have fairer looking skin. ‘Beauty baths’, wherein plant leaves, stems, and fruits were double-boiled and mixed with bath water, were also popular in the Joseon Dynasty. The two most popular baths were the Ginseng Bath with brewed ginseng leaves and the Garlic Bath with steamed garlic in cotton pockets and vinegar. Bathing was not as popular as before, but the women of Joseon still longed to have fine-looking and beautifully scented skin. This means that the modern women are not the first to enjoy the bath-time aromatherapy for beauty, fragrance, and health. | <urn:uuid:f9e380d7-556b-445b-bc3f-3d0fd8b606ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sulwhasoo.com/my/en/experience/magazine/1209264_4971.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.981876 | 643 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.54813903570... | 2 | Buddhism teaches you to cleanse your body, and this custom deeply affected the lives of the Shilla people. An interesting fact is the record of the first bath in the literature of the Korean people that was taken by King Park Hyeokgeose, the founder of Shilla, and Queen Aryeong. The bath culture of the Shilla Unification became more popular in the Goryeo Dynasty. GaoliTujing (GoryeoDogyeong) of Xu Jing, who was an envoy from the Song Dynasty of China, stated, “The people of Goryeo bathe 3-4 times a day, and the men and women gather at a big river in Gaeseong to bathe together.” The women at that time went in the water to bathe while wearing ramie skirts. The concept of treating and preventing diseases through bathing was also introduced around that time. According to “GoryeosaJeolyo: Essentials of Goryeo History”, the kings of Goryeo enjoyed going to the hot springs and required the ill servants to take baths in the hot springs. The bath culture of the Korean Peninsula spread to Japan when Baekje brought Buddhism to the country. Japan had a hot and humid climate, as well as many hot spring baths, so the bath culture
became popular in a completely different way. In Korea, we scrub the body until it is completely clean from filth, but the people in Japan simply wash their bodies with water without any scrubbing. While in their homes, they fill the tub with hot water and everyone in the family take turns in going to the tub, starting with the head of the family. In the Joseon Dynasty, exposing the body was considered a taboo because of the influence of Confucianism. As a result, the royal and noble people washed their bodies while in their bathing clothes. Most of the time, it was ‘partial bathing’, which involves using a pail or a bucket, and full-body bathing became a special event for certain occasions. Samjitnal (March 3), Dano (May5), Yudutnal (June 15), and Chilseok (July 7) were holidays during the Joseon Dynasty when all commoners took full-body baths. The use of herbs or spices while bathing became popular in the Goryeo Dynasty. The women used peach blossom water or boiled orchid water in order to have fairer looking skin. ‘Beauty baths’, wherein plant leaves, stems, and fruits were double-boiled and mixed with bath water, were also popular in the Joseon Dynasty. The two most popular baths were the Ginseng Bath with brewed ginseng leaves and the Garlic Bath with steamed garlic in cotton pockets and vinegar. Bathing was not as popular as before, but the women of Joseon still longed to have fine-looking and beautifully scented skin. This means that the modern women are not the first to enjoy the bath-time aromatherapy for beauty, fragrance, and health. | 618 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Like many places in Australia, Adelaide was first home to an Aboriginal tribe called the Kaurna people before the white settlers came in to stake their claims. But when small pox and other devastating epidemics where introduced to the area when settlers started to arrive in the early 1800’s the numbers of the Aboriginal people slowly declined. By 1836 numbers had dramatically dropped to around 300 Kaurna people as white settlers where arriving to establish the city that is now Adelaide.
It was back in 1802 when two Captains known as Mathew Flinders and Nicolas Baudin chartered the southern parts of Australian coastline coming across a beautiful region with much promise. Then in 1830 Charles Stuart travelled the Murray River coming across what is know the city of Adelaide and making notes of its ranges and favourable location. With this being noted, in 1831 the NSW Governor sent Captain Collet Barker to explore the region in more depth to assess the possibilities but he met his demise with the local natives and then saw Charles Stuart surveying the region again in 1833. Many saw this region holding much promise because of its pastures and rich soil.
In the following years various boats set sail for South Australia but landing one what is now known as Kangaroo Island just off the coast of SA. The reason they didn’t settle on Kangaroo Island was because they were looking for somewhere where they could build a harbour, have fresh water and a wide expanse of level land. So everyone was moved from Kangaroo Island over to the main land and finally in December the Governor announced the province of SA and from here the harbour was started within the Port River and seeing that the River Torrens was where all the fresh water was locating this is where the developed the city.
Settlers came from all around to stake their claim and build the town into which it became a bustling city. Throughout the years this history of Adelaide has seen the famous gold rush days in the neighbouring state of Victoria which saw thousands of people leave Adelaide to find the fortunes but during these times this is when the demand of the wheat industry of SA increased and with the return of the gold miners the wheat industry boomed. Transport of introduced, electric street lighting was developed in the 1900’s and the electric tram service began in 1909.
The city of Adelaide has survived the depressions of the 1930’s, World War I and II and droughts. With strong leadership and Governing bodies, the history of Adelaide has grown strong throughout the years making this a viable and attractive city that is visited by thousands each year. With farming industries, tourism and the beautiful Adelaide Hills where you will find much of the award winning wineries of Australia, these are just some of the reasons that put Adelaide on the map. Adelaide has grown with the times, with major highways being developed to increase the flow of development. A pipeline from Mannum saw water from the Murray River flow to Adelaide and then in 1955 the Adelaide Airport was opened. The Flinders University was opened in 1966 and in 1970 the then governing bodies saw that Adelaide was ideal to become a city of culture and established a city that was based around culture and arts. Hosting the Australian Grand Prix from 1985 to 1996 and being home to the Adelaide Oval where many major sporting events are held, you can easily see that the history of Adelaide is vast and very colourful one. | <urn:uuid:a4127d47-4168-4778-a83f-20bd452a151f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://satravel.net.au/adelaide-history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00362.warc.gz | en | 0.981805 | 684 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.62721610069274... | 4 | Like many places in Australia, Adelaide was first home to an Aboriginal tribe called the Kaurna people before the white settlers came in to stake their claims. But when small pox and other devastating epidemics where introduced to the area when settlers started to arrive in the early 1800’s the numbers of the Aboriginal people slowly declined. By 1836 numbers had dramatically dropped to around 300 Kaurna people as white settlers where arriving to establish the city that is now Adelaide.
It was back in 1802 when two Captains known as Mathew Flinders and Nicolas Baudin chartered the southern parts of Australian coastline coming across a beautiful region with much promise. Then in 1830 Charles Stuart travelled the Murray River coming across what is know the city of Adelaide and making notes of its ranges and favourable location. With this being noted, in 1831 the NSW Governor sent Captain Collet Barker to explore the region in more depth to assess the possibilities but he met his demise with the local natives and then saw Charles Stuart surveying the region again in 1833. Many saw this region holding much promise because of its pastures and rich soil.
In the following years various boats set sail for South Australia but landing one what is now known as Kangaroo Island just off the coast of SA. The reason they didn’t settle on Kangaroo Island was because they were looking for somewhere where they could build a harbour, have fresh water and a wide expanse of level land. So everyone was moved from Kangaroo Island over to the main land and finally in December the Governor announced the province of SA and from here the harbour was started within the Port River and seeing that the River Torrens was where all the fresh water was locating this is where the developed the city.
Settlers came from all around to stake their claim and build the town into which it became a bustling city. Throughout the years this history of Adelaide has seen the famous gold rush days in the neighbouring state of Victoria which saw thousands of people leave Adelaide to find the fortunes but during these times this is when the demand of the wheat industry of SA increased and with the return of the gold miners the wheat industry boomed. Transport of introduced, electric street lighting was developed in the 1900’s and the electric tram service began in 1909.
The city of Adelaide has survived the depressions of the 1930’s, World War I and II and droughts. With strong leadership and Governing bodies, the history of Adelaide has grown strong throughout the years making this a viable and attractive city that is visited by thousands each year. With farming industries, tourism and the beautiful Adelaide Hills where you will find much of the award winning wineries of Australia, these are just some of the reasons that put Adelaide on the map. Adelaide has grown with the times, with major highways being developed to increase the flow of development. A pipeline from Mannum saw water from the Murray River flow to Adelaide and then in 1955 the Adelaide Airport was opened. The Flinders University was opened in 1966 and in 1970 the then governing bodies saw that Adelaide was ideal to become a city of culture and established a city that was based around culture and arts. Hosting the Australian Grand Prix from 1985 to 1996 and being home to the Adelaide Oval where many major sporting events are held, you can easily see that the history of Adelaide is vast and very colourful one. | 724 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Berthe Morisot was a French painter. She was part of the group of artists that would give birth to the Impressionist movement. She is considered by Gustave Geffroy as one of the three great dames of the Impressionism, alongside Mary Cassat and Marie Bracquemond.
Berthe Marie Pauline Morisot was born on January 14, 1841, in Bourges, France, under an influent and wealthy bourgeois family. Her father was a senior administrator of the Cher department; he also studied architecture at the École des Beaux-Arts. Her mother was Jean-Honoré Fragonard’s great-niece, Fragonard was one of the most important and prolific painters of the Rococo movement. At age 11, her family moved to Paris.
Berthe Morisot and her sisters had art lessons on their childhood, as it was quite common for the women born in bourgeois families to have this kind of education. One of their teachers was Joseph Guichard, who also ran and taught at a school for girls. Around 1857 he introduced the Louvre to them, where they began to study the paintings by looking and copying them. However, they were not allowed to have formal art training as well as forbidden to work at the museum unsupervised. Despite these barriers, the experience at the museum had an important role, make acquaintances with many male young artists, like Monet and Manet.
Morisot’s early stylistic influences were Camille Corot’s landscapes. They were introduced by Guichard around 1861. Two years later, she was under Achille Oudinot’s teachings. She had a keen interest in painting in plein-air. During this period, Morisot focused primarily on watercolors since it’s easier to carry and also using pastel as well. It was only around age 34 that she began painting oil more often as she develops more confidence in the medium, although she continued to work on watercolor and pastels. Morisot was very demanding of her work, going for a long preparation phase, making a significant number of drawings and sketches before each painting.
Morisot was rather well acquainted. She was a very close friend of Edouard Manet, whose brother, Eugene Manet, she married. The couple had only one daughter, Julie, who regularly posed for his mother, as well as for Manet and Renoir.
Berthe Morisot died in March 1895, a victim of pneumonia. She passed away in Paris and was laid to rest at the Cimitiere de Passy. | <urn:uuid:fa7eda0e-ed65-41d5-847a-a2c7032a1fbe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.1st-art-gallery.com/Berthe-Morisot/Berthe-Morisot-oil-paintings.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00089.warc.gz | en | 0.991451 | 556 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.3602692484... | 2 | Berthe Morisot was a French painter. She was part of the group of artists that would give birth to the Impressionist movement. She is considered by Gustave Geffroy as one of the three great dames of the Impressionism, alongside Mary Cassat and Marie Bracquemond.
Berthe Marie Pauline Morisot was born on January 14, 1841, in Bourges, France, under an influent and wealthy bourgeois family. Her father was a senior administrator of the Cher department; he also studied architecture at the École des Beaux-Arts. Her mother was Jean-Honoré Fragonard’s great-niece, Fragonard was one of the most important and prolific painters of the Rococo movement. At age 11, her family moved to Paris.
Berthe Morisot and her sisters had art lessons on their childhood, as it was quite common for the women born in bourgeois families to have this kind of education. One of their teachers was Joseph Guichard, who also ran and taught at a school for girls. Around 1857 he introduced the Louvre to them, where they began to study the paintings by looking and copying them. However, they were not allowed to have formal art training as well as forbidden to work at the museum unsupervised. Despite these barriers, the experience at the museum had an important role, make acquaintances with many male young artists, like Monet and Manet.
Morisot’s early stylistic influences were Camille Corot’s landscapes. They were introduced by Guichard around 1861. Two years later, she was under Achille Oudinot’s teachings. She had a keen interest in painting in plein-air. During this period, Morisot focused primarily on watercolors since it’s easier to carry and also using pastel as well. It was only around age 34 that she began painting oil more often as she develops more confidence in the medium, although she continued to work on watercolor and pastels. Morisot was very demanding of her work, going for a long preparation phase, making a significant number of drawings and sketches before each painting.
Morisot was rather well acquainted. She was a very close friend of Edouard Manet, whose brother, Eugene Manet, she married. The couple had only one daughter, Julie, who regularly posed for his mother, as well as for Manet and Renoir.
Berthe Morisot died in March 1895, a victim of pneumonia. She passed away in Paris and was laid to rest at the Cimitiere de Passy. | 549 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To his contemporaries, the man from Mount Vernon was enormously impressive. True, the Founders enfranchised neither women nor most men of color, and some of the Founders, such as Jefferson and Washington, owned slaves. By their lights, however, the immediate problem was not so much modern expectations as that republicanism, which predicated political inclusion mainly on land ownership, or what was called freeholding, justified leaving many white men without the rights of Citizenship II.
This problem intensified because ordinary men had more economic opportunities in America than in Europe. From these opportunities, there evolved a thriving society no longer dominated by landed citizens. Country squires remained, but new circumstances challenged their traditional leading role in what had been envisioned as a classical republican society. Those who competed with the squires were men pursuing dynamic livelihoods based on exploitation of natural resources, new techniques of production, expanding networks of trade, improvements in transportation, and innovations in finance. These men often prospered not so much from work on the land as from their ability to contribute to, and profit from, what we now call a cash economy, centered on manufacturing, services, and professions, and housed on relatively small land lots in towns and cities.
Then too, American society was constantly changing, with immigrants arriving from abroad, and with local residents moving from one place to another to get ahead. By one estimate, for example, 70 percent of those who lived in the old Northwest Territories in 1810 had not been there in 1800, even while many of the people living in those territories had changed residence in the same region, some many times. | <urn:uuid:799b3162-4138-4c6d-8474-79f429b423fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://core-cms.prod.aop.cambridge.org/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=David%20M.%20Ricci&eventCode=SE-AU | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.980746 | 324 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.150828137993... | 1 | To his contemporaries, the man from Mount Vernon was enormously impressive. True, the Founders enfranchised neither women nor most men of color, and some of the Founders, such as Jefferson and Washington, owned slaves. By their lights, however, the immediate problem was not so much modern expectations as that republicanism, which predicated political inclusion mainly on land ownership, or what was called freeholding, justified leaving many white men without the rights of Citizenship II.
This problem intensified because ordinary men had more economic opportunities in America than in Europe. From these opportunities, there evolved a thriving society no longer dominated by landed citizens. Country squires remained, but new circumstances challenged their traditional leading role in what had been envisioned as a classical republican society. Those who competed with the squires were men pursuing dynamic livelihoods based on exploitation of natural resources, new techniques of production, expanding networks of trade, improvements in transportation, and innovations in finance. These men often prospered not so much from work on the land as from their ability to contribute to, and profit from, what we now call a cash economy, centered on manufacturing, services, and professions, and housed on relatively small land lots in towns and cities.
Then too, American society was constantly changing, with immigrants arriving from abroad, and with local residents moving from one place to another to get ahead. By one estimate, for example, 70 percent of those who lived in the old Northwest Territories in 1810 had not been there in 1800, even while many of the people living in those territories had changed residence in the same region, some many times. | 333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Some people have dramatic deaths while the rest simply fade away. Then there are those who pass away due to embarrassing circumstances.
This Greek philosopher is world-renowned for his theories and had many followers during his time. According to legend, he jumped into a volcano because he wanted his supporters to think that his body would disappear and he would be among them soon after, but as a God. One of his shoes flew out of the volcano and revealed his deceit.
2. Pyrrhus of Epirus
When this man was entering Argos atop an elephant after losing a battle, an elderly woman threw a tile at him. Needless to say, he was stunned after which a foot soldier stabbed him.
3. Eleazar Maccabeus
Maccabeus was fighting a battle in 163 B.C. when he thought he saw the enemy atop his elephant a few feet away. He ran towards the two and stabbed the animal in the stomach. The elephant died and fell on Maccabeus who, in turn, died on impact. What’s more, the man riding the elephant was not the enemy.
4. Emperor Valerian
Emperor Valerian was quite a disaster as far as rulers are concerned. He was solely responsible for the downfall of the western empire and the loss of a significant battle at the time. Shapur got tired of the emperor and started using him as a footstool to humiliate him. Once he was done, Shapur had the emperor skinned and stuffed with straw.
5. Humphrey de Bohun
Humphrey was a powerful man during 1323 A.D. However, he made the mistake of going against The King who decided to punish him. A battled ensued and one of the soldiers from the other side thrust upwards when the man was standing on a bridge. The pike went through the man’s anus and into his intestines.
6. King Edward II
King Edward II was not too popular amongst the elite sections of the English society at the time. He also had clandestine relationships with other men and when his wife found out- she decided to have him killed. The King was asleep in bed when a hot poker was inserted into his anus.
This Indian Mughal was passionate about art and astronomy and when he was coming back from the library one day, he heard the prayer call. As he was kneeling down, he lost his balance, fell down the stairs and hit his head on a sharp rock.
8. Arthur Aston
This professional soldier lost a leg in an accident after which he used a wooden leg. When his town was targeted, he told the soldiers that he was ready to surrender. However, they felt that he had hidden gold in the wooden leg so they pulled it out and beat him up with it.
9. Julien Offray de La Mettrie
This man was passionate about three things- play, eating and sex. He based his life on this rule and believed that one should die in self-gratification. He died after eating an excess of truffle pate at a dinner held in his honor.
10. Bandō Mitsugorō VIII
Bandō Mitsugorō VIII was a well known and treasured actor in Japan at one time. This talented man decided to eat the liver of a fish which is toxic, if ingested. Nobody knows why he did this but it is said that he claimed that he would not die and ate it happily. He died in 7 hours. | <urn:uuid:5ff753c4-cd03-4bb6-834e-0022923b1178> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://top-10-list.org/2010/09/11/people-passed-away-embarrassing-circumstances/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.993859 | 722 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.215720087289... | 11 | Some people have dramatic deaths while the rest simply fade away. Then there are those who pass away due to embarrassing circumstances.
This Greek philosopher is world-renowned for his theories and had many followers during his time. According to legend, he jumped into a volcano because he wanted his supporters to think that his body would disappear and he would be among them soon after, but as a God. One of his shoes flew out of the volcano and revealed his deceit.
2. Pyrrhus of Epirus
When this man was entering Argos atop an elephant after losing a battle, an elderly woman threw a tile at him. Needless to say, he was stunned after which a foot soldier stabbed him.
3. Eleazar Maccabeus
Maccabeus was fighting a battle in 163 B.C. when he thought he saw the enemy atop his elephant a few feet away. He ran towards the two and stabbed the animal in the stomach. The elephant died and fell on Maccabeus who, in turn, died on impact. What’s more, the man riding the elephant was not the enemy.
4. Emperor Valerian
Emperor Valerian was quite a disaster as far as rulers are concerned. He was solely responsible for the downfall of the western empire and the loss of a significant battle at the time. Shapur got tired of the emperor and started using him as a footstool to humiliate him. Once he was done, Shapur had the emperor skinned and stuffed with straw.
5. Humphrey de Bohun
Humphrey was a powerful man during 1323 A.D. However, he made the mistake of going against The King who decided to punish him. A battled ensued and one of the soldiers from the other side thrust upwards when the man was standing on a bridge. The pike went through the man’s anus and into his intestines.
6. King Edward II
King Edward II was not too popular amongst the elite sections of the English society at the time. He also had clandestine relationships with other men and when his wife found out- she decided to have him killed. The King was asleep in bed when a hot poker was inserted into his anus.
This Indian Mughal was passionate about art and astronomy and when he was coming back from the library one day, he heard the prayer call. As he was kneeling down, he lost his balance, fell down the stairs and hit his head on a sharp rock.
8. Arthur Aston
This professional soldier lost a leg in an accident after which he used a wooden leg. When his town was targeted, he told the soldiers that he was ready to surrender. However, they felt that he had hidden gold in the wooden leg so they pulled it out and beat him up with it.
9. Julien Offray de La Mettrie
This man was passionate about three things- play, eating and sex. He based his life on this rule and believed that one should die in self-gratification. He died after eating an excess of truffle pate at a dinner held in his honor.
10. Bandō Mitsugorō VIII
Bandō Mitsugorō VIII was a well known and treasured actor in Japan at one time. This talented man decided to eat the liver of a fish which is toxic, if ingested. Nobody knows why he did this but it is said that he claimed that he would not die and ate it happily. He died in 7 hours. | 712 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How does point of view (including the narrator and his language) help to explain the irony and the related theme in "The Gift of the Magi" by O. Henry?
In O. Henry's "The Gift of the Magi," the theme of the story is that of selfless giving from the heart, like that of the magi or wise men in the Christmas story. The irony, of course, is that Della sells her hair to buy Jim a watch fob ("fob chain") for his pocket watch, but Jim sells his watch to buy Della beautiful combs for her long, luxurious hair. In this case, each has sacrificed what was most dear to him or her for the other—which the other then cannot use.
The story is told in third person objective:
Narrator is unnamed/unidentified (a detached observer). Does not assume character's perspective and is not a character in the story. The narrator reports on events and lets the reader supply the meaning.
However, it is also noted that this storyteller is somewhat unusual—he is...
...a narrator with personality and presence.
The narrator (while not a character is the story), adopts a personality that connects to the reader:
...the story is told in another narrative voice that directly addresses the reader as ''you." It is almost as if the narrator is an additional character that is heard, but never seen, engaging the reader...
The narrator's style is informal: described by one source as "folksy"— to me he talks like a fairy tale. However, he also adds side comments throughout the story. This was done by Charles Dickens as well, and is called "authorial intrusion," which gives the story an added dimension. The narrator is like a third character, but only in the telling; and he concentrates more on Della's feelings.
Della's character is presented very much like a princess in need of a hero, as she sits down and cries...
Which instigates the moral reflection that life is made up of sobs, sniffles, and...
(The entire section contains 618 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
The main irony of the story is that both have given away their precious possesion to please each other but they both loose their treasures to know that they are the magi. | <urn:uuid:23fa6143-9b5b-48b4-99bc-64307add3296> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-does-point-view-including-narrator-his-283901?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00197.warc.gz | en | 0.9818 | 487 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.24988064... | 1 | How does point of view (including the narrator and his language) help to explain the irony and the related theme in "The Gift of the Magi" by O. Henry?
In O. Henry's "The Gift of the Magi," the theme of the story is that of selfless giving from the heart, like that of the magi or wise men in the Christmas story. The irony, of course, is that Della sells her hair to buy Jim a watch fob ("fob chain") for his pocket watch, but Jim sells his watch to buy Della beautiful combs for her long, luxurious hair. In this case, each has sacrificed what was most dear to him or her for the other—which the other then cannot use.
The story is told in third person objective:
Narrator is unnamed/unidentified (a detached observer). Does not assume character's perspective and is not a character in the story. The narrator reports on events and lets the reader supply the meaning.
However, it is also noted that this storyteller is somewhat unusual—he is...
...a narrator with personality and presence.
The narrator (while not a character is the story), adopts a personality that connects to the reader:
...the story is told in another narrative voice that directly addresses the reader as ''you." It is almost as if the narrator is an additional character that is heard, but never seen, engaging the reader...
The narrator's style is informal: described by one source as "folksy"— to me he talks like a fairy tale. However, he also adds side comments throughout the story. This was done by Charles Dickens as well, and is called "authorial intrusion," which gives the story an added dimension. The narrator is like a third character, but only in the telling; and he concentrates more on Della's feelings.
Della's character is presented very much like a princess in need of a hero, as she sits down and cries...
Which instigates the moral reflection that life is made up of sobs, sniffles, and...
(The entire section contains 618 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
The main irony of the story is that both have given away their precious possesion to please each other but they both loose their treasures to know that they are the magi. | 468 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shyness, or fear of people, is a serious problem because if a dog becomes fearful enough, he may bite. This problem is commonly referred to as fear biting. If you see shyness in a puppy, even if he is as young as five weeks, don't count on him growing out of it and start working on it right away. In less severe cases of shyness, good training can almost completely make the problem disappear. For instance, as I indicated in chapter 1, my first dog, an Irish Setter, was shy. We struggled in our first obedience class trying to persuade her to allow the instructor to touch her. After she was obedience trained, no one would believe that she had ever been shy. She visited nursing homes and schools regularly to put on obedience demonstrations, always allowing everyone to pet her afterward. More severe cases of shyness respond less dramatically to training, but usually there is some improvement.
Shyness can either be genetic or caused by a lack of socialization when the dog is a puppy. The hereditary version can be found in all breeds of dogs as well as mixed breeds. The widespread nature of this problem is understandable if you look at the heritage of the dog before it was domesticated. Wolves, a close relative of the dog, are timid and shy by nature. This is a helpful adaptation for their survival. Domestication has reduced this shyness in dogs, but the trait can still be present in their genes and can often appear when dogs are bred indiscriminately. An inherited shyness problem can be improved greatly with training, but it cannot be totally erased.
The other cause of shyness is a lack of socialization. Dogs that do not receive adequate human contact between the ages of 5 and 12 weeks are usually shy of humans. This can happen when puppies are raised outside in a barn or kennel, or in a puppy mill situation. This shyness can also be improved with training, but you can never completely compensate for the lack of socialization. Shyness of strange people and places can also occur if a puppy is only exposed to the people who own him and the place where he lives until the age of 16 weeks.
When people get shy dogs from animal shelters, they often assume that it is the result of previous abuse. While abuse can cause shyness, such shyness quickly fades when the dog is placed in a loving, understanding, and consistent environment. If shyness persists in such dogs, it is probably a congenital problem, not the result of abuse. Dogs also do not become permanently shy from one traumatic incident, such as being roughly handled by a veterinarian or groomer. A dog with a good, stable temperament cannot be changed into a shy dog with one incident.
Some dogs also exhibit shyness when they enter their adolescence, somewhere around the age of six to nine months, even though they have never shown any previous shyness problems. The stress of hormonal changes probably has something to do with this. Treat this type as you would any other form of shyness, but be especially careful to avoid forcing your dog into a situation that is too stressful for him to handle. By doing so you could turn a temporary problem into a permanent one.
No matter what the cause of shyness, a friendly obedience class based on positive reinforcement is a great help. (See chapter 10 for how to find a good class.) Try to find a class taught by someone experienced in handling shy dogs. By going to a class, a shy dog gets to meet people and other dogs in a strange place but in a controlled situation. He gets to see the same people and dogs every week, which helps him to become gradually less frightened. Being told specifically what to do and how to behave also helps him cope with a frightening situation. The praise and treats he will get as he learns will make him feel good about himself. He will learn to tolerate the instructor petting him while he is made to stay. In many ways, a class can be a confidence-building experience for a shy dog.
The most important tool to use in helping a shy dog is food. You want to pair the "scary" thing with a good thing. No biscuits here. Get out the power food. Some nice cubes of hard salami work well.
Start working on your shyness problem by using food at whatever level your dog is comfortable. Shy dogs are more comfortable approaching someone on their own than being approached, so you want to start by teaching your dog to approach people to get a treat. If you hold a dog tightly by the leash or collar to force him to let people pet him, he will feel cornered because he cannot escape and will be more afraid. This can lead to a bite. If your dog is so afraid that he will not approach a person to take food from their hand, start by having that person sit on the floor and toss food to the dog, gradually decreasing the distance that the food is thrown until the dog is taking a piece of food from the person's hand outstretched at arm's length. I like using squeeze cheese spread on my hand, so the dog can't grab the food and back away. He has to stay with me to lick my hand.
Continue training your dog by encouraging him to approach people offering him food. Don't forget to praise him whenever he acts in a friendly, confident manner. When he will readily approach someone holding out a piece of food, start having people do the approaching while your dog is on a sit-stay.
Take advantage of any and every opportunity to have someone strange feed your dog. Carry treats with you when you go for walks to hand to people. You want your dog to think that everyone he meets is a potential source of treats, rather than a threat.
It is critical in dealing with this problem not to unintentionally reward your dog for acting shy and make the problem worse. When your dog is afraid of someone, it is natural to try to reassure him. However, he has no way of understanding that your reassurance is regarding the person. Instead, he will think your soft words and petting are an expression of approval for his fearful behavior. This is certainly not what you want to teach him. An example of this is given in chapter 3 in "Building Confidence."
What you want to communicate to your dog instead is that he is acting silly and that you are not going to tolerate it. Speak firmly to him in a no-nonsense tone of voice. If he is a little dog, do not pick him up and cuddle him. Don't let him lean on you or hide behind you. Rather, place him on a sit-stay on your left side and stubbornly make him stay there. If the most he can tolerate at first is a person walking around him in a circle, staying 10 feet away, start there. Then gradually work up to having him sit and stay while an unfamiliar person approaches him and hands him a piece of food. When your dog is comfortable with this, make him do a sit-stay while the person approaches and pets him before giving him the food reward. You will know
you really have your problem under control when you can leave your dog on a sit stay, go 6 feet away, and have a stranger pet your dog without you standing right next to him for security.
You will need to get your shy dog out and exposed to people and places. Be very careful so that you do not put your dog in a situation where he is so afraid that he feels forced to bite to defend himself. Watch your dog carefully for any signs that he is feeling uncomfortable and remove him from the situation before he becomes frightened. While shy dogs need encouragement to face their fears, there is a point at which you can stress them too much and cause them to become more fearful. It is important to read your dog so that you know when to stop. Watch the expression in his eyes as well as the tenseness of his muscles. If he refuses to eat his treats, that is a sign that he is stressed.
If your dog's shyness or fear causes him to growl or bite, please see the next chapter on aggression and seek the help of an experienced trainer or behavior specialist. A good trainer can lay out a detailed program using positive reinforcement for desensitization and counter-conditioning.
One final thought: Do not breed from a shy dog. It is impossible to know for sure if a dog is shy because of a genetic problem that he can pass on to offspring or if this condition was caused by a lack of socialization. There is no way to go back and see if your dog would have had a good temperament if he had received adequate socialization. And please do not use the excuse that your dog is shy because of a traumatic incident to justify breeding a shy dog. It is irresponsible to take a chance on producing another generation of shy puppies when the world is grievously overpopulated with dogs.
Was this article helpful?
The cookbook that your dog and dogs everywhere have been waiting for has finally arrived. Pamper Your Dog unleashes 130 recipes for tasty treats and meals for your canine friend that are sure to have your dog salivating. You cook for yourself and your family, so don't ignore your most faithful of friends. Pamper Your Dog will show you how to prepare tasty and healthful treats and main meals for their dogs without a lot of cost or work. This great collection of recipes features 130 tempting and tasty treats for your dog. | <urn:uuid:8bc6331d-aab2-4e88-ab2b-34125643b66e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.redhillpark.us/training-positively/shyness.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.980164 | 1,937 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.21909111738204... | 1 | Shyness, or fear of people, is a serious problem because if a dog becomes fearful enough, he may bite. This problem is commonly referred to as fear biting. If you see shyness in a puppy, even if he is as young as five weeks, don't count on him growing out of it and start working on it right away. In less severe cases of shyness, good training can almost completely make the problem disappear. For instance, as I indicated in chapter 1, my first dog, an Irish Setter, was shy. We struggled in our first obedience class trying to persuade her to allow the instructor to touch her. After she was obedience trained, no one would believe that she had ever been shy. She visited nursing homes and schools regularly to put on obedience demonstrations, always allowing everyone to pet her afterward. More severe cases of shyness respond less dramatically to training, but usually there is some improvement.
Shyness can either be genetic or caused by a lack of socialization when the dog is a puppy. The hereditary version can be found in all breeds of dogs as well as mixed breeds. The widespread nature of this problem is understandable if you look at the heritage of the dog before it was domesticated. Wolves, a close relative of the dog, are timid and shy by nature. This is a helpful adaptation for their survival. Domestication has reduced this shyness in dogs, but the trait can still be present in their genes and can often appear when dogs are bred indiscriminately. An inherited shyness problem can be improved greatly with training, but it cannot be totally erased.
The other cause of shyness is a lack of socialization. Dogs that do not receive adequate human contact between the ages of 5 and 12 weeks are usually shy of humans. This can happen when puppies are raised outside in a barn or kennel, or in a puppy mill situation. This shyness can also be improved with training, but you can never completely compensate for the lack of socialization. Shyness of strange people and places can also occur if a puppy is only exposed to the people who own him and the place where he lives until the age of 16 weeks.
When people get shy dogs from animal shelters, they often assume that it is the result of previous abuse. While abuse can cause shyness, such shyness quickly fades when the dog is placed in a loving, understanding, and consistent environment. If shyness persists in such dogs, it is probably a congenital problem, not the result of abuse. Dogs also do not become permanently shy from one traumatic incident, such as being roughly handled by a veterinarian or groomer. A dog with a good, stable temperament cannot be changed into a shy dog with one incident.
Some dogs also exhibit shyness when they enter their adolescence, somewhere around the age of six to nine months, even though they have never shown any previous shyness problems. The stress of hormonal changes probably has something to do with this. Treat this type as you would any other form of shyness, but be especially careful to avoid forcing your dog into a situation that is too stressful for him to handle. By doing so you could turn a temporary problem into a permanent one.
No matter what the cause of shyness, a friendly obedience class based on positive reinforcement is a great help. (See chapter 10 for how to find a good class.) Try to find a class taught by someone experienced in handling shy dogs. By going to a class, a shy dog gets to meet people and other dogs in a strange place but in a controlled situation. He gets to see the same people and dogs every week, which helps him to become gradually less frightened. Being told specifically what to do and how to behave also helps him cope with a frightening situation. The praise and treats he will get as he learns will make him feel good about himself. He will learn to tolerate the instructor petting him while he is made to stay. In many ways, a class can be a confidence-building experience for a shy dog.
The most important tool to use in helping a shy dog is food. You want to pair the "scary" thing with a good thing. No biscuits here. Get out the power food. Some nice cubes of hard salami work well.
Start working on your shyness problem by using food at whatever level your dog is comfortable. Shy dogs are more comfortable approaching someone on their own than being approached, so you want to start by teaching your dog to approach people to get a treat. If you hold a dog tightly by the leash or collar to force him to let people pet him, he will feel cornered because he cannot escape and will be more afraid. This can lead to a bite. If your dog is so afraid that he will not approach a person to take food from their hand, start by having that person sit on the floor and toss food to the dog, gradually decreasing the distance that the food is thrown until the dog is taking a piece of food from the person's hand outstretched at arm's length. I like using squeeze cheese spread on my hand, so the dog can't grab the food and back away. He has to stay with me to lick my hand.
Continue training your dog by encouraging him to approach people offering him food. Don't forget to praise him whenever he acts in a friendly, confident manner. When he will readily approach someone holding out a piece of food, start having people do the approaching while your dog is on a sit-stay.
Take advantage of any and every opportunity to have someone strange feed your dog. Carry treats with you when you go for walks to hand to people. You want your dog to think that everyone he meets is a potential source of treats, rather than a threat.
It is critical in dealing with this problem not to unintentionally reward your dog for acting shy and make the problem worse. When your dog is afraid of someone, it is natural to try to reassure him. However, he has no way of understanding that your reassurance is regarding the person. Instead, he will think your soft words and petting are an expression of approval for his fearful behavior. This is certainly not what you want to teach him. An example of this is given in chapter 3 in "Building Confidence."
What you want to communicate to your dog instead is that he is acting silly and that you are not going to tolerate it. Speak firmly to him in a no-nonsense tone of voice. If he is a little dog, do not pick him up and cuddle him. Don't let him lean on you or hide behind you. Rather, place him on a sit-stay on your left side and stubbornly make him stay there. If the most he can tolerate at first is a person walking around him in a circle, staying 10 feet away, start there. Then gradually work up to having him sit and stay while an unfamiliar person approaches him and hands him a piece of food. When your dog is comfortable with this, make him do a sit-stay while the person approaches and pets him before giving him the food reward. You will know
you really have your problem under control when you can leave your dog on a sit stay, go 6 feet away, and have a stranger pet your dog without you standing right next to him for security.
You will need to get your shy dog out and exposed to people and places. Be very careful so that you do not put your dog in a situation where he is so afraid that he feels forced to bite to defend himself. Watch your dog carefully for any signs that he is feeling uncomfortable and remove him from the situation before he becomes frightened. While shy dogs need encouragement to face their fears, there is a point at which you can stress them too much and cause them to become more fearful. It is important to read your dog so that you know when to stop. Watch the expression in his eyes as well as the tenseness of his muscles. If he refuses to eat his treats, that is a sign that he is stressed.
If your dog's shyness or fear causes him to growl or bite, please see the next chapter on aggression and seek the help of an experienced trainer or behavior specialist. A good trainer can lay out a detailed program using positive reinforcement for desensitization and counter-conditioning.
One final thought: Do not breed from a shy dog. It is impossible to know for sure if a dog is shy because of a genetic problem that he can pass on to offspring or if this condition was caused by a lack of socialization. There is no way to go back and see if your dog would have had a good temperament if he had received adequate socialization. And please do not use the excuse that your dog is shy because of a traumatic incident to justify breeding a shy dog. It is irresponsible to take a chance on producing another generation of shy puppies when the world is grievously overpopulated with dogs.
Was this article helpful?
The cookbook that your dog and dogs everywhere have been waiting for has finally arrived. Pamper Your Dog unleashes 130 recipes for tasty treats and meals for your canine friend that are sure to have your dog salivating. You cook for yourself and your family, so don't ignore your most faithful of friends. Pamper Your Dog will show you how to prepare tasty and healthful treats and main meals for their dogs without a lot of cost or work. This great collection of recipes features 130 tempting and tasty treats for your dog. | 1,953 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Glorious Revolution was a largely non-violent revolution (also sometimes called the "Bloodless Revolution"), 1688-1689, in which the Stuart king was removed from the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and replaced by William of the House of Orange and his wife and joint sovereign Mary.
During his three-year reign, King James II fell victim to the political battle in Britain between Catholicism and Protestantism, between the divine right of the Crown and the political rights of Parliament. James' greatest problem was his Catholicism which left him alienated from both parties in parliament. Any attempts at reform by James were thus viewed with deep suspicion. James also pursued a number of untenable policies, such as a desire for a standing army and a pursuit of religious toleration. While his brother and predecessor, Charles II, had done the same, he had not been an overt Catholic like James. Matters came to a head in 1688 when James fathered a son. Until then, the throne would have passed to his Protestant daughter, Mary. The prospect of a Catholic dynasty in Britain was now real, however. Leaders of the hitherto loyal Tory Party united with members of the opposition Whigs, and set out to solve the crisis.
A conspiracy was launched to depose James and replace him with his daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange -- both Protestants. William was leader of the Dutch, then in the early stages of a war with the French: the War of the Grand Alliance. Jumping at the chance to add England to his alliance, William and Mary landed at Brixham, Devon on November 5, 1688 with a large Dutch army. James' nerve broke, his army under the future Duke of Marlborough deserted, and he fled to Kent where he was captured. The memory of the execution of Charles I still being strong, he was then allowed to leave for France.
In 1689, the Convention Parliament convened and declared that James' flight amounted to abdication. William and Mary were offered the throne as joint rulers, an arrangement which they accepted. Despite an uprising in support of James in Scotland, the first Jacobite rebellion, and in Ireland where James used local Catholic feeling to try to regain the throne in 1689-1690, the revolution was remarkably bloodless. It can thus be seen as much more of a coup d'état than an authentic revolution. England stayed calm throughout, the uprising in the Scottish Highlands was quelled despite the Jacobite victory at the Battle of Killiecrankie, and James was expelled from Ireland following the Battle of the Boyne.
The Glorious Revolution was one of the most important events in the long evolution of powers possessed by Parliament and by the Crown in England. With the passage of the Bill of Rights it stamped out any final possibility of a Catholic monarchy, and ended moves towards monarchical absolutism in the British Isles by circumscribing the monarch's powers.
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-0.08885987102... | 3 | The Glorious Revolution was a largely non-violent revolution (also sometimes called the "Bloodless Revolution"), 1688-1689, in which the Stuart king was removed from the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and replaced by William of the House of Orange and his wife and joint sovereign Mary.
During his three-year reign, King James II fell victim to the political battle in Britain between Catholicism and Protestantism, between the divine right of the Crown and the political rights of Parliament. James' greatest problem was his Catholicism which left him alienated from both parties in parliament. Any attempts at reform by James were thus viewed with deep suspicion. James also pursued a number of untenable policies, such as a desire for a standing army and a pursuit of religious toleration. While his brother and predecessor, Charles II, had done the same, he had not been an overt Catholic like James. Matters came to a head in 1688 when James fathered a son. Until then, the throne would have passed to his Protestant daughter, Mary. The prospect of a Catholic dynasty in Britain was now real, however. Leaders of the hitherto loyal Tory Party united with members of the opposition Whigs, and set out to solve the crisis.
A conspiracy was launched to depose James and replace him with his daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange -- both Protestants. William was leader of the Dutch, then in the early stages of a war with the French: the War of the Grand Alliance. Jumping at the chance to add England to his alliance, William and Mary landed at Brixham, Devon on November 5, 1688 with a large Dutch army. James' nerve broke, his army under the future Duke of Marlborough deserted, and he fled to Kent where he was captured. The memory of the execution of Charles I still being strong, he was then allowed to leave for France.
In 1689, the Convention Parliament convened and declared that James' flight amounted to abdication. William and Mary were offered the throne as joint rulers, an arrangement which they accepted. Despite an uprising in support of James in Scotland, the first Jacobite rebellion, and in Ireland where James used local Catholic feeling to try to regain the throne in 1689-1690, the revolution was remarkably bloodless. It can thus be seen as much more of a coup d'état than an authentic revolution. England stayed calm throughout, the uprising in the Scottish Highlands was quelled despite the Jacobite victory at the Battle of Killiecrankie, and James was expelled from Ireland following the Battle of the Boyne.
The Glorious Revolution was one of the most important events in the long evolution of powers possessed by Parliament and by the Crown in England. With the passage of the Bill of Rights it stamped out any final possibility of a Catholic monarchy, and ended moves towards monarchical absolutism in the British Isles by circumscribing the monarch's powers.
The success of the Glorious Revolution came three years after the failure of the Monmouth Rebellion to overthrow the king. | 641 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Art and architecture is one of the most ancient and reliable form of the artists' work that is mainly regarded. Art and design forms architecture. It is most likely to be said the architecture originated Greece. This is why in doubt that most appealing structure ever made by artist are from Greece. The Parthenon being a temple where the Greece worshiped their gods, much concentration was given in the design of the structures.
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In design, the artist try so much to come up the structures that are most appealing to the users. This raises competition kind of from the people who are using the structure and displays the artists quality. Metope architecture is used in the design of the temples of Aphaia at Aegina. The temple of Aphaia was first built using the wooden architecture unlike the Aegina which war put up directly using the stone architecture. This could mean that the temple of Aphaia was put up long before the Aegina was set. This is due to the fact that wooden architecture was long used before the stone architecture came up. However later on, the stone architecture was used in both structures to merge the modern art market and demad.
Paintings in Greek temples were done with very powerful color design architecture. The two temples in reference are in doubt different. The white color was used to paint the crepidoma, columns and architrave. Decorations of various colors were then put in the walls. Blue triglyph is considered to be the most appealing used in the temple of Aphaia while red is used in Aegina. Ornamental sculptures are however seen in both temples and they are of a wide range of colors and naunces. Paintings however were not done to all parts of the structure. The parts that were painted are the columns and the horizontal elements while geison was left unpainted. They were not however just left blank but they were made with limestone or white stucco.
The very part that could not be easily distinguished is the elevation of the two temples. In as much that the elevation of the three zones was divided into three zones, there existed a slight difference. The difference came to the number of columns that made the elevations. The temple of Aphaea used the Metope architecture in the later times to put up larger blocks in width and height while those used in Aegina are smaller. The roofs loooked at a distant have tiles in both temples.
In the temples, statues are preexisting. They are of various shapes and sizes. However they signify the same meaning when it comes to religious view. A representation of a godess statue in Aphaea and another in Aegina are not necessarily very similar in architecture but they represent the godess. What was seen important in the statues was the myths put forward in the praise.
Similarly to speak, the structures are of similar height and the orientation easily calls it a worship center. In topographic point of view, the temples can be viewed from any side and on each view, they seem similar from all sides.
Generally to speak, the two temples have depicted very high technology in architectural design. The fact that the two temples in Greece were built in a very long past time, they seem very strong and stand erect. This is one way we can appreciate the quality art used in the construction. It still remains that the type of art used in the construction and decorations of the two temples is what is used today. If anything, most worship buildings use the same architecture to construct the worship ecnters.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:2c3fe307-acf9-457c-8a3e-2013e09966eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essays-expert.com/essays/analysis/formal-art-analysis.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.980837 | 772 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.33799... | 1 | Art and architecture is one of the most ancient and reliable form of the artists' work that is mainly regarded. Art and design forms architecture. It is most likely to be said the architecture originated Greece. This is why in doubt that most appealing structure ever made by artist are from Greece. The Parthenon being a temple where the Greece worshiped their gods, much concentration was given in the design of the structures.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
In design, the artist try so much to come up the structures that are most appealing to the users. This raises competition kind of from the people who are using the structure and displays the artists quality. Metope architecture is used in the design of the temples of Aphaia at Aegina. The temple of Aphaia was first built using the wooden architecture unlike the Aegina which war put up directly using the stone architecture. This could mean that the temple of Aphaia was put up long before the Aegina was set. This is due to the fact that wooden architecture was long used before the stone architecture came up. However later on, the stone architecture was used in both structures to merge the modern art market and demad.
Paintings in Greek temples were done with very powerful color design architecture. The two temples in reference are in doubt different. The white color was used to paint the crepidoma, columns and architrave. Decorations of various colors were then put in the walls. Blue triglyph is considered to be the most appealing used in the temple of Aphaia while red is used in Aegina. Ornamental sculptures are however seen in both temples and they are of a wide range of colors and naunces. Paintings however were not done to all parts of the structure. The parts that were painted are the columns and the horizontal elements while geison was left unpainted. They were not however just left blank but they were made with limestone or white stucco.
The very part that could not be easily distinguished is the elevation of the two temples. In as much that the elevation of the three zones was divided into three zones, there existed a slight difference. The difference came to the number of columns that made the elevations. The temple of Aphaea used the Metope architecture in the later times to put up larger blocks in width and height while those used in Aegina are smaller. The roofs loooked at a distant have tiles in both temples.
In the temples, statues are preexisting. They are of various shapes and sizes. However they signify the same meaning when it comes to religious view. A representation of a godess statue in Aphaea and another in Aegina are not necessarily very similar in architecture but they represent the godess. What was seen important in the statues was the myths put forward in the praise.
Similarly to speak, the structures are of similar height and the orientation easily calls it a worship center. In topographic point of view, the temples can be viewed from any side and on each view, they seem similar from all sides.
Generally to speak, the two temples have depicted very high technology in architectural design. The fact that the two temples in Greece were built in a very long past time, they seem very strong and stand erect. This is one way we can appreciate the quality art used in the construction. It still remains that the type of art used in the construction and decorations of the two temples is what is used today. If anything, most worship buildings use the same architecture to construct the worship ecnters.
Most popular orders | 768 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Habeas Corpus Bill of 1758 was a failed bill that would have extended habeas corpus if passed.
The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 confirmed the common law tradition that subjects had a right to a writ of habeas corpus. However judges ruled that those impressed were exempt from the right to habeas corpus. The Chief Justice Lord Mansfield was in favour of this exemption but the Attorney-General Charles Pratt was not. Pratt, a "uniform Whig", prepared a bill for expanding habeas corpus, the object of which "was to extend the Act of 1679 so as to give the benefit of the writ of Habeas Corpus ad subjiciendum, as improved by that Act, to persons who were imprisoned otherwise than on a criminal charge".
It was introduced into the House of Commons (with its first reading on 8 March) where William Pitt the Elder and the Speaker Arthur Onslow supported it and "the majority of the house cheerfully promoted it". The Duke of Newcastle tried on 10 March to dissuade Pitt from supporting it, but was met with "a history lesson on the Petition of Right".
It passed easily through the Commons, with its third reading on 24 April, but there was no division at any stage. It reached the House of Lords, where it was read for the first time on 25 April and ordered to be printed, with its second reading on 9 May. Lord Hardwicke asked the judges for their opinions. Lord Temple protested that it was improper to inquire into the opinions of judges because such an opinion would be effected by the bill's proposal to inflict penalties on judges if they refused the writ. Hardwicke said that at a time when civil authority wanted the utmost support it would be wrong to pass the bill. Lord Granville initially spoke for the bill until learning "how unwelcoming it was at St James's". Lord Mansfield and the Duke of Newcastle (appearing "in the full vigour of his nonsense") opposed it. The rest of the judges' views were inconclusive and so on 2 June Mansfield made a 2½ hours' speech against the bill, which Horace Walpole described:
I am not averse to own, that I never heard so much argument, so much sense, so much oratory, united. His deviations into the abstruse minutiae of the law, served but as a foil to the luminous parts of the oration. Perhaps it was the only speech, that, in my time at least, had real effect, that is, convinced many persons. Nor did I ever know how true a votary I was to liberty, till I found that I was not one of the number staggered by that speech.
Hardwicke argued that all judges should have power to issue the writ "and said that he would move to order the judges to bring in such a bill against the next session. Lord Temple's friends seemed glad to catch at this proposal; and bill was heard of no more!" When Pitt heard of its rejection in the Lords, he remarked that "it was more honourable to be an Alderman of the City of London than a peer". | <urn:uuid:58cfaf2f-d278-493e-859a-a629294030e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Habeas-Corpus-Bill-of-1758 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00537.warc.gz | en | 0.985893 | 648 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.1021569296... | 3 | The Habeas Corpus Bill of 1758 was a failed bill that would have extended habeas corpus if passed.
The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 confirmed the common law tradition that subjects had a right to a writ of habeas corpus. However judges ruled that those impressed were exempt from the right to habeas corpus. The Chief Justice Lord Mansfield was in favour of this exemption but the Attorney-General Charles Pratt was not. Pratt, a "uniform Whig", prepared a bill for expanding habeas corpus, the object of which "was to extend the Act of 1679 so as to give the benefit of the writ of Habeas Corpus ad subjiciendum, as improved by that Act, to persons who were imprisoned otherwise than on a criminal charge".
It was introduced into the House of Commons (with its first reading on 8 March) where William Pitt the Elder and the Speaker Arthur Onslow supported it and "the majority of the house cheerfully promoted it". The Duke of Newcastle tried on 10 March to dissuade Pitt from supporting it, but was met with "a history lesson on the Petition of Right".
It passed easily through the Commons, with its third reading on 24 April, but there was no division at any stage. It reached the House of Lords, where it was read for the first time on 25 April and ordered to be printed, with its second reading on 9 May. Lord Hardwicke asked the judges for their opinions. Lord Temple protested that it was improper to inquire into the opinions of judges because such an opinion would be effected by the bill's proposal to inflict penalties on judges if they refused the writ. Hardwicke said that at a time when civil authority wanted the utmost support it would be wrong to pass the bill. Lord Granville initially spoke for the bill until learning "how unwelcoming it was at St James's". Lord Mansfield and the Duke of Newcastle (appearing "in the full vigour of his nonsense") opposed it. The rest of the judges' views were inconclusive and so on 2 June Mansfield made a 2½ hours' speech against the bill, which Horace Walpole described:
I am not averse to own, that I never heard so much argument, so much sense, so much oratory, united. His deviations into the abstruse minutiae of the law, served but as a foil to the luminous parts of the oration. Perhaps it was the only speech, that, in my time at least, had real effect, that is, convinced many persons. Nor did I ever know how true a votary I was to liberty, till I found that I was not one of the number staggered by that speech.
Hardwicke argued that all judges should have power to issue the writ "and said that he would move to order the judges to bring in such a bill against the next session. Lord Temple's friends seemed glad to catch at this proposal; and bill was heard of no more!" When Pitt heard of its rejection in the Lords, he remarked that "it was more honourable to be an Alderman of the City of London than a peer". | 660 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Moses’ Birth and Adoption
1 Now a man from the family of Levi married a Levite woman.(A) 2 The woman became pregnant and gave birth to a son; when she saw that he was beautiful,(a) she hid him for three months.(B) 3 But when she could no longer hide him, she got a papyrus basket for him and coated it with asphalt and pitch. She placed the child in it and set it among the reeds by the bank of the Nile. 4 Then his sister(C) stood at a distance in order to see what would happen to him.
5 Pharaoh’s daughter went down to bathe at the Nile while her servant girls walked along the riverbank. Seeing the basket among the reeds, she sent her slave girl to get it. 6 When she opened it, she saw the child—a little boy, crying. She felt sorry for him and said, “This is one of the Hebrew boys.”
7 Then his sister said to Pharaoh’s daughter, “Should I go and call a woman from the Hebrews to nurse the boy for you?”
8 “Go,” Pharaoh’s daughter told her. So the girl went and called the boy’s mother. 9 Then Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, “Take this child and nurse him for me, and I will pay your wages.” So the woman took the boy and nursed him. 10 When the child grew older, she brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter, and he became her son. She named him Moses, “Because,” she said, “I drew him out of the water.”(b)
Moses in Midian
11 Years later,(c) after Moses had grown up, he went out to his own people(d) and observed their forced labor.(D) He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his people. 12 Looking all around and seeing no one, he struck the Egyptian dead and hid him in the sand. 13 The next day he went out and saw two Hebrews fighting. He asked the one in the wrong, “Why are you attacking your neighbor?”(e)
14 “Who made you a leader and judge over us?” the man replied. “Are you planning to kill me as you killed the Egyptian?”Then Moses became afraid and thought: What I did is certainly known. 15 When Pharaoh heard about this, he tried to kill Moses. But Moses fled from Pharaoh and went to live in the land of Midian,(E) and sat down by a well.(F)
16 Now the priest of Midian(G) had seven daughters. They came to draw water and filled the troughs to water their father’s flock. 17 Then some shepherds arrived and drove them away, but Moses came to their rescue and watered their flock. 18 When they returned to their father Reuel(f)(H) he asked, “Why have you come back so quickly today?”
19 They answered, “An Egyptian rescued us from the shepherds. He even drew water for us and watered the flock.”
20 “So where is he?” he asked his daughters. “Why then did you leave the man behind? Invite him to eat dinner.”
21 Moses agreed to stay with the man, and he gave his daughter Zipporah(I) to Moses in marriage. 22 She gave birth to a son whom he named Gershom, for he said, “I have been a foreigner(J) in a foreign land.”(g)
23 After a long time, the king of Egypt died. The Israelites groaned because of their difficult labor, and they cried out;(K) and their cry for help ascended to God because of the difficult labor. 24 So God heard their groaning, and He remembered(L) His covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.(M) 25 God saw the Israelites, and He took notice.(N)
a. Exodus 2:2: Or healthy
b. Exodus 2:10: The name Moses sounds like drawing out in Hb and born in Egyptian.
c. Exodus 2:11: Lit And it was in those days
d. Exodus 2:11: Lit his brothers
e. Exodus 2:13: Or fellow Hebrew
f. Exodus 2:18: Jethro’s clan or last name was Reuel; Ex 3:1.
g. Exodus 2:22: In Hb the name Gershom sounds like the phrase a stranger there. | <urn:uuid:8e2e9362-5542-4ced-86b1-f54e4d328efb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bible.knowing-jesus.com/Exodus/2/type/hcsb | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00383.warc.gz | en | 0.986918 | 985 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.0880060642... | 1 | Moses’ Birth and Adoption
1 Now a man from the family of Levi married a Levite woman.(A) 2 The woman became pregnant and gave birth to a son; when she saw that he was beautiful,(a) she hid him for three months.(B) 3 But when she could no longer hide him, she got a papyrus basket for him and coated it with asphalt and pitch. She placed the child in it and set it among the reeds by the bank of the Nile. 4 Then his sister(C) stood at a distance in order to see what would happen to him.
5 Pharaoh’s daughter went down to bathe at the Nile while her servant girls walked along the riverbank. Seeing the basket among the reeds, she sent her slave girl to get it. 6 When she opened it, she saw the child—a little boy, crying. She felt sorry for him and said, “This is one of the Hebrew boys.”
7 Then his sister said to Pharaoh’s daughter, “Should I go and call a woman from the Hebrews to nurse the boy for you?”
8 “Go,” Pharaoh’s daughter told her. So the girl went and called the boy’s mother. 9 Then Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, “Take this child and nurse him for me, and I will pay your wages.” So the woman took the boy and nursed him. 10 When the child grew older, she brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter, and he became her son. She named him Moses, “Because,” she said, “I drew him out of the water.”(b)
Moses in Midian
11 Years later,(c) after Moses had grown up, he went out to his own people(d) and observed their forced labor.(D) He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his people. 12 Looking all around and seeing no one, he struck the Egyptian dead and hid him in the sand. 13 The next day he went out and saw two Hebrews fighting. He asked the one in the wrong, “Why are you attacking your neighbor?”(e)
14 “Who made you a leader and judge over us?” the man replied. “Are you planning to kill me as you killed the Egyptian?”Then Moses became afraid and thought: What I did is certainly known. 15 When Pharaoh heard about this, he tried to kill Moses. But Moses fled from Pharaoh and went to live in the land of Midian,(E) and sat down by a well.(F)
16 Now the priest of Midian(G) had seven daughters. They came to draw water and filled the troughs to water their father’s flock. 17 Then some shepherds arrived and drove them away, but Moses came to their rescue and watered their flock. 18 When they returned to their father Reuel(f)(H) he asked, “Why have you come back so quickly today?”
19 They answered, “An Egyptian rescued us from the shepherds. He even drew water for us and watered the flock.”
20 “So where is he?” he asked his daughters. “Why then did you leave the man behind? Invite him to eat dinner.”
21 Moses agreed to stay with the man, and he gave his daughter Zipporah(I) to Moses in marriage. 22 She gave birth to a son whom he named Gershom, for he said, “I have been a foreigner(J) in a foreign land.”(g)
23 After a long time, the king of Egypt died. The Israelites groaned because of their difficult labor, and they cried out;(K) and their cry for help ascended to God because of the difficult labor. 24 So God heard their groaning, and He remembered(L) His covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.(M) 25 God saw the Israelites, and He took notice.(N)
a. Exodus 2:2: Or healthy
b. Exodus 2:10: The name Moses sounds like drawing out in Hb and born in Egyptian.
c. Exodus 2:11: Lit And it was in those days
d. Exodus 2:11: Lit his brothers
e. Exodus 2:13: Or fellow Hebrew
f. Exodus 2:18: Jethro’s clan or last name was Reuel; Ex 3:1.
g. Exodus 2:22: In Hb the name Gershom sounds like the phrase a stranger there. | 957 | ENGLISH | 1 |
January 6, 2020
How do we define marriage?
Surprisingly, “marriage” is difficult to define since marriage has been an ever-evolving concept throughout history and across cultures.
Marriage was not always a sacred union between one man and one woman. Nor has marriage always been the purview of religious institutions either.
At various times throughout history, marriage has been a union between: one man and several women, one woman and several men, two men (recognized by law in ancient Rome), two siblings, two children, the unborn, a living woman and a dead man.
Regardless of its configuration, one historically constant defining feature of marriage is that it served a practical, pragmatic, social purpose - it was an economic enterprise created so that men would know who their children were and to whom their cattle would go when they died. Marriage was a highly effective tool for wealth management and social order.
The involvement of the church has been traced back to the 5th century when marriages were declared by church courts to be a holy union. Then in 1215, Pope Innocent III declared marriage one of the church’s seven sacraments, and he forbade divorce. Divorce remained illegal in Europe until Henry VIII in the 16th century, and for much longer in Catholic countries.
An additional powerful method of controlling wealth came through the laws that forbade married women from owning property and making contracting in their own name.
It wasn’t until 1975 that women could open a bank account or apply for credit in their own name.
In the 18th century, society began to embrace the philosophical concept of the pursuit of happiness, from which then flowed the concept of “marrying for love”, rather than for wealth or family alliances. Hand in hand with marrying for romance came an increasing demand to end unhappy marriages, so divorce became more commonplace.
In many ways, marriage has remained a social construct and has also evolved into relationships where each partner's choice is to stay in, leave, or work on. Hence the need for more counsellors and mediators to assist couples who wish to bring more consciousness to their lives. | <urn:uuid:fa1670b9-158f-45c3-96d4-7eaf6f9652ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thechangebuilders.com/post/a-brief-history-of-marriage | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.980404 | 441 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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How do we define marriage?
Surprisingly, “marriage” is difficult to define since marriage has been an ever-evolving concept throughout history and across cultures.
Marriage was not always a sacred union between one man and one woman. Nor has marriage always been the purview of religious institutions either.
At various times throughout history, marriage has been a union between: one man and several women, one woman and several men, two men (recognized by law in ancient Rome), two siblings, two children, the unborn, a living woman and a dead man.
Regardless of its configuration, one historically constant defining feature of marriage is that it served a practical, pragmatic, social purpose - it was an economic enterprise created so that men would know who their children were and to whom their cattle would go when they died. Marriage was a highly effective tool for wealth management and social order.
The involvement of the church has been traced back to the 5th century when marriages were declared by church courts to be a holy union. Then in 1215, Pope Innocent III declared marriage one of the church’s seven sacraments, and he forbade divorce. Divorce remained illegal in Europe until Henry VIII in the 16th century, and for much longer in Catholic countries.
An additional powerful method of controlling wealth came through the laws that forbade married women from owning property and making contracting in their own name.
It wasn’t until 1975 that women could open a bank account or apply for credit in their own name.
In the 18th century, society began to embrace the philosophical concept of the pursuit of happiness, from which then flowed the concept of “marrying for love”, rather than for wealth or family alliances. Hand in hand with marrying for romance came an increasing demand to end unhappy marriages, so divorce became more commonplace.
In many ways, marriage has remained a social construct and has also evolved into relationships where each partner's choice is to stay in, leave, or work on. Hence the need for more counsellors and mediators to assist couples who wish to bring more consciousness to their lives. | 439 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What made Gandhi such a unique person?
Mahatma Gandhi is considered unique because of his insistence on nonviolent resistance to injustice, which, in his case included both his own personal trials and tribulations as a person of color in South Africa and, later, as a leader of India's independence movement.
A lawyer by training, Gandhi, who had been born in his native India, had relocated to South Africa for the Indian law firm for which he worked. Once there, he was face-to-face on a daily basis with overt discrimination against blacks, coloreds (mixed-race and South Asian), and Muslims. One of the defining moments of his life was when he was physically ejected from a train for refusing to vacate his seat in first class, a demand made of him by the racist train company. That was the start of his own personal battle with racism, which continued throughout his years in South Africa.
As white-ruled South Africa, then a British colony, continued to institutionalize racist polices,...
(The entire section contains 444 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:0b7eb6e0-e866-4e95-848f-d1507ad9cdc8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-made-gandhi-such-unique-person-439596?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.99225 | 226 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.3859114944934845... | 1 | What made Gandhi such a unique person?
Mahatma Gandhi is considered unique because of his insistence on nonviolent resistance to injustice, which, in his case included both his own personal trials and tribulations as a person of color in South Africa and, later, as a leader of India's independence movement.
A lawyer by training, Gandhi, who had been born in his native India, had relocated to South Africa for the Indian law firm for which he worked. Once there, he was face-to-face on a daily basis with overt discrimination against blacks, coloreds (mixed-race and South Asian), and Muslims. One of the defining moments of his life was when he was physically ejected from a train for refusing to vacate his seat in first class, a demand made of him by the racist train company. That was the start of his own personal battle with racism, which continued throughout his years in South Africa.
As white-ruled South Africa, then a British colony, continued to institutionalize racist polices,...
(The entire section contains 444 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 220 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While you set about to making a last will and testament, deciding what kind of trust to establish, and making other estate planning decisions, you probably have not taken a lot of time to think about where our inheritance laws come from. But trying to figure out what should happen to a person’s property after that person dies has been an idea that humanity has tried to answer for as long as recorded history.
The earliest ancient Mesopotamian civilizations had already established some quite detailed inheritance laws by at least 2000 BC. Similar inheritance provisions appeared in a number of ancient civilizations, but perhaps the most important set of laws as far as United States law is concerned came from the British Isles.
As a former colony of the British Empire, much of modern American law has its roots in British common law. This is also true of inheritances. However, American law, even early on, took a different approach to inheritances than its British common law counterparts. For example, even prior to the American Revolution, some American colonies had differentiated their inheritance laws from British common law. In British common law, the eldest son of any family was entitled to inherit the entire estate, while in some of the colonies, that law changed to recognizing each child’s individual right to receive an inheritance.
Following the revolution, and in the subsequent centuries, American inheritance law has changed, sometimes quickly, but more often very slowly. In 2002, for example, a Massachusetts court had to use a law that had been originally enacted in 1836 when it tried to determine what inheritance rights a child conceived after the father’s death was entitled to.
Latest posts by Michael Robinson, Estate Planning Attorney (see all)
- Reasons an Estate Plan Could Be Challenged: Part 3 – Fraud - January 22, 2020
- Question and Answer Session With an Elder Law Attorney - January 21, 2020
- Five Things You Need to Know About Medicaid Planning - January 16, 2020 | <urn:uuid:81d19a4c-300b-440f-9cd1-f15df5fe6c21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mrobinsonlaw.com/inheritance-laws-human-civilization/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00317.warc.gz | en | 0.981404 | 394 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.15054036676... | 1 | While you set about to making a last will and testament, deciding what kind of trust to establish, and making other estate planning decisions, you probably have not taken a lot of time to think about where our inheritance laws come from. But trying to figure out what should happen to a person’s property after that person dies has been an idea that humanity has tried to answer for as long as recorded history.
The earliest ancient Mesopotamian civilizations had already established some quite detailed inheritance laws by at least 2000 BC. Similar inheritance provisions appeared in a number of ancient civilizations, but perhaps the most important set of laws as far as United States law is concerned came from the British Isles.
As a former colony of the British Empire, much of modern American law has its roots in British common law. This is also true of inheritances. However, American law, even early on, took a different approach to inheritances than its British common law counterparts. For example, even prior to the American Revolution, some American colonies had differentiated their inheritance laws from British common law. In British common law, the eldest son of any family was entitled to inherit the entire estate, while in some of the colonies, that law changed to recognizing each child’s individual right to receive an inheritance.
Following the revolution, and in the subsequent centuries, American inheritance law has changed, sometimes quickly, but more often very slowly. In 2002, for example, a Massachusetts court had to use a law that had been originally enacted in 1836 when it tried to determine what inheritance rights a child conceived after the father’s death was entitled to.
Latest posts by Michael Robinson, Estate Planning Attorney (see all)
- Reasons an Estate Plan Could Be Challenged: Part 3 – Fraud - January 22, 2020
- Question and Answer Session With an Elder Law Attorney - January 21, 2020
- Five Things You Need to Know About Medicaid Planning - January 16, 2020 | 414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This Collection is GOLD
Comprising some 350 images, the photos taken in 1872 show in minute detail what is was that made Gulgong different to many of the other Australian goldfields. They were mostly taken by Merlin as quarter plates and they have made possible the reconstruction of the town from its earliest beginnings following the first discovery of payable gold in April 1870.
Merlin’s photographs clearly show Gulgong’s uniqueness and those things which characterised it as a poor-man’s goldfield. Since there were large amounts of gold close enough to the surface to be mined with just a few basic tools, and a pan or sluice, rather than the heavy machinery needed for deep reef gold mining, it was possible for any man, on his own, or in the company of a couple of mates, to join the rush.
The use of the term poor-man’s goldfield, far from being a derogatory one, was used to acknowledge the differences between large rich and usually hard rock mining fields, like Hill end, where fortunes were made and lost, and those fields, like Gulgong, where the returns were low but steady. These differences were not only in the value of the gold to be found but also in the use of capital and technology, in the very nature of the settlements, and indeed the people themselves who were attracted to these diggings.
Merlin’s camera very clearly recorded life on the Gulgong diggings and his photographs show the juxtaposition of the mining activity with the day to day lives of the people. Many women and children lived on Gugong’s poor-man’s diggings and the family group was often critical to the success of mining with the assistance of other form of subsistance labour. (see photos below) | <urn:uuid:3493f479-da25-4b57-b1aa-bffe0fbcbfaf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://holtermann.museum/photos/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00143.warc.gz | en | 0.983739 | 376 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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Comprising some 350 images, the photos taken in 1872 show in minute detail what is was that made Gulgong different to many of the other Australian goldfields. They were mostly taken by Merlin as quarter plates and they have made possible the reconstruction of the town from its earliest beginnings following the first discovery of payable gold in April 1870.
Merlin’s photographs clearly show Gulgong’s uniqueness and those things which characterised it as a poor-man’s goldfield. Since there were large amounts of gold close enough to the surface to be mined with just a few basic tools, and a pan or sluice, rather than the heavy machinery needed for deep reef gold mining, it was possible for any man, on his own, or in the company of a couple of mates, to join the rush.
The use of the term poor-man’s goldfield, far from being a derogatory one, was used to acknowledge the differences between large rich and usually hard rock mining fields, like Hill end, where fortunes were made and lost, and those fields, like Gulgong, where the returns were low but steady. These differences were not only in the value of the gold to be found but also in the use of capital and technology, in the very nature of the settlements, and indeed the people themselves who were attracted to these diggings.
Merlin’s camera very clearly recorded life on the Gulgong diggings and his photographs show the juxtaposition of the mining activity with the day to day lives of the people. Many women and children lived on Gugong’s poor-man’s diggings and the family group was often critical to the success of mining with the assistance of other form of subsistance labour. (see photos below) | 363 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In July 1830 Chief Fish, leader of the Missouri Shawnees, requested a missionary through their Indian agent George Vashon. A missionary society was formed in September 1830. Reverend Thomas Johnson (pictured at right), a Methodist minister, was appointed missionary to the Shawnees and his brother William, missionary to the Kansa tribe. The Reverend Thomas Johnson was born in the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia and later moved to Missouri. He married Sarah Davis (pictured below right) at Clarksville, Missouri, in 1830, and that same year he arrived with his new bride in present-day Turner, Wyandotte County, Kansas.
Johnson proposed to the missionary society that a central school be built to serve many tribes. A site was chosen where a branch of the Santa Fe Trail passed through the Shawnee lands. Building began, and the school opened at the present Johnson County location in October 1839. Indian children of many tribes were sent to this school to learn basic academics, manual arts, and agriculture. Some of the tribes represented were the Kaw (Kansa), Munsee, Delaware, Ottawa, Chippewa, Otoe, Osage, Cherokee, Peoria, Kickapoo, Potawatomi, Wea, Gros Ventres, Omaha, and Wyandot. At the height of its activity, the mission was an establishment of more than 2,000 acres with 16 buildings, including the three large brick structures, which still stand, and an enrollment of nearly 200 Indian boys and girls from the ages of five to 23.
Classes were held six hours each day except Saturday and Sunday. On Saturday teaching was limited to three hours. The boys worked in the shop or on the farm, usually for five hours a day. The girls helped with the sewing, washing, and cooking. The students, as a rule, went to bed at 8 p.m. and rose at 4 a.m. | <urn:uuid:591d4572-ebb6-46bf-816d-5315368ce3b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/118 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00136.warc.gz | en | 0.983778 | 392 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1226016134023666... | 2 | In July 1830 Chief Fish, leader of the Missouri Shawnees, requested a missionary through their Indian agent George Vashon. A missionary society was formed in September 1830. Reverend Thomas Johnson (pictured at right), a Methodist minister, was appointed missionary to the Shawnees and his brother William, missionary to the Kansa tribe. The Reverend Thomas Johnson was born in the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia and later moved to Missouri. He married Sarah Davis (pictured below right) at Clarksville, Missouri, in 1830, and that same year he arrived with his new bride in present-day Turner, Wyandotte County, Kansas.
Johnson proposed to the missionary society that a central school be built to serve many tribes. A site was chosen where a branch of the Santa Fe Trail passed through the Shawnee lands. Building began, and the school opened at the present Johnson County location in October 1839. Indian children of many tribes were sent to this school to learn basic academics, manual arts, and agriculture. Some of the tribes represented were the Kaw (Kansa), Munsee, Delaware, Ottawa, Chippewa, Otoe, Osage, Cherokee, Peoria, Kickapoo, Potawatomi, Wea, Gros Ventres, Omaha, and Wyandot. At the height of its activity, the mission was an establishment of more than 2,000 acres with 16 buildings, including the three large brick structures, which still stand, and an enrollment of nearly 200 Indian boys and girls from the ages of five to 23.
Classes were held six hours each day except Saturday and Sunday. On Saturday teaching was limited to three hours. The boys worked in the shop or on the farm, usually for five hours a day. The girls helped with the sewing, washing, and cooking. The students, as a rule, went to bed at 8 p.m. and rose at 4 a.m. | 413 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Unit One : Love And Reminiscence The Lamentation of The Old Pensioner – W.B. Yeast The Heritage of Words
W. B. Yeats, the greatest English poet of 20th century, presents the reminiscences of his eventful young age and contrasts them with his present pathetic old life in the poem, “The Lamentation of the Old Pensioner.”
The title suggests that the poet is a Pensioner. It means he must be very old and is living a retired life. He says whenever he is caught in rain he takes shelter under a broken tree. The broken tree can not protect him from the rain. Here, one must note the point that in England it rains during winter. It means he is deprived of a reliable shelter, when he needs it most. But it was not always the case with him. When he was young, he used to sit nearest to the fire, which warmed and comforted him. You can’t light fire in rain outside. It means he had reliable place to live in when he was young. Not only that, the cosy parlour of the poet always used to be full with the livelier company of his friends who talked about love and politics. But today, he misses them as “Time” has taken away all his friends leaving him old and isolated.
He sees some mischievous boys making weapons for some conspiracy. These ‘rascals’ are sure to create chaos in the society through some barbarous activities. But the poet is not concerned about the possible anarchy in the society. He is sad as the time has transfigured him.
The poet laments that the time has made him ugly like a broken tree and therefore, no woman shows interest in him. However, the poet consoles himself that “the beauties that he loved” are still fresh in his memory. He holds the “Time” a culprit, who has taken away his shelter, friends, youth, energy, and charm and wants to spit on its face in disgust for his metamorphosis.
About the Topic: The title of the poem, “The Lamentation of the Old Pensioner”, consists three content words, two nouns (“lamentation” and “Pensioner”), and an adjective, “old” that qualifies the second noun.
“Lamentation” means mourning or wailing over the loss of some precious things, a privilege position or an advantage. The second noun used by the poet is “pensioner”. The poet could have used ‘man’ instead. But he didn’t. It is remarkable. A pensioner is a senior citizen, who is provided with some (monetary) benifits for the services s/he has provided in her/his youth. It helps him/her to live in old age.
The poet has become old as the ‘Time’ has cast its spell (effect) and transfigured him into an ugly old man. It has taken away all his physical charms, energy, and friends. Therefore, he is lamenting. However, at the same time, he boasts that Time was not able to take away the memories of his heroic deeds done during the Irish cultural revolutions and Irish republican movements of early 1920s. It gives him heroic feeling and helps, like pension, to live in old age.
The poem is based on a conversation that Yeats had with an elderly poet. He wrote in a letter that the poem was: little more than a translation into verse of the very words of an old Wicklow peasant.”
Wicklow, by the way, is a green, rural county south of Dublin. This precise technique of observation of peasants is what Yeats later recommended to J.M. Sybge upon meeting him in Paris, and which led to successful works like The Playboy of the Western World.
The elderly peasant’s lamentation is that time has transformed him into someone that is no longer important or viable. This is in contrast to Yeats’s other, more wistful and gentle portrayal of age in the rest of the collection. The pikes to which the “old pensioner” refers are the weapons traditionally used in nationalist uprisings against the British, which the man is too old for, so regards as futile.
The poem complicates Yeats’s earlier poems, many of which exhort the Irish to contemplate eternal questions like Time rather than take up their pikes, so to speak, for a passing political issue. This old man, who is forced away from politics and love, shows the downside of such contemplative non-participation in life. Of course, he is still tormented by the passions of his youth for women and conservation, and so his mediation aren’t exactly what Yeats has in mind in poems like “Who Goes with Fergus?” and “The Man Who Dreamed of Faeryland.”
Frequently Asked Questions:
- Why does the poet show his anger against time?
- Why does the old man want to ‘spit into the face of time’?
- Mention any three things the old man laments about. Why is he sad about them?
- Why and how does the old pensioner lament?
- What is the speaker lamenting on? | <urn:uuid:5c699f05-ef1f-486a-9d72-c391e24387fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studytweaks.com/the-lamentation-of-the-old-pensioner-summary-heritage-of-words-hseb-notes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.981278 | 1,133 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.11284016072... | 2 | Unit One : Love And Reminiscence The Lamentation of The Old Pensioner – W.B. Yeast The Heritage of Words
W. B. Yeats, the greatest English poet of 20th century, presents the reminiscences of his eventful young age and contrasts them with his present pathetic old life in the poem, “The Lamentation of the Old Pensioner.”
The title suggests that the poet is a Pensioner. It means he must be very old and is living a retired life. He says whenever he is caught in rain he takes shelter under a broken tree. The broken tree can not protect him from the rain. Here, one must note the point that in England it rains during winter. It means he is deprived of a reliable shelter, when he needs it most. But it was not always the case with him. When he was young, he used to sit nearest to the fire, which warmed and comforted him. You can’t light fire in rain outside. It means he had reliable place to live in when he was young. Not only that, the cosy parlour of the poet always used to be full with the livelier company of his friends who talked about love and politics. But today, he misses them as “Time” has taken away all his friends leaving him old and isolated.
He sees some mischievous boys making weapons for some conspiracy. These ‘rascals’ are sure to create chaos in the society through some barbarous activities. But the poet is not concerned about the possible anarchy in the society. He is sad as the time has transfigured him.
The poet laments that the time has made him ugly like a broken tree and therefore, no woman shows interest in him. However, the poet consoles himself that “the beauties that he loved” are still fresh in his memory. He holds the “Time” a culprit, who has taken away his shelter, friends, youth, energy, and charm and wants to spit on its face in disgust for his metamorphosis.
About the Topic: The title of the poem, “The Lamentation of the Old Pensioner”, consists three content words, two nouns (“lamentation” and “Pensioner”), and an adjective, “old” that qualifies the second noun.
“Lamentation” means mourning or wailing over the loss of some precious things, a privilege position or an advantage. The second noun used by the poet is “pensioner”. The poet could have used ‘man’ instead. But he didn’t. It is remarkable. A pensioner is a senior citizen, who is provided with some (monetary) benifits for the services s/he has provided in her/his youth. It helps him/her to live in old age.
The poet has become old as the ‘Time’ has cast its spell (effect) and transfigured him into an ugly old man. It has taken away all his physical charms, energy, and friends. Therefore, he is lamenting. However, at the same time, he boasts that Time was not able to take away the memories of his heroic deeds done during the Irish cultural revolutions and Irish republican movements of early 1920s. It gives him heroic feeling and helps, like pension, to live in old age.
The poem is based on a conversation that Yeats had with an elderly poet. He wrote in a letter that the poem was: little more than a translation into verse of the very words of an old Wicklow peasant.”
Wicklow, by the way, is a green, rural county south of Dublin. This precise technique of observation of peasants is what Yeats later recommended to J.M. Sybge upon meeting him in Paris, and which led to successful works like The Playboy of the Western World.
The elderly peasant’s lamentation is that time has transformed him into someone that is no longer important or viable. This is in contrast to Yeats’s other, more wistful and gentle portrayal of age in the rest of the collection. The pikes to which the “old pensioner” refers are the weapons traditionally used in nationalist uprisings against the British, which the man is too old for, so regards as futile.
The poem complicates Yeats’s earlier poems, many of which exhort the Irish to contemplate eternal questions like Time rather than take up their pikes, so to speak, for a passing political issue. This old man, who is forced away from politics and love, shows the downside of such contemplative non-participation in life. Of course, he is still tormented by the passions of his youth for women and conservation, and so his mediation aren’t exactly what Yeats has in mind in poems like “Who Goes with Fergus?” and “The Man Who Dreamed of Faeryland.”
Frequently Asked Questions:
- Why does the poet show his anger against time?
- Why does the old man want to ‘spit into the face of time’?
- Mention any three things the old man laments about. Why is he sad about them?
- Why and how does the old pensioner lament?
- What is the speaker lamenting on? | 1,061 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The American educator Horace Mann once said: As an apple is not in any proper sense an apple until it is ripe, so a human being is not in any proper sense a human being until he is educated. Education is the process through which people endeavor to pass along to their children their hard-won wisdom and their aspirations for a better world. This process begins shortly after birth, as parents seek to train the infant to behave as their culture demands.
They soon, for instance, teach the child how to turn babbling sounds into language and, through example and precept, they try to instill in the child the attitudes, values, skills, and knowledge that will govern their offspring’s behavior throughout later life. Schooling, or formal education, consists of experiences that are deliberately planned and utilized to help young people learn what adults consider important for them to know and to help teach them how they should respond to choices.
This education has been influenced by three important parts of modern American society: wisdom of the heart, egalitarianism, and practicality… e greatest of these, practicality. In the absence of written records, no one can be sure what education man first provided for his children. Most anthropologists believe, though, that the educational practices of prehistoric times were probably like those of primitive tribes in the 20th century, such as the Australian aborigines and the Aleuts. Formal instruction was probably given just before the child’s initiation into adulthood — the puberty rite — and involved tribal customs and beliefs too complicated to be learned by direct experience.
Children learned most of the skills, duties, customs, and beliefs of the tribe through an informal apprenticeship — by taking part in such adult activities as hunting, fishing, farming, toolmaking, and cooking. In such simple tribal societies, school was not a special place… it was life itself. However, the educational process has changed over the decades, and it now vaguely represents what it was in ancient times, or even in early American society.
While the schools that the colonists established in the 17th century in the New England, Southern, and Middle colonies differed from one another, each reflected a concept of schooling that had been left behind in Europe. Most poor children learned through apprenticeship and had no formal schooling at all. Those who did go to elementary school were taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion. Learning consisted of memorizing, which was stimulated by whipping. The first basic textbook, The New England Primer, was America’s own contribution to education.
Used from 1690 until the beginning of the 19th century, its purpose was to teach both religion and reading. The child learning the letter a, for example, also learned that In Adam’s fall, We sinned all. As in Europe, then, the schools in the colonies were strongly influenced by religion. This was particularly true of the schools in the New England area, which had been settled by Puritans and other English religious dissenters. Like the Protestants of the Reformation, who established vernacular elementary schools in Germany in the 16th century, the Puritans sought to make education universal.
They took the first steps toward government-supported universal education in the colonies. In 1642, Puritan Massachusetts passed a law requiring that every child be taught to read. And, in 1647, it passed the Old Deluder Satan Act, so named because its purpose was to defeat Satan’s attempts to keep men, through an inability to read, from the knowledge of the Scriptures. The law required every town of 50 or more families to establish an elementary school and every town of 100 or more families to maintain a grammar school as well. Puritan or not, virtually all of the colonial schools had clear-cut moral purposes.
Skills and knowledge were considered important to the degree that they served religious ends and, of course, trained the mind. We call it wisdom of the heart. These matters, by definition, are anything that the heart is convinced of… so thoroughly convinced that it over-powers the judgement of the mind. Early schools supplied the students with moral lessons, not just reading, writing and arithmetic. Obviously, the founders saw it necessary to apply these techniques, most likely feeling that it was necessary that the students learn these particular values. Wisdom of the heart had a profound effect of the curriculum of the early schools.
As the spirit of science, commercialism, secularism, and individualism quickened in the Western world, education in the colonies was called upon to satisfy the practical needs of seamen, merchants, artisans, and frontiersmen. The effect of these new developments on the curriculum in American schools was more immediate and widespread than its effect in European schools. Practical content was soon in competition with religious concerns. The academy that Benjamin Franklin helped found in 1751 was the first of a growing number of secondary schools that sprang up in competition with the Latin schools.
Franklin’s academy continued to offer the humanist-religious curriculum, but it also brought education closer to the needs of everyday life by teaching such courses as history, geography, merchant accounts, geometry, algebra, surveying, modern languages, navigation, and astronomy. These subjects were more practical, seeing as how industry and business were driving forces in the creation of the United States. Religion classes could not support a family or pay the debts. By the mid-19th century this new diversification in the curriculum characterized virtually all American secondary education.
America came into its own, educationally, with the movement toward state-supported, secular free schools for all children, which began in the 1820s with the common (elementary) school. The movement gained incentive in 1837 when Massachusetts established a state board of education and appointed the lawyer and politician Horace Mann (1796-1859) as its secretary. One of Mann’s many reforms was the improvement of the quality of teaching by the establishment of the first public normal (teacher-training) schools in the United States.
State after state followed Massachusetts’ example until, by the end of the 19th century, the common-school system was firmly established. It was the first rung of what was to develop into the American educational ladder. After the common school had been accepted, people began to urge that higher education, too, be tax supported. As early as 1821, the Boston School Committee established the English Classical School (later the English High School), which was the first public secondary school in the United States.
By the end of the century, such secondary schools had begun to outnumber the private academies. The original purpose of the American high school was to allow all children to extend and enrich their common-school education. With the establishment of the land-grant colleges after 1862, the high school also became a preparation for college; the step by which students who had begun at the lowest rung of the educational ladder might reach the highest.
In 1873, when the kindergarten became part of the St. Louis, Mo. hool system, there was a hint that, in time, a lower rung might be added. Practicality allowed this change in the high school system. Schools now needed to ready the students for college — an even higher form of education — instead of preparing them to immediately enter the work force. America’s educational ladder was unique. Where public school systems existed in European countries such as France and Germany, they were dual systems. When a child of the lower and middle classes finished his elementary schooling, he could go on to a vocational or technical school.
The upper-class child often did not attend the elementary school but was instead tutored until he was about 9 years old and could enter a secondary school, generally a Latin grammar school. The purpose of this school was to prepare him for the university, from which he might well emerge as one of the potential leaders of his country. Instead of two separate and distinct educational systems for separate and distinct classes, the United States provided one system open to everyone… a distinctly egalitarian idea. As in mid-19th-century Europe, women were slowly gaining educational ground in the United States.
Female academies established by such pioneers as Emma Willard (1787-1870) and Catharine Beecher (1800-78) prepared the way for secondary education for women. In 1861, Vassar, the first real college for women, was founded. Even earlier, in 1833, Oberlin College was founded as a coeducational college, and in 1837, four women began to study there. In the mid-19th century there was yet another change in education. The secondary-school curriculum, that had been slowly expanding since the founding of the academies in the mid-18th century, virtually exploded.
But the voice of practicality cried out again. A new society, complicated by the latest discoveries in the physical and biological sciences and the rise of industrialism and capitalism, called for more and newer kinds of knowledge. By 1861 as many as 73 subjects were being offered by the Massachusetts secondary schools. People still believed that the mind could be trained, but they now thought that science could do a better job than the classics could. The result was a curriculum that was virtually saturated with scientific instruction.
The mid-19th-century knowledge explosion also modestly affected some of the common schools, which expanded their curriculum to include such courses as science and nature study. The content of instruction in the common school, beyond which few students went, consisted of the material in a relatively small number of books: assorted arithmetic, history, and geography texts, Webster’s American Spelling Book, and two new books that appeared in 1836 the First and Second in the series of McGuffey’s Eclectic Readers.
Whereas The New England Primer admonished children against sin, the stories and poems in the readers pressed for the moral virtues. Countless children were required to memorize such admonitions as Work while you work, play while you play. One thing each time, that is the way. In the early days, the common schools consisted of one room where one teacher taught pupils ranging in age from 6 to about 13 and sometimes older. The teacher instructed the children separately, not as a group. The good teacher had a strong right arm and an unshakable determination to cram information into his pupils.
Once the fight to provide free education for all children had been won, educators turned their attention to the quality of that education. To find out more about learning and the learning process, American schools looked to Europe. In the 1860s, they discovered, and for about 20 years were influenced, by Pestalozzi. His belief was that the goal of education should be the natural development of the individual child, and that educators should focus on the development of the child rather than on memorization of subject matter that he or she was unable to understand.
Pestalozzi’s school also mirrored the idea that learning begins with firsthand observation of an object and moves gradually toward the remote and abstract realm of words and ideas. The teacher’s job was to guide, not distort, the natural growth of the child by selecting his experiences and then directing those experiences toward the realm of ideas. The general effect on the common schools was to shift the emphasis from memorization of abstract facts to the firsthand observation of real objects. Pestalozzi’s diminishing influence roughly coincided with the rapid expansion of the cities.
By the 1880s the United States was absorbing several million immigrants a year, a human flood that created new problems for the common school. The question confronting educators was how to impart the largest amount of information to the greatest number of children in the shortest possible time. This new, more practical goal of educators and the means through which they attained it were reflected in the new schools they built and in the new teaching practices they adopted. Out of necessity, the one-room common school was replaced by larger schools.
To make it easier and faster for one teacher to instruct many students, there had to be as few differences between the children as possible. Since the most conspicuous difference was age, children were grouped on this basis, and each group had a separate room. To discourage physical activity that might disrupt discipline and interrupt the teaching process, to encourage close attention to and absorption of the teacher’s words, and to increase eye contact, the seats were arranged in formal rows. For good measure, they frequently were bolted to the floor.
It is not surprising, at about this time, when the goal of education was to expedite the transfer of information to a large number of students, that the normal schools began to fall under the influence of Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841). For him, education was neither the training of faculties that exist ready-made in the mind nor a natural unfolding from within. Education was instruction literally a building into the mind from the outside. The building blocks were the materials of instruction the subject matter.
The builder was the teacher. The job of the teacher was to form the child’s mind by building into it the knowledge of man’s cultural heritage through the teaching of such subjects as literature, history, science, and mathematics. Since the individual mind was presumably formed by building into it the products of the collective mind, methods of instruction were concerned wholly with how this was to be done. Herbart’s interest lay in determining how knowledge could be presented so that it would be understood and therefore retained.
He insisted that education must be based on psychological knowledge of the child so that he could be instructed effectively. The essence of his influence probably lay not so much in his carefully evolved five-step lesson plan but in the basic idea of a lesson plan. Such a plan suggested the possibility of evolving a systematic method of instruction that was the same for all pupils. Perhaps Herbart’s emphasis on the importance of motivating pupils to learn whether through presentation of the material or, failing that, through rewards and punishments also influenced the new teaching methods of the 1880s and 1890s.
The new methods, combined with the physical organization of the school, represented the direct opposite of Pestalozzi’s belief that the child’s innate powers should be allowed to develop naturally. Rather, the child must be lopped off or stretched to fit the procrustean curriculum. Subjects were graded according to difficulty, assigned to certain years, and taught by a rigid daily timetable. The amount of information that the child had absorbed through drill and memorization was determined by how much could be extracted from him by examinations. Reward or punishment came in the form of grades.
At the end of the 19th century the methods of presenting information had thus been streamlined. The curriculum had been enlarged and brought closer to the concerns of everyday life. Book learning had been supplemented somewhat by direct observation. And psychological whipping in the form of grades had perhaps diminished any physical whipping. In one respect, however, the schools of the late 19th century were no different from those, say, of the Middle Ages: they were still based on who adults thought children were or should be, not who they really were.
Before the 20th century, the ideas of such men as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and, in the United States, Francis W. Parker (1837-1902) had caused little more than rumblings beneath the floor of the traditional schoolhouse. Because of John Dewey (1859-1952), they gathered force, and in the 1920s and 1930s new and old ideas collided right in the middle of the classroom. Some of the schools, where neat rows of subdued children had sat immobilized in their bolted-down seats listening to a teacher armed with textbook, lesson plan, grade book, and disciplinary ruler, became buzzing places where virtually everything moved, including the chairs.
The children were occupied in groups or worked by themselves, depending on what they were doing. Above all, they were always doing: reading a favorite book, writing, painting, or learning botany by tending, observing, and discussing the plants they were growing. The teacher moved around the room, asking and answering questions, giving a child the spelling of a word he wanted to write or the pronunciation of a word he wanted to read, and in general acting as a helpful guide for the children’s chosen activities. The chattering and noise and activity were signs that the children were excited about and absorbed by what they were doing.
They were, in fact, learning by doing. Dewey maintained that the child is not born with a ready-made faculty called thinking, which needs the exercise of repeated drill to make it as strong as the adult faculty. Nor, he said, is the mind a blank tablet on which knowledge is impressed. Mind thinking or intelligence is, according to Dewey, a developing, growing thing. And the early stages of growth and of knowledge are different from the later stages. The development of the mind begins with the child’s perception of things and facts as they are related to himself, to his personal, immediate world.
A dog is his dog or his neighbor’s dog; it is something furry and warm, something to hug, feed, and play with. The child may recognize the fact that though his neighbor’s dog looks different from his, they are both dogs. When he sees a wolf at the zoo, he may decide that his dog is a nicer and friendlier animal than the wolf. The child’s zoological knowledge is thus organized around his own experiences with particular animals and his perceptions of similarities and differences between those experiences; it is psychologically organized knowledge.
The last step in the growth of intelligence is the ability to organize facts logically, that is, in terms of their relationship to one another. The formulated, logically organized knowledge of the zoologist is that both the wolf and the domesticated dogs belong to the family Canidae, order Carnivora; that the dogs belong to the genus Canis and species familiaris; and that one dog belongs to the sporting breed spaniel, the other to the working breed collie. Presented to the child in this form, however, the study of zoology has no relation to the animals he plays with, feeds, and observes.
His own experience outside of school does not bring the information to life, and the information does not enrich and extend his own experience. It represents another world entirely a world of empty words. All he can do, therefore, is memorize what he reads and is told. He is not developing the power to think. To stimulate the growth of intelligence rather than stifle it, as Dewey saw it, education must begin not at the end but at the beginning of the growth process; that is, with activity that engages the whole child mentally, socially, physically, and emotionally.
In the school, as in his extra-curricular activities, it is the process of doing something that has meaning for the child handling, making, growing, observing. The purpose of the school, however, is not to re-create an environment of relatively random activity but to create an environment where activities are carefully chosen to promote the development of intelligence. Carefully selected and guided, they become nets for gathering and retaining knowledge.
Instead of presenting children with an already packaged study of elementary science, Dewey might well have recommended that they study life in an aquarium. The child’s natural curiosity should lead to such questions as, Why does the fish move his mouth like that? Is he always drinking? His search for the answer will lead his intelligence in the same direction as that taken by the scientist the direction of formulated conclusions based on observation of the phenomenon.
He will be learning the method as well as the subject matter of science; learning to think as a scientist does. Moreover, the inquiry process need not be confined to one narrow area of knowledge but can be guided naturally by the teacher into investigations of fishing and then, conceivably (depending on the maturity of the young learner), of the role of the sea in the life of man. The barriers between subjects thus break down as the child’s curiosity impels him to draw upon information from all areas of human knowledge.
Books, films, recordings, and other such tools serve this end. Learning the skills reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic can be made meaningful to the child more easily if he is not forced through purposeless mechanical exercises, which, he is told, are important as a preparation for activities in later life. He should be led to discover that in order to do something he recognizes to be important right now, he needs certain skills. If he wants to write a letter, he must know how to spell; if he wants to make a belt, he must know how to measure the leather correctly.
Of course, Dewey was not suggesting that in order to learn an individual must restate the whole history of the human race through personal inquiry. While the need for a background of direct experiences is great in elementary school, as children get older they should become increasingly able to carry out intellectual investigations without having to depend upon direct experiences. The principle of experiencing does apply, however, to the elementary phase of all subjects even when the learner is a high-school or college student or an adult.
The purpose is to encourage in the learner a habitual attitude of establishing connections between the everyday life of human beings and the materials of formal instruction in a way that has meaning and application. The measuring and comparative grading of a student’s assumed abilities, processes that reflect the educator’s desire to assess the results of schooling, are incompatible with Dewey’s thinking. The quantity of what is acquired does not in itself have anything to do with the development of mind. The quality of mental process, not the production of correct answers, he wrote, is the measure of educative growth.
Because it is a process, learning is cumulative, and cannot be forced or rushed. For Dewey, the educative growth of the individual assures the healthy growth of a society. A society grows only by changes brought about by free individuals with independent intelligence and resourcefulness. The beginning of a better society, then, lies in the creation of better schools. At about the same time that a few pioneering schools of the 1920s were trying to put Dewey’s theories into practice, the testing movement, which started in about 1910, was working up steam.
The child had first become the object of methodical scientific research in 1897, when experiments conducted by Joseph M. Rice suggested that drill in spelling did not produce effective results. By 1913 Edward L. Thorndike had concluded that learning was the establishment of connections between a stimulus and a response and that the theory of mental faculties was nonsense. Alfred Binet, in 1905, published the first scale for measuring intelligence. During the 1920s, children began to be given IQ (intelligence quotient) and achievement tests on a wide scale and sometimes were carefully grouped by ability and intelligence.
Many of the spelling and reading books they used, foreshadowing the 1931 Dick and Jane readers, were based on controlled vocabularies. After the shock Americans felt when the Soviets launched the first space satellite (Sputnik) in 1957, criticism of the schools swelled into loud demands for renewed emphasis on content mastery. The insistence on cognitive performance and excellence accomplished four things. It increased competitive academic pressures on students at all levels.
It stimulated serious and sustained interest in preschool education, which manifested itself in various ways from the revival of the Montessori method in the 1960s to the preschool television series Sesame Street in 1969. In addition, it created a new interest in testing, this time in such forms as national assessments of student performance, experiments with programmed materials, and attempts to gauge when children could begin to read. And it stimulated interest in the application of technology and instructional systems to education as a means of improving student instruction.
It was practical to open up new avenues of education… e United States was in competition with the Soviet Union. The Space Race was well on its way and America needed to change the way they learned. And practicality was the key. From the 18th century onward, as knowledge of the world increased, new subjects had been added and old ones split up into branches. Later, new combinations of courses resulted from the attempt to put the scattered pieces of knowledge back together again. The purpose was to make knowledge more rational and meaningful so that it could be understood instead of mechanically memorized. It also encouraged young learners to begin to think and inquire as scholars do.
In other words, many of the new programs developed for use in the schools, particularly in the 1960s, stressed the inquiry approach as a means of mastering a body of knowledge and of creating a desire for more knowledge. Resistance to the 1954 United States Supreme Court decision terminating segregation placed the schools in the middle of a bitter and sometimes violent dispute over which children were going to attend what schools. By 1965, when a measure of genuine integration had become a reality in many school districts, the schools again found themselves in the eye of a stormy controversy.
This time the question was not which children were going to what schools but what kind of education society should provide for the students. The goal of high academic performance, which had been revived by criticisms and reforms of the 1950s and early 1960s, began to be challenged by demands for more humane, relevant, and pressure-free schooling. Many university and some high-school students from all ethnic groups and classes had been growing more and more frustrated — some of them desperately so — over what they felt was a cruel and senseless war in Vietnam and a cruel, discriminatory, competitive, loveless society at home.
They demanded curriculum reform, improved teaching methods, and greater stress and action on such problems as overpopulation, pollution, international strife, deadly weaponry, and discrimination. Pressure for reform came not only from students but also from many educators. While students and educators alike spoke of the need for greater relevance in what was taught, opinions as to what was relevant varied greatly.
The blacks wanted new textbooks in which their people were recognized and fairly represented, and some of them wanted courses in black studies. They, and many white educators, also objected to culturally biased intelligence and aptitude tests and to academic college entrance standards and examinations. Such tests, they said, did not take into account the diverse backgrounds of students who belonged to ethnic minorities and whose culture was therefore different from that of the white middle-class student.
Whites and blacks alike also wanted a curriculum that touched more closely on contemporary social problems and teaching methods that recognized their existence as individual human beings rather than as faceless robots competing for grades. Alarmed by the helplessness and hopelessness of the urban ghetto schools, educators began to insist on curricula and teaching methods flexible enough to provide for differences in students’ social and ethnic backgrounds. In this way, egalitarianism entered into the education system.
Rather than keeping whites and blacks segregated in the schools, egalitarianists provided a way for the two groups to co-exist equally. In this case, the standards were raised instead of lowered in order to promote this new equality. Previously, whites and blacks studied on very different levels. Unfortunately, blacks were not given the same opportunities as whites were… and they did not receive the attention needed to improve the environment in which they studied.
Things changed, however, when egalitarianists raised the standards to promote equality. Clearly, the American education system has changed drastically over the years. From one-room schoolhouses to acres of college campus… from Pestalozzi to Dewey… from simple religious studies to graduate programs, education has been influenced by many different factors, such as egalitarianism, wisdom of the heart, and most importantly, practicality. Necessity is the mother of invention, they say… Just as practicality is the mother of educational reform. | <urn:uuid:31d1519c-5dff-4b77-9384-0f651a5e042f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studyboss.com/topic/education | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.980948 | 5,734 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.3905365765094757... | 1 | The American educator Horace Mann once said: As an apple is not in any proper sense an apple until it is ripe, so a human being is not in any proper sense a human being until he is educated. Education is the process through which people endeavor to pass along to their children their hard-won wisdom and their aspirations for a better world. This process begins shortly after birth, as parents seek to train the infant to behave as their culture demands.
They soon, for instance, teach the child how to turn babbling sounds into language and, through example and precept, they try to instill in the child the attitudes, values, skills, and knowledge that will govern their offspring’s behavior throughout later life. Schooling, or formal education, consists of experiences that are deliberately planned and utilized to help young people learn what adults consider important for them to know and to help teach them how they should respond to choices.
This education has been influenced by three important parts of modern American society: wisdom of the heart, egalitarianism, and practicality… e greatest of these, practicality. In the absence of written records, no one can be sure what education man first provided for his children. Most anthropologists believe, though, that the educational practices of prehistoric times were probably like those of primitive tribes in the 20th century, such as the Australian aborigines and the Aleuts. Formal instruction was probably given just before the child’s initiation into adulthood — the puberty rite — and involved tribal customs and beliefs too complicated to be learned by direct experience.
Children learned most of the skills, duties, customs, and beliefs of the tribe through an informal apprenticeship — by taking part in such adult activities as hunting, fishing, farming, toolmaking, and cooking. In such simple tribal societies, school was not a special place… it was life itself. However, the educational process has changed over the decades, and it now vaguely represents what it was in ancient times, or even in early American society.
While the schools that the colonists established in the 17th century in the New England, Southern, and Middle colonies differed from one another, each reflected a concept of schooling that had been left behind in Europe. Most poor children learned through apprenticeship and had no formal schooling at all. Those who did go to elementary school were taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion. Learning consisted of memorizing, which was stimulated by whipping. The first basic textbook, The New England Primer, was America’s own contribution to education.
Used from 1690 until the beginning of the 19th century, its purpose was to teach both religion and reading. The child learning the letter a, for example, also learned that In Adam’s fall, We sinned all. As in Europe, then, the schools in the colonies were strongly influenced by religion. This was particularly true of the schools in the New England area, which had been settled by Puritans and other English religious dissenters. Like the Protestants of the Reformation, who established vernacular elementary schools in Germany in the 16th century, the Puritans sought to make education universal.
They took the first steps toward government-supported universal education in the colonies. In 1642, Puritan Massachusetts passed a law requiring that every child be taught to read. And, in 1647, it passed the Old Deluder Satan Act, so named because its purpose was to defeat Satan’s attempts to keep men, through an inability to read, from the knowledge of the Scriptures. The law required every town of 50 or more families to establish an elementary school and every town of 100 or more families to maintain a grammar school as well. Puritan or not, virtually all of the colonial schools had clear-cut moral purposes.
Skills and knowledge were considered important to the degree that they served religious ends and, of course, trained the mind. We call it wisdom of the heart. These matters, by definition, are anything that the heart is convinced of… so thoroughly convinced that it over-powers the judgement of the mind. Early schools supplied the students with moral lessons, not just reading, writing and arithmetic. Obviously, the founders saw it necessary to apply these techniques, most likely feeling that it was necessary that the students learn these particular values. Wisdom of the heart had a profound effect of the curriculum of the early schools.
As the spirit of science, commercialism, secularism, and individualism quickened in the Western world, education in the colonies was called upon to satisfy the practical needs of seamen, merchants, artisans, and frontiersmen. The effect of these new developments on the curriculum in American schools was more immediate and widespread than its effect in European schools. Practical content was soon in competition with religious concerns. The academy that Benjamin Franklin helped found in 1751 was the first of a growing number of secondary schools that sprang up in competition with the Latin schools.
Franklin’s academy continued to offer the humanist-religious curriculum, but it also brought education closer to the needs of everyday life by teaching such courses as history, geography, merchant accounts, geometry, algebra, surveying, modern languages, navigation, and astronomy. These subjects were more practical, seeing as how industry and business were driving forces in the creation of the United States. Religion classes could not support a family or pay the debts. By the mid-19th century this new diversification in the curriculum characterized virtually all American secondary education.
America came into its own, educationally, with the movement toward state-supported, secular free schools for all children, which began in the 1820s with the common (elementary) school. The movement gained incentive in 1837 when Massachusetts established a state board of education and appointed the lawyer and politician Horace Mann (1796-1859) as its secretary. One of Mann’s many reforms was the improvement of the quality of teaching by the establishment of the first public normal (teacher-training) schools in the United States.
State after state followed Massachusetts’ example until, by the end of the 19th century, the common-school system was firmly established. It was the first rung of what was to develop into the American educational ladder. After the common school had been accepted, people began to urge that higher education, too, be tax supported. As early as 1821, the Boston School Committee established the English Classical School (later the English High School), which was the first public secondary school in the United States.
By the end of the century, such secondary schools had begun to outnumber the private academies. The original purpose of the American high school was to allow all children to extend and enrich their common-school education. With the establishment of the land-grant colleges after 1862, the high school also became a preparation for college; the step by which students who had begun at the lowest rung of the educational ladder might reach the highest.
In 1873, when the kindergarten became part of the St. Louis, Mo. hool system, there was a hint that, in time, a lower rung might be added. Practicality allowed this change in the high school system. Schools now needed to ready the students for college — an even higher form of education — instead of preparing them to immediately enter the work force. America’s educational ladder was unique. Where public school systems existed in European countries such as France and Germany, they were dual systems. When a child of the lower and middle classes finished his elementary schooling, he could go on to a vocational or technical school.
The upper-class child often did not attend the elementary school but was instead tutored until he was about 9 years old and could enter a secondary school, generally a Latin grammar school. The purpose of this school was to prepare him for the university, from which he might well emerge as one of the potential leaders of his country. Instead of two separate and distinct educational systems for separate and distinct classes, the United States provided one system open to everyone… a distinctly egalitarian idea. As in mid-19th-century Europe, women were slowly gaining educational ground in the United States.
Female academies established by such pioneers as Emma Willard (1787-1870) and Catharine Beecher (1800-78) prepared the way for secondary education for women. In 1861, Vassar, the first real college for women, was founded. Even earlier, in 1833, Oberlin College was founded as a coeducational college, and in 1837, four women began to study there. In the mid-19th century there was yet another change in education. The secondary-school curriculum, that had been slowly expanding since the founding of the academies in the mid-18th century, virtually exploded.
But the voice of practicality cried out again. A new society, complicated by the latest discoveries in the physical and biological sciences and the rise of industrialism and capitalism, called for more and newer kinds of knowledge. By 1861 as many as 73 subjects were being offered by the Massachusetts secondary schools. People still believed that the mind could be trained, but they now thought that science could do a better job than the classics could. The result was a curriculum that was virtually saturated with scientific instruction.
The mid-19th-century knowledge explosion also modestly affected some of the common schools, which expanded their curriculum to include such courses as science and nature study. The content of instruction in the common school, beyond which few students went, consisted of the material in a relatively small number of books: assorted arithmetic, history, and geography texts, Webster’s American Spelling Book, and two new books that appeared in 1836 the First and Second in the series of McGuffey’s Eclectic Readers.
Whereas The New England Primer admonished children against sin, the stories and poems in the readers pressed for the moral virtues. Countless children were required to memorize such admonitions as Work while you work, play while you play. One thing each time, that is the way. In the early days, the common schools consisted of one room where one teacher taught pupils ranging in age from 6 to about 13 and sometimes older. The teacher instructed the children separately, not as a group. The good teacher had a strong right arm and an unshakable determination to cram information into his pupils.
Once the fight to provide free education for all children had been won, educators turned their attention to the quality of that education. To find out more about learning and the learning process, American schools looked to Europe. In the 1860s, they discovered, and for about 20 years were influenced, by Pestalozzi. His belief was that the goal of education should be the natural development of the individual child, and that educators should focus on the development of the child rather than on memorization of subject matter that he or she was unable to understand.
Pestalozzi’s school also mirrored the idea that learning begins with firsthand observation of an object and moves gradually toward the remote and abstract realm of words and ideas. The teacher’s job was to guide, not distort, the natural growth of the child by selecting his experiences and then directing those experiences toward the realm of ideas. The general effect on the common schools was to shift the emphasis from memorization of abstract facts to the firsthand observation of real objects. Pestalozzi’s diminishing influence roughly coincided with the rapid expansion of the cities.
By the 1880s the United States was absorbing several million immigrants a year, a human flood that created new problems for the common school. The question confronting educators was how to impart the largest amount of information to the greatest number of children in the shortest possible time. This new, more practical goal of educators and the means through which they attained it were reflected in the new schools they built and in the new teaching practices they adopted. Out of necessity, the one-room common school was replaced by larger schools.
To make it easier and faster for one teacher to instruct many students, there had to be as few differences between the children as possible. Since the most conspicuous difference was age, children were grouped on this basis, and each group had a separate room. To discourage physical activity that might disrupt discipline and interrupt the teaching process, to encourage close attention to and absorption of the teacher’s words, and to increase eye contact, the seats were arranged in formal rows. For good measure, they frequently were bolted to the floor.
It is not surprising, at about this time, when the goal of education was to expedite the transfer of information to a large number of students, that the normal schools began to fall under the influence of Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841). For him, education was neither the training of faculties that exist ready-made in the mind nor a natural unfolding from within. Education was instruction literally a building into the mind from the outside. The building blocks were the materials of instruction the subject matter.
The builder was the teacher. The job of the teacher was to form the child’s mind by building into it the knowledge of man’s cultural heritage through the teaching of such subjects as literature, history, science, and mathematics. Since the individual mind was presumably formed by building into it the products of the collective mind, methods of instruction were concerned wholly with how this was to be done. Herbart’s interest lay in determining how knowledge could be presented so that it would be understood and therefore retained.
He insisted that education must be based on psychological knowledge of the child so that he could be instructed effectively. The essence of his influence probably lay not so much in his carefully evolved five-step lesson plan but in the basic idea of a lesson plan. Such a plan suggested the possibility of evolving a systematic method of instruction that was the same for all pupils. Perhaps Herbart’s emphasis on the importance of motivating pupils to learn whether through presentation of the material or, failing that, through rewards and punishments also influenced the new teaching methods of the 1880s and 1890s.
The new methods, combined with the physical organization of the school, represented the direct opposite of Pestalozzi’s belief that the child’s innate powers should be allowed to develop naturally. Rather, the child must be lopped off or stretched to fit the procrustean curriculum. Subjects were graded according to difficulty, assigned to certain years, and taught by a rigid daily timetable. The amount of information that the child had absorbed through drill and memorization was determined by how much could be extracted from him by examinations. Reward or punishment came in the form of grades.
At the end of the 19th century the methods of presenting information had thus been streamlined. The curriculum had been enlarged and brought closer to the concerns of everyday life. Book learning had been supplemented somewhat by direct observation. And psychological whipping in the form of grades had perhaps diminished any physical whipping. In one respect, however, the schools of the late 19th century were no different from those, say, of the Middle Ages: they were still based on who adults thought children were or should be, not who they really were.
Before the 20th century, the ideas of such men as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and, in the United States, Francis W. Parker (1837-1902) had caused little more than rumblings beneath the floor of the traditional schoolhouse. Because of John Dewey (1859-1952), they gathered force, and in the 1920s and 1930s new and old ideas collided right in the middle of the classroom. Some of the schools, where neat rows of subdued children had sat immobilized in their bolted-down seats listening to a teacher armed with textbook, lesson plan, grade book, and disciplinary ruler, became buzzing places where virtually everything moved, including the chairs.
The children were occupied in groups or worked by themselves, depending on what they were doing. Above all, they were always doing: reading a favorite book, writing, painting, or learning botany by tending, observing, and discussing the plants they were growing. The teacher moved around the room, asking and answering questions, giving a child the spelling of a word he wanted to write or the pronunciation of a word he wanted to read, and in general acting as a helpful guide for the children’s chosen activities. The chattering and noise and activity were signs that the children were excited about and absorbed by what they were doing.
They were, in fact, learning by doing. Dewey maintained that the child is not born with a ready-made faculty called thinking, which needs the exercise of repeated drill to make it as strong as the adult faculty. Nor, he said, is the mind a blank tablet on which knowledge is impressed. Mind thinking or intelligence is, according to Dewey, a developing, growing thing. And the early stages of growth and of knowledge are different from the later stages. The development of the mind begins with the child’s perception of things and facts as they are related to himself, to his personal, immediate world.
A dog is his dog or his neighbor’s dog; it is something furry and warm, something to hug, feed, and play with. The child may recognize the fact that though his neighbor’s dog looks different from his, they are both dogs. When he sees a wolf at the zoo, he may decide that his dog is a nicer and friendlier animal than the wolf. The child’s zoological knowledge is thus organized around his own experiences with particular animals and his perceptions of similarities and differences between those experiences; it is psychologically organized knowledge.
The last step in the growth of intelligence is the ability to organize facts logically, that is, in terms of their relationship to one another. The formulated, logically organized knowledge of the zoologist is that both the wolf and the domesticated dogs belong to the family Canidae, order Carnivora; that the dogs belong to the genus Canis and species familiaris; and that one dog belongs to the sporting breed spaniel, the other to the working breed collie. Presented to the child in this form, however, the study of zoology has no relation to the animals he plays with, feeds, and observes.
His own experience outside of school does not bring the information to life, and the information does not enrich and extend his own experience. It represents another world entirely a world of empty words. All he can do, therefore, is memorize what he reads and is told. He is not developing the power to think. To stimulate the growth of intelligence rather than stifle it, as Dewey saw it, education must begin not at the end but at the beginning of the growth process; that is, with activity that engages the whole child mentally, socially, physically, and emotionally.
In the school, as in his extra-curricular activities, it is the process of doing something that has meaning for the child handling, making, growing, observing. The purpose of the school, however, is not to re-create an environment of relatively random activity but to create an environment where activities are carefully chosen to promote the development of intelligence. Carefully selected and guided, they become nets for gathering and retaining knowledge.
Instead of presenting children with an already packaged study of elementary science, Dewey might well have recommended that they study life in an aquarium. The child’s natural curiosity should lead to such questions as, Why does the fish move his mouth like that? Is he always drinking? His search for the answer will lead his intelligence in the same direction as that taken by the scientist the direction of formulated conclusions based on observation of the phenomenon.
He will be learning the method as well as the subject matter of science; learning to think as a scientist does. Moreover, the inquiry process need not be confined to one narrow area of knowledge but can be guided naturally by the teacher into investigations of fishing and then, conceivably (depending on the maturity of the young learner), of the role of the sea in the life of man. The barriers between subjects thus break down as the child’s curiosity impels him to draw upon information from all areas of human knowledge.
Books, films, recordings, and other such tools serve this end. Learning the skills reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic can be made meaningful to the child more easily if he is not forced through purposeless mechanical exercises, which, he is told, are important as a preparation for activities in later life. He should be led to discover that in order to do something he recognizes to be important right now, he needs certain skills. If he wants to write a letter, he must know how to spell; if he wants to make a belt, he must know how to measure the leather correctly.
Of course, Dewey was not suggesting that in order to learn an individual must restate the whole history of the human race through personal inquiry. While the need for a background of direct experiences is great in elementary school, as children get older they should become increasingly able to carry out intellectual investigations without having to depend upon direct experiences. The principle of experiencing does apply, however, to the elementary phase of all subjects even when the learner is a high-school or college student or an adult.
The purpose is to encourage in the learner a habitual attitude of establishing connections between the everyday life of human beings and the materials of formal instruction in a way that has meaning and application. The measuring and comparative grading of a student’s assumed abilities, processes that reflect the educator’s desire to assess the results of schooling, are incompatible with Dewey’s thinking. The quantity of what is acquired does not in itself have anything to do with the development of mind. The quality of mental process, not the production of correct answers, he wrote, is the measure of educative growth.
Because it is a process, learning is cumulative, and cannot be forced or rushed. For Dewey, the educative growth of the individual assures the healthy growth of a society. A society grows only by changes brought about by free individuals with independent intelligence and resourcefulness. The beginning of a better society, then, lies in the creation of better schools. At about the same time that a few pioneering schools of the 1920s were trying to put Dewey’s theories into practice, the testing movement, which started in about 1910, was working up steam.
The child had first become the object of methodical scientific research in 1897, when experiments conducted by Joseph M. Rice suggested that drill in spelling did not produce effective results. By 1913 Edward L. Thorndike had concluded that learning was the establishment of connections between a stimulus and a response and that the theory of mental faculties was nonsense. Alfred Binet, in 1905, published the first scale for measuring intelligence. During the 1920s, children began to be given IQ (intelligence quotient) and achievement tests on a wide scale and sometimes were carefully grouped by ability and intelligence.
Many of the spelling and reading books they used, foreshadowing the 1931 Dick and Jane readers, were based on controlled vocabularies. After the shock Americans felt when the Soviets launched the first space satellite (Sputnik) in 1957, criticism of the schools swelled into loud demands for renewed emphasis on content mastery. The insistence on cognitive performance and excellence accomplished four things. It increased competitive academic pressures on students at all levels.
It stimulated serious and sustained interest in preschool education, which manifested itself in various ways from the revival of the Montessori method in the 1960s to the preschool television series Sesame Street in 1969. In addition, it created a new interest in testing, this time in such forms as national assessments of student performance, experiments with programmed materials, and attempts to gauge when children could begin to read. And it stimulated interest in the application of technology and instructional systems to education as a means of improving student instruction.
It was practical to open up new avenues of education… e United States was in competition with the Soviet Union. The Space Race was well on its way and America needed to change the way they learned. And practicality was the key. From the 18th century onward, as knowledge of the world increased, new subjects had been added and old ones split up into branches. Later, new combinations of courses resulted from the attempt to put the scattered pieces of knowledge back together again. The purpose was to make knowledge more rational and meaningful so that it could be understood instead of mechanically memorized. It also encouraged young learners to begin to think and inquire as scholars do.
In other words, many of the new programs developed for use in the schools, particularly in the 1960s, stressed the inquiry approach as a means of mastering a body of knowledge and of creating a desire for more knowledge. Resistance to the 1954 United States Supreme Court decision terminating segregation placed the schools in the middle of a bitter and sometimes violent dispute over which children were going to attend what schools. By 1965, when a measure of genuine integration had become a reality in many school districts, the schools again found themselves in the eye of a stormy controversy.
This time the question was not which children were going to what schools but what kind of education society should provide for the students. The goal of high academic performance, which had been revived by criticisms and reforms of the 1950s and early 1960s, began to be challenged by demands for more humane, relevant, and pressure-free schooling. Many university and some high-school students from all ethnic groups and classes had been growing more and more frustrated — some of them desperately so — over what they felt was a cruel and senseless war in Vietnam and a cruel, discriminatory, competitive, loveless society at home.
They demanded curriculum reform, improved teaching methods, and greater stress and action on such problems as overpopulation, pollution, international strife, deadly weaponry, and discrimination. Pressure for reform came not only from students but also from many educators. While students and educators alike spoke of the need for greater relevance in what was taught, opinions as to what was relevant varied greatly.
The blacks wanted new textbooks in which their people were recognized and fairly represented, and some of them wanted courses in black studies. They, and many white educators, also objected to culturally biased intelligence and aptitude tests and to academic college entrance standards and examinations. Such tests, they said, did not take into account the diverse backgrounds of students who belonged to ethnic minorities and whose culture was therefore different from that of the white middle-class student.
Whites and blacks alike also wanted a curriculum that touched more closely on contemporary social problems and teaching methods that recognized their existence as individual human beings rather than as faceless robots competing for grades. Alarmed by the helplessness and hopelessness of the urban ghetto schools, educators began to insist on curricula and teaching methods flexible enough to provide for differences in students’ social and ethnic backgrounds. In this way, egalitarianism entered into the education system.
Rather than keeping whites and blacks segregated in the schools, egalitarianists provided a way for the two groups to co-exist equally. In this case, the standards were raised instead of lowered in order to promote this new equality. Previously, whites and blacks studied on very different levels. Unfortunately, blacks were not given the same opportunities as whites were… and they did not receive the attention needed to improve the environment in which they studied.
Things changed, however, when egalitarianists raised the standards to promote equality. Clearly, the American education system has changed drastically over the years. From one-room schoolhouses to acres of college campus… from Pestalozzi to Dewey… from simple religious studies to graduate programs, education has been influenced by many different factors, such as egalitarianism, wisdom of the heart, and most importantly, practicality. Necessity is the mother of invention, they say… Just as practicality is the mother of educational reform. | 5,791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Did Germany recover in the period 1924-1929? Essay
After the 1923 inflation, Germany economy was rather mixed depending on who you were. The poor were the real losers, losing what little they had. Big businesses were able to take advantage by buying out small companies, middle classes saw their savings dissolve.
Old people’s pensions were useless but anyone who had a job was considered protected. Germany was not able to keep up with its reparations payments, so the French Army occupied the Ruhr, one of Germany’s biggest industrial regions, which was legal according to The Treaty of Versailles.
There was only one thing that might be able to help Germany at its weakest. Something that was weak in Germany already, politics.
To be fair, Germany did recover very well. Stresemann, an able politician was heading up a Coalition government, making him very strong in Germany. He was foreign minister from 1924-1929 and Chancellor for a few months. His Coalition Government did not have full support of the Reichstag, as it had some very mixed views, but he still did well in getting Germany out of the problems in 1923.
He was very successful in foreign politics as well. He managed to get frontiers on France Belgium, which was known as the Locarno Treaties (Involving Britain, France, and Italy)He made sure Germany was made into the League of Nations; this meant it had a status of power and was alongside Britain and France.Also apart from that, USA started giving Germany loans, which was known as the Dawes Plan, meaning the economy improved, and in 1928, the industry improved even by pre WW1 standards. Germany was on its way to becoming one of the world’s largest exporters.
To make things better, Hindenburg, a very well thought of War leader, was elected President of the Weimar Republic!Although, not everything was to Germany’s favour. Stresemann may have ensured Frontiers on Belgium and France, but its East side was vulnerable, making the Locarno Treaties somewhat of a waste. The country’s economy may have been improving, but it was completely dependable on the USA’s loans. Unemployment was a huge problem.
Although a better commerce and economy Germany now had, there were still thousands left jobless. The employers themselves found taxes far too high. They complained that the Government was spending too much on the unemployed and the poor. There were sectors of the economy that did not pick up; despite the help from America farming was one of them.
Farmer’s earning went down by half throughout the period 1925-1929.In conclusion, Germany’s recovery was not smooth and not overly successful. Stresemann played out his role as a politician, which he did very well. Although many sector of society were suffering, it was gradually picking up.
It was not so much a recovery, but a start to a recovery, if things were left as they were in 1923, it could have been a lot worse than it was. So, did Germany recover in the period 1924-1929? In my opinion, yes. It was a very good start and helped some sectors of the society, but not all of them. What Stresemann did, was show the path for Germany to follow, in order to once again, becoming a World Super Power.
Cite this Did Germany recover in the period 1924-1929? Essay
Did Germany recover in the period 1924-1929? Essay. (2017, Nov 11). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/germany-recover-period-1924-1929-essay/ | <urn:uuid:50c13a92-d853-4830-8a3e-4cbcc2ffab07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/germany-recover-period-1924-1929-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00318.warc.gz | en | 0.992035 | 766 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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After the 1923 inflation, Germany economy was rather mixed depending on who you were. The poor were the real losers, losing what little they had. Big businesses were able to take advantage by buying out small companies, middle classes saw their savings dissolve.
Old people’s pensions were useless but anyone who had a job was considered protected. Germany was not able to keep up with its reparations payments, so the French Army occupied the Ruhr, one of Germany’s biggest industrial regions, which was legal according to The Treaty of Versailles.
There was only one thing that might be able to help Germany at its weakest. Something that was weak in Germany already, politics.
To be fair, Germany did recover very well. Stresemann, an able politician was heading up a Coalition government, making him very strong in Germany. He was foreign minister from 1924-1929 and Chancellor for a few months. His Coalition Government did not have full support of the Reichstag, as it had some very mixed views, but he still did well in getting Germany out of the problems in 1923.
He was very successful in foreign politics as well. He managed to get frontiers on France Belgium, which was known as the Locarno Treaties (Involving Britain, France, and Italy)He made sure Germany was made into the League of Nations; this meant it had a status of power and was alongside Britain and France.Also apart from that, USA started giving Germany loans, which was known as the Dawes Plan, meaning the economy improved, and in 1928, the industry improved even by pre WW1 standards. Germany was on its way to becoming one of the world’s largest exporters.
To make things better, Hindenburg, a very well thought of War leader, was elected President of the Weimar Republic!Although, not everything was to Germany’s favour. Stresemann may have ensured Frontiers on Belgium and France, but its East side was vulnerable, making the Locarno Treaties somewhat of a waste. The country’s economy may have been improving, but it was completely dependable on the USA’s loans. Unemployment was a huge problem.
Although a better commerce and economy Germany now had, there were still thousands left jobless. The employers themselves found taxes far too high. They complained that the Government was spending too much on the unemployed and the poor. There were sectors of the economy that did not pick up; despite the help from America farming was one of them.
Farmer’s earning went down by half throughout the period 1925-1929.In conclusion, Germany’s recovery was not smooth and not overly successful. Stresemann played out his role as a politician, which he did very well. Although many sector of society were suffering, it was gradually picking up.
It was not so much a recovery, but a start to a recovery, if things were left as they were in 1923, it could have been a lot worse than it was. So, did Germany recover in the period 1924-1929? In my opinion, yes. It was a very good start and helped some sectors of the society, but not all of them. What Stresemann did, was show the path for Germany to follow, in order to once again, becoming a World Super Power.
Cite this Did Germany recover in the period 1924-1929? Essay
Did Germany recover in the period 1924-1929? Essay. (2017, Nov 11). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/germany-recover-period-1924-1929-essay/ | 790 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Does the “Transgender” Term Differ From the “Transgendered” Term?
Recently, the issue of transgender people in the United States has become more of a political issue. The subject has surfaced recently in regard to issues such as marriage equality, defense of religious freedom, and medical research. People on all sides of the political spectrum have become more aware of the LGBTQ community. Just a few years ago, though, those in the transgender community were largely unheard of.
Transgenders, also known as transmen or transwomen, are those who identify as women but may consider themselves to be men, women, or both. They are oftentimes referred to as transsexuals. The difference between these two terms is that a transsexual is a person who identifies as a woman and a transgendered is a person who identifies as a man.
Transgenders can come from all different kinds of backgrounds. Many of the individuals who identify as transgenders actually identify as women. Some choose to be men, while others prefer to be considered women. People who identify as women often feel like they have to adopt the masculine gender roles to be “women.” Often times, individuals who identify as men have very serious issues with their masculine nature.
When individuals who identify as transgenders come to terms with their gender identities, many times, they seek help from others. It is important to understand that they are in the process of learning how to live as who they are. These individuals often seek help from transgender organizations that can help them with issues such as how to deal with embarrassment, how to deal with bullying, and how to make friends and get along with others.
For some individuals, the term transgender may mean something else. This does not always mean that they identify as the opposite gender. They may simply want to find a name for themselves. Other people simply do not feel like they are a member of the “standard” gender. For these individuals, the term “transgender” is appropriate and does not have the same connotation as the word “transgendered.”
For some transgender people, the term “transgender” is synonymous with the group “gay,” because of the large trans communities in North America. Some trans people say that they are not gay. But, they simply identify as being attracted to people of the same gender, regardless of the gender that they were assigned at birth.
For others, the term “transgender” is not synonymous with the word “gay,” because there are many transgender people who identify as straight. This is a group that, unfortunately, is often misunderstood by the general public. Often times, it is simply taken as a joke to refer to someone as “gay” when the person identifies as transgender. | <urn:uuid:35f8348c-bda8-4327-8563-e38fb3f3769a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thelgbtworld.com/2020/01/12/how-does-the-transgender-term-differ-from-the-transgendered-term/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00053.warc.gz | en | 0.982814 | 584 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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-0.27489379048... | 2 | How Does the “Transgender” Term Differ From the “Transgendered” Term?
Recently, the issue of transgender people in the United States has become more of a political issue. The subject has surfaced recently in regard to issues such as marriage equality, defense of religious freedom, and medical research. People on all sides of the political spectrum have become more aware of the LGBTQ community. Just a few years ago, though, those in the transgender community were largely unheard of.
Transgenders, also known as transmen or transwomen, are those who identify as women but may consider themselves to be men, women, or both. They are oftentimes referred to as transsexuals. The difference between these two terms is that a transsexual is a person who identifies as a woman and a transgendered is a person who identifies as a man.
Transgenders can come from all different kinds of backgrounds. Many of the individuals who identify as transgenders actually identify as women. Some choose to be men, while others prefer to be considered women. People who identify as women often feel like they have to adopt the masculine gender roles to be “women.” Often times, individuals who identify as men have very serious issues with their masculine nature.
When individuals who identify as transgenders come to terms with their gender identities, many times, they seek help from others. It is important to understand that they are in the process of learning how to live as who they are. These individuals often seek help from transgender organizations that can help them with issues such as how to deal with embarrassment, how to deal with bullying, and how to make friends and get along with others.
For some individuals, the term transgender may mean something else. This does not always mean that they identify as the opposite gender. They may simply want to find a name for themselves. Other people simply do not feel like they are a member of the “standard” gender. For these individuals, the term “transgender” is appropriate and does not have the same connotation as the word “transgendered.”
For some transgender people, the term “transgender” is synonymous with the group “gay,” because of the large trans communities in North America. Some trans people say that they are not gay. But, they simply identify as being attracted to people of the same gender, regardless of the gender that they were assigned at birth.
For others, the term “transgender” is not synonymous with the word “gay,” because there are many transgender people who identify as straight. This is a group that, unfortunately, is often misunderstood by the general public. Often times, it is simply taken as a joke to refer to someone as “gay” when the person identifies as transgender. | 552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
SITE AND SURROUNDING AREA
Berry Castle is a small Iron Age hilltop enclosure (formerly known as a hillfort) which is believed to be about 2600 years old.
This type of ancient monument is rare with around 150 examples recorded in Britain and the majority occurring in North Devon and North Cornwall.
They date to between the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (eighth - fifth centuries BC) and examples which survive
comparatively well and have potential for the recovery of archaeological remains are believed to be of national importance and are protected in law as Scheduled Monuments. It is illegal to disturb the ground or to damage it in any way.
Berry Castle comprises a stony earth rampart (bank) which was once stone faced, surrounded by a deep outer ditch, which has a small low rampart (bank) along its outer edge, known as a counterscarp. The outer face of the rampart has now partially collapsed into the ditch, almost filling it. The single entrance into the enclosure is situated at the western end.
It may have been used as a stock enclosure, a market place for trade or exchange, a place for the performance of rituals (a bit like a modern day church) or as a safe place during times of strife.
Due to its prominent position in the local landscape it is also possible that Berry Castle was built as a status symbol.
In modern times, Berry Castle's isolated location within woodland helped preserve the ramparts and ditches from disturbance by agriculture.
Recently however, due to concern that tree roots were damaging the archaeology, Clinton Devon Estates, Historic England and the Friends of Berry Castle collaborated in a project that resulted in the removal of the trees.
The tree clearance allowed research to take place and geophysical surveys have added to our knowledge of its construction.
Berry Castle was built around 2600 years ago, in an era known as the Iron Age. At that time, the defensive rampart (bank) would have been taller and topped by a hurdle fence and the ditches would have been
The Iron Age in the Torridge began approximately 600 BC and lasted until the end of the first century AD.
The people were likely to have been mostly farmers who lived in small enclosures dotted around the valley, like the farms of today. The illustration above, shows how life at Berry Castle may have looked in its heyday.
Families lived in thatched roundhouses that would have been built from whatever material was readily available.
There would have been a wooden frame with walls made from either wattle and daub or local stone which is abundant in the Torridge valley.
Central fires heated the houses and there were no chimneys. The smoke from the fire filtered through the thatched roof, which discouraged insects and stopped birds from pulling the thatch out in their search for pests. The fires burned slowly which reduced sparks and lessened the risk of the house burning down.
Iron Age farmers reared cattle, sheep and pigs which provided meat, milk, hides and wool.
Oxen were used for pulling carts and simple wooden ploughs known as ards. Animal dung fertilised the soil which produced a greater yield in the crops that were grown.
Crops consisted mainly of wheat (Einkorn, emmer and spelt), oats and barley, and these together with meat, fish, fruit and game gave the people of the Iron Age an ample and varied diet.
Surplus produce and craftwork may have been traded with neighbours or even exported through trading networks into Europe.
Woodlands were managed by pollarding or coppicing to produce a regular supply of wood for fencing and hurdles and for domestic use.
Why was Berry Castle built?
An enormous amount of effort would have been invested by the local people, in the construction of even a modest enclosure such as Berry Castle.
The undertaking of such a huge communal task is thought to have bound a community even more tightly together, creating a very visual statement of the clan's ownership of the surrounding land, its unique identity, presence and permanence in the local landscape.
The Gateway and Western End
The Western end of the enclosure would have been visible from some distance across the valley. The community would probably have invested considerable effort into making the gateway and the rampart as impressive and prestigious as possible, as a statement of their power and occupation of the local land.
The above plan is the first accurate earthwork survey of Berry Castle and was undertaken in 2016.
The two deep quarry pits, one at the north-west corner and the other in the middle of the eastern end, were the result of stone gathering during the 1920s in order to mend local roads. It is likely that much of the remaining stone facing of Berry Castle's ramparts were also removed at this time.
Records show that Berry Castle has been under cultivated woodland for several hundred years, over which time its ramparts have been damaged due to tree felling and re-planting, and the ditches have filled with debris.
The 19th century trackway through the site may have been built to enable the removal of timber from the area and another track seems to have been made by the collapsing of the rampart bank into the ditch, along the southern side. The avenue of mature oak trees along this side of the enclosure may indicate the line of this trackway.
The Bank & Ditch
The illustration shows how the bank and ditch may have looked 2,600 years ago.
The ditch was generally V-shaped and cut deep into the bedrock, the stone removed being used to line the outer and inner faces of the rampart which had an earth and rubble core, much as a 'modern' Devon Bank. The rampart's inner face may also have been stepped to provide a walkway along its length. It is likely that the rampart was topped by a stout hurdle fence or possibly a palisade of closely set timber posts. The small bank along the outside of the ditch, known as a counterscarp, may have been added to give the appearance of a deeper, more impressive ditch. Although the rampart and ditch surrounding Berry Castle could provide security for the local community, and be defended during times of tension and strife, it is likely that this was not the main, or even the most significant reason for their construction. | <urn:uuid:e27a8945-798b-4f4b-a29b-0b7e5e74b8b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.berrycastlehuntshaw.com/about-berry-castle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.982221 | 1,299 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.121360585... | 17 | SITE AND SURROUNDING AREA
Berry Castle is a small Iron Age hilltop enclosure (formerly known as a hillfort) which is believed to be about 2600 years old.
This type of ancient monument is rare with around 150 examples recorded in Britain and the majority occurring in North Devon and North Cornwall.
They date to between the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (eighth - fifth centuries BC) and examples which survive
comparatively well and have potential for the recovery of archaeological remains are believed to be of national importance and are protected in law as Scheduled Monuments. It is illegal to disturb the ground or to damage it in any way.
Berry Castle comprises a stony earth rampart (bank) which was once stone faced, surrounded by a deep outer ditch, which has a small low rampart (bank) along its outer edge, known as a counterscarp. The outer face of the rampart has now partially collapsed into the ditch, almost filling it. The single entrance into the enclosure is situated at the western end.
It may have been used as a stock enclosure, a market place for trade or exchange, a place for the performance of rituals (a bit like a modern day church) or as a safe place during times of strife.
Due to its prominent position in the local landscape it is also possible that Berry Castle was built as a status symbol.
In modern times, Berry Castle's isolated location within woodland helped preserve the ramparts and ditches from disturbance by agriculture.
Recently however, due to concern that tree roots were damaging the archaeology, Clinton Devon Estates, Historic England and the Friends of Berry Castle collaborated in a project that resulted in the removal of the trees.
The tree clearance allowed research to take place and geophysical surveys have added to our knowledge of its construction.
Berry Castle was built around 2600 years ago, in an era known as the Iron Age. At that time, the defensive rampart (bank) would have been taller and topped by a hurdle fence and the ditches would have been
The Iron Age in the Torridge began approximately 600 BC and lasted until the end of the first century AD.
The people were likely to have been mostly farmers who lived in small enclosures dotted around the valley, like the farms of today. The illustration above, shows how life at Berry Castle may have looked in its heyday.
Families lived in thatched roundhouses that would have been built from whatever material was readily available.
There would have been a wooden frame with walls made from either wattle and daub or local stone which is abundant in the Torridge valley.
Central fires heated the houses and there were no chimneys. The smoke from the fire filtered through the thatched roof, which discouraged insects and stopped birds from pulling the thatch out in their search for pests. The fires burned slowly which reduced sparks and lessened the risk of the house burning down.
Iron Age farmers reared cattle, sheep and pigs which provided meat, milk, hides and wool.
Oxen were used for pulling carts and simple wooden ploughs known as ards. Animal dung fertilised the soil which produced a greater yield in the crops that were grown.
Crops consisted mainly of wheat (Einkorn, emmer and spelt), oats and barley, and these together with meat, fish, fruit and game gave the people of the Iron Age an ample and varied diet.
Surplus produce and craftwork may have been traded with neighbours or even exported through trading networks into Europe.
Woodlands were managed by pollarding or coppicing to produce a regular supply of wood for fencing and hurdles and for domestic use.
Why was Berry Castle built?
An enormous amount of effort would have been invested by the local people, in the construction of even a modest enclosure such as Berry Castle.
The undertaking of such a huge communal task is thought to have bound a community even more tightly together, creating a very visual statement of the clan's ownership of the surrounding land, its unique identity, presence and permanence in the local landscape.
The Gateway and Western End
The Western end of the enclosure would have been visible from some distance across the valley. The community would probably have invested considerable effort into making the gateway and the rampart as impressive and prestigious as possible, as a statement of their power and occupation of the local land.
The above plan is the first accurate earthwork survey of Berry Castle and was undertaken in 2016.
The two deep quarry pits, one at the north-west corner and the other in the middle of the eastern end, were the result of stone gathering during the 1920s in order to mend local roads. It is likely that much of the remaining stone facing of Berry Castle's ramparts were also removed at this time.
Records show that Berry Castle has been under cultivated woodland for several hundred years, over which time its ramparts have been damaged due to tree felling and re-planting, and the ditches have filled with debris.
The 19th century trackway through the site may have been built to enable the removal of timber from the area and another track seems to have been made by the collapsing of the rampart bank into the ditch, along the southern side. The avenue of mature oak trees along this side of the enclosure may indicate the line of this trackway.
The Bank & Ditch
The illustration shows how the bank and ditch may have looked 2,600 years ago.
The ditch was generally V-shaped and cut deep into the bedrock, the stone removed being used to line the outer and inner faces of the rampart which had an earth and rubble core, much as a 'modern' Devon Bank. The rampart's inner face may also have been stepped to provide a walkway along its length. It is likely that the rampart was topped by a stout hurdle fence or possibly a palisade of closely set timber posts. The small bank along the outside of the ditch, known as a counterscarp, may have been added to give the appearance of a deeper, more impressive ditch. Although the rampart and ditch surrounding Berry Castle could provide security for the local community, and be defended during times of tension and strife, it is likely that this was not the main, or even the most significant reason for their construction. | 1,289 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Parihaka and the New Zealand Wars
Parihaka is a coastal village situated near Pungarehu in central coastal Taranaki.
These days, Parihaka is a vibrant place with many families having returned to live on site. Hui (gatherings) are also frequent, especially on the 18th and 19th of each month when the families and descendants gather to remember the turbulent events of the nineteenth century.
Some historians include Parihaka in the New Zealand Wars story because, in November 1881, the village was raided and sacked by the Armed Constabulary with the village leaders arrested and people dispersed. This action, to many, constituted a continuation of the armed conflicts launched against Māori which began at Wairau in 1943.
Alhough no shots were fired at Parihaka during the invasion, the Armed Constabulary did enter the village expecting gunfire. That there was none can be ascribed to the discipline and restraint shown by the unarmed Māori in the face of an overwhelming disproportionality of arms.
How did the armed invasion come about?
Protests at Parihaka
Parihaka was established by Te Whiti O Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi as a place of refuge in the early 1860s. At the time, Māori land throughout Taranaki was being confiscated wholesale. Māori who lost land were forced to relocate, with many moving to the sanctuary offered at Parihaka.
Parihaka became a center of resistance to the encroaching confiscations. Men and women from Parihaka were arrested and sent to the South Island for disrupting the work of surveyors and later ploughing land believed to have been taken unlawfully.
On 5 November 1881, the village was invaded by 1500 Armed Constabulary with its leaders arrested and put on trial. Te Whiti and Tohu were sent to the South Island following their trial in New Plymouth. The trial was transferred to Christchurch, at the Crown’s insistence, because it was clear that the Crown was losing its case in New Plymouth.
The Christchurch trial, however, was never reconvened. The two Taranaki men were held ‘at the government’s pleasure’ for a further two years. In their absence, Parihaka was effectively destroyed, certainly as a functioning community, with its people being forcibly dispersed and its economy put to ruin.
Te Whiti and Tohu returned to Parihaka in 1883, seeking to rebuild Parihaka as a place of learning and cultural development, though land protests continued. Te Whiti would be imprisoned on two more occasions after 1885. Te Whiti and Tohu died months apart in 1907.
If you would like to read Danny’s essay on Te Whiti O Rongomai’s life and times as published in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography in 1992, plse click here – Essay on Te Whiti O Rongomai.
See here also for details of Danny’s recent book (2015) on Te Whiti O Rongomai and Parihaka – Book on Parihaka.
If you’re interested in reading about some of the Parihaka literature, click here on : Literature.
On 9 June 2017, the Parihaka community met with Crown officials to hear a reconciliation apology, and to receive $9m in restitution for past Crown actions. The Spinoff Online cultural magazine invited Danny to assess this gathering, the reconciliation and it’s importance for Māori and the country. You can read his essay here – Parihaka reconciliation.
Further Reading: Hazel Riseborough, Days of Darkness The Government and Parihaka, Penguin Books, Auckland, 2002 (first published 1989); Dick Scott, Ask That Mountain, Heinemann Publishers, Auckland, 1975, | <urn:uuid:37abef52-c688-4b7d-8fe1-a5c25e61489c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://newzealandwars.co.nz/land-wars/campaigns/parihaka/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.980363 | 802 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Parihaka is a coastal village situated near Pungarehu in central coastal Taranaki.
These days, Parihaka is a vibrant place with many families having returned to live on site. Hui (gatherings) are also frequent, especially on the 18th and 19th of each month when the families and descendants gather to remember the turbulent events of the nineteenth century.
Some historians include Parihaka in the New Zealand Wars story because, in November 1881, the village was raided and sacked by the Armed Constabulary with the village leaders arrested and people dispersed. This action, to many, constituted a continuation of the armed conflicts launched against Māori which began at Wairau in 1943.
Alhough no shots were fired at Parihaka during the invasion, the Armed Constabulary did enter the village expecting gunfire. That there was none can be ascribed to the discipline and restraint shown by the unarmed Māori in the face of an overwhelming disproportionality of arms.
How did the armed invasion come about?
Protests at Parihaka
Parihaka was established by Te Whiti O Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi as a place of refuge in the early 1860s. At the time, Māori land throughout Taranaki was being confiscated wholesale. Māori who lost land were forced to relocate, with many moving to the sanctuary offered at Parihaka.
Parihaka became a center of resistance to the encroaching confiscations. Men and women from Parihaka were arrested and sent to the South Island for disrupting the work of surveyors and later ploughing land believed to have been taken unlawfully.
On 5 November 1881, the village was invaded by 1500 Armed Constabulary with its leaders arrested and put on trial. Te Whiti and Tohu were sent to the South Island following their trial in New Plymouth. The trial was transferred to Christchurch, at the Crown’s insistence, because it was clear that the Crown was losing its case in New Plymouth.
The Christchurch trial, however, was never reconvened. The two Taranaki men were held ‘at the government’s pleasure’ for a further two years. In their absence, Parihaka was effectively destroyed, certainly as a functioning community, with its people being forcibly dispersed and its economy put to ruin.
Te Whiti and Tohu returned to Parihaka in 1883, seeking to rebuild Parihaka as a place of learning and cultural development, though land protests continued. Te Whiti would be imprisoned on two more occasions after 1885. Te Whiti and Tohu died months apart in 1907.
If you would like to read Danny’s essay on Te Whiti O Rongomai’s life and times as published in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography in 1992, plse click here – Essay on Te Whiti O Rongomai.
See here also for details of Danny’s recent book (2015) on Te Whiti O Rongomai and Parihaka – Book on Parihaka.
If you’re interested in reading about some of the Parihaka literature, click here on : Literature.
On 9 June 2017, the Parihaka community met with Crown officials to hear a reconciliation apology, and to receive $9m in restitution for past Crown actions. The Spinoff Online cultural magazine invited Danny to assess this gathering, the reconciliation and it’s importance for Māori and the country. You can read his essay here – Parihaka reconciliation.
Further Reading: Hazel Riseborough, Days of Darkness The Government and Parihaka, Penguin Books, Auckland, 2002 (first published 1989); Dick Scott, Ask That Mountain, Heinemann Publishers, Auckland, 1975, | 822 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Episode 9: Gaul Before the Fall
Today we are going to talk about the Gauls between 600 BCE up until around 60 BCE when Rome invades. Before we begin I just want to quickly clarify what historians mean when we say Gaul. After all, the Gauls called themselves Celts, the Greeks called them keltoi which in Latin was Galilei or the singular Galli from which we get Gaul. While early research holds that the Gauls were the predominant race in Gaul newer studies indicate that the Gauls were a minority that mixed with the indigenous peoples. The Romans referred to the peoples in Gaul as Gauls not because they were the majority race but because their language and culture was dominant. Think of it this way: between 100 BCE and 200 CE Rome would conquer much of the Mediterranean spreading their language culture and political system. Yet, we recognize that outside of Italy and even within Italy the Romans were not the dominant ethnic group. Likewise while the Gallic languages and culture dominated Gaul it is not certain that the Gauls were a majority ethnicity. So the people we call Gauls were not a unified Celtic people but a conglomeration of different peoples who after centuries of war were brought forcibly under Celtic influence. So from here on when I say Celt I am referring to a supra ethnic group, whereas when I say Gaul I am referring to a mixed race person living in the area which we now call Gaul who has adopted a Celtic lifestyle. All right, Are we all good and confused yet? Fantastic.
The Gauls were taller than their Greco-Roman counterparts and had white skin, blue eyes and many had blonde or red hair. The Greeks were so impressed by the Gallic figure that they regularly made statues of them as they appeared exotic to the shorter, olive-skinned brown-haired, brown-eyed Mediterranean peoples. By all accounts the Gauls were rugged, physically-fit people who strode into battle with relatively light armor. The Greeks viewed the Gauls as unsophisticated and simple yet in harmony with nature and lacking the decadence of civilization. To use an anachronistic trope, the Greeks viewed the Gauls as noble savages much as Europeans did of Native Americans two millennia later. Physically fit, yet simple morally and untainted by modernity. On the other hand, the Romans didn’t share the Greek appreciation for the Gauls. To the Romans, the Gauls were bloodthirsty barbarians who nearly burned their sacred city to the ground in 390 BCE and later sided with Hannibal in the Second Punic War from 218 to 201 BCE. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not respect the physical prowess of the Gauls but hated and feared them. The Latin phrase for a call to arms was “tumultus Gallicus” which translates to ‘an outbreak of Gauls.’ Clearly the Gauls were a spectre that haunted the Roman mind for centuries as Latin words for Gaul evoked terror and ruin.
Here I want to go off on a small tangent that I think is truly fascinating and will tie into the broader story, I promise. In the 300s BCE a group of Celtic tribes related to our Gauls travelled southeast into the Balkans in 279 BCE. They attacked the Greek city of Delphi, though apparently the Oracle saw that coming and Delphi successfully repelled the attack. These Celts then travelled eastward into central Anatolia and settled there. The Romans later called this Galatia or Land of the Gauls. And yes, Paul the Apostle’s epistle Galatians was written to these Celtic peoples who inhabited central Anatolia. I didn’t mean to get too sidetracked. I just think it’s interesting that these Celtic tribes moved out from Switzerland and into modern day France while another moved into central Turkey and established their own cultures there and their lands were roughly called the same thing which is ‘land of the Gauls,’ one being Gaul itself and the other being Galatia.
Why were the Celts moving into Gaul. Northern Iberia, Britannia and as far away as Turkey? The first reason is that going back as far as the 800s BCE is that the area that the Celts originally inhabited around Switzerland was getting overpopulated. The second reason by the 300s BCE a new group was firmly in control of central Europe that was pushing out the Celtic populations: The Germans. This warlike, populous people controlled Europe from the Rhine River all the way into Eastern Europe. Outnumbered, the Celts migrated into new lands with relatively fewer people who could be more easily subjugated. For hundreds of years the Celts of Gaul managed to build up their fortresses without any major incursion from the Germans who stayed on the eastern side of the Rhine. By the time the Germans became a real threat to the Gauls, Gaul had already been conquered by Rome. But that comes later. This episode is about Gaul before the invasion.
The Celtic invasion of the land we call Gaul took place around the 6th to 5th century BCE. Archeological findings give us a clue as to why the Celts were successful in their settling of the land and their displacement of the indigenous peoples. The indigenous Indo-European towns had minor fortifications which held off raiders. Celts, however, were not raiders but invaders who came to settle these new lands after much of central Europe became overpopulated. As such, the Celts could engage in prolonged sieges and since they were accustomed to war they overwhelmed the farmers and shepherds who only took up fighting to defend their families and food supply.
We’ve already talked a bit about Celtic religious beliefs so I won’t repeat myself here. If you want to know more you can listen to our episode helpfully titled ‘The Celts.’ But I do want to emphasize the fungibility of religious belief at this time. Europe was an almost exclusively poly-theistic continent. The Indo-Europeans entered this land with a belief that all forces of nature were part of a cosmological hierarchy with a king of the gods ruling over a subset of gods, then demi-gods, then spirits with humans and creatures on the bottom, that’s you all, living on a sentient world which was usually personified as a female deity named Gaia or Terra. As such, religious difference was not the same problem that it would be with the rise of monotheism. Monotheism holds that there is a single God and a single truth and a fundamentalist interpretation of that belief has led to an incredible amount of violence. Polytheism allows for a certain transubstantiability where my river deity and your river deity are probably the same or perhaps different aspects of each other. And in polytheism both of them can be real. After all I’ve only known about my river deity because I live by this river. But I suppose in a far off land where there is another river there could be another river deity so probably we’re both right and I can accept your gods into my pantheon. And yes, please don’t stab me, thank you very much.
One way to think about polytheism and its porous nature is to look at Egypt. Many cities in Egypt worshiped Ra while others worshipped Horus. But when Egypt was unified suddenly people worshipped Horus-Ra. Similarly numerous combinations of different gods such as Osiris-Ra, Horus-Ra and Aman-Ra emerged. When the Greeks invaded under Alexander the Great Zeus was even mixed in with the local deities. As such, Celtic religion was not so much imposed upon the indigenous people of Gaul but merged with their own native beliefs. Likewise, when the Greco-Romans invaded Gaul they probably mixed their deities as well since both of them had numerous deities that shared similar attributes, the most notable being worship of the earth itself as a mother of all.
Among the most interesting of the Gallic rituals was the giving of a part of their treasure to the gods. Gauls would often throw some of the spoils of war into a sacred lake to thank the gods for giving them victory. When the Romans dove into these to seize the wealth they could amass incredible fortunes. Consul Servilius Caepio in 106 BCE estimated that his attack on Gauls near modern day Toulouse brought back hundreds of thousands of pounds of gold and silver when one of the sacred lakes was searched for treasure.
Due to a lack of written sources we know very little about the different Gallic kingdoms and countries and what we do know about individual monarchs or rulers is as much legend as it is history. Instead our primary knowledge about the Gauls comes from archaeology and a very skeptical reading of the Greco-Roman sources. So as I try to create a history of the Gauls know that this isn’t going to be 100 percent accurate but is a mixture of history and myth.
The first great kingdom of the Gauls emerged around 600 BCE and was known as Bituriges. The capital, also named Bituriges, was centered around modern-day Bourges, almost exactly in the center of France. It was a confederation of many clans and became the wealthiest town in Gaul with massive 39 foot stone walls around the city. Add to this that it was bordered by marshes and this fortress was impregnable to any forces of the day. The term Bituriges roughly translates to “kings of the world: as the legendary kings supposedly ruled over an empire that stretched from Iberia, Gaul, Northern Italy and into Germania. In reality these kings almost certainly ruled over a relatively small region, not a continental empire. But let’s not let the facts ruin a good story because the legend isn’t quite over. The most famous of all the kings of the Bituriges was Ambicatus who bequeathed northern Italy to his heir Bellovisus something which I mentioned in the episode ‘Celts on the Warpath.’ By 500 BCE the Bituriges split into two competing clans the Cubi and the Vivisci. Infighting led to a decline such that by the second century BCE the Aedui were the dominant Gallic tribe.
The Aedui ruled from Burgundy just east of the center of Gaul with their capital Bibracte crowning Mount Beauvray. Yet, despite being at the top of the mountain this oppida was an advanced city with a long thoroughfare cutting through both sides of the fortress with long rows of houses that were partially built into the ground. Historian Funke Brenato points out that in the third century BCE Bibracte was a booming city whose workshops and smithies produced more metal weapons and tools than anywhere else in Gaul. Another major industry was enameling, a process where Glass workers attached powdered glass to metal or clay ornaments by heating them to 800 degrees Celsius or roughly 1500 degrees Fahrenheit. This complex and dangerous process could only have been done by a sophisticated, intelligent and inventive group of people. That they did this on top of a mountain, far from many available resources, shows us how well-adapted they were and also how dangerous Gaul was with its many factions, such that the great cities of the time were in marshes and on mountains rather than in the fertile fields which produced more food but which were more easily attacked by the second century BCE.
The Aedui were building an empire in Gaul, conquering numerous tribes. At the same time, a smaller but still powerful and ferocious confederation called the Arverni aimed to establish themselves as the lords of Gaul. The Arverni dominated much of northern Gaul and even commanded some of the Bellovaci, another Gallic tribe in what is today Belgium. This fighting between the Aedui and the Arverni will continue up until, and serve as the cause for the Roman conquest. And speaking of Rome it’s time to bring them into the picture.
As you’ll recall from the last episode in 155 BCE Masallia was under attack by the Ligurians in southern Gaul and called upon Rome for aid. Rome responded and defeated the Ligurians and returned the territory to Masallia. But then in 125 BCE Masallia called for Rome’s help again and this time Rome decided it would take the territory for itself creating the province of Gallia Nabornensis which stretched across southern France. For the first time, Rome was claiming territory within the land of its ancestral enemy. With the Romans encroaching in Gaul, the Aedui decided to ally themselves with Rome in order to counter the rising power of the Arverni.
The Arverni were having none of this, and in 122 BCE their king Bituitus launched a series of brutal raids into Roman territory. In response the Romans invaded and within a year had smashed the Arverni army and captured Bituitus who was forced to wear his silver ceremonial armor as he was paraded in a Roman triumph alongside other spoils. This defeat meant that even more Gallic territory was seized and slowly but surely Rome was overcoming its greatest nightmare. But the nightmare wasn’t over. And in fact it was set to haunt the Romans yet again.
In 109 BCE a coalition of migrating Germanic and Celtic tribes from Jutland led by the Cimbri and the Teutons invaded Gallia Narbonensis. Over the next four years Rome sent three armies to fight the invaders and all of them were crushed. Realizing how serious the situation was in 105 BCE Rome sent two massive armies with over 100,000 legionnares and auxiliaries to fight the invasion. One of the armies was led by the proconsul Quintus Servilius Capio while the other was led by the Consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus. Normally a professional army of this incredible size could defeat even the largest horde of barbarian invaders. Yet, internal divisions within the army weakened its ability to coordinate. As Consul, Maximus should have been the leader. However Maximus was a novus homo or ‘new man’ meaning that he was the first of his household to hold his position as Consul. The prideful proconsul Caepio was from a powerful and established noble family and refused to submit to Maximus. The result was that the armies camped separately. The two armies even camped on opposite sides of the Rhone River near modern day Orange when pursuing the Cimbri, endangering their entire force.
On October 6th 105 BCE the Cimbri army appeared measuring perhaps 200,000 strong. But luck was on the side of the Romans, at least temporarily. The Cimbri, despite their ferocious reputation and recent history of defeating the Romans, were looking to find a peaceful solution to their mutual problem. While the Cimbri were more than willing to kill a Roman or two, the sight of over 100,000 gave them pause. This pause allowed Maximus to convince the rebellious Caepio to move his camp to the other side of the river. But Caepio moved his camp dangerously close to the Cimbri as he wanted to be able to make the first move and dictate the course of battle. At this point the Cimbri leader was looking to negotiate peace terms rather than engage in a costly battle that would decimate both sides. Naturally, he appealed to Maximus as the ranking general. Caepio saw this and was outraged, knowing that successful peace negotiations would result in Maximus receiving glory and wealth beyond anything the aristocratic Caepio could dream of. Consumed by rage at this upstart possibly surpassing him, Caepio ordered his armies to attack the Cimbri.
While the Roman armies together were outnumbered roughly 1 to 2, Caepio’s army alone was outnumbered 1 to 4. Now if you don’t understand how warfare works in general let me explain a very basic rule in war. From ancient times to present, numbers have an exponential effect on battle. Let me explain. Let’s say for a moment I went to a bar with four of my friends. While there we run into four members of the Podcast on Germany, which is an excellent podcast. The two of us get into a heated argument at which point a fight breaks out. Now, the French history podcast has five fighters and the Podcast on Germany has four. For the moment, let’s assume that each of our fighters are equally skilled, although clearly the French History Podcast listeners are the toughest podcast fans there are. If it’s five versus four then each of our members is going to pair up with one of theirs, while we have one member left over to help and one of the fights. This is absolutely essential to understanding how warfare works. Every human being can only fight one person at a time, Jackie Chan excluded, meaning that this fight with five Frenchies and four Germans is actually four individual fights. Three of those fights are 1 v 1s while one of those fights is 2 Frenchies vs. one German. What is going to happen if we assume that all of us are evenly matched is that the three friends each fighting one German will hold their own. Meanwhile that one fight where two Frenchies are fighting one German is going to end very quickly as the two easily defeat that one German. Then what will happen is that the two Frenchies will find themselves without an opponent. Now those two Frenchies will look over at the closest fight taking place next to them and assist in another 1 v 1 fight, turning it into a 3 v 1. As quickly as that 2 v 1 ended a 3 v 1 is going to end even faster. This frees up yet another Frenchie. Thus a fight between one group of five people and one group of four people of equal fighting ability isn’t going to result in one person left standing. A snowball effect will kick in as the superior numbers of one side will free up more fighters to gang up on their opponents. Thus, a fight between five against four would probably result in three Frenchies left standing and all four Germans being defeated. This is the most important law of war and if you understand this you will get a better grasp on warfare across all times.
Each individual battle is different. Troop morale, training, weaponry geography and weather affect battle, but one constant is that superior numbers, if they have the ability to engage their opponent, have an exponential effect on the battle’s outcome. There are times when one force is able to neutralize the numerical advantage, as was the case with the Spartans at the Hot Gates at the Battle of Thermopylae. They were a small force that held off hundreds of thousands of Persians because literally only so many soldiers could fight at once between the two cliff sides. But as long as there is a relatively open space and both armies have the ability to engage each other superior numbers have an exponential effect on the battle.
So when Caepio attacked the Cimbri he was outnumbered at least 4 to 1. Even with superior Roman training there was no way this wasn’t going to turn into a disaster as the Roman soldiers on the flanks of the army had to fight off numerous warriors at once while they were being surrounded by the overwhelming force. The result was that Caepio’s force was almost entirely annihilated while killing relatively few of their opponents. At the start of the day, the Cimbri looked like they were aiming for a peace settlement but now that they had just easily wiped out a massive Roman army they were filled with overwhelming confidence and bloodlust. Thus they turned on Maximus’ army which was undoubtedly demoralized having witnessed an equally sized army just get slaughtered. What’s worse is that the army had nowhere to run as they had camped by the Rhone River.
The result was an unmitigated disaster. The Romans were demoralized and surrounded by a highly motivated fighting force that was at this point more experienced than their Roman counterparts, having now destroyed their fourth Roman army in just as many years. Most of the Romans were slaughtered on the field. Many Romans who tried to swim to safety drowned due to the weight of their armor. There were very few who escaped to tell of this disaster. This was the single greatest military defeat the Romans face in over a hundred years when they were up against the armies of Hannibal. As a result the Cimbri menace remained to haunt Rome.
Yet the Cimbri were not a marauding or invading force. The Cimbri were settlers looking to find land of their own. As a result they did not immediately move into Italy. On the contrary the Cimbri seemed to genuinely want to carve out some space for themselves and didn’t want to fight the Romans. As a result some of them marched into Iberia where the Iberians actually fared better against the Cimbri than the Romans whose pride and insistence on large-scale pitched battles resulted in crushing defeats against the Cimbri’s superior numbers.
At this point the Romans realized they needed a battle-tested leader to pull them out of this crisis as Scipio Africanus had done in his victory over Hannibal. To accomplish this task they turned to Gaius Marius, one of the most important figures in the history of the Roman Republic. Fresh off his victory against Jugartha in Numidia, which is modern day Algeria, Marius instituted what are known to history as the Marian Reforms. Before the Marian Reforms the Roman army operated like most armies throughout the world. They were staffed by generally wealthy people. The reason for this is that only the wealthy could afford to leave their estates for long periods and fight while their poor workers tilled the land for them. This and the fact that the wealthy often had to provide their own weapons and horses. Marius created a professional army by having the state pay for the arms and salaries of its soldiers. This opened up military careers to even the poorest Romans and the part-time soldiers of the Roman Republic were replaced by professionals. Thus the quantity and quality of the military greatly expanded due to these reforms as the aristocratic part-time soldiers were replaced by masses of poor laborers who took up soldiering as a career.
In 102 BCE Marius marched out into Gallia Narbonensis with his professional army and camped at modern day Aix-en-Provence. Marius was a calculating general who wasn’t consumed by the pride that had destroyed so many previous Roman armies. On the contrary, by this point the invading barbarians were overtaken by pride due to their numerous victories and chose to attack Marius’ army which was camped on top of a fortified hill. The Romans waited for the army to tire themselves out charging uphill and then cut them down. On July 30th, 101 BCE Marius’ victorious legions met the Cimbri’s main host in northern Italy. Using trickery and cunning, Marius lured the Cimbri cavalry into a trap, destroyed them and then broke the main army. The Cimbri were now utterly defeated and Rome was once again master of Southern Gaul after a long and brutal war.
One of the main beneficiaries of Roman victory was the Aedui, that Gallic confederation that sided with Rome against their rival Gauls the Arverni. But the Arverni must have realized the power that the Germans presented. The mostly German invading force had conquered much of the Roman holdings in Gaul and nearly defeated Rome. The Germans had assailed the Celts pushing them west of the Rhine. But what if the numerous German tribes could be turned against a mutual enemy? This wasn’t too far fetched an idea as Rome possessed wealth far beyond any other country in all of Europe and was the natural target for barbarians looking for plunder. After the war ended, a generation of relative peace lasted in Gaul until the 60s BCE when the Arverni struck a deal with Ariovistus, the German king of the Suebi confederation. to fight the Aedui. Helpless against these overwhelming forces, the Aedui succumbed to the Celto-Germanic confederation which rampaged across central Gaul. Seeing this, Rome knew it had to act or else risk another unified Celto-Germanic invasion. Thus began the Gallic Wars as the Romans appointed an ambitious general to defeat the Gallic nightmare once and for all, named Gaius Julius Caesar.
Commentary on the Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar
The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Richard Engels
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0.2479862421... | 2 | Episode 9: Gaul Before the Fall
Today we are going to talk about the Gauls between 600 BCE up until around 60 BCE when Rome invades. Before we begin I just want to quickly clarify what historians mean when we say Gaul. After all, the Gauls called themselves Celts, the Greeks called them keltoi which in Latin was Galilei or the singular Galli from which we get Gaul. While early research holds that the Gauls were the predominant race in Gaul newer studies indicate that the Gauls were a minority that mixed with the indigenous peoples. The Romans referred to the peoples in Gaul as Gauls not because they were the majority race but because their language and culture was dominant. Think of it this way: between 100 BCE and 200 CE Rome would conquer much of the Mediterranean spreading their language culture and political system. Yet, we recognize that outside of Italy and even within Italy the Romans were not the dominant ethnic group. Likewise while the Gallic languages and culture dominated Gaul it is not certain that the Gauls were a majority ethnicity. So the people we call Gauls were not a unified Celtic people but a conglomeration of different peoples who after centuries of war were brought forcibly under Celtic influence. So from here on when I say Celt I am referring to a supra ethnic group, whereas when I say Gaul I am referring to a mixed race person living in the area which we now call Gaul who has adopted a Celtic lifestyle. All right, Are we all good and confused yet? Fantastic.
The Gauls were taller than their Greco-Roman counterparts and had white skin, blue eyes and many had blonde or red hair. The Greeks were so impressed by the Gallic figure that they regularly made statues of them as they appeared exotic to the shorter, olive-skinned brown-haired, brown-eyed Mediterranean peoples. By all accounts the Gauls were rugged, physically-fit people who strode into battle with relatively light armor. The Greeks viewed the Gauls as unsophisticated and simple yet in harmony with nature and lacking the decadence of civilization. To use an anachronistic trope, the Greeks viewed the Gauls as noble savages much as Europeans did of Native Americans two millennia later. Physically fit, yet simple morally and untainted by modernity. On the other hand, the Romans didn’t share the Greek appreciation for the Gauls. To the Romans, the Gauls were bloodthirsty barbarians who nearly burned their sacred city to the ground in 390 BCE and later sided with Hannibal in the Second Punic War from 218 to 201 BCE. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not respect the physical prowess of the Gauls but hated and feared them. The Latin phrase for a call to arms was “tumultus Gallicus” which translates to ‘an outbreak of Gauls.’ Clearly the Gauls were a spectre that haunted the Roman mind for centuries as Latin words for Gaul evoked terror and ruin.
Here I want to go off on a small tangent that I think is truly fascinating and will tie into the broader story, I promise. In the 300s BCE a group of Celtic tribes related to our Gauls travelled southeast into the Balkans in 279 BCE. They attacked the Greek city of Delphi, though apparently the Oracle saw that coming and Delphi successfully repelled the attack. These Celts then travelled eastward into central Anatolia and settled there. The Romans later called this Galatia or Land of the Gauls. And yes, Paul the Apostle’s epistle Galatians was written to these Celtic peoples who inhabited central Anatolia. I didn’t mean to get too sidetracked. I just think it’s interesting that these Celtic tribes moved out from Switzerland and into modern day France while another moved into central Turkey and established their own cultures there and their lands were roughly called the same thing which is ‘land of the Gauls,’ one being Gaul itself and the other being Galatia.
Why were the Celts moving into Gaul. Northern Iberia, Britannia and as far away as Turkey? The first reason is that going back as far as the 800s BCE is that the area that the Celts originally inhabited around Switzerland was getting overpopulated. The second reason by the 300s BCE a new group was firmly in control of central Europe that was pushing out the Celtic populations: The Germans. This warlike, populous people controlled Europe from the Rhine River all the way into Eastern Europe. Outnumbered, the Celts migrated into new lands with relatively fewer people who could be more easily subjugated. For hundreds of years the Celts of Gaul managed to build up their fortresses without any major incursion from the Germans who stayed on the eastern side of the Rhine. By the time the Germans became a real threat to the Gauls, Gaul had already been conquered by Rome. But that comes later. This episode is about Gaul before the invasion.
The Celtic invasion of the land we call Gaul took place around the 6th to 5th century BCE. Archeological findings give us a clue as to why the Celts were successful in their settling of the land and their displacement of the indigenous peoples. The indigenous Indo-European towns had minor fortifications which held off raiders. Celts, however, were not raiders but invaders who came to settle these new lands after much of central Europe became overpopulated. As such, the Celts could engage in prolonged sieges and since they were accustomed to war they overwhelmed the farmers and shepherds who only took up fighting to defend their families and food supply.
We’ve already talked a bit about Celtic religious beliefs so I won’t repeat myself here. If you want to know more you can listen to our episode helpfully titled ‘The Celts.’ But I do want to emphasize the fungibility of religious belief at this time. Europe was an almost exclusively poly-theistic continent. The Indo-Europeans entered this land with a belief that all forces of nature were part of a cosmological hierarchy with a king of the gods ruling over a subset of gods, then demi-gods, then spirits with humans and creatures on the bottom, that’s you all, living on a sentient world which was usually personified as a female deity named Gaia or Terra. As such, religious difference was not the same problem that it would be with the rise of monotheism. Monotheism holds that there is a single God and a single truth and a fundamentalist interpretation of that belief has led to an incredible amount of violence. Polytheism allows for a certain transubstantiability where my river deity and your river deity are probably the same or perhaps different aspects of each other. And in polytheism both of them can be real. After all I’ve only known about my river deity because I live by this river. But I suppose in a far off land where there is another river there could be another river deity so probably we’re both right and I can accept your gods into my pantheon. And yes, please don’t stab me, thank you very much.
One way to think about polytheism and its porous nature is to look at Egypt. Many cities in Egypt worshiped Ra while others worshipped Horus. But when Egypt was unified suddenly people worshipped Horus-Ra. Similarly numerous combinations of different gods such as Osiris-Ra, Horus-Ra and Aman-Ra emerged. When the Greeks invaded under Alexander the Great Zeus was even mixed in with the local deities. As such, Celtic religion was not so much imposed upon the indigenous people of Gaul but merged with their own native beliefs. Likewise, when the Greco-Romans invaded Gaul they probably mixed their deities as well since both of them had numerous deities that shared similar attributes, the most notable being worship of the earth itself as a mother of all.
Among the most interesting of the Gallic rituals was the giving of a part of their treasure to the gods. Gauls would often throw some of the spoils of war into a sacred lake to thank the gods for giving them victory. When the Romans dove into these to seize the wealth they could amass incredible fortunes. Consul Servilius Caepio in 106 BCE estimated that his attack on Gauls near modern day Toulouse brought back hundreds of thousands of pounds of gold and silver when one of the sacred lakes was searched for treasure.
Due to a lack of written sources we know very little about the different Gallic kingdoms and countries and what we do know about individual monarchs or rulers is as much legend as it is history. Instead our primary knowledge about the Gauls comes from archaeology and a very skeptical reading of the Greco-Roman sources. So as I try to create a history of the Gauls know that this isn’t going to be 100 percent accurate but is a mixture of history and myth.
The first great kingdom of the Gauls emerged around 600 BCE and was known as Bituriges. The capital, also named Bituriges, was centered around modern-day Bourges, almost exactly in the center of France. It was a confederation of many clans and became the wealthiest town in Gaul with massive 39 foot stone walls around the city. Add to this that it was bordered by marshes and this fortress was impregnable to any forces of the day. The term Bituriges roughly translates to “kings of the world: as the legendary kings supposedly ruled over an empire that stretched from Iberia, Gaul, Northern Italy and into Germania. In reality these kings almost certainly ruled over a relatively small region, not a continental empire. But let’s not let the facts ruin a good story because the legend isn’t quite over. The most famous of all the kings of the Bituriges was Ambicatus who bequeathed northern Italy to his heir Bellovisus something which I mentioned in the episode ‘Celts on the Warpath.’ By 500 BCE the Bituriges split into two competing clans the Cubi and the Vivisci. Infighting led to a decline such that by the second century BCE the Aedui were the dominant Gallic tribe.
The Aedui ruled from Burgundy just east of the center of Gaul with their capital Bibracte crowning Mount Beauvray. Yet, despite being at the top of the mountain this oppida was an advanced city with a long thoroughfare cutting through both sides of the fortress with long rows of houses that were partially built into the ground. Historian Funke Brenato points out that in the third century BCE Bibracte was a booming city whose workshops and smithies produced more metal weapons and tools than anywhere else in Gaul. Another major industry was enameling, a process where Glass workers attached powdered glass to metal or clay ornaments by heating them to 800 degrees Celsius or roughly 1500 degrees Fahrenheit. This complex and dangerous process could only have been done by a sophisticated, intelligent and inventive group of people. That they did this on top of a mountain, far from many available resources, shows us how well-adapted they were and also how dangerous Gaul was with its many factions, such that the great cities of the time were in marshes and on mountains rather than in the fertile fields which produced more food but which were more easily attacked by the second century BCE.
The Aedui were building an empire in Gaul, conquering numerous tribes. At the same time, a smaller but still powerful and ferocious confederation called the Arverni aimed to establish themselves as the lords of Gaul. The Arverni dominated much of northern Gaul and even commanded some of the Bellovaci, another Gallic tribe in what is today Belgium. This fighting between the Aedui and the Arverni will continue up until, and serve as the cause for the Roman conquest. And speaking of Rome it’s time to bring them into the picture.
As you’ll recall from the last episode in 155 BCE Masallia was under attack by the Ligurians in southern Gaul and called upon Rome for aid. Rome responded and defeated the Ligurians and returned the territory to Masallia. But then in 125 BCE Masallia called for Rome’s help again and this time Rome decided it would take the territory for itself creating the province of Gallia Nabornensis which stretched across southern France. For the first time, Rome was claiming territory within the land of its ancestral enemy. With the Romans encroaching in Gaul, the Aedui decided to ally themselves with Rome in order to counter the rising power of the Arverni.
The Arverni were having none of this, and in 122 BCE their king Bituitus launched a series of brutal raids into Roman territory. In response the Romans invaded and within a year had smashed the Arverni army and captured Bituitus who was forced to wear his silver ceremonial armor as he was paraded in a Roman triumph alongside other spoils. This defeat meant that even more Gallic territory was seized and slowly but surely Rome was overcoming its greatest nightmare. But the nightmare wasn’t over. And in fact it was set to haunt the Romans yet again.
In 109 BCE a coalition of migrating Germanic and Celtic tribes from Jutland led by the Cimbri and the Teutons invaded Gallia Narbonensis. Over the next four years Rome sent three armies to fight the invaders and all of them were crushed. Realizing how serious the situation was in 105 BCE Rome sent two massive armies with over 100,000 legionnares and auxiliaries to fight the invasion. One of the armies was led by the proconsul Quintus Servilius Capio while the other was led by the Consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus. Normally a professional army of this incredible size could defeat even the largest horde of barbarian invaders. Yet, internal divisions within the army weakened its ability to coordinate. As Consul, Maximus should have been the leader. However Maximus was a novus homo or ‘new man’ meaning that he was the first of his household to hold his position as Consul. The prideful proconsul Caepio was from a powerful and established noble family and refused to submit to Maximus. The result was that the armies camped separately. The two armies even camped on opposite sides of the Rhone River near modern day Orange when pursuing the Cimbri, endangering their entire force.
On October 6th 105 BCE the Cimbri army appeared measuring perhaps 200,000 strong. But luck was on the side of the Romans, at least temporarily. The Cimbri, despite their ferocious reputation and recent history of defeating the Romans, were looking to find a peaceful solution to their mutual problem. While the Cimbri were more than willing to kill a Roman or two, the sight of over 100,000 gave them pause. This pause allowed Maximus to convince the rebellious Caepio to move his camp to the other side of the river. But Caepio moved his camp dangerously close to the Cimbri as he wanted to be able to make the first move and dictate the course of battle. At this point the Cimbri leader was looking to negotiate peace terms rather than engage in a costly battle that would decimate both sides. Naturally, he appealed to Maximus as the ranking general. Caepio saw this and was outraged, knowing that successful peace negotiations would result in Maximus receiving glory and wealth beyond anything the aristocratic Caepio could dream of. Consumed by rage at this upstart possibly surpassing him, Caepio ordered his armies to attack the Cimbri.
While the Roman armies together were outnumbered roughly 1 to 2, Caepio’s army alone was outnumbered 1 to 4. Now if you don’t understand how warfare works in general let me explain a very basic rule in war. From ancient times to present, numbers have an exponential effect on battle. Let me explain. Let’s say for a moment I went to a bar with four of my friends. While there we run into four members of the Podcast on Germany, which is an excellent podcast. The two of us get into a heated argument at which point a fight breaks out. Now, the French history podcast has five fighters and the Podcast on Germany has four. For the moment, let’s assume that each of our fighters are equally skilled, although clearly the French History Podcast listeners are the toughest podcast fans there are. If it’s five versus four then each of our members is going to pair up with one of theirs, while we have one member left over to help and one of the fights. This is absolutely essential to understanding how warfare works. Every human being can only fight one person at a time, Jackie Chan excluded, meaning that this fight with five Frenchies and four Germans is actually four individual fights. Three of those fights are 1 v 1s while one of those fights is 2 Frenchies vs. one German. What is going to happen if we assume that all of us are evenly matched is that the three friends each fighting one German will hold their own. Meanwhile that one fight where two Frenchies are fighting one German is going to end very quickly as the two easily defeat that one German. Then what will happen is that the two Frenchies will find themselves without an opponent. Now those two Frenchies will look over at the closest fight taking place next to them and assist in another 1 v 1 fight, turning it into a 3 v 1. As quickly as that 2 v 1 ended a 3 v 1 is going to end even faster. This frees up yet another Frenchie. Thus a fight between one group of five people and one group of four people of equal fighting ability isn’t going to result in one person left standing. A snowball effect will kick in as the superior numbers of one side will free up more fighters to gang up on their opponents. Thus, a fight between five against four would probably result in three Frenchies left standing and all four Germans being defeated. This is the most important law of war and if you understand this you will get a better grasp on warfare across all times.
Each individual battle is different. Troop morale, training, weaponry geography and weather affect battle, but one constant is that superior numbers, if they have the ability to engage their opponent, have an exponential effect on the battle’s outcome. There are times when one force is able to neutralize the numerical advantage, as was the case with the Spartans at the Hot Gates at the Battle of Thermopylae. They were a small force that held off hundreds of thousands of Persians because literally only so many soldiers could fight at once between the two cliff sides. But as long as there is a relatively open space and both armies have the ability to engage each other superior numbers have an exponential effect on the battle.
So when Caepio attacked the Cimbri he was outnumbered at least 4 to 1. Even with superior Roman training there was no way this wasn’t going to turn into a disaster as the Roman soldiers on the flanks of the army had to fight off numerous warriors at once while they were being surrounded by the overwhelming force. The result was that Caepio’s force was almost entirely annihilated while killing relatively few of their opponents. At the start of the day, the Cimbri looked like they were aiming for a peace settlement but now that they had just easily wiped out a massive Roman army they were filled with overwhelming confidence and bloodlust. Thus they turned on Maximus’ army which was undoubtedly demoralized having witnessed an equally sized army just get slaughtered. What’s worse is that the army had nowhere to run as they had camped by the Rhone River.
The result was an unmitigated disaster. The Romans were demoralized and surrounded by a highly motivated fighting force that was at this point more experienced than their Roman counterparts, having now destroyed their fourth Roman army in just as many years. Most of the Romans were slaughtered on the field. Many Romans who tried to swim to safety drowned due to the weight of their armor. There were very few who escaped to tell of this disaster. This was the single greatest military defeat the Romans face in over a hundred years when they were up against the armies of Hannibal. As a result the Cimbri menace remained to haunt Rome.
Yet the Cimbri were not a marauding or invading force. The Cimbri were settlers looking to find land of their own. As a result they did not immediately move into Italy. On the contrary the Cimbri seemed to genuinely want to carve out some space for themselves and didn’t want to fight the Romans. As a result some of them marched into Iberia where the Iberians actually fared better against the Cimbri than the Romans whose pride and insistence on large-scale pitched battles resulted in crushing defeats against the Cimbri’s superior numbers.
At this point the Romans realized they needed a battle-tested leader to pull them out of this crisis as Scipio Africanus had done in his victory over Hannibal. To accomplish this task they turned to Gaius Marius, one of the most important figures in the history of the Roman Republic. Fresh off his victory against Jugartha in Numidia, which is modern day Algeria, Marius instituted what are known to history as the Marian Reforms. Before the Marian Reforms the Roman army operated like most armies throughout the world. They were staffed by generally wealthy people. The reason for this is that only the wealthy could afford to leave their estates for long periods and fight while their poor workers tilled the land for them. This and the fact that the wealthy often had to provide their own weapons and horses. Marius created a professional army by having the state pay for the arms and salaries of its soldiers. This opened up military careers to even the poorest Romans and the part-time soldiers of the Roman Republic were replaced by professionals. Thus the quantity and quality of the military greatly expanded due to these reforms as the aristocratic part-time soldiers were replaced by masses of poor laborers who took up soldiering as a career.
In 102 BCE Marius marched out into Gallia Narbonensis with his professional army and camped at modern day Aix-en-Provence. Marius was a calculating general who wasn’t consumed by the pride that had destroyed so many previous Roman armies. On the contrary, by this point the invading barbarians were overtaken by pride due to their numerous victories and chose to attack Marius’ army which was camped on top of a fortified hill. The Romans waited for the army to tire themselves out charging uphill and then cut them down. On July 30th, 101 BCE Marius’ victorious legions met the Cimbri’s main host in northern Italy. Using trickery and cunning, Marius lured the Cimbri cavalry into a trap, destroyed them and then broke the main army. The Cimbri were now utterly defeated and Rome was once again master of Southern Gaul after a long and brutal war.
One of the main beneficiaries of Roman victory was the Aedui, that Gallic confederation that sided with Rome against their rival Gauls the Arverni. But the Arverni must have realized the power that the Germans presented. The mostly German invading force had conquered much of the Roman holdings in Gaul and nearly defeated Rome. The Germans had assailed the Celts pushing them west of the Rhine. But what if the numerous German tribes could be turned against a mutual enemy? This wasn’t too far fetched an idea as Rome possessed wealth far beyond any other country in all of Europe and was the natural target for barbarians looking for plunder. After the war ended, a generation of relative peace lasted in Gaul until the 60s BCE when the Arverni struck a deal with Ariovistus, the German king of the Suebi confederation. to fight the Aedui. Helpless against these overwhelming forces, the Aedui succumbed to the Celto-Germanic confederation which rampaged across central Gaul. Seeing this, Rome knew it had to act or else risk another unified Celto-Germanic invasion. Thus began the Gallic Wars as the Romans appointed an ambitious general to defeat the Gallic nightmare once and for all, named Gaius Julius Caesar.
Commentary on the Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar
The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Richard Engels
Braudel, Fernand, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 1949. | 5,113 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was born in AD 121, in the reign of the emperor Hadrian. At first he was called Marcus Annius Verus, but his well-born father died young and he was adopted, first by his grandfather, who had him educated by a number of excellent tutors, and then, when he was sixteen, by Aurelius Antoninus, his uncle by marriage, who had been adopted as Hadrian's heir, and had no surviving sons of his own. Aurelius Antoninus changed Marcus' name to his own and betrothed him to his daughter, Faustina. She bore fourteen children, but none of the sons survived Marcus except the worthless Commodus, who eventually succeeded Marcus as emperor.
On the death of Antoninus in 161, Marcus made Lucius Verus, another adopted son of his uncle, his colleague in government. There were thus two emperors ruling jointly for the first time in Roman history. The Empire then entered a period troubled by natural disasters, famine, plague and floods, and by invasions of barbarians. In 168, one year before the death of Verus left him in sole command, Marcus went to join his legions on the Danube. Apart from a brief visit to Asia to crush the revolt of Avidius Cassius, whose followers he treated with clemency, Marcus stayed in the Danube region and consoled his somewhat melancholy life there by writing a series of reflections which he called simply To Himself. These a | <urn:uuid:90805f8b-5f11-42df-be9a-fdf149ede416> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fishpond.com/Books/Meditations-Marcus-Aurelius/9780141018829 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00536.warc.gz | en | 0.991768 | 304 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.0720035135746... | 2 | Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was born in AD 121, in the reign of the emperor Hadrian. At first he was called Marcus Annius Verus, but his well-born father died young and he was adopted, first by his grandfather, who had him educated by a number of excellent tutors, and then, when he was sixteen, by Aurelius Antoninus, his uncle by marriage, who had been adopted as Hadrian's heir, and had no surviving sons of his own. Aurelius Antoninus changed Marcus' name to his own and betrothed him to his daughter, Faustina. She bore fourteen children, but none of the sons survived Marcus except the worthless Commodus, who eventually succeeded Marcus as emperor.
On the death of Antoninus in 161, Marcus made Lucius Verus, another adopted son of his uncle, his colleague in government. There were thus two emperors ruling jointly for the first time in Roman history. The Empire then entered a period troubled by natural disasters, famine, plague and floods, and by invasions of barbarians. In 168, one year before the death of Verus left him in sole command, Marcus went to join his legions on the Danube. Apart from a brief visit to Asia to crush the revolt of Avidius Cassius, whose followers he treated with clemency, Marcus stayed in the Danube region and consoled his somewhat melancholy life there by writing a series of reflections which he called simply To Himself. These a | 314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the early Middle Ages, in northern Europe, spelt was one of the primary grains for human diets. In the ninth century in what is today Belgium, spelt comprised between sixty and eighty percent of grain production. This staple grain was milled into flour and made into bread. (Hugh of St. Victor tells us there are two types of food: bread, and the stuff you eat with bread.)
The watermill was developed sometime around the first or second century C.E. It spready slowly, although plenty of classical historians argue that it didn't spread nearly as slowly as many medievalists would have you believe. Anyways, by the ninth century, watermills were increasingly well-ensconced as the way to grind grain, trumping the slower methods of grining by handmill or animal power.
Unlike its relative wheat, a "naked grain", spelt has extra protective layers. Those extra layers made it a bit fiddly to grind into grain, and it was processed inefficiently - inadequately - by the mechanically-powered mills. It was better processed by hand. Thus, by the tenth century, spelt production was falling rapidly - a major part of the early Medieval diet killed off by the watermill. | <urn:uuid:98f5f1c2-85df-4bd2-bb82-fb1bc8fa0984> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlfish.livejournal.com/542451.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00425.warc.gz | en | 0.983962 | 255 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.2653866... | 3 | In the early Middle Ages, in northern Europe, spelt was one of the primary grains for human diets. In the ninth century in what is today Belgium, spelt comprised between sixty and eighty percent of grain production. This staple grain was milled into flour and made into bread. (Hugh of St. Victor tells us there are two types of food: bread, and the stuff you eat with bread.)
The watermill was developed sometime around the first or second century C.E. It spready slowly, although plenty of classical historians argue that it didn't spread nearly as slowly as many medievalists would have you believe. Anyways, by the ninth century, watermills were increasingly well-ensconced as the way to grind grain, trumping the slower methods of grining by handmill or animal power.
Unlike its relative wheat, a "naked grain", spelt has extra protective layers. Those extra layers made it a bit fiddly to grind into grain, and it was processed inefficiently - inadequately - by the mechanically-powered mills. It was better processed by hand. Thus, by the tenth century, spelt production was falling rapidly - a major part of the early Medieval diet killed off by the watermill. | 251 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Haiti earthquake occurred in a seismically active region on January 12, 2010. Haiti and the Dominican Republic were both hit by the earthquake. It is estimated that 250,000 people died as a result of the earthquake. More than 300,000 people were hurt and millions of people lost their homes or had to leave the areas where they had been living. Over 4,000 schools were damaged or destroyed on the island.
When the earthquake struck 70% of the people in Haiti were living below the poverty line. The poor people of Haiti were especially affected by the earthquake because they had cut many of the trees on the island for firewood and to use when cooking their meals. The bare hills increased the impact of the earthquake and the human suffering in the country.
2010 Earthquake at Port au Prince by Marco Domino
Haiti and the Dominican Republic share the island of Hispaniola. The Caribbean Plate is slipping eastward in relation to the North American Plate. The 7.0 magnitude earthquake occurred where the plates had been locked for 250 years prior to the rocks rupturing. The part of the fault line that broke was 40 miles long and slipped about six feet.
The earthquake epicenter was sixteen miles west of Haiti's capital city Port-au-Prince. Three million people were affected by the earthquake. It is estimated that 250,000 people died, 300,000 people were injured and 1,000,000 people were made homeless by the earthquake. Today humanitarian aid from countries around the world continues to help the people of Haiti rebuild their lives.
The 2010 Haiti earthquake was a 7.0 magnitude earthquake. The focus of the earthquake was 6.2 miles below the surface of the Earth. Because of its shallow depth the earthquake had a devastating effect on the country.
Port-au-Prince was near the epicenter of the earthquake and more than two million people lived in the metropolitan area. There were no building codes and poorly constructed concrete buildings collapsed during the earthquake.
Check out Myrna Martin's award winning textbooks, e-books, videos and rock sets. The Kids Fun Science Bookstore covers a wide range of earth science topics. Click here to browse. | <urn:uuid:13e2da1c-185f-439a-9645-3a5cb33ba991> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kids-fun-science.com/haiti-earthquake.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00277.warc.gz | en | 0.986129 | 439 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.33150449395179... | 9 | The Haiti earthquake occurred in a seismically active region on January 12, 2010. Haiti and the Dominican Republic were both hit by the earthquake. It is estimated that 250,000 people died as a result of the earthquake. More than 300,000 people were hurt and millions of people lost their homes or had to leave the areas where they had been living. Over 4,000 schools were damaged or destroyed on the island.
When the earthquake struck 70% of the people in Haiti were living below the poverty line. The poor people of Haiti were especially affected by the earthquake because they had cut many of the trees on the island for firewood and to use when cooking their meals. The bare hills increased the impact of the earthquake and the human suffering in the country.
2010 Earthquake at Port au Prince by Marco Domino
Haiti and the Dominican Republic share the island of Hispaniola. The Caribbean Plate is slipping eastward in relation to the North American Plate. The 7.0 magnitude earthquake occurred where the plates had been locked for 250 years prior to the rocks rupturing. The part of the fault line that broke was 40 miles long and slipped about six feet.
The earthquake epicenter was sixteen miles west of Haiti's capital city Port-au-Prince. Three million people were affected by the earthquake. It is estimated that 250,000 people died, 300,000 people were injured and 1,000,000 people were made homeless by the earthquake. Today humanitarian aid from countries around the world continues to help the people of Haiti rebuild their lives.
The 2010 Haiti earthquake was a 7.0 magnitude earthquake. The focus of the earthquake was 6.2 miles below the surface of the Earth. Because of its shallow depth the earthquake had a devastating effect on the country.
Port-au-Prince was near the epicenter of the earthquake and more than two million people lived in the metropolitan area. There were no building codes and poorly constructed concrete buildings collapsed during the earthquake.
Check out Myrna Martin's award winning textbooks, e-books, videos and rock sets. The Kids Fun Science Bookstore covers a wide range of earth science topics. Click here to browse. | 482 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Black Panthers & Social Change
One of the major achievements of the group was to popularize the ‘Black is Beautiful’ mantra. They proudly paraded their afros and encouraged black women to display their natural beauty. The group’s desire to help poor African-Americans wasn’t just empty rhetoric. As well as continually challenging police brutality, the Panthers launched approximately 35 Survival Programs and provided free community help such as legal aid, assistance with transportation, free shoe distribution, education and TB testing among other things.
One of the Black Panthers’ most successful projects was its Free Breakfast for Children Program which began in January 1969. The party spent two hours every morning cooking breakfast for kids in poor neighborhood schools. According to one member, David Lemieux, the group read studies that showed kids perform better in school when they have eaten breakfast. The Panthers served 20,000 meals a week.
Sadly, J. Edgar Hoover’s hatred of the group led to the demise of the Breakfast Program in its original form. Although party members did their best to ensure kids got healthy and balanced meals (they consulted with qualified nutritionists), the breakfast program was regularly interrupted by local officials. Fortunately, the program lived on in the form of the School Breakfast Program which was instituted in 1975 by the federal government.
To say that the Black Panthers were a group mired in controversy is an understatement. Hoover feared the growing movement and formed COINTELPRO, an organization designed to dismantle Black Nationalist organizations. According to former Panther member, Ericka Huggins, they were followed and harassed every day and had their phones tapped. Although COINTELPRO was supposed to target all Black Nationalist groups, over 80 percent of its actions were against the Panthers.
The Panthers were often on the wrong end of police brutality although some members did not help their cause. In 1968, Eldridge Cleaver, one of the most prominent members of the group, led several members on an ambush of the police. In the resulting shootout, 17-year old Bobby Hutton died. The level of violence involving the group escalated dramatically in the months following the shooting. Cleaver was arrested for his role in the shooting, and in August, three Panther members were killed in another shootout with the police. In September, Newton was convicted of manslaughter and Cleaver fled to Cuba. In October, another Panther died in a shootout with police.
The police were criticized in the wake of the deaths of Mark Clark and Fred Hampton in December 1969. The Panthers fired only one shot between them while the police fired 80. In May 1969, a member of the group, Alex Rackley, was tortured and murdered by other Panthers as they believed he was a police informant. Female members came to the fore in the 1970s including Assata Shakur, Angela Davis (never an official member) and Elaine Brown who became the first Chairwoman of the party in 1974. Far from being a male-dominated organization, the group was primarily kept together by women in its later years.
Dissolution & Legacy
The organization endured a slow but steady demise from the mid-1970s onward. Although COINTELPRO had an impact, the Panthers mainly fell apart due to the loss of key members. After a short spell in Cuba, Cleaver went to Algeria but was expelled from the party in 1971. Newton fell further into the abyss, and his friends and acquaintances were concerned about his increasingly erratic behavior. He assaulted police officers and murdered a prostitute in 1974, so he fled to Cuba. Meanwhile, Bobby Seale ended his association with the party in that year. There were rumors that Newton severely beat him with a bullwhip, but Seale denies it.
Newton returned to America in 1977 and grew concerned at the fact that female members outnumbered males. He authorized the beating of Regina Davis as a punishment for reprimanding a male colleague in a professional capacity. This action angered and frightened Brown who quit the party and moved to LA. Then the group tried to murder a witness against Newton in October 1977. By 1980, the party’s membership was just 27 and its sponsored school closed after it was revealed that Newton was stealing money from it to pay for his drug addiction.
The impact of the Black Panthers went far beyond Oakland. At its height, it gained tremendous momentum and was seen as a champion of social justice. In the end, internal disputes and the close attentions of Hoover and the FBI led to its dissolution. For the record, Cleaver died in 1998; Newton was shot dead in Oakland in 1989 and Seale is still alive today. | <urn:uuid:0cdb323f-2ab9-4c37-be2b-7c34963a425a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/black-panthers-violent-militants-misunderstood-revolutionaries/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00053.warc.gz | en | 0.985591 | 937 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.091132938861... | 2 | The Black Panthers & Social Change
One of the major achievements of the group was to popularize the ‘Black is Beautiful’ mantra. They proudly paraded their afros and encouraged black women to display their natural beauty. The group’s desire to help poor African-Americans wasn’t just empty rhetoric. As well as continually challenging police brutality, the Panthers launched approximately 35 Survival Programs and provided free community help such as legal aid, assistance with transportation, free shoe distribution, education and TB testing among other things.
One of the Black Panthers’ most successful projects was its Free Breakfast for Children Program which began in January 1969. The party spent two hours every morning cooking breakfast for kids in poor neighborhood schools. According to one member, David Lemieux, the group read studies that showed kids perform better in school when they have eaten breakfast. The Panthers served 20,000 meals a week.
Sadly, J. Edgar Hoover’s hatred of the group led to the demise of the Breakfast Program in its original form. Although party members did their best to ensure kids got healthy and balanced meals (they consulted with qualified nutritionists), the breakfast program was regularly interrupted by local officials. Fortunately, the program lived on in the form of the School Breakfast Program which was instituted in 1975 by the federal government.
To say that the Black Panthers were a group mired in controversy is an understatement. Hoover feared the growing movement and formed COINTELPRO, an organization designed to dismantle Black Nationalist organizations. According to former Panther member, Ericka Huggins, they were followed and harassed every day and had their phones tapped. Although COINTELPRO was supposed to target all Black Nationalist groups, over 80 percent of its actions were against the Panthers.
The Panthers were often on the wrong end of police brutality although some members did not help their cause. In 1968, Eldridge Cleaver, one of the most prominent members of the group, led several members on an ambush of the police. In the resulting shootout, 17-year old Bobby Hutton died. The level of violence involving the group escalated dramatically in the months following the shooting. Cleaver was arrested for his role in the shooting, and in August, three Panther members were killed in another shootout with the police. In September, Newton was convicted of manslaughter and Cleaver fled to Cuba. In October, another Panther died in a shootout with police.
The police were criticized in the wake of the deaths of Mark Clark and Fred Hampton in December 1969. The Panthers fired only one shot between them while the police fired 80. In May 1969, a member of the group, Alex Rackley, was tortured and murdered by other Panthers as they believed he was a police informant. Female members came to the fore in the 1970s including Assata Shakur, Angela Davis (never an official member) and Elaine Brown who became the first Chairwoman of the party in 1974. Far from being a male-dominated organization, the group was primarily kept together by women in its later years.
Dissolution & Legacy
The organization endured a slow but steady demise from the mid-1970s onward. Although COINTELPRO had an impact, the Panthers mainly fell apart due to the loss of key members. After a short spell in Cuba, Cleaver went to Algeria but was expelled from the party in 1971. Newton fell further into the abyss, and his friends and acquaintances were concerned about his increasingly erratic behavior. He assaulted police officers and murdered a prostitute in 1974, so he fled to Cuba. Meanwhile, Bobby Seale ended his association with the party in that year. There were rumors that Newton severely beat him with a bullwhip, but Seale denies it.
Newton returned to America in 1977 and grew concerned at the fact that female members outnumbered males. He authorized the beating of Regina Davis as a punishment for reprimanding a male colleague in a professional capacity. This action angered and frightened Brown who quit the party and moved to LA. Then the group tried to murder a witness against Newton in October 1977. By 1980, the party’s membership was just 27 and its sponsored school closed after it was revealed that Newton was stealing money from it to pay for his drug addiction.
The impact of the Black Panthers went far beyond Oakland. At its height, it gained tremendous momentum and was seen as a champion of social justice. In the end, internal disputes and the close attentions of Hoover and the FBI led to its dissolution. For the record, Cleaver died in 1998; Newton was shot dead in Oakland in 1989 and Seale is still alive today. | 990 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Betsy Ross?
Betsy Ross apprenticed with an upholsterer before irrevocably splitting with her family to marry outside the Quaker religion. She and her husband John Ross started their own upholstery business. Despite a lack of credible evidence to support it, legend holds that President George Washington requested that Betsy make the first American flag.
Betsy Ross, best known for making the first American flag, was born Elizabeth Griscom in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on January 1, 1752. A fourth-generation American, and the great-granddaughter of a carpenter who had arrived in New Jersey in 1680 from England, Betsy was the eighth of 17 children. Like her sisters, she attended Quaker schools and learned sewing and other crafts common in her day.
After Betsy completed her schooling, her father apprenticed her to a local upholsterer, where, at age 17, she met John Ross, an Anglican. The two young apprentices quickly fell for one another, but Betsy was a Quaker, and the act of marrying outside of one's religion was strictly off-limits. To the shock of their families, Betsy and John married in 1772, and she was promptly expelled from both her family and the Friends meeting house in Philadelphia that served as a place of worship for Quakers. Eventually, the couple opened their own upholstery business, drawing on Betsy's deft needlework skills.
In 1776, at the start of the American Revolution, John was killed by a gunpowder explosion while on militia duty at the Philadelphia waterfront. Following his death, Betsy acquired his property and kept up the upholstery business, working day and night to make flags for Pennsylvania. A year later, Betsy married Joseph Ashburn, a sailor. Joseph, however, also met an unfortunate end. In 1781, the ship he was on was captured by the British and he died in prison the next year.
In 1783, Betsy married for a third and final time. The man, John Claypoole, had been in prison with her late husband Joseph Ashburn, and had met Betsy when he delivered Joseph's farewells to her. John died 34 years later, in 1817, after a long disability.
Death and Legacy
Betsy died on January 30, 1836, at the age of 84, in Philadelphia. The story of her making the first American flag was shared with the public by her grandson nearly 50 years after her passing. The story goes that she made the flag in June of 1776 after a visit from President George Washington, Robert Morris and her husband's uncle, George Ross. Her grandson's recollections were published in Harper's Monthly in 1873, but today most scholars agree that it was not Betsy who made the first flag. However, Betsy was without dispute a flagmaker who, records show, was paid in 1777 by the Pennsylvania State Navy Board for making "ship's colours, &c."
Although the Betsy Ross House, where she is reputed to have made the flag, is one of the most visited tourist sites in Philadelphia, the claim that she once lived there is also matter of dispute. Despite the unlikelihood of the story for which she is known, Betsy Ross is, however, a fine example of what many women of her time audaciously endured: widowhood, single motherhood, managing household and property independently and quickly remarrying for economic reasons, and her story and her life are nonetheless stitched into the fabric of American history.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | <urn:uuid:26875295-c30b-4367-9135-ca3deb6fb9d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/military-figure/betsy-ross | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.985521 | 740 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.0264090821146... | 4 | Who Was Betsy Ross?
Betsy Ross apprenticed with an upholsterer before irrevocably splitting with her family to marry outside the Quaker religion. She and her husband John Ross started their own upholstery business. Despite a lack of credible evidence to support it, legend holds that President George Washington requested that Betsy make the first American flag.
Betsy Ross, best known for making the first American flag, was born Elizabeth Griscom in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on January 1, 1752. A fourth-generation American, and the great-granddaughter of a carpenter who had arrived in New Jersey in 1680 from England, Betsy was the eighth of 17 children. Like her sisters, she attended Quaker schools and learned sewing and other crafts common in her day.
After Betsy completed her schooling, her father apprenticed her to a local upholsterer, where, at age 17, she met John Ross, an Anglican. The two young apprentices quickly fell for one another, but Betsy was a Quaker, and the act of marrying outside of one's religion was strictly off-limits. To the shock of their families, Betsy and John married in 1772, and she was promptly expelled from both her family and the Friends meeting house in Philadelphia that served as a place of worship for Quakers. Eventually, the couple opened their own upholstery business, drawing on Betsy's deft needlework skills.
In 1776, at the start of the American Revolution, John was killed by a gunpowder explosion while on militia duty at the Philadelphia waterfront. Following his death, Betsy acquired his property and kept up the upholstery business, working day and night to make flags for Pennsylvania. A year later, Betsy married Joseph Ashburn, a sailor. Joseph, however, also met an unfortunate end. In 1781, the ship he was on was captured by the British and he died in prison the next year.
In 1783, Betsy married for a third and final time. The man, John Claypoole, had been in prison with her late husband Joseph Ashburn, and had met Betsy when he delivered Joseph's farewells to her. John died 34 years later, in 1817, after a long disability.
Death and Legacy
Betsy died on January 30, 1836, at the age of 84, in Philadelphia. The story of her making the first American flag was shared with the public by her grandson nearly 50 years after her passing. The story goes that she made the flag in June of 1776 after a visit from President George Washington, Robert Morris and her husband's uncle, George Ross. Her grandson's recollections were published in Harper's Monthly in 1873, but today most scholars agree that it was not Betsy who made the first flag. However, Betsy was without dispute a flagmaker who, records show, was paid in 1777 by the Pennsylvania State Navy Board for making "ship's colours, &c."
Although the Betsy Ross House, where she is reputed to have made the flag, is one of the most visited tourist sites in Philadelphia, the claim that she once lived there is also matter of dispute. Despite the unlikelihood of the story for which she is known, Betsy Ross is, however, a fine example of what many women of her time audaciously endured: widowhood, single motherhood, managing household and property independently and quickly remarrying for economic reasons, and her story and her life are nonetheless stitched into the fabric of American history.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 783 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It has been suggested that the total population of the West Coast at the time of the gold rushes may have reached 50,000 or more. However, analysis of data including the 1867 census results suggests that the West Coast population at the height of the gold rushes that year was about 28,700 – a few thousand less than in the early 2000s.
With a population of 4,866, Hokitika was the largest town. Greymouth and Westport each had less than 2,000.
Although alluvial gold had been found in many places, the richest sites were soon exhausted, and miners began to look for other work. There was still employment for miners in large sluicing claims and underground mines, and also in building roads and railways.
An outflow of single miners was partly balanced by continuing immigration, including of single women, wives and families. The population dropped by a few thousand after 1867, but gradually increased again after 1882.
Most of the early European settlers arrived on the West Coast independently, under the spell of gold. West Coasters are proud that most of their ancestors arrived under their own steam, rather than as assisted emigrants.
Most of the miners who arrived on the West Coast had been born in the United Kingdom (which then included the whole of Ireland). More than a third were Irish, many of whom came via Victoria, Australia, where they had gained mining experience. The proportion of Irish settlers was much higher on the West Coast than elsewhere in New Zealand, where emigration schemes gave preference to English and Scots emigrants.
After 1867 several distinct groups settled on the West Coast:
- Chinese gold miners – about 2,000 moved to the West Coast in the 1870s, mainly to work old tailings. Because the Chinese population was almost entirely male, no identifiable descendants remain.
- Shetland Islanders (from northern Scotland), who arrived in groups in the late 1860s and 1870s. They settled mainly at Charleston and Karamea.
- British coal miners, who were needed to work coal mines in Buller and the Grey valley. Most came from mining districts in northern England and lowland Scotland, bringing with them a strong union tradition.
In 1875 immigrants were recruited by the government for a special settlement at Jackson Bay, to work in farming and forestry. Most were from non-English speaking parts of Europe such as Germany and Italy. The climate was too wet and by the late 1870s most had left for Otago.
After the 1880s the proportion of Irish immigrants dropped dramatically, while Scottish arrivals increased to over 30%. English immigrants were consistently the dominant group. The Reefton gold mines had problems recruiting experienced hard-rock miners, and attracted a steady flow of miners from Cornwall, where the industry was in decline.
The Buller County Council gained notoriety in the late 1970s and early 1980s for its hostility to people living unconventional lifestyles. They demolished a solar-powered house built by activist Owen Wilkes because he had refused to get a building permit, and prosecuted residents of the Stone Kingdom community near Karamea for living in tent-like houses.
Late 20th-century arrivals
The West Coast had a steady decline in population during the second half of the 20th century. However, there was a small inflow of people from elsewhere in New Zealand, often attracted by the availability of cheap land. From the 1960s they included people living what were seen to be unconventional lifestyles, such as those in organised communities. Collectively grouped together by locals as ‘hippies’, they were not always welcomed.
Although the numbers were small, this group has been responsible for the development of craft industries and organic farming.
The population in the early 2000s
Population movements over 140 years have resulted in a population that is predominantly of European heritage. In the 2013 census, ethnicity statistics showed only 10.5% Māori (compared with 14.9% for New Zealand overall), 1.0% Pacific Island (compared to 7.4%), 2.2% Asian (11.8% nationally) and 0.4% Middle Eastern, Latin American and African (1.2%). | <urn:uuid:a7a906db-6efc-47e5-94bf-64025c622cc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/en/west-coast-region/page-6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00218.warc.gz | en | 0.985249 | 855 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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... | 19 | It has been suggested that the total population of the West Coast at the time of the gold rushes may have reached 50,000 or more. However, analysis of data including the 1867 census results suggests that the West Coast population at the height of the gold rushes that year was about 28,700 – a few thousand less than in the early 2000s.
With a population of 4,866, Hokitika was the largest town. Greymouth and Westport each had less than 2,000.
Although alluvial gold had been found in many places, the richest sites were soon exhausted, and miners began to look for other work. There was still employment for miners in large sluicing claims and underground mines, and also in building roads and railways.
An outflow of single miners was partly balanced by continuing immigration, including of single women, wives and families. The population dropped by a few thousand after 1867, but gradually increased again after 1882.
Most of the early European settlers arrived on the West Coast independently, under the spell of gold. West Coasters are proud that most of their ancestors arrived under their own steam, rather than as assisted emigrants.
Most of the miners who arrived on the West Coast had been born in the United Kingdom (which then included the whole of Ireland). More than a third were Irish, many of whom came via Victoria, Australia, where they had gained mining experience. The proportion of Irish settlers was much higher on the West Coast than elsewhere in New Zealand, where emigration schemes gave preference to English and Scots emigrants.
After 1867 several distinct groups settled on the West Coast:
- Chinese gold miners – about 2,000 moved to the West Coast in the 1870s, mainly to work old tailings. Because the Chinese population was almost entirely male, no identifiable descendants remain.
- Shetland Islanders (from northern Scotland), who arrived in groups in the late 1860s and 1870s. They settled mainly at Charleston and Karamea.
- British coal miners, who were needed to work coal mines in Buller and the Grey valley. Most came from mining districts in northern England and lowland Scotland, bringing with them a strong union tradition.
In 1875 immigrants were recruited by the government for a special settlement at Jackson Bay, to work in farming and forestry. Most were from non-English speaking parts of Europe such as Germany and Italy. The climate was too wet and by the late 1870s most had left for Otago.
After the 1880s the proportion of Irish immigrants dropped dramatically, while Scottish arrivals increased to over 30%. English immigrants were consistently the dominant group. The Reefton gold mines had problems recruiting experienced hard-rock miners, and attracted a steady flow of miners from Cornwall, where the industry was in decline.
The Buller County Council gained notoriety in the late 1970s and early 1980s for its hostility to people living unconventional lifestyles. They demolished a solar-powered house built by activist Owen Wilkes because he had refused to get a building permit, and prosecuted residents of the Stone Kingdom community near Karamea for living in tent-like houses.
Late 20th-century arrivals
The West Coast had a steady decline in population during the second half of the 20th century. However, there was a small inflow of people from elsewhere in New Zealand, often attracted by the availability of cheap land. From the 1960s they included people living what were seen to be unconventional lifestyles, such as those in organised communities. Collectively grouped together by locals as ‘hippies’, they were not always welcomed.
Although the numbers were small, this group has been responsible for the development of craft industries and organic farming.
The population in the early 2000s
Population movements over 140 years have resulted in a population that is predominantly of European heritage. In the 2013 census, ethnicity statistics showed only 10.5% Māori (compared with 14.9% for New Zealand overall), 1.0% Pacific Island (compared to 7.4%), 2.2% Asian (11.8% nationally) and 0.4% Middle Eastern, Latin American and African (1.2%). | 929 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery was a system in which people were impoverished from their basic needs and rights. Slaves worked endless hours without getting paid and their lives belonged to someone else, none themselves. While the Northern States were against slavery, the Southern States were in favor of keeping slaves to grow their economy. The black community was hopelessly oppressed and redeemed. At the beginning of the 1800’s, there was not any law to protect or defend Negroes’ rights until the 13th amendment was passed in 1865, abolishing slavery.The sufferings of Frederick Douglass were displayed in his book called “Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave.” There was a great amount of people who were slaves in the South of the United States of America during the 19th century. Slaves were denied of receiving an education because it represented a danger to slave owners; knowledge could bring more dispute from slaves. Children and adults were separated from families to prevent the existence of family ties. Their lifestyle was deplorable and unjust. Slaves were outrages and mercilessly abused, worse than a wild animal. This paper discusses the inequalities of slavery during the 1800’s in the South of the United States of America and how millions of Negroes, as being slaves, were deprived of an education, liberty, family ties, shelter and fair treatment through the insight of Frederick Douglass, who gave everything to support his community.
Slaves were illiterate not by choice but by decision of others. Different from other slaves Douglass was lucky to find a wife of one of his masters who taught him the ABCs. That was the anchor that drove him to continue learning using all possi...
... middle of paper ...
...ve owners prohibited slaves to learn how to read and right to keep the situation under control. was preferable that they were naïve so they could continue abusing them. Since slaves were children they were deprived of their liberty. When slaves were no longer productive to their owners, some were expelled out of the plantation. They exploited slaves as much as they could. Slaves could not have the change to love or be loved by other siblings because they were sold and sent away from their families. Food and shelter were scarcely provided, and it was not enough to cover their necessities. Punishments were tough and horrible for all those who had witnessed them. Owners did not care to cause damage or harm to slaves. On the contrary, they enjoyed seeing the pain of others. It is inconceivable to look at people who were so evil and did not feel any remorse toward others.
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Relationship Between Slavery And American South And The Rising Political Power And Economic Growth Of The United States
- Study questions for The Half Has Never Been Told: 1) How have white historians in the past described the relationship between slavery in the American South and the rising political power and economic growth of the United States. Why was slavery not portrayed as a “modern” institution. White historians in the past described this relationship as essentially ‘non-existant.’ These historians proclaimed slavery as an unprofitable institution, one that did not have direct correlation with the economic and social transformations occurring in the nineteenth century, because it did not rely on new technology or efficient methods of machine labor that came from industrialization.... [tags: Black people, Slavery, African American]
780 words (2.2 pages)
- In the years 1800-1850 the North and South of the United States were very different but they clashed head on as people expanded west. As people from both sides of the US moved Westward they took there beliefs, traditions and attitudes with them. Due to the West being nearly empty it was a blank slate for the people moving there to paint with their own beliefs, economies and ways of life. However this was not easy, because there was such a deep riff in the lives of people from clashing sides of the US.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States]
1274 words (3.6 pages)
- Slave owners in the South were some of the most cruel and inhumane human beings out there. They used many tactics to maintain a prosperous system of slavery amongst them. Like many, Frederick Douglass was born a slave. Deprived of as much as possible, Douglass knew not much more than his place of birth. Masters were encouraged to dispossess slaves of any knowledge and several of them did not know their birthdays or other personal details of themselves. The purpose of this was to keep slaves as misinformed of anything other than labor as possible.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery]
1081 words (3.1 pages)
- The south was very passionate about slavery. They were willing to give up everything in order to keep it. This is something that seems crazy to me, because when we look back onto slavery and it seems so terrible. The south became extremely dependent upon slavery very quickly. Cash crops started becoming more popular which made the need for land rise greatly.Plantations, and farms were far too large for their owners alone to take care of. In the south the cotton industry was on an all-time high. As the cash crops were on the rise the needs for workers were also.... [tags: American Civil War, Slavery in the United States]
744 words (2.1 pages)
- Southern delegates or so they thought was the economic issues that would be created within the infrastructure of America through the elimination of institution of slavery in the South. Those living in the South depended on the slaves for work labor and the idea of taking abolishing this work force was going to cause problems for them. James Jackson a delegate from Georgia was a strong advocate for keeping by slave trade and slavery a part of the everyday life in the South. He felt that having slaves was what enabled the South to move at the pace it was going and grow as it had been for so many hears.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, American Civil War]
1774 words (5.1 pages)
- Owning a person to work for less or no money has been practiced for years. Like other countries, people in the United States also owned slaves. Since the north was mostly industrial, they didn’t need slaves. On the other hand, southerners owned thelarge plantation and they needed cheap labor in order to make profit. Slavery was a backbone of south’s prosperity. Yet, arguments on whether to emancipate slavery divided the nation in half. To keep the country united, both sides tried to convince each other why slavery is right or wrong.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States]
1417 words (4 pages)
- Slavery only existed in the Old South, and it motivated differences among historians. Some people see slavery as not that bad where their masters are kind to them, and some of them think that all slaveholders beat their slaves terribly and mistreated them. They are both not correct, but they both have a truth to it. There were kind masters, and there were cruel masters. There are various kinds of masters that all do something different. Even the kind masters had to make hard decisions that weren’t beneficial to their slaves because of well needed profit.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States]
899 words (2.6 pages)
- Introduction Slavery in the eighteenth century grew due to increased labor force that was needed in the plantations with increased knowledge of farming and industrialization in the plantations. After the colonization of North America by the Europeans, large tracts of land were available for farming and plantations. A number of white plantation owners brought in slaves to work since they were cheaper to use in providing labor. As a result, other plantations owners saw the advantage of using slaves as laborers (Litwack, 2009).... [tags: Slavery, Caribbean, Slavery in the United States]
936 words (2.7 pages)
- History of the Old South Slavery. The Ways in Which Slavery Was Fully Integrated into Virginia’s Economy and Society by the Early 1800s Virginia is known as a state, where slavery played a significant role in the financial and social life of its citizens. Slavery in Virginia flourished “from the institution’s beginnings in the British North American mainland colonies” through the Civil War (Zaborney 1). Virginia was notable for the highest slave population, despite the fact that it was “a slave-exporting” state (Zaborney 7).... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery, Economy]
998 words (2.9 pages)
- The American South’s ideology of slavery transformed the states both positively and negatively economically, socially, politically and culturally. The South relied heavily on slave labor which sustained and increased their economic growth through supplying the largest amount of cotton,while the North became stronger through industrial growth and during the time of enlightenment began to want the idea of owning slaves to be abolished thus, causing a contemptuous relationship between the North an South.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery]
1334 words (3.8 pages) | <urn:uuid:97acdb36-8630-497b-afe1-b3894b536da0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.123helpme.com/slavery-and-the-south-of-the-united-states-of-america-preview.asp?id=511220 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00251.warc.gz | en | 0.983882 | 1,919 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.21378611028194... | 1 | Slavery was a system in which people were impoverished from their basic needs and rights. Slaves worked endless hours without getting paid and their lives belonged to someone else, none themselves. While the Northern States were against slavery, the Southern States were in favor of keeping slaves to grow their economy. The black community was hopelessly oppressed and redeemed. At the beginning of the 1800’s, there was not any law to protect or defend Negroes’ rights until the 13th amendment was passed in 1865, abolishing slavery.The sufferings of Frederick Douglass were displayed in his book called “Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave.” There was a great amount of people who were slaves in the South of the United States of America during the 19th century. Slaves were denied of receiving an education because it represented a danger to slave owners; knowledge could bring more dispute from slaves. Children and adults were separated from families to prevent the existence of family ties. Their lifestyle was deplorable and unjust. Slaves were outrages and mercilessly abused, worse than a wild animal. This paper discusses the inequalities of slavery during the 1800’s in the South of the United States of America and how millions of Negroes, as being slaves, were deprived of an education, liberty, family ties, shelter and fair treatment through the insight of Frederick Douglass, who gave everything to support his community.
Slaves were illiterate not by choice but by decision of others. Different from other slaves Douglass was lucky to find a wife of one of his masters who taught him the ABCs. That was the anchor that drove him to continue learning using all possi...
... middle of paper ...
...ve owners prohibited slaves to learn how to read and right to keep the situation under control. was preferable that they were naïve so they could continue abusing them. Since slaves were children they were deprived of their liberty. When slaves were no longer productive to their owners, some were expelled out of the plantation. They exploited slaves as much as they could. Slaves could not have the change to love or be loved by other siblings because they were sold and sent away from their families. Food and shelter were scarcely provided, and it was not enough to cover their necessities. Punishments were tough and horrible for all those who had witnessed them. Owners did not care to cause damage or harm to slaves. On the contrary, they enjoyed seeing the pain of others. It is inconceivable to look at people who were so evil and did not feel any remorse toward others.
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
Relationship Between Slavery And American South And The Rising Political Power And Economic Growth Of The United States
- Study questions for The Half Has Never Been Told: 1) How have white historians in the past described the relationship between slavery in the American South and the rising political power and economic growth of the United States. Why was slavery not portrayed as a “modern” institution. White historians in the past described this relationship as essentially ‘non-existant.’ These historians proclaimed slavery as an unprofitable institution, one that did not have direct correlation with the economic and social transformations occurring in the nineteenth century, because it did not rely on new technology or efficient methods of machine labor that came from industrialization.... [tags: Black people, Slavery, African American]
780 words (2.2 pages)
- In the years 1800-1850 the North and South of the United States were very different but they clashed head on as people expanded west. As people from both sides of the US moved Westward they took there beliefs, traditions and attitudes with them. Due to the West being nearly empty it was a blank slate for the people moving there to paint with their own beliefs, economies and ways of life. However this was not easy, because there was such a deep riff in the lives of people from clashing sides of the US.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States]
1274 words (3.6 pages)
- Slave owners in the South were some of the most cruel and inhumane human beings out there. They used many tactics to maintain a prosperous system of slavery amongst them. Like many, Frederick Douglass was born a slave. Deprived of as much as possible, Douglass knew not much more than his place of birth. Masters were encouraged to dispossess slaves of any knowledge and several of them did not know their birthdays or other personal details of themselves. The purpose of this was to keep slaves as misinformed of anything other than labor as possible.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery]
1081 words (3.1 pages)
- The south was very passionate about slavery. They were willing to give up everything in order to keep it. This is something that seems crazy to me, because when we look back onto slavery and it seems so terrible. The south became extremely dependent upon slavery very quickly. Cash crops started becoming more popular which made the need for land rise greatly.Plantations, and farms were far too large for their owners alone to take care of. In the south the cotton industry was on an all-time high. As the cash crops were on the rise the needs for workers were also.... [tags: American Civil War, Slavery in the United States]
744 words (2.1 pages)
- Southern delegates or so they thought was the economic issues that would be created within the infrastructure of America through the elimination of institution of slavery in the South. Those living in the South depended on the slaves for work labor and the idea of taking abolishing this work force was going to cause problems for them. James Jackson a delegate from Georgia was a strong advocate for keeping by slave trade and slavery a part of the everyday life in the South. He felt that having slaves was what enabled the South to move at the pace it was going and grow as it had been for so many hears.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, American Civil War]
1774 words (5.1 pages)
- Owning a person to work for less or no money has been practiced for years. Like other countries, people in the United States also owned slaves. Since the north was mostly industrial, they didn’t need slaves. On the other hand, southerners owned thelarge plantation and they needed cheap labor in order to make profit. Slavery was a backbone of south’s prosperity. Yet, arguments on whether to emancipate slavery divided the nation in half. To keep the country united, both sides tried to convince each other why slavery is right or wrong.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States]
1417 words (4 pages)
- Slavery only existed in the Old South, and it motivated differences among historians. Some people see slavery as not that bad where their masters are kind to them, and some of them think that all slaveholders beat their slaves terribly and mistreated them. They are both not correct, but they both have a truth to it. There were kind masters, and there were cruel masters. There are various kinds of masters that all do something different. Even the kind masters had to make hard decisions that weren’t beneficial to their slaves because of well needed profit.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States]
899 words (2.6 pages)
- Introduction Slavery in the eighteenth century grew due to increased labor force that was needed in the plantations with increased knowledge of farming and industrialization in the plantations. After the colonization of North America by the Europeans, large tracts of land were available for farming and plantations. A number of white plantation owners brought in slaves to work since they were cheaper to use in providing labor. As a result, other plantations owners saw the advantage of using slaves as laborers (Litwack, 2009).... [tags: Slavery, Caribbean, Slavery in the United States]
936 words (2.7 pages)
- History of the Old South Slavery. The Ways in Which Slavery Was Fully Integrated into Virginia’s Economy and Society by the Early 1800s Virginia is known as a state, where slavery played a significant role in the financial and social life of its citizens. Slavery in Virginia flourished “from the institution’s beginnings in the British North American mainland colonies” through the Civil War (Zaborney 1). Virginia was notable for the highest slave population, despite the fact that it was “a slave-exporting” state (Zaborney 7).... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery, Economy]
998 words (2.9 pages)
- The American South’s ideology of slavery transformed the states both positively and negatively economically, socially, politically and culturally. The South relied heavily on slave labor which sustained and increased their economic growth through supplying the largest amount of cotton,while the North became stronger through industrial growth and during the time of enlightenment began to want the idea of owning slaves to be abolished thus, causing a contemptuous relationship between the North an South.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery]
1334 words (3.8 pages) | 1,919 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen: Term Paper Essay
Rebecca Klotz His 102 Dr. LaPierre April 24, 2013 This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen During the time of World War II, people considered inferior to the Nazis were sent off to concentration camps. Determining who lives and who dies was done mainly by separating those who are healthy and able to work from those who are not. So in order for these inmates to survive, they had to make themselves appear as healthy and work-capable as possible for as long as possible.
Making this work was a struggle for most people. But for those that made it off of the train and into the cells of the concentration camp, there was a sliver of hope.
This hope came from the letters and packages that they were allowed to receive from home, and also the forced labor gave them a sense of life security as long as they did their job better than everyone else. From these three things, the people of Auschwitz were able to not only survive, but conquer the concentration camps and everyone running it as well.
In the beginning of Auschwitz, letters and packages from home or anywhere else outside of the concentration camp were forbidden. However, as Tadeusz Borowski explains, things were getting better.
After a while people who were not Jewish were allowed to send and receive letters and gifts from back home. These gifts usually consisted of homemade foods, or some sort of clothing for the receiver and played a huge part in the survival of those held captive. They would either eat the food or use items themselves or trade it with others in the camp for other goods or services. For example, in one of the short stories, one of the prisoner-workers says the wrong thing to the guard, who was also a prisoner, and threatens to report the prisoner for sentencing to the gas chambers.
But before this happens, the prisoner has his friend go talk to his boss and try to work something out and ends up trading a watch sent from home for the safety of the prisoner. The entire goal in the camp is to remain as strong and healthy as possible for as long as possible. The gifts sent from home made this a little easier. The food kept them from becoming starved and therefore too weak to work and the clothes made them look more well-kept and just overall pleasing to the eye as compared rags or, in some cases, nothing.
The people in these camps did not just fend for themselves though. Together, the whole group tried to keep each other alive as best they could. They shared their food with those who need it, those who do not have families to write to or receive things from. For example, during a lunch break while working at the concentration camp, everyone is allowed one bowl of soup and those selected by the watchman are allowed to have two bowls because they want the strong workers to stay strong so that they can work longer instead of wasting their food on those headed for the gas chambers.
One of the workers who were allowed two bowls of soup gave his second bowl away to his friend because he was weaker and did not want to see his friend head into the gas chambers. The people in the camps developed relationships with each other than none of us can even imagine. Somehow, the fear for their lives and the struggle to stay alive brought these people from different backgrounds together kind of like a family and made them care for each other in way which normally they would not, for instance, giving up their own scarce source of food for the benefit of the weak.
Also, these new-found friendships gave them a purpose to stay alive, and a sense of hope. Another sense of hope for those held prisoner was the letters sent from family and friends back home. Being able to communicate with them and tell them what was happening gave the prisoners a feeling that this was only temporary and that once it was over, life would return to normal and everything would be fine. Not everyone was allowed to receive these letters though. For a while, Jews were not allowed to communicate with the outside world, but once the rules were changed, mail spread like wildfire.
These letters can be seen as a safe way to vent about what is happening to them without being judged by those around them or punished for it by the guards and those running the concentration camps. In these letters, the prisoners talked mostly of the death they have witnessed, the poverty they live in, and the people they have met. Besides all of the gruesome sights they had witnessed they also talked of the past; the way life used to be. In one letter I read, the writer spoke of his family. He described the beauty of his wife in great detail and the town he used to live in.
He recalled the day they met and the day his kids were born. All these things lead to one thing: hope. Thinking of and being reminded of the way things used to be always seemed to bring joy to the prisoners. In a way it is not the letters themselves that create a good feeling, but the memories they store inside of them. These memories kept a certain fire alive and burning in each of the prisoners, one that allowed them to continue to put up with the Nazi army and not rally against them, in the hopes of making it out alive.
Another thing these letters did was that just by hearing from their families, more hope was created. Most of the time, these letters were coming into concentration camps from those who were not imprisoned. Therefore, constantly receiving the letters and hearing about life outside of the camps gave them that extra assurance that their families and loved ones were okay. It also allowed for the prisoners to sleep better at night which allowed them to be fully rested and ready to work the next morning, which in turn allowed them to stay alive and out of the gas chambers.
Although letters and packages were an excellent way to stay motivated and keep healthy, that was not the most reliable way to stay alive. The best way was to prove their usefulness within the camp was by working for the guards and other commanders within the camp. By proving themselves useful, they would, at least for the moment, be saved from the gas chambers simply because they could be used to improve their overall goal and make the camps bigger and more optimized for larger transports and groups of prisoners. There were several jobs in which a prisoner could be assigned to.
For instance, women were often assigned the duty of sorting through the newcomers’ clothes, shoes, and other personal belongings to be sent back to Germany for use there. Others were taught to be barbers and work in the kitchens, preparing the meals for the workers and other fortunate members of the concentration camp. Still others were forced to work in coal mines or miscellaneous construction projects such as digging or cleaning out ditches along highways that had been built by the hand of other prisoners by the order of the Nazis.
These last groups of people were exposed to the worst of conditions because of the harsh outdoor climates and their lack of breaks they were allowed to take. It was not uncommon to have the weak weeded out by these tasks, but those who worked harder and stronger than the others had their lives secured so long as they could keep it up. All-in-all there were three things that kept the people of Auschwitz alive and well: the letters and packages sent from home as well as work they were forced to do.
All of these things combined managed to instill a surprising amount of hope in the victims of this terrible new government that had set in. Not only did it make them feel hope for themselves, but they grew together as a group and developed hopefulness for the other people in the prison. They grew together as a family, which allowed for their will to survive to grow and become even stronger than it was before. These people fed off of the vibes of one another, and if one person had hope than the whole group of people had a bit of hope instilled upon them as well.
Cite this This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen: Term Paper Essay
This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen: Term Paper Essay. (2016, Oct 22). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/this-way-for-the-gas-ladies-and-gentlemen-term-paper/ | <urn:uuid:22b119b0-40ec-433a-9a7b-06c7b0af1f4d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/this-way-for-the-gas-ladies-and-gentlemen-term-paper/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.989894 | 1,699 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.34256303310394... | 1 | This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen: Term Paper Essay
Rebecca Klotz His 102 Dr. LaPierre April 24, 2013 This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen During the time of World War II, people considered inferior to the Nazis were sent off to concentration camps. Determining who lives and who dies was done mainly by separating those who are healthy and able to work from those who are not. So in order for these inmates to survive, they had to make themselves appear as healthy and work-capable as possible for as long as possible.
Making this work was a struggle for most people. But for those that made it off of the train and into the cells of the concentration camp, there was a sliver of hope.
This hope came from the letters and packages that they were allowed to receive from home, and also the forced labor gave them a sense of life security as long as they did their job better than everyone else. From these three things, the people of Auschwitz were able to not only survive, but conquer the concentration camps and everyone running it as well.
In the beginning of Auschwitz, letters and packages from home or anywhere else outside of the concentration camp were forbidden. However, as Tadeusz Borowski explains, things were getting better.
After a while people who were not Jewish were allowed to send and receive letters and gifts from back home. These gifts usually consisted of homemade foods, or some sort of clothing for the receiver and played a huge part in the survival of those held captive. They would either eat the food or use items themselves or trade it with others in the camp for other goods or services. For example, in one of the short stories, one of the prisoner-workers says the wrong thing to the guard, who was also a prisoner, and threatens to report the prisoner for sentencing to the gas chambers.
But before this happens, the prisoner has his friend go talk to his boss and try to work something out and ends up trading a watch sent from home for the safety of the prisoner. The entire goal in the camp is to remain as strong and healthy as possible for as long as possible. The gifts sent from home made this a little easier. The food kept them from becoming starved and therefore too weak to work and the clothes made them look more well-kept and just overall pleasing to the eye as compared rags or, in some cases, nothing.
The people in these camps did not just fend for themselves though. Together, the whole group tried to keep each other alive as best they could. They shared their food with those who need it, those who do not have families to write to or receive things from. For example, during a lunch break while working at the concentration camp, everyone is allowed one bowl of soup and those selected by the watchman are allowed to have two bowls because they want the strong workers to stay strong so that they can work longer instead of wasting their food on those headed for the gas chambers.
One of the workers who were allowed two bowls of soup gave his second bowl away to his friend because he was weaker and did not want to see his friend head into the gas chambers. The people in the camps developed relationships with each other than none of us can even imagine. Somehow, the fear for their lives and the struggle to stay alive brought these people from different backgrounds together kind of like a family and made them care for each other in way which normally they would not, for instance, giving up their own scarce source of food for the benefit of the weak.
Also, these new-found friendships gave them a purpose to stay alive, and a sense of hope. Another sense of hope for those held prisoner was the letters sent from family and friends back home. Being able to communicate with them and tell them what was happening gave the prisoners a feeling that this was only temporary and that once it was over, life would return to normal and everything would be fine. Not everyone was allowed to receive these letters though. For a while, Jews were not allowed to communicate with the outside world, but once the rules were changed, mail spread like wildfire.
These letters can be seen as a safe way to vent about what is happening to them without being judged by those around them or punished for it by the guards and those running the concentration camps. In these letters, the prisoners talked mostly of the death they have witnessed, the poverty they live in, and the people they have met. Besides all of the gruesome sights they had witnessed they also talked of the past; the way life used to be. In one letter I read, the writer spoke of his family. He described the beauty of his wife in great detail and the town he used to live in.
He recalled the day they met and the day his kids were born. All these things lead to one thing: hope. Thinking of and being reminded of the way things used to be always seemed to bring joy to the prisoners. In a way it is not the letters themselves that create a good feeling, but the memories they store inside of them. These memories kept a certain fire alive and burning in each of the prisoners, one that allowed them to continue to put up with the Nazi army and not rally against them, in the hopes of making it out alive.
Another thing these letters did was that just by hearing from their families, more hope was created. Most of the time, these letters were coming into concentration camps from those who were not imprisoned. Therefore, constantly receiving the letters and hearing about life outside of the camps gave them that extra assurance that their families and loved ones were okay. It also allowed for the prisoners to sleep better at night which allowed them to be fully rested and ready to work the next morning, which in turn allowed them to stay alive and out of the gas chambers.
Although letters and packages were an excellent way to stay motivated and keep healthy, that was not the most reliable way to stay alive. The best way was to prove their usefulness within the camp was by working for the guards and other commanders within the camp. By proving themselves useful, they would, at least for the moment, be saved from the gas chambers simply because they could be used to improve their overall goal and make the camps bigger and more optimized for larger transports and groups of prisoners. There were several jobs in which a prisoner could be assigned to.
For instance, women were often assigned the duty of sorting through the newcomers’ clothes, shoes, and other personal belongings to be sent back to Germany for use there. Others were taught to be barbers and work in the kitchens, preparing the meals for the workers and other fortunate members of the concentration camp. Still others were forced to work in coal mines or miscellaneous construction projects such as digging or cleaning out ditches along highways that had been built by the hand of other prisoners by the order of the Nazis.
These last groups of people were exposed to the worst of conditions because of the harsh outdoor climates and their lack of breaks they were allowed to take. It was not uncommon to have the weak weeded out by these tasks, but those who worked harder and stronger than the others had their lives secured so long as they could keep it up. All-in-all there were three things that kept the people of Auschwitz alive and well: the letters and packages sent from home as well as work they were forced to do.
All of these things combined managed to instill a surprising amount of hope in the victims of this terrible new government that had set in. Not only did it make them feel hope for themselves, but they grew together as a group and developed hopefulness for the other people in the prison. They grew together as a family, which allowed for their will to survive to grow and become even stronger than it was before. These people fed off of the vibes of one another, and if one person had hope than the whole group of people had a bit of hope instilled upon them as well.
Cite this This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen: Term Paper Essay
This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen: Term Paper Essay. (2016, Oct 22). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/this-way-for-the-gas-ladies-and-gentlemen-term-paper/ | 1,677 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles Darwin, the son of a wealthy doctor/financier, originally studied medicine before developing a fascination with natural history. While traveling aboard the HMS Beagle as a “self-financed naturalist”, he collected flora and fauna from many different parts of the world, one of which, the Galapagos Islands specifically influenced his work On the Origin of Species. The island had species that, although geographically isolated, shared similar traits with species from nearby South America. His idea was that although they shared similar ancestors, each of these species had developed traits beneficial to their survival in their own respective environments.The… Read the rest here
Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England in 1809. Darwin was from a family of scientists. His father was a medical doctor and his grandfather was a botanist. His mother died when Darwin was just eight years old. Darwin’s family was wealthy and was able to send him to Edinburgh University at age sixteen. He then attended Christ’s College in Cambridge. At Christ’s College, Darwin’s botany professor, John Stevens Henslow, recommended Darwin for a position as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle.… Read the rest here
John Hall Gladstone’s interest in science and religion began during his childhood. He and his three brothers were tutored throughout their youth. They became quite interested in natural science through this education. Gladstone furthered his interest in science while attending chemistry lectures during his time at University College London. Additionally, during his adolescence, he held a great passion for religion and claimed he wanted to work for the ministry. In 1850, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society, a prestigious group of European scientists who contributed a fair amount of research and work to the natural sciences.… Read the rest here
Author: Charles Darwin (1802-1882) was an English naturalist and geologist, whose contributions to evolutionary theory were significant. He was born into a wealthy family, and his father was a doctor, which Darwin almost pursued as a career path. His family was largely Unitarian. Darwin was highly critical of the Bible as a source of history, and traveled the world in order to disprove many of the Bible’s scientific stances.
Context: 1859, when much of the world believed in the Bible as an explanation for the science of the natural world.… Read the rest here | <urn:uuid:fdd51651-a954-4396-a4ed-b8ff3e4ab282> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.dickinson.edu/quallsk/tag/on-the-origin-of-species/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.985493 | 499 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.19863107800483704,... | 2 | Charles Darwin, the son of a wealthy doctor/financier, originally studied medicine before developing a fascination with natural history. While traveling aboard the HMS Beagle as a “self-financed naturalist”, he collected flora and fauna from many different parts of the world, one of which, the Galapagos Islands specifically influenced his work On the Origin of Species. The island had species that, although geographically isolated, shared similar traits with species from nearby South America. His idea was that although they shared similar ancestors, each of these species had developed traits beneficial to their survival in their own respective environments.The… Read the rest here
Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England in 1809. Darwin was from a family of scientists. His father was a medical doctor and his grandfather was a botanist. His mother died when Darwin was just eight years old. Darwin’s family was wealthy and was able to send him to Edinburgh University at age sixteen. He then attended Christ’s College in Cambridge. At Christ’s College, Darwin’s botany professor, John Stevens Henslow, recommended Darwin for a position as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle.… Read the rest here
John Hall Gladstone’s interest in science and religion began during his childhood. He and his three brothers were tutored throughout their youth. They became quite interested in natural science through this education. Gladstone furthered his interest in science while attending chemistry lectures during his time at University College London. Additionally, during his adolescence, he held a great passion for religion and claimed he wanted to work for the ministry. In 1850, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society, a prestigious group of European scientists who contributed a fair amount of research and work to the natural sciences.… Read the rest here
Author: Charles Darwin (1802-1882) was an English naturalist and geologist, whose contributions to evolutionary theory were significant. He was born into a wealthy family, and his father was a doctor, which Darwin almost pursued as a career path. His family was largely Unitarian. Darwin was highly critical of the Bible as a source of history, and traveled the world in order to disprove many of the Bible’s scientific stances.
Context: 1859, when much of the world believed in the Bible as an explanation for the science of the natural world.… Read the rest here | 493 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (c. 1475 - 1530), born in Ipswich, Suffolk, England, was an English statesman and a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was the most powerful person in England for many years.
The son of a butcher, Wolsey was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford and then headed the college school before becoming a personal chaplain, first to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and then to the governor of Calais where he met Henry VII. In due course he became Henry's personal chaplain before being appointed Dean of Lincoln.
When Henry VIII became king in 1509, Wolsey's affairs prospered. He became Canon of Windsor in 1511, the same year in which he became a member of the Privy Council. His political star was in the ascendant and he soon became the controlling figure in all matters of state. In 1514, he was made Bishop of Lincoln, and then Archbishop of York. Pope Leo X made him a cardinal in 1515. In 1523 he was made Prince-Bishop of Durham Wolsey loved display and wealth. He lived in royal splendour and revelled in his power; his long-term ambition was to become pope.
Around 1525 Wolsey used his powers as papal legate to dissolve abbeys in Oxford and Ipswich to establish his own university colleges. The college in Oxford was originally named Cardinal College, but was renamed King's College after his fall. Today it is known as Christ Church.
Cardinal Wolsey spent his great abilities as a statesman and administrator mainly in managing England's foreign affairs for Henry VIII. Despite the many enemies his greed and ambition earned him, he held Henry VIII's confidence until Henry decided to seek a church annulment (sometimes called a 'divorce' but it wasn't in the modern sense of the word) of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn.
The reason for the annulment request was complex; his marriage to Catherine had produced no sons that survived childhood, leading to threats of a power-struggle after his death. His daughter, Mary, was at the time considered unable to hold the country together and continue the Tudor dynasty (England had not to then had a reigning queen). Henry VIII became convinced that their inability to have a male heir that survived childhood was due to his marrying Catherine, who was Arthur, Prince of Wales's widow, (Arthur was his older brother; Henry VIII considered the marriage contrary to biblical rules). Henry VIII further believed that the formal permission for his marriage to Catherine received originally from the Pope was invalid because it was based on the presumption that Catherine was still a virgin on her first husband's death (Henry claimed that was not the case and thus the papal permission and the ensuing marriage were invalid).
Catherine disputed the fact and insisted that she had been a virgin when she married King Henry; the fact that he had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn and believed a second marriage would provide a much desired male heir. However the fact that Queen Catherine was opposed to the annulment and a return to her previous status as Dowager Princess of Wales made the annulment request a matter caught up in international diplomacy, with Catherine's nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V threatening the pope if his aunt's marriage to Henry was annulled. Wolsey, aware of the diplomatic complexities and the fact that, facing a physical threat to his own life should he grant the annulment, the Pope was reluctant to grant the annulment, himself was slow in arranging the request. This delay angered the king, and made Wolsey an enemy of Anne Boleyn and her friends at court.
Wolsey's fall was sudden and complete. He was stripped of his government office and property, including his magnificently expanded residence of York Place, which Henry chose to replace the Palace of Westminster as his own main London residence. However Wolsey was permitted to remain Archbishop of York. But shortly afterward, he was accused of treason and ordered to London. In great distress, he set out for the capital with his personal chaplain Edmund Bonner. Wolsey fell ill and died on the way, at Leicester. "If I had served God," the cardinal said remorsefully, "as diligently as I have done the king, He would not have given me over in my grey hairs."
In keeping with his practice of erecting magnificent buildings, Wolsey had designed a grand tomb for himself, but he lost it, just as he had lost Hampton Court. Wolsey was buried in Leicester Abbey without any monument at all, and Henry VIII considered using the impressive black sarcophagus for himself, but Lord Nelson now lies in it, in the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral.
- Naked to Mine Enemies: The Life of Cardinal Wolsey (2 volumes, ©1958) by Charles W. Ferguson
- The King's Cardinal: The Rise and fall of Thomas Wolsey, by Peter Gwyn, pub 1990
- The Life and Death of Cardinal Wolsey, by George Cavendish (gentleman usher to Thomas Wolsey)
William SmithChristopher BainbridgeThomas Ruthall | <urn:uuid:c62f0ab0-db02-4429-bc96-c778bd22a019> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Cardinal-Wolsey | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00546.warc.gz | en | 0.988779 | 1,065 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.00312... | 1 | Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (c. 1475 - 1530), born in Ipswich, Suffolk, England, was an English statesman and a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was the most powerful person in England for many years.
The son of a butcher, Wolsey was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford and then headed the college school before becoming a personal chaplain, first to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and then to the governor of Calais where he met Henry VII. In due course he became Henry's personal chaplain before being appointed Dean of Lincoln.
When Henry VIII became king in 1509, Wolsey's affairs prospered. He became Canon of Windsor in 1511, the same year in which he became a member of the Privy Council. His political star was in the ascendant and he soon became the controlling figure in all matters of state. In 1514, he was made Bishop of Lincoln, and then Archbishop of York. Pope Leo X made him a cardinal in 1515. In 1523 he was made Prince-Bishop of Durham Wolsey loved display and wealth. He lived in royal splendour and revelled in his power; his long-term ambition was to become pope.
Around 1525 Wolsey used his powers as papal legate to dissolve abbeys in Oxford and Ipswich to establish his own university colleges. The college in Oxford was originally named Cardinal College, but was renamed King's College after his fall. Today it is known as Christ Church.
Cardinal Wolsey spent his great abilities as a statesman and administrator mainly in managing England's foreign affairs for Henry VIII. Despite the many enemies his greed and ambition earned him, he held Henry VIII's confidence until Henry decided to seek a church annulment (sometimes called a 'divorce' but it wasn't in the modern sense of the word) of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn.
The reason for the annulment request was complex; his marriage to Catherine had produced no sons that survived childhood, leading to threats of a power-struggle after his death. His daughter, Mary, was at the time considered unable to hold the country together and continue the Tudor dynasty (England had not to then had a reigning queen). Henry VIII became convinced that their inability to have a male heir that survived childhood was due to his marrying Catherine, who was Arthur, Prince of Wales's widow, (Arthur was his older brother; Henry VIII considered the marriage contrary to biblical rules). Henry VIII further believed that the formal permission for his marriage to Catherine received originally from the Pope was invalid because it was based on the presumption that Catherine was still a virgin on her first husband's death (Henry claimed that was not the case and thus the papal permission and the ensuing marriage were invalid).
Catherine disputed the fact and insisted that she had been a virgin when she married King Henry; the fact that he had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn and believed a second marriage would provide a much desired male heir. However the fact that Queen Catherine was opposed to the annulment and a return to her previous status as Dowager Princess of Wales made the annulment request a matter caught up in international diplomacy, with Catherine's nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V threatening the pope if his aunt's marriage to Henry was annulled. Wolsey, aware of the diplomatic complexities and the fact that, facing a physical threat to his own life should he grant the annulment, the Pope was reluctant to grant the annulment, himself was slow in arranging the request. This delay angered the king, and made Wolsey an enemy of Anne Boleyn and her friends at court.
Wolsey's fall was sudden and complete. He was stripped of his government office and property, including his magnificently expanded residence of York Place, which Henry chose to replace the Palace of Westminster as his own main London residence. However Wolsey was permitted to remain Archbishop of York. But shortly afterward, he was accused of treason and ordered to London. In great distress, he set out for the capital with his personal chaplain Edmund Bonner. Wolsey fell ill and died on the way, at Leicester. "If I had served God," the cardinal said remorsefully, "as diligently as I have done the king, He would not have given me over in my grey hairs."
In keeping with his practice of erecting magnificent buildings, Wolsey had designed a grand tomb for himself, but he lost it, just as he had lost Hampton Court. Wolsey was buried in Leicester Abbey without any monument at all, and Henry VIII considered using the impressive black sarcophagus for himself, but Lord Nelson now lies in it, in the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral.
- Naked to Mine Enemies: The Life of Cardinal Wolsey (2 volumes, ©1958) by Charles W. Ferguson
- The King's Cardinal: The Rise and fall of Thomas Wolsey, by Peter Gwyn, pub 1990
- The Life and Death of Cardinal Wolsey, by George Cavendish (gentleman usher to Thomas Wolsey)
William SmithChristopher BainbridgeThomas Ruthall | 1,083 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scientists and people have always wondered how the people in Stone Age and before had looked life. All the possible explanations till now were based on artists’ imagination, but that is now changing. Scientists from University of Copenhagen have succeeded in creating an illustration of a Stone Age woman, thanks to a very old chewing gum that was recovered earlier. Birch Pitch, based on which the chewing gum was made, was found in South Denmark and this contained enough DNA to extract a complete genome. All the data is based on this genome.
Analysis of the collected DNA had revealed that the chewing gum was used by a woman, who had dark skin, dark hair and blue eyes. An illustration based on this information was made by professionals, and this is the very first image that we have of the Stone Age people. The scientists believe that the women can be closely connected to the hunter-gatherer communities that had lived in mainland Europe, although the possibility of Scandinavian origin is not ignored. The woman is now being referred to as ‘Lola,’ and it was published in a journal named Nature Communications.
“It is amazing to have gotten a complete ancient human genome from anything other than bone. What is more, we also retrieved DNA from oral microbes and several important human pathogens, which makes this a very valuable source of ancient DNA, especially for time periods where we have no human remains,” said Hannes Schroeder, who is the project leader and an associate professor at Global Institute, the University of Copenhagen. He also added that this project would be useful in understanding how pathogens have evolved in the course of time. This would also help in preparing the medical field for the future. | <urn:uuid:b9f51dae-41b8-4426-8a97-bfb88260d00a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://dailybusinessgazette.com/scientists-have-revealed-the-face-of-stone-age-woman-thanks-to-recovered-dna/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.985623 | 339 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.145708382129669... | 6 | Scientists and people have always wondered how the people in Stone Age and before had looked life. All the possible explanations till now were based on artists’ imagination, but that is now changing. Scientists from University of Copenhagen have succeeded in creating an illustration of a Stone Age woman, thanks to a very old chewing gum that was recovered earlier. Birch Pitch, based on which the chewing gum was made, was found in South Denmark and this contained enough DNA to extract a complete genome. All the data is based on this genome.
Analysis of the collected DNA had revealed that the chewing gum was used by a woman, who had dark skin, dark hair and blue eyes. An illustration based on this information was made by professionals, and this is the very first image that we have of the Stone Age people. The scientists believe that the women can be closely connected to the hunter-gatherer communities that had lived in mainland Europe, although the possibility of Scandinavian origin is not ignored. The woman is now being referred to as ‘Lola,’ and it was published in a journal named Nature Communications.
“It is amazing to have gotten a complete ancient human genome from anything other than bone. What is more, we also retrieved DNA from oral microbes and several important human pathogens, which makes this a very valuable source of ancient DNA, especially for time periods where we have no human remains,” said Hannes Schroeder, who is the project leader and an associate professor at Global Institute, the University of Copenhagen. He also added that this project would be useful in understanding how pathogens have evolved in the course of time. This would also help in preparing the medical field for the future. | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most of us have experienced being with family and friends at Thanksgiving, but have we really thought about how thankful we should be during this time of year? As we think back to the beginnings of this holiday, we are able to see just how blessed we are today.
We currently celebrate Thanksgiving Day on the fourth Thursday of November, and this has been an annual tradition since 1863 in the United States. Historically, Thanksgiving was a religious observance to give thanks to God for our blessings. However, today Thanksgiving consists of football, turkey dinner, pumpkin pie, Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade and plans for shopping the following day in order to get all the good bargains.
History tells us that the first Thanksgiving came about as a celebration feast of the Pilgrims in Plymouth, Massachusetts. These Pilgrims sailed from Plymouth, England in 1620 aboard a ship called the Mayflower, hoping to escape religious persecution in their own land. After setting sail in September, they sighted land, settling at Plymouth, Massachusetts in December of 1620. Their first winter in a strange land was very severe, and many of their number died from the harsh conditions in the “new world.” However, the local Native Americans were friendly toward them and helped to get them through the winter by sharing their food and teaching the new settlers how to grow and store various foods.
By the next winter, 1621, the Pilgrims had raised enough food to stay alive, and decided to have a community feast. This was a harvest feast in which they invited their Native American friends to celebrate with them. Their foods consisted of Indian corn, barley, pumpkins, waterfowl, deer and fish. It was possible that wild turkey was eaten; however, the term “turkey” was used by the Pilgrims to designate all types of wild fowl. These early settlers could not have lived if their Indian friends had not introduced them to such things as turtles, oysters, shad, codfish and clams.
By their third year in Plymouth, the Pilgrims did not have a good harvest due to a drought. Because of these conditions, their governor, William Bradford, ordered a day of prayer and fasting; rain happened to follow soon, and they celebrated. This celebration was declared on November 29 of that year, with a day of thanksgiving proclaimed. And this date is thought to be the true beginning of our present Thanksgiving Day.
In 1789, George Washington proclaimed a National Day of thanksgiving. However, some of the colonists disagreed with this because they did not think that the hardships of a “handful” of pilgrims should dictate a national holiday! Then, in 1863, President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed the last Thursday in November as a national day of Thanksgiving. This was due to Sarah Josepha Hale, editor of Godey’s Lady’s Book, which was America’s first successful women’s magazine. Hale campaigned forty years for Thanksgiving to be established as a national holiday, and did not rest until that happened!
After Lincoln, every president has proclaimed Thanksgiving as a holiday, even though the date has been changed several times. President Franklin Roosevelt set the date for Thanksgiving on the next to last Thursday in order to have a longer Christmas shopping season. However, this caused controversy with the public, and the president moved the date back to its original time of the last Thursday in the month. Then, in 1941, Thanksgiving was finally proclaimed by Congress as a legal holiday to be celebrated on the fourth Thursday in November.
As we celebrate our Thanksgiving this year, many of us will have turkey, dressing, gravy, cranberries or cranberry sauce and pumpkin pie. We can thank the Native Americans for being the first to use cranberries as food, since introducing them to the starving English settlers in Massachusetts. The turkey is mentioned in many accounts of the new colony in America as being part of the “fowl” served at the first Thanksgiving. Pumpkin is also mentioned as part of the first Thanksgiving, but not as we know it today. The Pilgrims ate pumpkin that was boiled, but not in pie as we do. By the time of their harvest celebration, they had run out of most of their staples, including flour to make something similar to our pie crust. The settlers also made a type of fried bread from corn, but had no milk, potatoes or butter. It is hard for us to imagine cooking a Thanksgiving dinner without some of these items.
This Thanksgiving as we sit at a table full of delicious foods, let us not forget to thank God for all we have, and to remember how this time of celebration came about. We also need to remember those who are keeping watch on our behalf, allowing us to have freedom to enjoy another Thanksgiving. We should all remember to study the past in order to live in the present and prepare for the future. | <urn:uuid:d4961e20-0ff7-49ba-b9fd-6365ae035f14> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.rheaheraldnews.com/lifestyles/article_5a3f7cbe-0d64-11ea-a9df-e78a8a60faa3.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00113.warc.gz | en | 0.981493 | 1,000 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.19354805350... | 1 | Most of us have experienced being with family and friends at Thanksgiving, but have we really thought about how thankful we should be during this time of year? As we think back to the beginnings of this holiday, we are able to see just how blessed we are today.
We currently celebrate Thanksgiving Day on the fourth Thursday of November, and this has been an annual tradition since 1863 in the United States. Historically, Thanksgiving was a religious observance to give thanks to God for our blessings. However, today Thanksgiving consists of football, turkey dinner, pumpkin pie, Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade and plans for shopping the following day in order to get all the good bargains.
History tells us that the first Thanksgiving came about as a celebration feast of the Pilgrims in Plymouth, Massachusetts. These Pilgrims sailed from Plymouth, England in 1620 aboard a ship called the Mayflower, hoping to escape religious persecution in their own land. After setting sail in September, they sighted land, settling at Plymouth, Massachusetts in December of 1620. Their first winter in a strange land was very severe, and many of their number died from the harsh conditions in the “new world.” However, the local Native Americans were friendly toward them and helped to get them through the winter by sharing their food and teaching the new settlers how to grow and store various foods.
By the next winter, 1621, the Pilgrims had raised enough food to stay alive, and decided to have a community feast. This was a harvest feast in which they invited their Native American friends to celebrate with them. Their foods consisted of Indian corn, barley, pumpkins, waterfowl, deer and fish. It was possible that wild turkey was eaten; however, the term “turkey” was used by the Pilgrims to designate all types of wild fowl. These early settlers could not have lived if their Indian friends had not introduced them to such things as turtles, oysters, shad, codfish and clams.
By their third year in Plymouth, the Pilgrims did not have a good harvest due to a drought. Because of these conditions, their governor, William Bradford, ordered a day of prayer and fasting; rain happened to follow soon, and they celebrated. This celebration was declared on November 29 of that year, with a day of thanksgiving proclaimed. And this date is thought to be the true beginning of our present Thanksgiving Day.
In 1789, George Washington proclaimed a National Day of thanksgiving. However, some of the colonists disagreed with this because they did not think that the hardships of a “handful” of pilgrims should dictate a national holiday! Then, in 1863, President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed the last Thursday in November as a national day of Thanksgiving. This was due to Sarah Josepha Hale, editor of Godey’s Lady’s Book, which was America’s first successful women’s magazine. Hale campaigned forty years for Thanksgiving to be established as a national holiday, and did not rest until that happened!
After Lincoln, every president has proclaimed Thanksgiving as a holiday, even though the date has been changed several times. President Franklin Roosevelt set the date for Thanksgiving on the next to last Thursday in order to have a longer Christmas shopping season. However, this caused controversy with the public, and the president moved the date back to its original time of the last Thursday in the month. Then, in 1941, Thanksgiving was finally proclaimed by Congress as a legal holiday to be celebrated on the fourth Thursday in November.
As we celebrate our Thanksgiving this year, many of us will have turkey, dressing, gravy, cranberries or cranberry sauce and pumpkin pie. We can thank the Native Americans for being the first to use cranberries as food, since introducing them to the starving English settlers in Massachusetts. The turkey is mentioned in many accounts of the new colony in America as being part of the “fowl” served at the first Thanksgiving. Pumpkin is also mentioned as part of the first Thanksgiving, but not as we know it today. The Pilgrims ate pumpkin that was boiled, but not in pie as we do. By the time of their harvest celebration, they had run out of most of their staples, including flour to make something similar to our pie crust. The settlers also made a type of fried bread from corn, but had no milk, potatoes or butter. It is hard for us to imagine cooking a Thanksgiving dinner without some of these items.
This Thanksgiving as we sit at a table full of delicious foods, let us not forget to thank God for all we have, and to remember how this time of celebration came about. We also need to remember those who are keeping watch on our behalf, allowing us to have freedom to enjoy another Thanksgiving. We should all remember to study the past in order to live in the present and prepare for the future. | 1,002 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nothing But The Trooth
Here at the British Library we’re famous for our April Fool blogposts. Who can forget the discovery of the unicorn cookbook, the time we encountered the Loch Ness monster, or the alien spaceship we found illustrated in a medieval calendar? But this year we’ve decided to keep to the straight and narrow. No jokes this year. Honest.
Instead, we’re going to bring you the teeth of King John. Yes, King John of Magna Carta fame, who notoriously snarled and gnashed his teeth when forced to concede the Great Charter in 1215 (at least, that’s what we’re led to believe) and who, to judge by the evidence, was in need of a very good dentist. At the Library we have two of John’s molars on display in our Magna Carta exhibition, and we’re not making that up. The gnashers in question were reportedly removed from the king’s tomb at Worcester Cathedral when it was opened in 1797, by one William Wood, a stationer’s apprentice. Next to the teeth we have on show a note recording their return, together with an account of the opening of the tomb. The molars have been kindly loaned to us for the duration of the exhibition by our friends at Worcester City Art Gallery and Museum.
So, in this week when another medieval English monarch was interred at Leicester Cathedral, what can we learn about Bad King John from his teeth? For starters, John must have been in an exceedingly foul mood when Magna Carta was presented to him, to judge by the state of his molars. X-rays were made of the two royal teeth that still survive outside the coffin, and we are indebted to Professor Jason Buschman of the University of Oklahoma, who wrote to tell us that one of the teeth is a lower molar, most likely "number 30 or 31 in palmer notation”. The dentist who made the x-ray reported that one of the teeth was exposed at the root, meaning that King John would have been in great pain: in his case, "abscess didn't really make the heart grow fonder".
We can also speculate for the first time as to King John's diet. When his body was examined in 1797 by Mr Sandford, a surgeon from Worcester, it was reported that only four teeth survived in his "upper jaw". We are often led to believe that people in the Middle Ages had better teeth than their modern counterparts, due to the lack of sugar in their diet. Had John's gnashers started to fall out in his old age? One doctor we consulted suggested that King John may have imbibed too much runny mead during his lifetime (did it give him the runs?). What we can deduce, however, is that John may have suffered from chronic toothache in his final years, which potentially prompted his abysmal fits of temper, leading the barons to rebel against him. Did the king have more on his mind in June 1215 than simply putting his seal to Magna Carta?
After King John had died (in 1216), the monastic chronicler Matthew Paris wrote, "Foul though Hell is, it is made fouler still by the presence of John". Or, to put it another way, King John, "Fangs for the memories".
Of course, this may all be an April Fool after all ... if they were royal teeth, surely they would have a crown? | <urn:uuid:e6740713-ace4-4034-a3a0-cebf25f74011> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.bl.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/2015/03/nothing-but-the-trooth.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.987403 | 732 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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Here at the British Library we’re famous for our April Fool blogposts. Who can forget the discovery of the unicorn cookbook, the time we encountered the Loch Ness monster, or the alien spaceship we found illustrated in a medieval calendar? But this year we’ve decided to keep to the straight and narrow. No jokes this year. Honest.
Instead, we’re going to bring you the teeth of King John. Yes, King John of Magna Carta fame, who notoriously snarled and gnashed his teeth when forced to concede the Great Charter in 1215 (at least, that’s what we’re led to believe) and who, to judge by the evidence, was in need of a very good dentist. At the Library we have two of John’s molars on display in our Magna Carta exhibition, and we’re not making that up. The gnashers in question were reportedly removed from the king’s tomb at Worcester Cathedral when it was opened in 1797, by one William Wood, a stationer’s apprentice. Next to the teeth we have on show a note recording their return, together with an account of the opening of the tomb. The molars have been kindly loaned to us for the duration of the exhibition by our friends at Worcester City Art Gallery and Museum.
So, in this week when another medieval English monarch was interred at Leicester Cathedral, what can we learn about Bad King John from his teeth? For starters, John must have been in an exceedingly foul mood when Magna Carta was presented to him, to judge by the state of his molars. X-rays were made of the two royal teeth that still survive outside the coffin, and we are indebted to Professor Jason Buschman of the University of Oklahoma, who wrote to tell us that one of the teeth is a lower molar, most likely "number 30 or 31 in palmer notation”. The dentist who made the x-ray reported that one of the teeth was exposed at the root, meaning that King John would have been in great pain: in his case, "abscess didn't really make the heart grow fonder".
We can also speculate for the first time as to King John's diet. When his body was examined in 1797 by Mr Sandford, a surgeon from Worcester, it was reported that only four teeth survived in his "upper jaw". We are often led to believe that people in the Middle Ages had better teeth than their modern counterparts, due to the lack of sugar in their diet. Had John's gnashers started to fall out in his old age? One doctor we consulted suggested that King John may have imbibed too much runny mead during his lifetime (did it give him the runs?). What we can deduce, however, is that John may have suffered from chronic toothache in his final years, which potentially prompted his abysmal fits of temper, leading the barons to rebel against him. Did the king have more on his mind in June 1215 than simply putting his seal to Magna Carta?
After King John had died (in 1216), the monastic chronicler Matthew Paris wrote, "Foul though Hell is, it is made fouler still by the presence of John". Or, to put it another way, King John, "Fangs for the memories".
Of course, this may all be an April Fool after all ... if they were royal teeth, surely they would have a crown? | 723 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How did Cleopatra rise to and maintain her power? Not much is known about her life since she lived so long ago, but what is known is enough to piece together some of her life story. Cleopatra was a strong and intelligent woman who made it through all the struggle and strife of the ancient world until it became too much for her. Cleopatra’s reign began and ended with tragedy, but was maintained by exploited love connections.
Cleopatra VII Philopator was born in 69 B.C. in Alexandria, Egypt. (“Cleopatra: The Woman…”) Her father was Ptolemy XII. Her mother was speculated to be Cleopatra V Tryphaena, who was possibly her father’s half-sister. (“Cleopatra.”) She had five siblings which included two older sisters, two younger brothers, and a younger sister. Both of her older sisters are suspected to have died before her rule. . (“Cleopatra: The Woman…”)
Cleopatra was the Queen of Egypt, but she was of Macedonian Greek descent. Her family had ruled since the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. (Watkins, Thayer H.) There is speculation on whether or not she has African ancestry. The remains of what is believed to be Cleopatra’s younger sister, Princess Arsinoe, were found in Ephesus, Turkey. DNA tests have proven that the remains of the person found had part-African ancestry. It remains unclear whether or not Cleopatra had African ancestry as her mother was described as a “woman of significant status.” (“Cleopatra Had African…”)
In 51 B.C., Cleopatra had to marry her younger brother, Ptolemy XIII, and rule Egypt after the death of her father, which occurred from natural causes. Cleopatra was eighteen at the time. There is debate on what age her brother was. Some people argue that he was ten, others say that he was twelve. (“Cleopatra.”)(“Cleopatra: The Woman…”) She had to marry her brother because, under Egyptian law, a woman cannot rule alone. She had to have a consort. During the first years of their reign together, Cleopatra dropped his name from all official papers and her portrait was minted on coins. There were many problems at the beginning of her reign. Anarchy spurred in foreign Egyptian-rule lands and famine broke out in Egypt because the Nile was not flooding. (“Cleopatra: The Woman…”) In 49 B.C., Cleopatra was forced to flee to Syria after Pothinus, Achillas, and Theodotus, who were Ptolemy XIII’s advisors, sought to overthrow her. They convinced the Egyptian people that Cleopatra was the cause of the famine that they were experiencing. (“Cleopatra.”)(“Cleopatra VII’s Childhood…”) She smuggled herself into the royal palace in a rug to plead her case with Julius Caesar. Cleopatra and Caesar became lovers. Ptolemy XIII discovered this and declared war on Caesar. Caesar overpowered Ptolemy XIII’s army and Ptolemy XIII drowned in the Nile River while trying to escape. (Cleopatra: The Woman…”)
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-0.135966286063... | 1 | How did Cleopatra rise to and maintain her power? Not much is known about her life since she lived so long ago, but what is known is enough to piece together some of her life story. Cleopatra was a strong and intelligent woman who made it through all the struggle and strife of the ancient world until it became too much for her. Cleopatra’s reign began and ended with tragedy, but was maintained by exploited love connections.
Cleopatra VII Philopator was born in 69 B.C. in Alexandria, Egypt. (“Cleopatra: The Woman…”) Her father was Ptolemy XII. Her mother was speculated to be Cleopatra V Tryphaena, who was possibly her father’s half-sister. (“Cleopatra.”) She had five siblings which included two older sisters, two younger brothers, and a younger sister. Both of her older sisters are suspected to have died before her rule. . (“Cleopatra: The Woman…”)
Cleopatra was the Queen of Egypt, but she was of Macedonian Greek descent. Her family had ruled since the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. (Watkins, Thayer H.) There is speculation on whether or not she has African ancestry. The remains of what is believed to be Cleopatra’s younger sister, Princess Arsinoe, were found in Ephesus, Turkey. DNA tests have proven that the remains of the person found had part-African ancestry. It remains unclear whether or not Cleopatra had African ancestry as her mother was described as a “woman of significant status.” (“Cleopatra Had African…”)
In 51 B.C., Cleopatra had to marry her younger brother, Ptolemy XIII, and rule Egypt after the death of her father, which occurred from natural causes. Cleopatra was eighteen at the time. There is debate on what age her brother was. Some people argue that he was ten, others say that he was twelve. (“Cleopatra.”)(“Cleopatra: The Woman…”) She had to marry her brother because, under Egyptian law, a woman cannot rule alone. She had to have a consort. During the first years of their reign together, Cleopatra dropped his name from all official papers and her portrait was minted on coins. There were many problems at the beginning of her reign. Anarchy spurred in foreign Egyptian-rule lands and famine broke out in Egypt because the Nile was not flooding. (“Cleopatra: The Woman…”) In 49 B.C., Cleopatra was forced to flee to Syria after Pothinus, Achillas, and Theodotus, who were Ptolemy XIII’s advisors, sought to overthrow her. They convinced the Egyptian people that Cleopatra was the cause of the famine that they were experiencing. (“Cleopatra.”)(“Cleopatra VII’s Childhood…”) She smuggled herself into the royal palace in a rug to plead her case with Julius Caesar. Cleopatra and Caesar became lovers. Ptolemy XIII discovered this and declared war on Caesar. Caesar overpowered Ptolemy XIII’s army and Ptolemy XIII drowned in the Nile River while trying to escape. (Cleopatra: The Woman…”)
After Ptolemy XIII’s death, Caesar restored Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV, her youngest brother, as rulers of Egypt. In 47 B.C., Cleopatra gave... | 728 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Both mink and otter are present on the reserve and in the past we have had people sighting one and being convinced it was the other. Both animals are part of the Mustilidae family which also includes badgers, stoats and weasels, though they belong to different subfamilies. Though they both live around water, eat similar foods and could be mistaken for the other at a distance there are various features that set them apart. This week I will go over the differences between these two water dwelling mammals.
Otters (Lutra lutra) have brown coats and can vary in size from 57 to 95 cm long, plus a tail of 35–45 cm with the males or dog otters usually much larger than the smaller females. Otter footprints have five toes and are webbed, with quite a wide pad. They are very territorial and leave spraint along the stretch of river as well as signs such as holts and couches. The otter’s diet mainly consists of fish, though depending on their location and if fish numbers are low their diet can include birds, insects, frogs, crustaceans and sometimes small mammals. The spraint found on the reserve has revealed that the local otters enjoy a diet of mainly fish and amphibians.
American mink (Neovison vison) have a much darker brown or black coat and are smaller than otters. They were introduced from North America and through escaping fur farms and their release when fur was banned they have spread throughout much of Britain. They are now classed as an invasive species and have been linked to the decline in water vole numbers. They also have five toes but their pads are much narrower and their toes look more like a rats, giving them brilliant climbing abilities. American mink are not closely related to European mink which are found in Russia and Eastern Europe. While otters hunt for most of their food in water, mink’s eyesight is better on land, so will hunt for rodents, bids and amphibians, but will still hunt in water as well. Their droppings are much more musky in scent and are not very pleasant at all!
Keep your eyes peeled for either species while walking beside the river!
Alex Kekewich – Falls of Clyde Ranger
Help protect Scotland’s wildlife
Our work to save Scotland’s wildlife is made possible thanks to the generosity of our members and supporters.
Join today from just £3 a month to help protect the species you love.
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0.03564426675438... | 10 | Both mink and otter are present on the reserve and in the past we have had people sighting one and being convinced it was the other. Both animals are part of the Mustilidae family which also includes badgers, stoats and weasels, though they belong to different subfamilies. Though they both live around water, eat similar foods and could be mistaken for the other at a distance there are various features that set them apart. This week I will go over the differences between these two water dwelling mammals.
Otters (Lutra lutra) have brown coats and can vary in size from 57 to 95 cm long, plus a tail of 35–45 cm with the males or dog otters usually much larger than the smaller females. Otter footprints have five toes and are webbed, with quite a wide pad. They are very territorial and leave spraint along the stretch of river as well as signs such as holts and couches. The otter’s diet mainly consists of fish, though depending on their location and if fish numbers are low their diet can include birds, insects, frogs, crustaceans and sometimes small mammals. The spraint found on the reserve has revealed that the local otters enjoy a diet of mainly fish and amphibians.
American mink (Neovison vison) have a much darker brown or black coat and are smaller than otters. They were introduced from North America and through escaping fur farms and their release when fur was banned they have spread throughout much of Britain. They are now classed as an invasive species and have been linked to the decline in water vole numbers. They also have five toes but their pads are much narrower and their toes look more like a rats, giving them brilliant climbing abilities. American mink are not closely related to European mink which are found in Russia and Eastern Europe. While otters hunt for most of their food in water, mink’s eyesight is better on land, so will hunt for rodents, bids and amphibians, but will still hunt in water as well. Their droppings are much more musky in scent and are not very pleasant at all!
Keep your eyes peeled for either species while walking beside the river!
Alex Kekewich – Falls of Clyde Ranger
Help protect Scotland’s wildlife
Our work to save Scotland’s wildlife is made possible thanks to the generosity of our members and supporters.
Join today from just £3 a month to help protect the species you love.
Both mink and otter are present on the reserve and in the past we have had people sighting one and being convinced it was the other. Both animals are part … | 545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In a letter to his fifteen-year-old nephew and namesake, penned in 1963 on the one hundredth anniversary of the Emancipation, author James Baldwin says that American white society has unwittingly placed "the Negro" in a position so untenable that it is "not very far removed" from the oppressive London of the past, so famously described by Charles Dickens. This situation was not created through the malice of present white citizens, but through innocent oversight on their part; the majority population of the day is so used to the way things are that they essentially are not even aware that African Americans exist. In order to survive in such an environment, young James and those of his generation will have to be strong, drawing from the love which others of his race have bestowed on them, and which they now must pass on to "[their] children and [their] children's children."
Baldwin asserts that because his nephew "[is] black, and for no other reason," American society has deemed him worthless, set limits to his ambitions, and conditioned him to "make peace with mediocrity." The establishment has placed boundaries on what he can do, where he can live, and whom he can marry. Though these assertions will no doubt be called exaggerations by white America, every African American in Harlem needs only to look to his own experiences to know that they are true. The workings of society have been deliberately constructed to make the African American believe what white people say about him, but these conditions testify "not...to [the black man's] inferiority but to [the white man's] inhumanity and fear." It is only by remembering this that young James and those like him will be able to break free of their shackles and grasp the opportunities they deserve.
It is a fallacy, according to Baldwin, for African Americans to feel that they must become like white people in order to be accepted. In fact, it is not the black man who needs to be accepted by the white man at all; it is the white man who needs to be accepted by the black man. Baldwin says that in the...
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0.101163908839... | 3 | In a letter to his fifteen-year-old nephew and namesake, penned in 1963 on the one hundredth anniversary of the Emancipation, author James Baldwin says that American white society has unwittingly placed "the Negro" in a position so untenable that it is "not very far removed" from the oppressive London of the past, so famously described by Charles Dickens. This situation was not created through the malice of present white citizens, but through innocent oversight on their part; the majority population of the day is so used to the way things are that they essentially are not even aware that African Americans exist. In order to survive in such an environment, young James and those of his generation will have to be strong, drawing from the love which others of his race have bestowed on them, and which they now must pass on to "[their] children and [their] children's children."
Baldwin asserts that because his nephew "[is] black, and for no other reason," American society has deemed him worthless, set limits to his ambitions, and conditioned him to "make peace with mediocrity." The establishment has placed boundaries on what he can do, where he can live, and whom he can marry. Though these assertions will no doubt be called exaggerations by white America, every African American in Harlem needs only to look to his own experiences to know that they are true. The workings of society have been deliberately constructed to make the African American believe what white people say about him, but these conditions testify "not...to [the black man's] inferiority but to [the white man's] inhumanity and fear." It is only by remembering this that young James and those like him will be able to break free of their shackles and grasp the opportunities they deserve.
It is a fallacy, according to Baldwin, for African Americans to feel that they must become like white people in order to be accepted. In fact, it is not the black man who needs to be accepted by the white man at all; it is the white man who needs to be accepted by the black man. Baldwin says that in the...
(The entire section is 553 words.) | 443 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (950 words)
Giuseppe Garibaldi was born in Nice, and, although he was a born a French citizen, he regarded himself as Italian. Despite the pressure placed upon him to enter the Church, he joined the Merchant Navy where a chance meeting with Mazzini altered the entire course of his life.
One of Mazzini’s greatest disciples was Garibaldi, who was inspired with nationalist fervour and patriotic enthusiasm. He quickly converted to share Mazzini’s aim of a united Italy, but only an Italy united as a republic.
A revolutionary plot in 1833 in Piedmont was introduced to cause mutiny in the army but it failed and Garibaldi was sentenced to death. Execution could not be carried out as Garibaldi left the country prior to the trial. He moved to Brazil and then on to Uruguay where his military ability was first displayed. He fought, defending Uruguay in an Austrian take-over, however, news of the Italian revolutions of 1848 reached him and he decided to return to his homeland.
He did this with some out of date weapons and some of his colleagues. Word of his military campaigns in South America had by now reached the Italian States and upon his return, recruits assembled to join Garibaldi’s legion.
Garibaldi’s contribution in South America had a profound effect on events later on in the fight for unification, as it was due to his military involvement that he came back to Italy a prominent figure. It was only due to his reputation that he was able to recruit so many men.
Although Garibaldi was originally drawn to the cause of unification as one of Mazzini’s supporters, he saw the powerful Piedmontese state and monarchy as a more realistic way of achieving unification. It was at this point that Garibaldi and his mentor Mazzini parted ways. Mazzini was only interested in a unified Italy as a republic whereas Garibaldi wanted unification by any means possible. This is also where Garibaldi shows contrasts with Cavour who was above all else Piedmontese.
February 1849 saw the establishment of the Roman Republic. The Republic itself was short-lived; only lasted four months. Garibaldi played a role in resisting the Catholic countries assisting the Pope however, the defenders were greatly outnumbered by the powers helping the Pope and the fall of Rome was inevitable. After the fall of the Republic, Garibaldi made an appeal for new recruits to “fight the war against the stranger”. Although he offered no provisions or promises, almost 5000 men were recruited. Despite this, on their journey to Venetia, 3500 were lost. Garibaldi escaped to Genoa where he was arrested and released on the condition that he leave Italy at once. Upon his release, he travelled to North America where he stayed until 1854.
When he returned, Garibaldi’s significance is clearly visible. A revolt which began in 1860 in Sicily came to the attention of Garibaldi and he set sail for Sicily almost immediately. His unexpected conquests in Sicily and Naples precipitated the unification of most of Italy.
When he reached Sicily, Garibaldi was a welcome fighter. His weak army of 1200 now reaching 3000 took Palermo forcing the garrison to return to Naples making Sicily his. In September 1860 Naples fell leaving Garibaldi as Dictator over the Kingdom of Naples. Cavour feared that Garibaldi would not stop and would attempt to take Rome so he advised Victor Emmanuel to take Rome first. When the two forces met, Garibaldi proclaimed Victor Emmanuel the first “King of Italy” Plebiscites held in the newly acquired land showed immense support for annexation by Piedmont.
In 1861, Garibaldi’s aim of a united Italy came into being; however, it did not include Rome or Venetia. By way of unification under control of Piedmont, the Piedmontese constitution and legal system were extended over the whole country. Though Rome remained to be occupied by France, continuing pressure from Italian liberals came for it to be freed and incorporated into the new Italian Kingdom as the historical capital. Apparently, with the implicit support of Victor Emmanuel, Garibaldi set off with 3000 volunteers to conquer Rome. When Garibaldi reached Palermo, he was greeted by calls of “Rome or death” and suddenly, Victor Emmanuel disowned the march. Garibaldi and his men were shot at by local troops in Calabria and only 500 remained.
The whole operation was a disaster for Garibaldi and an embarrassment for the government. In 1864, the Italian government agreed to protect Rome form attack and to move the Italian capital from Turin to Florence and in return the French withdrew from Rome. Garibaldi saw this as a betrayal of the cause for unification and decided to make an attempt to recapture Rome. Garibaldi and his men began their march to Rome but he was arrested. Despite this his followers continued on their journey to Rome where they suffered defeat at the hands of the Papal army. Garibaldi attempted to re-join his army and did succeed; however, his planned revolution with the Roman people did not happen. This was the end of Garibaldi’s contribution to Italian history.
Garibaldi’s contribution to the cause of Italian unity was considerable. He was a brilliant military leader and was determined to achieve unification. He inspired great enthusiasm in his men and made them feel compelled to devote their lives to the cause of unification. Although he encountered many failures such as his journey to Rome, his followers were loyal and determine to try to continue his efforts.
His greatest achievement would be his success at conquering Naples and Sicily, as this made Unification inevitable however, he was distressed that Rome did not become part of the unified Italy in his lifetime as he believed Italy should be united with Rome as capital.
Cite this page
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Giuseppe Garibaldi was born in Nice, and, although he was a born a French citizen, he regarded himself as Italian. Despite the pressure placed upon him to enter the Church, he joined the Merchant Navy where a chance meeting with Mazzini altered the entire course of his life.
One of Mazzini’s greatest disciples was Garibaldi, who was inspired with nationalist fervour and patriotic enthusiasm. He quickly converted to share Mazzini’s aim of a united Italy, but only an Italy united as a republic.
A revolutionary plot in 1833 in Piedmont was introduced to cause mutiny in the army but it failed and Garibaldi was sentenced to death. Execution could not be carried out as Garibaldi left the country prior to the trial. He moved to Brazil and then on to Uruguay where his military ability was first displayed. He fought, defending Uruguay in an Austrian take-over, however, news of the Italian revolutions of 1848 reached him and he decided to return to his homeland.
He did this with some out of date weapons and some of his colleagues. Word of his military campaigns in South America had by now reached the Italian States and upon his return, recruits assembled to join Garibaldi’s legion.
Garibaldi’s contribution in South America had a profound effect on events later on in the fight for unification, as it was due to his military involvement that he came back to Italy a prominent figure. It was only due to his reputation that he was able to recruit so many men.
Although Garibaldi was originally drawn to the cause of unification as one of Mazzini’s supporters, he saw the powerful Piedmontese state and monarchy as a more realistic way of achieving unification. It was at this point that Garibaldi and his mentor Mazzini parted ways. Mazzini was only interested in a unified Italy as a republic whereas Garibaldi wanted unification by any means possible. This is also where Garibaldi shows contrasts with Cavour who was above all else Piedmontese.
February 1849 saw the establishment of the Roman Republic. The Republic itself was short-lived; only lasted four months. Garibaldi played a role in resisting the Catholic countries assisting the Pope however, the defenders were greatly outnumbered by the powers helping the Pope and the fall of Rome was inevitable. After the fall of the Republic, Garibaldi made an appeal for new recruits to “fight the war against the stranger”. Although he offered no provisions or promises, almost 5000 men were recruited. Despite this, on their journey to Venetia, 3500 were lost. Garibaldi escaped to Genoa where he was arrested and released on the condition that he leave Italy at once. Upon his release, he travelled to North America where he stayed until 1854.
When he returned, Garibaldi’s significance is clearly visible. A revolt which began in 1860 in Sicily came to the attention of Garibaldi and he set sail for Sicily almost immediately. His unexpected conquests in Sicily and Naples precipitated the unification of most of Italy.
When he reached Sicily, Garibaldi was a welcome fighter. His weak army of 1200 now reaching 3000 took Palermo forcing the garrison to return to Naples making Sicily his. In September 1860 Naples fell leaving Garibaldi as Dictator over the Kingdom of Naples. Cavour feared that Garibaldi would not stop and would attempt to take Rome so he advised Victor Emmanuel to take Rome first. When the two forces met, Garibaldi proclaimed Victor Emmanuel the first “King of Italy” Plebiscites held in the newly acquired land showed immense support for annexation by Piedmont.
In 1861, Garibaldi’s aim of a united Italy came into being; however, it did not include Rome or Venetia. By way of unification under control of Piedmont, the Piedmontese constitution and legal system were extended over the whole country. Though Rome remained to be occupied by France, continuing pressure from Italian liberals came for it to be freed and incorporated into the new Italian Kingdom as the historical capital. Apparently, with the implicit support of Victor Emmanuel, Garibaldi set off with 3000 volunteers to conquer Rome. When Garibaldi reached Palermo, he was greeted by calls of “Rome or death” and suddenly, Victor Emmanuel disowned the march. Garibaldi and his men were shot at by local troops in Calabria and only 500 remained.
The whole operation was a disaster for Garibaldi and an embarrassment for the government. In 1864, the Italian government agreed to protect Rome form attack and to move the Italian capital from Turin to Florence and in return the French withdrew from Rome. Garibaldi saw this as a betrayal of the cause for unification and decided to make an attempt to recapture Rome. Garibaldi and his men began their march to Rome but he was arrested. Despite this his followers continued on their journey to Rome where they suffered defeat at the hands of the Papal army. Garibaldi attempted to re-join his army and did succeed; however, his planned revolution with the Roman people did not happen. This was the end of Garibaldi’s contribution to Italian history.
Garibaldi’s contribution to the cause of Italian unity was considerable. He was a brilliant military leader and was determined to achieve unification. He inspired great enthusiasm in his men and made them feel compelled to devote their lives to the cause of unification. Although he encountered many failures such as his journey to Rome, his followers were loyal and determine to try to continue his efforts.
His greatest achievement would be his success at conquering Naples and Sicily, as this made Unification inevitable however, he was distressed that Rome did not become part of the unified Italy in his lifetime as he believed Italy should be united with Rome as capital.
Cite this page
The significance of Garibaldi’s contribution. (2016, Jul 01). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-significance-of-garibaldis-contribution-essay | 1,295 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Plants play a major part in the many customs surrounding the Christmas festivities. The Yule log for example, was essentially associated with Christmas Eve, for on the evening of that day it was traditional to transport the log to the fireplace, ignite it and allow it to burn for at least 12 hours if ill-luck was to be avoided. The log was as large a piece of wood as could be conveniently burned, sometimes consisting of the root of a large tree together with the lower part of the trunk. The custom was celebrated in various counties: Cornwall, Dorset, Somerset, Yorkshire, Cumberland, Derbyshire, Durham, Herefordshire, Lancashire, Norfolk, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, Shropshire, Hertfordshire, Staffordshire, Westmorland and Worcestershire.
A 17th century reference to the celebration of the custom in West Yorkshire, states that on Christmas Eve the people brought in a large Yule log or “Christmas block” as it was often called, set it on the fire, drank their ale and sang “Yule, Yule, a Pack of new cards and a Christmass stool.”[i] In the northern counties it was the custom in the 18th century to “light up Candles of an uncommon Size, which were called Christmas-Candles, and to lay a Log of Wood upon the Fire, which they termed a Yule-Clog or Christmas Block. These were to illuminate the House, and turn the Night into Day; which Custom in some Measure, is still kept up in the Northern Parts.” In Lincolnshire the Yule log was formerly placed in the large fireplace of the hall on Christmas Eve, and it was considered lucky to save some part of it, either to burn with the new one next year or until New Year’s Day. This belief was also extant in northern counties, where a fragment was saved and stored under a bed until the following Christmas. It was believed to protect the house from fire and if a small piece was thrown into a fire it would be quenched.
Surviving records show that the place of the Yule log was taken by the ‘ashen’ (sometimes ‘ashton’) faggot in Devon and parts of Somerset and burnt in many farms on Christmas Eve. Ash branches were bound together by as many binders (often of twisted hazel) as possible. It was a traditional custom for cider to be called for and served to the company as each band burst in the flames. In Derbyshire where the faggot was also burned on Christmas Eve, it was made of small sticks bound together by a cord or withies. The ceremony was locally held as a commemoration of the belief that the infant Jesus when born was dressed besides a fire of ash sticks.
At what period mistletoe came to be recognised as a Christmas decoration is uncertain. There are carols extant in praise of holly and ivy of an even earlier date than the 15th century, but allusions to mistletoe were rare in this early period. Herbalist William Coles recorded that mistletoe was “carried many miles to set up in houses about Christmas time, when it is adorned with a glistening white berry.” Until the advent of the Christmas tree in the 1840s, the most widespread custom was that of the ‘kissing-bush’ and mistletoe has an association with this. While in the orchards of Herefordshire and Worcestershire there were large supplies, in the northern counties and in Cheshire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Shropshire and Lincolnshire, mistletoe was rarely found. In these counties the ‘kissing-bush’ served as a substitute for the mistletoe bough, but efforts were made to have at least a small sprig for the bush.
This bush was of various forms, ranging from a bush of holly, box or other evergreen, decorated and suspended from the ceiling, to a large structure constructed on a frame of two crossed hoops decorated with holly, ivy and other evergreens, plus coloured ribbons, supporting red apples, oranges, trinkets, small dolls (often representing the Holy Family) and candles, with mistletoe hanging from the bottom. During the making it hung from a hook, but never the one on which it would later hang as this was considered sacred to the finished bush. In Devon, a somewhat different form is recorded consisting of a small gorse bush which was dipped in water, powdered with flour and decorated all over with holly berries.
Mistletoe and its associations with the Christian Church are ambiguous. Theoretically it was banned by the clergy for its association with pagan rites, yet there are instances of its being carried into church as part of the Christmas festivals. In Staffordshire at the Collegiate Church of St. Peter’s, Wolverhampton there was a custom, until the 19th century of placing mistletoe on the altar on Christmas Eve to be blessed by the priest after which it was distributed to the people, by whom it was believed to possess medicinal properties, especially in cases of fever. Extracts from Staffordshire parish registers also confirm this custom:
“Bilston, 1672, Dec 25. For dressing the chapel with holly and mistletoe, 2s. 6d”
“Darlaston, 1801, Dec. 25. To Wm. Brenerton for mistletoe and holly, 6d.”
Until the early 18th century, on Christmas Eve it was the custom at York Minister, Yorkshire, for mistletoe to be carried to the high altar and a general pardon proclaimed “to all sorts of inferior and even wicked people at the gates of the city, towards the four quarters of heaven.”
As well as mistletoe, other plant materials traditionally associated with Christmas decorations in churches and homes include holly, laurel, rosemary, bay or bay laurel, ivy, box, fir and yew. This custom was common in England at least as far back as the 15th century, for according to antiquarian John Stow, “Against the feast of Christmas every mans house, as also their parish churches were decked with holme, Ivie, Bayes, and whatsoever the season of the yeare afforded to be greene: The Conduits and Standards in the streets were likewise garnished.” Even in the 18th century there was still a custom of “adorning of Windows with Bay and Laurel. It is but seldom observed in the North, but in Southern-Parts, it is very Common, particularly at our Universities, where it is Customary to adorn not only the Common Windows of the Town, and of the Colleges, but also to bedeck the Chapels of the Colleges, with branches of Laurel.” Laurel was considered an emblem of peace, joy and victory.
The Christmas holly was considered a male symbol bringing fortune and fertility to the household, while ivy, because of its clinging habit was considered to be a feminine symbol. Sterile holly was widely believed to bring ill-luck to the farmer and his stock, and in a poor berry year it was thought wise to put a sprig of ivy (perhaps with the berries reddened with ‘raddle’ left over from sheep-marking) in the Christmas decorations to avoid misfortune.
The importance of Christmas decorations in England is shown by the strict rules regarding their length of stay and the care taken in their disposal when they were removed from the house. In parts of Shropshire it was customary to leave the holly and ivy up until Candlemas, while the mistletoe bough was preserved until the time came for a new one next year. In west Shropshire however, mistletoe was traditionally connected with the New Year rather than Christmas, for it was believed that the bough should not be put up until New Year’s Eve. In Yorkshire and Lincolnshire it was considered bad luck to keep the Christmas evergreen in the house after Twelfth Night, but even when taken down they had to be thrown away not burnt or this might bring ill fortune.
In Leicestershire and Rutland it was considered bad luck to keep evergreen decorations up for longer than six weeks after Christmas that is until around Candlemas. In Somerset, no holly or mistletoe had to be hung up before Christmas Eve, and all decorations had to be removed by Twelfth Night. Similarly in Oxfordshire it was believed that holly should not be brought into the house before Christmas Eve or left up after Twelfth Night, and this may well have applied to its use in church decorations as well. If this taboo was not observed it was believed that the devil would enter the house, while to burn green holly would cause a death in the family.
In Warwickshire, holly was not brought into the house until Christmas Eve, and afterwards it had to be burnt, on no account had it to be taken out again. It was considered bad luck if any remained in the house after Twelfth Night. Mistletoe on the other hand was kept all year to protect the house from fire. It was only removed when a fresh bunch was brought in the following Christmas. A piece of rosemary was sometimes included in the decorations with the holly as it was believed to keep ghosts away. In Derbyshire it was held as unlucky not to have mistletoe in the house at Christmas, and again it was retained as a decoration until all the other evergreens were removed, at either Twelfth Night or Candlemas Eve. In London it was customary to burn all Christmas evergreens on Twelfth Day morning. In Cheshire the evergreens had to be taken down on Old Christmas Day (i.e. Twelfth Night new style) and on no account burnt, but carefully thrown away. In Gloucestershire it was again considered bad luck to bring holly into the house before Christmas Eve, but then it was kept up until the 12th January (usually coinciding with Plough Monday) or Candlemas but never after that. It was usually burnt a little at a time on the house fire.
In Devon all Christmas evergreens except mistletoe were taken down on New Year’s Eve and burnt, but in east Cornwall, St. Distaff’s Day (7th January) was the day all Christmas greenery came down. St. Distaff’s Day was a humorous name for the day on which women resumed or made preparations to resume their spinning after the Christmas festivities. In parts of Staffordshire it was believed that the holly and ivy must not be thrown away, but carefully burnt at Candlemas; in other parts of the county it had never to be burnt and some had to be kept until the next year to preserve the house from lightning. Mistletoe was also kept all year for this purpose. In many Worcestershire farm houses, the mistletoe, which was hung up in the kitchen, was allowed to remain until the next Christmas Eve, when it was burnt and replaced with fresh.
From the evidence available, analysis shows a tendency for the counties in the central Midlands to remove their Christmas evergreens at Candlemas, while in the northern and southern counties it appears to have been Twelfth Night. In all areas no evergreens were brought in earlier than Christmas Eve.
Win a copy of Plants Before the Revolution by Sue McDowall
The wonderful Sue McDowall has offered a copy of her excellent book for one lucky newsletter subscriber this month!
Plants Before the Revolution explores the extensive use of plants in daily life and work, in seasonal customs and ceremonies, in food, popular beliefs and the practice of folk medicine and magic.
The part that plants and flowers played in the life of pre-industrial England should not be underestimated for they were necessary to a degree we can now hardly comprehend.
Plants Before the Revolution is the first in a series of occasional publications tracing the subtle but significant part plants and flowers have played in English society.
*Sign up for the #FolkloreThursday newsletter to enter our competitions this month (valid December 2019; UK & ROI only). For an extra chance to receive copies of the latest books and folklore goodies, become a #FolkloreThursday Patron supporter!
Latest posts by Sue McDowall (see all)
- Yule Logs, Kissing-Bushes and Mistletoe: Christmas Greenery in Pre-Industrial England - December 5, 2019
- Passing Through & Under: A Ritual Healing in England - July 18, 2019 | <urn:uuid:4c5bf758-8142-4679-8bcd-e78d6fd4c05e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://folklorethursday.com/christmas/yule-logs-kissing-bushes-and-mistletoe-christmas-greenery-in-pre-industrial-england/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00427.warc.gz | en | 0.980934 | 2,648 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.31818222999572754,... | 9 | Plants play a major part in the many customs surrounding the Christmas festivities. The Yule log for example, was essentially associated with Christmas Eve, for on the evening of that day it was traditional to transport the log to the fireplace, ignite it and allow it to burn for at least 12 hours if ill-luck was to be avoided. The log was as large a piece of wood as could be conveniently burned, sometimes consisting of the root of a large tree together with the lower part of the trunk. The custom was celebrated in various counties: Cornwall, Dorset, Somerset, Yorkshire, Cumberland, Derbyshire, Durham, Herefordshire, Lancashire, Norfolk, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, Shropshire, Hertfordshire, Staffordshire, Westmorland and Worcestershire.
A 17th century reference to the celebration of the custom in West Yorkshire, states that on Christmas Eve the people brought in a large Yule log or “Christmas block” as it was often called, set it on the fire, drank their ale and sang “Yule, Yule, a Pack of new cards and a Christmass stool.”[i] In the northern counties it was the custom in the 18th century to “light up Candles of an uncommon Size, which were called Christmas-Candles, and to lay a Log of Wood upon the Fire, which they termed a Yule-Clog or Christmas Block. These were to illuminate the House, and turn the Night into Day; which Custom in some Measure, is still kept up in the Northern Parts.” In Lincolnshire the Yule log was formerly placed in the large fireplace of the hall on Christmas Eve, and it was considered lucky to save some part of it, either to burn with the new one next year or until New Year’s Day. This belief was also extant in northern counties, where a fragment was saved and stored under a bed until the following Christmas. It was believed to protect the house from fire and if a small piece was thrown into a fire it would be quenched.
Surviving records show that the place of the Yule log was taken by the ‘ashen’ (sometimes ‘ashton’) faggot in Devon and parts of Somerset and burnt in many farms on Christmas Eve. Ash branches were bound together by as many binders (often of twisted hazel) as possible. It was a traditional custom for cider to be called for and served to the company as each band burst in the flames. In Derbyshire where the faggot was also burned on Christmas Eve, it was made of small sticks bound together by a cord or withies. The ceremony was locally held as a commemoration of the belief that the infant Jesus when born was dressed besides a fire of ash sticks.
At what period mistletoe came to be recognised as a Christmas decoration is uncertain. There are carols extant in praise of holly and ivy of an even earlier date than the 15th century, but allusions to mistletoe were rare in this early period. Herbalist William Coles recorded that mistletoe was “carried many miles to set up in houses about Christmas time, when it is adorned with a glistening white berry.” Until the advent of the Christmas tree in the 1840s, the most widespread custom was that of the ‘kissing-bush’ and mistletoe has an association with this. While in the orchards of Herefordshire and Worcestershire there were large supplies, in the northern counties and in Cheshire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Shropshire and Lincolnshire, mistletoe was rarely found. In these counties the ‘kissing-bush’ served as a substitute for the mistletoe bough, but efforts were made to have at least a small sprig for the bush.
This bush was of various forms, ranging from a bush of holly, box or other evergreen, decorated and suspended from the ceiling, to a large structure constructed on a frame of two crossed hoops decorated with holly, ivy and other evergreens, plus coloured ribbons, supporting red apples, oranges, trinkets, small dolls (often representing the Holy Family) and candles, with mistletoe hanging from the bottom. During the making it hung from a hook, but never the one on which it would later hang as this was considered sacred to the finished bush. In Devon, a somewhat different form is recorded consisting of a small gorse bush which was dipped in water, powdered with flour and decorated all over with holly berries.
Mistletoe and its associations with the Christian Church are ambiguous. Theoretically it was banned by the clergy for its association with pagan rites, yet there are instances of its being carried into church as part of the Christmas festivals. In Staffordshire at the Collegiate Church of St. Peter’s, Wolverhampton there was a custom, until the 19th century of placing mistletoe on the altar on Christmas Eve to be blessed by the priest after which it was distributed to the people, by whom it was believed to possess medicinal properties, especially in cases of fever. Extracts from Staffordshire parish registers also confirm this custom:
“Bilston, 1672, Dec 25. For dressing the chapel with holly and mistletoe, 2s. 6d”
“Darlaston, 1801, Dec. 25. To Wm. Brenerton for mistletoe and holly, 6d.”
Until the early 18th century, on Christmas Eve it was the custom at York Minister, Yorkshire, for mistletoe to be carried to the high altar and a general pardon proclaimed “to all sorts of inferior and even wicked people at the gates of the city, towards the four quarters of heaven.”
As well as mistletoe, other plant materials traditionally associated with Christmas decorations in churches and homes include holly, laurel, rosemary, bay or bay laurel, ivy, box, fir and yew. This custom was common in England at least as far back as the 15th century, for according to antiquarian John Stow, “Against the feast of Christmas every mans house, as also their parish churches were decked with holme, Ivie, Bayes, and whatsoever the season of the yeare afforded to be greene: The Conduits and Standards in the streets were likewise garnished.” Even in the 18th century there was still a custom of “adorning of Windows with Bay and Laurel. It is but seldom observed in the North, but in Southern-Parts, it is very Common, particularly at our Universities, where it is Customary to adorn not only the Common Windows of the Town, and of the Colleges, but also to bedeck the Chapels of the Colleges, with branches of Laurel.” Laurel was considered an emblem of peace, joy and victory.
The Christmas holly was considered a male symbol bringing fortune and fertility to the household, while ivy, because of its clinging habit was considered to be a feminine symbol. Sterile holly was widely believed to bring ill-luck to the farmer and his stock, and in a poor berry year it was thought wise to put a sprig of ivy (perhaps with the berries reddened with ‘raddle’ left over from sheep-marking) in the Christmas decorations to avoid misfortune.
The importance of Christmas decorations in England is shown by the strict rules regarding their length of stay and the care taken in their disposal when they were removed from the house. In parts of Shropshire it was customary to leave the holly and ivy up until Candlemas, while the mistletoe bough was preserved until the time came for a new one next year. In west Shropshire however, mistletoe was traditionally connected with the New Year rather than Christmas, for it was believed that the bough should not be put up until New Year’s Eve. In Yorkshire and Lincolnshire it was considered bad luck to keep the Christmas evergreen in the house after Twelfth Night, but even when taken down they had to be thrown away not burnt or this might bring ill fortune.
In Leicestershire and Rutland it was considered bad luck to keep evergreen decorations up for longer than six weeks after Christmas that is until around Candlemas. In Somerset, no holly or mistletoe had to be hung up before Christmas Eve, and all decorations had to be removed by Twelfth Night. Similarly in Oxfordshire it was believed that holly should not be brought into the house before Christmas Eve or left up after Twelfth Night, and this may well have applied to its use in church decorations as well. If this taboo was not observed it was believed that the devil would enter the house, while to burn green holly would cause a death in the family.
In Warwickshire, holly was not brought into the house until Christmas Eve, and afterwards it had to be burnt, on no account had it to be taken out again. It was considered bad luck if any remained in the house after Twelfth Night. Mistletoe on the other hand was kept all year to protect the house from fire. It was only removed when a fresh bunch was brought in the following Christmas. A piece of rosemary was sometimes included in the decorations with the holly as it was believed to keep ghosts away. In Derbyshire it was held as unlucky not to have mistletoe in the house at Christmas, and again it was retained as a decoration until all the other evergreens were removed, at either Twelfth Night or Candlemas Eve. In London it was customary to burn all Christmas evergreens on Twelfth Day morning. In Cheshire the evergreens had to be taken down on Old Christmas Day (i.e. Twelfth Night new style) and on no account burnt, but carefully thrown away. In Gloucestershire it was again considered bad luck to bring holly into the house before Christmas Eve, but then it was kept up until the 12th January (usually coinciding with Plough Monday) or Candlemas but never after that. It was usually burnt a little at a time on the house fire.
In Devon all Christmas evergreens except mistletoe were taken down on New Year’s Eve and burnt, but in east Cornwall, St. Distaff’s Day (7th January) was the day all Christmas greenery came down. St. Distaff’s Day was a humorous name for the day on which women resumed or made preparations to resume their spinning after the Christmas festivities. In parts of Staffordshire it was believed that the holly and ivy must not be thrown away, but carefully burnt at Candlemas; in other parts of the county it had never to be burnt and some had to be kept until the next year to preserve the house from lightning. Mistletoe was also kept all year for this purpose. In many Worcestershire farm houses, the mistletoe, which was hung up in the kitchen, was allowed to remain until the next Christmas Eve, when it was burnt and replaced with fresh.
From the evidence available, analysis shows a tendency for the counties in the central Midlands to remove their Christmas evergreens at Candlemas, while in the northern and southern counties it appears to have been Twelfth Night. In all areas no evergreens were brought in earlier than Christmas Eve.
Win a copy of Plants Before the Revolution by Sue McDowall
The wonderful Sue McDowall has offered a copy of her excellent book for one lucky newsletter subscriber this month!
Plants Before the Revolution explores the extensive use of plants in daily life and work, in seasonal customs and ceremonies, in food, popular beliefs and the practice of folk medicine and magic.
The part that plants and flowers played in the life of pre-industrial England should not be underestimated for they were necessary to a degree we can now hardly comprehend.
Plants Before the Revolution is the first in a series of occasional publications tracing the subtle but significant part plants and flowers have played in English society.
*Sign up for the #FolkloreThursday newsletter to enter our competitions this month (valid December 2019; UK & ROI only). For an extra chance to receive copies of the latest books and folklore goodies, become a #FolkloreThursday Patron supporter!
Latest posts by Sue McDowall (see all)
- Yule Logs, Kissing-Bushes and Mistletoe: Christmas Greenery in Pre-Industrial England - December 5, 2019
- Passing Through & Under: A Ritual Healing in England - July 18, 2019 | 2,617 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During his last moments alive, an honorable defeated gladiator would not whine but "offer his throat to his opponent and direct the wavering blade to the vital spot" (Seneca). This is how demanding being a gladiator was.
Lately, we see Presidential debates with various numbers of participating presidential hopeful candidates. In spite of the enormous numerous differences between the candidates and the gladiators, watching these debates may stimulate the association with gladiators, due to some similarities exemplified bellow. This is not a claim that "debaters" are exactly like "gladiators," but that they share some common characteristics.
Armed with weapons, the gladiators in the arena in ancient Rome fought to death a wild animal or a person in order to entertain a crowd of spectators. Sometimes the fights were between two groups of gladiators. The gladiators were foreign prisoners or slaves who wanted to display bravery and receive compensation, but sometimes free born men from the upper class, including senators, voluntarily became gladiators, wanting to show their bravery. The "compensation" in this case was not necessarily material.
Do debaters try to receive "compensation" by demonstrating their skills and abilities? Are they drawn to the presidency as a public service only, or do they have additional considerations such as power, status, and honor?
Most of the gladiators were men, but there were times that female gladiators fought other women or beasts in extravagant games.
The gladiators were trained to fight to death. The Presidential candidates in a Presidential debate fight "to the death" (figuratively) of their presidential aspiration. Knowing that only one person will become President, every candidate claims that he is the only well-suited candidate to the presidency, and tries to destroy the chances of the other candidates - women and men. The political "death" of the other contestant is the life of the survivors.
In order to attract spectators to the gladiators' shows, early information was provided about the games by advertising the date, place and other details such as executions in the show. The antagonistic Presidential debates are advertised in a dramatic language in order to build up excitement and interest and to generate a "rating."
In order to be ready for the fight, the gladiators had sometimes unceremonious warm-up matches in which they used dull swords. The Presidential-hopeful debaters "warm-up" when they respond to the public controversial statements of their opponents prior to the debates.
There were periods when the defeated gladiator could not escape his death, and there were times that his life was spared. The spectators decided the fate of a defeated gladiator by "voting," turning their thumbs. They wanted to see blood. The fate of a candidate to the presidency is decided by voting, that is influenced by his or her performance in the debates.
While even the slightest movement of a gladiator in the arena could decide his life or death, a few words of a debater can decide his or her political fate. A few words are quoted numerous times so that we appreciate his high abilities or understand how ill-suited he is.
The gladiators fought in the game and died, their numbers would decline during the game, those who survived continued to the next show. The number of the Presidential candidates goes down after some candidates withdraw or are suspended, their high power political life "ended" at least for now. They usually withdraw in an honorable manner and often are forgotten thereafter. Some of them go back to their high position and often eventually "fight" again for the much-coveted post.
Where do we fit into this mess of a show? Do we as spectators of the debates look for excitement and entertainment? Do we all watch the debates in order to be informed, or do we sometimes crave to see "blood" (figuratively of course) as the debates intensify? Do we derive enjoyment that we each have the power -- however minuscule -- to decide the fate of the contestants? Aren't the most provocative moments of the debates the ones that are broadcasted time and again, with the assumption that we like them the most, and something is satisfied in us by the media's senseless sensationalism as it repeats and broadcasting their profundities, and follies, and sometimes their profound follies? Are we sated by watching the fight a contestant puts out, and then watch him or her be worn down? Has the appearance of the fighting changed, while the profitable process of providing entertaining through displaying aggressive encounters, is continued?
We don't have gladiators in the original sense anymore, but the debates seem to fulfill something deep in our ancient psyche that will need to be transcended somewhat for our society to evolve. | <urn:uuid:8f39c1cf-9544-434d-9518-b6875616f232> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-debater-as-a-gladiato_b_9815272 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.980072 | 980 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.403211623430252... | 1 | During his last moments alive, an honorable defeated gladiator would not whine but "offer his throat to his opponent and direct the wavering blade to the vital spot" (Seneca). This is how demanding being a gladiator was.
Lately, we see Presidential debates with various numbers of participating presidential hopeful candidates. In spite of the enormous numerous differences between the candidates and the gladiators, watching these debates may stimulate the association with gladiators, due to some similarities exemplified bellow. This is not a claim that "debaters" are exactly like "gladiators," but that they share some common characteristics.
Armed with weapons, the gladiators in the arena in ancient Rome fought to death a wild animal or a person in order to entertain a crowd of spectators. Sometimes the fights were between two groups of gladiators. The gladiators were foreign prisoners or slaves who wanted to display bravery and receive compensation, but sometimes free born men from the upper class, including senators, voluntarily became gladiators, wanting to show their bravery. The "compensation" in this case was not necessarily material.
Do debaters try to receive "compensation" by demonstrating their skills and abilities? Are they drawn to the presidency as a public service only, or do they have additional considerations such as power, status, and honor?
Most of the gladiators were men, but there were times that female gladiators fought other women or beasts in extravagant games.
The gladiators were trained to fight to death. The Presidential candidates in a Presidential debate fight "to the death" (figuratively) of their presidential aspiration. Knowing that only one person will become President, every candidate claims that he is the only well-suited candidate to the presidency, and tries to destroy the chances of the other candidates - women and men. The political "death" of the other contestant is the life of the survivors.
In order to attract spectators to the gladiators' shows, early information was provided about the games by advertising the date, place and other details such as executions in the show. The antagonistic Presidential debates are advertised in a dramatic language in order to build up excitement and interest and to generate a "rating."
In order to be ready for the fight, the gladiators had sometimes unceremonious warm-up matches in which they used dull swords. The Presidential-hopeful debaters "warm-up" when they respond to the public controversial statements of their opponents prior to the debates.
There were periods when the defeated gladiator could not escape his death, and there were times that his life was spared. The spectators decided the fate of a defeated gladiator by "voting," turning their thumbs. They wanted to see blood. The fate of a candidate to the presidency is decided by voting, that is influenced by his or her performance in the debates.
While even the slightest movement of a gladiator in the arena could decide his life or death, a few words of a debater can decide his or her political fate. A few words are quoted numerous times so that we appreciate his high abilities or understand how ill-suited he is.
The gladiators fought in the game and died, their numbers would decline during the game, those who survived continued to the next show. The number of the Presidential candidates goes down after some candidates withdraw or are suspended, their high power political life "ended" at least for now. They usually withdraw in an honorable manner and often are forgotten thereafter. Some of them go back to their high position and often eventually "fight" again for the much-coveted post.
Where do we fit into this mess of a show? Do we as spectators of the debates look for excitement and entertainment? Do we all watch the debates in order to be informed, or do we sometimes crave to see "blood" (figuratively of course) as the debates intensify? Do we derive enjoyment that we each have the power -- however minuscule -- to decide the fate of the contestants? Aren't the most provocative moments of the debates the ones that are broadcasted time and again, with the assumption that we like them the most, and something is satisfied in us by the media's senseless sensationalism as it repeats and broadcasting their profundities, and follies, and sometimes their profound follies? Are we sated by watching the fight a contestant puts out, and then watch him or her be worn down? Has the appearance of the fighting changed, while the profitable process of providing entertaining through displaying aggressive encounters, is continued?
We don't have gladiators in the original sense anymore, but the debates seem to fulfill something deep in our ancient psyche that will need to be transcended somewhat for our society to evolve. | 963 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was John Chrysostom?
Question: "Who was John Chrysostom?"
Answer: John Chrysostom (c. AD 347–407) was an Eastern church father and archbishop of Constantinople. He was born in Syrian Antioch and named John; he was known as Chrysostomos (“golden-mouthed”) because of his excellent speaking ability. His mother, Anthusa, was widowed at the age of twenty and refused to remarry in order to devote herself to her son’s education. John studied the Greek classics and rhetoric. For a time, John Chrysostom practiced law, but, after his baptism in 368, he became a monk.
After his mother’s death, John Chrysostom practiced a severely ascetic life. During this time, he spent two years living in a cave on a mountain near Antioch where he dedicated himself to memorizing the entire Bible. Finally, ill health forced him to abandon the hermit lifestyle. John Chrysostom was ordained in 386 and preached some of his best sermons in Antioch until 398 when, much against his will (he was actually kidnapped and taken by force to Constantinople), he was made the patriarch (archbishop) of Constantinople by a government official. Rather than fighting the kidnapping and appointment, John submitted to it, seeing it as the providence of God.
As archbishop of Constantinople, John Chrysostom attempted to reform the moral climate of the capital city but met strong opposition from within and without the church. On the secular side, the Empress Eudoxia called for John’s removal because of his attacks on sin in high places. On the ecclesiastical side, local clergy and the bishop of Alexandria also took issue with Chrysostom’s high standards. Together, they led the movement to have John Chrysostom deposed in 403. The people of Constantinople wanted Chrysostom back and rioted in his support; the Emperor Arcadius, frightened by the public response, had John reinstated the next day.
But John Chrysostom did not compromise his standards. He bravely continued to use his “golden mouth” to preach against sin, and the proud and vengeful Eudoxia was angered once again. Specifically, Chrysostom preached against vain and ostentatious modes of dress and against Eudoxia’s act of placing a silver statuette of herself near the church of Saint Sophia, where he preached. The Empress had John banished in 404 on charges of treason. John Chrysostom died in exile in 407. His remains were brought back to Constantinople in 438 and buried in the Church of the Apostles.
More than 600 of John’s homilies and sermons still exist today. John was particularly adept at homilies, designed to apply the Scriptures to the challenges of living the Christian life. Most are expositions of Paul’s epistles, emphasizing the practical application of their meaning to the people of his day. Chrysostom loved Paul, calling him the “vessel of election” and the “trumpet of heaven.” True to his own moral compass, John Chrysostom preached that there must be no separation of morals from religion, that the cross and ethics must go hand in hand. His homilies railed against the sins of abortion, prostitution, gluttony, and swearing and against popular entertainments of the day, especially the theatre, horseracing, and the revelries surrounding the celebrations of holidays.
Among John’s favorite themes was care for the poor and needy, a duty he found lacking in the wealthy classes. He frequently exhorted the rich to lay aside their materialistic habits and rebuked them for caring more about their possessions than about their fellow creatures (see Matthew 5:42 and 1 Timothy 6:17–19). In one especially blistering homily, John shamed the selfish rich by asking, “Do you pay such honor to your excrements as to receive them into a silver chamber-pot when another man made in the image of God is perishing in the cold?”
Because of his rhetorical skills, John Chrysostom is still hailed as one of the greatest pulpit orators the church has ever known. He is considered a saint by the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Coptic, and Anglican churches. Catholics have given him the title “Doctor of the Church,” and the Orthodox Church honors him as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs.
Recommended Resource: Christianity Through the Centuries by Earle Cairns
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
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Who was John Chrysostom? | <urn:uuid:ac75ba45-5f21-4dbd-ab70-151de6482d4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gotquestions.org/John-Chrysostom.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00177.warc.gz | en | 0.980664 | 1,028 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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Question: "Who was John Chrysostom?"
Answer: John Chrysostom (c. AD 347–407) was an Eastern church father and archbishop of Constantinople. He was born in Syrian Antioch and named John; he was known as Chrysostomos (“golden-mouthed”) because of his excellent speaking ability. His mother, Anthusa, was widowed at the age of twenty and refused to remarry in order to devote herself to her son’s education. John studied the Greek classics and rhetoric. For a time, John Chrysostom practiced law, but, after his baptism in 368, he became a monk.
After his mother’s death, John Chrysostom practiced a severely ascetic life. During this time, he spent two years living in a cave on a mountain near Antioch where he dedicated himself to memorizing the entire Bible. Finally, ill health forced him to abandon the hermit lifestyle. John Chrysostom was ordained in 386 and preached some of his best sermons in Antioch until 398 when, much against his will (he was actually kidnapped and taken by force to Constantinople), he was made the patriarch (archbishop) of Constantinople by a government official. Rather than fighting the kidnapping and appointment, John submitted to it, seeing it as the providence of God.
As archbishop of Constantinople, John Chrysostom attempted to reform the moral climate of the capital city but met strong opposition from within and without the church. On the secular side, the Empress Eudoxia called for John’s removal because of his attacks on sin in high places. On the ecclesiastical side, local clergy and the bishop of Alexandria also took issue with Chrysostom’s high standards. Together, they led the movement to have John Chrysostom deposed in 403. The people of Constantinople wanted Chrysostom back and rioted in his support; the Emperor Arcadius, frightened by the public response, had John reinstated the next day.
But John Chrysostom did not compromise his standards. He bravely continued to use his “golden mouth” to preach against sin, and the proud and vengeful Eudoxia was angered once again. Specifically, Chrysostom preached against vain and ostentatious modes of dress and against Eudoxia’s act of placing a silver statuette of herself near the church of Saint Sophia, where he preached. The Empress had John banished in 404 on charges of treason. John Chrysostom died in exile in 407. His remains were brought back to Constantinople in 438 and buried in the Church of the Apostles.
More than 600 of John’s homilies and sermons still exist today. John was particularly adept at homilies, designed to apply the Scriptures to the challenges of living the Christian life. Most are expositions of Paul’s epistles, emphasizing the practical application of their meaning to the people of his day. Chrysostom loved Paul, calling him the “vessel of election” and the “trumpet of heaven.” True to his own moral compass, John Chrysostom preached that there must be no separation of morals from religion, that the cross and ethics must go hand in hand. His homilies railed against the sins of abortion, prostitution, gluttony, and swearing and against popular entertainments of the day, especially the theatre, horseracing, and the revelries surrounding the celebrations of holidays.
Among John’s favorite themes was care for the poor and needy, a duty he found lacking in the wealthy classes. He frequently exhorted the rich to lay aside their materialistic habits and rebuked them for caring more about their possessions than about their fellow creatures (see Matthew 5:42 and 1 Timothy 6:17–19). In one especially blistering homily, John shamed the selfish rich by asking, “Do you pay such honor to your excrements as to receive them into a silver chamber-pot when another man made in the image of God is perishing in the cold?”
Because of his rhetorical skills, John Chrysostom is still hailed as one of the greatest pulpit orators the church has ever known. He is considered a saint by the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Coptic, and Anglican churches. Catholics have given him the title “Doctor of the Church,” and the Orthodox Church honors him as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs.
Recommended Resource: Christianity Through the Centuries by Earle Cairns
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Who was Theodore of Mopsuestia?
What occurred at the Council of Nicea?
Who was Saint Augustine in church history?
Who was Ignatius of Antioch?
What is the Apostles' Creed?
Questions about Church History
Who was John Chrysostom? | 1,049 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the early 1700s, the passage from Canton to London of the first consignments of tea was complicated and protracted. Farmers all over China grew tea as one of various crops on their small land holdings. The first two spring pickings of the season yielded the best quality and were mainly exported. Third and fourth pluckings from the later summer months were generally kept for home consumption. The so-named “smallholders” sold their tea to local dealers who sampled them and put together a “chop” of roughly 620-630 chests.
These “chops” were then transported across mountains by coolies to wholesale centers (shown below) where dealers from China and Europe gathered to select the teas they wanted. From here the tea was shipped in canal boats on a highly developed system of inland waterways down to the main port at Canton, 40 miles inland from Hong Kong on the River Zhujiang.
The journey from the remote mountain areas where the tea was produced could take at least six weeks and could span up to 1,200 miles. Hot sun and downpours of rain could easily destroy the tea, and sometimes the entire year’s crop was lost due to such adverse conditions. By September, the spring teas had usually arrived in the ports, where a second selection process took place, with agents acting for the various European companies. | <urn:uuid:57da623d-601a-4782-b578-d363af957d9a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bostonteapartyship.com/tea-blog/teas-journey-from-canton-to-london-and-beyond | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.982867 | 282 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.31817424297332... | 5 | In the early 1700s, the passage from Canton to London of the first consignments of tea was complicated and protracted. Farmers all over China grew tea as one of various crops on their small land holdings. The first two spring pickings of the season yielded the best quality and were mainly exported. Third and fourth pluckings from the later summer months were generally kept for home consumption. The so-named “smallholders” sold their tea to local dealers who sampled them and put together a “chop” of roughly 620-630 chests.
These “chops” were then transported across mountains by coolies to wholesale centers (shown below) where dealers from China and Europe gathered to select the teas they wanted. From here the tea was shipped in canal boats on a highly developed system of inland waterways down to the main port at Canton, 40 miles inland from Hong Kong on the River Zhujiang.
The journey from the remote mountain areas where the tea was produced could take at least six weeks and could span up to 1,200 miles. Hot sun and downpours of rain could easily destroy the tea, and sometimes the entire year’s crop was lost due to such adverse conditions. By September, the spring teas had usually arrived in the ports, where a second selection process took place, with agents acting for the various European companies. | 284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Waiting for answer This question has not been answered yet. You can hire a professional tutor to get the answer.
Compose a 500 words assignment on the free negro in virginia 1691- 1865 by john henderson russell. Needs to be plagiarism free!
Compose a 500 words assignment on the free negro in virginia 1691- 1865 by john henderson russell. Needs to be plagiarism free! The free men were not distributed evenly, there is hardly any in the mountainous areas, but they feature strongly to the east. The author gives quite precise details as to how many negroes lived in each section of the state, with the majority living in urban areas. In some counties, free negroes made up the majority of the free population.
Chapter 2 The Origin of the Free Negro Class
In this chapter, the author is seeking to correct the common idea, especially among proslavers, that all negroes who arrived in the area were slaves. From this point of view, it could be argued that freedom was abnormal. However many were indented servants rather than slaves and in some cases were landowners, although by the mid-17th-century slavery had become the rule.
Chapter 3 Manumission and Chapter 4 The Legal Status of the Free Negro
These two chapters are linked by the idea of slavery as a legal state according to the laws of Virginia. Chapter 3 deals with the various ways in which slaves could be legally freed. In chapter 4 the author looks at what a free negro, not actually a citizen at this stage, could or could not do. They were not for instance usually allowed to own slaves after 1860, there were restrictions on places of residence and they would not have had the vote. However a law of 1655 they were allowed to have slaves of their own people.
Chapter 5 Social Status of the Free Negro
Russell makes it clear that freedom did not mean social status equal to white people. Many free negroes were considered to be at about the same level as the lower white servants. However, apart from interbreeding except with the Indians, on page 175, the author points out that some negroes at least were accepted in business with respect and as property owners, and even took part in elections. These though were the exception.
This book goes into a great deal of detail to prove the author’s points. Whether or not it would change people’s attitudes Afro-Americans is another matter. | <urn:uuid:bafec69e-f10d-4b1a-b941-1a094bde7c7c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydaddy.com/question/compose-a-500-words-assignment-on-the-free-negro-in-virginia-1691--1865-by-john | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00363.warc.gz | en | 0.982211 | 506 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Compose a 500 words assignment on the free negro in virginia 1691- 1865 by john henderson russell. Needs to be plagiarism free!
Compose a 500 words assignment on the free negro in virginia 1691- 1865 by john henderson russell. Needs to be plagiarism free! The free men were not distributed evenly, there is hardly any in the mountainous areas, but they feature strongly to the east. The author gives quite precise details as to how many negroes lived in each section of the state, with the majority living in urban areas. In some counties, free negroes made up the majority of the free population.
Chapter 2 The Origin of the Free Negro Class
In this chapter, the author is seeking to correct the common idea, especially among proslavers, that all negroes who arrived in the area were slaves. From this point of view, it could be argued that freedom was abnormal. However many were indented servants rather than slaves and in some cases were landowners, although by the mid-17th-century slavery had become the rule.
Chapter 3 Manumission and Chapter 4 The Legal Status of the Free Negro
These two chapters are linked by the idea of slavery as a legal state according to the laws of Virginia. Chapter 3 deals with the various ways in which slaves could be legally freed. In chapter 4 the author looks at what a free negro, not actually a citizen at this stage, could or could not do. They were not for instance usually allowed to own slaves after 1860, there were restrictions on places of residence and they would not have had the vote. However a law of 1655 they were allowed to have slaves of their own people.
Chapter 5 Social Status of the Free Negro
Russell makes it clear that freedom did not mean social status equal to white people. Many free negroes were considered to be at about the same level as the lower white servants. However, apart from interbreeding except with the Indians, on page 175, the author points out that some negroes at least were accepted in business with respect and as property owners, and even took part in elections. These though were the exception.
This book goes into a great deal of detail to prove the author’s points. Whether or not it would change people’s attitudes Afro-Americans is another matter. | 525 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shakespeare’s plays present the relationships between men and women in various ways, as for example, Benedick is a supposed tyrant to women, while Romeo, a member of the Capulet household, is deeply in love with Juliet. Shakespeare makes the audience focus on how men and women portrayed themselves to society in the Renaissance period. Men and women in modern society are analogous to the men and women in Shakespeare’s plays as they use trickery, deception and secrecy throughout the plays to attempt to achieve a goal that inevitably interferes with the lives of others. However we can see that things have changed in society as Shakespeare’s time was predominantly patriarchal, not meritocratic.
For example Hero, ironically named, is a very shy and weak woman who is the daughter of Leonato, whilst Beatrice is an exception to the typical patriarchal paradigm; she is noisy, sharp-tongued and greatly opinionated – she isn’t afraid to contradict Benedick. This essay will discuss the portrayal of men and women and their relationships in Much Ado About Nothing and Romeo and Juliet.
* At the beginning of Romeo and Juliet “Two households, both alike in dignity” shows that there will be a comparison of the men and women in two families which may possibly lead to a feud. In the renaissance period status was very important, and Shakespeare’s plays typically emphasized that as the audience at that time approved of it. The houses hold an “ancient grudge” which implicitly reiterates the idea of conflict occurring throughout the play. “Star-crossed lovers” suggest that there will be a great sense of romance throughout the play as a man and woman are destined to be together – “star crossed” which means, literally, against the stars (stars were thought to control people’s destinies).
Also, “Do with their death bury their parents’ strife,” suggests that these lovers will mend the quarrel between their families by dying. This is dramatic irony as the audience at that point would be aware of the inevitable fate of the main characters. It is evident that throughout the play there will be death and perhaps even a tragedy that will split the lovers apart – the rhyme of the prologue splits from “…death-mark’d love” which may literally refer to the splitting of Romeo and Juliet in the play through death. Keeping in mind that they were Catholics, they would believe that marriage did not exist in Heaven. Additionally the prologue is written in the form of a Sonnet, which generally relate to death and consists of 14 lines written in iambic pentameter.
* * Unlike Romeo and Juliet, the opening of Much ado about nothing is written in prose as all the characters have equal parts. For example in act one, scene one, the two most witty characters, Benedick and Beatrice, insult each other throughout the first scene, but they’re both “balanced” in their act of doing so; neither ever lets the other say anything without countering it with a pun or criticism. Beatrice is a strong woman who isn’t afraid to speak her mind to Benedick. For example, “Scratching could not make it worse an ’twere such a face as
* yours were” shows that Beatrice finds Benedick to be ugly superficially, but there is a sense of uncertainty as to if she truthfully meant that as “I know you of old” suggests that they were in a past relationship, and that she cared for him. Also, the men speak to each other with respect, and we can see this from how they address each other. For example Don Pedro calls Leonato “Good signor Leonato” and “My grace”. Once again, this is because society at that time was patriarchal and Shakespeare’s audience would’ve included men of high status that would’ve addressed each other in that manner.
* * At the start of Romeo and Juliet the servants are quarrelling over women in the Montague household and this is humorous for the audience. We see what the servants think about the men and women in the play. For example Sampson refers to the women as “maidenheads” as he thinks of them as only objects – virgins in this case. Additionally Sampson says he will “Thrust the maids to the wall”. This portrays men as being in complete control of the women, both mentally and physically. “Thrust” creates imagery of force and aggression while also referring to a sexual innuendo.
This is unsettling to the audience, but also evokes humour. Sampson also refers to women as the “weaker vessels” which implies that women are not seen as equals to men from the perspective of the Capulet servants – this is because Shakespeare wrote the play in a patriarchal era – men were seen as the “bosses”. The servants establish a very rough and unsettling atmosphere as they show no concern for how the women would hypothetically feel if they were to be raped. For example “Me they shall feel while I am able to stand…” shows that the men are only concerned about the sex, regardless of how the women would feel about it. This reiterates the concept of men being in control – their love is only physical and uncaring.
* * In Romeo and Juliet, the way women are spoken about in act one, scene five, is different to the way the Capulet servants spoke in the first scene as for example Romeo uses words such as “Tender” and “Lips” to Juliet to show his affection for her; these words also create imagery of kissing in the audiences’ mind which refers to love and caring between the two characters. Compared to the language used by the servants, the language used between Romeo and Juliet is an extended Christian metaphor. “This holy shrine, the gentle sin is this…” is said by Romeo as the language has a religious overtone to it – their love can only be described through the vocabulary of religion, that pure association with God. “Good pilgrim” is another reference to how their conversation is holy and pure. This is because the love they share for each other is destined in the eyes of God as they were to believe it. Also, when Romeo and Juliet meet they say 14 lines that make up a shared sonnet – Shakespeare ingeniously captured the relationship between Romeo and Juliet through the use of a sonnet as they can relate to love, therefore fitting perfectly into this context.
* * Once Romeo has left Juliet at the Capulet mansion, he goes to find the Friar so that they can marry. The language changes at this point in the play as the Friar speaks in blank verse as Shakespeare uses this technique to signify that he’s speaking about love, as well as the fact that the Friar is of high status, therefore he would speak in blank verse. Shakespeare uses rhyme such as ‘eye and lie’ to emphasize key words. In addition to this the Friar speaks in couplets which relates to Romeo and Juliet being a couple in love. The language used by the Friar is very religious as for example “saint” and “heaven” are used as it fits appropriately to his job as he’s a man of God, as well as the fact that Romeo is wanting to get married.*
* In act three, scene five, the Capulet family discuss the marriage of Juliet. Her parents describe Paris as “gallant” and a “noble gentleman” as they are trying to persuade Juliet to marry him. Paris is intentionally addressed in this manner as he is of high status, and that made him significant and important to society. Dramatic irony is created for the audience as they’re aware that Juliet is married to Romeo, but her parents are not. It is assumed that Juliet will be happy at the thought of marriage, however she is in love with Romeo and is instead displeased. We can see this from “He shall not make me there a joyful bride”. Additionally, even more irony is added to the scene as Juliet states “It shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate” which shows she is lying to her parents as she is obviously in love with Romeo, and is already his wife! Nevertheless she goes onto say that she would not be full of joy if she marries Paris.
This results in her father calling her a “minion” (low status) and “Out, you green sickness, carrion” as he does not approve of Juliet’s refusal to marry Paris. “To go with Paris to Saint Peter’s Church, or I will drag thee on a hurdle thither” shows that Juliet is still a woman in a male-dominated world, and that she cannot go against her father because it just simply wasn’t accepted as society was patriarchal. Her father becomes very violent and the relationship between Juliet and him is weakened as even the thought of disobeying her father’s wishes causes him to feel great anger and hatred as he cannot comprehend why she would not listen to him; it simply would not make sense to a man of his status and mentality as he would assume that Juliet must listen to him as she is a women, not a male, and not of status equal to him.
* * In act four, scene one, the marriage scene in Much Ado About Nothing has similarities with the marriage theme in Romeo and Juliet as both females (Juliet and Hero) are virtually being forced to get married. The relationship between men and women, in this case Claudio and Hero, is weakened as Claudio addresses Hero as a “Rotten orange” which creates imagery of an orange that is sweet superficially, but is rotten on the inside. Claudio also refers to her as “cunning sin” which implies Hero as being a trickster and an evil thing which emphasizes his rage and emotions at that time. Claudio addresses Don Pedro as “Sweet Prince” as he is of high status, but also to emphasize the fact that the prince sides with him. Moreover the relationship between Leonato and Hero is damaged as he states “Does anyone have a dagger for me?” as if he was wanting to commit suicide at this supposed act of betrayal from Hero. Ultimately this whole scene is dramatic irony as the audience are aware that Hero is still a virgin and Don John is the culprit.
* * Following the tense marriage scene where Claudio has dumped the ironically named Hero, the audience first see Beatrice and Benedick declare their love for one another, however the scene also serves to show the powerless nature of women in the Renaissance period that was predominantly patriarchal. For example “I will die a woman grieving” said by Beatrice shows that she is unable to take revenge against Claudio as she is not a man. “O that I were a man” shows that women in that time were weak and that Beatrice would kill Claudio if she was a man. “I would eat his heart in the market place” produces strong imagery in the audiences’ mind which makes them feel the hatred Beatrice has towards Claudio. “In the market” tells us that she isn’t concerned about what others would think, she just wants revenge; a great sense of irony as the foundation of society at that time was built on aristocracy and Beatrice purely wants revenge, regardless of the consequences it may have on her status.
* * In act two, scene one, in Much Ado About Nothing we are provided with Beatrice’s view of men. She says “he that hath a beard is more than a youth… and he that is less than a man, I am not for him” which suggests that the age of the man is irrelevant, she doesn’t want any man. Also Leonato says that he hopes to see her get married one day, and she replies with “Not till God make men of some other mettle than Earth”. The key word is “Earth” as God formed men from the dust of the ground and all men were created by God as it was believed at that time ergo she is saying that no man will ever gain her hand in marriage. In addition to this, Benedick refers to Beatrice as “sweet Beatrice” as he is now in love with her, but there is no evidence of her referring to Benedick as anything of the same, therefore this may imply that she is still uncertain about feelings towards Benedick.
* * * Later on, at the Masquerade ball, Beatrice and Benedick encounter each other (Benedick wearing a mask) and Beatrice describes Benedick as “The prince’s jester” to intentionally insult him as she is quite aware that Benedick is wearing a mask. This is humorous for the audience as a sense of dramatic irony is brought forth as Benedick doesn’t realise that Beatrice knows it’s him. Beatrice is teasing Benedick in some manner because she is aware of what would irritate him and get his attention on her – in this case it’s humiliating him. Moreover, it appears as if the men and women in both plays have a tendency to create conflict where it is not necessary as they want to achieve something. In Much ado about nothing it’s Benedick and Beatrice and their battle of confused love and hate (predominantly at the beginning), while in Romeo and Juliet it’s a much larger conflict between the Montagues and Capulets.
* * At the end of Romeo and Juliet the Friar reveals his role in the cause of their deaths. He speaks in blank verse as it discusses the love between Romeo and Juliet. The language he uses is strong and emotive as he uses words like “desperate” and “violence” as they emphasise how difficult the love between Romeo and Juliet was because of the feud between their families. Additionally, he speaks formally and with respect as it shows that he’s of high status and that he’s discussing the terrible tragedy with a great sense of guilt as he is a man of God.
* * Finally, at the end of the play, the Montagues and Capulets are very empathetic towards each other as they have lost their offspring, and as a result of this their relationship is much friendlier. Evidence of this can be seen from “For I will raise her statue in pure Gold” said by Montague; gold is a very precious and expensive metal so it implies that they are showing great respect towards the Capulets as they are offering them a tribute to their daughter. Likewise, lord Capulet insists that he will raise Romeo’s likeness in gold beside hers. Ultimately, there is now a grand irony in the relationship between Romeo and Juliet as through their deaths, they have created the world that would have allowed their love to live. Romeo and Juliet’s deaths are tragic, but this tragedy was fated: by the stars, by the violent world in which they live, by the play, and by their very natures. From the prologue the audience want this death, this tragedy. At the play’s end, we do not feel sad for the loss of life as much as we feel greatly wrenched by the incredible act of love that Romeo and Juliet have committed as monuments to each other.
* * Somewhat similar to the end of Romeo and Juliet, the ending of Much Ado About Nothing results in the renewal of the relationship between Benedick and Claudio as the two of them are now pleased to be relatives. Evidence for this can be seen from “come, come, we are friends”. However, not all the relationships end up so happily: “Prince, thou art sad, get thee a wife, get thee a wife” is said by Benedick to Don Pedro. This order serves partly as a joke, but it contains a drop of melancholy.
Perhaps Don Pedro really is sad—an idea that seems even more probable when we recall his light-hearted, but perhaps not entirely joking, proposal to Beatrice, in Act two, scene one, and her gentle rejection of it. As so often happens in Shakespeare’s comedies, it seems as if somebody must be left out of the circle of happiness and marriage. Additionally the relationship of Don John is much more alienated from the nobles – at the end of the play we are left only assuming what is going to happen – this serves to satisfy the audience as they can create their own endings without truly ever knowing what was going to happen.
* Overall, from the emotive struggle between Romeo and Juliet, the endless feud between Montagues and Capulets, the lies that created conflict for Claudio, and the tricks that caused Beatrice and Benedick to fall in love, Shakespeare, through his plays, has demonstrated the complexity of what happens when love and deception coincide in patriarchal societies. | <urn:uuid:a09a4e60-4811-458e-be34-daeeb2cbd091> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://paperap.com/paper-on-shakespeare-relationships-between-men-and-women-in-romeo-and-juliet-and-much-ado-about-nothing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00158.warc.gz | en | 0.983354 | 3,567 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.0520377978... | 2 | Shakespeare’s plays present the relationships between men and women in various ways, as for example, Benedick is a supposed tyrant to women, while Romeo, a member of the Capulet household, is deeply in love with Juliet. Shakespeare makes the audience focus on how men and women portrayed themselves to society in the Renaissance period. Men and women in modern society are analogous to the men and women in Shakespeare’s plays as they use trickery, deception and secrecy throughout the plays to attempt to achieve a goal that inevitably interferes with the lives of others. However we can see that things have changed in society as Shakespeare’s time was predominantly patriarchal, not meritocratic.
For example Hero, ironically named, is a very shy and weak woman who is the daughter of Leonato, whilst Beatrice is an exception to the typical patriarchal paradigm; she is noisy, sharp-tongued and greatly opinionated – she isn’t afraid to contradict Benedick. This essay will discuss the portrayal of men and women and their relationships in Much Ado About Nothing and Romeo and Juliet.
* At the beginning of Romeo and Juliet “Two households, both alike in dignity” shows that there will be a comparison of the men and women in two families which may possibly lead to a feud. In the renaissance period status was very important, and Shakespeare’s plays typically emphasized that as the audience at that time approved of it. The houses hold an “ancient grudge” which implicitly reiterates the idea of conflict occurring throughout the play. “Star-crossed lovers” suggest that there will be a great sense of romance throughout the play as a man and woman are destined to be together – “star crossed” which means, literally, against the stars (stars were thought to control people’s destinies).
Also, “Do with their death bury their parents’ strife,” suggests that these lovers will mend the quarrel between their families by dying. This is dramatic irony as the audience at that point would be aware of the inevitable fate of the main characters. It is evident that throughout the play there will be death and perhaps even a tragedy that will split the lovers apart – the rhyme of the prologue splits from “…death-mark’d love” which may literally refer to the splitting of Romeo and Juliet in the play through death. Keeping in mind that they were Catholics, they would believe that marriage did not exist in Heaven. Additionally the prologue is written in the form of a Sonnet, which generally relate to death and consists of 14 lines written in iambic pentameter.
* * Unlike Romeo and Juliet, the opening of Much ado about nothing is written in prose as all the characters have equal parts. For example in act one, scene one, the two most witty characters, Benedick and Beatrice, insult each other throughout the first scene, but they’re both “balanced” in their act of doing so; neither ever lets the other say anything without countering it with a pun or criticism. Beatrice is a strong woman who isn’t afraid to speak her mind to Benedick. For example, “Scratching could not make it worse an ’twere such a face as
* yours were” shows that Beatrice finds Benedick to be ugly superficially, but there is a sense of uncertainty as to if she truthfully meant that as “I know you of old” suggests that they were in a past relationship, and that she cared for him. Also, the men speak to each other with respect, and we can see this from how they address each other. For example Don Pedro calls Leonato “Good signor Leonato” and “My grace”. Once again, this is because society at that time was patriarchal and Shakespeare’s audience would’ve included men of high status that would’ve addressed each other in that manner.
* * At the start of Romeo and Juliet the servants are quarrelling over women in the Montague household and this is humorous for the audience. We see what the servants think about the men and women in the play. For example Sampson refers to the women as “maidenheads” as he thinks of them as only objects – virgins in this case. Additionally Sampson says he will “Thrust the maids to the wall”. This portrays men as being in complete control of the women, both mentally and physically. “Thrust” creates imagery of force and aggression while also referring to a sexual innuendo.
This is unsettling to the audience, but also evokes humour. Sampson also refers to women as the “weaker vessels” which implies that women are not seen as equals to men from the perspective of the Capulet servants – this is because Shakespeare wrote the play in a patriarchal era – men were seen as the “bosses”. The servants establish a very rough and unsettling atmosphere as they show no concern for how the women would hypothetically feel if they were to be raped. For example “Me they shall feel while I am able to stand…” shows that the men are only concerned about the sex, regardless of how the women would feel about it. This reiterates the concept of men being in control – their love is only physical and uncaring.
* * In Romeo and Juliet, the way women are spoken about in act one, scene five, is different to the way the Capulet servants spoke in the first scene as for example Romeo uses words such as “Tender” and “Lips” to Juliet to show his affection for her; these words also create imagery of kissing in the audiences’ mind which refers to love and caring between the two characters. Compared to the language used by the servants, the language used between Romeo and Juliet is an extended Christian metaphor. “This holy shrine, the gentle sin is this…” is said by Romeo as the language has a religious overtone to it – their love can only be described through the vocabulary of religion, that pure association with God. “Good pilgrim” is another reference to how their conversation is holy and pure. This is because the love they share for each other is destined in the eyes of God as they were to believe it. Also, when Romeo and Juliet meet they say 14 lines that make up a shared sonnet – Shakespeare ingeniously captured the relationship between Romeo and Juliet through the use of a sonnet as they can relate to love, therefore fitting perfectly into this context.
* * Once Romeo has left Juliet at the Capulet mansion, he goes to find the Friar so that they can marry. The language changes at this point in the play as the Friar speaks in blank verse as Shakespeare uses this technique to signify that he’s speaking about love, as well as the fact that the Friar is of high status, therefore he would speak in blank verse. Shakespeare uses rhyme such as ‘eye and lie’ to emphasize key words. In addition to this the Friar speaks in couplets which relates to Romeo and Juliet being a couple in love. The language used by the Friar is very religious as for example “saint” and “heaven” are used as it fits appropriately to his job as he’s a man of God, as well as the fact that Romeo is wanting to get married.*
* In act three, scene five, the Capulet family discuss the marriage of Juliet. Her parents describe Paris as “gallant” and a “noble gentleman” as they are trying to persuade Juliet to marry him. Paris is intentionally addressed in this manner as he is of high status, and that made him significant and important to society. Dramatic irony is created for the audience as they’re aware that Juliet is married to Romeo, but her parents are not. It is assumed that Juliet will be happy at the thought of marriage, however she is in love with Romeo and is instead displeased. We can see this from “He shall not make me there a joyful bride”. Additionally, even more irony is added to the scene as Juliet states “It shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate” which shows she is lying to her parents as she is obviously in love with Romeo, and is already his wife! Nevertheless she goes onto say that she would not be full of joy if she marries Paris.
This results in her father calling her a “minion” (low status) and “Out, you green sickness, carrion” as he does not approve of Juliet’s refusal to marry Paris. “To go with Paris to Saint Peter’s Church, or I will drag thee on a hurdle thither” shows that Juliet is still a woman in a male-dominated world, and that she cannot go against her father because it just simply wasn’t accepted as society was patriarchal. Her father becomes very violent and the relationship between Juliet and him is weakened as even the thought of disobeying her father’s wishes causes him to feel great anger and hatred as he cannot comprehend why she would not listen to him; it simply would not make sense to a man of his status and mentality as he would assume that Juliet must listen to him as she is a women, not a male, and not of status equal to him.
* * In act four, scene one, the marriage scene in Much Ado About Nothing has similarities with the marriage theme in Romeo and Juliet as both females (Juliet and Hero) are virtually being forced to get married. The relationship between men and women, in this case Claudio and Hero, is weakened as Claudio addresses Hero as a “Rotten orange” which creates imagery of an orange that is sweet superficially, but is rotten on the inside. Claudio also refers to her as “cunning sin” which implies Hero as being a trickster and an evil thing which emphasizes his rage and emotions at that time. Claudio addresses Don Pedro as “Sweet Prince” as he is of high status, but also to emphasize the fact that the prince sides with him. Moreover the relationship between Leonato and Hero is damaged as he states “Does anyone have a dagger for me?” as if he was wanting to commit suicide at this supposed act of betrayal from Hero. Ultimately this whole scene is dramatic irony as the audience are aware that Hero is still a virgin and Don John is the culprit.
* * Following the tense marriage scene where Claudio has dumped the ironically named Hero, the audience first see Beatrice and Benedick declare their love for one another, however the scene also serves to show the powerless nature of women in the Renaissance period that was predominantly patriarchal. For example “I will die a woman grieving” said by Beatrice shows that she is unable to take revenge against Claudio as she is not a man. “O that I were a man” shows that women in that time were weak and that Beatrice would kill Claudio if she was a man. “I would eat his heart in the market place” produces strong imagery in the audiences’ mind which makes them feel the hatred Beatrice has towards Claudio. “In the market” tells us that she isn’t concerned about what others would think, she just wants revenge; a great sense of irony as the foundation of society at that time was built on aristocracy and Beatrice purely wants revenge, regardless of the consequences it may have on her status.
* * In act two, scene one, in Much Ado About Nothing we are provided with Beatrice’s view of men. She says “he that hath a beard is more than a youth… and he that is less than a man, I am not for him” which suggests that the age of the man is irrelevant, she doesn’t want any man. Also Leonato says that he hopes to see her get married one day, and she replies with “Not till God make men of some other mettle than Earth”. The key word is “Earth” as God formed men from the dust of the ground and all men were created by God as it was believed at that time ergo she is saying that no man will ever gain her hand in marriage. In addition to this, Benedick refers to Beatrice as “sweet Beatrice” as he is now in love with her, but there is no evidence of her referring to Benedick as anything of the same, therefore this may imply that she is still uncertain about feelings towards Benedick.
* * * Later on, at the Masquerade ball, Beatrice and Benedick encounter each other (Benedick wearing a mask) and Beatrice describes Benedick as “The prince’s jester” to intentionally insult him as she is quite aware that Benedick is wearing a mask. This is humorous for the audience as a sense of dramatic irony is brought forth as Benedick doesn’t realise that Beatrice knows it’s him. Beatrice is teasing Benedick in some manner because she is aware of what would irritate him and get his attention on her – in this case it’s humiliating him. Moreover, it appears as if the men and women in both plays have a tendency to create conflict where it is not necessary as they want to achieve something. In Much ado about nothing it’s Benedick and Beatrice and their battle of confused love and hate (predominantly at the beginning), while in Romeo and Juliet it’s a much larger conflict between the Montagues and Capulets.
* * At the end of Romeo and Juliet the Friar reveals his role in the cause of their deaths. He speaks in blank verse as it discusses the love between Romeo and Juliet. The language he uses is strong and emotive as he uses words like “desperate” and “violence” as they emphasise how difficult the love between Romeo and Juliet was because of the feud between their families. Additionally, he speaks formally and with respect as it shows that he’s of high status and that he’s discussing the terrible tragedy with a great sense of guilt as he is a man of God.
* * Finally, at the end of the play, the Montagues and Capulets are very empathetic towards each other as they have lost their offspring, and as a result of this their relationship is much friendlier. Evidence of this can be seen from “For I will raise her statue in pure Gold” said by Montague; gold is a very precious and expensive metal so it implies that they are showing great respect towards the Capulets as they are offering them a tribute to their daughter. Likewise, lord Capulet insists that he will raise Romeo’s likeness in gold beside hers. Ultimately, there is now a grand irony in the relationship between Romeo and Juliet as through their deaths, they have created the world that would have allowed their love to live. Romeo and Juliet’s deaths are tragic, but this tragedy was fated: by the stars, by the violent world in which they live, by the play, and by their very natures. From the prologue the audience want this death, this tragedy. At the play’s end, we do not feel sad for the loss of life as much as we feel greatly wrenched by the incredible act of love that Romeo and Juliet have committed as monuments to each other.
* * Somewhat similar to the end of Romeo and Juliet, the ending of Much Ado About Nothing results in the renewal of the relationship between Benedick and Claudio as the two of them are now pleased to be relatives. Evidence for this can be seen from “come, come, we are friends”. However, not all the relationships end up so happily: “Prince, thou art sad, get thee a wife, get thee a wife” is said by Benedick to Don Pedro. This order serves partly as a joke, but it contains a drop of melancholy.
Perhaps Don Pedro really is sad—an idea that seems even more probable when we recall his light-hearted, but perhaps not entirely joking, proposal to Beatrice, in Act two, scene one, and her gentle rejection of it. As so often happens in Shakespeare’s comedies, it seems as if somebody must be left out of the circle of happiness and marriage. Additionally the relationship of Don John is much more alienated from the nobles – at the end of the play we are left only assuming what is going to happen – this serves to satisfy the audience as they can create their own endings without truly ever knowing what was going to happen.
* Overall, from the emotive struggle between Romeo and Juliet, the endless feud between Montagues and Capulets, the lies that created conflict for Claudio, and the tricks that caused Beatrice and Benedick to fall in love, Shakespeare, through his plays, has demonstrated the complexity of what happens when love and deception coincide in patriarchal societies. | 3,378 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Origins Of Common Terms
Monday Nov 26th, 2018Share
The origins of some figures of speech are obvious – “putting the cart before the horse,” for instance. Others are a little more obscure. Here are the explanations behind three common expressions:
Pulling the wool over their eyes. In the 17th and 18th centuries, thieves and robbers would yank their victims’ wool wigs down over their eyes so they couldn’t see who was attacking them.
Blackmail. In 16th-century England, mail meant “rent” or “tribute.” Debts that had to be paid in silver were called “whitemail.” A debt that could be paid in any other way – from livestock to property – was called “blackmail.” Because blackmail did not have a set value, the person collecting the debt could extort any amount or anything they wished from the debtor.
Red tape. For centuries, it was a British custom to seal important documents with red wax and red tape. Cutting through it was the only way to get at the documents and read them. | <urn:uuid:17cd93d6-e440-4ec7-934c-f89a7a2ef2f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bevmaclean.com/origins-of-common-terms | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.981083 | 238 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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Monday Nov 26th, 2018Share
The origins of some figures of speech are obvious – “putting the cart before the horse,” for instance. Others are a little more obscure. Here are the explanations behind three common expressions:
Pulling the wool over their eyes. In the 17th and 18th centuries, thieves and robbers would yank their victims’ wool wigs down over their eyes so they couldn’t see who was attacking them.
Blackmail. In 16th-century England, mail meant “rent” or “tribute.” Debts that had to be paid in silver were called “whitemail.” A debt that could be paid in any other way – from livestock to property – was called “blackmail.” Because blackmail did not have a set value, the person collecting the debt could extort any amount or anything they wished from the debtor.
Red tape. For centuries, it was a British custom to seal important documents with red wax and red tape. Cutting through it was the only way to get at the documents and read them. | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Short Bytes: Srinivasa Ramanujan was an Indian mathematician during the colonial era. His priceless contribution to mathematics has been appraised all over the world. He was born on December 22, 1887, in Erode, Madras Presidency (present Tamil Nadu). Today, the nation pays tributes to Srinivasa Ramanujan on his 129th birth anniversary.The calendar says March 17, 1914, a bright sunny day and there is a decent man present at the ship dock in Madras. He is all set to get aboard the SS Nevasa and he would be living the next several years of his life in London at Trinity College. Mathematician S. Ramanujan – The Man Who Knew Infinity – was a childhood prodigy who had command on all the complex maths equations and theorems just like a knife in the butter.
About a year before, Ramanujan had written a letter to G. H. Hardy after seeing his book Orders of Infinity. The letter was a collection of Ramanujan’s self-derived equations and unproven theorems. Initially, Hardy was adamant about his work and to him, it possibly seemed to be a fraud. But it was later when he analyzed them and got fascinated by the work of Mathematician Ramanujan. “They [theorems] defeated me completely; I had never seen anything in the least like them before,” Hardy commented.
Hardy, along with John Littlewood, made sincere efforts to bring Ramanujan to Trinity. At first, the mathematician was reluctant to leave his motherland but he was later convinced by E. H. Neville who was Hardy’s colleague lecturing in Madras. Ramanujan spent around 5 years in London after which he returned to his home in the year 1919. This was due to his deteriorating health and homesickness that he had been experiencing as he was far away from his home.
Mathematician Ramanujan was born on December 22, 1887, in Erode, Madras Presidency (present Tamil Nadu). He began to sprout right in his childhood, breezing through complex mathematics formulae and equations. He first tasted mathematics when got enrolled in Town Higher Secondary School around the age of 10. He had re-derived many popular theorems by himself and exhausted the knowledge of the mathematics students living as lodgers at his home. Ramanujan continued to impress people and mathematics geniuses throughout his life.
An interesting story is about the number 1729, it’s a simple four digit number for most of us and we may haven’t noticed if it was written somewhere. But for mathematician Ramanujan, it was way more than a number. The number is known as taxicab number. Hardy recalled his talk with ill Ramanujan, he told him that he saw 1729 on a taxi number plate and he found it boring. “No,” said Ramanujan, “it is a very interesting number; it is the smallest number expressible as the sum of two cubes in two different ways.”
Recommended: Albert Einstein: The Father Of Modern Physics
His work includes many research papers and four notebooks that are a compilation of equations and theorems he worked out in isolation. He invested efforts in the field of infinite series, continued fractions, number theory, and mathematical analysis. He mostly used to write only the results of his findings due the fact that paper was not cheap at that time. That may be the reason of conflicts between him and other mathematicians who misunderstood as his writings didn’t contain the proof of results he mentioned.
As a person, he was delineated as an introvert person and orthodox when religious beliefs were concerned unlike the great physicist Albert Einstein who didn’t believe in the existence of god but a superpower that governs the universe. He credited and believed that his family goddess’s blessings were the source of all of his knowledge and that she enlightened him about all the equations and theorems he came up with.
Ramanujan went to rest in peace in the year 1920 at his house in Kumbakonam, Madras Presidency. He had a medical history since an early age. While in London, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis and had to live in a sanatorium. The cause of his death was analyzed by Dr. D. A. B. Young in 1994, he concluded that Ramanujan had died because of hepatic amoebiasis – an infection in the liver.
A mathematics pioneer left the world at the age of 32. His contribution to mathematics will never be forgotten. Srinivasa Ramanujan has been portrayed in writings and movies numerous times. A movie based on his life released earlier this year on April 29, titled as The Man Who Knew Infinity. | <urn:uuid:057c1954-31cb-4f6b-b060-4f1199426052> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fossbytes.com/mathematician-ramanujan-the-man-who-knew-infinity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.988341 | 999 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0... | 6 | Short Bytes: Srinivasa Ramanujan was an Indian mathematician during the colonial era. His priceless contribution to mathematics has been appraised all over the world. He was born on December 22, 1887, in Erode, Madras Presidency (present Tamil Nadu). Today, the nation pays tributes to Srinivasa Ramanujan on his 129th birth anniversary.The calendar says March 17, 1914, a bright sunny day and there is a decent man present at the ship dock in Madras. He is all set to get aboard the SS Nevasa and he would be living the next several years of his life in London at Trinity College. Mathematician S. Ramanujan – The Man Who Knew Infinity – was a childhood prodigy who had command on all the complex maths equations and theorems just like a knife in the butter.
About a year before, Ramanujan had written a letter to G. H. Hardy after seeing his book Orders of Infinity. The letter was a collection of Ramanujan’s self-derived equations and unproven theorems. Initially, Hardy was adamant about his work and to him, it possibly seemed to be a fraud. But it was later when he analyzed them and got fascinated by the work of Mathematician Ramanujan. “They [theorems] defeated me completely; I had never seen anything in the least like them before,” Hardy commented.
Hardy, along with John Littlewood, made sincere efforts to bring Ramanujan to Trinity. At first, the mathematician was reluctant to leave his motherland but he was later convinced by E. H. Neville who was Hardy’s colleague lecturing in Madras. Ramanujan spent around 5 years in London after which he returned to his home in the year 1919. This was due to his deteriorating health and homesickness that he had been experiencing as he was far away from his home.
Mathematician Ramanujan was born on December 22, 1887, in Erode, Madras Presidency (present Tamil Nadu). He began to sprout right in his childhood, breezing through complex mathematics formulae and equations. He first tasted mathematics when got enrolled in Town Higher Secondary School around the age of 10. He had re-derived many popular theorems by himself and exhausted the knowledge of the mathematics students living as lodgers at his home. Ramanujan continued to impress people and mathematics geniuses throughout his life.
An interesting story is about the number 1729, it’s a simple four digit number for most of us and we may haven’t noticed if it was written somewhere. But for mathematician Ramanujan, it was way more than a number. The number is known as taxicab number. Hardy recalled his talk with ill Ramanujan, he told him that he saw 1729 on a taxi number plate and he found it boring. “No,” said Ramanujan, “it is a very interesting number; it is the smallest number expressible as the sum of two cubes in two different ways.”
Recommended: Albert Einstein: The Father Of Modern Physics
His work includes many research papers and four notebooks that are a compilation of equations and theorems he worked out in isolation. He invested efforts in the field of infinite series, continued fractions, number theory, and mathematical analysis. He mostly used to write only the results of his findings due the fact that paper was not cheap at that time. That may be the reason of conflicts between him and other mathematicians who misunderstood as his writings didn’t contain the proof of results he mentioned.
As a person, he was delineated as an introvert person and orthodox when religious beliefs were concerned unlike the great physicist Albert Einstein who didn’t believe in the existence of god but a superpower that governs the universe. He credited and believed that his family goddess’s blessings were the source of all of his knowledge and that she enlightened him about all the equations and theorems he came up with.
Ramanujan went to rest in peace in the year 1920 at his house in Kumbakonam, Madras Presidency. He had a medical history since an early age. While in London, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis and had to live in a sanatorium. The cause of his death was analyzed by Dr. D. A. B. Young in 1994, he concluded that Ramanujan had died because of hepatic amoebiasis – an infection in the liver.
A mathematics pioneer left the world at the age of 32. His contribution to mathematics will never be forgotten. Srinivasa Ramanujan has been portrayed in writings and movies numerous times. A movie based on his life released earlier this year on April 29, titled as The Man Who Knew Infinity. | 1,028 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On June 29, 1863, a spy from the Confederate army watches the movement of the Union army. He rode his horse to inform Gen. James Longstreet of the Unions position, surprising Longstreet, who did not know that the Union army was so close to him, about 200 miles of where he was.
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Gen. Jeb Stuart was supposed to keep other Confederates soldiers informed of where the Union was, but failed to do so. Union Gen. John Buford had occupied Gettysburg with his cavalry and sent word to Gen. John Reynolds, who is the infantry commander, to come with reinforcements because the Confederates could attack soon. He had the high ground in some hills nearby, it was a very good defensive position to take up.
July 1 had some storms on the way. Gen. Robert E. Lee had some troubles with his heart, it was because he was getting older. Gen. Robert E. Lee was waiting for some reports on the enemys position, even when they had a spy tell them of the forces whereabouts, Lee didnt not like the word spy or like to use their information .Many of his officers think that the Union army is nowhere close to Gettysburg, but Longstreets spy says there is cavalry already waiting in the town, and where ever the cavalry is, the infantry will be behind them. Lee asks his right-hand man, Longstreet, to stay away from the front line in the upcoming battle because he could not afford to lose him. Lee really trusted Longstreet, and knew he was the future. On the opposite side of the field there was a man named Buford of the union. Some of Buford men didnt think Reynolds, which is another commander, would come to their aid in time if at all. Buford told them if he says he coming he will be there because he thinks him to be an honorable man. Bufords troops defend Cemetery Hill against a Confederate attack, and where almost overrun. Buford sent word to Reynolds to help many time during the battle, after nearly holding out for 6 hours, Reynolds comes like he said he would as their reinforcement. Buford and Reynolds meet up and give each other the information they had before Reynolds is shot and killed, which Buford had a hard time coping with.
Lee then moved his troops toward the direction of Gettysburg. Several small battles take place and to the Unions surprise, the Confederates appeared to be winning. After winning some Lee had some momentum and wanted to attack in full force the next day, but Longstreet thought it was not such a good idea, since theyre outnumbered. Even with their small victories, they were still at a bad spot for attacking up hill, because the Union held the high ground on Cemetery Hill and other nearby hills the confederates could not advance. Lee was mad at Gen. Richard Ewell, because he was new to his command, and for not trying to take the high ground away from the Union even though they were outnumbered by them.
On July 2, the Confederates began to prepare to attack the Union. Lee wants a final, end all be all battle. Lees plan is not that bad, because if you can force a larger army to fight a smaller army in a narrow passing the smaller army has a chance to win. The Confederates think they can reroute Gen. George Meades Union army. An officer from England named Arthur Fremantle was with the Confederates as an observer, and has high hopes and is certain that the Confederates will win because he believes that they are better people and the Union soldiers are trash. Fremantle thinks that American democracy failed because the South has very strict social classes, just like his home country back in England.
On the other side of the army lines and the social beliefs, there was a man named Col. Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain of the Union Army and he wanted all humans to be equal to each other. His men had found an injured escaped slave, who didnt speak English. Chamberlain makes sure the slave received food and had a doctor treat his wound. Chamberlain felt bad because, he still felt the man to be lower class and really didnt like the guy, but still felt that the other man was his equal and should be treated that way. Chamberlain had a very strong sense of belief and strong fighting spirt, which made him a great Col.
Lee wants to do an echelon attack, which means diagonally arranging units so they arrive one after the other all most like waves. But once the Confederates start marching towards Cemetery Ridge, they seen that the Union has moved its position some, they gave up the high ground and retreated a little bit into a peach orchard which was some ways back. This meant a more marching and moving around the terrain for the Confederate troops, who were already tired. Longstreet then tells Gen. John Hood to attack the peach orchard. Hood says that the Union already knows his position and will see him coming and that such a direct attack will have heavy losses, but Longstreet went against what he knew to be right, because he was not willing to defy Lees orders again. Longstreet tells Hood that he must take the hill known as Little Round Top in order to take the orchard.
Chamberlain received orders to form the regiment, the 20th Maine. They were ordered to hold Little Round Top at any cost, because were the far left section of the Union that holds the left flank; if they failed the Confederates would surround and attack the rest of the army from behind. As the battle goes on, the 20th Maine takes heavy damage, and they soon began to run out of ammo. Chamberlain did not abandon the hill, even though it could mean death for himself and his troops. He orders the men to put their bayonets on and charge. To Chamberlain surprise, the charge was successful and the nearby Confederate troops surrender because he would not give up that hill.
When the fighting was done for that day, Longstreet found Hood wounded in the field hospital and learns that most of Hoods troops put the blame on himself for their major defeat at Devils Den. Longstreet reads the reports of the Confederate death toll for that day and now knows that Lee no longer has enough men for a major assault.
On July 3, Longstreet tries to tell Lee that a frontal assault will not work because they lack enough men, but Lee is hardhead in his ways. As they talk, they heard cannon fire and found that Ewell has taken the fight to him, knowing Lee was weak and had low moral he launched a counter attack their troops, the battle had begun early then they wanted. Lee ordered Longstreet to charge the center of the Union army, in hopes to break their line. Longstreet knows this plan to be flawed and begs Lee to avoid direct frontal attack, but Lee didnt care what Longstreet had to say. Confederate Gen. Lew Armistead prepares to charge the Union line, but began to think of his best friend, Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, who is fighting for the Union and he promised to never to harm.
As Armisteads troops moved forward over open ground, a man named George Pickett lead the way which was called Picketts Charge after him, the Union cannons fired heavily and killed most of his troops. On the way to the hill the troops did a great job of staying together and staying in line, and pushing the flank but at the very end the men faltered and bunched up which gave the union an opening. Armistead and some troops made it to their objective at the top of the ridge, but by then the small amount of troops couldnt hold and their attack failed, Armistead then died while trying to ask a Union officer to send his apologies to Hancock. Later Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered. During these battles the union always seem to have the upper hand. The union also had very good leaders because they believed what they were fighting for was right, like Col. Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain. The Union also held the high ground for most of the battles which made it harder for the Confederate army attack. Even though the Confederate army won some previous smaller battles, they could never figure out the Unions game plan. Robert E. Lee was a good leader but refused to take advice from his men even when it was logical. The Confederate got desperate to take the hills around them and in doing so lost a lot men, Lee didnt seem to care for his man or strategy.
I think Little Round Top Hill was the turning point because the Confederate army lost most of their men in that battle, which led to a counter attack by the Union and took the Confederate army by surprise which won them the fight. The union seemed to be ahead and anticipate the Confederate army, and was determine to hold even at the cost of their own lives. The Union Choose to defend while making the Confederate army attack, making them come in waves and making them lose men little by little until they didnt have enough men, to repel the counter attack. The Union Army seemed to me better suited for open field battle, and had great leadership on their side, this is why the Union North won the Civil War. During these battles people seem to forget that the north was fighting because they belive all men to be equal and won. The south only cared about money and how slaves were tools to be used to make it. It was a battle for human equality vs human greed.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | <urn:uuid:2f6c1a40-199c-4d1a-b0fb-b2f883a8ce73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydriver.com/why-union-north-won-civil-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.988434 | 1,991 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2361076474189... | 1 | On June 29, 1863, a spy from the Confederate army watches the movement of the Union army. He rode his horse to inform Gen. James Longstreet of the Unions position, surprising Longstreet, who did not know that the Union army was so close to him, about 200 miles of where he was.
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Gen. Jeb Stuart was supposed to keep other Confederates soldiers informed of where the Union was, but failed to do so. Union Gen. John Buford had occupied Gettysburg with his cavalry and sent word to Gen. John Reynolds, who is the infantry commander, to come with reinforcements because the Confederates could attack soon. He had the high ground in some hills nearby, it was a very good defensive position to take up.
July 1 had some storms on the way. Gen. Robert E. Lee had some troubles with his heart, it was because he was getting older. Gen. Robert E. Lee was waiting for some reports on the enemys position, even when they had a spy tell them of the forces whereabouts, Lee didnt not like the word spy or like to use their information .Many of his officers think that the Union army is nowhere close to Gettysburg, but Longstreets spy says there is cavalry already waiting in the town, and where ever the cavalry is, the infantry will be behind them. Lee asks his right-hand man, Longstreet, to stay away from the front line in the upcoming battle because he could not afford to lose him. Lee really trusted Longstreet, and knew he was the future. On the opposite side of the field there was a man named Buford of the union. Some of Buford men didnt think Reynolds, which is another commander, would come to their aid in time if at all. Buford told them if he says he coming he will be there because he thinks him to be an honorable man. Bufords troops defend Cemetery Hill against a Confederate attack, and where almost overrun. Buford sent word to Reynolds to help many time during the battle, after nearly holding out for 6 hours, Reynolds comes like he said he would as their reinforcement. Buford and Reynolds meet up and give each other the information they had before Reynolds is shot and killed, which Buford had a hard time coping with.
Lee then moved his troops toward the direction of Gettysburg. Several small battles take place and to the Unions surprise, the Confederates appeared to be winning. After winning some Lee had some momentum and wanted to attack in full force the next day, but Longstreet thought it was not such a good idea, since theyre outnumbered. Even with their small victories, they were still at a bad spot for attacking up hill, because the Union held the high ground on Cemetery Hill and other nearby hills the confederates could not advance. Lee was mad at Gen. Richard Ewell, because he was new to his command, and for not trying to take the high ground away from the Union even though they were outnumbered by them.
On July 2, the Confederates began to prepare to attack the Union. Lee wants a final, end all be all battle. Lees plan is not that bad, because if you can force a larger army to fight a smaller army in a narrow passing the smaller army has a chance to win. The Confederates think they can reroute Gen. George Meades Union army. An officer from England named Arthur Fremantle was with the Confederates as an observer, and has high hopes and is certain that the Confederates will win because he believes that they are better people and the Union soldiers are trash. Fremantle thinks that American democracy failed because the South has very strict social classes, just like his home country back in England.
On the other side of the army lines and the social beliefs, there was a man named Col. Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain of the Union Army and he wanted all humans to be equal to each other. His men had found an injured escaped slave, who didnt speak English. Chamberlain makes sure the slave received food and had a doctor treat his wound. Chamberlain felt bad because, he still felt the man to be lower class and really didnt like the guy, but still felt that the other man was his equal and should be treated that way. Chamberlain had a very strong sense of belief and strong fighting spirt, which made him a great Col.
Lee wants to do an echelon attack, which means diagonally arranging units so they arrive one after the other all most like waves. But once the Confederates start marching towards Cemetery Ridge, they seen that the Union has moved its position some, they gave up the high ground and retreated a little bit into a peach orchard which was some ways back. This meant a more marching and moving around the terrain for the Confederate troops, who were already tired. Longstreet then tells Gen. John Hood to attack the peach orchard. Hood says that the Union already knows his position and will see him coming and that such a direct attack will have heavy losses, but Longstreet went against what he knew to be right, because he was not willing to defy Lees orders again. Longstreet tells Hood that he must take the hill known as Little Round Top in order to take the orchard.
Chamberlain received orders to form the regiment, the 20th Maine. They were ordered to hold Little Round Top at any cost, because were the far left section of the Union that holds the left flank; if they failed the Confederates would surround and attack the rest of the army from behind. As the battle goes on, the 20th Maine takes heavy damage, and they soon began to run out of ammo. Chamberlain did not abandon the hill, even though it could mean death for himself and his troops. He orders the men to put their bayonets on and charge. To Chamberlain surprise, the charge was successful and the nearby Confederate troops surrender because he would not give up that hill.
When the fighting was done for that day, Longstreet found Hood wounded in the field hospital and learns that most of Hoods troops put the blame on himself for their major defeat at Devils Den. Longstreet reads the reports of the Confederate death toll for that day and now knows that Lee no longer has enough men for a major assault.
On July 3, Longstreet tries to tell Lee that a frontal assault will not work because they lack enough men, but Lee is hardhead in his ways. As they talk, they heard cannon fire and found that Ewell has taken the fight to him, knowing Lee was weak and had low moral he launched a counter attack their troops, the battle had begun early then they wanted. Lee ordered Longstreet to charge the center of the Union army, in hopes to break their line. Longstreet knows this plan to be flawed and begs Lee to avoid direct frontal attack, but Lee didnt care what Longstreet had to say. Confederate Gen. Lew Armistead prepares to charge the Union line, but began to think of his best friend, Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, who is fighting for the Union and he promised to never to harm.
As Armisteads troops moved forward over open ground, a man named George Pickett lead the way which was called Picketts Charge after him, the Union cannons fired heavily and killed most of his troops. On the way to the hill the troops did a great job of staying together and staying in line, and pushing the flank but at the very end the men faltered and bunched up which gave the union an opening. Armistead and some troops made it to their objective at the top of the ridge, but by then the small amount of troops couldnt hold and their attack failed, Armistead then died while trying to ask a Union officer to send his apologies to Hancock. Later Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered. During these battles the union always seem to have the upper hand. The union also had very good leaders because they believed what they were fighting for was right, like Col. Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain. The Union also held the high ground for most of the battles which made it harder for the Confederate army attack. Even though the Confederate army won some previous smaller battles, they could never figure out the Unions game plan. Robert E. Lee was a good leader but refused to take advice from his men even when it was logical. The Confederate got desperate to take the hills around them and in doing so lost a lot men, Lee didnt seem to care for his man or strategy.
I think Little Round Top Hill was the turning point because the Confederate army lost most of their men in that battle, which led to a counter attack by the Union and took the Confederate army by surprise which won them the fight. The union seemed to be ahead and anticipate the Confederate army, and was determine to hold even at the cost of their own lives. The Union Choose to defend while making the Confederate army attack, making them come in waves and making them lose men little by little until they didnt have enough men, to repel the counter attack. The Union Army seemed to me better suited for open field battle, and had great leadership on their side, this is why the Union North won the Civil War. During these battles people seem to forget that the north was fighting because they belive all men to be equal and won. The south only cared about money and how slaves were tools to be used to make it. It was a battle for human equality vs human greed.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 2,002 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New DNA Study Shows Europeans Descended From 3 Population Groups
In recent years, scientists have been developing better ways of extracting DNA from fossils, enabling them to learn more about the ancestors of different species. A new DNA study, which has been published in Nature, has discovered that rather than Europeans descending from a single source, which was what had originally been believed, they are actually an outcome of immigration that has been occurring for the last 10,000 years. OROGOLD takes a closer look at this amazing discovery.
The Existing Knowledge
For a few years now, scientists have known that it was immigrants from Turkey and the Middle East that first brought farming to Europe, which raised questions about the origins of Europeans. After closely studying the DNA from early European hunter-gatherers, and comparing it to European genomes from today, researchers were able to put together a puzzle that depicted the origins of Europeans. However, there was still one crucial piece of the puzzle that was missing.
The Missing Piece
The missing genetic component was recently discovered by the Center for Geogenetics in Copenhagen, who mapped the genome of a boy that lived in Mal’ta, Siberia, 24,000 years ago. They discovered that there was a link between Europeans of today and Native Americans, and, although this solved many of the questions about the origins of Native Americans, they found no sign of similar genetic components in the early European genomes that had already been studied. This meant that the early Europeans did not arrive in Europe until much later than previously thought. Instead, the boy from Mal’ta’s genes were matched with a population group that immigrated to Europe from the North East.
What Does This Mean?
These new findings show that Europeans have descended from three different population groups; the original hunter gatherers, farmers from the Middle East, and the newly discovered Northern Euroasiatic group. This means that, in the past, European population groups were much more genetically diverse than they are today. These differences were also displayed physically, with new DNA showing that the Central European groups had dark hair, dark skin and blue eyes – a combination which is almost non-existent today. Researchers have also learned that the early European farmers had dark hair, brown eyes and light skin, while the early European hunter-gatherers had a more Swedish European look, with light skin and blue eyes. For a long time now, researchers have been trying to find an answer for why European skin is lighter, but these new discoveries show that these physical features took a much more complex evolutionary route than they expected. Although they still don’t know exactly how the light skin has come about, the rich and complex evolutionary history that is slowly being uncovered is something that the scientists, and all of us here at OROGOLD, find truly fascinating.
Scientists are extremely excited about how the study of fossil genetics has developed over recent years, offering new views into our distant prehistory. They are hoping that, within the next two years, they will be able to learn even more about the history of Europeans, and how these immigrations actually took place. | <urn:uuid:d0589dcd-66a0-473a-b573-9aabb31f4551> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://orogoldschool.com/news/new-dna-study-shows-europeans-descended-from-3-population-groups/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.981438 | 634 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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In recent years, scientists have been developing better ways of extracting DNA from fossils, enabling them to learn more about the ancestors of different species. A new DNA study, which has been published in Nature, has discovered that rather than Europeans descending from a single source, which was what had originally been believed, they are actually an outcome of immigration that has been occurring for the last 10,000 years. OROGOLD takes a closer look at this amazing discovery.
The Existing Knowledge
For a few years now, scientists have known that it was immigrants from Turkey and the Middle East that first brought farming to Europe, which raised questions about the origins of Europeans. After closely studying the DNA from early European hunter-gatherers, and comparing it to European genomes from today, researchers were able to put together a puzzle that depicted the origins of Europeans. However, there was still one crucial piece of the puzzle that was missing.
The Missing Piece
The missing genetic component was recently discovered by the Center for Geogenetics in Copenhagen, who mapped the genome of a boy that lived in Mal’ta, Siberia, 24,000 years ago. They discovered that there was a link between Europeans of today and Native Americans, and, although this solved many of the questions about the origins of Native Americans, they found no sign of similar genetic components in the early European genomes that had already been studied. This meant that the early Europeans did not arrive in Europe until much later than previously thought. Instead, the boy from Mal’ta’s genes were matched with a population group that immigrated to Europe from the North East.
What Does This Mean?
These new findings show that Europeans have descended from three different population groups; the original hunter gatherers, farmers from the Middle East, and the newly discovered Northern Euroasiatic group. This means that, in the past, European population groups were much more genetically diverse than they are today. These differences were also displayed physically, with new DNA showing that the Central European groups had dark hair, dark skin and blue eyes – a combination which is almost non-existent today. Researchers have also learned that the early European farmers had dark hair, brown eyes and light skin, while the early European hunter-gatherers had a more Swedish European look, with light skin and blue eyes. For a long time now, researchers have been trying to find an answer for why European skin is lighter, but these new discoveries show that these physical features took a much more complex evolutionary route than they expected. Although they still don’t know exactly how the light skin has come about, the rich and complex evolutionary history that is slowly being uncovered is something that the scientists, and all of us here at OROGOLD, find truly fascinating.
Scientists are extremely excited about how the study of fossil genetics has developed over recent years, offering new views into our distant prehistory. They are hoping that, within the next two years, they will be able to learn even more about the history of Europeans, and how these immigrations actually took place. | 628 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 445, Athens and Sparta put an end to a war that had lasted fifteen years. Both sides were exhausted. The Spartans had had to cope not only with the Athenians, but also with a revolt of the helots, and the Athenians had been fighting both Sparta and Persia. But now, negotiators swore that for thirty years, they would refrain from violence and would ask arbiters to solve any problems that might arise. This was more than just a peace treaty between nations, because Athens allowed the Spartans to swear the oaths on behalf of their allies (the "Peloponnesian League"), and Sparta recognized that the Athenians spoke on behalf of the cities with which they were allied (the "Delian League"). If the two former enemies had not achieved their war aims, they could at least expand their power vis-à-vis their allies, and from this moment, we read about "the cities that are ruled by the Athenians".
Both sides were sincere in their longing for peace. The following year, the Athenians were invited to found a colony in southern Italy, Thurii, and they called it an all-Greek ("panhellenic") town to prevent irritation in Sparta and its ally Corinth, which traditionally were interested in the far west. This gesture was appreciated, and when the island of Samos revolted against Athens (440), the Corinthians and Spartans refused to support the rebels. Peace reigned and few would have believed that within seven years, Corinth and Athens would clash in a big naval battle, and that in 431, war between the two alliances would be renewed.
Our main source for the new conflict, the Peloponnesian War, is the Greek historian Thucydides (c.460-c.395), an austere author with a vision on the historical process that looks surprisingly modern. He refuses to blame the gods for what is a human activity, and argues that war is - as long as human nature remains the same - understandable in terms of the human intellect. His analysis is therefore rational, and so convincing that in many handbooks of ancient history, the section on the Peloponnesian War is nothing but a summary of Thucydides. In his view, the Athenians and Spartans were at first unwilling to go to war, but were also unable to find a way out of a conflict that ought not to have had serious consequences. Perhaps, however, the two superpowers stumbled to disaster even more clumsily.
In 436, the Corinthians, allies of Sparta, attacked their colony Corcyra (modern Corfu), to solve a conflict over Epidamnus (modern Dürres), claimed by both. The Corcyrans defeated their mother-city, but soon learned that Corinth was building a new fleet. Early in 433, they sent envoys to the Athenian Assembly, asking for help. A Corinthian ambassador happened to be present as well, and reminded the Athenians that seven years before, Corinth had allowed Athens to punish Samos. The Corinthians, he argued, would appreciate a similar neutrality now that they wanted to punish their colony. The parallel was only seemingly convincing, because Samos had been recognized as an Athenian subject and Corinthian interference in 440 would have been a treaty violation, whereas Corcyra was a neutral state with which Athens was allowed to ally itself.
Still, the Athenians did not want to treat the Corinthians with contempt, as that would lead to bad relations with the Peloponnesian League. On the other hand, ignoring the Corcyran request meant that Corinth would sooner or later obtain the Corcyran navy and could challenge Athenian naval superiority. The solution to this dilemma was a diplomatic innovation: the Assembly offered an alliance to Corcyra that was defensive only. It is the first entirely defensive pact known from Greek history, and modern historians believe that the idea was due to Pericles, the often reelected political leader of Athens.
Ten Athenian triereis were sent to Corcyra, with the explicit order never to fight against the Corinthians except if they tried to land on the island. In this way, the Athenians wanted to protect their new ally and show the Spartans and Corinthians that there was no reason to fear a change in the balance of power. Unfortunately, Thucydides does not report whether the Corinthians understood this diplomatic innovation.
The Corinthians set out with 90 triereis and 60 ships of their allies, and built their base on the mainland, southeast of Corcyra. Their opponents countered by sending 110 galleys and the 10 Athenian ships to the bay of Sybota (the modern marina of Mourtos). Thucydides says that the Corinthians wanted to land on Corcyra, and indeed, when the attackers - taking three days' provisions with them - started to row to the north, the Corcyrans and Athenians could only interpret this as an attack. Both sides now prepared themselves for battle.
On the right Corcyran wing were the Athenian ships. The Corcyrans themselves occupied the center and the left wing, and were drawn up in three divisions, each under the command of one of the generals. On the right wing of the Corinthians were the Megarian and Ambraciot ships, in the center the contingents of their other allies; they themselves with their swiftest vessels formed the left wing, which was opposed to the Athenians and to the right division of the Corcyrans.note[Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 1.48; tr. Benjamin Jowett.]
These words might give the impression that on both sides, two lines of ships - one of 150 ships wide and one of 120 ships - approached each other. If this were true, the Corinthians could have executed the maneuver known as periplus, outflanking the enemy. However, parallels from more recent naval warfare with oared ships indicate that it is not possible to keep a line intact if it is wider than about sixty ships. It is possible that the divisions mentioned by Thucydides were two or perhaps three ships deep, but this is just a hypothesis. In fact, we can only conclude that the ships met and that the real battle array cannot be reconstructed.
The two fleets met and fought. The decks of both were crowded with heavy infantry, with archers and with javelin-men; for their naval arrangements were still of the old, clumsy sort. The engagement was obstinate, but more courage than skill was displayed.note[Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 1.49.]
That the fight was one "of the old, clumsy sort" is a topical remark. It means that the ships were not ramming each other, as the Athenians often did: but for these tactics (the periplus and the diekplus, breakthrough), great skill was needed, and only Athens had taught its rowers how to perform these maneuvers. So the battle was of an altogether different nature: the ships tried to come close to each other, and hoplites and archers did the actual fighting.
When two ships once charged one another, it was hardly possible to part company, for the throng of vessels was dense, and the hopes of victory lay chiefly in the heavy-armed, who maintained a steady fight upon the decks, while the ships remained motionless. There were no attempts to break the enemy's line [diekplus]. Brute force and rage made up for the want of tactics. Everywhere the battle was a scene of tumult and confusion. At any point where they saw the Corcyrans distressed, the Athenians appeared and kept the enemy in check; but the generals, who were afraid of disobeying their instructions, would not begin the attack themselves.note[Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 1.49.]
It turned out that the Corinthian allies were no match for twenty Corcyran triereis, which forced their enemies to run their ships ashore and proceeded to loot the Corinthian base.
But the left wing of the Corinthians, where their own ships were stationed, had greatly the advantage, because the Corcyrans, whose numbers were originally inferior, had now twenty vessels detached in the pursuit. When the Athenians saw the distress of the Corcyrans, they began to assist them more openly. At first they had abstained from actual collision, but when the Corcyrans fled outright and the Corinthians pressed them hard, then every man fell to work.note[Thucydides,Peloponessian War 1.49.]
For the outcome of the engagement, it did not matter very much: having lost seventy ships, the remaining Corcyrans were fleeing - not to their base near Sybota, but to the southern part of their island. Thus came an end to the greatest battle between two Greek navies until then.
The Corinthians, who had lost thirty triereis, made their way through the drifting wrecks, trying to recover people living and dead. Thucydides tells that they killed the shipwrecked people without giving quarter, sometimes even killing their own allies. The Corinthians did not tow away the floating hulls, but after some time resumed their northward progress. The Corcyrans and Athenians, thinking that the Corinthians wanted to disembark on Corcyra, swiftly prepared to attack their enemies before they would land on the shore.
It was now late in the day, when the Corinthians suddenly began to row astern. They had descried sailing towards them twenty vessels which the Athenians had sent to reinforce the former ten. The Corinthians, who had the first view of these vessels, suspected that they were Athenian and that there were more of them, began to retreat. The Corcyrans could not see them and wondered why the Corinthians rowed astern. At length some of them saw the advancing fleet. Then the Corcyrans, as it was getting dark, retired, and the Corinthians turned about and sailed away.note[Thucydides, Peloponesian War 1.50-51; italics added.]
The new vessels proceeded through the dead bodies and wrecks to the island, where people - who did not know that Athens had sent reinforcements - at first believed that they were being attacked. They must have felt relief when they discovered that the ships were not enemies, but must still have spent an uneasy night. The Corinthians and their allies, who had occupied Sybota, must have had mixed feelings: they had destroyed the enemy fleet, and this was a victory, but it was unclear what their victory meant.
Next day, the united Corcyran-Athenian navy sailed to Sybota, where the enemy was waiting without showing great zeal to renew the engagement. The Corinthians now had more urgent things to think of: they were afraid that the Athenians would judge that the peace had already been broken now that a fight had taken place, which would give them an excuse to intercept them on their return. And although there were only thirty Athenian triereis to pursue the 120 Corinthian ships, the Athenian had a deserved reputation for superior tactics. So the Corinthians decided to send an envoy to the Athenians, without the herald's staff that was - like a white flag in our age - to protect negotiators in a situation of war. Both parties stated that it was not their desire to go to war and blamed the other from breaking the treaty, and the Corinthians were glad that this meant that they could return home unchallenged.
The Corcyrans and Athenians claimed they had been victorious: they had prevented a landing on the island. Or had they? The truth is that Thucydides includes three remarks that may lead to doubt. In the first place, he says that the Corinthians took with them three days' provisions. That suggests - although it does not completely prove - a different plan: to move past Corcyra, along a rocky shore where water would be hard to obtain, to Epidamnus. After all, control of that city was why Corinth and its colony had decided to go to war.
Had the Corinthians really wanted to attack Corcyra itself, they would not have burdened each of their ships with water and food. Instead, they would have taken fewer supplies with them, knowing that after the first naval engagement, they would either - after a spectacular success - make a direct landing on an island with excellent wells, or return to the mainland, have some rest, and prepare for another day of fighting. This is corroborated by the second clue: Thucydides mentions sails, which were hardly needed if the Corinthians wanted to land on Corcyra. It is therefore possible that the Corinthians were not heading for the island, but tried to pass along it, although they were certainly prepared to fight if they had to.
If Epidamnus was indeed the ultimate goal of the Corinthian expedition, it becomes understandable why Thucydides stresses - the third remark - that the Corinthians, after the battle, "never stopped to take in tow the hulls of the disabled vessels". That would have been the logical thing to do if another day of fighting was expected. Damaged ships could be refitted and were useful, even when they could not be put to use immediately. Leaving valuable spoils, however, makes sense if the Corinthians were heading for Epidamnus, and damaged hulls would be a burden.
We can no longer establish the aims of the Corinthians. Had they understood the nature of the first defensive treaty in Greek history? Thucydides does not digress on the political debate in Corinth after the embassy had returned. Did the Corinthians really want to disembark on the island? Thucydides' Greek is ambiguous: he says that the Corinthians and their allies were sailing epi Corcyra, which can mean "against", but also "toward".
According to Thucydides, the Athenians really tried to prevent war, but found themselves opposed by a Corinth that was unwilling to appreciate the defensive alliance, felt snubbed and decided to attack Corcyra anyhow. The alternative is that the Corinthians did understand it, tried to pass along the island, and found themselves under attack from an enemy that misunderstood the northward move of the Corinthians. Whatever reading one prefers, it is certain that the battle of Sybota created rancor in Corinth.
It is also certain that the Athenians knew that the idea of a defensive alliance had been unsuccessful. They started to prepare for a war against Corinth: Athens demanded sureties from Potideia (a Corinthian colony that was a member of the Athenian alliance), punished the Corinthian ally Megara by excluding it from both Athenian markets and harbors, and interrupted the expensive building projects on the Acropolis to redirect funds to the war treasury. Probably, the Athenians were still counting on Spartan neutrality - after all, Corinth had been the aggressor. In the end, this policy failed as well: the Megarans and Corinthians successfully requested Spartan help.
And the war came. Had the two parties at Sybota better understood what the opponent was doing, the catastrophe might have been averted. But diplomacy failed and a great evil was coming to Greece.
This article was first published in Ancient Warfare 2.3 (2008). | <urn:uuid:c77a5ca2-c2fc-4487-9be0-15a98c90e782> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/sybota-433-bce/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.984643 | 3,160 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.590564131736... | 11 | In 445, Athens and Sparta put an end to a war that had lasted fifteen years. Both sides were exhausted. The Spartans had had to cope not only with the Athenians, but also with a revolt of the helots, and the Athenians had been fighting both Sparta and Persia. But now, negotiators swore that for thirty years, they would refrain from violence and would ask arbiters to solve any problems that might arise. This was more than just a peace treaty between nations, because Athens allowed the Spartans to swear the oaths on behalf of their allies (the "Peloponnesian League"), and Sparta recognized that the Athenians spoke on behalf of the cities with which they were allied (the "Delian League"). If the two former enemies had not achieved their war aims, they could at least expand their power vis-à-vis their allies, and from this moment, we read about "the cities that are ruled by the Athenians".
Both sides were sincere in their longing for peace. The following year, the Athenians were invited to found a colony in southern Italy, Thurii, and they called it an all-Greek ("panhellenic") town to prevent irritation in Sparta and its ally Corinth, which traditionally were interested in the far west. This gesture was appreciated, and when the island of Samos revolted against Athens (440), the Corinthians and Spartans refused to support the rebels. Peace reigned and few would have believed that within seven years, Corinth and Athens would clash in a big naval battle, and that in 431, war between the two alliances would be renewed.
Our main source for the new conflict, the Peloponnesian War, is the Greek historian Thucydides (c.460-c.395), an austere author with a vision on the historical process that looks surprisingly modern. He refuses to blame the gods for what is a human activity, and argues that war is - as long as human nature remains the same - understandable in terms of the human intellect. His analysis is therefore rational, and so convincing that in many handbooks of ancient history, the section on the Peloponnesian War is nothing but a summary of Thucydides. In his view, the Athenians and Spartans were at first unwilling to go to war, but were also unable to find a way out of a conflict that ought not to have had serious consequences. Perhaps, however, the two superpowers stumbled to disaster even more clumsily.
In 436, the Corinthians, allies of Sparta, attacked their colony Corcyra (modern Corfu), to solve a conflict over Epidamnus (modern Dürres), claimed by both. The Corcyrans defeated their mother-city, but soon learned that Corinth was building a new fleet. Early in 433, they sent envoys to the Athenian Assembly, asking for help. A Corinthian ambassador happened to be present as well, and reminded the Athenians that seven years before, Corinth had allowed Athens to punish Samos. The Corinthians, he argued, would appreciate a similar neutrality now that they wanted to punish their colony. The parallel was only seemingly convincing, because Samos had been recognized as an Athenian subject and Corinthian interference in 440 would have been a treaty violation, whereas Corcyra was a neutral state with which Athens was allowed to ally itself.
Still, the Athenians did not want to treat the Corinthians with contempt, as that would lead to bad relations with the Peloponnesian League. On the other hand, ignoring the Corcyran request meant that Corinth would sooner or later obtain the Corcyran navy and could challenge Athenian naval superiority. The solution to this dilemma was a diplomatic innovation: the Assembly offered an alliance to Corcyra that was defensive only. It is the first entirely defensive pact known from Greek history, and modern historians believe that the idea was due to Pericles, the often reelected political leader of Athens.
Ten Athenian triereis were sent to Corcyra, with the explicit order never to fight against the Corinthians except if they tried to land on the island. In this way, the Athenians wanted to protect their new ally and show the Spartans and Corinthians that there was no reason to fear a change in the balance of power. Unfortunately, Thucydides does not report whether the Corinthians understood this diplomatic innovation.
The Corinthians set out with 90 triereis and 60 ships of their allies, and built their base on the mainland, southeast of Corcyra. Their opponents countered by sending 110 galleys and the 10 Athenian ships to the bay of Sybota (the modern marina of Mourtos). Thucydides says that the Corinthians wanted to land on Corcyra, and indeed, when the attackers - taking three days' provisions with them - started to row to the north, the Corcyrans and Athenians could only interpret this as an attack. Both sides now prepared themselves for battle.
On the right Corcyran wing were the Athenian ships. The Corcyrans themselves occupied the center and the left wing, and were drawn up in three divisions, each under the command of one of the generals. On the right wing of the Corinthians were the Megarian and Ambraciot ships, in the center the contingents of their other allies; they themselves with their swiftest vessels formed the left wing, which was opposed to the Athenians and to the right division of the Corcyrans.note[Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 1.48; tr. Benjamin Jowett.]
These words might give the impression that on both sides, two lines of ships - one of 150 ships wide and one of 120 ships - approached each other. If this were true, the Corinthians could have executed the maneuver known as periplus, outflanking the enemy. However, parallels from more recent naval warfare with oared ships indicate that it is not possible to keep a line intact if it is wider than about sixty ships. It is possible that the divisions mentioned by Thucydides were two or perhaps three ships deep, but this is just a hypothesis. In fact, we can only conclude that the ships met and that the real battle array cannot be reconstructed.
The two fleets met and fought. The decks of both were crowded with heavy infantry, with archers and with javelin-men; for their naval arrangements were still of the old, clumsy sort. The engagement was obstinate, but more courage than skill was displayed.note[Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 1.49.]
That the fight was one "of the old, clumsy sort" is a topical remark. It means that the ships were not ramming each other, as the Athenians often did: but for these tactics (the periplus and the diekplus, breakthrough), great skill was needed, and only Athens had taught its rowers how to perform these maneuvers. So the battle was of an altogether different nature: the ships tried to come close to each other, and hoplites and archers did the actual fighting.
When two ships once charged one another, it was hardly possible to part company, for the throng of vessels was dense, and the hopes of victory lay chiefly in the heavy-armed, who maintained a steady fight upon the decks, while the ships remained motionless. There were no attempts to break the enemy's line [diekplus]. Brute force and rage made up for the want of tactics. Everywhere the battle was a scene of tumult and confusion. At any point where they saw the Corcyrans distressed, the Athenians appeared and kept the enemy in check; but the generals, who were afraid of disobeying their instructions, would not begin the attack themselves.note[Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 1.49.]
It turned out that the Corinthian allies were no match for twenty Corcyran triereis, which forced their enemies to run their ships ashore and proceeded to loot the Corinthian base.
But the left wing of the Corinthians, where their own ships were stationed, had greatly the advantage, because the Corcyrans, whose numbers were originally inferior, had now twenty vessels detached in the pursuit. When the Athenians saw the distress of the Corcyrans, they began to assist them more openly. At first they had abstained from actual collision, but when the Corcyrans fled outright and the Corinthians pressed them hard, then every man fell to work.note[Thucydides,Peloponessian War 1.49.]
For the outcome of the engagement, it did not matter very much: having lost seventy ships, the remaining Corcyrans were fleeing - not to their base near Sybota, but to the southern part of their island. Thus came an end to the greatest battle between two Greek navies until then.
The Corinthians, who had lost thirty triereis, made their way through the drifting wrecks, trying to recover people living and dead. Thucydides tells that they killed the shipwrecked people without giving quarter, sometimes even killing their own allies. The Corinthians did not tow away the floating hulls, but after some time resumed their northward progress. The Corcyrans and Athenians, thinking that the Corinthians wanted to disembark on Corcyra, swiftly prepared to attack their enemies before they would land on the shore.
It was now late in the day, when the Corinthians suddenly began to row astern. They had descried sailing towards them twenty vessels which the Athenians had sent to reinforce the former ten. The Corinthians, who had the first view of these vessels, suspected that they were Athenian and that there were more of them, began to retreat. The Corcyrans could not see them and wondered why the Corinthians rowed astern. At length some of them saw the advancing fleet. Then the Corcyrans, as it was getting dark, retired, and the Corinthians turned about and sailed away.note[Thucydides, Peloponesian War 1.50-51; italics added.]
The new vessels proceeded through the dead bodies and wrecks to the island, where people - who did not know that Athens had sent reinforcements - at first believed that they were being attacked. They must have felt relief when they discovered that the ships were not enemies, but must still have spent an uneasy night. The Corinthians and their allies, who had occupied Sybota, must have had mixed feelings: they had destroyed the enemy fleet, and this was a victory, but it was unclear what their victory meant.
Next day, the united Corcyran-Athenian navy sailed to Sybota, where the enemy was waiting without showing great zeal to renew the engagement. The Corinthians now had more urgent things to think of: they were afraid that the Athenians would judge that the peace had already been broken now that a fight had taken place, which would give them an excuse to intercept them on their return. And although there were only thirty Athenian triereis to pursue the 120 Corinthian ships, the Athenian had a deserved reputation for superior tactics. So the Corinthians decided to send an envoy to the Athenians, without the herald's staff that was - like a white flag in our age - to protect negotiators in a situation of war. Both parties stated that it was not their desire to go to war and blamed the other from breaking the treaty, and the Corinthians were glad that this meant that they could return home unchallenged.
The Corcyrans and Athenians claimed they had been victorious: they had prevented a landing on the island. Or had they? The truth is that Thucydides includes three remarks that may lead to doubt. In the first place, he says that the Corinthians took with them three days' provisions. That suggests - although it does not completely prove - a different plan: to move past Corcyra, along a rocky shore where water would be hard to obtain, to Epidamnus. After all, control of that city was why Corinth and its colony had decided to go to war.
Had the Corinthians really wanted to attack Corcyra itself, they would not have burdened each of their ships with water and food. Instead, they would have taken fewer supplies with them, knowing that after the first naval engagement, they would either - after a spectacular success - make a direct landing on an island with excellent wells, or return to the mainland, have some rest, and prepare for another day of fighting. This is corroborated by the second clue: Thucydides mentions sails, which were hardly needed if the Corinthians wanted to land on Corcyra. It is therefore possible that the Corinthians were not heading for the island, but tried to pass along it, although they were certainly prepared to fight if they had to.
If Epidamnus was indeed the ultimate goal of the Corinthian expedition, it becomes understandable why Thucydides stresses - the third remark - that the Corinthians, after the battle, "never stopped to take in tow the hulls of the disabled vessels". That would have been the logical thing to do if another day of fighting was expected. Damaged ships could be refitted and were useful, even when they could not be put to use immediately. Leaving valuable spoils, however, makes sense if the Corinthians were heading for Epidamnus, and damaged hulls would be a burden.
We can no longer establish the aims of the Corinthians. Had they understood the nature of the first defensive treaty in Greek history? Thucydides does not digress on the political debate in Corinth after the embassy had returned. Did the Corinthians really want to disembark on the island? Thucydides' Greek is ambiguous: he says that the Corinthians and their allies were sailing epi Corcyra, which can mean "against", but also "toward".
According to Thucydides, the Athenians really tried to prevent war, but found themselves opposed by a Corinth that was unwilling to appreciate the defensive alliance, felt snubbed and decided to attack Corcyra anyhow. The alternative is that the Corinthians did understand it, tried to pass along the island, and found themselves under attack from an enemy that misunderstood the northward move of the Corinthians. Whatever reading one prefers, it is certain that the battle of Sybota created rancor in Corinth.
It is also certain that the Athenians knew that the idea of a defensive alliance had been unsuccessful. They started to prepare for a war against Corinth: Athens demanded sureties from Potideia (a Corinthian colony that was a member of the Athenian alliance), punished the Corinthian ally Megara by excluding it from both Athenian markets and harbors, and interrupted the expensive building projects on the Acropolis to redirect funds to the war treasury. Probably, the Athenians were still counting on Spartan neutrality - after all, Corinth had been the aggressor. In the end, this policy failed as well: the Megarans and Corinthians successfully requested Spartan help.
And the war came. Had the two parties at Sybota better understood what the opponent was doing, the catastrophe might have been averted. But diplomacy failed and a great evil was coming to Greece.
This article was first published in Ancient Warfare 2.3 (2008). | 3,205 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The American Revolution started with "the shot heard around the world" at Concord but quickly spread to include Canada when American revolutionary forces invaded Quebec. The invasion lead by Montgomery and Arnold came close to succeeding and would have led to the inclusion of all British North American colonies in the revolution. Quebec was saved and with it the other Northern Colonies. Halifax became the main naval base for the duration of the war. The results of the Quebec campaign prevented the forces of Manifest Destiny from taking all of North America for the new nation which the founding fathers in the United States had delivered.
The notion among many in the revolutionary ranks was that the subjugated French Canadians would welcome the invading Americans as liberator and would join in the resistance against the British. The reality was a little different.
With the festering of politic agendas in the 13 colonies coming to a head with the meeting of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, those delegates naturally looked to the absent British American colonies such as Quebec, Nova Scotia, and other potential allies. The Continental Congress must have felt that to bring these additional colonies into the revolutionary circle would not only increase their voice in England, increase resources to draw upon and hence chances of success, but would also take away potential bases of support and attack that the British could use against the member colonies of the revolution. A large British naval base existed at Halifax in Nova Scotia and Quebec City, and as in the time of the 7 years war, were looked upon as a dagger pointed at heart of New England and the mid-Atlantic colonies.
Washington was appointed the commander of the continental army in the autumn of 1775 and was ordered to turn this group of state militia's and other volunteers into a real army. One of the first decisions that Washington and the Continental Congress made was that Quebec needed to be brought into the revolution as allies. It was felt that the French Canadians would be more then willing to break away from Britain and either join the other colonies or establish it's independence. Om June 27, 1775 the decision was made to send an army of liberation to Quebec to force the British out. The attack was to be a double pronged approach with Richard Montgomery leading a force from New York to take Montreal and Benedict Arnold taking his canoe army up along the river routes to Quebec City. Arnold departed Massachusetts on September 13th and heading into the wilderness towards Quebec. Montgomery also so out and by November 2nd had taken St Johns.
When Montgomery arrived at Montreal he attacked and occupied the city on November 13th. The British commander General Carleton had abandoned the city and set out for Quebec City with his army. Arnold had arrived at Quebec City on November 8th but decided to wait for Montgomery and his army before attacking. When Montgomery arrived on December 5th, the Americans started a siege of Quebec and demanded that Carleton surrender which he refused to do. Time was against the Americans due to expiration of most of their soldiers enlistments on January 1, 1776. They attacked on December 27th and nearly took the city but were rebuffed. They decided to gamble all on an all out attack on December 31st, the night before their army might well dissolve with ending enlistments. A terrible snowstorm hit Quebec City on December 30th but they decided to proceed with the attack anyway.
The attack began a 2 in the morning of December 31st when Montgomery brought his 300 troops around to the west side of the city and Arnold prepared his 600 soldiers to attack form the eats side. They had planned to charge into the lower area of the city and then make their way through the streets and to the upper area where they could force Carleton out of the city or defeat him in detail. Carleton however, had been informed by an American deserted that the attack was coming and quickly rushed his men down to the lower part of the city and threw up a defensive barrier to meet Montgomery and planned an ambush on the east side to rebuff Arnold.
When Montgomery's men reached the barrier on the west side, the English opened fire with rifles and one canon. They killed three men immediately, including Montgomery, and the rest fled in panic and did not return. Arnold men attacked from the eats but Arnold was wounded almost immediately. Captain Morgan took the command of the rest of Arnold's men and they rushed through the lower city brushing aside all resistance. They then stopped before finishing Carleton's men off to wait for Montgomery, He did not come and by morning they decided to finish the attack without him. Carleton had used the precious time to bring more men into the lower town and they had re-occupied the barriers and taken positions in many of the buildings throughout the area. When Morgan started the final push he and his men found that they were being shot at form almost every house, angle and hidden position. They were slowly killed or captured and finally Morgan capitulated the remnants of his force.
Arnold managed to escape and collect the remains of the American troops and tried to continue the siege. He was eventually forced to retreat to Montreal and in May when British General Burgoyne arrived with over 4,000 soldiers, Arnold began the retreat from Canada. The Americans would not invade or threaten Canada again during the war.
Cite Article : Reference: www.canadahistory.com/sections/documents/documents.html | <urn:uuid:ca3dddfc-d237-4e48-8484-5345bd6cc065> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://canadahistory.com/sections/war/13%20Colonies/13_Colonies.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.985657 | 1,078 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.088521078228... | 4 | The American Revolution started with "the shot heard around the world" at Concord but quickly spread to include Canada when American revolutionary forces invaded Quebec. The invasion lead by Montgomery and Arnold came close to succeeding and would have led to the inclusion of all British North American colonies in the revolution. Quebec was saved and with it the other Northern Colonies. Halifax became the main naval base for the duration of the war. The results of the Quebec campaign prevented the forces of Manifest Destiny from taking all of North America for the new nation which the founding fathers in the United States had delivered.
The notion among many in the revolutionary ranks was that the subjugated French Canadians would welcome the invading Americans as liberator and would join in the resistance against the British. The reality was a little different.
With the festering of politic agendas in the 13 colonies coming to a head with the meeting of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, those delegates naturally looked to the absent British American colonies such as Quebec, Nova Scotia, and other potential allies. The Continental Congress must have felt that to bring these additional colonies into the revolutionary circle would not only increase their voice in England, increase resources to draw upon and hence chances of success, but would also take away potential bases of support and attack that the British could use against the member colonies of the revolution. A large British naval base existed at Halifax in Nova Scotia and Quebec City, and as in the time of the 7 years war, were looked upon as a dagger pointed at heart of New England and the mid-Atlantic colonies.
Washington was appointed the commander of the continental army in the autumn of 1775 and was ordered to turn this group of state militia's and other volunteers into a real army. One of the first decisions that Washington and the Continental Congress made was that Quebec needed to be brought into the revolution as allies. It was felt that the French Canadians would be more then willing to break away from Britain and either join the other colonies or establish it's independence. Om June 27, 1775 the decision was made to send an army of liberation to Quebec to force the British out. The attack was to be a double pronged approach with Richard Montgomery leading a force from New York to take Montreal and Benedict Arnold taking his canoe army up along the river routes to Quebec City. Arnold departed Massachusetts on September 13th and heading into the wilderness towards Quebec. Montgomery also so out and by November 2nd had taken St Johns.
When Montgomery arrived at Montreal he attacked and occupied the city on November 13th. The British commander General Carleton had abandoned the city and set out for Quebec City with his army. Arnold had arrived at Quebec City on November 8th but decided to wait for Montgomery and his army before attacking. When Montgomery arrived on December 5th, the Americans started a siege of Quebec and demanded that Carleton surrender which he refused to do. Time was against the Americans due to expiration of most of their soldiers enlistments on January 1, 1776. They attacked on December 27th and nearly took the city but were rebuffed. They decided to gamble all on an all out attack on December 31st, the night before their army might well dissolve with ending enlistments. A terrible snowstorm hit Quebec City on December 30th but they decided to proceed with the attack anyway.
The attack began a 2 in the morning of December 31st when Montgomery brought his 300 troops around to the west side of the city and Arnold prepared his 600 soldiers to attack form the eats side. They had planned to charge into the lower area of the city and then make their way through the streets and to the upper area where they could force Carleton out of the city or defeat him in detail. Carleton however, had been informed by an American deserted that the attack was coming and quickly rushed his men down to the lower part of the city and threw up a defensive barrier to meet Montgomery and planned an ambush on the east side to rebuff Arnold.
When Montgomery's men reached the barrier on the west side, the English opened fire with rifles and one canon. They killed three men immediately, including Montgomery, and the rest fled in panic and did not return. Arnold men attacked from the eats but Arnold was wounded almost immediately. Captain Morgan took the command of the rest of Arnold's men and they rushed through the lower city brushing aside all resistance. They then stopped before finishing Carleton's men off to wait for Montgomery, He did not come and by morning they decided to finish the attack without him. Carleton had used the precious time to bring more men into the lower town and they had re-occupied the barriers and taken positions in many of the buildings throughout the area. When Morgan started the final push he and his men found that they were being shot at form almost every house, angle and hidden position. They were slowly killed or captured and finally Morgan capitulated the remnants of his force.
Arnold managed to escape and collect the remains of the American troops and tried to continue the siege. He was eventually forced to retreat to Montreal and in May when British General Burgoyne arrived with over 4,000 soldiers, Arnold began the retreat from Canada. The Americans would not invade or threaten Canada again during the war.
Cite Article : Reference: www.canadahistory.com/sections/documents/documents.html | 1,101 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How successful was the Weimar Republic in dealing with Germany’s problems from 1923 – 1929 Essay
People used the term Weimar Republic to refer to a time in German history 1919 -1933 when the government was a democratic republic that was governed by laws that were laid out in a German city named Weimar. I think that the Weimar Republic was not very successful in dealing with Germany’s problems, because of the French occupation of Ruhr. In the year of 1923, Germany missed a delivery payment for reparations, and as a result of this, France took over the industrial area of Ruhr to manage delivery themselves.
As a result, the German workers took on a policy in the form of passive resistance. However, on account, this left 132 Germans killed, and 150,000 expelled from their homes. For the Germans, this would have been very humiliating, as they had been invaded and their government was not doing anything to help or protect them. The German government decided to pay the workers (that were still alive) who were passively resisting in recognition of their loyalty, however, since Germany was losing all of its profit from the Ruhr, the government had to print money they did not have in order to pay the workers, this eventually resulted in hyper-inflation.
The price of bread rose from 163 marks in 1922, to 200 billion marks in 1923. Citizens lost all value for their savings over night. This formed a large amount of anger towards Weimar. I therefore believe that the occupation of the Ruhr and hyper-inflation meant that 1923 was a difficult time for Germany. A second reason as to why the Weimar Republic was not successful with Germany’s problems because of the Munich Putsch. In 1923, Adolf Hitler and Erich Ludendorff, who were supported by 600 SA, tried to take over the government by storming into a meeting that was being held by the Bavarian PM in Munich. The putsch failed, because the Nazis were met by 100 police, resulted in the death of 16 Nazis. Hitler was arrested and imprisoned for 9 months. The fact that Adolf Hitler received only 9 months imprisonment for treason shows how the courts were over sympathetic to right – wing extremism. This is why I believe that Weimar was not successful.
Cite this How successful was the Weimar Republic in dealing with Germany’s problems from 1923 – 1929 Essay
How successful was the Weimar Republic in dealing with Germany’s problems from 1923 – 1929 Essay. (2016, Nov 03). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/how-successful-was-the-weimar-republic-in-dealing-with-germanys-problems-from-1923-1929/ | <urn:uuid:3ef53a29-e20b-44d4-8a3b-c3e88d09a2c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/how-successful-was-the-weimar-republic-in-dealing-with-germanys-problems-from-1923-1929/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00454.warc.gz | en | 0.987202 | 568 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1954961717128... | 1 | How successful was the Weimar Republic in dealing with Germany’s problems from 1923 – 1929 Essay
People used the term Weimar Republic to refer to a time in German history 1919 -1933 when the government was a democratic republic that was governed by laws that were laid out in a German city named Weimar. I think that the Weimar Republic was not very successful in dealing with Germany’s problems, because of the French occupation of Ruhr. In the year of 1923, Germany missed a delivery payment for reparations, and as a result of this, France took over the industrial area of Ruhr to manage delivery themselves.
As a result, the German workers took on a policy in the form of passive resistance. However, on account, this left 132 Germans killed, and 150,000 expelled from their homes. For the Germans, this would have been very humiliating, as they had been invaded and their government was not doing anything to help or protect them. The German government decided to pay the workers (that were still alive) who were passively resisting in recognition of their loyalty, however, since Germany was losing all of its profit from the Ruhr, the government had to print money they did not have in order to pay the workers, this eventually resulted in hyper-inflation.
The price of bread rose from 163 marks in 1922, to 200 billion marks in 1923. Citizens lost all value for their savings over night. This formed a large amount of anger towards Weimar. I therefore believe that the occupation of the Ruhr and hyper-inflation meant that 1923 was a difficult time for Germany. A second reason as to why the Weimar Republic was not successful with Germany’s problems because of the Munich Putsch. In 1923, Adolf Hitler and Erich Ludendorff, who were supported by 600 SA, tried to take over the government by storming into a meeting that was being held by the Bavarian PM in Munich. The putsch failed, because the Nazis were met by 100 police, resulted in the death of 16 Nazis. Hitler was arrested and imprisoned for 9 months. The fact that Adolf Hitler received only 9 months imprisonment for treason shows how the courts were over sympathetic to right – wing extremism. This is why I believe that Weimar was not successful.
Cite this How successful was the Weimar Republic in dealing with Germany’s problems from 1923 – 1929 Essay
How successful was the Weimar Republic in dealing with Germany’s problems from 1923 – 1929 Essay. (2016, Nov 03). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/how-successful-was-the-weimar-republic-in-dealing-with-germanys-problems-from-1923-1929/ | 620 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to those proposing a change in terminology, "slave" perpetuates the crime of slavery in language, by reducing its victims to a nonhuman noun instead of, according to Andi Cumbo-Floyd, "carry[ing] them forward as people, not the property that they were".
About half these slaves were unfortunates in their own societies: It is sometimes hypothesized that at some moment it was decided that persons detained for a crime or as a result of warfare would be more useful if put to work in some way rather than if killed outright and discarded or eaten.
But both if and when that first occurred is unknown. Slave-owning societies Slavery is known to have existed as early as the Shang dynasty 18th—12th century bce in China. It has been studied thoroughly in ancient Han China bce—25 cewhere perhaps 5 percent of the population Slavery and white slave master enslaved.
Slavery continued to be a feature of Chinese society down to the 20th century. For most of that period it appears that slaves were generated in the same ways they were elsewhere, including capture in war, slave raiding, and the sale of insolvent debtors. In addition, the Chinese practiced self-sale into slavery, the sale of women and children to satisfy debts or because the seller could not feed themand the sale of the relatives of executed criminals.
Finally, kidnapping seems to have produced a regular flow of slaves at some times. The go-between or middleman was an important figure in the sale of local people into slavery; he provided the distance that made such slaves into outsiders, for the purchasers did not know their origins.
Chinese family boundaries were relatively permeable, and some owners established kinlike relations with their slaves; male slaves were appointed as heirs when no natural offspring existed.
As was also the case in other slave-owning societies, slaves in China were often luxury consumption items who constituted a drain on the economy. The reasons China never developed into a slave society are many and complex, but certainly an abundance of non-slave labour at low prices was one of the major ones.
Korea had a very large slave population, ranging from a third to half of the entire population for most of the millennium between the Silla period and the midth century. Most of the Korean slaves were indigenously generated.
In spite of their numbers, slaves seem to have had little impact on other institutions, and thus the society can be categorized as a slave-owning one. Slavery existed in ancient Indiawhere it is recorded in the Sanskrit Laws of Manu of the 1st century bce.
The institution was little documented until the British colonials in the 19th century made it an object of study because of their desire to abolish it. In there were an estimated eight million or nine million slaves in India, many of whom were agrestic or predial slaves—that is, slaves who were attached to the land they worked on but who nevertheless could be alienated from it.
Malabar had the largest proportion of slaves, about 15 percent of the total population. The agrestic slaves initially were subjugated communities. The remainder of the slaves was recruited individually by purchase from dealers or parents or by self-sale of the starving, and they can be classified as household slaves.
Although there were exceptions, slaves were owned primarily for prestige. Slavery was widely practiced in other areas of Asia as well.
A quarter to a third of the population of some areas of Thailand and Burma Myanmar were slaves in the 17th through the 19th centuries and in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, respectively.
But not enough is known about them to say that they definitely were slave societies. Other societies in the PhilippinesNepalMalaya, Indonesiaand Japan are known to have had slavery from ancient until fairly recent times. The same was true among the various peoples inhabiting the regions of Central Asia: In the New World some of the best-documented slave-owning societies were the Klamath and Pawnee and the fishing societies, such as the Yurok, that lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California.
Life was easy in many of those societies, and slaves are known to have sometimes been consumption goods that were simply killed in potlatches.
Among the Aztecs of Mexicoslavery generally seems to have been relatively mild. People got into the institution through self-sale and capture and could buy their way out relatively easily.This is an eye-opening account of Barbary Coast slavery, American historians have studied every aspect of enslavement of Africans by "whites" but have largely ignored enslavement of "whites" by North Africans which flourished during approximately the same period as the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
Packing slaves onto a deck of a slave ship called The Brookes.. The iconic Brookes print, designed in Plymouth, UK, in depicted the conditions on board the slave ship The image portrayed slaves arranged in accordance with the Regulated Slave Trade Act of Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, (Early Modern History) [Robert C.
Davis] on lausannecongress2018.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. This is a study that digs deeply into this other slavery, the bondage of Europeans by north-African Muslims that flourished during the . Master hog-tied by cirurity gaged and crusifiled two sexy slave teen girls in the woods.
For doing this he needs the real remotest depths of the outdoor, because no one can see what happen in this place and have a chance and time to chain slave girl and crusifield them.
Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human chattel enslavement, primarily of Africans and African Americans, that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Slavery had been practiced in British America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of . Hands of a Slave. We Present Here for your Research and Perusal, an Overview of the History of Slavery.
We Present this Material in Five Parts. | <urn:uuid:b3b34125-296a-49ae-9ef1-95ea0c175733> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hamoduduvojatepyz.lausannecongress2018.com/slavery-and-white-slave-master-46618ry.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00374.warc.gz | en | 0.983777 | 1,287 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.202608942985... | 2 | According to those proposing a change in terminology, "slave" perpetuates the crime of slavery in language, by reducing its victims to a nonhuman noun instead of, according to Andi Cumbo-Floyd, "carry[ing] them forward as people, not the property that they were".
About half these slaves were unfortunates in their own societies: It is sometimes hypothesized that at some moment it was decided that persons detained for a crime or as a result of warfare would be more useful if put to work in some way rather than if killed outright and discarded or eaten.
But both if and when that first occurred is unknown. Slave-owning societies Slavery is known to have existed as early as the Shang dynasty 18th—12th century bce in China. It has been studied thoroughly in ancient Han China bce—25 cewhere perhaps 5 percent of the population Slavery and white slave master enslaved.
Slavery continued to be a feature of Chinese society down to the 20th century. For most of that period it appears that slaves were generated in the same ways they were elsewhere, including capture in war, slave raiding, and the sale of insolvent debtors. In addition, the Chinese practiced self-sale into slavery, the sale of women and children to satisfy debts or because the seller could not feed themand the sale of the relatives of executed criminals.
Finally, kidnapping seems to have produced a regular flow of slaves at some times. The go-between or middleman was an important figure in the sale of local people into slavery; he provided the distance that made such slaves into outsiders, for the purchasers did not know their origins.
Chinese family boundaries were relatively permeable, and some owners established kinlike relations with their slaves; male slaves were appointed as heirs when no natural offspring existed.
As was also the case in other slave-owning societies, slaves in China were often luxury consumption items who constituted a drain on the economy. The reasons China never developed into a slave society are many and complex, but certainly an abundance of non-slave labour at low prices was one of the major ones.
Korea had a very large slave population, ranging from a third to half of the entire population for most of the millennium between the Silla period and the midth century. Most of the Korean slaves were indigenously generated.
In spite of their numbers, slaves seem to have had little impact on other institutions, and thus the society can be categorized as a slave-owning one. Slavery existed in ancient Indiawhere it is recorded in the Sanskrit Laws of Manu of the 1st century bce.
The institution was little documented until the British colonials in the 19th century made it an object of study because of their desire to abolish it. In there were an estimated eight million or nine million slaves in India, many of whom were agrestic or predial slaves—that is, slaves who were attached to the land they worked on but who nevertheless could be alienated from it.
Malabar had the largest proportion of slaves, about 15 percent of the total population. The agrestic slaves initially were subjugated communities. The remainder of the slaves was recruited individually by purchase from dealers or parents or by self-sale of the starving, and they can be classified as household slaves.
Although there were exceptions, slaves were owned primarily for prestige. Slavery was widely practiced in other areas of Asia as well.
A quarter to a third of the population of some areas of Thailand and Burma Myanmar were slaves in the 17th through the 19th centuries and in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, respectively.
But not enough is known about them to say that they definitely were slave societies. Other societies in the PhilippinesNepalMalaya, Indonesiaand Japan are known to have had slavery from ancient until fairly recent times. The same was true among the various peoples inhabiting the regions of Central Asia: In the New World some of the best-documented slave-owning societies were the Klamath and Pawnee and the fishing societies, such as the Yurok, that lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California.
Life was easy in many of those societies, and slaves are known to have sometimes been consumption goods that were simply killed in potlatches.
Among the Aztecs of Mexicoslavery generally seems to have been relatively mild. People got into the institution through self-sale and capture and could buy their way out relatively easily.This is an eye-opening account of Barbary Coast slavery, American historians have studied every aspect of enslavement of Africans by "whites" but have largely ignored enslavement of "whites" by North Africans which flourished during approximately the same period as the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
Packing slaves onto a deck of a slave ship called The Brookes.. The iconic Brookes print, designed in Plymouth, UK, in depicted the conditions on board the slave ship The image portrayed slaves arranged in accordance with the Regulated Slave Trade Act of Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, (Early Modern History) [Robert C.
Davis] on lausannecongress2018.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. This is a study that digs deeply into this other slavery, the bondage of Europeans by north-African Muslims that flourished during the . Master hog-tied by cirurity gaged and crusifiled two sexy slave teen girls in the woods.
For doing this he needs the real remotest depths of the outdoor, because no one can see what happen in this place and have a chance and time to chain slave girl and crusifield them.
Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human chattel enslavement, primarily of Africans and African Americans, that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Slavery had been practiced in British America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of . Hands of a Slave. We Present Here for your Research and Perusal, an Overview of the History of Slavery.
We Present this Material in Five Parts. | 1,287 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Students’ age range: 06-08
Topic: Identifying types of families
Description: Briefly describe the lesson including the steps you followed during implementation. (700 words max):
The students viewed a short video about types of families. Students were asked to give insight to what the video was about.
They were asked for a defintion of a family. They were then asked to identify the types of families they knew. The teacher informed them that over the next two weeks they will be exploring different types of families.
The teacher showed students pictures with varying types of families. Students were asked to identify each family which was shown.
Four students were selected and asked to identify the persons who lived in their family. The class was asked to identify the type of family that the four students belonged to.
The teacher asked the students to give reasons why they think some of these families were formed. The other students were given the opportunity to state the type of family they belonged to if it was different than the families already identified.
Students were placed into groups of four’s according to their varying abilities.The teacher distributed worksheets to three groups and the remaining group was given drawing paper..
Teacher instructed first three groups to complete the worksheet. The teacher instructed students in the last group to draw a picture of their family. The teacher told the class tan the can work collaboratively with their classmates to complete the task.
Students in the first three groups were asked questions about their given assignment. The final group was allowed to explain the pictures which they drew with the members of their families.
Students were instructed to copy the note which was written on the chalkboard.
The teacher ended the lesson by reviewing and teaching the children a short song about the family. | <urn:uuid:75a6a428-3570-4501-891b-8a5ab15c9736> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oas.org/ext/en/development/teacher-education-resources/Lesson-Plans/Details/ArtMID/2125/ArticleID/1625/-Types-of-families | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.992985 | 362 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.135814160... | 13 | Students’ age range: 06-08
Topic: Identifying types of families
Description: Briefly describe the lesson including the steps you followed during implementation. (700 words max):
The students viewed a short video about types of families. Students were asked to give insight to what the video was about.
They were asked for a defintion of a family. They were then asked to identify the types of families they knew. The teacher informed them that over the next two weeks they will be exploring different types of families.
The teacher showed students pictures with varying types of families. Students were asked to identify each family which was shown.
Four students were selected and asked to identify the persons who lived in their family. The class was asked to identify the type of family that the four students belonged to.
The teacher asked the students to give reasons why they think some of these families were formed. The other students were given the opportunity to state the type of family they belonged to if it was different than the families already identified.
Students were placed into groups of four’s according to their varying abilities.The teacher distributed worksheets to three groups and the remaining group was given drawing paper..
Teacher instructed first three groups to complete the worksheet. The teacher instructed students in the last group to draw a picture of their family. The teacher told the class tan the can work collaboratively with their classmates to complete the task.
Students in the first three groups were asked questions about their given assignment. The final group was allowed to explain the pictures which they drew with the members of their families.
Students were instructed to copy the note which was written on the chalkboard.
The teacher ended the lesson by reviewing and teaching the children a short song about the family. | 349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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