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After the Civil War, many Confederate soldiers returned home and founded nothing and many had no place to stay. Many people that God was punishing them for all the sins that they had done to the blacks. But many other Southerners refuse to accept that they were defeated by the Union. Instead, they thought that God spared them for something more important. So, they thought of the war as a lost cause and they interpreted it as a stepping stone to the South’s salvation. This is the feeling in Mississippi where ” A Rose for Emily,” takes place. In, ” A Rose for Emily,” Miss Emily portrays the Old South, not wanting to give up on the good old times. As the people of Jefferson portrays how the South wants to move on to bigger and better things. Miss Emily Grierson lives in the pasted, and she did not want ot change at all. As time and things change, Miss Emily stayed the same. She was so much like the Old South that she had a black as a servant. Many people thought of her as,” a tradition, a duty, and a care; sort of hereditary obligation upon the town.”(Faulkner 73) That is why she did not have to pay any taxes. The Mayor of Jefferson in 1894, Colonel Satoris declared that she did not have to pay taxes. But as time pass and new generations of mayors came they tried to maker pay her taxes. Miss Emily refuse, she says, “I have no taxes in Jefferson.”(Faulkner 73) This how Miss Emily impersonate the Old South. She refuses to forget about the past as did the South and does not want to accept the fact that things are changing. After the defeat of the South in the Civil War, many people would not accept the changes that comes with defeat. Many people would fight to preserve as much of their past in the South as the victors of the North would allow. This is how Miss Emily felt when her father and Homer died. She did not want to accept the fact that her father was dead, and when the ladies tried to come to condole her, she said ” her father was not dead.”(Faulkner 75) Another way she tried to sustain the past was when Homer died. After Homer death, instead of her burying him and moving on with her life, she tried to preserve him as well. She kept his body up stairs in a room and for years slept with Homer’s body. Miss Emily was trying to remember the good times that Homer and her had and did not want to give that up.
Another way that Miss Emily impersonates the Old South is the way people mourn her at her funeral. Men came to her funeral because they respect her as,” a fallen monument.”(Faulkner 73) Older men came in their, “brushed Confederate uniforms.”(Faulkner 78) And when she was buried, she was buried “among the ranked and anonymous graves of Union and Confederate soldiers.”(Faulkner 73) Miss Emily was viewed as a representative of their history and past, their history that was the Old South. A piece of their history that they wanted to buried like the rest of the world has done. In conclusion, Miss Emily’s old southerner ways are obsolete, like the Premium 3. The Civil War is of the past and there it should stay. Although it took a long time for people to realize that, it was finally done. The results were for the better, as the South became a big part of the USA economic source. | <urn:uuid:5ca34b95-1f8a-4a9b-bd70-c055e0e59df1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/An_Old_South_Feeling_In | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.991213 | 757 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.0401870310... | 3 | After the Civil War, many Confederate soldiers returned home and founded nothing and many had no place to stay. Many people that God was punishing them for all the sins that they had done to the blacks. But many other Southerners refuse to accept that they were defeated by the Union. Instead, they thought that God spared them for something more important. So, they thought of the war as a lost cause and they interpreted it as a stepping stone to the South’s salvation. This is the feeling in Mississippi where ” A Rose for Emily,” takes place. In, ” A Rose for Emily,” Miss Emily portrays the Old South, not wanting to give up on the good old times. As the people of Jefferson portrays how the South wants to move on to bigger and better things. Miss Emily Grierson lives in the pasted, and she did not want ot change at all. As time and things change, Miss Emily stayed the same. She was so much like the Old South that she had a black as a servant. Many people thought of her as,” a tradition, a duty, and a care; sort of hereditary obligation upon the town.”(Faulkner 73) That is why she did not have to pay any taxes. The Mayor of Jefferson in 1894, Colonel Satoris declared that she did not have to pay taxes. But as time pass and new generations of mayors came they tried to maker pay her taxes. Miss Emily refuse, she says, “I have no taxes in Jefferson.”(Faulkner 73) This how Miss Emily impersonate the Old South. She refuses to forget about the past as did the South and does not want to accept the fact that things are changing. After the defeat of the South in the Civil War, many people would not accept the changes that comes with defeat. Many people would fight to preserve as much of their past in the South as the victors of the North would allow. This is how Miss Emily felt when her father and Homer died. She did not want to accept the fact that her father was dead, and when the ladies tried to come to condole her, she said ” her father was not dead.”(Faulkner 75) Another way she tried to sustain the past was when Homer died. After Homer death, instead of her burying him and moving on with her life, she tried to preserve him as well. She kept his body up stairs in a room and for years slept with Homer’s body. Miss Emily was trying to remember the good times that Homer and her had and did not want to give that up.
Another way that Miss Emily impersonates the Old South is the way people mourn her at her funeral. Men came to her funeral because they respect her as,” a fallen monument.”(Faulkner 73) Older men came in their, “brushed Confederate uniforms.”(Faulkner 78) And when she was buried, she was buried “among the ranked and anonymous graves of Union and Confederate soldiers.”(Faulkner 73) Miss Emily was viewed as a representative of their history and past, their history that was the Old South. A piece of their history that they wanted to buried like the rest of the world has done. In conclusion, Miss Emily’s old southerner ways are obsolete, like the Premium 3. The Civil War is of the past and there it should stay. Although it took a long time for people to realize that, it was finally done. The results were for the better, as the South became a big part of the USA economic source. | 743 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The worst economic disaster in United States history erupted in late October 1929. Stock market speculation had become frenzied as Americans yearned to "get rich quick" through stocks that were tripling or quadrupling in value. A concerned President Hoover urged the Federal Reserve and Wall Street financiers to curb stock manipulation. Regulation of the market itself, however, was considered the responsibility of the Governor of New York, Franklin D. Roosevelt.
On October 29, 1929 – later dubbed Black Tuesday – the market collapsed. Inside the New York Stock Exchange, crazed brokers traded 16 million shares in a single day as $30 billion vanished into thin air.
President Hoover called conferences with business, labor, and farm leaders who promised to keep wages steady and continue with new development and construction. The president asked Congress for a $160 million tax cut plus a doubling of resources for public buildings, dams, highways and harbors. He rushed deadlines for federal contracts and urged governors to expand public works in their own states.
Praise for his presidential intervention was widespread and many, including President Hoover himself, believed that the danger had passed. "No one in his place could have done more," concluded the New York Times in the spring of 1930. But hard times were just beginning. | <urn:uuid:ef7cf410-38be-4bbe-874a-722f3a3d7d96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hoover.oncell.com/en/35-countdown-to-disaster-126269.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.98085 | 255 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.43444988131523... | 2 | The worst economic disaster in United States history erupted in late October 1929. Stock market speculation had become frenzied as Americans yearned to "get rich quick" through stocks that were tripling or quadrupling in value. A concerned President Hoover urged the Federal Reserve and Wall Street financiers to curb stock manipulation. Regulation of the market itself, however, was considered the responsibility of the Governor of New York, Franklin D. Roosevelt.
On October 29, 1929 – later dubbed Black Tuesday – the market collapsed. Inside the New York Stock Exchange, crazed brokers traded 16 million shares in a single day as $30 billion vanished into thin air.
President Hoover called conferences with business, labor, and farm leaders who promised to keep wages steady and continue with new development and construction. The president asked Congress for a $160 million tax cut plus a doubling of resources for public buildings, dams, highways and harbors. He rushed deadlines for federal contracts and urged governors to expand public works in their own states.
Praise for his presidential intervention was widespread and many, including President Hoover himself, believed that the danger had passed. "No one in his place could have done more," concluded the New York Times in the spring of 1930. But hard times were just beginning. | 271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By 1871 having your photograph taken was pretty common place. But a development published that year would lead to a major revolution in making photography easier and more practical. And that where our subject comes in. The man in the photo is Dr Richard Leach Maddox, who came up with this leap.
Before Maddow’s Work
Five decades had pasted since Niépce made the first permanent photographic images. However the art of preparing your photographic plates was still tricky and required a skill with chemicals. Niépce and the early pioneers used a chemical layered onto metal or soaked onto paper which allowed for image creation.
By 1870 things were a bit better. In 1851 Fredrick Scott Archer produced the first practical wet collodion plate. This allowed photographers to use an emulsion that coated glass plates. These were durable when developed and allowed for multiple prints to made from the negative plate with ease. Wet collodion require a darkroom to be on at hand. You had a matter of minutes to prepare, use and develop your plate.
From this developed more stable dry collodion plates which allowed plates to be prepared in advance. But these were really slow with minutes long exposures and only suited landscape or architectural work. Not that wet Collodion plates were fast – exposure times were measured in seconds. Collodion preparations were pretty toxic and chemicals could be potentially explosive making early photographers experimenters and chemists.
Maddox would start the ball rolling to change that.
Maddow & his discovery
Maddox was born in the town of Bath in 1816. His health plagued him throughout his life but as we’ll see this helped to lead to his seminal work. He studies medicine and worked as a doctor (at one point was the private physician to the Duke of Montrose). However he was an enthusiastic photomicrographer. He remains quite reknown for his role in the development of microscopic photography even today
However it’s not his microscopic that we’re focused on. Maddox found the fumes from making collodion emulsions bad for his health. He decided to experiment and come up with his alternative. Having tried a range of substances from tapioca to quince, he picked up a packet of Nelson’s Gelatine Granuals. Mixing it with silver bromide he created a series of plates. These he tested by contact printing from existing negative plates with great success.
Maddox’s discovery would be published in the 1871 British Journal of Photography. Again illness may have played a hand. The Editor J.T. Taylor was ill and asked friends including Maddox to submit articles. Likely this hurried the publication of the technique.
The Dry Gelatin Plate
To be fair, Maddox wasn’t the the first to suggest Gelatin for an emulsion. Nor was he the creator of the Dry Gelatin plate. However he published the science that would lead to that massive step forward.
In 1878 Charles Bennett developed the technique further by heating the bromosilver gelatin layer. This increased sensitivity allowing for exposures of just a fraction of a second. He also realised that you could mass produce relatively stable and consistent plates.
This led to a developmental boom in late Victorian photography. The preparation of plates no longer rested with the photographer. Now cameras no longer needed tripods allowing for more instantaneous shots to be taken. Cameras got smaller and more portable. This was even before the next great leap of replacing glass plates. But the story of roll film is a story for another day.
Sadly Maddox died in 1902 at home in Southampton. He was awarded for both his microphotography and contributions to wider photography in his lifetime. He’d been married twice in his life and travelled extensively especially in his younger years. He never directly profited from his experiments and freely published his work. | <urn:uuid:6a7e134e-3f56-4b2f-8fe3-4282a75533e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://austerityphoto.co.uk/history-of-photography-by-objects-9-a-photograph-of-a-british-doctor-1871/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.981079 | 801 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.4654683768749237... | 7 | By 1871 having your photograph taken was pretty common place. But a development published that year would lead to a major revolution in making photography easier and more practical. And that where our subject comes in. The man in the photo is Dr Richard Leach Maddox, who came up with this leap.
Before Maddow’s Work
Five decades had pasted since Niépce made the first permanent photographic images. However the art of preparing your photographic plates was still tricky and required a skill with chemicals. Niépce and the early pioneers used a chemical layered onto metal or soaked onto paper which allowed for image creation.
By 1870 things were a bit better. In 1851 Fredrick Scott Archer produced the first practical wet collodion plate. This allowed photographers to use an emulsion that coated glass plates. These were durable when developed and allowed for multiple prints to made from the negative plate with ease. Wet collodion require a darkroom to be on at hand. You had a matter of minutes to prepare, use and develop your plate.
From this developed more stable dry collodion plates which allowed plates to be prepared in advance. But these were really slow with minutes long exposures and only suited landscape or architectural work. Not that wet Collodion plates were fast – exposure times were measured in seconds. Collodion preparations were pretty toxic and chemicals could be potentially explosive making early photographers experimenters and chemists.
Maddox would start the ball rolling to change that.
Maddow & his discovery
Maddox was born in the town of Bath in 1816. His health plagued him throughout his life but as we’ll see this helped to lead to his seminal work. He studies medicine and worked as a doctor (at one point was the private physician to the Duke of Montrose). However he was an enthusiastic photomicrographer. He remains quite reknown for his role in the development of microscopic photography even today
However it’s not his microscopic that we’re focused on. Maddox found the fumes from making collodion emulsions bad for his health. He decided to experiment and come up with his alternative. Having tried a range of substances from tapioca to quince, he picked up a packet of Nelson’s Gelatine Granuals. Mixing it with silver bromide he created a series of plates. These he tested by contact printing from existing negative plates with great success.
Maddox’s discovery would be published in the 1871 British Journal of Photography. Again illness may have played a hand. The Editor J.T. Taylor was ill and asked friends including Maddox to submit articles. Likely this hurried the publication of the technique.
The Dry Gelatin Plate
To be fair, Maddox wasn’t the the first to suggest Gelatin for an emulsion. Nor was he the creator of the Dry Gelatin plate. However he published the science that would lead to that massive step forward.
In 1878 Charles Bennett developed the technique further by heating the bromosilver gelatin layer. This increased sensitivity allowing for exposures of just a fraction of a second. He also realised that you could mass produce relatively stable and consistent plates.
This led to a developmental boom in late Victorian photography. The preparation of plates no longer rested with the photographer. Now cameras no longer needed tripods allowing for more instantaneous shots to be taken. Cameras got smaller and more portable. This was even before the next great leap of replacing glass plates. But the story of roll film is a story for another day.
Sadly Maddox died in 1902 at home in Southampton. He was awarded for both his microphotography and contributions to wider photography in his lifetime. He’d been married twice in his life and travelled extensively especially in his younger years. He never directly profited from his experiments and freely published his work. | 793 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Act 2, scene 2
Next morning, Bedford sounds the retreat, as the French have fled. Talbot orders the body of Salisbury to be brought in. He intends to have Salisbury buried in the main church in the city and engrave the story of the sack of Orléans, and how he was killed by French treachery, on his tomb. Talbot wonders why he did not see Charles and Joan in the fight, but Bedford thinks he saw them running away, arm-in-arm like lovers. He means to follow them as soon as he can.
A Messenger enters and tells Talbot that a French noblewoman, the Countess of Auvergne, has heard of his glorious reputation in battle and wishes to meet him. She invites him to visit her at her castle. Talbot agrees out of respect for the power of woman’s kindness, which may persuade in situations when great orators fail. He whispers an order privately to one of his officers and departs to visit the Countess.
Talbot and Burgundy’s report that Joan fled from battle, arm-in-arm with Charles, portrays her and the heir to the French throne as cowards as well as possible lovers.
The bringing on of the body of Salisbury mirrors the appearance of the body of Henry V in the first scene of the play. The deaths of both these military heroes suggest that the age of England’s glory under Henry V is over, for the time being at least. | <urn:uuid:2c540aaf-ce5d-4eb4-938a-432d059bbb3c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.novelguide.com/henry-vi-part-1/summaries/act2-scene2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00033.warc.gz | en | 0.982246 | 309 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.10776289552... | 6 | Act 2, scene 2
Next morning, Bedford sounds the retreat, as the French have fled. Talbot orders the body of Salisbury to be brought in. He intends to have Salisbury buried in the main church in the city and engrave the story of the sack of Orléans, and how he was killed by French treachery, on his tomb. Talbot wonders why he did not see Charles and Joan in the fight, but Bedford thinks he saw them running away, arm-in-arm like lovers. He means to follow them as soon as he can.
A Messenger enters and tells Talbot that a French noblewoman, the Countess of Auvergne, has heard of his glorious reputation in battle and wishes to meet him. She invites him to visit her at her castle. Talbot agrees out of respect for the power of woman’s kindness, which may persuade in situations when great orators fail. He whispers an order privately to one of his officers and departs to visit the Countess.
Talbot and Burgundy’s report that Joan fled from battle, arm-in-arm with Charles, portrays her and the heir to the French throne as cowards as well as possible lovers.
The bringing on of the body of Salisbury mirrors the appearance of the body of Henry V in the first scene of the play. The deaths of both these military heroes suggest that the age of England’s glory under Henry V is over, for the time being at least. | 297 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For a couple of decades, I regularly lectured on the colonial history of Mexico. One of the highlights was talking about the gold that Don Hernán Cortés stole and then lost following the Battle of Noche Triste. Everyone likes stories about lost gold.
Cortés’ expedition to Mexico was not only unauthorized, but such an outrageous act of treason that only the discovery of vast quantities of gold could possibly have saved the explorer’s life. That he was ultimately successful is one of those historical accidents that strains the credulity of every student.
Everything about Cortés’ discovery of Tenochtitlan, the capitol of the Aztec empire, is incredible. Not only was it the largest city that the conquistador had ever seen, it was located in the center of an island in the midst of a mountain-surrounded lake over a mile above sea level. When Cortés discovered that the Aztec empire had huge quantities of gold and jewels, he decided to plunder the capital despite the immense size of the Aztec army.
As most students know, Cortés played on the superstitions and naïveté of Montezuma, the Aztec chief. (Yeah, I know that wasn’t really his name. But, depending on which authority you want to believe, it was either Moctezuma II, Montezuma, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma, Motēuczōmah, Muteczuma, or as the Nahuatl texts say, Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin. If we are going to be that picky, he wasn’t the chief, but the ninth ‘tlatoan’ of the Aztecs.)
Montezuma was something of a poet or philosopher and he was really curious as to the true nature of the strange armor-wearing people who invaded his realm. Cortés was lucky—if he had arrived during the rule of Montezuma’s bloodthirsty father, Xochicueyetl who believed in killing first, and introductions later, it is doubtful that he would have lived long enough to have made the history books. It is possible that Montezuma thought the strangers were gods, or emissaries of the gods, or—and this most likely—just curious folks. For whatever reason, the Aztec chief invited the Spaniards into the city and even gave them his father’s palace to use during their “visit”.
The Spaniards were amazed at the amount of gold in the city, and more than a little alarmed at the brutal and bloody sacrifices that the Aztecs carried out in their temples. The Aztecs willingly gifted large amounts of gold to their visitors, since the soft metal had little value for the natives. When Montezuma questioned why the Spaniards were so eager to acquire what the Aztecs referred to as “excrement of the Gods”, Cortés answered, “Europeans suffer from a disease that can only be treated with gold”.
When Cortés learned that more Spaniards had arrived on the gulf coast, he quickly departed the city, leaving the Spaniards who remained in Tenochtitlan under the command of his lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado. Hurrying back to the coast, he met a much larger party of Spaniards who had been ordered to find and arrest the treasonous Cortés.
Luckily for Cortés, this Spanish army also suffered from ‘the gold disease’, and when Cortés offered to split his new wealth with them, the majority of the force quickly changed its allegiance to Cortés, enabling him to conquer the rest of the party sent to arrest him.
Hurrying back to Tenochtitlan with his newly augmented force, Cortés discovered that Pedro de Alvarado had really screwed up in his absence. This shouldn’t have been much of a surprise since Pedro always screwed up: he was the embodiment of brainless failure. A few years earlier, the ill-fated conquistador had acquired a fortune from the Maya by swapping glass beads for hundreds of golden axes. Pedro was halfway home before he discovered that his fabulous golden axes were actually bronze.
Years later, when Pedro showed up in Peru, Pizarro was so eager to be rid of this walking disaster that he paid the hapless conquistador to leave. Once again, Pedro was halfway back to Cuba before he discovered that his “payment” consisted of gilded lead bars.
As soon as Cortés had left for the coast, Pedro had begun harassing the Aztec priests, who were, as far as the dimwitted conquistador was concerned, actively worshipping the devil. When he interrupted one of the sacrifices and killed a few of the priests and noblemen, the mood of the city bordered on open violence. When Cortés returned, he quickly realized that the Spanish had overstayed their welcome, but instead of withdrawing, Cortés took Montezuma as a hostage, with the result that the palace where the Spaniards were staying was surrounded by a hostile mob.
What happened next is still open to debate. What everyone agrees on is that Cortés took Montezuma out on a balcony to tell the angry crowd to disperse and when they refused, Montezuma died. According to Cortés, the crowd began throwing stones and one of those hit the chief on the head. The Aztec version of events maintains that when Cortés realized that Montezuma was useless as a hostage, he got angry and stabbed Montezuma. I guess who you believe may depend on how politically correct you are.
However Montezuma died, Cortés knew it was time to withdraw. Gathering his forces, he told each man to take as much of the accumulated treasure as they wished, and that they would attempt to sneak out of the city that night. Some of the men evidently burdened themselves down with just a little too much gold.
The island city of Tenochtitlan was connected to the shore by long causeways which had removable sections for defense. The Spanish, knowing that the angry natives, eager for revenge, had removed these sections to prevent their escape, had built a light portable wooden scaffold to allow them to escape.
At midnight, the Spaniards began to move silently through the city, making their way to the closest causeway. An old woman, washing her clothes in the lake water, spotted the fleeing conquistadors and raised an alarm. Almost instantly, Aztec warriors began chasing the conquistadors down the causeway and even more began to flank the sides of the causeway in canoes. As missiles—rocks, darts, arrows, and spears—rained down on the men, they came to the first break in the causeway where they used their scaffold to cross, but then discovered that the wooden structure had become wedged, resisting their efforts to remove it in order to cross the next break in the escape route.
As the missiles continued to pelt the helpless men, those in the rear pushed the men in front of them into the water, where, weighted down with packs of gold, those men quickly drowned. Some of the men in the rear eventually escaped by crossing on the bodies of their dead comrades.
Cortés had been justifiably angry with Pedro de Alvarado, whom he had ordered to bring up the rear of the column of men as they tried to make their escape. According to one account, when Pedro came to the first break in the causeway, he managed to use his long lance to vault across the break. (I’ve always thought it a little unfair that none of the record books credit him with establishing the first Mexican pole vault record.)
By the time Cortés gathered his men on the beaches of Lake Texcoco, he had lost somewhere between 400 and 800 Spaniards and well over 1,000 native allies. Cortés supposedly sat under a tree and mourned his losses. The Spanish called the night of June 30, 1520, the “Noche Triste”—the sad night.
Cortés would eventually rally his men, and would eventually conquer Tenochtitlan and all of Mexico. Though Cortés would eventually gather a fortune in treasure, the gold that was lost that night was never recovered from the bottom of the lake, and is still waiting for someone to discover it.
Well, that was the story that I used to tell my students: the tale how Cortés gathered Aztec gold only to lose it in his escape from the city. But, this month, the story got a new ending. The gold—at least some of it—has been discovered, nearly 500 years later.
Using special x-ray equipment, archaeologists have just identified a gold bar that a city worker uncovered from a Mexico City park as part of the missing treasure. The bar, 1.93 kilograms, is worth over $50,000 today. This is the first piece of the lost treasure that has been missing for 500 years to be located.
And even as you read this, I bet that new holes are being sunk in that park. | <urn:uuid:78b9389c-77a0-4719-ad3d-1e9c5dbf7f59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://markmilliorn.blogspot.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.981654 | 1,906 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.3638356328... | 1 | For a couple of decades, I regularly lectured on the colonial history of Mexico. One of the highlights was talking about the gold that Don Hernán Cortés stole and then lost following the Battle of Noche Triste. Everyone likes stories about lost gold.
Cortés’ expedition to Mexico was not only unauthorized, but such an outrageous act of treason that only the discovery of vast quantities of gold could possibly have saved the explorer’s life. That he was ultimately successful is one of those historical accidents that strains the credulity of every student.
Everything about Cortés’ discovery of Tenochtitlan, the capitol of the Aztec empire, is incredible. Not only was it the largest city that the conquistador had ever seen, it was located in the center of an island in the midst of a mountain-surrounded lake over a mile above sea level. When Cortés discovered that the Aztec empire had huge quantities of gold and jewels, he decided to plunder the capital despite the immense size of the Aztec army.
As most students know, Cortés played on the superstitions and naïveté of Montezuma, the Aztec chief. (Yeah, I know that wasn’t really his name. But, depending on which authority you want to believe, it was either Moctezuma II, Montezuma, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma, Motēuczōmah, Muteczuma, or as the Nahuatl texts say, Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin. If we are going to be that picky, he wasn’t the chief, but the ninth ‘tlatoan’ of the Aztecs.)
Montezuma was something of a poet or philosopher and he was really curious as to the true nature of the strange armor-wearing people who invaded his realm. Cortés was lucky—if he had arrived during the rule of Montezuma’s bloodthirsty father, Xochicueyetl who believed in killing first, and introductions later, it is doubtful that he would have lived long enough to have made the history books. It is possible that Montezuma thought the strangers were gods, or emissaries of the gods, or—and this most likely—just curious folks. For whatever reason, the Aztec chief invited the Spaniards into the city and even gave them his father’s palace to use during their “visit”.
The Spaniards were amazed at the amount of gold in the city, and more than a little alarmed at the brutal and bloody sacrifices that the Aztecs carried out in their temples. The Aztecs willingly gifted large amounts of gold to their visitors, since the soft metal had little value for the natives. When Montezuma questioned why the Spaniards were so eager to acquire what the Aztecs referred to as “excrement of the Gods”, Cortés answered, “Europeans suffer from a disease that can only be treated with gold”.
When Cortés learned that more Spaniards had arrived on the gulf coast, he quickly departed the city, leaving the Spaniards who remained in Tenochtitlan under the command of his lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado. Hurrying back to the coast, he met a much larger party of Spaniards who had been ordered to find and arrest the treasonous Cortés.
Luckily for Cortés, this Spanish army also suffered from ‘the gold disease’, and when Cortés offered to split his new wealth with them, the majority of the force quickly changed its allegiance to Cortés, enabling him to conquer the rest of the party sent to arrest him.
Hurrying back to Tenochtitlan with his newly augmented force, Cortés discovered that Pedro de Alvarado had really screwed up in his absence. This shouldn’t have been much of a surprise since Pedro always screwed up: he was the embodiment of brainless failure. A few years earlier, the ill-fated conquistador had acquired a fortune from the Maya by swapping glass beads for hundreds of golden axes. Pedro was halfway home before he discovered that his fabulous golden axes were actually bronze.
Years later, when Pedro showed up in Peru, Pizarro was so eager to be rid of this walking disaster that he paid the hapless conquistador to leave. Once again, Pedro was halfway back to Cuba before he discovered that his “payment” consisted of gilded lead bars.
As soon as Cortés had left for the coast, Pedro had begun harassing the Aztec priests, who were, as far as the dimwitted conquistador was concerned, actively worshipping the devil. When he interrupted one of the sacrifices and killed a few of the priests and noblemen, the mood of the city bordered on open violence. When Cortés returned, he quickly realized that the Spanish had overstayed their welcome, but instead of withdrawing, Cortés took Montezuma as a hostage, with the result that the palace where the Spaniards were staying was surrounded by a hostile mob.
What happened next is still open to debate. What everyone agrees on is that Cortés took Montezuma out on a balcony to tell the angry crowd to disperse and when they refused, Montezuma died. According to Cortés, the crowd began throwing stones and one of those hit the chief on the head. The Aztec version of events maintains that when Cortés realized that Montezuma was useless as a hostage, he got angry and stabbed Montezuma. I guess who you believe may depend on how politically correct you are.
However Montezuma died, Cortés knew it was time to withdraw. Gathering his forces, he told each man to take as much of the accumulated treasure as they wished, and that they would attempt to sneak out of the city that night. Some of the men evidently burdened themselves down with just a little too much gold.
The island city of Tenochtitlan was connected to the shore by long causeways which had removable sections for defense. The Spanish, knowing that the angry natives, eager for revenge, had removed these sections to prevent their escape, had built a light portable wooden scaffold to allow them to escape.
At midnight, the Spaniards began to move silently through the city, making their way to the closest causeway. An old woman, washing her clothes in the lake water, spotted the fleeing conquistadors and raised an alarm. Almost instantly, Aztec warriors began chasing the conquistadors down the causeway and even more began to flank the sides of the causeway in canoes. As missiles—rocks, darts, arrows, and spears—rained down on the men, they came to the first break in the causeway where they used their scaffold to cross, but then discovered that the wooden structure had become wedged, resisting their efforts to remove it in order to cross the next break in the escape route.
As the missiles continued to pelt the helpless men, those in the rear pushed the men in front of them into the water, where, weighted down with packs of gold, those men quickly drowned. Some of the men in the rear eventually escaped by crossing on the bodies of their dead comrades.
Cortés had been justifiably angry with Pedro de Alvarado, whom he had ordered to bring up the rear of the column of men as they tried to make their escape. According to one account, when Pedro came to the first break in the causeway, he managed to use his long lance to vault across the break. (I’ve always thought it a little unfair that none of the record books credit him with establishing the first Mexican pole vault record.)
By the time Cortés gathered his men on the beaches of Lake Texcoco, he had lost somewhere between 400 and 800 Spaniards and well over 1,000 native allies. Cortés supposedly sat under a tree and mourned his losses. The Spanish called the night of June 30, 1520, the “Noche Triste”—the sad night.
Cortés would eventually rally his men, and would eventually conquer Tenochtitlan and all of Mexico. Though Cortés would eventually gather a fortune in treasure, the gold that was lost that night was never recovered from the bottom of the lake, and is still waiting for someone to discover it.
Well, that was the story that I used to tell my students: the tale how Cortés gathered Aztec gold only to lose it in his escape from the city. But, this month, the story got a new ending. The gold—at least some of it—has been discovered, nearly 500 years later.
Using special x-ray equipment, archaeologists have just identified a gold bar that a city worker uncovered from a Mexico City park as part of the missing treasure. The bar, 1.93 kilograms, is worth over $50,000 today. This is the first piece of the lost treasure that has been missing for 500 years to be located.
And even as you read this, I bet that new holes are being sunk in that park. | 1,855 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Speaking to your child in their first few months of their life is vital to them building knowledge about language, say scientists.
Researchers at the Hanyang University in Seoul studied Dutch-speaking adults, aged 30, who were adopted from South Korea as babies.
In the study, the participants were asked to pronounce Korean consonants – which are very different to those spoken in Dutch – after a short training course.
They were compared with a group of adults who had not been exposed to the language as children and then rated by native Korean speakers.
The adopted children and those not exposed to the Korean language as children performed to the same level before training, but it was found that after training the adoptees’s pronunciation exceeded expectations.
”This finding indicates that useful language knowledge is laid down in [the] very early months of life, which can be retained without further input of the language and revealed via re-learning,” lead researcher Dr. Jiyoun Choi told BBC News.
“Language learning process occurs very early in life, and useful language knowledge is laid down in the very early months of life as our study suggests.”
Dr. Choi claims that “language retained is abstract in nature rather than dependent on experience”, as the experiment found there is no difference between children who were adopted under six months of age (before they could speak) and those who were adopted after 17 months, when they had learned to talk.
It’s believed the process of acquiring language starts while the child is still in the womb, and Dr. Choi says women should be constantly talking to their babies from pregnancy, as their child will have learned their mum’s voice by the time they are born.
”Try to talk to your babies as much as possible because they are absorbing and digesting what you are saying,” she added. | <urn:uuid:0cf50584-fdeb-4af0-b809-6b1506153e5c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.healthymummy.com/children-adopted-birth-remember-native-language-claim-experts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.98977 | 385 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.34318649768829... | 11 | Speaking to your child in their first few months of their life is vital to them building knowledge about language, say scientists.
Researchers at the Hanyang University in Seoul studied Dutch-speaking adults, aged 30, who were adopted from South Korea as babies.
In the study, the participants were asked to pronounce Korean consonants – which are very different to those spoken in Dutch – after a short training course.
They were compared with a group of adults who had not been exposed to the language as children and then rated by native Korean speakers.
The adopted children and those not exposed to the Korean language as children performed to the same level before training, but it was found that after training the adoptees’s pronunciation exceeded expectations.
”This finding indicates that useful language knowledge is laid down in [the] very early months of life, which can be retained without further input of the language and revealed via re-learning,” lead researcher Dr. Jiyoun Choi told BBC News.
“Language learning process occurs very early in life, and useful language knowledge is laid down in the very early months of life as our study suggests.”
Dr. Choi claims that “language retained is abstract in nature rather than dependent on experience”, as the experiment found there is no difference between children who were adopted under six months of age (before they could speak) and those who were adopted after 17 months, when they had learned to talk.
It’s believed the process of acquiring language starts while the child is still in the womb, and Dr. Choi says women should be constantly talking to their babies from pregnancy, as their child will have learned their mum’s voice by the time they are born.
”Try to talk to your babies as much as possible because they are absorbing and digesting what you are saying,” she added. | 359 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From the series The Great Artists Collection
Grade Range: 7th – 12th
Page Count: 64
Lexile Level: 1280L
Paul Cézanne was highly revered by not just his contemporaries (although this took some time to materialize), but also the 20th- and 21st-century artists that were to follow him. Perhaps this is because his paintings and great works were universal and easy to interpret, with monumental great landscapes, still life, and portraitures, or perhaps it is because he brought something fresh, exciting, and new. Described as the “Father of Modernism,” Cezanne's style and influences changed from his early “darker” palettes to colorful and vibrant pieces, largely owing to his association with fellow artist Camille Pissarro. It took almost all of the 45 years of Cezanne's career for him to achieve the recognition and acclaimed criticism that he deserved, but it came around 1900, just six years before his death, leaving the French artist with an enduring legacy and a prominent place in art history.
Lightswitch Learning © 2020 All rights reserved. | Sitemap | <urn:uuid:1fc90f81-f3da-41b9-82c7-376499363d52> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lightswitchlearning.com/product/cezanne/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.985006 | 234 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.62421470880508... | 3 | From the series The Great Artists Collection
Grade Range: 7th – 12th
Page Count: 64
Lexile Level: 1280L
Paul Cézanne was highly revered by not just his contemporaries (although this took some time to materialize), but also the 20th- and 21st-century artists that were to follow him. Perhaps this is because his paintings and great works were universal and easy to interpret, with monumental great landscapes, still life, and portraitures, or perhaps it is because he brought something fresh, exciting, and new. Described as the “Father of Modernism,” Cezanne's style and influences changed from his early “darker” palettes to colorful and vibrant pieces, largely owing to his association with fellow artist Camille Pissarro. It took almost all of the 45 years of Cezanne's career for him to achieve the recognition and acclaimed criticism that he deserved, but it came around 1900, just six years before his death, leaving the French artist with an enduring legacy and a prominent place in art history.
Lightswitch Learning © 2020 All rights reserved. | Sitemap | 251 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Much of the art of the Renaissance was extremely religious in its nature. The paintings from this time are almost entirely scenes from the Bible including: the enunciation of the Virgin Mary, depictions of the infant Jesus Christ, the crucifixion of Christ, and numerous other examples of Christian iconography. One would imagine that virtuous, upstanding artists would have created such angelic works of art. The stunning displays of morality, as seen in the works of many Renaissance painters, are not always a reflection of the artist’s lifestyle.
Two examples of artists whose paintings did not reflect their lifestyles were Michelangelo Merisi de Caravaggio and Fra Filippo Lippi. Both of these artists created works that portrayed Christian iconography with great aesthetic expertise. Among these works are Caravaggio’s The Inspiration of Matthew and Lippi’s Madonna with the Child and two Angels. Fra Angelico was another artist from this same time period. He is quite a contradiction compared to his contemporaries. Angelico led a very pure life following the Christian morals of the time, unlike his peers.
Caravaggio, while a great artist, had a stormy personal history. Very little is known about his life until it began to be documented in the criminal courts. His teens and early twenties were scattered with bouts of abject poverty, until he became renowned as an artist. From this point on, his name appears every few months on the police blotter. He became well known for picking fights, threatening people with swords and being arrested for such deeds. He was sued for libel and built up enemies to the point where his murder was attempted. He was found in bed with wounds around his neck and left ear. Because of this event, Caravaggio was jailed in his house for an entire month. He was forbidden to leave without written permission from the governor of Rome. However, it seemed nothing could keep Caravaggio out of trouble. In the month of May 1606, he killed a man who had won a bet over a ball game that afternoon. After this event, he was left wounded himself. He fled Rome, going to a patron’s house and eventually moved on to Naples. At the age of thirty-five, he left Naples and went to Malta, where he was well received for this renowned artwork. However, this situation did not last long. He got in a fight and was imprisoned. Shortly after arrest, he escaped and finally returned to Rome, where his reputation was still well known. | <urn:uuid:525513ba-a107-4542-b5c0-babe1a3b5011> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nsucurrent.com/an-artists-life/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.991288 | 515 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.0460148751735... | 2 | Much of the art of the Renaissance was extremely religious in its nature. The paintings from this time are almost entirely scenes from the Bible including: the enunciation of the Virgin Mary, depictions of the infant Jesus Christ, the crucifixion of Christ, and numerous other examples of Christian iconography. One would imagine that virtuous, upstanding artists would have created such angelic works of art. The stunning displays of morality, as seen in the works of many Renaissance painters, are not always a reflection of the artist’s lifestyle.
Two examples of artists whose paintings did not reflect their lifestyles were Michelangelo Merisi de Caravaggio and Fra Filippo Lippi. Both of these artists created works that portrayed Christian iconography with great aesthetic expertise. Among these works are Caravaggio’s The Inspiration of Matthew and Lippi’s Madonna with the Child and two Angels. Fra Angelico was another artist from this same time period. He is quite a contradiction compared to his contemporaries. Angelico led a very pure life following the Christian morals of the time, unlike his peers.
Caravaggio, while a great artist, had a stormy personal history. Very little is known about his life until it began to be documented in the criminal courts. His teens and early twenties were scattered with bouts of abject poverty, until he became renowned as an artist. From this point on, his name appears every few months on the police blotter. He became well known for picking fights, threatening people with swords and being arrested for such deeds. He was sued for libel and built up enemies to the point where his murder was attempted. He was found in bed with wounds around his neck and left ear. Because of this event, Caravaggio was jailed in his house for an entire month. He was forbidden to leave without written permission from the governor of Rome. However, it seemed nothing could keep Caravaggio out of trouble. In the month of May 1606, he killed a man who had won a bet over a ball game that afternoon. After this event, he was left wounded himself. He fled Rome, going to a patron’s house and eventually moved on to Naples. At the age of thirty-five, he left Naples and went to Malta, where he was well received for this renowned artwork. However, this situation did not last long. He got in a fight and was imprisoned. Shortly after arrest, he escaped and finally returned to Rome, where his reputation was still well known. | 504 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin refers to the name given to the unfinished writing of his life. Written from 1771 to 1790. Born in Boston in the year 1706 as the tenth son to soap in a very large family, Benjamin Franklin struggled against all odds and proved to the whole world the value of ambition and hard work by becoming one of the most influential people in the world who shaped the future of the United States. In American History, also referred to as the founding father of the United States, through the writings, it is evident that Benjamin Franklin was a revolutionary figure who played an important role that helped in the drafting of the declaration of independence. Additionally, he is remembered as a civic, the man who formulated theories about lightning among other titles. Apart from being a bibliography, the book is also an interesting story and though he did not have time to finish it, the intellect and detailed description of various events of his public and personal life makes it a good source to learn American history. Benjamin Franklin divided the work into four major parts with each reflecting the periodic differences.
One evident thing that one learns from the autobiography was that he was a renaissance scholar who was driven by the desire to make people’s life better through his famous notion that God would always be pleased by those who do well to others, his writing technique allows his book to have a universal appeal.
The author Benjamin Franklin in part one begins by talking about various things that propelled him to writing his autobiography and according to him, it is important that one recaptures his life by writing it. In this section, he describes his love for reading, his experiences as a printer and with his brother until he makes an escape to Philadelphia. From Philadelphia, he goes to England and later on comes back to the United States. It is also during this period that he forms the debating club known as Junto where gentlemen can hold a debate on philosophical and scientific matters. The second part begins with him receiving a letter from his friends Vaughan and James who to an extent seems pleased with his writings and encourages him to continue. In another twist, the author goes back to informing on how Junto was created and his personal work towards attaining modesty and thrift. He also mentions on another likely topic “art of virtue” although he is not able to write. In the third chapter, the fruits of his labor begin to manifest. His newspaper, “the Pennsylvania Gazette” is rapidly expanding. Another notable thing about this chapter is that he reconciles with his brother. He is made a clerk in the general assembly. Additionally, his influence begins to build up in Pennsylvania’s militia is growing and founds the University of Pennsylvania. Other initiatives that he see their development is the first American hospital and other social amenities. Apart from the political influences, Franklin also makes scientific contribution through his electricity experiment and is made a member of the royal society. Benjamin makes way London to negotiate on assembly tax laws. In part 4, it begins with Franklin argues with the Assembly and Governor who finally agree to his bill, and he is celebrated while the assembly fires Governor Denny.
Franklin Autobiography present a detailed historical record of early American history. One evident feature in his writing is the inclusion of the American vision. Although then America is not yet a country, the mission and vision is still evident and is shown through the character of Benjamin Franklin. He hopes to make the lives of people better by advocating for a various development project that will benefit the whole community. According to Benjamin Franklin, American dream means economic prosperity, increased security and honesty. While many of the European nation still had class structures, it is evident from the article that he is advocating for a capitalistic society. Franklin writing style, therefore, demonstrates a smooth, precise and short account of the important life events and therefore very interesting to read. This is evident because simplicity has been greatly adopted in the writing. Similarly, so as to ensure the effectiveness of the writing speculate various emotions and attitude that affect people’s behavior.
Humor is another element that is greatly integrated into his writing. He effectively integrates humor with irony and effective social rituals. The first section of the book is the one characterized by humor. The importance of including humor in literature is that they aid in relieving tension and makes the reader glued to the article. It is also interesting how the author incorporates humor with intelligence. For example, in a situation where he feel there is any tension, he effectively used humor to elude his opponent while he can pass his point very well. Additionally, this bibliography can clearly show that Benjamin Franklin had a positive vision for the United States. It shows his brevity in the face of a tough opponent and how an individual can make use of the little resources he or she has to better his life. It is evident that Benjamin Franklin had very little regarding resource because he was born from an ordinary large sized family. He, however, refused to be defined by circumstance and drew his destiny. Consequently, critique has also pointed out very flaws in his writing. One of the major flaws is the fact that the author does not manage to conclude his writing and, as a result, leaves his audience or reader in suspense of how the book would be concluded. Similarly, in between the major parts of the book, the author sites external books or source which should contain further information but he dies before he can complete these sections.
Summary of Professional Review
The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin is an account of a committed leader who has a great vision for her country. Besides being born from a challenging environment, he defies all the odds and manage to change the lives of many people. It is, for this reason, he is referred to as founding the father of the United States and a protector of the people. His writings though written several years ago continue to inspire and change the society positively. Additionally, his story helps the modern generation to learn and appreciate various steps and important sacrifices that had to be made to acquire independence. His writings are very effective because he uses simple language to pass his message. Additionally, he has integrated various element such as pathos that enables him to connect with her readers emotionally. Additionally, different aspects of logos have also been included and thus making his findings and details very credible because they were written and were actual happening. Additionally, the fact that he also uses humor makes the whole account very interesting and educative. On the other hand, although there are several loopholes such as incomplete sentences and references to external sources that he eventually did not write. The overall presentation can be said to be good because the book was written way back in time and has been classified as the historic writing of the American history. | <urn:uuid:00d892bc-fca6-427a-b107-d553ec5af82b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primeessays.com/samples/history/history-of-benjamin-franklin.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00114.warc.gz | en | 0.986088 | 1,360 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.006508215796... | 8 | The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin refers to the name given to the unfinished writing of his life. Written from 1771 to 1790. Born in Boston in the year 1706 as the tenth son to soap in a very large family, Benjamin Franklin struggled against all odds and proved to the whole world the value of ambition and hard work by becoming one of the most influential people in the world who shaped the future of the United States. In American History, also referred to as the founding father of the United States, through the writings, it is evident that Benjamin Franklin was a revolutionary figure who played an important role that helped in the drafting of the declaration of independence. Additionally, he is remembered as a civic, the man who formulated theories about lightning among other titles. Apart from being a bibliography, the book is also an interesting story and though he did not have time to finish it, the intellect and detailed description of various events of his public and personal life makes it a good source to learn American history. Benjamin Franklin divided the work into four major parts with each reflecting the periodic differences.
One evident thing that one learns from the autobiography was that he was a renaissance scholar who was driven by the desire to make people’s life better through his famous notion that God would always be pleased by those who do well to others, his writing technique allows his book to have a universal appeal.
The author Benjamin Franklin in part one begins by talking about various things that propelled him to writing his autobiography and according to him, it is important that one recaptures his life by writing it. In this section, he describes his love for reading, his experiences as a printer and with his brother until he makes an escape to Philadelphia. From Philadelphia, he goes to England and later on comes back to the United States. It is also during this period that he forms the debating club known as Junto where gentlemen can hold a debate on philosophical and scientific matters. The second part begins with him receiving a letter from his friends Vaughan and James who to an extent seems pleased with his writings and encourages him to continue. In another twist, the author goes back to informing on how Junto was created and his personal work towards attaining modesty and thrift. He also mentions on another likely topic “art of virtue” although he is not able to write. In the third chapter, the fruits of his labor begin to manifest. His newspaper, “the Pennsylvania Gazette” is rapidly expanding. Another notable thing about this chapter is that he reconciles with his brother. He is made a clerk in the general assembly. Additionally, his influence begins to build up in Pennsylvania’s militia is growing and founds the University of Pennsylvania. Other initiatives that he see their development is the first American hospital and other social amenities. Apart from the political influences, Franklin also makes scientific contribution through his electricity experiment and is made a member of the royal society. Benjamin makes way London to negotiate on assembly tax laws. In part 4, it begins with Franklin argues with the Assembly and Governor who finally agree to his bill, and he is celebrated while the assembly fires Governor Denny.
Franklin Autobiography present a detailed historical record of early American history. One evident feature in his writing is the inclusion of the American vision. Although then America is not yet a country, the mission and vision is still evident and is shown through the character of Benjamin Franklin. He hopes to make the lives of people better by advocating for a various development project that will benefit the whole community. According to Benjamin Franklin, American dream means economic prosperity, increased security and honesty. While many of the European nation still had class structures, it is evident from the article that he is advocating for a capitalistic society. Franklin writing style, therefore, demonstrates a smooth, precise and short account of the important life events and therefore very interesting to read. This is evident because simplicity has been greatly adopted in the writing. Similarly, so as to ensure the effectiveness of the writing speculate various emotions and attitude that affect people’s behavior.
Humor is another element that is greatly integrated into his writing. He effectively integrates humor with irony and effective social rituals. The first section of the book is the one characterized by humor. The importance of including humor in literature is that they aid in relieving tension and makes the reader glued to the article. It is also interesting how the author incorporates humor with intelligence. For example, in a situation where he feel there is any tension, he effectively used humor to elude his opponent while he can pass his point very well. Additionally, this bibliography can clearly show that Benjamin Franklin had a positive vision for the United States. It shows his brevity in the face of a tough opponent and how an individual can make use of the little resources he or she has to better his life. It is evident that Benjamin Franklin had very little regarding resource because he was born from an ordinary large sized family. He, however, refused to be defined by circumstance and drew his destiny. Consequently, critique has also pointed out very flaws in his writing. One of the major flaws is the fact that the author does not manage to conclude his writing and, as a result, leaves his audience or reader in suspense of how the book would be concluded. Similarly, in between the major parts of the book, the author sites external books or source which should contain further information but he dies before he can complete these sections.
Summary of Professional Review
The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin is an account of a committed leader who has a great vision for her country. Besides being born from a challenging environment, he defies all the odds and manage to change the lives of many people. It is, for this reason, he is referred to as founding the father of the United States and a protector of the people. His writings though written several years ago continue to inspire and change the society positively. Additionally, his story helps the modern generation to learn and appreciate various steps and important sacrifices that had to be made to acquire independence. His writings are very effective because he uses simple language to pass his message. Additionally, he has integrated various element such as pathos that enables him to connect with her readers emotionally. Additionally, different aspects of logos have also been included and thus making his findings and details very credible because they were written and were actual happening. Additionally, the fact that he also uses humor makes the whole account very interesting and educative. On the other hand, although there are several loopholes such as incomplete sentences and references to external sources that he eventually did not write. The overall presentation can be said to be good because the book was written way back in time and has been classified as the historic writing of the American history. | 1,357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1066 was a tough year for Harold Godwinson, also known as Harold II, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Less than two years into his reign, two separate forces were approaching the shores of England to end Harold's reign much sooner than expected. One of those attempts would be famously successful while the other would prove an unparalleled failure. But all Harold knew in September 1066 was that 300 Viking ships were on their way to England, and his good-for-nothing brother, Tostig, was floating along with them.
Harold was ready for an invasion, just not a Viking invasion from the North. He was actually was waiting for William the Bastard, who was supposedly going to cross the English Channel. When the English King learned about his brother landing in England, Harold took his waiting Army north to meet him. The incoming Viking Army was already wreaking havoc on York and Northumbria and was waiting for the area to send more hostages to their camp at Stamford Bridge. That's where Harold rode, arriving in fewer than four days.
This move totally caught the Norwegians by surprise. The Vikings had no idea there was even an army in the area. When Harold II arrived, they were systematically cut down by the advancing Englishmen; any remaining Vikings attempted to flee across the bridge. When the time came for the Anglo-Saxons to pursue, the bridge became a choke point the English just couldn't cross—all because of one angry ax-wielding Viking who was cutting down Englishmen like it was his job.
The Viking axeman held the English off for so long, the Vikings were able to form a shield wall on the other side of the river and prepare for whatever formation Harold was going to hurl at them. Contemporaneous sagas say the man killed 40 people before being taken down. It was only when an English pikeman floated underneath the bridge and skewered the Viking that the standoff ended. The English eventually did cross the bridge and demolish much of the remaining troops. Harold allowed the rest of them to live as long as they pledged to never come back, making Stamford Bridge the historical end of the Viking Age. Only 24 of the 300 ships that carried the Viking forces to England were needed to carry the survivors back.
Despite the emphatic win, this was the beginning of the end for Harold II. Three days later, the much-anticipated Norman invasion of England finally arrived, and the delay of Harold's army at Stamford Bridge allowed the Normans to land. Three weeks after that, Harold was killed fighting at the Battle of Hastings. William the Bastard took over England and became William the Conqueror.
The Norman conquest changed everything in England, from the cultural landscape to the way they talked—it even led to the formation of the British Empire, and later, the United States. Without that single Viking, Harold may have been properly prepared for William's forces, and the world today would be irrevocably different.
More from We Are The Mighty
- What it was like to be raided by the Vikings
- What dinosaur each branch would actually use in combat
- 4 Union generals that were better than any of the 'famous' ones
- George Washington's egg nog recipe will destroy you
- How this combat vet became a 33-year-old walk-on
Featured photo of the Battle of Stamford Bridge: Wikimedia Commons | <urn:uuid:12fac7bd-a7b2-4fb8-b167-6ce0933ff040> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://explorethearchive.com/single-vikings-berserker-rage-changed-world-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00199.warc.gz | en | 0.985028 | 694 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.0865767002105... | 4 | 1066 was a tough year for Harold Godwinson, also known as Harold II, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Less than two years into his reign, two separate forces were approaching the shores of England to end Harold's reign much sooner than expected. One of those attempts would be famously successful while the other would prove an unparalleled failure. But all Harold knew in September 1066 was that 300 Viking ships were on their way to England, and his good-for-nothing brother, Tostig, was floating along with them.
Harold was ready for an invasion, just not a Viking invasion from the North. He was actually was waiting for William the Bastard, who was supposedly going to cross the English Channel. When the English King learned about his brother landing in England, Harold took his waiting Army north to meet him. The incoming Viking Army was already wreaking havoc on York and Northumbria and was waiting for the area to send more hostages to their camp at Stamford Bridge. That's where Harold rode, arriving in fewer than four days.
This move totally caught the Norwegians by surprise. The Vikings had no idea there was even an army in the area. When Harold II arrived, they were systematically cut down by the advancing Englishmen; any remaining Vikings attempted to flee across the bridge. When the time came for the Anglo-Saxons to pursue, the bridge became a choke point the English just couldn't cross—all because of one angry ax-wielding Viking who was cutting down Englishmen like it was his job.
The Viking axeman held the English off for so long, the Vikings were able to form a shield wall on the other side of the river and prepare for whatever formation Harold was going to hurl at them. Contemporaneous sagas say the man killed 40 people before being taken down. It was only when an English pikeman floated underneath the bridge and skewered the Viking that the standoff ended. The English eventually did cross the bridge and demolish much of the remaining troops. Harold allowed the rest of them to live as long as they pledged to never come back, making Stamford Bridge the historical end of the Viking Age. Only 24 of the 300 ships that carried the Viking forces to England were needed to carry the survivors back.
Despite the emphatic win, this was the beginning of the end for Harold II. Three days later, the much-anticipated Norman invasion of England finally arrived, and the delay of Harold's army at Stamford Bridge allowed the Normans to land. Three weeks after that, Harold was killed fighting at the Battle of Hastings. William the Bastard took over England and became William the Conqueror.
The Norman conquest changed everything in England, from the cultural landscape to the way they talked—it even led to the formation of the British Empire, and later, the United States. Without that single Viking, Harold may have been properly prepared for William's forces, and the world today would be irrevocably different.
More from We Are The Mighty
- What it was like to be raided by the Vikings
- What dinosaur each branch would actually use in combat
- 4 Union generals that were better than any of the 'famous' ones
- George Washington's egg nog recipe will destroy you
- How this combat vet became a 33-year-old walk-on
Featured photo of the Battle of Stamford Bridge: Wikimedia Commons | 698 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Strength of Women in the Odyssey
Throughout history, women have been considered the weaker sex. They long existed under the domination of men in both political power and physical abilities. Confinement and an emphasis on delicacy have for centuries been the hallmarks of a noble woman’s lifestyle. Education even into the twentieth century frequently held that women were intellectually incapable of comprehending the complexities of male thought patterns and therefore would not benefit from too much educational training. Underlying this myth, though, is a long-held acknowledgement that women held a hidden strength fully equal to and often surpassing that of men. This power was generated through a complex interaction of her various abilities and enabled her to ‘borrow’ the strength of others for her own purposes. This mysterious power of the female is illustrated as far back as Homer in his epic tale, The Odyssey, particularly in the character of Penelope.
Penelope is presented as a fine, upstanding woman, faithful to her husband in her adamant refusal to accept any of the suitors that park in her courtyard seeking her hand after his disappearance. She demonstrates the ideals of womanhood not only in her beauty, which is almost as legendary as her cousin, Helen, but also in her talent as she efficiently manages the household and her husband’s estates while participating in the very feminine duties of weaving and sewing. She does an admirable job of raising a loyal and upstanding son despite the absence of his father. Her strength as a woman is perhaps best illustrated, though, in her 20 year wait for the husband she is sure will return to her although she’s received no word or hope to support her.
Penelope is shown to meet the feminine ideal in her inability to physically remove the suitors from her home, yet she is able to keep them under a semblance of control through the use of ‘feminine wiles.’ When they will not take an outright no for an answer, Penelope devises a scheme that allows her to both remain faithful to her husband and postpone any decisions. In order to keep the men in line, Penelope promises to select and marry one of them as soon as she is finished weaving a funeral shroud for her father-in-law, which she unweaves every night. When this trickery is discovered, the men indicate “She may rely too long on Athena’s gifts – / talent in handicraft and a clever mind; / so cunning – history cannot show the like” (book 2). This intelligence shines through again as she recognizes her husband returned in disguise and offers a final challenge to the suitors that she knows only Odysseus can hope to meet, “come forward now, my gallant lords; for I challenge you to try your skill on the great bow of King Odysseus. And whichever man among you proves the handiest at stringing the bow and shoots an arrow through every one of the twelve axes, with that man I will go.” This provides Odysseus with the means by which to defeat the men that have invaded his home before they gain the ability to overtake him.
In demonstrating the power of women over men through the portrayals of this character, Homer indicates that women were much stronger of intellect and spirit than they were frequently given credit for. Penelope illustrates the constantly of love and family. Her cunning is revealed as she finds a peaceful means of controlling the men who won’t leave and it is only through the interference of another woman that her trick is revealed. Finally, it is only through Penelope’s intellect that Odysseus is given the space he needs in order to retake his home. In none of these instances is Penelope bested by the forceful, physically impressive men of her world. | <urn:uuid:1a698f72-046f-4ac9-8c20-6c8b0b4bbbe2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/the-odyssey/the-strength-of-women-in-the-odyssey/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.980479 | 774 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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Throughout history, women have been considered the weaker sex. They long existed under the domination of men in both political power and physical abilities. Confinement and an emphasis on delicacy have for centuries been the hallmarks of a noble woman’s lifestyle. Education even into the twentieth century frequently held that women were intellectually incapable of comprehending the complexities of male thought patterns and therefore would not benefit from too much educational training. Underlying this myth, though, is a long-held acknowledgement that women held a hidden strength fully equal to and often surpassing that of men. This power was generated through a complex interaction of her various abilities and enabled her to ‘borrow’ the strength of others for her own purposes. This mysterious power of the female is illustrated as far back as Homer in his epic tale, The Odyssey, particularly in the character of Penelope.
Penelope is presented as a fine, upstanding woman, faithful to her husband in her adamant refusal to accept any of the suitors that park in her courtyard seeking her hand after his disappearance. She demonstrates the ideals of womanhood not only in her beauty, which is almost as legendary as her cousin, Helen, but also in her talent as she efficiently manages the household and her husband’s estates while participating in the very feminine duties of weaving and sewing. She does an admirable job of raising a loyal and upstanding son despite the absence of his father. Her strength as a woman is perhaps best illustrated, though, in her 20 year wait for the husband she is sure will return to her although she’s received no word or hope to support her.
Penelope is shown to meet the feminine ideal in her inability to physically remove the suitors from her home, yet she is able to keep them under a semblance of control through the use of ‘feminine wiles.’ When they will not take an outright no for an answer, Penelope devises a scheme that allows her to both remain faithful to her husband and postpone any decisions. In order to keep the men in line, Penelope promises to select and marry one of them as soon as she is finished weaving a funeral shroud for her father-in-law, which she unweaves every night. When this trickery is discovered, the men indicate “She may rely too long on Athena’s gifts – / talent in handicraft and a clever mind; / so cunning – history cannot show the like” (book 2). This intelligence shines through again as she recognizes her husband returned in disguise and offers a final challenge to the suitors that she knows only Odysseus can hope to meet, “come forward now, my gallant lords; for I challenge you to try your skill on the great bow of King Odysseus. And whichever man among you proves the handiest at stringing the bow and shoots an arrow through every one of the twelve axes, with that man I will go.” This provides Odysseus with the means by which to defeat the men that have invaded his home before they gain the ability to overtake him.
In demonstrating the power of women over men through the portrayals of this character, Homer indicates that women were much stronger of intellect and spirit than they were frequently given credit for. Penelope illustrates the constantly of love and family. Her cunning is revealed as she finds a peaceful means of controlling the men who won’t leave and it is only through the interference of another woman that her trick is revealed. Finally, it is only through Penelope’s intellect that Odysseus is given the space he needs in order to retake his home. In none of these instances is Penelope bested by the forceful, physically impressive men of her world. | 755 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru first prime minister of India|
This Image Has been taken from Wikimedia
THE FIRST PRIME MINISTER OF INDIA
Introduction: The first Prime Minister of India was Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. There is hardly anyone who has not heard the name of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. He was our first Prime Minister. He was an international figure. He was known all over the world. He was the maker of modern India.
His parentage and education: Pandit Nehru was born at Allahabad in 1889 on 14th November. His childhood was privileged, he has tutored and then studied in England at Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge.He married Kamala Kaul in 1916. And in 1917 their only daughter ‘Indira’ was born.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru family status and lifestyle: His father Motilal Nehru was a successful lawyer. He was a rich man. He brought up his son as a prince. He kept most efficient teacher to coach him. In those days India was not a free country. The British ruled over it.
His contribution to Indian Freedom Struggle: The English treated Indians badly. This pained the patriotic heart of Jawaharlal very much. He gave up his practice and his life of luxury. He joined the Noncooperation Movement started by Mahatma Gandhi. He was sent to jail several times. He suffered punishment cheerfully. The hardships of jail could not crush his spirit. He continued the struggle bravely. He acted as Congress President in four different years.
Jawahar Lal Nehru as a Prime Minister: When India became free on August 15, 1947, he was selected as the first Prime Minister.Nehruji was the first Prime Minister of India. He wanted to build the country a truly democratic and peace-loving nation. He was fully involved in carrying out India’s five-year plans. He is known as the father of institutional democracy and as an architect of Indian policy in all manifestations.
Pt.Nehru was a successful Prime Minister: India made great progress under his guidance. Dr Rajendra Prasad our late President, acknowledge his services when he said: “The country is marching forward on the road of progress in the leadership of Panditiji”. He did a lot for the good of the World. Had and as the longest serving Prime Minister of India (1946-1964), | <urn:uuid:fbc58569-acf9-4f37-9c17-a2bf5cc3c76d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://smartenglishgrammar.com/2018/04/26/pandit-jawaharlal-nehru-first-prime-minister-of-india/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.987895 | 513 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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This Image Has been taken from Wikimedia
THE FIRST PRIME MINISTER OF INDIA
Introduction: The first Prime Minister of India was Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. There is hardly anyone who has not heard the name of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. He was our first Prime Minister. He was an international figure. He was known all over the world. He was the maker of modern India.
His parentage and education: Pandit Nehru was born at Allahabad in 1889 on 14th November. His childhood was privileged, he has tutored and then studied in England at Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge.He married Kamala Kaul in 1916. And in 1917 their only daughter ‘Indira’ was born.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru family status and lifestyle: His father Motilal Nehru was a successful lawyer. He was a rich man. He brought up his son as a prince. He kept most efficient teacher to coach him. In those days India was not a free country. The British ruled over it.
His contribution to Indian Freedom Struggle: The English treated Indians badly. This pained the patriotic heart of Jawaharlal very much. He gave up his practice and his life of luxury. He joined the Noncooperation Movement started by Mahatma Gandhi. He was sent to jail several times. He suffered punishment cheerfully. The hardships of jail could not crush his spirit. He continued the struggle bravely. He acted as Congress President in four different years.
Jawahar Lal Nehru as a Prime Minister: When India became free on August 15, 1947, he was selected as the first Prime Minister.Nehruji was the first Prime Minister of India. He wanted to build the country a truly democratic and peace-loving nation. He was fully involved in carrying out India’s five-year plans. He is known as the father of institutional democracy and as an architect of Indian policy in all manifestations.
Pt.Nehru was a successful Prime Minister: India made great progress under his guidance. Dr Rajendra Prasad our late President, acknowledge his services when he said: “The country is marching forward on the road of progress in the leadership of Panditiji”. He did a lot for the good of the World. Had and as the longest serving Prime Minister of India (1946-1964), | 521 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Which inference can be best made about why the king is described as “semi-barbaric” rather than wholly barbaric?
The king is regarded as "semi-barbaric" in the sense that he has been influenced by his distant Latin neighbors. His ideas are described in the tale as "polished" and "sharpened" by Latin influence, which implies that he's steeped in the culture and learning of antiquity. However, despite this, he still retains vestiges of his indigenous heritage, whose barbaric nature manifests itself in the cruel "lady or tiger" punishment the king imposes upon those who displease him.
Yet there seem to be significant similarities between the "barbarism" of the king's own culture and the "civilized" life of the Romans. The king has a large arena in which brutal gladiatorial contests take place and in which the religiously unorthodox regularly meet a savage end at the claws and teeth of starving wild animals. This is precisely what used to happen in ancient Rome.
Had the king restricted himself to this form of punishment then perhaps he would've been regarded as fully civilized rather than in the least bit barbaric. The suspicion remains that his "lady or tiger" method of punishment is considered barbaric, not because it involves violence and bloodshed involved (after all, Roman punishments were often far worse), but because it is an expression of indigenous culture, which is not something imported from Rome and therefore deemed to be "uncivilized."
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0.4480073153972... | 2 | Which inference can be best made about why the king is described as “semi-barbaric” rather than wholly barbaric?
The king is regarded as "semi-barbaric" in the sense that he has been influenced by his distant Latin neighbors. His ideas are described in the tale as "polished" and "sharpened" by Latin influence, which implies that he's steeped in the culture and learning of antiquity. However, despite this, he still retains vestiges of his indigenous heritage, whose barbaric nature manifests itself in the cruel "lady or tiger" punishment the king imposes upon those who displease him.
Yet there seem to be significant similarities between the "barbarism" of the king's own culture and the "civilized" life of the Romans. The king has a large arena in which brutal gladiatorial contests take place and in which the religiously unorthodox regularly meet a savage end at the claws and teeth of starving wild animals. This is precisely what used to happen in ancient Rome.
Had the king restricted himself to this form of punishment then perhaps he would've been regarded as fully civilized rather than in the least bit barbaric. The suspicion remains that his "lady or tiger" method of punishment is considered barbaric, not because it involves violence and bloodshed involved (after all, Roman punishments were often far worse), but because it is an expression of indigenous culture, which is not something imported from Rome and therefore deemed to be "uncivilized."
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 312 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Renaissance music is European music written from about the year 1400 to 1600. This section of time is called the Renaissance, a word which means “rebirth”. The Renaissance comes between the Middle Ages and the Baroque times.
Putting music into time sections does not mean that there were quick changes of type. Music changed slowly, and early Renaissance music was similar to Medieval music. Slowly music-writers started to try new ideas. A lot of medieval church music had become very hard with lots of rules about rhythms and clashes of notes to make dissonances. A lot of Renaissance composers wrote music which was smoother and more gentle. The music was still polyphonic with each voice having a share of melody. Music was starting to become less modal and more tonal. By the time the Baroque period started composers were using a system of major and minor keys like we do today.
Composers wrote many masses and motets. The 16th century also saw the birth of the madrigal: secular (not religious) songs which were often about love. The madrigal started in Italy and became very popular for a short while in England from the 1580s. There were lots of other secular songs such as the chanson, canzonetta and villanelle. Songs were often accompanied by a lute. Music was an essential part of civic, religious, and courtly life in the Renaissance. The rich interchange of ideas in Europe, as well as political, economic, and religious events in the period 1400–1600 led to major changes in styles of composing, methods of disseminating music, new musical genres, and the development of musical instruments. The most important music of the early Renaissance was compose for use by the church—polyphonic (made up of several simultaneous melodies) masses and motets in Latin for important churches and court chapels. By the end of the sixteenth century, however, patronage was split among many areas: the Catholic Church, Protestant churches and courts, wealthy amateurs, and music printing—all were sources of income for composers.
An important development during the Renaissance was music notation. Many musicians wrote books about music theory. They are useful for us because they tell us how music sounded in those days and what people thought about it. Music started to be written on a music staff with five lines. There were still no barlines in early Renaissance music. Notes were written with white note heads, e.g. the minim (half note) was at one time the shortest note that could be written (the “minimum” length). Only later did crochets (quarter notes) and quavers (eighth notes) come in. This does not mean that music was slow in those days, it was just the way it was written.
Key signatures had not yet been invented. Sharps and flats were sometimes shown by accidentals (written in front of the notes). Very often, however, the performers were expected to know or even decide for themselves the sharps and flats (see musica ficta).
Another very important discovery at this time was music printing. Music printing started in Italy in the mid 16th century.
Composers of the RenaissanceEdit
Towards the end of the 15th century a style of polyphonic sacred music had been developed that can be heard in the masses of Johannes Ockeghem and Jacob Obrecht. Ockeghem even composed one piece in which all the parts develop from one idea which was used as a canon.
In the 16th century composers started to write music with a clear beat and regular pulse. These included Josquin des Prez and others from the Franco-Flemish School. The was a Roman school, to which the famous Italian Giovanni da Palestrina belonged. His way of writing polyphony has been a model for that style for many centuries. Music students still have to study “Palestrina technique” (how to compose in Palestrina’s style). Although church music at this time is mainly polyphonic it also has homophonic passages where the voices sing the same words together. This helps to make important words really clear.
In Venice, from about 1534 until around 1600, a polychoral style developed. Choirs were separated, singing from different parts of the church, often from galleries. This grand music sounded beautiful in big churches such as the Basilica San Marco di Venezia. These composers are often called the “Venetian School”. Andrea Gabrieli and later his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli wrote this kind of music, and later Claudio Monteverdi who started in the Renaissance and lived into the Baroque period.
The end of the Renaissance periodEdit
The change to the Baroque musical style happened around 1600. This was the time when opera was invented. This needed a new style of composing. The composer Monteverdi wrote in the Renaissance style until about 1600-1650, when he changed to the Baroque style. | <urn:uuid:d15f8795-59b0-4d36-861c-b696c33a5dc3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_music | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.982937 | 1,035 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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-0.158168613910675... | 7 | Renaissance music is European music written from about the year 1400 to 1600. This section of time is called the Renaissance, a word which means “rebirth”. The Renaissance comes between the Middle Ages and the Baroque times.
Putting music into time sections does not mean that there were quick changes of type. Music changed slowly, and early Renaissance music was similar to Medieval music. Slowly music-writers started to try new ideas. A lot of medieval church music had become very hard with lots of rules about rhythms and clashes of notes to make dissonances. A lot of Renaissance composers wrote music which was smoother and more gentle. The music was still polyphonic with each voice having a share of melody. Music was starting to become less modal and more tonal. By the time the Baroque period started composers were using a system of major and minor keys like we do today.
Composers wrote many masses and motets. The 16th century also saw the birth of the madrigal: secular (not religious) songs which were often about love. The madrigal started in Italy and became very popular for a short while in England from the 1580s. There were lots of other secular songs such as the chanson, canzonetta and villanelle. Songs were often accompanied by a lute. Music was an essential part of civic, religious, and courtly life in the Renaissance. The rich interchange of ideas in Europe, as well as political, economic, and religious events in the period 1400–1600 led to major changes in styles of composing, methods of disseminating music, new musical genres, and the development of musical instruments. The most important music of the early Renaissance was compose for use by the church—polyphonic (made up of several simultaneous melodies) masses and motets in Latin for important churches and court chapels. By the end of the sixteenth century, however, patronage was split among many areas: the Catholic Church, Protestant churches and courts, wealthy amateurs, and music printing—all were sources of income for composers.
An important development during the Renaissance was music notation. Many musicians wrote books about music theory. They are useful for us because they tell us how music sounded in those days and what people thought about it. Music started to be written on a music staff with five lines. There were still no barlines in early Renaissance music. Notes were written with white note heads, e.g. the minim (half note) was at one time the shortest note that could be written (the “minimum” length). Only later did crochets (quarter notes) and quavers (eighth notes) come in. This does not mean that music was slow in those days, it was just the way it was written.
Key signatures had not yet been invented. Sharps and flats were sometimes shown by accidentals (written in front of the notes). Very often, however, the performers were expected to know or even decide for themselves the sharps and flats (see musica ficta).
Another very important discovery at this time was music printing. Music printing started in Italy in the mid 16th century.
Composers of the RenaissanceEdit
Towards the end of the 15th century a style of polyphonic sacred music had been developed that can be heard in the masses of Johannes Ockeghem and Jacob Obrecht. Ockeghem even composed one piece in which all the parts develop from one idea which was used as a canon.
In the 16th century composers started to write music with a clear beat and regular pulse. These included Josquin des Prez and others from the Franco-Flemish School. The was a Roman school, to which the famous Italian Giovanni da Palestrina belonged. His way of writing polyphony has been a model for that style for many centuries. Music students still have to study “Palestrina technique” (how to compose in Palestrina’s style). Although church music at this time is mainly polyphonic it also has homophonic passages where the voices sing the same words together. This helps to make important words really clear.
In Venice, from about 1534 until around 1600, a polychoral style developed. Choirs were separated, singing from different parts of the church, often from galleries. This grand music sounded beautiful in big churches such as the Basilica San Marco di Venezia. These composers are often called the “Venetian School”. Andrea Gabrieli and later his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli wrote this kind of music, and later Claudio Monteverdi who started in the Renaissance and lived into the Baroque period.
The end of the Renaissance periodEdit
The change to the Baroque musical style happened around 1600. This was the time when opera was invented. This needed a new style of composing. The composer Monteverdi wrote in the Renaissance style until about 1600-1650, when he changed to the Baroque style. | 1,041 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hans Christian Andersen is a well known of children’s literature. He is well-known as a writer of fairy tales, along with Brothers Grimm and even Charles Dickens. Back in his time, though, he was considered much more than a children’s book author. He was also a novelist, a playwright and a poet, among others. It is no secret that Hans Christian Andersen lived a hard life. He was borne from a poor family but he was constantly exposed to the upper-class by virtue of his talents like singing, writing, etc. This fueled a thirst for him to be part of the upper-class, even if he was poor. He strived to be rich and he did. He died a prosperous man, but not without a lot of struggle and rejection.
Because of this struggles, author Jack Zipes argues that Andersen’s stories are critiques of the Danish society at the time. It’s understandable, since Andersen was in a perfect position to observe the high society: he was always in it but he was never a part of it. He yearned to be a part of it but he was always rejected. Zipes almost pictures him as a grudging sycophant, loving and hating the high society at the time.
As stories are most often reflections of realities, Andersen’s stories may as well be autobiographical in the least sense, or metaphorical. He puts his experiences in the stories he writes. Take for example Inchelina, Emperor’s New Clothes and Clod Hans.
Inchelina is one of his most popular stories. It has been translated into many languages, has been made into movies, retold and rewritten. It has been renamed. It is now popularly known as Thumbelina. The story tells of an inch-tall girl named Inchelina, who was bought from a witch/fairy by a woman who wished she had a child; then Inchelina was stolen by a toad who wanted her son to marry the girl; then she was again captured by a cockroach who decided to reject her after figuring out she was ugly; after that, she was kept by a field mouse who had a neighbor (a mole) willing to marry her. Just before the wedding to the mole, however, she was rescued by a swallow who then flew somewhere with a lot of little people in flowers – her kind – where she met her prince and married him. This story is metaphorical in a sense that Inchelina was a girl who never fit in the society. She was always deemed too small, too ugly but in reality, she was very beautiful. Inchelina was always paired off to someone she does not want, primarily because they are not the same kind. This is similar to Andersen’s plights: he never fit in his society as a small boy: he was too tall, too poor, too quiet, too awkward, but he thought, deep in his mind that he was something special, and that was what fueled him to pursue his craft. He was always rejected by people, just like Inchelina. In the end, Inchelina found her kind and was accepted. Andersen’s reality was similar: he was finally accepted in the Danish society a legitimate author.
Emperor’s New Clothes, like Clod Hans, is a more scathing remark against the Danish society. The story tells of a gullible king who was forced to walk down a road naked because he believed the scammers’ tale about weaving the cloth only smart and deserving people can see. Of course there was no such cloth, but because of pride, all the king’s men believed that they were seeing something. This is somewhat subversive, in a sense that he is actually implying that the people from the lower classes are smarter than the ones in the high society. The story also implies that the high class society is proud and would do so much as be dishonest about their selves.
Clod Hans, or Jack the Dullard, is also similar. It pokes fun at the high society, especially the intellectually “superior” by portraying them as shallow people. The story tells of three brothers who were out to impress the princess so that she would choose one them to be king. Two of them are “smart”: one was a journalist and one was a corporate lawyer. The last brother was a simple man who the princess liked because of his practicality and his honesty. He wasn’t practicing lines like his other brothers, he was the real deal. At the end of the story, we read that we should not believe what was written in the press release of the wedding because it was written by the journalist and was presided over by the corporation. It was as if Andersen was saying that all the things that come from the press are lies, driven by jealousy within characters in his social circles.
Overall, his stories are entertaining. However, his status as an entertaining writer prevented people from understanding his works in a deeper level. Zipes’ analyses might not be accurate but at least he gives away pointers that Andersen is something more serious than a writer for children. He is an astute observer of the human condition and also a very sensitive man, in a sense that he never forgets where he comes from; he always remembers everything, and most of the time takes it personally as evidenced by his works.
Andersen, Hans Christian. Hans Christian Andersen: The Complete Fairy Tales and Stories. Trans Eric Christian Haugaard, Virgina Haviland. New York: Anchor Books. 1983. Print.
Wullschlager, Jackie. Hans Christian Andersen: The Life of a Storyteller. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2002. Print.
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0.19688889384269714,... | 1 | Hans Christian Andersen is a well known of children’s literature. He is well-known as a writer of fairy tales, along with Brothers Grimm and even Charles Dickens. Back in his time, though, he was considered much more than a children’s book author. He was also a novelist, a playwright and a poet, among others. It is no secret that Hans Christian Andersen lived a hard life. He was borne from a poor family but he was constantly exposed to the upper-class by virtue of his talents like singing, writing, etc. This fueled a thirst for him to be part of the upper-class, even if he was poor. He strived to be rich and he did. He died a prosperous man, but not without a lot of struggle and rejection.
Because of this struggles, author Jack Zipes argues that Andersen’s stories are critiques of the Danish society at the time. It’s understandable, since Andersen was in a perfect position to observe the high society: he was always in it but he was never a part of it. He yearned to be a part of it but he was always rejected. Zipes almost pictures him as a grudging sycophant, loving and hating the high society at the time.
As stories are most often reflections of realities, Andersen’s stories may as well be autobiographical in the least sense, or metaphorical. He puts his experiences in the stories he writes. Take for example Inchelina, Emperor’s New Clothes and Clod Hans.
Inchelina is one of his most popular stories. It has been translated into many languages, has been made into movies, retold and rewritten. It has been renamed. It is now popularly known as Thumbelina. The story tells of an inch-tall girl named Inchelina, who was bought from a witch/fairy by a woman who wished she had a child; then Inchelina was stolen by a toad who wanted her son to marry the girl; then she was again captured by a cockroach who decided to reject her after figuring out she was ugly; after that, she was kept by a field mouse who had a neighbor (a mole) willing to marry her. Just before the wedding to the mole, however, she was rescued by a swallow who then flew somewhere with a lot of little people in flowers – her kind – where she met her prince and married him. This story is metaphorical in a sense that Inchelina was a girl who never fit in the society. She was always deemed too small, too ugly but in reality, she was very beautiful. Inchelina was always paired off to someone she does not want, primarily because they are not the same kind. This is similar to Andersen’s plights: he never fit in his society as a small boy: he was too tall, too poor, too quiet, too awkward, but he thought, deep in his mind that he was something special, and that was what fueled him to pursue his craft. He was always rejected by people, just like Inchelina. In the end, Inchelina found her kind and was accepted. Andersen’s reality was similar: he was finally accepted in the Danish society a legitimate author.
Emperor’s New Clothes, like Clod Hans, is a more scathing remark against the Danish society. The story tells of a gullible king who was forced to walk down a road naked because he believed the scammers’ tale about weaving the cloth only smart and deserving people can see. Of course there was no such cloth, but because of pride, all the king’s men believed that they were seeing something. This is somewhat subversive, in a sense that he is actually implying that the people from the lower classes are smarter than the ones in the high society. The story also implies that the high class society is proud and would do so much as be dishonest about their selves.
Clod Hans, or Jack the Dullard, is also similar. It pokes fun at the high society, especially the intellectually “superior” by portraying them as shallow people. The story tells of three brothers who were out to impress the princess so that she would choose one them to be king. Two of them are “smart”: one was a journalist and one was a corporate lawyer. The last brother was a simple man who the princess liked because of his practicality and his honesty. He wasn’t practicing lines like his other brothers, he was the real deal. At the end of the story, we read that we should not believe what was written in the press release of the wedding because it was written by the journalist and was presided over by the corporation. It was as if Andersen was saying that all the things that come from the press are lies, driven by jealousy within characters in his social circles.
Overall, his stories are entertaining. However, his status as an entertaining writer prevented people from understanding his works in a deeper level. Zipes’ analyses might not be accurate but at least he gives away pointers that Andersen is something more serious than a writer for children. He is an astute observer of the human condition and also a very sensitive man, in a sense that he never forgets where he comes from; he always remembers everything, and most of the time takes it personally as evidenced by his works.
Andersen, Hans Christian. Hans Christian Andersen: The Complete Fairy Tales and Stories. Trans Eric Christian Haugaard, Virgina Haviland. New York: Anchor Books. 1983. Print.
Wullschlager, Jackie. Hans Christian Andersen: The Life of a Storyteller. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2002. Print.
Zipes, Jack. Hans Christian Andersen: The Misunderstood Storyteller. New York and London: Routledge. 2005. Print. | 1,191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
September 3, 2014
As we enter the mid-term election season, it seems like there is more talk about the 2016 Presidential election than the current 2014 elections. Tongues are also frantically beginning to wag as to who will succeed Obama. But why do we limit our presidents to 2 terms in office?
About 458 B.C. Rome was attacked by the Aequi. At a critical moment, the Roman Senate turned to Cincinnatus for help. They elected him dictator for a 6 month period, informing him while he was tending his 4 acre farm. Honoring this appointment, Cincinnatus left his plow in the field, his wife in the house and traveled to Rome to assume his position. After choosing his second in command, Tarquitius, and ordering all men of military age to service, he engaged in fighting against the Aequi. He personally led the infantry while Tarquitius commanded the cavalry. Surprised by the double attack, the Aequi were easily defeated and were soon begging for mercy from the newly elected dictator. Showing compassion, Cincinnatus spared the lives of the remaining enemy soldiers under the condition that they surrender their leader. With the war over, Cincinnatus sent his army home, resigned his position, and returned to his family and farm. How long was he dictator? Fifteen days. Not a day longer than necessary.
Because of the selflessness, integrity, and uniqueness of the actions of Cincinnatus, he has been revered and respected by people to this day. He was taught about in schools and written about in poetry even at the time of America’s founding some 2200 years later. He also inspired other great leaders, such as George Washington, often referred to in his day as the American Cincinnatus. Though it took a little more than 15 days, after being called out of retirement on his farm by his country to command the Continental Army, Washington was led by nothing less than duty and responsibility to the cause of freedom.
While so many before him took the torch they were given and ruled for their lifetime or until their defeat, Washington, like Cincinnatus, viewed military and service as it was intended to be, service. He slept in the freezing cold at Valley Forge along with his men and he rallied his troops from the front on top of his horse, often drawing the fire of the enemy. Washington was never one to demand anymore from someone that he was not willing to do himself. And he never expected to be pampered or protected like royalty.
Upon hearing that Washington would return to his farm after he won independence for America, King George III stated, “If he does that, he will be the greatest man in the world.” The notion of giving up power was actually a very rare concept until America. Dictatorships, monarchies, emperorships, all these governments revolve around political power being for life and then passed from generation to generation. Only bloodshed and war unseated a ruler. That is until America. That is until George Washington.
It was not long after the end of the Revolutionary War until Washington was called away from his farm again by his country, this time to participate in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 to which he was unanimously voted president of the meeting. His ethics, his morals, and the way he led his life was not only the perfect example of American Exeptionalism, it is a personal standard a vast majority are still trying to live up to today. (see ) Washington was not loved and adored because he could give good speeches or he promised voters the moon. He was respected and admired because of his humility, his faithfulness to God and country (in that order), and his trustworthiness. Who better to be the first person to be given the powerful position of Presidency than someone who does not live for power. At the conclusion of his second term, Washington informed the citizens that he would not seek a third. This was the second time Washington walked away from absolute power, authority and entitlement. He spent years defeating a monarchy. Why would he then establish one here?
Our did not originally put a limit on the number of terms the President could serve in office. It only defined a single term as 4 years. Washington knew the amazing importance of his position and how his actions would shape that office for decades to come. It would have been so easy to live out the rest of his life as President of the United States. There is no doubt he would have won election after election.
But, contrary to what the progressive movement is trying to ignore, Washington was a Godly man. Because of this he was self-disciplined and believed if citizens followed God and his commands then they would be more than capable of governing themselves. It was not meant for one man to rule over the people but for the people to rule themselves. This meant a real change in leadership on a regular basis to which Washington led by example.
Out of respect for the "Father of Our Country" and following his model, none of the next 30 presidents that held a second term received a third. It was not until Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt that any president was granted an extended tenure. After his death at the beginning of his 4th term, Congress quickly passed an amendment that restored the unwritten precedent set by Washington to the Office of the President limiting the number of terms served to 2.
In 1783 the military preservation organization, called the Society of the Cincinnati, was formed with the motto Omnia reliquit servare rempublicam ("He relinquished everything to save the Republic") emphasizing the selfless service of the military. The Society had three goals: "To preserve the rights so dearly won; to promote the continuing union of the states; and to assist members in need, their widows, and their orphans." It was no surprise that General George Washington was elected their first president. A few years later a small village in Southwest Ohio borrowed the Society’s name and became the thriving city of Cincinnati.
Liberty, since you were born and are being raised in Cincinnati, my hope is that from now on, every time you write or see your city name, you remember the story of Cincinnatus and more relevantly Washington. I want you to remember the true meaning of military and public service and the example these two men have given us.
So whenever a politician pompously proclaims that he has been in office 40 years, you have the wisdom to know that is actually a mark of disgrace, not a badge of honor. Government was never meant to be saturated with career politicians who exempt themselves from the laws they write and broker deals that make them rich. It was supposed to be run by hardworking farmers, miners, engineers, shop owners, ranchers, architects, doctors, entrepreneurs, inventors, educators, and yes, even clergy, bankers and lawyers, who have more love for their land, trade, and fellow citizens than power and authority.
That’s my 2 cents.
THE MAN WHO
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As we enter the mid-term election season, it seems like there is more talk about the 2016 Presidential election than the current 2014 elections. Tongues are also frantically beginning to wag as to who will succeed Obama. But why do we limit our presidents to 2 terms in office?
About 458 B.C. Rome was attacked by the Aequi. At a critical moment, the Roman Senate turned to Cincinnatus for help. They elected him dictator for a 6 month period, informing him while he was tending his 4 acre farm. Honoring this appointment, Cincinnatus left his plow in the field, his wife in the house and traveled to Rome to assume his position. After choosing his second in command, Tarquitius, and ordering all men of military age to service, he engaged in fighting against the Aequi. He personally led the infantry while Tarquitius commanded the cavalry. Surprised by the double attack, the Aequi were easily defeated and were soon begging for mercy from the newly elected dictator. Showing compassion, Cincinnatus spared the lives of the remaining enemy soldiers under the condition that they surrender their leader. With the war over, Cincinnatus sent his army home, resigned his position, and returned to his family and farm. How long was he dictator? Fifteen days. Not a day longer than necessary.
Because of the selflessness, integrity, and uniqueness of the actions of Cincinnatus, he has been revered and respected by people to this day. He was taught about in schools and written about in poetry even at the time of America’s founding some 2200 years later. He also inspired other great leaders, such as George Washington, often referred to in his day as the American Cincinnatus. Though it took a little more than 15 days, after being called out of retirement on his farm by his country to command the Continental Army, Washington was led by nothing less than duty and responsibility to the cause of freedom.
While so many before him took the torch they were given and ruled for their lifetime or until their defeat, Washington, like Cincinnatus, viewed military and service as it was intended to be, service. He slept in the freezing cold at Valley Forge along with his men and he rallied his troops from the front on top of his horse, often drawing the fire of the enemy. Washington was never one to demand anymore from someone that he was not willing to do himself. And he never expected to be pampered or protected like royalty.
Upon hearing that Washington would return to his farm after he won independence for America, King George III stated, “If he does that, he will be the greatest man in the world.” The notion of giving up power was actually a very rare concept until America. Dictatorships, monarchies, emperorships, all these governments revolve around political power being for life and then passed from generation to generation. Only bloodshed and war unseated a ruler. That is until America. That is until George Washington.
It was not long after the end of the Revolutionary War until Washington was called away from his farm again by his country, this time to participate in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 to which he was unanimously voted president of the meeting. His ethics, his morals, and the way he led his life was not only the perfect example of American Exeptionalism, it is a personal standard a vast majority are still trying to live up to today. (see ) Washington was not loved and adored because he could give good speeches or he promised voters the moon. He was respected and admired because of his humility, his faithfulness to God and country (in that order), and his trustworthiness. Who better to be the first person to be given the powerful position of Presidency than someone who does not live for power. At the conclusion of his second term, Washington informed the citizens that he would not seek a third. This was the second time Washington walked away from absolute power, authority and entitlement. He spent years defeating a monarchy. Why would he then establish one here?
Our did not originally put a limit on the number of terms the President could serve in office. It only defined a single term as 4 years. Washington knew the amazing importance of his position and how his actions would shape that office for decades to come. It would have been so easy to live out the rest of his life as President of the United States. There is no doubt he would have won election after election.
But, contrary to what the progressive movement is trying to ignore, Washington was a Godly man. Because of this he was self-disciplined and believed if citizens followed God and his commands then they would be more than capable of governing themselves. It was not meant for one man to rule over the people but for the people to rule themselves. This meant a real change in leadership on a regular basis to which Washington led by example.
Out of respect for the "Father of Our Country" and following his model, none of the next 30 presidents that held a second term received a third. It was not until Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt that any president was granted an extended tenure. After his death at the beginning of his 4th term, Congress quickly passed an amendment that restored the unwritten precedent set by Washington to the Office of the President limiting the number of terms served to 2.
In 1783 the military preservation organization, called the Society of the Cincinnati, was formed with the motto Omnia reliquit servare rempublicam ("He relinquished everything to save the Republic") emphasizing the selfless service of the military. The Society had three goals: "To preserve the rights so dearly won; to promote the continuing union of the states; and to assist members in need, their widows, and their orphans." It was no surprise that General George Washington was elected their first president. A few years later a small village in Southwest Ohio borrowed the Society’s name and became the thriving city of Cincinnati.
Liberty, since you were born and are being raised in Cincinnati, my hope is that from now on, every time you write or see your city name, you remember the story of Cincinnatus and more relevantly Washington. I want you to remember the true meaning of military and public service and the example these two men have given us.
So whenever a politician pompously proclaims that he has been in office 40 years, you have the wisdom to know that is actually a mark of disgrace, not a badge of honor. Government was never meant to be saturated with career politicians who exempt themselves from the laws they write and broker deals that make them rich. It was supposed to be run by hardworking farmers, miners, engineers, shop owners, ranchers, architects, doctors, entrepreneurs, inventors, educators, and yes, even clergy, bankers and lawyers, who have more love for their land, trade, and fellow citizens than power and authority.
That’s my 2 cents.
THE MAN WHO
REFUSED TO BE KING | 1,459 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From Jamestown to Va. Shore: African family was among the first settlers
WATCH: WWI exhibit features four Eastern Shore soldiers Wochit
PUNGOTEAGUE, Va. (AP) — Long before there was a village store or post office, when the roads were paths and the only way to get here was a boat ride across the Chesapeake Bay, a family named Johnson raised cattle near the winding creek.
Anthony and Mary Johnson were settlers who ventured from the Jamestown area to the remote Eastern Shore in the first half of the 1600s. They brought four children with them. They owned several hundred acres and a couple of slaves.
And they were black.
Anthony and Mary are among the earliest people of African descent whose lives can be charted in the first years of the English colony. The course of their marriage tells a surprising story, little-known outside academic circles, about how the status of blacks grew worse as Virginia codified slavery to prop up its economy.
The Johnsons would eventually leave Virginia. But for a brief window nearly 400 years ago, a black family helped establish a colony on this marshy ground that helped establish a nation.
"Virginia culture is not what we're told. It's not English, but an amalgam of English, Native American and African. Our culture has all three elements," said Mike Barber, who retired in April as Virginia's state archaeologist.
That it played out in this spot is even more poignant today: Just a dozen miles up the road is the family home of Virginia Gov. Ralph Northam (D), who is under harsh scrutiny for a blackface incident from his youth.
He has said his lack of racial sensitivity is a product of where he grew up — an isolated area where schools are integrated but blacks and whites lead separate lives.
It's true. Pungoteague today is white. Black people live in the nearby communities of Boston and Little Hell.
And the state is wrestling with how to tell the story of its complicated, diverse history. In the earliest days, free blacks sometimes lived alongside whites and participated in society, but that changed as the system of slavery hardened toward the end of the 1600s.
Still, there were periods throughout history when some Virginians of African descent were able to win freedom, and many fought in the American Revolution and for the North in the Civil War.
"It surprised me when I found out," said Lafayette Jones Jr., who helped create Freedom Park near Williamsburg to commemorate the long line of free people of color who lived there, including Jones's ancestors.
Since retiring from the Army, Jones has spent years researching family history back to Jamestown in the 1600s.
His grandfather was born in 1870 to a family of free blacks descended from enslaved people who had been emancipated around 1800 by the estate of William Ludwell Lee, creating one of the South's first free black settlements.
Other free communities formed around that time at Israel Hill in Prince Edward County and possibly even earlier at Pocahontas Island in Petersburg.
But perhaps no area has an older or better-documented record of free blacks than the Eastern Shore, where the Northampton County courthouse in Eastville has documents dating to 1632 — the longest unbroken set of courthouse records in the United States.
"Anthony the negro" first appears in Northampton records by name in 1645, but he had been there for some time already, according to research by Williamsburg historian Martha McCartney.
Some historians have suggested that Anthony was among the original Africans brought to Point Comfort in 1619. What seems more likely, according to McCartney and others, is that he was brought on an English ship in 1621.
He first worked on a plantation in what is now Isle of Wight County, across the James River from Jamestown. Anthony was among a handful of men there who survived the Indian uprising of 1622, in which the Native Americans killed about a quarter of all Virginia colonists.
Mary was brought soon after. Over the next 20 years they married, had four children, gained their freedom and relocated to the Eastern Shore. How all that happened remains unclear. Had they been enslaved? Or were they technically indentured servants, working a set number of years to fulfill a contract?
Anthony had two potential advantages. The family he worked for, the Bennetts, were Puritans, McCartney said. They might have been scrupulous about sticking to the terms of a service contract.
Also, the ship that likely brought him originated in England. If Anthony had spent time there and learned to speak the language, that might have helped him assimilate, Barber said.
Once he and Mary had their freedom, it made sense to head to the Eastern Shore. Its remoteness made it different from the mainland — sparsely populated, less tied to the colony's rigid hierarchies and home in the 1600s to many Quakers, who were against the idea of slavery.
"The Eastern Shore has always been very independent of both London and Jamestown," Barber said. "I think the African Americans had an easier time of it over there" during the early and mid-1600s.
Anthony became a cattle trader. In 1651, Gov. William Berkeley granted him 250 acres in what's now the Pungoteague area. One of his sons married — or at least had children with — a white woman.
By this time, Anthony and Mary had two black servants. One of them, John Casar, got a nearby white planter to petition the county to free him from his indenture. Anthony argued that Casar was his servant for life. In 1655, the county judges ruled in Johnson's favor — marking what historians say is likely the first time a Virginia court upheld one man's right to enslave another.
Johnson won other rulings from county judges. After a fire in 1653, for instance, the county agreed to grant him tax relief.
But over the years, court records show escalating troubles for Johnson and his adult sons. White planters tried to swindle them out of land and take their cattle. They moved several times, and lost acreage in the process. Their sons began running into trouble with the law.
It was during the 1660s that laws took shape establishing black slavery in Virginia. During that time, the Johnsons relocated to Maryland. Records don't indicate why, though historian J. Douglas Deal noted that their departure coincided with increasing legal harassment.
One of the sons established a farm there called "Angola," possibly in tribute to their origins. Anthony Johnson died in 1670.
Deal wrote in the early 1970s that the family's history shows they were "more vulnerable than their white neighbors to the shocks of misfortune and discrimination."
That experience exemplifies the "Sisyphean struggle" of free blacks to try to fit in with white society in the 1600s.
"Anthony Johnson and his sons came closest to realizing those goals, even holding one or two other blacks as slaves," Deal wrote. "But complete assimilation proved impossible."
Today, little trace remains of the Johnsons' struggles, apart from the records in the courthouse.
Anthropologist Matthew Emerson tracked down the approximate site of the farm near Pungoteague, though he and other researchers have protected the location to discourage relic hunters.
While he found evidence of postholes and a type of well, Emerson did not find a particular type of treasure he was looking for: evidence of African culture.
"People have asked, is this African American history you're doing? No, it isn't," said Emerson, who teaches at Amherst College in Massachusetts. "It's African history. These are people who were born in Africa and brought here."
Evidence of African influence turns up in many artifacts from throughout early American history, he said, from methods of farming to decorative patterns on clay pipes. While he hasn't yet found those signs on the Johnson family farm, Emerson said he has resumed processing material from the site after a hiatus as he changed jobs. But not all the evidence is from long ago.
"Even today, in the Eastern Shore of Virginia you can see African styles in pottery and basket making," he said. "It gives us insight into how that culture was shared with the Anglos and Europeans that were living alongside Native Americans and Africans. It gives us insight into how (American) history is not just a history of a single people." | <urn:uuid:715c682f-3b9c-44d9-a4d1-3aebb3443f46> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.delmarvanow.com/story/news/local/virginia/2019/05/13/jamestown-virginia-eastern-shore-african-family-among-first-settlers/1168133001/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.983094 | 1,736 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.2785031497... | 1 | From Jamestown to Va. Shore: African family was among the first settlers
WATCH: WWI exhibit features four Eastern Shore soldiers Wochit
PUNGOTEAGUE, Va. (AP) — Long before there was a village store or post office, when the roads were paths and the only way to get here was a boat ride across the Chesapeake Bay, a family named Johnson raised cattle near the winding creek.
Anthony and Mary Johnson were settlers who ventured from the Jamestown area to the remote Eastern Shore in the first half of the 1600s. They brought four children with them. They owned several hundred acres and a couple of slaves.
And they were black.
Anthony and Mary are among the earliest people of African descent whose lives can be charted in the first years of the English colony. The course of their marriage tells a surprising story, little-known outside academic circles, about how the status of blacks grew worse as Virginia codified slavery to prop up its economy.
The Johnsons would eventually leave Virginia. But for a brief window nearly 400 years ago, a black family helped establish a colony on this marshy ground that helped establish a nation.
"Virginia culture is not what we're told. It's not English, but an amalgam of English, Native American and African. Our culture has all three elements," said Mike Barber, who retired in April as Virginia's state archaeologist.
That it played out in this spot is even more poignant today: Just a dozen miles up the road is the family home of Virginia Gov. Ralph Northam (D), who is under harsh scrutiny for a blackface incident from his youth.
He has said his lack of racial sensitivity is a product of where he grew up — an isolated area where schools are integrated but blacks and whites lead separate lives.
It's true. Pungoteague today is white. Black people live in the nearby communities of Boston and Little Hell.
And the state is wrestling with how to tell the story of its complicated, diverse history. In the earliest days, free blacks sometimes lived alongside whites and participated in society, but that changed as the system of slavery hardened toward the end of the 1600s.
Still, there were periods throughout history when some Virginians of African descent were able to win freedom, and many fought in the American Revolution and for the North in the Civil War.
"It surprised me when I found out," said Lafayette Jones Jr., who helped create Freedom Park near Williamsburg to commemorate the long line of free people of color who lived there, including Jones's ancestors.
Since retiring from the Army, Jones has spent years researching family history back to Jamestown in the 1600s.
His grandfather was born in 1870 to a family of free blacks descended from enslaved people who had been emancipated around 1800 by the estate of William Ludwell Lee, creating one of the South's first free black settlements.
Other free communities formed around that time at Israel Hill in Prince Edward County and possibly even earlier at Pocahontas Island in Petersburg.
But perhaps no area has an older or better-documented record of free blacks than the Eastern Shore, where the Northampton County courthouse in Eastville has documents dating to 1632 — the longest unbroken set of courthouse records in the United States.
"Anthony the negro" first appears in Northampton records by name in 1645, but he had been there for some time already, according to research by Williamsburg historian Martha McCartney.
Some historians have suggested that Anthony was among the original Africans brought to Point Comfort in 1619. What seems more likely, according to McCartney and others, is that he was brought on an English ship in 1621.
He first worked on a plantation in what is now Isle of Wight County, across the James River from Jamestown. Anthony was among a handful of men there who survived the Indian uprising of 1622, in which the Native Americans killed about a quarter of all Virginia colonists.
Mary was brought soon after. Over the next 20 years they married, had four children, gained their freedom and relocated to the Eastern Shore. How all that happened remains unclear. Had they been enslaved? Or were they technically indentured servants, working a set number of years to fulfill a contract?
Anthony had two potential advantages. The family he worked for, the Bennetts, were Puritans, McCartney said. They might have been scrupulous about sticking to the terms of a service contract.
Also, the ship that likely brought him originated in England. If Anthony had spent time there and learned to speak the language, that might have helped him assimilate, Barber said.
Once he and Mary had their freedom, it made sense to head to the Eastern Shore. Its remoteness made it different from the mainland — sparsely populated, less tied to the colony's rigid hierarchies and home in the 1600s to many Quakers, who were against the idea of slavery.
"The Eastern Shore has always been very independent of both London and Jamestown," Barber said. "I think the African Americans had an easier time of it over there" during the early and mid-1600s.
Anthony became a cattle trader. In 1651, Gov. William Berkeley granted him 250 acres in what's now the Pungoteague area. One of his sons married — or at least had children with — a white woman.
By this time, Anthony and Mary had two black servants. One of them, John Casar, got a nearby white planter to petition the county to free him from his indenture. Anthony argued that Casar was his servant for life. In 1655, the county judges ruled in Johnson's favor — marking what historians say is likely the first time a Virginia court upheld one man's right to enslave another.
Johnson won other rulings from county judges. After a fire in 1653, for instance, the county agreed to grant him tax relief.
But over the years, court records show escalating troubles for Johnson and his adult sons. White planters tried to swindle them out of land and take their cattle. They moved several times, and lost acreage in the process. Their sons began running into trouble with the law.
It was during the 1660s that laws took shape establishing black slavery in Virginia. During that time, the Johnsons relocated to Maryland. Records don't indicate why, though historian J. Douglas Deal noted that their departure coincided with increasing legal harassment.
One of the sons established a farm there called "Angola," possibly in tribute to their origins. Anthony Johnson died in 1670.
Deal wrote in the early 1970s that the family's history shows they were "more vulnerable than their white neighbors to the shocks of misfortune and discrimination."
That experience exemplifies the "Sisyphean struggle" of free blacks to try to fit in with white society in the 1600s.
"Anthony Johnson and his sons came closest to realizing those goals, even holding one or two other blacks as slaves," Deal wrote. "But complete assimilation proved impossible."
Today, little trace remains of the Johnsons' struggles, apart from the records in the courthouse.
Anthropologist Matthew Emerson tracked down the approximate site of the farm near Pungoteague, though he and other researchers have protected the location to discourage relic hunters.
While he found evidence of postholes and a type of well, Emerson did not find a particular type of treasure he was looking for: evidence of African culture.
"People have asked, is this African American history you're doing? No, it isn't," said Emerson, who teaches at Amherst College in Massachusetts. "It's African history. These are people who were born in Africa and brought here."
Evidence of African influence turns up in many artifacts from throughout early American history, he said, from methods of farming to decorative patterns on clay pipes. While he hasn't yet found those signs on the Johnson family farm, Emerson said he has resumed processing material from the site after a hiatus as he changed jobs. But not all the evidence is from long ago.
"Even today, in the Eastern Shore of Virginia you can see African styles in pottery and basket making," he said. "It gives us insight into how that culture was shared with the Anglos and Europeans that were living alongside Native Americans and Africans. It gives us insight into how (American) history is not just a history of a single people." | 1,767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|The Duke of Buckingham|
Humphrey Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, by William Bond, after Joseph Allen
Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham, 6th Earl of Stafford, Stafford Castle in Staffordshire, was an English nobleman and a military commander in the Hundred Years' War and the Wars of the Roses. Through his mother he had royal descent from King Edward III, his great-grandfather, and from his father, he inherited, at an early age, the earldom of Stafford. By his marriage to a daughter of Ralph, Earl of Westmorland, Humphrey was related to the powerful Neville family and to many of the leading aristocratic houses of the time. He joined the English campaign in France with King Henry V in 1420 and following Henry V's death two years later he became a councillor for the new King, the nine-month-old Henry VI. Stafford acted as a peacemaker during the partisan, factional politics of the 1430s, when Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, vied with Cardinal Beaufort for political supremacy. Stafford also took part in the eventual arrest of Gloucester in 1447.(December 1402 – 10 July 1460) of
Stafford returned to the French campaign during the 1430s and for his loyalty and years of service, he was elevated from Earl of Stafford to Duke of Buckingham. Around the same time, his mother died. As much of his estate—as her dower—had previously been in her hands, Humphrey went from having a reduced income in his early years to being one of the wealthiest and most powerful landowners in England. His lands stretched across much of the country, ranging from East Anglia to the Welsh border. Being such an important figure in the localities was not without its dangers and for some time he feuded violently with Sir Thomas Malory in the Midlands.
After returning from France, Stafford remained in England for the rest of his life, serving King Henry. He acted as the King's bodyguard and chief negotiator during Jack Cade's rebellion of 1450, helping to suppress it. When the King's cousin, Richard, Duke of York, rebelled two years later, Stafford investigated York's followers. In 1453, the King became ill and sank into a catatonic state; law and order broke down further and when civil war began in 1455, Stafford fought for the King in the First Battle of St Albans which began the Wars of the Roses. Both were captured by the Yorkists and Stafford spent most of his final years attempting to mediate between the Yorkist and Lancastrian factions, the latter by now headed by Henry's wife, Margaret of Anjou. Partly due to a feud with a leading Yorkist—Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick—Stafford eventually declared for King Henry and the Duke of York was defeated in 1459, driving York into exile. When the rebels returned the following year they attacked the royal army at Northampton. Acting as the King's personal guard in the ensuing struggle, Stafford was killed and the King was again taken prisoner. Stafford's eldest son had died of plague two years earlier and the Buckingham dukedom descended to Stafford's five-year-old grandson, Henry, a ward of the King until he came of age in 1473.
Humphrey Stafford was born in Stafford sometime in December 1402. He was the only son of Edmund Stafford, 5th Earl of Stafford, and Anne of Gloucester, who was the daughter of Edward III's youngest son Thomas of Woodstock. This gave Humphrey royal descent, and made him a second cousin to the then King, Henry IV.
On 21 July 1403, when Humphrey was less than a year old, his father was killed fighting for Henry IV against the rebel Henry Hotspur at the Battle of Shrewsbury. Humphrey became 6th Earl of Stafford. With the earldom came a large estate with land in more than a dozen counties. Through her previous marriage to Edmund's older brother, Thomas, she accumulated two dowries,[note 1] each comprising a third of the Stafford estates. She occupied these lands for the next twenty years, and Humphrey received a reduced income of less than £1,260 a year until he came of age. As his mother could not, by law, be his guardian, Humphrey became a royal ward and was put under the guardianship of Henry IV's queen, Joan of Navarre. His minority lasted for the next twenty years.
Although Stafford received a reduced inheritance, as the historian Carol Rawcliffe has put it, "fortunes were still to be made in the French wars". Stafford assumed the profession of arms. He fought with Henry V during the 1420 campaign in France and was knighted on 22 April the following year. On 31 August 1422, while campaigning, Henry V contracted dysentery and died. Stafford was present at his death and joined the entourage that returned to England with the royal corpse. When Stafford was later asked by the royal council if the King had left any final instructions regarding the governance of Normandy, he claimed that he had been too upset at the time to be able to remember. Stafford was still a minor, but parliament soon granted him livery of his father's estate, allowing him full possession. The grant was based on Stafford's claim that the King had orally promised him this before dying. The grant did not require him to pay a fee into the Exchequer, as was normal.[note 2]
The new King, Henry VI, was still only a baby, so the lords decided that the dead King's brothers—John, Duke of Bedford and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester—would have to be prominent in this minority government. Bedford, it was decided, would rule as regent in France, while Gloucester would be chief councillor (although not protector) in England. Stafford became a member of the new royal council on its formation. It first met in November 1422 and Stafford was to be an assiduous attender for the next three years. Gloucester repeatedly claimed the title of Protector based on his relationship to the dead king. By 1424, the rivalry between him and his uncle Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester—as de facto head of council—had become outright conflict. Although Stafford seems to have personally favoured the interests of Gloucester in the latter's struggle for supremacy over Beaufort, Stafford attempted to be a moderating influence. For example, in October 1425, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Portuguese Duke of Coimbra and Stafford helped to negotiate an end to a burst of violence that had erupted in London between followers of the two rivals. In 1428, when Gloucester again demanded an increase in his power, Stafford was one of the councillors who personally signed a strong statement to the effect that Gloucester's position had been formulated six years earlier, would not change now, and that in any case the King would attain his majority within a few years. Stafford was also chosen by the council to inform Beaufort—now a Cardinal—that he was to absent himself from Windsor until it was decided if he could carry out his traditional duty of Prelate to the Order of the Garter now that the Pope had promoted him.
Stafford was made a knight of the Order of the Garter in April 1429. The following year, he travelled to France with the King for Henry's French coronation, escorting him through the war-torn countryside. The Earl was appointed Lieutenant-General of Normandy, Governor of Paris, and Constable of France over the course of his next two years of service there. Apart from one occasion in November 1430 when he and Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter took the English army to support Philip, Duke of Burgundy, Stafford's primary military role at this time was defending Paris and its environs. He also attended the interrogation of Joan of Arc in Rouen in 1431; at some point during these proceedings, a contemporary alleged, Stafford attempted to stab her and had to be physically restrained.
On 11 October 1431 the King created Stafford Count of Perche, which was a province in English-occupied Normandy; he was to hold the title until the English finally withdrew from Normandy in 1450. The county was valued at 800 marks per annum,[note 3] although the historian Michael Jones has suggested that due to the war, in real terms "the amount of revenue that could be extracted ... must have been considerably lower". Since Perche was a frontier region, in a state of almost constant conflict, whatever income the estate generated was immediately re-invested in its defence.
In England, the King's minority ended in 1436. In preparation for his personal rule, the council reorganised Henry's Lancastrian estates to be under the control of local magnates. This gave Stafford responsibility for much of the north Midlands, which was the largest single area of the duchy to be delegated among the nobility. This put the royal affinity—those men retained directly by the Crown to provide a direct link between the King and the localities—at his command.
The centrepiece of Stafford's estates, and his own caput, was Stafford Castle. Here he maintained a permanent staff of at least forty people, as well as a large stable, and it was especially well-placed for recruiting retainers in the Welsh Marches, Staffordshire, and Cheshire. He also had manor houses at Writtle and Maxstoke, which he had purchased as part of most of the estates of John, Lord Clinton. Writtle was particularly favoured by the Earl, and they were both useful when the royal court was in Coventry. Likewise, he made his base at Tonbridge Castle when he was acting as Warden of the Cinque Ports or on commission in Kent. His Marcher castles—Caus, Hay, Huntingdon, and Bronllys—had, by the 1450s, generally fallen into disrepair, and his other border castles, such as Brecon and Newport, he rarely used. Stafford's Thornbury manor was convenient for Bristol and was a stopping point to and from London.[note 4]
Stafford's mother's death in 1438 transformed his fiscal position. He now received the remainder of his father's estates—worth about £1,500—and his mother's half of the de Bohun inheritance, which was worth another £1,200. The latter also included the earldom of Buckingham, worth £1,000 on its own; Stafford had become one of the greatest landowners in England overnight. "His landed resources matched his titles", explained Albert Compton-Reves, scattered as they were throughout England, Wales and Ireland, with only the King and Richard, Duke of York wealthier. One assessment of his estates suggests that, by the late 1440s, his income was over £5,000 per annum, and K. B. McFarlane estimated Stafford's total potential income from land to have been £6,300 gross annually, at its peak between 1447 and 1448. On the other hand, the actual yield may have been lower; around £3,700: rents, for example, were often difficult to collect. Even a lord of the status of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, owed Stafford over £100 in unpaid rent for the manor of Drayton Bassett in 1458. In the 1440s and 1450s, Stafford's Welsh estates were particularly notable for both their rent arrears and public disorder. Further—and like most nobles of the period—he substantially overspent, possibly, says Harriss, by as much as £300 a year. His treasurer, William Wistowe, when rendering his accounts for the years 1452–1453, noted that Stafford was owed £730 by his reckoning, some debts being 20 years old. Despite this, says Woolgar, "there [is] no suggestion that [Stafford] found it difficult to obtain cash or goods".[note 5]
In the late medieval period, all great lords created an affinity between themselves and groups of supporters, who often lived and travelled with them for purposes of mutual benefit and defence, and Humphrey Stafford was no exception. These men were generally his estate tenants, who could be called upon when necessary for soldiering, as well as other duties, and were often retained by indenture.[note 6] In the late 1440s his immediate affinity was at least ten knights and twenty-seven esquires, mainly drawn from Cheshire. By the 1450s—a period beginning with political tension and ending with civil war—Stafford retained men specifically "to sojourn and ride" with him. His affinity was probably composed along the lines laid out by royal ordinance at the time which dictated the nobility should be accompanied by no more than 240 men, including "forty gentlemen, eighty yeomen and a variety of lesser individuals", suggested T. B. Pugh, although in peacetime Stafford would have required far fewer. It was directly due to the political climate that this increased, especially after 1457. Stafford's household more generally has been estimated at around 150 people by about 1450, and it has been estimated that maintaining both his affinity and household cost him over £900 a year.
Along with Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, Stafford was the major magnatial influence in Warwickshire, so when Warwick left for a lengthy tour of duty in France, in 1437, Stafford became the centre of regional power stretching from Warwickshire to Derbyshire. He was sufficiently involved in the royal court and government that he was often unable to attend to the needs of his region. This caused him local difficulties; on 5 May 1430 a Leicestershire manor of Stafford's was attacked and he faced problems in Derbyshire in the 1440s, although there, Helen Castor has said, Stafford "made no attempt to restore peace, nor made any attempt to intervene at all". Stafford also had major estates on the Welsh Marches. This area was prone to regular lawlessness and particularly occupied his time as a royal justice.
One of the best-known disputes Stafford had with his local gentry was in his Midlands heartlands. This was with Sir Thomas Malory. On 4 January 1450, Malory, with twenty-six other armed men, waited for Stafford near Coombe Abbey woods—near the Stafford's Newbold estate—intending to ambush him. Stafford fought back, repelling Malory's small force with sixty yeomenry. In another episode, Malory stole deer from the earl's park at Caludon. Stafford personally arrested Malory on 25 July 1451. The Earl also ended up in a dispute with William Ferrers of Staffordshire, even though the region was the centre of Stafford's authority and where he may have expected to be strongest. Ferrers had recently been appointed to the county King's Bench and attempted to assert political control over the county as a result. Following Cade's rebellion in 1450, Stafford's park at Penshurst was attacked by local men whom the historian Ralph Griffiths describes as "concealing their faces with long beards and charcoal-blackened faces, calling themselves servants of the queen of the fairies". Towards the end of the decade, not only was he unable to prevent feuding amongst the local gentry, but his own affinity was in discord. This may in part be due to the fact that at this time he was not spending much of his time in the Midlands, preferring to stay close to London and the King, dwelling either at his manors of Tonbridge or Writtle.
In July 1436, Stafford, accompanied by Gloucester, the Duke of Norfolk, and the Earls of Huntingdon, Warwick, Devon, and Ormond, returned to France again with an army of nearly 8,000 men. Although the expion's purpose was to end the siege of Calais by Philip, Duke of Burgundy, the Burgundians had withdrawn before they arrived, leaving behind a quantity of cannon for the English to seize. Subsequent peace talks in France occupied Stafford throughout 1439, and in 1442 he was appointed Captain of Calais and the Risbanke fort, and was indented to serve for the next decade. Before his departure for Calais in September 1442, the garrison had revolted and seized the Staple's wool in lieu of unpaid wages. Stafford received a pledge from the council that if such a situation arose again during his tenure, he would not be held responsible. In light of the secrecy that cloaked Stafford's appointment in 1442, suggests David Grummitt, it is possible that the revolt had actually been staged by his servants to ensure that Stafford "had entry [to Calais] on favourable terms". Stafford himself emphasised the need to restore order there in his original application for the office. He also received another important allowance, being granted permission to export gold and jewels (up to the value of £5,000 per trip) for his use in France, even though the export of bullion was illegal at the time. He served the full term of his appointment as Calais captain, leaving office in 1451.
Around 1435, Stafford was granted the Honour of Tutbury, which he held until 1443. Then, says Griffiths, Buckingham proceeded to transfer it to one of his councillor's sons.[note 7] Other offices he held around this time included Seneschal of Halton from 1439, and Lieutenant of the Marches from 1442 to 1451. Stafford became less active on the council around the same time. He became Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, Constable of Dover Castle and Constable of Queenborough, on the Isle of Sheppey, in 1450. He again represented the Crown during further peace talks with the French in 1445 and 1446.
In the event, Stafford rarely visited Calais. Factional strife had continued intermittently between Beaufort and Gloucester, and Stafford—who had also been appointed Constable of England—was by now firmly in the Beaufort camp. In 1442, he had been on the committee that investigated and convicted Gloucester's wife, Eleanor Cobham, of witchcraft, and five years later he arrested the Duke at Bury St Edmunds on 18 February 1447 for treason. Like many others, Stafford profited substantially from Gloucester's fall: when the latter's estates were divided up, the "major prizes" went to the court nobility.
In September 1444, as reward for his loyal and continuous service to the Crown, he was created Duke of Buckingham. By then he was already describing himself as "the Right Mighty Prince Humphrey Earl of Buckingham, Hereford, Stafford, Northampton and Perche, Lord of Brecknock and Holdernesse". Three years later he was granted precedence over all English dukes not of royal blood. Despite his income and titles he was consistently heavily out of pocket. Although rarely in Calais, he was responsible for ensuring the garrison was paid, and it has been estimated that when he resigned and returned from the post in 1450, he was owed over £19,000 in back wages. This was such a large amount that he was granted the wool trade tax from the port of Sandwich, Kent, until it was paid off. His other public offices also forced him to spend over his annual income, and he had household costs of over £2,000. He was also a substantial cror to the government, which was perennially short of cash.
With the outbreak of Jack Cade's rebellion, Buckingham summoned about seventy of his tenants from Staffordshire to accompany him while he was in London in May 1450. He was one of the lords commissioned to arrest the rebels as part of a forceful government response on 6 June 1450, and he acted as a negotiator with the insurgents at Blackheath ten days later. The promises that Buckingham made on behalf of the government were not kept, and Cade's army invaded London. After the eventual defeat of the rebellion, Buckingham headed an investigatory commission designed to pacify rebellious Kent, and in November that year he rode noisily through London—with a retinue of around 1,500 armed men—with the King and other peers, in a demonstration of royal authority intended to deter potential troublemakers in the future. Following the rebellion, Buckingham and his retinue often acted as a bodyguard to the King.
In 1451, the King's favourite, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, replaced Suffolk as the King's chief councillor, and Buckingham supported Somerset's government. At the same time, he tried to maintain peace between Somerset and York, who by now was Somerset's bitter enemy. When York rebelled in 1452 and confronted the King with a large army at Dartford, Buckingham was again a voice of compromise, and, since he had contributed heavily towards the size of the King's army, his voice was heeded. Buckingham took part in a peace commission on 14 February that month in Devon, which prevented Thomas Courtenay, Earl of Devon from joining York at Dartford. A year later, in August 1453, King Henry became ill, and slipped into a catatonic state; government slowly broke down. At Christmas, Buckingham personally presented the King's son—the newly-born Edward, Prince of Wales—to the King. But Henry remained unable to respond. Buckingham took part in the council meeting which resulted in the arrest and subsequent year-long imprisonment of the Duke of Somerset. In the February 1454 parliament Buckingham was appointed Steward of England, although Griffiths called this position "largely honorific". This parliament also appointed York as Protector of the Realm from 27 March 1454. Buckingham supported York's protectorate, attending York's councils more frequently than most of his fellow councillors. The King recovered his health in January 1455, and, soon after, Somerset was released—or may have escaped—from the Tower. A contemporary commented how Buckingham "straungely conveied" Somerset from prison, but it is uncertain whether this was as a result of the King ordering his release or whether Somerset escaped with Buckingham's connivance. Buckingham may well by now have been expecting war to break out, because the same year he ordered the purchase of 2,000 cognizances—his personal badge of the 'Stafford knot'—even though strictly the distribution of livery was illegal.
Following the King's recovery, York was either dismissed from or resigned his protectorship, and together with his Neville allies, withdrew from London to their northern estates. Somerset—in charge of government once again—summoned a Great Council to meet in Leicester on 22 May 1455. The Yorkists believed they would be arrested or attainted at this meeting. As a result, they gathered a small force and marched south. The King, with a smaller force that nonetheless included important nobles such as Somerset, Northumberland, Clifford and Buckingham and his son Humphrey, Earl of Stafford, was likewise marching from Westminster to Leicester, and in the early morning of 22 May, royal scouts reported the Yorkists as being only a few hours away. Buckingham urged that they push on to St Albans—so that the King might dine—which was not particularly easy to defend.[note 8] Buckingham also assumed that York would want to parley before launching an assault on the King, as he had in 1452. The decision to head for the town and not make a stand straight away may have been a tactical error; the contemporary Short English Chronicle describes how the Lancastrians "strongly barred and arrayed for defence" immediately after they arrived.
The King was lodged in the town and York, with the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick, encamped to the south. Negotiations commenced immediately. York demanded that Somerset be released into his custody, and the King replaced Somerset as Lord High Constable with Buckingham, making Somerset subordinate. In that capacity, Buckingham became the King's personal negotiator—Armstrong suggests because he was well known to be able to "concede but not capitulate"—and received and responded to the Yorkists' messengers. His strategy was to play for time, both to prepare the town's defences and to await the arrival of loyalist bishops, who could be counted on to bring the moral authority of the church to bear on the Yorkists. Buckingham received at least three Yorkist embassies, but the King—or Buckingham—refused to give in to the main Yorkist demand, that Somerset be surrendered to them. Buckingham may have hoped that repeated negotiations would deplete the Yorkists' zest for battle, and delay long enough for reinforcements to arrive. Buckingham made what John Gillingham described as an "insidiously tempting suggestion" that the Yorkists mull over the King's responses in Hatfield or Barnet overnight. Buckingham's confidence in how reasonable the Yorkists would be was misplaced.
The Yorkists realised what Buckingham—"prevaricating with courtesy", says Armstrong—was trying to do and battle commenced while negotiations were still taking place: Richard, Earl of Warwick, launched a surprise attack at around ten o'clock in the morning. Buckingham commanded the King's army of 2,500 men, although his coordination of the town's defence was problematic, giving the initiative to the Yorkists. Although the defences that Buckingham had organised successfully checked the Yorkists' initial advance, Warwick took his force through gardens and houses to attack the Lancastrians in the rear. The battle was soon over, and had lasted between half an hour and an hour with only about 50 casualties. They included senior Lancastrian captains: Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford had all been killed.[note 9] Buckingham himself was wounded three times in the face by arrow fire—and sought sanctuary in the abbey.[note 10] His son appears to have been badly wounded. A chronicler reported that some Yorkist soldiers, intent on looting, entered the abbey to kill Buckingham, but that the Duke was saved by York's personal intervention. In any case, says Harriss, Buckingham was probably captured with the King, although he was still able to reward ninety of his retainers from Kent, Sussex and Surrey. It is not known for certain whether these men had actually fought with him at St Albans; as K. B. McFarlane points out, many retinues did not arrive in time to fight.
York now had the political upper hand, made himself Constable of England and kept the King as a prisoner, returning to the role of Protector when Henry became ill again. Buckingham swore to "draw the lyne" with York, and supported his second protectorate, although losing Queen Margaret's favour as a result. A contemporary wrote that in April 1456 the Duke returned to his Writtle manor, not looking "well plesid". Buckingham played an important role at the October 1456 Great Council in Leicester. Here, with other lords, he tried to persuade the King to impose a settlement, and at the same time declared that anyone who resorted to violence would receive "ther deserte"—which included any who attacked York.
In 1459, with other lords, he renewed his oath of loyalty to the King and Prince of Wales. Until this point he had been a voice of restraint within the King's faction. But he had been restored to the Queen's favour that year and—as she was the de facto leader of the party—his realignment was decisive enough that it ultimately hastened the outbreak of hostilities again. Buckingham may also have been partially motivated by financial needs, and encouraged to do so by those retainers reliant on him. He had a bigger retinue than almost any other noble in England and was still the only one who could match York in power and income. This was demonstrated at the Battle of Ludford Bridge in October 1459, where his army played a decisive part in the defeat of the Yorkist forces. Following their defeat, York and the Neville earls fled Ludlow and went into exile; York to Ireland, the earls to Calais. They were attainted at the Coventry parliament later that year, and their estates distributed amongst the Crown's supporters. Buckingham was rewarded by the King with extensive grants from the estates of Sir William Oldhall, worth about £800 per annum. With York in exile, Buckingham was granted custody of York's wife, Cecily, Duchess of York, whom, a chronicler reports, he treated harshly in her captivity.
From the moment the Duke of York and the Neville earls left England it was obvious to the government that they would return; the only question was when. After a series of false alarms in early 1460, they eventually did so in June, landing at Sandwich, Kent. They immediately marched on, and entered London; the King, with Buckingham and other lords, was in Coventry, and on hearing of the earls' arrival, moved the court to Northampton. The Yorkists left London and marched to the King; they were accompanied by the Papal legate Francesco Coppini. In the lead up to the Battle of Northampton, the Earls of Warwick and March sent envoys to negotiate, but Buckingham—once again the King's chief negotiator, and backed by his son-in-law, John Talbot and Lords Beaumont and Egremont—was no longer conciliatory. Buckingham denied the Yorkists' envoys' repeated requests for an audience with Henry, denouncing the earls: "the Earl of Warwick shall not come to the King's presence and if he comes he shall die". Buckingham condemned the bishops who had accompanied the Yorkist army as well, telling them that they were not men of peace, but men of war, and there could now be no peace with Warwick. Personal animosity as much as political judgment was responsible for Buckingham's attitude, possibly, suggests Rawcliffe, the result of Warwick's earlier rent evasion. Buckingham's influential voice was chief among those demanding a military response to Warwick and March; the Duke may also have misinterpreted the Yorkists' requests to negotiate as a sign of weakness, seeing the coming battle as an opportunity to settle scores with Warwick. But Buckingham misjudged both the size of the Yorkist army—which outnumbered that of the King—and the loyalty of the Lancastrian army. Whatever plans Buckingham had, says Carol Rawcliffe, they "ended abruptly" on the battlefield.
Buckingham's men dug in outside Northampton's southern walls, and fortified behind a tributary of the River Nene, close to Delapré Abbey. Battle was joined early on 10 July 1460. Although it was expected to be a drawn-out affair—due to the near-impregnability of the royal position—it was shortened considerably when Lord Grey of Ruthin turned traitor to the King. Grey "welcomed the Yorkists over the barricades" on the Lancastrian wing and ordered his men to lay down arms, allowing the Yorkists access to the King's camp. Within half an hour, the battle was over. By 2:00 pm, Buckingham, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Lord Egremont and Viscount Beaumont, had all been killed by a force of Kentishmen. The Duke was buried shortly after at Grey Friars Abbey in Northampton.
Buckingham had named his wife Anne sole executrix of his will. She was instructed to provide 200 marks to any clergy who attended his funeral, the remainder being distributed as poor relief. She was also to organise the establishment of two chantries in his memory, and, says Barbara Harriss, he left "exceedingly elaborate" instructions for the augmentation of Pleshy college.[note 11]
Michael Hicks has noted that Buckingham was one of the few Lancastrian loyalists who was never accused by the Yorkists of being an "evil councillor", even though he was—in Hicks's words—"the substance and perhaps the steel within the ruling regime". Although Buckingham was not attainted when the Duke of York's son, the Earl of March, took the throne as King Edward IV in 1461, Buckingham's grandson Henry became a royal ward, which gave the King control of the Stafford estates during the young duke's minority. Henry Stafford entered into his estates in 1473 but was executed by Edward's brother Richard—by then King, and against whom Henry had rebelled—in November 1483.
Humphrey Stafford has been described as something of a hothead in his youth, and later in life he was a staunch anti-Lollard. Lustig suggests that it was probably in connection to this that Sir Thomas Malory attempted his assassination around 1450—if indeed he did, as the charge was never proved. Buckingham did not lack the traits traditionally expected of the nobility in this period of the time, particularly, in dispute resolution, that of resorting to violence as a first rather than last resort. For instance, in September 1429, following an altercation with his brother-in-law the Earl of Huntingdon, he arrived at parliament fully armed. On the other hand, he was also a literary patron: Lord Scrope presented him with a copy of Christine de Pizan's Epistle of Othea, demonstrating his position as a "powerful and potentially powerful patron", and its dedicatory verse to Buckingham is particularly laudatory. On Buckingham's estates—especially on the Welsh marches—he has been described as a "harsh and exacting landlord" in the lengths he went to in maximising his income. He was also competent in his land deals, and seems never—unlike some contemporaries—to have had to sell land to stay solvent.
B. J. Harris noted that, although he died a staunch Lancastrian, he never showed any personal dislike of York in the 1450s, and that his personal motivation throughout the decade was loyalty to the Crown and keeping the peace between his peers. Rawcliffe has suggested that although he was inevitably going to be involved in the high politics of the day, Buckingham "lacked the necessary qualities ever to become a great statesman or leader ... [he] was in many ways an unimaginative and unlikeable man". On the latter quality, Rawcliffe points to his reputation as a harsh taskmaster on his estates and his "offensive behaviour" towards Joan of Arc. Further, she says, his political judgement could be clouded by his attitude. His temper, she says, was "ungovernable".
Humphrey Stafford married Lady Anne Neville, daughter of Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland and Lady Joan Beaufort (Westmorland's second wife), at some point before 18 October 1424. Anne Neville was a literary patron in her own right, also receiving a dedication in a copy of Scrope's translated Othea. On her death in 1480, she left many books in her will.[note 12] Scholars generally agree that Buckingham and Anne had twelve children, consisting of seven sons and five daughters. Sources conflict over the precise details of the Staffords' progeny.[note 13] The antiquarian I. W. Dunham, writing in 1907, listed them as Humphrey, Henry, John, Anne (married Aubrey de Vere), Joana (married Viscount Beaumont before 1461), Elizabeth, Margaret (born about 1435, married Robert Dinham),[note 14] and Katherine (married John Talbot before 1467). [note 15] James Tait lists the daughters as Anne, Joanna, Elizabeth, Margaret and Catherine and suggests that Elizabeth and Margaret never married.[note 16] Rawcliffe gives the following as dates of birth and death for three of the daughters: Anne, 1446–1472; Joan, 1442–1484; and Katherine, 1437–1476. Edward and the twins, George and William, died young. The seventh son has gone unremarked in the sources.
The marriages Buckingham arranged for his children were structured around strengthening his ties to the Lancastrian royal family. Of particular importance were the marriages of two of his sons, Humphrey and Henry. They married into the Beaufort family, which was descended from the illegitimate children of John of Gaunt and thus of royal blood. There was also, about 1450, discussion regarding a proposal for one of Buckingham's daughters to marry the Dauphin of France (subsequently Louis XI).[note 17] Had it proceeded, it would have again linked the French Crown with the Lancastrian regime.
Buckingham's eldest son, Humphrey, married Margaret Beaufort. She was the daughter of Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and Eleanor Beauchamp. Margaret and Humphrey's son was Buckingham's eventual heir. A second link to the Beaufort family was between Buckingham's second son, Sir Henry Stafford (c. 1425–1471), who became the third husband of Lady Margaret Beaufort, daughter of John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and Margaret Beauchamp. Margaret Beaufort had previously been married to Edmund Tudor, the eldest half-brother of Henry VI, and had given birth to the future King Henry VII two months after Edmund's death. She and Henry were childless. Buckingham's third surviving son, John (died 8 May 1473) married Constance Green of Drayton, who had previously been the duke's ward. Humphrey Stafford assigned them the manor of Newton Blossomville at the time of their marriage. John was created Earl of Wiltshire in 1470.
Buckingham arranged good but costly marriages for three of his daughters. Anne married Aubrey de Vere, son of John de Vere, Earl of Oxford. Their 1452 marriage cost Buckingham 2,300 marks; he was slow to pay, and still owed Oxford over £440 seven years later. In 1452, Joan married William Beaumont, heir of Viscount Beaumont. Katherine married John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, six years later. Buckingham had apparently promised to give them £1,000 but died before acting on the promise.
Buckingham was depicted, during his son's lifetime, "mounted in battle array"—showing him during the 1436 campaign against Burgundy—in the pictorial genealogy, the Beauchamp Pageant.[note 18]
Timothy J. Lustig has suggested that Thomas Malory, in his Morte d'Arthur, based his character Gawaine on Buckingham. Lustig suggests that Malory may have viewed the Duke as being "peacemaker and warlord, warrior and judge"—qualities which the writer also ascribed to his Arthurian character. Buckingham appears in Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 2 (c. 1591), in which his character conspires in the downfall and disgrace of Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester.
The Earl of Stafford
| Lord High Constable
The Duke of Buckingham
The Lord Saye and Sele
| Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports
The Lord Rivers
|Peerage of England|
|New creation|| Duke of Buckingham
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0.0192003641277... | 1 | |The Duke of Buckingham|
Humphrey Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, by William Bond, after Joseph Allen
Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham, 6th Earl of Stafford, Stafford Castle in Staffordshire, was an English nobleman and a military commander in the Hundred Years' War and the Wars of the Roses. Through his mother he had royal descent from King Edward III, his great-grandfather, and from his father, he inherited, at an early age, the earldom of Stafford. By his marriage to a daughter of Ralph, Earl of Westmorland, Humphrey was related to the powerful Neville family and to many of the leading aristocratic houses of the time. He joined the English campaign in France with King Henry V in 1420 and following Henry V's death two years later he became a councillor for the new King, the nine-month-old Henry VI. Stafford acted as a peacemaker during the partisan, factional politics of the 1430s, when Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, vied with Cardinal Beaufort for political supremacy. Stafford also took part in the eventual arrest of Gloucester in 1447.(December 1402 – 10 July 1460) of
Stafford returned to the French campaign during the 1430s and for his loyalty and years of service, he was elevated from Earl of Stafford to Duke of Buckingham. Around the same time, his mother died. As much of his estate—as her dower—had previously been in her hands, Humphrey went from having a reduced income in his early years to being one of the wealthiest and most powerful landowners in England. His lands stretched across much of the country, ranging from East Anglia to the Welsh border. Being such an important figure in the localities was not without its dangers and for some time he feuded violently with Sir Thomas Malory in the Midlands.
After returning from France, Stafford remained in England for the rest of his life, serving King Henry. He acted as the King's bodyguard and chief negotiator during Jack Cade's rebellion of 1450, helping to suppress it. When the King's cousin, Richard, Duke of York, rebelled two years later, Stafford investigated York's followers. In 1453, the King became ill and sank into a catatonic state; law and order broke down further and when civil war began in 1455, Stafford fought for the King in the First Battle of St Albans which began the Wars of the Roses. Both were captured by the Yorkists and Stafford spent most of his final years attempting to mediate between the Yorkist and Lancastrian factions, the latter by now headed by Henry's wife, Margaret of Anjou. Partly due to a feud with a leading Yorkist—Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick—Stafford eventually declared for King Henry and the Duke of York was defeated in 1459, driving York into exile. When the rebels returned the following year they attacked the royal army at Northampton. Acting as the King's personal guard in the ensuing struggle, Stafford was killed and the King was again taken prisoner. Stafford's eldest son had died of plague two years earlier and the Buckingham dukedom descended to Stafford's five-year-old grandson, Henry, a ward of the King until he came of age in 1473.
Humphrey Stafford was born in Stafford sometime in December 1402. He was the only son of Edmund Stafford, 5th Earl of Stafford, and Anne of Gloucester, who was the daughter of Edward III's youngest son Thomas of Woodstock. This gave Humphrey royal descent, and made him a second cousin to the then King, Henry IV.
On 21 July 1403, when Humphrey was less than a year old, his father was killed fighting for Henry IV against the rebel Henry Hotspur at the Battle of Shrewsbury. Humphrey became 6th Earl of Stafford. With the earldom came a large estate with land in more than a dozen counties. Through her previous marriage to Edmund's older brother, Thomas, she accumulated two dowries,[note 1] each comprising a third of the Stafford estates. She occupied these lands for the next twenty years, and Humphrey received a reduced income of less than £1,260 a year until he came of age. As his mother could not, by law, be his guardian, Humphrey became a royal ward and was put under the guardianship of Henry IV's queen, Joan of Navarre. His minority lasted for the next twenty years.
Although Stafford received a reduced inheritance, as the historian Carol Rawcliffe has put it, "fortunes were still to be made in the French wars". Stafford assumed the profession of arms. He fought with Henry V during the 1420 campaign in France and was knighted on 22 April the following year. On 31 August 1422, while campaigning, Henry V contracted dysentery and died. Stafford was present at his death and joined the entourage that returned to England with the royal corpse. When Stafford was later asked by the royal council if the King had left any final instructions regarding the governance of Normandy, he claimed that he had been too upset at the time to be able to remember. Stafford was still a minor, but parliament soon granted him livery of his father's estate, allowing him full possession. The grant was based on Stafford's claim that the King had orally promised him this before dying. The grant did not require him to pay a fee into the Exchequer, as was normal.[note 2]
The new King, Henry VI, was still only a baby, so the lords decided that the dead King's brothers—John, Duke of Bedford and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester—would have to be prominent in this minority government. Bedford, it was decided, would rule as regent in France, while Gloucester would be chief councillor (although not protector) in England. Stafford became a member of the new royal council on its formation. It first met in November 1422 and Stafford was to be an assiduous attender for the next three years. Gloucester repeatedly claimed the title of Protector based on his relationship to the dead king. By 1424, the rivalry between him and his uncle Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester—as de facto head of council—had become outright conflict. Although Stafford seems to have personally favoured the interests of Gloucester in the latter's struggle for supremacy over Beaufort, Stafford attempted to be a moderating influence. For example, in October 1425, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Portuguese Duke of Coimbra and Stafford helped to negotiate an end to a burst of violence that had erupted in London between followers of the two rivals. In 1428, when Gloucester again demanded an increase in his power, Stafford was one of the councillors who personally signed a strong statement to the effect that Gloucester's position had been formulated six years earlier, would not change now, and that in any case the King would attain his majority within a few years. Stafford was also chosen by the council to inform Beaufort—now a Cardinal—that he was to absent himself from Windsor until it was decided if he could carry out his traditional duty of Prelate to the Order of the Garter now that the Pope had promoted him.
Stafford was made a knight of the Order of the Garter in April 1429. The following year, he travelled to France with the King for Henry's French coronation, escorting him through the war-torn countryside. The Earl was appointed Lieutenant-General of Normandy, Governor of Paris, and Constable of France over the course of his next two years of service there. Apart from one occasion in November 1430 when he and Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter took the English army to support Philip, Duke of Burgundy, Stafford's primary military role at this time was defending Paris and its environs. He also attended the interrogation of Joan of Arc in Rouen in 1431; at some point during these proceedings, a contemporary alleged, Stafford attempted to stab her and had to be physically restrained.
On 11 October 1431 the King created Stafford Count of Perche, which was a province in English-occupied Normandy; he was to hold the title until the English finally withdrew from Normandy in 1450. The county was valued at 800 marks per annum,[note 3] although the historian Michael Jones has suggested that due to the war, in real terms "the amount of revenue that could be extracted ... must have been considerably lower". Since Perche was a frontier region, in a state of almost constant conflict, whatever income the estate generated was immediately re-invested in its defence.
In England, the King's minority ended in 1436. In preparation for his personal rule, the council reorganised Henry's Lancastrian estates to be under the control of local magnates. This gave Stafford responsibility for much of the north Midlands, which was the largest single area of the duchy to be delegated among the nobility. This put the royal affinity—those men retained directly by the Crown to provide a direct link between the King and the localities—at his command.
The centrepiece of Stafford's estates, and his own caput, was Stafford Castle. Here he maintained a permanent staff of at least forty people, as well as a large stable, and it was especially well-placed for recruiting retainers in the Welsh Marches, Staffordshire, and Cheshire. He also had manor houses at Writtle and Maxstoke, which he had purchased as part of most of the estates of John, Lord Clinton. Writtle was particularly favoured by the Earl, and they were both useful when the royal court was in Coventry. Likewise, he made his base at Tonbridge Castle when he was acting as Warden of the Cinque Ports or on commission in Kent. His Marcher castles—Caus, Hay, Huntingdon, and Bronllys—had, by the 1450s, generally fallen into disrepair, and his other border castles, such as Brecon and Newport, he rarely used. Stafford's Thornbury manor was convenient for Bristol and was a stopping point to and from London.[note 4]
Stafford's mother's death in 1438 transformed his fiscal position. He now received the remainder of his father's estates—worth about £1,500—and his mother's half of the de Bohun inheritance, which was worth another £1,200. The latter also included the earldom of Buckingham, worth £1,000 on its own; Stafford had become one of the greatest landowners in England overnight. "His landed resources matched his titles", explained Albert Compton-Reves, scattered as they were throughout England, Wales and Ireland, with only the King and Richard, Duke of York wealthier. One assessment of his estates suggests that, by the late 1440s, his income was over £5,000 per annum, and K. B. McFarlane estimated Stafford's total potential income from land to have been £6,300 gross annually, at its peak between 1447 and 1448. On the other hand, the actual yield may have been lower; around £3,700: rents, for example, were often difficult to collect. Even a lord of the status of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, owed Stafford over £100 in unpaid rent for the manor of Drayton Bassett in 1458. In the 1440s and 1450s, Stafford's Welsh estates were particularly notable for both their rent arrears and public disorder. Further—and like most nobles of the period—he substantially overspent, possibly, says Harriss, by as much as £300 a year. His treasurer, William Wistowe, when rendering his accounts for the years 1452–1453, noted that Stafford was owed £730 by his reckoning, some debts being 20 years old. Despite this, says Woolgar, "there [is] no suggestion that [Stafford] found it difficult to obtain cash or goods".[note 5]
In the late medieval period, all great lords created an affinity between themselves and groups of supporters, who often lived and travelled with them for purposes of mutual benefit and defence, and Humphrey Stafford was no exception. These men were generally his estate tenants, who could be called upon when necessary for soldiering, as well as other duties, and were often retained by indenture.[note 6] In the late 1440s his immediate affinity was at least ten knights and twenty-seven esquires, mainly drawn from Cheshire. By the 1450s—a period beginning with political tension and ending with civil war—Stafford retained men specifically "to sojourn and ride" with him. His affinity was probably composed along the lines laid out by royal ordinance at the time which dictated the nobility should be accompanied by no more than 240 men, including "forty gentlemen, eighty yeomen and a variety of lesser individuals", suggested T. B. Pugh, although in peacetime Stafford would have required far fewer. It was directly due to the political climate that this increased, especially after 1457. Stafford's household more generally has been estimated at around 150 people by about 1450, and it has been estimated that maintaining both his affinity and household cost him over £900 a year.
Along with Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, Stafford was the major magnatial influence in Warwickshire, so when Warwick left for a lengthy tour of duty in France, in 1437, Stafford became the centre of regional power stretching from Warwickshire to Derbyshire. He was sufficiently involved in the royal court and government that he was often unable to attend to the needs of his region. This caused him local difficulties; on 5 May 1430 a Leicestershire manor of Stafford's was attacked and he faced problems in Derbyshire in the 1440s, although there, Helen Castor has said, Stafford "made no attempt to restore peace, nor made any attempt to intervene at all". Stafford also had major estates on the Welsh Marches. This area was prone to regular lawlessness and particularly occupied his time as a royal justice.
One of the best-known disputes Stafford had with his local gentry was in his Midlands heartlands. This was with Sir Thomas Malory. On 4 January 1450, Malory, with twenty-six other armed men, waited for Stafford near Coombe Abbey woods—near the Stafford's Newbold estate—intending to ambush him. Stafford fought back, repelling Malory's small force with sixty yeomenry. In another episode, Malory stole deer from the earl's park at Caludon. Stafford personally arrested Malory on 25 July 1451. The Earl also ended up in a dispute with William Ferrers of Staffordshire, even though the region was the centre of Stafford's authority and where he may have expected to be strongest. Ferrers had recently been appointed to the county King's Bench and attempted to assert political control over the county as a result. Following Cade's rebellion in 1450, Stafford's park at Penshurst was attacked by local men whom the historian Ralph Griffiths describes as "concealing their faces with long beards and charcoal-blackened faces, calling themselves servants of the queen of the fairies". Towards the end of the decade, not only was he unable to prevent feuding amongst the local gentry, but his own affinity was in discord. This may in part be due to the fact that at this time he was not spending much of his time in the Midlands, preferring to stay close to London and the King, dwelling either at his manors of Tonbridge or Writtle.
In July 1436, Stafford, accompanied by Gloucester, the Duke of Norfolk, and the Earls of Huntingdon, Warwick, Devon, and Ormond, returned to France again with an army of nearly 8,000 men. Although the expion's purpose was to end the siege of Calais by Philip, Duke of Burgundy, the Burgundians had withdrawn before they arrived, leaving behind a quantity of cannon for the English to seize. Subsequent peace talks in France occupied Stafford throughout 1439, and in 1442 he was appointed Captain of Calais and the Risbanke fort, and was indented to serve for the next decade. Before his departure for Calais in September 1442, the garrison had revolted and seized the Staple's wool in lieu of unpaid wages. Stafford received a pledge from the council that if such a situation arose again during his tenure, he would not be held responsible. In light of the secrecy that cloaked Stafford's appointment in 1442, suggests David Grummitt, it is possible that the revolt had actually been staged by his servants to ensure that Stafford "had entry [to Calais] on favourable terms". Stafford himself emphasised the need to restore order there in his original application for the office. He also received another important allowance, being granted permission to export gold and jewels (up to the value of £5,000 per trip) for his use in France, even though the export of bullion was illegal at the time. He served the full term of his appointment as Calais captain, leaving office in 1451.
Around 1435, Stafford was granted the Honour of Tutbury, which he held until 1443. Then, says Griffiths, Buckingham proceeded to transfer it to one of his councillor's sons.[note 7] Other offices he held around this time included Seneschal of Halton from 1439, and Lieutenant of the Marches from 1442 to 1451. Stafford became less active on the council around the same time. He became Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, Constable of Dover Castle and Constable of Queenborough, on the Isle of Sheppey, in 1450. He again represented the Crown during further peace talks with the French in 1445 and 1446.
In the event, Stafford rarely visited Calais. Factional strife had continued intermittently between Beaufort and Gloucester, and Stafford—who had also been appointed Constable of England—was by now firmly in the Beaufort camp. In 1442, he had been on the committee that investigated and convicted Gloucester's wife, Eleanor Cobham, of witchcraft, and five years later he arrested the Duke at Bury St Edmunds on 18 February 1447 for treason. Like many others, Stafford profited substantially from Gloucester's fall: when the latter's estates were divided up, the "major prizes" went to the court nobility.
In September 1444, as reward for his loyal and continuous service to the Crown, he was created Duke of Buckingham. By then he was already describing himself as "the Right Mighty Prince Humphrey Earl of Buckingham, Hereford, Stafford, Northampton and Perche, Lord of Brecknock and Holdernesse". Three years later he was granted precedence over all English dukes not of royal blood. Despite his income and titles he was consistently heavily out of pocket. Although rarely in Calais, he was responsible for ensuring the garrison was paid, and it has been estimated that when he resigned and returned from the post in 1450, he was owed over £19,000 in back wages. This was such a large amount that he was granted the wool trade tax from the port of Sandwich, Kent, until it was paid off. His other public offices also forced him to spend over his annual income, and he had household costs of over £2,000. He was also a substantial cror to the government, which was perennially short of cash.
With the outbreak of Jack Cade's rebellion, Buckingham summoned about seventy of his tenants from Staffordshire to accompany him while he was in London in May 1450. He was one of the lords commissioned to arrest the rebels as part of a forceful government response on 6 June 1450, and he acted as a negotiator with the insurgents at Blackheath ten days later. The promises that Buckingham made on behalf of the government were not kept, and Cade's army invaded London. After the eventual defeat of the rebellion, Buckingham headed an investigatory commission designed to pacify rebellious Kent, and in November that year he rode noisily through London—with a retinue of around 1,500 armed men—with the King and other peers, in a demonstration of royal authority intended to deter potential troublemakers in the future. Following the rebellion, Buckingham and his retinue often acted as a bodyguard to the King.
In 1451, the King's favourite, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, replaced Suffolk as the King's chief councillor, and Buckingham supported Somerset's government. At the same time, he tried to maintain peace between Somerset and York, who by now was Somerset's bitter enemy. When York rebelled in 1452 and confronted the King with a large army at Dartford, Buckingham was again a voice of compromise, and, since he had contributed heavily towards the size of the King's army, his voice was heeded. Buckingham took part in a peace commission on 14 February that month in Devon, which prevented Thomas Courtenay, Earl of Devon from joining York at Dartford. A year later, in August 1453, King Henry became ill, and slipped into a catatonic state; government slowly broke down. At Christmas, Buckingham personally presented the King's son—the newly-born Edward, Prince of Wales—to the King. But Henry remained unable to respond. Buckingham took part in the council meeting which resulted in the arrest and subsequent year-long imprisonment of the Duke of Somerset. In the February 1454 parliament Buckingham was appointed Steward of England, although Griffiths called this position "largely honorific". This parliament also appointed York as Protector of the Realm from 27 March 1454. Buckingham supported York's protectorate, attending York's councils more frequently than most of his fellow councillors. The King recovered his health in January 1455, and, soon after, Somerset was released—or may have escaped—from the Tower. A contemporary commented how Buckingham "straungely conveied" Somerset from prison, but it is uncertain whether this was as a result of the King ordering his release or whether Somerset escaped with Buckingham's connivance. Buckingham may well by now have been expecting war to break out, because the same year he ordered the purchase of 2,000 cognizances—his personal badge of the 'Stafford knot'—even though strictly the distribution of livery was illegal.
Following the King's recovery, York was either dismissed from or resigned his protectorship, and together with his Neville allies, withdrew from London to their northern estates. Somerset—in charge of government once again—summoned a Great Council to meet in Leicester on 22 May 1455. The Yorkists believed they would be arrested or attainted at this meeting. As a result, they gathered a small force and marched south. The King, with a smaller force that nonetheless included important nobles such as Somerset, Northumberland, Clifford and Buckingham and his son Humphrey, Earl of Stafford, was likewise marching from Westminster to Leicester, and in the early morning of 22 May, royal scouts reported the Yorkists as being only a few hours away. Buckingham urged that they push on to St Albans—so that the King might dine—which was not particularly easy to defend.[note 8] Buckingham also assumed that York would want to parley before launching an assault on the King, as he had in 1452. The decision to head for the town and not make a stand straight away may have been a tactical error; the contemporary Short English Chronicle describes how the Lancastrians "strongly barred and arrayed for defence" immediately after they arrived.
The King was lodged in the town and York, with the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick, encamped to the south. Negotiations commenced immediately. York demanded that Somerset be released into his custody, and the King replaced Somerset as Lord High Constable with Buckingham, making Somerset subordinate. In that capacity, Buckingham became the King's personal negotiator—Armstrong suggests because he was well known to be able to "concede but not capitulate"—and received and responded to the Yorkists' messengers. His strategy was to play for time, both to prepare the town's defences and to await the arrival of loyalist bishops, who could be counted on to bring the moral authority of the church to bear on the Yorkists. Buckingham received at least three Yorkist embassies, but the King—or Buckingham—refused to give in to the main Yorkist demand, that Somerset be surrendered to them. Buckingham may have hoped that repeated negotiations would deplete the Yorkists' zest for battle, and delay long enough for reinforcements to arrive. Buckingham made what John Gillingham described as an "insidiously tempting suggestion" that the Yorkists mull over the King's responses in Hatfield or Barnet overnight. Buckingham's confidence in how reasonable the Yorkists would be was misplaced.
The Yorkists realised what Buckingham—"prevaricating with courtesy", says Armstrong—was trying to do and battle commenced while negotiations were still taking place: Richard, Earl of Warwick, launched a surprise attack at around ten o'clock in the morning. Buckingham commanded the King's army of 2,500 men, although his coordination of the town's defence was problematic, giving the initiative to the Yorkists. Although the defences that Buckingham had organised successfully checked the Yorkists' initial advance, Warwick took his force through gardens and houses to attack the Lancastrians in the rear. The battle was soon over, and had lasted between half an hour and an hour with only about 50 casualties. They included senior Lancastrian captains: Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford had all been killed.[note 9] Buckingham himself was wounded three times in the face by arrow fire—and sought sanctuary in the abbey.[note 10] His son appears to have been badly wounded. A chronicler reported that some Yorkist soldiers, intent on looting, entered the abbey to kill Buckingham, but that the Duke was saved by York's personal intervention. In any case, says Harriss, Buckingham was probably captured with the King, although he was still able to reward ninety of his retainers from Kent, Sussex and Surrey. It is not known for certain whether these men had actually fought with him at St Albans; as K. B. McFarlane points out, many retinues did not arrive in time to fight.
York now had the political upper hand, made himself Constable of England and kept the King as a prisoner, returning to the role of Protector when Henry became ill again. Buckingham swore to "draw the lyne" with York, and supported his second protectorate, although losing Queen Margaret's favour as a result. A contemporary wrote that in April 1456 the Duke returned to his Writtle manor, not looking "well plesid". Buckingham played an important role at the October 1456 Great Council in Leicester. Here, with other lords, he tried to persuade the King to impose a settlement, and at the same time declared that anyone who resorted to violence would receive "ther deserte"—which included any who attacked York.
In 1459, with other lords, he renewed his oath of loyalty to the King and Prince of Wales. Until this point he had been a voice of restraint within the King's faction. But he had been restored to the Queen's favour that year and—as she was the de facto leader of the party—his realignment was decisive enough that it ultimately hastened the outbreak of hostilities again. Buckingham may also have been partially motivated by financial needs, and encouraged to do so by those retainers reliant on him. He had a bigger retinue than almost any other noble in England and was still the only one who could match York in power and income. This was demonstrated at the Battle of Ludford Bridge in October 1459, where his army played a decisive part in the defeat of the Yorkist forces. Following their defeat, York and the Neville earls fled Ludlow and went into exile; York to Ireland, the earls to Calais. They were attainted at the Coventry parliament later that year, and their estates distributed amongst the Crown's supporters. Buckingham was rewarded by the King with extensive grants from the estates of Sir William Oldhall, worth about £800 per annum. With York in exile, Buckingham was granted custody of York's wife, Cecily, Duchess of York, whom, a chronicler reports, he treated harshly in her captivity.
From the moment the Duke of York and the Neville earls left England it was obvious to the government that they would return; the only question was when. After a series of false alarms in early 1460, they eventually did so in June, landing at Sandwich, Kent. They immediately marched on, and entered London; the King, with Buckingham and other lords, was in Coventry, and on hearing of the earls' arrival, moved the court to Northampton. The Yorkists left London and marched to the King; they were accompanied by the Papal legate Francesco Coppini. In the lead up to the Battle of Northampton, the Earls of Warwick and March sent envoys to negotiate, but Buckingham—once again the King's chief negotiator, and backed by his son-in-law, John Talbot and Lords Beaumont and Egremont—was no longer conciliatory. Buckingham denied the Yorkists' envoys' repeated requests for an audience with Henry, denouncing the earls: "the Earl of Warwick shall not come to the King's presence and if he comes he shall die". Buckingham condemned the bishops who had accompanied the Yorkist army as well, telling them that they were not men of peace, but men of war, and there could now be no peace with Warwick. Personal animosity as much as political judgment was responsible for Buckingham's attitude, possibly, suggests Rawcliffe, the result of Warwick's earlier rent evasion. Buckingham's influential voice was chief among those demanding a military response to Warwick and March; the Duke may also have misinterpreted the Yorkists' requests to negotiate as a sign of weakness, seeing the coming battle as an opportunity to settle scores with Warwick. But Buckingham misjudged both the size of the Yorkist army—which outnumbered that of the King—and the loyalty of the Lancastrian army. Whatever plans Buckingham had, says Carol Rawcliffe, they "ended abruptly" on the battlefield.
Buckingham's men dug in outside Northampton's southern walls, and fortified behind a tributary of the River Nene, close to Delapré Abbey. Battle was joined early on 10 July 1460. Although it was expected to be a drawn-out affair—due to the near-impregnability of the royal position—it was shortened considerably when Lord Grey of Ruthin turned traitor to the King. Grey "welcomed the Yorkists over the barricades" on the Lancastrian wing and ordered his men to lay down arms, allowing the Yorkists access to the King's camp. Within half an hour, the battle was over. By 2:00 pm, Buckingham, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Lord Egremont and Viscount Beaumont, had all been killed by a force of Kentishmen. The Duke was buried shortly after at Grey Friars Abbey in Northampton.
Buckingham had named his wife Anne sole executrix of his will. She was instructed to provide 200 marks to any clergy who attended his funeral, the remainder being distributed as poor relief. She was also to organise the establishment of two chantries in his memory, and, says Barbara Harriss, he left "exceedingly elaborate" instructions for the augmentation of Pleshy college.[note 11]
Michael Hicks has noted that Buckingham was one of the few Lancastrian loyalists who was never accused by the Yorkists of being an "evil councillor", even though he was—in Hicks's words—"the substance and perhaps the steel within the ruling regime". Although Buckingham was not attainted when the Duke of York's son, the Earl of March, took the throne as King Edward IV in 1461, Buckingham's grandson Henry became a royal ward, which gave the King control of the Stafford estates during the young duke's minority. Henry Stafford entered into his estates in 1473 but was executed by Edward's brother Richard—by then King, and against whom Henry had rebelled—in November 1483.
Humphrey Stafford has been described as something of a hothead in his youth, and later in life he was a staunch anti-Lollard. Lustig suggests that it was probably in connection to this that Sir Thomas Malory attempted his assassination around 1450—if indeed he did, as the charge was never proved. Buckingham did not lack the traits traditionally expected of the nobility in this period of the time, particularly, in dispute resolution, that of resorting to violence as a first rather than last resort. For instance, in September 1429, following an altercation with his brother-in-law the Earl of Huntingdon, he arrived at parliament fully armed. On the other hand, he was also a literary patron: Lord Scrope presented him with a copy of Christine de Pizan's Epistle of Othea, demonstrating his position as a "powerful and potentially powerful patron", and its dedicatory verse to Buckingham is particularly laudatory. On Buckingham's estates—especially on the Welsh marches—he has been described as a "harsh and exacting landlord" in the lengths he went to in maximising his income. He was also competent in his land deals, and seems never—unlike some contemporaries—to have had to sell land to stay solvent.
B. J. Harris noted that, although he died a staunch Lancastrian, he never showed any personal dislike of York in the 1450s, and that his personal motivation throughout the decade was loyalty to the Crown and keeping the peace between his peers. Rawcliffe has suggested that although he was inevitably going to be involved in the high politics of the day, Buckingham "lacked the necessary qualities ever to become a great statesman or leader ... [he] was in many ways an unimaginative and unlikeable man". On the latter quality, Rawcliffe points to his reputation as a harsh taskmaster on his estates and his "offensive behaviour" towards Joan of Arc. Further, she says, his political judgement could be clouded by his attitude. His temper, she says, was "ungovernable".
Humphrey Stafford married Lady Anne Neville, daughter of Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland and Lady Joan Beaufort (Westmorland's second wife), at some point before 18 October 1424. Anne Neville was a literary patron in her own right, also receiving a dedication in a copy of Scrope's translated Othea. On her death in 1480, she left many books in her will.[note 12] Scholars generally agree that Buckingham and Anne had twelve children, consisting of seven sons and five daughters. Sources conflict over the precise details of the Staffords' progeny.[note 13] The antiquarian I. W. Dunham, writing in 1907, listed them as Humphrey, Henry, John, Anne (married Aubrey de Vere), Joana (married Viscount Beaumont before 1461), Elizabeth, Margaret (born about 1435, married Robert Dinham),[note 14] and Katherine (married John Talbot before 1467). [note 15] James Tait lists the daughters as Anne, Joanna, Elizabeth, Margaret and Catherine and suggests that Elizabeth and Margaret never married.[note 16] Rawcliffe gives the following as dates of birth and death for three of the daughters: Anne, 1446–1472; Joan, 1442–1484; and Katherine, 1437–1476. Edward and the twins, George and William, died young. The seventh son has gone unremarked in the sources.
The marriages Buckingham arranged for his children were structured around strengthening his ties to the Lancastrian royal family. Of particular importance were the marriages of two of his sons, Humphrey and Henry. They married into the Beaufort family, which was descended from the illegitimate children of John of Gaunt and thus of royal blood. There was also, about 1450, discussion regarding a proposal for one of Buckingham's daughters to marry the Dauphin of France (subsequently Louis XI).[note 17] Had it proceeded, it would have again linked the French Crown with the Lancastrian regime.
Buckingham's eldest son, Humphrey, married Margaret Beaufort. She was the daughter of Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and Eleanor Beauchamp. Margaret and Humphrey's son was Buckingham's eventual heir. A second link to the Beaufort family was between Buckingham's second son, Sir Henry Stafford (c. 1425–1471), who became the third husband of Lady Margaret Beaufort, daughter of John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and Margaret Beauchamp. Margaret Beaufort had previously been married to Edmund Tudor, the eldest half-brother of Henry VI, and had given birth to the future King Henry VII two months after Edmund's death. She and Henry were childless. Buckingham's third surviving son, John (died 8 May 1473) married Constance Green of Drayton, who had previously been the duke's ward. Humphrey Stafford assigned them the manor of Newton Blossomville at the time of their marriage. John was created Earl of Wiltshire in 1470.
Buckingham arranged good but costly marriages for three of his daughters. Anne married Aubrey de Vere, son of John de Vere, Earl of Oxford. Their 1452 marriage cost Buckingham 2,300 marks; he was slow to pay, and still owed Oxford over £440 seven years later. In 1452, Joan married William Beaumont, heir of Viscount Beaumont. Katherine married John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, six years later. Buckingham had apparently promised to give them £1,000 but died before acting on the promise.
Buckingham was depicted, during his son's lifetime, "mounted in battle array"—showing him during the 1436 campaign against Burgundy—in the pictorial genealogy, the Beauchamp Pageant.[note 18]
Timothy J. Lustig has suggested that Thomas Malory, in his Morte d'Arthur, based his character Gawaine on Buckingham. Lustig suggests that Malory may have viewed the Duke as being "peacemaker and warlord, warrior and judge"—qualities which the writer also ascribed to his Arthurian character. Buckingham appears in Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 2 (c. 1591), in which his character conspires in the downfall and disgrace of Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester.
The Earl of Stafford
| Lord High Constable
The Duke of Buckingham
The Lord Saye and Sele
| Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports
The Lord Rivers
|Peerage of England|
|New creation|| Duke of Buckingham
| Earl of Stafford| | 8,455 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What I pull from this lecture that lines up with class concepts is segregation of a minority of people. Whether it be segregation via gender roll (women in the early colonial era), or the maltreatment of an entire ethnic population (slavery of black and disrespect of Native Americans), discrimination towards peoples is a very constant subject in the study of early American history.
One of Dr. Kim Nielsen’s examples was Helen Keller, the famous physically handicapped woman who was labeled, by whom I remember to be anti-feminists, one of the “top 10 most dangerous women.” From Dr. Nielsen’s perspective, Keller did far more than stand up for women’s rights; she took a defensive stance in the name of all people who could qualify as “disabled.” This included anyone who could be segregated for any reason at all in a society, such as individuals who represented certain races, genders, and religions. It did not merely include people who were incapacitated due to some malicious physical feature.
It’s hard to believe that people would segregate someone for simply possessing a physical disability. Americans have even disrespected people who don’t look “like a normal person,” taking Charles Steinmetz as an example. He was, according to Dr. Nielsen, an internationally recognized “brain.” He is the man who created the alternating current model of the electrical circuit, which is the system we install in our homes to this very day. When he moved to the United States, people made fun of his appearance, labeling him as a “Jewish, poor-physique hunchback” when he clearly should have been given nothing less than the highest praise as a scientist.
I have to say I was somewhat disappointed in Dr. Nielsen’s presentation. I felt that, instead of learning about a history of disability in the United States, I was being persuaded to accept an opinion on our country’s saddening history of disability segregation. There are plenty of people who don’t feel segregated by society today due to their physical features. I’m diabetic and I have never felt, in any way, segregated due to my disability. Sure, people may have been jerks about this sort of deal in the past, but I highly doubt anyone still pursues this ideology today. | <urn:uuid:c7b1b4b2-e51b-4b4d-9a12-0809cb21906e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://earlyamericanhist.as.ua.edu/webliography/disability-and-the-american-story-taylor-charles/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.980767 | 485 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.14882971346... | 6 | What I pull from this lecture that lines up with class concepts is segregation of a minority of people. Whether it be segregation via gender roll (women in the early colonial era), or the maltreatment of an entire ethnic population (slavery of black and disrespect of Native Americans), discrimination towards peoples is a very constant subject in the study of early American history.
One of Dr. Kim Nielsen’s examples was Helen Keller, the famous physically handicapped woman who was labeled, by whom I remember to be anti-feminists, one of the “top 10 most dangerous women.” From Dr. Nielsen’s perspective, Keller did far more than stand up for women’s rights; she took a defensive stance in the name of all people who could qualify as “disabled.” This included anyone who could be segregated for any reason at all in a society, such as individuals who represented certain races, genders, and religions. It did not merely include people who were incapacitated due to some malicious physical feature.
It’s hard to believe that people would segregate someone for simply possessing a physical disability. Americans have even disrespected people who don’t look “like a normal person,” taking Charles Steinmetz as an example. He was, according to Dr. Nielsen, an internationally recognized “brain.” He is the man who created the alternating current model of the electrical circuit, which is the system we install in our homes to this very day. When he moved to the United States, people made fun of his appearance, labeling him as a “Jewish, poor-physique hunchback” when he clearly should have been given nothing less than the highest praise as a scientist.
I have to say I was somewhat disappointed in Dr. Nielsen’s presentation. I felt that, instead of learning about a history of disability in the United States, I was being persuaded to accept an opinion on our country’s saddening history of disability segregation. There are plenty of people who don’t feel segregated by society today due to their physical features. I’m diabetic and I have never felt, in any way, segregated due to my disability. Sure, people may have been jerks about this sort of deal in the past, but I highly doubt anyone still pursues this ideology today. | 453 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Themes in Death of a Salesman
Throughout the ages the principles of dreams have been checked out. Dreams have not necessarily consisted of the same substances but gradually altered according to the environment, beliefs, and social understandings. When America initially came from, the imagine religious beliefs was brought from Europe. Puritans were the very first landowning Americans to come and reside in The United States and Canada (Indians were the original owners). Puritans came to America to leave spiritual persecution; they dreamed to have spiritual, economic, and social liberties. During the colonial period individuals were known to be pure and no evil was ever seen, heard, or stated about.
It was a community of tranquil ways and spiritual aspects. Puritans began achieving these dreams however the exact same errors (killing innocent people) were being committed, this event was because of superstitious notion (Benet, 1937). Since superstition ended up being such a factor of their every day life, other people started to a brand-new a lifestyle. Thus, the Gothic era was born; all of the appeal that was consisted of in colonial age was removed with the darkness of truth. The goal of gothic was to unravel the fact and express how evil the world was. The important things was that gothic did not want to make everything crystal clear however mysterious.
Literature throughout this age was filled with allegories so that individuals might figure out the real significance of gothic. As soon as this concept was exaggerated and perplexing people started to reveal themselves without all of the obscurity. This new period was known as realism, its goal was to reveal the reality without all of the allegories. Realism also showed the idea of war and how the mankind was at the mercy of the environment. Individuals were no longer the lead character of life however the environment was. People yearned to live and did all they might simply to make it through.
Male were typically inhabited in the cutting edge fighting for their nation while ladies operated at home. Ladies became more liberal and challenged the old puritan ways. They no longer served their husbands however checked out a brand-new world of enjoyment; this new age ended up being called modernism. The community believed in having a good time all day and all night; insofar as people needed more cash to obtain all of the wanted riches. Individuals started to build up a brand-new dream that consisted of ideas such as wealth, power, and social status. This dream was not for all American residents but just the middle and upper class white (male) American.
As time went beyond the dream started to transform into an around the world dream that could be accomplished by all Americans no matter color and gender. This brand-new category was called Post-Modernism which still continues today in America. The dream occupied the basis of family (as the guide secret), wealth, marriage, and education. Post-modernism likewise thinks that one should take a look at the past in order to save the future. This is the same situation that happens in Miller’s Death of a Salesman (1949 ). In this play we see Willy constantly attempting to relive the past because those were the days when he was popular and in charge.
He ambitiously wants his child, Bif to follow in his steps and prosper worldwide of business. Bif does not wish to full fill Willy’s lost dream and consistently triggers discomfort in Willy’s heart. Bif feels that there is no need to live a life like his fathers. He sees the suffering that his daddy suffers now that he is old and ineffective; and notices that no one even remembers his hard effort. The American dream is continuously striven for but when it does not benefit the family then what is it helpful for? It post-modernism we see that the dream is not limited among certain groups however it is universally checked out.
The dream is based upon variables such as race, gender, social class, economics, and political interests. The dream was dramatically altered and it opened its doors to a public of various races and genders. Females were now able to prosper and become part of a male’s world. Women like Beneatha (who takes place to be both from a various culture and gender) began to set her own dream by studying in a University and ending up being more liberal (Hansberry, 1959). In Raisin in the Sun an abundant African American was likewise presented, George Murchison who inhabited all of the variables of this redefined dream (Hansberry, 1959).
Murchison was studying in a University and working towards an improving occupation. He had class and an excellent education. This story was a best illustration on the uplifts of the African American attempting to approach the brand-new redefined dream. Economically people began to leave the anxiety and started to work in order to endure. Society did not spend their money the method they did back in the 1920’s however started saving in fear that another anxiety would come. Lots of people were interested in political issues due to the fact that they too feared an economic down fall.
People altered their lifestyle’s along with the American Dream. Post-modernism likewise supplied a different life style that was illustrated in lots of literature plays. Many authors communicate the truth of how the past tends to haunt the present. In the post-modernism we see how the moms and dads seem to loose their minds in the past due to the fact that they feel that they weren’t able to achieve something when they were young. This affects the kids, insofar as the moms and dads are often trying to require the kids to complete their dreams; thus they believe that is the only method for them to be delighted and secure.
In Death of a Salesman (1949) Willy Loman is seen fighting with the past and today. Willy no longer wants to accept what is taking place in the present so he pictures the happy stories that took place in the past (Miller, 1949). Willy restates the past and sees how he believed he was going to have wealth and power. Willy’s dream is to succed worldwide of business and to able to make great deals of cash. Willy is seen battling more for the imagine wealth after he sees his sibling Ben attain that dream in Africa (Miller, 1949). Willy is rather jealous due to the fact that he could have been abundant too but he remained in America.
Willy did not quite make as much amount of money as he yearned and thinks that popularity is one factor a salesman should have. Willy’s motto was that personality and presentation was all one needed to attain in life (Miller, 1949). He desires his kid, Bif, (who occurs to be popular) to pickup the pieces and continue with his dream (Miller, 1949). Bif causes him pain due to the fact that he does not want to accomplish his fathers lost dream. Willy ends up being crazy and can not inform the difference in between reality and idealism. Willy suffers more pain since he lives in the past and does not think of the future (Miller, 1949).
He does not desire accept the fact that he is getting old and that he can not keep up with the future. Willy was beginning to lose his touch and he might not face it, therefore he thought death was a door out of hell. Death seems to be the only service but besides an actual death a spiritual death occurs at the funeral. Willy devotes suicide, because he believes that the insurance coverage money will make the household content (Miller, 1949). Willy has another reason to commit suicide, he thinks that a lot of people will appear to his funeral service and this will prove to Bif that he was popular.
Sadly, nobody appears to his funeral, just family and his neighbors (Miller, 1949). Delighted Loman, Willy’s child never got acknowledgment for his hard effort however was just Bif’s shadow; suffered a spiritual death (Miller, 1949). Bif was the boy who was freed from Willy’s lost dream. Bif stated that “his dad was an excellent male but had the wrong dreams … he didn’t know he was” (Miller, 1949). Pleased who just lost his spirit, safeguards his father saying “don’t state that [Bif] (Miller, 1949). Delighted then states that “He had a great dream … I’m going to win it for him” (Miller, 1949).
Happy just sets himself into a state of anguish and forgets his identity. Ben chooses to follow his own dream now that he is freed and understands who he is. The generation is duplicating itself Happy ends up being Willy and Bif ends up being Ben. Through Death of a Salesman (1949) one had the ability to illustrate the struggles that a household tends to comprehend on when they grasp on to the past as well. The representation of the frailty of the human spirit is visibly seen through the Loman household. Willy was extremely vulnerable due to the fact that he was frequently harmed by Bif’s repulsive mindset on the dream.
Willy wasn’t able to live his life because the past was disturbing him and he could not deal with the truth that he missed a chance to prosper (Miller, 1949). Willy was pushing Bif to finish the dream due to the fact that he wanted to be a happy daddy and to be able to flaunt his boy. Willy wished to be popular through Bif but Bif didn’t want to become part of the dream. It is ironic that Bif had the ability to live after Willy passed away; most of the time the entire household suffers a state of desolation. Bif had the ability to endure his father death due to the fact that he had the ability to reveal himself freely.
He was no longer pressed to do things for others. He wasn’t forced to do what they desire at the expense of his spirit. He was uplifted and eliminated at the funeral service that now the family might live at peace which mother wouldn’t have to suffer his lying and rude ways. Another paradoxical thing was the fact that Willy passed away since he wanted Linda to use the insurance coverage money to pay for the rest of the home (Miller, 1949). The thing was that Linda had actually just paid the last payment and the house was currently theirs. Willy’s death was actually for absolutely nothing since nobody came and your home was already paid. | <urn:uuid:b6d823f9-fdc2-4841-bbc1-524c97f28566> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://whisperseer.com/themes-in-death-of-a-salesman | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00343.warc.gz | en | 0.985646 | 2,182 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.08918631076812... | 1 | Themes in Death of a Salesman
Throughout the ages the principles of dreams have been checked out. Dreams have not necessarily consisted of the same substances but gradually altered according to the environment, beliefs, and social understandings. When America initially came from, the imagine religious beliefs was brought from Europe. Puritans were the very first landowning Americans to come and reside in The United States and Canada (Indians were the original owners). Puritans came to America to leave spiritual persecution; they dreamed to have spiritual, economic, and social liberties. During the colonial period individuals were known to be pure and no evil was ever seen, heard, or stated about.
It was a community of tranquil ways and spiritual aspects. Puritans began achieving these dreams however the exact same errors (killing innocent people) were being committed, this event was because of superstitious notion (Benet, 1937). Since superstition ended up being such a factor of their every day life, other people started to a brand-new a lifestyle. Thus, the Gothic era was born; all of the appeal that was consisted of in colonial age was removed with the darkness of truth. The goal of gothic was to unravel the fact and express how evil the world was. The important things was that gothic did not want to make everything crystal clear however mysterious.
Literature throughout this age was filled with allegories so that individuals might figure out the real significance of gothic. As soon as this concept was exaggerated and perplexing people started to reveal themselves without all of the obscurity. This new period was known as realism, its goal was to reveal the reality without all of the allegories. Realism also showed the idea of war and how the mankind was at the mercy of the environment. Individuals were no longer the lead character of life however the environment was. People yearned to live and did all they might simply to make it through.
Male were typically inhabited in the cutting edge fighting for their nation while ladies operated at home. Ladies became more liberal and challenged the old puritan ways. They no longer served their husbands however checked out a brand-new world of enjoyment; this new age ended up being called modernism. The community believed in having a good time all day and all night; insofar as people needed more cash to obtain all of the wanted riches. Individuals started to build up a brand-new dream that consisted of ideas such as wealth, power, and social status. This dream was not for all American residents but just the middle and upper class white (male) American.
As time went beyond the dream started to transform into an around the world dream that could be accomplished by all Americans no matter color and gender. This brand-new category was called Post-Modernism which still continues today in America. The dream occupied the basis of family (as the guide secret), wealth, marriage, and education. Post-modernism likewise thinks that one should take a look at the past in order to save the future. This is the same situation that happens in Miller’s Death of a Salesman (1949 ). In this play we see Willy constantly attempting to relive the past because those were the days when he was popular and in charge.
He ambitiously wants his child, Bif to follow in his steps and prosper worldwide of business. Bif does not wish to full fill Willy’s lost dream and consistently triggers discomfort in Willy’s heart. Bif feels that there is no need to live a life like his fathers. He sees the suffering that his daddy suffers now that he is old and ineffective; and notices that no one even remembers his hard effort. The American dream is continuously striven for but when it does not benefit the family then what is it helpful for? It post-modernism we see that the dream is not limited among certain groups however it is universally checked out.
The dream is based upon variables such as race, gender, social class, economics, and political interests. The dream was dramatically altered and it opened its doors to a public of various races and genders. Females were now able to prosper and become part of a male’s world. Women like Beneatha (who takes place to be both from a various culture and gender) began to set her own dream by studying in a University and ending up being more liberal (Hansberry, 1959). In Raisin in the Sun an abundant African American was likewise presented, George Murchison who inhabited all of the variables of this redefined dream (Hansberry, 1959).
Murchison was studying in a University and working towards an improving occupation. He had class and an excellent education. This story was a best illustration on the uplifts of the African American attempting to approach the brand-new redefined dream. Economically people began to leave the anxiety and started to work in order to endure. Society did not spend their money the method they did back in the 1920’s however started saving in fear that another anxiety would come. Lots of people were interested in political issues due to the fact that they too feared an economic down fall.
People altered their lifestyle’s along with the American Dream. Post-modernism likewise supplied a different life style that was illustrated in lots of literature plays. Many authors communicate the truth of how the past tends to haunt the present. In the post-modernism we see how the moms and dads seem to loose their minds in the past due to the fact that they feel that they weren’t able to achieve something when they were young. This affects the kids, insofar as the moms and dads are often trying to require the kids to complete their dreams; thus they believe that is the only method for them to be delighted and secure.
In Death of a Salesman (1949) Willy Loman is seen fighting with the past and today. Willy no longer wants to accept what is taking place in the present so he pictures the happy stories that took place in the past (Miller, 1949). Willy restates the past and sees how he believed he was going to have wealth and power. Willy’s dream is to succed worldwide of business and to able to make great deals of cash. Willy is seen battling more for the imagine wealth after he sees his sibling Ben attain that dream in Africa (Miller, 1949). Willy is rather jealous due to the fact that he could have been abundant too but he remained in America.
Willy did not quite make as much amount of money as he yearned and thinks that popularity is one factor a salesman should have. Willy’s motto was that personality and presentation was all one needed to attain in life (Miller, 1949). He desires his kid, Bif, (who occurs to be popular) to pickup the pieces and continue with his dream (Miller, 1949). Bif causes him pain due to the fact that he does not want to accomplish his fathers lost dream. Willy ends up being crazy and can not inform the difference in between reality and idealism. Willy suffers more pain since he lives in the past and does not think of the future (Miller, 1949).
He does not desire accept the fact that he is getting old and that he can not keep up with the future. Willy was beginning to lose his touch and he might not face it, therefore he thought death was a door out of hell. Death seems to be the only service but besides an actual death a spiritual death occurs at the funeral. Willy devotes suicide, because he believes that the insurance coverage money will make the household content (Miller, 1949). Willy has another reason to commit suicide, he thinks that a lot of people will appear to his funeral service and this will prove to Bif that he was popular.
Sadly, nobody appears to his funeral, just family and his neighbors (Miller, 1949). Delighted Loman, Willy’s child never got acknowledgment for his hard effort however was just Bif’s shadow; suffered a spiritual death (Miller, 1949). Bif was the boy who was freed from Willy’s lost dream. Bif stated that “his dad was an excellent male but had the wrong dreams … he didn’t know he was” (Miller, 1949). Pleased who just lost his spirit, safeguards his father saying “don’t state that [Bif] (Miller, 1949). Delighted then states that “He had a great dream … I’m going to win it for him” (Miller, 1949).
Happy just sets himself into a state of anguish and forgets his identity. Ben chooses to follow his own dream now that he is freed and understands who he is. The generation is duplicating itself Happy ends up being Willy and Bif ends up being Ben. Through Death of a Salesman (1949) one had the ability to illustrate the struggles that a household tends to comprehend on when they grasp on to the past as well. The representation of the frailty of the human spirit is visibly seen through the Loman household. Willy was extremely vulnerable due to the fact that he was frequently harmed by Bif’s repulsive mindset on the dream.
Willy wasn’t able to live his life because the past was disturbing him and he could not deal with the truth that he missed a chance to prosper (Miller, 1949). Willy was pushing Bif to finish the dream due to the fact that he wanted to be a happy daddy and to be able to flaunt his boy. Willy wished to be popular through Bif but Bif didn’t want to become part of the dream. It is ironic that Bif had the ability to live after Willy passed away; most of the time the entire household suffers a state of desolation. Bif had the ability to endure his father death due to the fact that he had the ability to reveal himself freely.
He was no longer pressed to do things for others. He wasn’t forced to do what they desire at the expense of his spirit. He was uplifted and eliminated at the funeral service that now the family might live at peace which mother wouldn’t have to suffer his lying and rude ways. Another paradoxical thing was the fact that Willy passed away since he wanted Linda to use the insurance coverage money to pay for the rest of the home (Miller, 1949). The thing was that Linda had actually just paid the last payment and the house was currently theirs. Willy’s death was actually for absolutely nothing since nobody came and your home was already paid. | 2,192 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What to Read After... Judy Blume 20/01/20
Counting on Katherine: How Katherine Johnson put Astronauts on the Moon
Publisher: Macmillan Children’s Books
The young Katherine Johnson yearned to know as much as she could about numbers and the universe. At school she was a star student, skipping three grades because she was so bright. Yet the high school in Katherine’s town didn’t admit black students at the time, so her father worked extra hard to move the family to a town that did have a black high school.
Katherine did very well at high school and dreamed of being a research mathematician, but there weren’t any jobs for women in that area, so she became a school teacher. But, in the 1950s, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) started hiring women as mathematicians. Katherine was so good at her job that she was promoted again and again until she was selected to calculate the flight paths for Project Apollo, the first flights to the moon. Famously, when the Apollo 13 mission went awry, it was Katherine who had to re-calculate the astronauts’ path home, which she did successfully.
This inspiring picture book for 6 to 8 year olds will inspire them to dream big and work hard to acieve those dreams, whether they’re young mathematicians or not. Books like this also make maths fascinating, which can only be a good thing – and make us realise how essential numbers are in a variety of careers. Last, it’s Johnson’s sheer gumption and brains that are most inspiring of all. | <urn:uuid:fafee879-a9a1-4600-bf1f-de6e8c74a3d7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.booktrust.org.uk/book/c/counting-on-katherine-how-katherine-johnson-put-astronauts-on-the-moon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00521.warc.gz | en | 0.981287 | 341 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.4320412278... | 1 | What to Read After... Judy Blume 20/01/20
Counting on Katherine: How Katherine Johnson put Astronauts on the Moon
Publisher: Macmillan Children’s Books
The young Katherine Johnson yearned to know as much as she could about numbers and the universe. At school she was a star student, skipping three grades because she was so bright. Yet the high school in Katherine’s town didn’t admit black students at the time, so her father worked extra hard to move the family to a town that did have a black high school.
Katherine did very well at high school and dreamed of being a research mathematician, but there weren’t any jobs for women in that area, so she became a school teacher. But, in the 1950s, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) started hiring women as mathematicians. Katherine was so good at her job that she was promoted again and again until she was selected to calculate the flight paths for Project Apollo, the first flights to the moon. Famously, when the Apollo 13 mission went awry, it was Katherine who had to re-calculate the astronauts’ path home, which she did successfully.
This inspiring picture book for 6 to 8 year olds will inspire them to dream big and work hard to acieve those dreams, whether they’re young mathematicians or not. Books like this also make maths fascinating, which can only be a good thing – and make us realise how essential numbers are in a variety of careers. Last, it’s Johnson’s sheer gumption and brains that are most inspiring of all. | 336 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Beethoven was born in Bonn Germany on December 17, 1770.He became a professional musician at the age of eleven. His father hoped that Beethoven's musical ability would earn him a fortune, just as Mozart's ability had for his father. However, Beethoven was very independent and he broke away from his alchoholic father at a young age.
In 1792 Beethoven moved to Vienna, Austria where he studied with Haydn and Mozart. Beethoven wasfirst recognized there for his emotional piano playing, but people soon learned that he was an excellent composer as well. Because of his great talent, Beethoven was supported by many private patrons. He is said to be thefirst important composer to make a living without receiving money from the court or the church.
Beethoven's music received special recognition, because it was both technically excellent and emotionally charged. Beethoven combined strong, loud notes with gentle, quiet notes to create the sense of changing emotions in his symphonic works. A very good example of this style is the widely celebrated ninth symphony. The intense feelings expressed in this and other works by Beethoven give his music a universal appeal.
Beethoven's status as one of the world's greatest composers is especially remarkable, because he wrote many of his symphonies after he became deaf. By the 1820s, he was completely deaf and could only communicate with people through hand-written phrases and sentences. However, the music he composed at this time is considered to be his best work.
During the last part of his life, Beethoven suffered from many emotional problems. The death of his younger brother Caspar Carl in 1815 was especially difficult for him. Beethoven took custody of his brother's son Karl. However, his desperate efforts to make Karl a great musician drove the young man to attempt suicide in 1826. Beethoven's health began to fail shortly after, and he died on March 26, | <urn:uuid:87db4d6a-02f3-4c6a-8d5d-1e0ab488020d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/essential-beethoven/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.994854 | 409 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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-0.12668919563293457,... | 1 | Beethoven was born in Bonn Germany on December 17, 1770.He became a professional musician at the age of eleven. His father hoped that Beethoven's musical ability would earn him a fortune, just as Mozart's ability had for his father. However, Beethoven was very independent and he broke away from his alchoholic father at a young age.
In 1792 Beethoven moved to Vienna, Austria where he studied with Haydn and Mozart. Beethoven wasfirst recognized there for his emotional piano playing, but people soon learned that he was an excellent composer as well. Because of his great talent, Beethoven was supported by many private patrons. He is said to be thefirst important composer to make a living without receiving money from the court or the church.
Beethoven's music received special recognition, because it was both technically excellent and emotionally charged. Beethoven combined strong, loud notes with gentle, quiet notes to create the sense of changing emotions in his symphonic works. A very good example of this style is the widely celebrated ninth symphony. The intense feelings expressed in this and other works by Beethoven give his music a universal appeal.
Beethoven's status as one of the world's greatest composers is especially remarkable, because he wrote many of his symphonies after he became deaf. By the 1820s, he was completely deaf and could only communicate with people through hand-written phrases and sentences. However, the music he composed at this time is considered to be his best work.
During the last part of his life, Beethoven suffered from many emotional problems. The death of his younger brother Caspar Carl in 1815 was especially difficult for him. Beethoven took custody of his brother's son Karl. However, his desperate efforts to make Karl a great musician drove the young man to attempt suicide in 1826. Beethoven's health began to fail shortly after, and he died on March 26, | 406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
English has some restrictions on word order and has rules about the order and position adverbs occur in. (The ordering is based on the meaning of the adverbs.)
Moving words out of the expected order, termed anastrophe, can give information about the intended meaning, but unfortunately this was not done.
The sentence could have been written as
Today he found the bicycle that he had lost yesterday.
If so it would mean that finding occurred today and that losing occurred yesterday. (Note it would not have the same meaning as the original sentence in this case!)
This change clarifies the meaning of yesterday because it forces us to think of yesterday as part of the bound relative clause.
However we cannot know for certain what the writer means because they didn’t include that information.
In summary yesterday could be either inside or outside of the relative clause that he had lost.
If inside then yesterday helps describe the bicycle. Outside it describes the act of finding the bicycle. | <urn:uuid:5d2aceab-ddc0-4d6a-9ada-4c20efd2719b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/231482/he-found-the-bicycle-that-he-had-lost-yesterday-past-perfect-with-yesterday | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.983608 | 200 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.32903692... | 3 | English has some restrictions on word order and has rules about the order and position adverbs occur in. (The ordering is based on the meaning of the adverbs.)
Moving words out of the expected order, termed anastrophe, can give information about the intended meaning, but unfortunately this was not done.
The sentence could have been written as
Today he found the bicycle that he had lost yesterday.
If so it would mean that finding occurred today and that losing occurred yesterday. (Note it would not have the same meaning as the original sentence in this case!)
This change clarifies the meaning of yesterday because it forces us to think of yesterday as part of the bound relative clause.
However we cannot know for certain what the writer means because they didn’t include that information.
In summary yesterday could be either inside or outside of the relative clause that he had lost.
If inside then yesterday helps describe the bicycle. Outside it describes the act of finding the bicycle. | 191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1777, Deane's reputation came under suspicion when his colleague Arthur Lee accused him of misusing government money. Despite these accusations, Deane served alongside Franklin and Lee as an American representative at a 1778 ceremony with French King Louis XVI, celebrating the successfully forged French-American alliance. Several months later, Deane returned to the United States, where he had to answer to the accusations about his finances. Though he tried to defend himself, he faced considerable hostility from Lee and his supporters, including famous patriot Thomas Paine, who denounced Deane as unpatriotic.
Meanwhile, Deane was struggling financially because he had been counting on Congress to reimburse him for work expenses while in France. Although Congress ordered an auditor to assess what was owed Deane, the audit progressed extremely slowly. Deane traveled back to France, and then to Belgium and London, where he received a visit from an old friend, Benedict Arnold. By this point, Arnold had already been exposed as a traitor. Deane's meeting with him further alienated him from Americans, even his former supporters. As his financial position and reputation declined, so did his health. In 1789, he set sail back to the United States but died only four hours after leaving the shore.
In 1841, the audit was finally complete, and Congress granted $37,000 to Deane's descendants. | <urn:uuid:7233388f-408c-42e6-bda9-2556bd04d9d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/32149 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.989966 | 277 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.09798860549... | 1 | In 1777, Deane's reputation came under suspicion when his colleague Arthur Lee accused him of misusing government money. Despite these accusations, Deane served alongside Franklin and Lee as an American representative at a 1778 ceremony with French King Louis XVI, celebrating the successfully forged French-American alliance. Several months later, Deane returned to the United States, where he had to answer to the accusations about his finances. Though he tried to defend himself, he faced considerable hostility from Lee and his supporters, including famous patriot Thomas Paine, who denounced Deane as unpatriotic.
Meanwhile, Deane was struggling financially because he had been counting on Congress to reimburse him for work expenses while in France. Although Congress ordered an auditor to assess what was owed Deane, the audit progressed extremely slowly. Deane traveled back to France, and then to Belgium and London, where he received a visit from an old friend, Benedict Arnold. By this point, Arnold had already been exposed as a traitor. Deane's meeting with him further alienated him from Americans, even his former supporters. As his financial position and reputation declined, so did his health. In 1789, he set sail back to the United States but died only four hours after leaving the shore.
In 1841, the audit was finally complete, and Congress granted $37,000 to Deane's descendants. | 290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The subjects of the new study, published last week in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, were zebra finches. They’re good for this because they breed well in a lab environment, and “they’re just really great singers. They sing all the time,” said McGill University biologist and co-author Jon Sakata.
The males, he means — they’re the singers, and they do it for fun and when courting ladies, as well as around baby birds. Never mind that their melody is more “tinny,” according to Sakata, than pretty.
Birds in general are helpful for vocal acquisition studies because they, like humans, are among the few species that actually have to learn how to make their sounds, Sakata said. Cats, for example, are born knowing how to meow. But just as people pick up speech and bats learn their calls, birds also have to figure out how to sing their special songs.
Sakata and his colleagues were interested in how social interactions between adult zebra finches and chicks influences that learning process. Is face-to-face — or, as it may be, beak-to-beak — learning better? Does simply hearing an adult sing work as well as watching it do so? Do daydreaming baby birds learn as well as their more focused peers?
To test this, the researchers placed some male chicks of around 40 days old with adult male “tutors;” these chicks were called “socially-tutored.” Other male chicks were placed alone, with only a speaker that piped in the song of the adults working with the other chicks, and they were deemed “passively tutored.” All the baby birds had previously been raised by females and so were “essentially naive” about song, Sakata said.
Whether they got one day or five days of exposure to the song, the chicks interacting with adults learned it better than those that heard it through a speaker. That suggests that social interaction is key, Sakata said. Hear for yourself:
Listen here to an adult followed by a socially tutored young bird.
Listen here to an adult followed by a passively tutored young bird.
The researchers also found that the more juveniles paid attention to their tutors — by staying awake, being quiet and not goofing off by, say, eating or flying around — the better they learned the song. The birds who only listened to the song through a speaker, on the other hand, didn’t seem to be paying it much attention.
“That kind of makes sense,” Sakata said. “Kids that pay attention to the teacher when the teacher is saying something important tend to learn better. That wasn’t particularly surprising, but it was a really robust finding.”
And now for the good part. When the adult birds were actually directing their song at their pupils, as opposed to just singing for fun, they spaced out their phrases, repeated more of their introductory notes and “cleaned up their syllables,” Sakata said — and the juveniles paid more attention. Basically, they did birdy baby talk, and it’s the first time it’s been documented.
Listen here to an an adult just singing normally.
Listen here to an adult singing directly to a young bird.
“We liken that a little bit to how people slow down their speech when talking to infants,” Sakata said. “It’s kind of cute that other animals do something similar.”
Sakata said it could be evidence of intentional teaching, though more research is needed to conclude that. For example, he said, it would be helpful to test whether adults sing differently to more advanced and less advanced students.
The study also revealed something that might have implications for people with social and communicative disorders such as autism. The researchers saw that some neurons in two areas of the brain associated with attention were more active in baby birds that were interacting with a singing adult than those that only heard the song. That could be a hint that dysfunctions in those neurons in humans might contribute to such disorders, Sakata said, and that targeting those neurons with treatment might help. He’s now testing that idea in baby birds. | <urn:uuid:88a82db2-c8c9-4348-a8c7-b80b48bf5151> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/animalia/wp/2016/06/06/the-adorable-way-some-birds-teach-chicks-to-sing-baby-talk/?utm_term=.19f008ca54cb | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.983293 | 908 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.06007299572... | 3 | The subjects of the new study, published last week in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, were zebra finches. They’re good for this because they breed well in a lab environment, and “they’re just really great singers. They sing all the time,” said McGill University biologist and co-author Jon Sakata.
The males, he means — they’re the singers, and they do it for fun and when courting ladies, as well as around baby birds. Never mind that their melody is more “tinny,” according to Sakata, than pretty.
Birds in general are helpful for vocal acquisition studies because they, like humans, are among the few species that actually have to learn how to make their sounds, Sakata said. Cats, for example, are born knowing how to meow. But just as people pick up speech and bats learn their calls, birds also have to figure out how to sing their special songs.
Sakata and his colleagues were interested in how social interactions between adult zebra finches and chicks influences that learning process. Is face-to-face — or, as it may be, beak-to-beak — learning better? Does simply hearing an adult sing work as well as watching it do so? Do daydreaming baby birds learn as well as their more focused peers?
To test this, the researchers placed some male chicks of around 40 days old with adult male “tutors;” these chicks were called “socially-tutored.” Other male chicks were placed alone, with only a speaker that piped in the song of the adults working with the other chicks, and they were deemed “passively tutored.” All the baby birds had previously been raised by females and so were “essentially naive” about song, Sakata said.
Whether they got one day or five days of exposure to the song, the chicks interacting with adults learned it better than those that heard it through a speaker. That suggests that social interaction is key, Sakata said. Hear for yourself:
Listen here to an adult followed by a socially tutored young bird.
Listen here to an adult followed by a passively tutored young bird.
The researchers also found that the more juveniles paid attention to their tutors — by staying awake, being quiet and not goofing off by, say, eating or flying around — the better they learned the song. The birds who only listened to the song through a speaker, on the other hand, didn’t seem to be paying it much attention.
“That kind of makes sense,” Sakata said. “Kids that pay attention to the teacher when the teacher is saying something important tend to learn better. That wasn’t particularly surprising, but it was a really robust finding.”
And now for the good part. When the adult birds were actually directing their song at their pupils, as opposed to just singing for fun, they spaced out their phrases, repeated more of their introductory notes and “cleaned up their syllables,” Sakata said — and the juveniles paid more attention. Basically, they did birdy baby talk, and it’s the first time it’s been documented.
Listen here to an an adult just singing normally.
Listen here to an adult singing directly to a young bird.
“We liken that a little bit to how people slow down their speech when talking to infants,” Sakata said. “It’s kind of cute that other animals do something similar.”
Sakata said it could be evidence of intentional teaching, though more research is needed to conclude that. For example, he said, it would be helpful to test whether adults sing differently to more advanced and less advanced students.
The study also revealed something that might have implications for people with social and communicative disorders such as autism. The researchers saw that some neurons in two areas of the brain associated with attention were more active in baby birds that were interacting with a singing adult than those that only heard the song. That could be a hint that dysfunctions in those neurons in humans might contribute to such disorders, Sakata said, and that targeting those neurons with treatment might help. He’s now testing that idea in baby birds. | 836 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The year was 1845. The abolitionists (people who were anti-slavery) wanted a place to gather to conduct their meetings without fear of violence towards them. This was during the time where acts of violence were plaguing places like Fallowfield Meetinghouse and Lancaster County where pro-slavery mobs were attacking anti-slavery meetings. The Pennsylvania Hall in Philadelphia was burnt to the ground by one of these pro-slavery groups.
A woman by the name of Margaret Coates sold the land to Nathaniel Walton, Mary Coates, and Lukens Pierce, among many others, for 50 cents. This was documented in a deed that was signed May 13, 1845.
Lukens Pierce was related to Gideon Pierce who was the original owner of the Triple Fresh building. Margaret and Mary were related to the Coates family, the namesake of Coatesville, Pennsylvania. Nathaniel Walton was a member of the Walton family. The Walton family is among the handful of families that were heavily involved in the Underground Railroad in the East Fallowfield area.
The building was completed in 1847 and was ready to serve the community and the people of Ercildoun. In its beginning years, it was referred to as Free Hall.
Even though the meeting place was founded by Quakers, you didn’t have to be a Quaker to join in on the discussion. According to the signed deed, the People’s Hall guided their membership through this practice: “…A free hall, to discuss any and every subject of interest in Religion, Morals, Physics, Politics, or any subject of interest to the family of man irrespective of clime, class, sex, sect, or party.”
Practicing what they preached, no slave owning Quakers could join unless they freed their slaves. Those who failed to comply were disowned by the Quakers and unable to join People's Hall.
Sources used: Ercildoun: A Quaker Village in Chester County, PA by Janet Polk Morris , Deed for People's Hall written by Margaret Coates. | <urn:uuid:312de6ea-ec40-4370-8913-cf8b80e4e438> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://triplefreshmc.blogspot.com/2018/01/the-peoples-hall-entry-2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.984878 | 431 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.323419600... | 2 | The year was 1845. The abolitionists (people who were anti-slavery) wanted a place to gather to conduct their meetings without fear of violence towards them. This was during the time where acts of violence were plaguing places like Fallowfield Meetinghouse and Lancaster County where pro-slavery mobs were attacking anti-slavery meetings. The Pennsylvania Hall in Philadelphia was burnt to the ground by one of these pro-slavery groups.
A woman by the name of Margaret Coates sold the land to Nathaniel Walton, Mary Coates, and Lukens Pierce, among many others, for 50 cents. This was documented in a deed that was signed May 13, 1845.
Lukens Pierce was related to Gideon Pierce who was the original owner of the Triple Fresh building. Margaret and Mary were related to the Coates family, the namesake of Coatesville, Pennsylvania. Nathaniel Walton was a member of the Walton family. The Walton family is among the handful of families that were heavily involved in the Underground Railroad in the East Fallowfield area.
The building was completed in 1847 and was ready to serve the community and the people of Ercildoun. In its beginning years, it was referred to as Free Hall.
Even though the meeting place was founded by Quakers, you didn’t have to be a Quaker to join in on the discussion. According to the signed deed, the People’s Hall guided their membership through this practice: “…A free hall, to discuss any and every subject of interest in Religion, Morals, Physics, Politics, or any subject of interest to the family of man irrespective of clime, class, sex, sect, or party.”
Practicing what they preached, no slave owning Quakers could join unless they freed their slaves. Those who failed to comply were disowned by the Quakers and unable to join People's Hall.
Sources used: Ercildoun: A Quaker Village in Chester County, PA by Janet Polk Morris , Deed for People's Hall written by Margaret Coates. | 428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Suppression of English Monasteries under Henry VIII
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From any point of view the destruction of the English monasteries by Henry VIII must be regarded as one of the great events of the sixteenth century. They were looked upon in England, at the time of Henry's breach with Rome, as one of the great bulwarks of the papal system. The monks had been called "the great standing army of Rome." One of the first practical results of the assumption of the highest spiritual powers by the king was the supervision by royal decree of the ordinary episcopal visitations, and the appointment of a layman -- Thomas Cromwell -- as the king's vicar-general in spirituals, with special authority to visit the monastic houses, and to bring them into line with the new order of things. This was in 1534; and, some time prior to the December of that year, arrangements were already being made for a systematic visitation. A document, dated 21 January, 1535, allows Cromwell to conduct the visit through "commissaries" -- rather than personally -- as the minister is said to be at that time too busy with "the affairs of the whole kingdom." It is now practically admitted that, even prior to the issue of these commissions of visitation, the project of suppressing some, if indeed not all, of the monastic establishments in the country, had not only been broached, but had become part of Henry's practical politics. It is well to remember this, as it throws an interesting and somewhat unexpected light upon the first dissolutions: the monasteries were doomed prior to these visitations, and not in consequence of them, as we have been asked to believe according to the traditional story. Parliament was to meey early in the following year, 1536, and, with the twofold object of replenishing an exhausted exchequer and of anticipating opposition on the part of the religious to the proposed ecclesiastical changes, according to the royal design, the Commons were to be asked to grant Henry the possessions of at least the smaller monasteries. It must have been felt, however, by the astute Cromwell, who is credited with the first conception of the design, that to succeed, a project such as this must be sustained by strong yet simple reasons calculated to appeal to the popular mind. Some decent pretext had to be found for presenting the proposed measure of suppression and confiscation to the nation, and it can hardly now be doubted that the device of blackening the characters of the monks and nuns was deliberately resorted to.
The visitation opened apparently in the summer of 1535, although the visitatorial powers of the bishops were not suspended until the eighteenth of the following September. Preachers were moreover commissioned to go over the country in the early autumn, in order, by their invectives, to educate public opinion against the monks. These pulpit orators were of three sorts:
- "railers", who declaimed against the religious as " hypocrites, sorcerers, and idle drones, etc.";
- "preachers", who said the monks "made the land unprofitable"; and
- those who told the people that, "if the abbeys went down, the king would never want any taxes again."
This last was a favourite argument of Cranmer, in his sermons at St. Paul's Cross. The men employed by Cromwell -- the agents entrusted with the task of getting up the required evidence -- were chiefly four, Layton, Leigh, Aprice, and London. They were well-fitted for their work; and the charges brought against the good name of some at least of the monasteries, by these chosen emissaries of Cromwell are, it must be confessed, sufficiently dreadful, although even their reports certainly do not bear out the modern notion of wholesale corruption.
The visitation seems to have been conducted systematically, and to have passed through three clearly defined stages. During the summer the houses in the West of England were subjected to examination ; and this portion of the work came to an end in September, when Layton and Leigh arrived at Oxford and Cambridge respectively. In October and November the visitors changed the field of their labours to the eastern and southeastern districts; and in December we find Layton advancing through the midland counties to Lichfield, where he met Leigh, who had finished his work in the religious houses of Huntingdon and Lincolnshire. Thence they proceeded together to the north, and the city of York was reached on 11 January, 1536. But with all their haste, to which they were urged by Cromwell, they had not proceeded very far in the work of their northern inspection before the meeting of Parliament.
From time to time, whilst on their work of inspection, the visitors, and principally London and Leigh, sent brief reports to their employers. Practically all the accusations made against the good name of the monks and nuns are contained in the letters sent in this way by the visitors, and in the document, or documents, known as the "Comperta Monastica", which were drawn up at the time by the same visitors and forwarded to their chief, Cromwell. No other evidence as to the state of the monasteries at this time is forthcoming, and the inquirer into the truth of these accusations is driven back ultmately upon the worth of these visitors' words. It is easy, of course, to dismiss inconvenient witnesses as being unworthy of credit, but in this case a mere study of these letters and documents is quite sufficient to cast considerable doubt upon their testimony as wholly unworthy of belief.
It is of course impossible to enter into the details of the visitation. We must, therefore, pass to the second step in the dissolution. Parliament met on 4 February, 1536, and the chief business it was called upon to transact was the consideration and passing of the act suppressing the smaller religious houses. It may be well to state exactly what is known about this matter. We know for certain that the king's proposal to suppress the smaller religious houses gave rise to a long debate in the Lower House, and that Parliament passed the measure with great reluctance. It is more than remarkable, moreover, that in the preamble of the Act itself Parliament is careful to throw the entire responsibility for the measure upon the king, and to declare, if words mean anything at all, that they took the truth of the charges against the good name of the religious, solely upon the king's "declaration" that he knew the charges to be true. It must be remembered, too, that one simple fact proves that the actual accusations or "comperta" -- whether in the form of the visitors' notes, or of the mythical "Black-book" -- could never have been placed before Parliament for its consideration in detail, still less for its critical examination and judgment. We have the "Comperta" documents -- the findings of the visitors, whatever they may be worth, whilst on their rounds, among the state papers -- and it may be easily seen that no distinction whatever is made in them between the greater and lesser houses. All are, to use a common expression, "tarred with the same brush"; all, that is, are equally smirched by the filthy suggestions of Layton and Leigh, of London and Aprice. "The idea that the smaller monasteries rather than the larger were particular abodes of vice ", writes Dr. Gairdner, the editor of the State papers of this period, "is not borne out by the 'Comperta'." Yet the preamble of the very Act, which suppressed the smaller monasteries because of their vicious living, declares positively that "in the great and solemn Monasteries of the realm" religion was well observed and God well served. Can it be imagined for a moment that this assertion could have found its way into the Act of Parliament, had the reports, or "Comperta", of the visitors been laid upon the table of the House of Commons for the inspection of the members? We are consequently compelled by this fact to accept as history the account of the matter given in the preamble of the first Act of dissolution: namely that the measure was passed on the strength of the king's "declaration" that the charges against the smaller houses were true, and on that alone.
In its final shape the first measure of suppression merely enacted that all the religious houses not possessed of an income of more than 200 pounds a year should be given to the Crown. The heads of such houses were to receive pensions, and the religious, despite the alleged depravity of some, were to be admitted to the larger and more observant monasteries, or to be licensed to act as secular priests. The measure of turpitude fixed by the Act was thus a pecuniary one. All monastic establishments which fell below the 200 pounds a year standard of "good living" were to be given to the king to be dealt with at his "pleasure, to the honour of God and the wealth of the realm."
This money limit at once rendered it necessary, as a first step in the direction of dissolution, to ascertain which houses came within the operation of the Act. As early as April, 1536 (less than a month from the passing of the measure), we find mixed commissions of officials and country gentlemen appointed in consequence to make surveys of the religious houses, and instructions issued for their guidance. The returns made by these commissioners are of the highest importance in determining the moral state of the religious houses at the time of their dissolution. It is now beyond dispute that the accusations of Cromwell's visitors were made prior to, not after (as most writers have erroneously supposed), the constitution of these mixed commissions of gentry and officials. The main purpose for which the commissioners were nominated was of course to find out what houses possessed an income of less than 200 pounds a year; and to take over such in the king's name, as now by the late Act legally belonging to His Majesty. The gentry and officials were however instructed to find out and report upon "the conversation of the lives" of the religious; or in other words they were specially directed to examine into the moral state of the houses visited. Unfortunately, comparatively few of the returns of these mixed commissions are now known to exist; although some have been discovered, which were unknown to Dr. Gairdner when he made his "Calendar" of the documents of 1536. Fortunately, however, the extant reports deal expressly with some of the very houses against which Layton and Leigh had made their pestilential suggestions. Now that the suppression was resolved upon and made legal, it did not matter to Henry or Cromwell that the inmates should be described as "evil livers"; and so the new commissioners returned the religious of the same houses as being really "of good virtuous conversation", and this, not in the case of one house or district only, but, as Gairdner says, "the characters of the inmates are almost uniformly good."
To prepare for the reception of the expected spoils, what was known as the Augmentation Office was established, and Sir Thomas Pope was made its first treasurer, 24 April, 1536. On this same day instructions were issued for the guidance of the mixed commissions in the work of dissolving the monasteries. According to these directions, the commissioners, having interviewed the superior and shown him the "Act of Dissolution", were to make all the officials of the house swear to answer truthfully any questions put to them. They were then to exmine into the moral and financial state of the establishment, and to report upon it, as well as upon the number of the religious and "the conversation of their lives." After that, an inventory of all the goods, chattels, and plate was to be taken, and an "indenture" or counterpart of the same was to be left with the superior, dating from 1 March, 1536, because from that date all had passed into the possession of the king. Thenceforward the superior was to be held responsible for the safe custody of the king's property. At the same time the commissioners were to issue their commands to the heads of the houses not to receive any more rents in the name of the convent, nor to spend any money, except for necessary expenses, until the king's pleasure should be known. They were, however, to be strictly enjoined to continue their care over the lands, and "to sow and cultivate" as before, until such tme as some king's farmer should be appointed and relieve them of this duty. As for the monks, the officer was told "to send those that will remain in religion to other houses with letters to the governors, and those that wish to go to the world to my lord of Canterbury and the lord chancellor for" their letters to receive some benefices or livings when such could be found for them.
One curious fact about the dissolution of the smaller monasteries deserves special notice. No sooner had the king obtained possession of these houses under the money value of 200 pounds a year, than he commenced to refound some "in perpetuity" under a new charter. In this way no fewer than fifty-two religious houses in various parts of England gained a temporary respite from extinction. The cost, however, was considerable, not alone to the religious, but to their friends. The property was again confiscated and the religious were finally swept away, before they had been able to repay the sums borrowed in order to purchase this very slender favour at the hands of the royal legal possessor. In hard cash the treasurer of the Court of Augmentation acknowledges to have received, as merely "part payment of the various sums of money due to the king for fines or compositions for the toleration and continuance" of only thirty-one of these refounded monasteries, some 5948 pounds, 6s. 8d. or hardly less, probably, than 60,000 pounds of 1910 money. Sir Thomas Pope, he treasurer of the Court of Augmentation, ingenuously added that he has not counted the arrears due to the office under this head, "since all and each of the said monasteries, before the close of the account, have come into the King's hands by surrender, or by the authority of Parliament have been added to the augmentation of the royal revenues." "For this reason", he adds, "the King has remitted all sums of money still due to him, as the residue of their fines for his royal toleration." The sums paid for the fresh foundations "in perpetuity", which in reality as the event showed meant only the respite of a couple of years or so, varied considerably. As a rule they represented about three times the annual revenue of the house; but sometimes, as in the case of St. Mary's, Winchester, which was fined 333 pounds 6s. 8d., for leave to continue, it was reestablished with the loss of some of its richest possessions.
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It is somewhat difficult to estimate correctly the number of religious houses which passed into the king's possession in virtue of the Act of Parliament of 1536. Stowe's estimate is generally deemed sufficiently near the mark, and he says: "the number of the houses then suppressed was 376." In respect to the value of the property, Stowe's estimate would also appear to be substantially correct when he gives 30,000 pounds, or some 300,000 pounds of 1910 money, as the yearly income derived from the confiscated lands. There can be no doubt, however, that subsequently the promises of large annual receipts from the old religious estates proved illusory, and that, in spite of the rack-renting of the Crown farmers, the monastic acres furnished less money for the royal purse than they had previously done under the thrifty management and personal supervision of their former owners.
As to the value of the spoils which came from the wrecked and dismantled houses, where the waste was everywhere so great, it is naturally difficult to appraise the value of the money plate, and jewels which were sent in kind into the king's treasury, and the proceeds from the sale of the lead, bells, stock, furniture, and even the conventual buildings. It is, however, reasonably certain that Lord Herbert, following Stowe, has placed the amount actually received at too high a figure. Not, of course, that these goods were not worth vastly more than the round 100,000 pounds, at which he estimates them; but nothing like that sum was actually received or acknowledged by Sir Thomas Pope, as treasurer of the Court of Augmentation. Corruption, without a doubt, existed everywhere, from the lowest attendant of the visiting commissioner to the highest court official. But allowing for the numberless ways in which the monastic possessions could be plundered in the process of transference to their new possessor, it may not be much beyond the mark to put these "Robin Hood's pennyworths", as Stowe calls them, at about 1,000,000 pounds of 1910 money.
Something must necessarily be said of the actual process which was followed by the Crown agents in dissolving these lesser monasteries. It was much the same in every case, and it was a somewhat long process, since the work was not all done in a day. The rolls of account, sent into the Augmentation Office by the commissioners, show that it was frequently a matter of six to seven weks before any house was finally dismantled and its inmates had all been turned out of doors. The chief commissioners paid two official visits to the scene of operations during the progress of the work. On the first day they assembled the superior and his subjects in the Chapter House, announced to the community and its dependents their impending doom; called for and defaced the convent seal, the symbol of corporate existence, without which no business could be transacted; desecrated the church; took possession of the best plate and vestments "unto the King's use"; measured the lead upon the roof and calculated its value when melted; counted the bells ; and appraised the goods and chattels of the community. Then they passed on to the scene of their next operations, leaving behind them certain subordinate officers and workmen to carry out the designed destruction by stripping the roofs and pulling down the gutters and rain pipes; melting the lead into pigs and fodders, throwing down the bells, breaking them with sledge-hammers and packing the metal into barrels ready for the visit of the speculator and his bid for the spoils. This was followed by the work of collecting the furniture and selling it, together with the window frames, shutters, and doors by public auction or private tender. When all this had been done, the commissioners returned to audit the accounts and to satisfy themselves generally that the work of devastation had been accomplished to the king's contentment -- that the nest had been destroyed and the birds scattered -- that what had been a monument of architectural beauty in the past was now a "bare roofless choir, where late the sweet birds sang."
No sooner had the process of destruction begun simultaneously all over the country than the people began at last to realize that the benefits likely to accrue to them out of the plunder were most illusory. When this was understood, it was first proposed to present a petition to the king from the Lords and Commons, pointing out the evident damage which must be done to the country at large if the measure was carried out fully; and asking that the process of suppression should be at once stopped, and that the lesser houses, which had not yet been dissolved under the authority of the Act of 1536, shold be allowed to stand. Nothing, of course, came of this attempt. Henry's appetite was but whetted by what had come to him, and he only hungered for more of the spoils of the Church and the poor. The action of the Parliament in 1536 in permitting the first measure to become law made it in reality much more difficult for Henry to draw back; and in more senses than one it paved the way for the general dissolution. Here and there in the country active resistance to the work of destruction was organized, and in the case of Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and the North generally, the popular rising of the " pilgrimage of grace " was caused in the main, or at least in great measure, by the desire of the people at large to save the religious houses from ruthless destruction. The failure of the insurrection of the "Pilgrimage of Grace" was celebrated by the execution of twelve abbots, and, to use Henry's own words, by a wholesale "tying-up" of monks. By a new and ingenious process, appropriately called "Dissolution by Attainder ", an abbey was considered by the royal advisers to fall into the king's hands by the supposed or constructive treason of its superior. In this way several of the larger abbeys, with all their revenues and possessions, came into Henry's hands as a consequence of the "Pilgrimage of Grace".
The Parliament of 1536, it will be remembered, had granted Henry the possession only of the houses the annual value of which was less than 200 pounds. What happened in the three years that followed the passing of the At was briefly this: the king was ill satisfied with the actual results of what he had thought would prove a veritable gold mine. Personally, perhaps, he had not gained as much as he had hoped for from the dissolutions which had taken place. The property of the monks somehow seemed cursed by its origin; it passed from his control by a thousand-and-one channels, and he was soon thirsting for a greater prize, which, as the event showed, he was equally unable to guard for his own uses. By his instructions, visitors were once more set in motion against the larger abbeys, in which, according to the Act of 1536, religion was "right well kept and observed." Not having received any mandate from Parliament to authorize the extension of their proceedings, the royal agents, eager to win a place in his favour, were busy up and down the country, cajoling, coercing, commanding, and threatening the members of the religious houses in order to force them to give up their monasteries unto the King's Majesty. As Dr. Gairdner puts it: "by various arts and means the heads of these establishments were induced to surrender, and occasionally when an abbot was found, as in the case of Woburn, to have committed treason in the sense of the recent statutes, the house (by a stretch of the tyrannical laws ) was forfeited to the king by his attainder. But attainders were certainly the exception, surrenders being the general rule."
The autumn of 1537 saw the beginning of the fall of the friaries in England. For some reason, possibly because of their poverty, they had not been brought under the Act of 1536. For a year after the "Pilgrimage of Grace" few dissolutions of houses, other than those which came to the king by the attainder of their superiors, are recorded. With the feast of St. Michael, 1537, however, besides the convents of friars the work of securing of securing, by some means or other, the surrender of the greater houses went on rapidly. The instructions given to the royal agents are clear. They were, by all methods known to them, to get the religious "willingly to consent and agree" to their own extinction. It was only when they found "any of the said heads and convents, so appointed to be dissolved , so wilful and obstinate that they would in no wise" agree to sign and seal their own death-warrant, that the commissioners were authorized by Henry's instructions to "take possession of the house" and property by force. And whilst thus engaged, the royal agents were ordered to declare that the king had no design whatsoever upon the monastic property or system as such, or any desire to secure the total suppression of the religious houses. They were instructed at all costs to put a stop to such rumours, which were naturally rife all over the country at this time. This they did; and the unscrupulous Dr. Layton declared that he had told the people everywhere that "in this they utterly slandered the King their natural lord." He bade them not to believe such reports; and he "commanded the abbots and priors to set in the stocks" such as related such untrue things. It was, however, as may be imagined, hard enough to suppress the rumour whilst the actual thing was going on. In 1538 and 1539 some 150 monasteries of men appear to have signed away their corporate existence and their property, and by a formal deed handed over all rights to the king.
When the work had progressed sufficiently the new Parliament, which met in April, 1539, after observing that divers abbots and others had yielded up their houses to the king, "without constraint, coercion, or compulsion", confirmed these surrenders and vested all monastic property thus obtained in the Crown. Finally in the autumn of that year, Henry's triumph over the monastic orders was completed by the horrible deaths for constructive treason of the three great abbots of Glastonbury, Colchester, and Reading. And so, as one writer has said, "before the winter of 1540 had set in, the last of the abbeys had been added to the ruins with which the land was strewn from one end to the other."
It is difficult, of course, to estimate the exact number of religious and religious houses suppressed at this time in England. Putting all sources of information together, it seems that the monks and regular canons expelled from the greater monasteries were about 3200 in number; the friars, 1800; and the nuns, 1560. If to these should be added the number of those affected by the first Act of Parliament, it is probably not far from the truth to say that the number of religious men and women expelled from their homes by the suppression were, in round numbers, about 8000. Besides these, of course, there were probably more than ten times that number of people turned adrift who were their dependents, or otherwise obtained a living in their service.
If it is difficult to determine, with any certainty, the number of the religious in monastic England at the time of the dissolution of the monasteries, it is still more so to give any accurate estimate of the property involved. Speed calculated the annual value of the entire property, which passed into Henry's hands at some 171,312 pounds. Other valuations have placed it at a higher figure, so that a modern calculation of the annual value at 200,000 pounds, or some 2,000,000 pounds of 1910 money, is probably not excessive. Hence, as a rough calculation, it may be taken that at the fall of the monasteries an income of about two million pounds sterling a year, of the 1910 money value, was taken from the Church and the poor and transferred to the royal purse.
It may, however, be at once stated that Henry evidently never derived anything like such a sum from the transaction. The capital value was so diminished by gratuitous grants, sales of lands at nominal values, and in numerous other ways, that in fact, for the eleven years from 1536 to 1547, the Augmentation Office accounts show that the king only drew an average yearly income of 37,000 pounds, or 370,000 pounds of 1910 money, from property which, in the hands of the monks, had probably produced five times the amount. As far as can be gathered from the accounts still extant, the total receipts of the king from the monastic confiscations from April, 1536, to Michaelmas, 1547, was about thirteen million and a half of 1910 money, to which must be added about a million sterling, the melting value of the monastic plate. Of this sum, leaving out of calculation the plate and jewels, not quite three millions were spent by the king personally; 600,000 pounds was spent upon the royal palaces, and nearly half a million on the household of the Prince of Wales. More than five millions sterling are accounted for under the head of war expenses, and nearly 700,000 pounds were spent on coast defence. Pensions to religious persons account for 330,000 pounds; and one curious item of 6000 pounds is entered as spent "to secure the surrender of the Abbey of Abingdon ."
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0.46439388... | 1 | Suppression of English Monasteries under Henry VIII
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From any point of view the destruction of the English monasteries by Henry VIII must be regarded as one of the great events of the sixteenth century. They were looked upon in England, at the time of Henry's breach with Rome, as one of the great bulwarks of the papal system. The monks had been called "the great standing army of Rome." One of the first practical results of the assumption of the highest spiritual powers by the king was the supervision by royal decree of the ordinary episcopal visitations, and the appointment of a layman -- Thomas Cromwell -- as the king's vicar-general in spirituals, with special authority to visit the monastic houses, and to bring them into line with the new order of things. This was in 1534; and, some time prior to the December of that year, arrangements were already being made for a systematic visitation. A document, dated 21 January, 1535, allows Cromwell to conduct the visit through "commissaries" -- rather than personally -- as the minister is said to be at that time too busy with "the affairs of the whole kingdom." It is now practically admitted that, even prior to the issue of these commissions of visitation, the project of suppressing some, if indeed not all, of the monastic establishments in the country, had not only been broached, but had become part of Henry's practical politics. It is well to remember this, as it throws an interesting and somewhat unexpected light upon the first dissolutions: the monasteries were doomed prior to these visitations, and not in consequence of them, as we have been asked to believe according to the traditional story. Parliament was to meey early in the following year, 1536, and, with the twofold object of replenishing an exhausted exchequer and of anticipating opposition on the part of the religious to the proposed ecclesiastical changes, according to the royal design, the Commons were to be asked to grant Henry the possessions of at least the smaller monasteries. It must have been felt, however, by the astute Cromwell, who is credited with the first conception of the design, that to succeed, a project such as this must be sustained by strong yet simple reasons calculated to appeal to the popular mind. Some decent pretext had to be found for presenting the proposed measure of suppression and confiscation to the nation, and it can hardly now be doubted that the device of blackening the characters of the monks and nuns was deliberately resorted to.
The visitation opened apparently in the summer of 1535, although the visitatorial powers of the bishops were not suspended until the eighteenth of the following September. Preachers were moreover commissioned to go over the country in the early autumn, in order, by their invectives, to educate public opinion against the monks. These pulpit orators were of three sorts:
- "railers", who declaimed against the religious as " hypocrites, sorcerers, and idle drones, etc.";
- "preachers", who said the monks "made the land unprofitable"; and
- those who told the people that, "if the abbeys went down, the king would never want any taxes again."
This last was a favourite argument of Cranmer, in his sermons at St. Paul's Cross. The men employed by Cromwell -- the agents entrusted with the task of getting up the required evidence -- were chiefly four, Layton, Leigh, Aprice, and London. They were well-fitted for their work; and the charges brought against the good name of some at least of the monasteries, by these chosen emissaries of Cromwell are, it must be confessed, sufficiently dreadful, although even their reports certainly do not bear out the modern notion of wholesale corruption.
The visitation seems to have been conducted systematically, and to have passed through three clearly defined stages. During the summer the houses in the West of England were subjected to examination ; and this portion of the work came to an end in September, when Layton and Leigh arrived at Oxford and Cambridge respectively. In October and November the visitors changed the field of their labours to the eastern and southeastern districts; and in December we find Layton advancing through the midland counties to Lichfield, where he met Leigh, who had finished his work in the religious houses of Huntingdon and Lincolnshire. Thence they proceeded together to the north, and the city of York was reached on 11 January, 1536. But with all their haste, to which they were urged by Cromwell, they had not proceeded very far in the work of their northern inspection before the meeting of Parliament.
From time to time, whilst on their work of inspection, the visitors, and principally London and Leigh, sent brief reports to their employers. Practically all the accusations made against the good name of the monks and nuns are contained in the letters sent in this way by the visitors, and in the document, or documents, known as the "Comperta Monastica", which were drawn up at the time by the same visitors and forwarded to their chief, Cromwell. No other evidence as to the state of the monasteries at this time is forthcoming, and the inquirer into the truth of these accusations is driven back ultmately upon the worth of these visitors' words. It is easy, of course, to dismiss inconvenient witnesses as being unworthy of credit, but in this case a mere study of these letters and documents is quite sufficient to cast considerable doubt upon their testimony as wholly unworthy of belief.
It is of course impossible to enter into the details of the visitation. We must, therefore, pass to the second step in the dissolution. Parliament met on 4 February, 1536, and the chief business it was called upon to transact was the consideration and passing of the act suppressing the smaller religious houses. It may be well to state exactly what is known about this matter. We know for certain that the king's proposal to suppress the smaller religious houses gave rise to a long debate in the Lower House, and that Parliament passed the measure with great reluctance. It is more than remarkable, moreover, that in the preamble of the Act itself Parliament is careful to throw the entire responsibility for the measure upon the king, and to declare, if words mean anything at all, that they took the truth of the charges against the good name of the religious, solely upon the king's "declaration" that he knew the charges to be true. It must be remembered, too, that one simple fact proves that the actual accusations or "comperta" -- whether in the form of the visitors' notes, or of the mythical "Black-book" -- could never have been placed before Parliament for its consideration in detail, still less for its critical examination and judgment. We have the "Comperta" documents -- the findings of the visitors, whatever they may be worth, whilst on their rounds, among the state papers -- and it may be easily seen that no distinction whatever is made in them between the greater and lesser houses. All are, to use a common expression, "tarred with the same brush"; all, that is, are equally smirched by the filthy suggestions of Layton and Leigh, of London and Aprice. "The idea that the smaller monasteries rather than the larger were particular abodes of vice ", writes Dr. Gairdner, the editor of the State papers of this period, "is not borne out by the 'Comperta'." Yet the preamble of the very Act, which suppressed the smaller monasteries because of their vicious living, declares positively that "in the great and solemn Monasteries of the realm" religion was well observed and God well served. Can it be imagined for a moment that this assertion could have found its way into the Act of Parliament, had the reports, or "Comperta", of the visitors been laid upon the table of the House of Commons for the inspection of the members? We are consequently compelled by this fact to accept as history the account of the matter given in the preamble of the first Act of dissolution: namely that the measure was passed on the strength of the king's "declaration" that the charges against the smaller houses were true, and on that alone.
In its final shape the first measure of suppression merely enacted that all the religious houses not possessed of an income of more than 200 pounds a year should be given to the Crown. The heads of such houses were to receive pensions, and the religious, despite the alleged depravity of some, were to be admitted to the larger and more observant monasteries, or to be licensed to act as secular priests. The measure of turpitude fixed by the Act was thus a pecuniary one. All monastic establishments which fell below the 200 pounds a year standard of "good living" were to be given to the king to be dealt with at his "pleasure, to the honour of God and the wealth of the realm."
This money limit at once rendered it necessary, as a first step in the direction of dissolution, to ascertain which houses came within the operation of the Act. As early as April, 1536 (less than a month from the passing of the measure), we find mixed commissions of officials and country gentlemen appointed in consequence to make surveys of the religious houses, and instructions issued for their guidance. The returns made by these commissioners are of the highest importance in determining the moral state of the religious houses at the time of their dissolution. It is now beyond dispute that the accusations of Cromwell's visitors were made prior to, not after (as most writers have erroneously supposed), the constitution of these mixed commissions of gentry and officials. The main purpose for which the commissioners were nominated was of course to find out what houses possessed an income of less than 200 pounds a year; and to take over such in the king's name, as now by the late Act legally belonging to His Majesty. The gentry and officials were however instructed to find out and report upon "the conversation of the lives" of the religious; or in other words they were specially directed to examine into the moral state of the houses visited. Unfortunately, comparatively few of the returns of these mixed commissions are now known to exist; although some have been discovered, which were unknown to Dr. Gairdner when he made his "Calendar" of the documents of 1536. Fortunately, however, the extant reports deal expressly with some of the very houses against which Layton and Leigh had made their pestilential suggestions. Now that the suppression was resolved upon and made legal, it did not matter to Henry or Cromwell that the inmates should be described as "evil livers"; and so the new commissioners returned the religious of the same houses as being really "of good virtuous conversation", and this, not in the case of one house or district only, but, as Gairdner says, "the characters of the inmates are almost uniformly good."
To prepare for the reception of the expected spoils, what was known as the Augmentation Office was established, and Sir Thomas Pope was made its first treasurer, 24 April, 1536. On this same day instructions were issued for the guidance of the mixed commissions in the work of dissolving the monasteries. According to these directions, the commissioners, having interviewed the superior and shown him the "Act of Dissolution", were to make all the officials of the house swear to answer truthfully any questions put to them. They were then to exmine into the moral and financial state of the establishment, and to report upon it, as well as upon the number of the religious and "the conversation of their lives." After that, an inventory of all the goods, chattels, and plate was to be taken, and an "indenture" or counterpart of the same was to be left with the superior, dating from 1 March, 1536, because from that date all had passed into the possession of the king. Thenceforward the superior was to be held responsible for the safe custody of the king's property. At the same time the commissioners were to issue their commands to the heads of the houses not to receive any more rents in the name of the convent, nor to spend any money, except for necessary expenses, until the king's pleasure should be known. They were, however, to be strictly enjoined to continue their care over the lands, and "to sow and cultivate" as before, until such tme as some king's farmer should be appointed and relieve them of this duty. As for the monks, the officer was told "to send those that will remain in religion to other houses with letters to the governors, and those that wish to go to the world to my lord of Canterbury and the lord chancellor for" their letters to receive some benefices or livings when such could be found for them.
One curious fact about the dissolution of the smaller monasteries deserves special notice. No sooner had the king obtained possession of these houses under the money value of 200 pounds a year, than he commenced to refound some "in perpetuity" under a new charter. In this way no fewer than fifty-two religious houses in various parts of England gained a temporary respite from extinction. The cost, however, was considerable, not alone to the religious, but to their friends. The property was again confiscated and the religious were finally swept away, before they had been able to repay the sums borrowed in order to purchase this very slender favour at the hands of the royal legal possessor. In hard cash the treasurer of the Court of Augmentation acknowledges to have received, as merely "part payment of the various sums of money due to the king for fines or compositions for the toleration and continuance" of only thirty-one of these refounded monasteries, some 5948 pounds, 6s. 8d. or hardly less, probably, than 60,000 pounds of 1910 money. Sir Thomas Pope, he treasurer of the Court of Augmentation, ingenuously added that he has not counted the arrears due to the office under this head, "since all and each of the said monasteries, before the close of the account, have come into the King's hands by surrender, or by the authority of Parliament have been added to the augmentation of the royal revenues." "For this reason", he adds, "the King has remitted all sums of money still due to him, as the residue of their fines for his royal toleration." The sums paid for the fresh foundations "in perpetuity", which in reality as the event showed meant only the respite of a couple of years or so, varied considerably. As a rule they represented about three times the annual revenue of the house; but sometimes, as in the case of St. Mary's, Winchester, which was fined 333 pounds 6s. 8d., for leave to continue, it was reestablished with the loss of some of its richest possessions.
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It is somewhat difficult to estimate correctly the number of religious houses which passed into the king's possession in virtue of the Act of Parliament of 1536. Stowe's estimate is generally deemed sufficiently near the mark, and he says: "the number of the houses then suppressed was 376." In respect to the value of the property, Stowe's estimate would also appear to be substantially correct when he gives 30,000 pounds, or some 300,000 pounds of 1910 money, as the yearly income derived from the confiscated lands. There can be no doubt, however, that subsequently the promises of large annual receipts from the old religious estates proved illusory, and that, in spite of the rack-renting of the Crown farmers, the monastic acres furnished less money for the royal purse than they had previously done under the thrifty management and personal supervision of their former owners.
As to the value of the spoils which came from the wrecked and dismantled houses, where the waste was everywhere so great, it is naturally difficult to appraise the value of the money plate, and jewels which were sent in kind into the king's treasury, and the proceeds from the sale of the lead, bells, stock, furniture, and even the conventual buildings. It is, however, reasonably certain that Lord Herbert, following Stowe, has placed the amount actually received at too high a figure. Not, of course, that these goods were not worth vastly more than the round 100,000 pounds, at which he estimates them; but nothing like that sum was actually received or acknowledged by Sir Thomas Pope, as treasurer of the Court of Augmentation. Corruption, without a doubt, existed everywhere, from the lowest attendant of the visiting commissioner to the highest court official. But allowing for the numberless ways in which the monastic possessions could be plundered in the process of transference to their new possessor, it may not be much beyond the mark to put these "Robin Hood's pennyworths", as Stowe calls them, at about 1,000,000 pounds of 1910 money.
Something must necessarily be said of the actual process which was followed by the Crown agents in dissolving these lesser monasteries. It was much the same in every case, and it was a somewhat long process, since the work was not all done in a day. The rolls of account, sent into the Augmentation Office by the commissioners, show that it was frequently a matter of six to seven weks before any house was finally dismantled and its inmates had all been turned out of doors. The chief commissioners paid two official visits to the scene of operations during the progress of the work. On the first day they assembled the superior and his subjects in the Chapter House, announced to the community and its dependents their impending doom; called for and defaced the convent seal, the symbol of corporate existence, without which no business could be transacted; desecrated the church; took possession of the best plate and vestments "unto the King's use"; measured the lead upon the roof and calculated its value when melted; counted the bells ; and appraised the goods and chattels of the community. Then they passed on to the scene of their next operations, leaving behind them certain subordinate officers and workmen to carry out the designed destruction by stripping the roofs and pulling down the gutters and rain pipes; melting the lead into pigs and fodders, throwing down the bells, breaking them with sledge-hammers and packing the metal into barrels ready for the visit of the speculator and his bid for the spoils. This was followed by the work of collecting the furniture and selling it, together with the window frames, shutters, and doors by public auction or private tender. When all this had been done, the commissioners returned to audit the accounts and to satisfy themselves generally that the work of devastation had been accomplished to the king's contentment -- that the nest had been destroyed and the birds scattered -- that what had been a monument of architectural beauty in the past was now a "bare roofless choir, where late the sweet birds sang."
No sooner had the process of destruction begun simultaneously all over the country than the people began at last to realize that the benefits likely to accrue to them out of the plunder were most illusory. When this was understood, it was first proposed to present a petition to the king from the Lords and Commons, pointing out the evident damage which must be done to the country at large if the measure was carried out fully; and asking that the process of suppression should be at once stopped, and that the lesser houses, which had not yet been dissolved under the authority of the Act of 1536, shold be allowed to stand. Nothing, of course, came of this attempt. Henry's appetite was but whetted by what had come to him, and he only hungered for more of the spoils of the Church and the poor. The action of the Parliament in 1536 in permitting the first measure to become law made it in reality much more difficult for Henry to draw back; and in more senses than one it paved the way for the general dissolution. Here and there in the country active resistance to the work of destruction was organized, and in the case of Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and the North generally, the popular rising of the " pilgrimage of grace " was caused in the main, or at least in great measure, by the desire of the people at large to save the religious houses from ruthless destruction. The failure of the insurrection of the "Pilgrimage of Grace" was celebrated by the execution of twelve abbots, and, to use Henry's own words, by a wholesale "tying-up" of monks. By a new and ingenious process, appropriately called "Dissolution by Attainder ", an abbey was considered by the royal advisers to fall into the king's hands by the supposed or constructive treason of its superior. In this way several of the larger abbeys, with all their revenues and possessions, came into Henry's hands as a consequence of the "Pilgrimage of Grace".
The Parliament of 1536, it will be remembered, had granted Henry the possession only of the houses the annual value of which was less than 200 pounds. What happened in the three years that followed the passing of the At was briefly this: the king was ill satisfied with the actual results of what he had thought would prove a veritable gold mine. Personally, perhaps, he had not gained as much as he had hoped for from the dissolutions which had taken place. The property of the monks somehow seemed cursed by its origin; it passed from his control by a thousand-and-one channels, and he was soon thirsting for a greater prize, which, as the event showed, he was equally unable to guard for his own uses. By his instructions, visitors were once more set in motion against the larger abbeys, in which, according to the Act of 1536, religion was "right well kept and observed." Not having received any mandate from Parliament to authorize the extension of their proceedings, the royal agents, eager to win a place in his favour, were busy up and down the country, cajoling, coercing, commanding, and threatening the members of the religious houses in order to force them to give up their monasteries unto the King's Majesty. As Dr. Gairdner puts it: "by various arts and means the heads of these establishments were induced to surrender, and occasionally when an abbot was found, as in the case of Woburn, to have committed treason in the sense of the recent statutes, the house (by a stretch of the tyrannical laws ) was forfeited to the king by his attainder. But attainders were certainly the exception, surrenders being the general rule."
The autumn of 1537 saw the beginning of the fall of the friaries in England. For some reason, possibly because of their poverty, they had not been brought under the Act of 1536. For a year after the "Pilgrimage of Grace" few dissolutions of houses, other than those which came to the king by the attainder of their superiors, are recorded. With the feast of St. Michael, 1537, however, besides the convents of friars the work of securing of securing, by some means or other, the surrender of the greater houses went on rapidly. The instructions given to the royal agents are clear. They were, by all methods known to them, to get the religious "willingly to consent and agree" to their own extinction. It was only when they found "any of the said heads and convents, so appointed to be dissolved , so wilful and obstinate that they would in no wise" agree to sign and seal their own death-warrant, that the commissioners were authorized by Henry's instructions to "take possession of the house" and property by force. And whilst thus engaged, the royal agents were ordered to declare that the king had no design whatsoever upon the monastic property or system as such, or any desire to secure the total suppression of the religious houses. They were instructed at all costs to put a stop to such rumours, which were naturally rife all over the country at this time. This they did; and the unscrupulous Dr. Layton declared that he had told the people everywhere that "in this they utterly slandered the King their natural lord." He bade them not to believe such reports; and he "commanded the abbots and priors to set in the stocks" such as related such untrue things. It was, however, as may be imagined, hard enough to suppress the rumour whilst the actual thing was going on. In 1538 and 1539 some 150 monasteries of men appear to have signed away their corporate existence and their property, and by a formal deed handed over all rights to the king.
When the work had progressed sufficiently the new Parliament, which met in April, 1539, after observing that divers abbots and others had yielded up their houses to the king, "without constraint, coercion, or compulsion", confirmed these surrenders and vested all monastic property thus obtained in the Crown. Finally in the autumn of that year, Henry's triumph over the monastic orders was completed by the horrible deaths for constructive treason of the three great abbots of Glastonbury, Colchester, and Reading. And so, as one writer has said, "before the winter of 1540 had set in, the last of the abbeys had been added to the ruins with which the land was strewn from one end to the other."
It is difficult, of course, to estimate the exact number of religious and religious houses suppressed at this time in England. Putting all sources of information together, it seems that the monks and regular canons expelled from the greater monasteries were about 3200 in number; the friars, 1800; and the nuns, 1560. If to these should be added the number of those affected by the first Act of Parliament, it is probably not far from the truth to say that the number of religious men and women expelled from their homes by the suppression were, in round numbers, about 8000. Besides these, of course, there were probably more than ten times that number of people turned adrift who were their dependents, or otherwise obtained a living in their service.
If it is difficult to determine, with any certainty, the number of the religious in monastic England at the time of the dissolution of the monasteries, it is still more so to give any accurate estimate of the property involved. Speed calculated the annual value of the entire property, which passed into Henry's hands at some 171,312 pounds. Other valuations have placed it at a higher figure, so that a modern calculation of the annual value at 200,000 pounds, or some 2,000,000 pounds of 1910 money, is probably not excessive. Hence, as a rough calculation, it may be taken that at the fall of the monasteries an income of about two million pounds sterling a year, of the 1910 money value, was taken from the Church and the poor and transferred to the royal purse.
It may, however, be at once stated that Henry evidently never derived anything like such a sum from the transaction. The capital value was so diminished by gratuitous grants, sales of lands at nominal values, and in numerous other ways, that in fact, for the eleven years from 1536 to 1547, the Augmentation Office accounts show that the king only drew an average yearly income of 37,000 pounds, or 370,000 pounds of 1910 money, from property which, in the hands of the monks, had probably produced five times the amount. As far as can be gathered from the accounts still extant, the total receipts of the king from the monastic confiscations from April, 1536, to Michaelmas, 1547, was about thirteen million and a half of 1910 money, to which must be added about a million sterling, the melting value of the monastic plate. Of this sum, leaving out of calculation the plate and jewels, not quite three millions were spent by the king personally; 600,000 pounds was spent upon the royal palaces, and nearly half a million on the household of the Prince of Wales. More than five millions sterling are accounted for under the head of war expenses, and nearly 700,000 pounds were spent on coast defence. Pensions to religious persons account for 330,000 pounds; and one curious item of 6000 pounds is entered as spent "to secure the surrender of the Abbey of Abingdon ."
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 6,238 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Description de l’éditeur
The story of Sir Isaac Brock's life should convey to the youth of Canada a significance similar to that which the bugle call of the trumpeter, sounding the advance, conveys to the soldier in the ranks. The Hero of Upper Canada joined the British army at the age of fifteen in 1785. After being promoted to captain he became a member of the 49th Regiment of Foot. He remained in this regiment until he was killed at the Battle of Queenston Heights in 1812. Between the years 1803-5 he and his regiment were posted to York (Toronto). In 1805 he was promoted to colonel and by 1810 he was a brigadier general in charge of all troops in Upper Canada. Finally, on June 4, 1811, he was promoted to Major-General, just at the onset of the War of 1812. As part of his duties in this capacity he presided over Upper Canada as its lieutenant-governor. | <urn:uuid:e588040f-8af9-45a3-bb31-238cbf4e3dff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.apple.com/fr/book/the-story-of-isaac-brock/id510915185 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.989015 | 201 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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The story of Sir Isaac Brock's life should convey to the youth of Canada a significance similar to that which the bugle call of the trumpeter, sounding the advance, conveys to the soldier in the ranks. The Hero of Upper Canada joined the British army at the age of fifteen in 1785. After being promoted to captain he became a member of the 49th Regiment of Foot. He remained in this regiment until he was killed at the Battle of Queenston Heights in 1812. Between the years 1803-5 he and his regiment were posted to York (Toronto). In 1805 he was promoted to colonel and by 1810 he was a brigadier general in charge of all troops in Upper Canada. Finally, on June 4, 1811, he was promoted to Major-General, just at the onset of the War of 1812. As part of his duties in this capacity he presided over Upper Canada as its lieutenant-governor. | 223 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Puerto Rico Was the Birth Control Pill’s Unwitting Laboratory
Women’s History Month is an opportunity to talk about the lesser known costs of the birth control pill, one of the most innovative medical inventions of the 20th century.
In Latinx families, the two most dreaded questions we receive as twentysomething women are “¿y tu novio?” which translates to “where's your boyfriend?” and “¿cuando te casas?” which means “when are you getting married?” Guess what question comes after that. For a woman like me, who is still exploring my goals and career, the birth control pill, as the iconic method of female contraception, symbolizes control and choice.
The pill was a revolutionary innovation. Aside from the huge role it played during the sexual revolution, the pill gave women the power to go after full-time careers, to live a way that had been unimaginable throughout history. It signified women's liberation.
But before the drug was validated for safety in the United States, it was unethically tested on over 1,500 women in Puerto Rico from the mid 1950s to early '60s. The women, mainly poor agricultural workers, were given the pill for free and told that if they took it regularly, they wouldn't get pregnant. What they weren't told was that they were test subjects, that taking the pill had risks and side effects and that it had only been tested on a handful of people, and primarily rats, before making its way to the island.
Although it's one of the most controversial programs in Puerto Rican history, it's discussed less in the American story of the pill, which often focuses on Margaret Sanger's contributions.
Creators Dr. John Rock and Dr. Gregory Pincus first tested the contraceptive, called Enovid, in Boston on 50 subjects. Due to the negative side effects, most of the women quickly dropped out of the trial.
The research team then decided to conduct the larger human trial in Puerto Rico. Many areas were poor and overcrowded, and Pincus was concerned with global population control. There were no anti-birth control laws and a clear desire for forms of contraception at the many clinics there. They also wanted to prove that uneducated women could use it successfully, to show that any class of woman anywhere could use it.
Researchers found their control group in the farming village of Humacao. The pills given for free to the women contained three times the hormones the pill has today. Although three women died in its early years, no autopsy was never done to confirm the cause of deaths. Women in the town still feel resentment over the lack of transparency of the pill testing years later.
In 2004, the Chicago Tribune interviewed then 60-year-old Delia Mestre, a hospital social worker who traveled to promote the pill at the time. She told the paper: “We all jumped on it quickly and didn't look back,” Mestre recalled. “Women were told this was medicine that would keep them from having children they couldn't support.”
Before the pill, the only other option was “la operacion,” a hysterectomy or tubal ligation procedure. Many women had no idea that the procedure was permanent, the idea of “tying tubes” made the patients believe that it was easily undone.
Of the research program and testing procedure, Mestre asked, “Why didn't anyone let us make some decisions for ourselves?”
Puerto Rican critics have compared the trials to the U.S. government–conducted syphilis research on African-American men, during which researchers purposefully failed to medicate black men with the disease in order to see what happens when it goes untreated.
On May 9, 1960, the pill was first approved as a contraceptive method by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). After that, concerns began spreading about the drug's complications. Two years later, the FDA was informed that 26 women suffered blood clots, with six dying. By the 1970s, the pill was linked to deaths from heart attacks, blood clots and fatal strokes, which prompted congressional hearings. The Humacao tests led the FDA to enforce stricter guidelines for clinical trials to come after and became the foundation for a law requiring test disclosures.
As a woman of color, it stung to find out this signature medical achievement came at the expense of unethical testing on already marginalized women. During Women's History Month, it's important to remember that reproductive rights, sexual freedom, and women liberation's, in general, have before and still today come at a price. The women of Humacao risked their lives unknowingly in order for us to have the privilege to indulge in our pleasures and choices. | <urn:uuid:fdecbb78-8dd0-4235-af62-4bf5a393e6b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://peopleenespanol.com/chica/birth-control-pill-testing-puerto-rico/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.980334 | 1,006 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.320195913314819... | 6 | Puerto Rico Was the Birth Control Pill’s Unwitting Laboratory
Women’s History Month is an opportunity to talk about the lesser known costs of the birth control pill, one of the most innovative medical inventions of the 20th century.
In Latinx families, the two most dreaded questions we receive as twentysomething women are “¿y tu novio?” which translates to “where's your boyfriend?” and “¿cuando te casas?” which means “when are you getting married?” Guess what question comes after that. For a woman like me, who is still exploring my goals and career, the birth control pill, as the iconic method of female contraception, symbolizes control and choice.
The pill was a revolutionary innovation. Aside from the huge role it played during the sexual revolution, the pill gave women the power to go after full-time careers, to live a way that had been unimaginable throughout history. It signified women's liberation.
But before the drug was validated for safety in the United States, it was unethically tested on over 1,500 women in Puerto Rico from the mid 1950s to early '60s. The women, mainly poor agricultural workers, were given the pill for free and told that if they took it regularly, they wouldn't get pregnant. What they weren't told was that they were test subjects, that taking the pill had risks and side effects and that it had only been tested on a handful of people, and primarily rats, before making its way to the island.
Although it's one of the most controversial programs in Puerto Rican history, it's discussed less in the American story of the pill, which often focuses on Margaret Sanger's contributions.
Creators Dr. John Rock and Dr. Gregory Pincus first tested the contraceptive, called Enovid, in Boston on 50 subjects. Due to the negative side effects, most of the women quickly dropped out of the trial.
The research team then decided to conduct the larger human trial in Puerto Rico. Many areas were poor and overcrowded, and Pincus was concerned with global population control. There were no anti-birth control laws and a clear desire for forms of contraception at the many clinics there. They also wanted to prove that uneducated women could use it successfully, to show that any class of woman anywhere could use it.
Researchers found their control group in the farming village of Humacao. The pills given for free to the women contained three times the hormones the pill has today. Although three women died in its early years, no autopsy was never done to confirm the cause of deaths. Women in the town still feel resentment over the lack of transparency of the pill testing years later.
In 2004, the Chicago Tribune interviewed then 60-year-old Delia Mestre, a hospital social worker who traveled to promote the pill at the time. She told the paper: “We all jumped on it quickly and didn't look back,” Mestre recalled. “Women were told this was medicine that would keep them from having children they couldn't support.”
Before the pill, the only other option was “la operacion,” a hysterectomy or tubal ligation procedure. Many women had no idea that the procedure was permanent, the idea of “tying tubes” made the patients believe that it was easily undone.
Of the research program and testing procedure, Mestre asked, “Why didn't anyone let us make some decisions for ourselves?”
Puerto Rican critics have compared the trials to the U.S. government–conducted syphilis research on African-American men, during which researchers purposefully failed to medicate black men with the disease in order to see what happens when it goes untreated.
On May 9, 1960, the pill was first approved as a contraceptive method by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). After that, concerns began spreading about the drug's complications. Two years later, the FDA was informed that 26 women suffered blood clots, with six dying. By the 1970s, the pill was linked to deaths from heart attacks, blood clots and fatal strokes, which prompted congressional hearings. The Humacao tests led the FDA to enforce stricter guidelines for clinical trials to come after and became the foundation for a law requiring test disclosures.
As a woman of color, it stung to find out this signature medical achievement came at the expense of unethical testing on already marginalized women. During Women's History Month, it's important to remember that reproductive rights, sexual freedom, and women liberation's, in general, have before and still today come at a price. The women of Humacao risked their lives unknowingly in order for us to have the privilege to indulge in our pleasures and choices. | 975 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For some Illinois pioneers, unexplained illnesses were terrifying signs of a witch’s power to spread affliction.
Disease was an ever-present threat on the nineteenth century American frontier. Smallpox, diphtheria, yellow fever, cholera, tuberculosis, food poisoning, and milk sickness were common, and their causes were not well known. Germ theory was still in its infancy. In this hostile environment, Illinois pioneers fell back on folk wisdom and superstitions passed down by their ancestors.
Milk sickness in particular plagued the Midwestern frontier, made even more frightening because its origins appeared so mysterious. It was caused by drinking milk or eating the meat of cattle that had consumed white snakeroot plant, which grows in the woods along the Ohio River and its tributaries. Symptoms included abdominal pain, severe thirst, vomiting, constipation, tremors, delirium, coma, and sudden death.
According to historian Walter J. Daly, “Ordinary settlers and their doctors found it unpredictable, untreatable, and highly fatal. Milk sickness killed many, frightened more, and caused local economic crises. Villages and farms were abandoned; livestock died; entire families were killed.”
Little by little, pioneers like Anna Pierce Hobbs of Hardin County, Illinois, learned the cause of the illness, but their knowledge and experience went unrecognized by the broader medical community. Most people could not make the connection between the milk they drank and this illness, because cattle often showed no symptoms of the disease. Pioneers turned to folk cures and dubious “medicine men” who also doubled as witch doctors. Witch doctors were needed because, according to popular belief, maleficium, and not germs, viruses, or poisoned vegetation, caused these mysterious illnesses.
So powerful were witches that many believed they could cause blindness, sickness, and even death with a touch or glance. African Americans in Adams County, Illinois advised Harry Middleton Hyatt, “If a hoodoo person wants to show you something, let them put their own hand on it. You keep yours off, for they can poison you like that,” and “This hoodoo woman could rub her hands over your eyes and you will go blind in one night; and she can rub them again over your eyes, and you can see.” Many were apprehensive about accepting gifts from suspected witches, especially food.
A German informant related the following tale to Harry Middleton Hyatt in the early 1930s. “A farmer was plowing in the field and this woman, that bewitched the horse and everything she could, was down by the fence and said to the farmer, ‘I guess you are hungry’ and gave him a sack of cookies to eat. He took the cookies. He was afraid not to. Just as soon as he got over to the other end of the field he buried them in the ground. He told me that he would not eat those cookies for anything. If he did, she would have him bewitched and he would have died.”
The afflicted blamed simple illnesses, such as food poisoning, on witchcraft. “My mother was going away on a trip about sixty years ago and I was about fourteen year old,” a German informant from Adams County told Harry Middleton Hyatt. “She didn’t want to leave me alone, because we had an old woman on our block that we thought was a witch. The woman heard mother was going away and wanted her daughter to stay with me, but mother was afraid of this woman and went and got another girl to stay with me.”
“This made the old woman angry, and just before my mother started, this old witch came to the fence and called me, and said, ‘Here is a pan of milk for you to drink.’ The pan was so full I could not carry it. She said, ‘Drink a little off of the pan, then you can carry it without spilling it.’ Not thinking, I did. And as soon as I got in the house I took real sick. I almost died and mother had to put her trip off over her bewitching that milk just because she was angry over mother not getting her girl to help me take care of things while she was away.”
Gifts from an elderly neighbor were suspect, especially if the neighbor had a negative reputation. With one bite, the victim could become seriously tormented and ill. In the following story from another German inhabitant of Adams County, Illinois, a woman narrowly escaped bewitchment after receiving a gift from a witch’s garden, but her husband succumbed after unwittingly partaking in the hexed produce.
“A neighbor gave another some cucumbers, and this woman that gave her the cucumbers could put an evil spell on you,” the informant explained. “So this woman did not eat any, but her husband did. That night after her husband went to bed, they could just hear him fighting with someone downstairs. He was lying on a couch. He told his wife that this neighbor came and was sticking him in the ribs so he could not stand it, and he scratched and scratched.”
“The next morning this man’s arms were all swollen up so he could not do anything. And this woman was so scratched up they took her to the hospital. She told at the hospital that she had a fuss at home, but it was this man that scratched her up, when she came to his couch that night in the shape of some object. This woman died, and as soon as she was dead, this man’s arms got well again and all the swellen [sic] left.”
Sharing or gift giving has traditionally been an expression of friendship or affection, gratitude, and neighborliness. The word “gift,” however, has another connotation, one not lost on the German-American population of Illinois. Gift in German means poison, and witches, through their gifts, allegedly had the power to do just that.
In two of the aforementioned stories, neighbors accepted the witch’s gifts out of common courtesy, but discarded them as soon as they could. Those who were foolish enough to partake of the gift became afflicted with horrible pains and torments. By spreading physical illness through purported acts of generosity, witches upset the balance between neighbors at a time when sharing and exchanging goods was not only common practice, it was a necessary element of community life.
Walter J. Daly, “The ‘Slows’: The Torment of Milk Sickness on the Midwest Frontier,” Indiana Magazine of History 102 (March 2006): 30.
Harry Middleton Hyatt, Folk-Lore from Adams County, Illinois (New York: Memoirs of the Alma Egan Hyatt Foundation, 1935), 461-462.
Ibid., 463.
Ibid., 470.
Ibid., 464. | <urn:uuid:bd4ae39c-f7e5-4149-98a0-85a224496d56> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://michaelkleen.com/2020/01/06/beware-a-witchs-gift/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.987585 | 1,447 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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... | 11 | For some Illinois pioneers, unexplained illnesses were terrifying signs of a witch’s power to spread affliction.
Disease was an ever-present threat on the nineteenth century American frontier. Smallpox, diphtheria, yellow fever, cholera, tuberculosis, food poisoning, and milk sickness were common, and their causes were not well known. Germ theory was still in its infancy. In this hostile environment, Illinois pioneers fell back on folk wisdom and superstitions passed down by their ancestors.
Milk sickness in particular plagued the Midwestern frontier, made even more frightening because its origins appeared so mysterious. It was caused by drinking milk or eating the meat of cattle that had consumed white snakeroot plant, which grows in the woods along the Ohio River and its tributaries. Symptoms included abdominal pain, severe thirst, vomiting, constipation, tremors, delirium, coma, and sudden death.
According to historian Walter J. Daly, “Ordinary settlers and their doctors found it unpredictable, untreatable, and highly fatal. Milk sickness killed many, frightened more, and caused local economic crises. Villages and farms were abandoned; livestock died; entire families were killed.”
Little by little, pioneers like Anna Pierce Hobbs of Hardin County, Illinois, learned the cause of the illness, but their knowledge and experience went unrecognized by the broader medical community. Most people could not make the connection between the milk they drank and this illness, because cattle often showed no symptoms of the disease. Pioneers turned to folk cures and dubious “medicine men” who also doubled as witch doctors. Witch doctors were needed because, according to popular belief, maleficium, and not germs, viruses, or poisoned vegetation, caused these mysterious illnesses.
So powerful were witches that many believed they could cause blindness, sickness, and even death with a touch or glance. African Americans in Adams County, Illinois advised Harry Middleton Hyatt, “If a hoodoo person wants to show you something, let them put their own hand on it. You keep yours off, for they can poison you like that,” and “This hoodoo woman could rub her hands over your eyes and you will go blind in one night; and she can rub them again over your eyes, and you can see.” Many were apprehensive about accepting gifts from suspected witches, especially food.
A German informant related the following tale to Harry Middleton Hyatt in the early 1930s. “A farmer was plowing in the field and this woman, that bewitched the horse and everything she could, was down by the fence and said to the farmer, ‘I guess you are hungry’ and gave him a sack of cookies to eat. He took the cookies. He was afraid not to. Just as soon as he got over to the other end of the field he buried them in the ground. He told me that he would not eat those cookies for anything. If he did, she would have him bewitched and he would have died.”
The afflicted blamed simple illnesses, such as food poisoning, on witchcraft. “My mother was going away on a trip about sixty years ago and I was about fourteen year old,” a German informant from Adams County told Harry Middleton Hyatt. “She didn’t want to leave me alone, because we had an old woman on our block that we thought was a witch. The woman heard mother was going away and wanted her daughter to stay with me, but mother was afraid of this woman and went and got another girl to stay with me.”
“This made the old woman angry, and just before my mother started, this old witch came to the fence and called me, and said, ‘Here is a pan of milk for you to drink.’ The pan was so full I could not carry it. She said, ‘Drink a little off of the pan, then you can carry it without spilling it.’ Not thinking, I did. And as soon as I got in the house I took real sick. I almost died and mother had to put her trip off over her bewitching that milk just because she was angry over mother not getting her girl to help me take care of things while she was away.”
Gifts from an elderly neighbor were suspect, especially if the neighbor had a negative reputation. With one bite, the victim could become seriously tormented and ill. In the following story from another German inhabitant of Adams County, Illinois, a woman narrowly escaped bewitchment after receiving a gift from a witch’s garden, but her husband succumbed after unwittingly partaking in the hexed produce.
“A neighbor gave another some cucumbers, and this woman that gave her the cucumbers could put an evil spell on you,” the informant explained. “So this woman did not eat any, but her husband did. That night after her husband went to bed, they could just hear him fighting with someone downstairs. He was lying on a couch. He told his wife that this neighbor came and was sticking him in the ribs so he could not stand it, and he scratched and scratched.”
“The next morning this man’s arms were all swollen up so he could not do anything. And this woman was so scratched up they took her to the hospital. She told at the hospital that she had a fuss at home, but it was this man that scratched her up, when she came to his couch that night in the shape of some object. This woman died, and as soon as she was dead, this man’s arms got well again and all the swellen [sic] left.”
Sharing or gift giving has traditionally been an expression of friendship or affection, gratitude, and neighborliness. The word “gift,” however, has another connotation, one not lost on the German-American population of Illinois. Gift in German means poison, and witches, through their gifts, allegedly had the power to do just that.
In two of the aforementioned stories, neighbors accepted the witch’s gifts out of common courtesy, but discarded them as soon as they could. Those who were foolish enough to partake of the gift became afflicted with horrible pains and torments. By spreading physical illness through purported acts of generosity, witches upset the balance between neighbors at a time when sharing and exchanging goods was not only common practice, it was a necessary element of community life.
Walter J. Daly, “The ‘Slows’: The Torment of Milk Sickness on the Midwest Frontier,” Indiana Magazine of History 102 (March 2006): 30.
Harry Middleton Hyatt, Folk-Lore from Adams County, Illinois (New York: Memoirs of the Alma Egan Hyatt Foundation, 1935), 461-462.
Ibid., 463.
Ibid., 470.
Ibid., 464. | 1,386 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was Pliny the Younger?
Question: "Who was Pliny the Younger?"
Answer: Pliny the Younger (c. 61—113), a Roman administrator, was the nephew of Pliny the Elder and a friend of the historian Tacitus. His primary historical significance is in the letters that he wrote, which provide an intimate window into the inner workings of the Roman Empire at its strongest. Some of his letters were actual letters to individuals, and some were essentially moral essays. Although he wrote thousands of letters, fewer than 250 of them survive to this day. It is assumed that Pliny the Younger died around AD 113 since his letters seem to end abruptly about that time, but specific details about what might have happened are not available.
The Roman Empire allowed its people to follow almost any religion they wanted, as long as it did not interfere with their allegiance to Rome and to the Emperor. This is where Christians ran into trouble, because they insisted that Jesus alone is Lord and that He has authority over Caesar. Christians could not embrace the central creed, “Caesar is Lord,” and this brought them into conflict with the ruling powers of the Roman Empire. Pliny the Younger is probably best known in church history for his letter to Emperor Trajan explaining how he has dealt with Christians as governor of Bithynia (in modern-day Turkey) and asking for the Emperor’s guidance in such matters.
In his letter to Trajan, Pliny the Younger asks whether Christians should be punished simply for bearing the name Christian or for acting upon their faith. He explains how he has used interrogations, torture, and threat of death to extract information from Christians. If someone was accused of being a Christian, Pliny offered him or her a chance to “repent”: worship the Roman gods and curse Christ, and all would be forgiven. Those who refused to curse the name of Christ were executed for “stubbornness.” He gives a few details of his understanding of what a Christian worship service involved, and he laments the fact that the “contagion” of Christianity is hard to stamp out. He ends on the happy note that paganism seems to be making a comeback.
Pliny the Younger’s letter is worth reproducing here in full, as it illustrates the persecution of the early church and how non-Christians viewed Christians and their practices:
Pliny the Younger’s Letter to Trajan:
“It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. I therefore do not know what offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to be punished.
“Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.
“Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents occurred. An anonymous document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ—none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do—these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.
“They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food—but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations. Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition.
“I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence it is easy to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for repentance is afforded.”
Trajan’s Response to Pliny the Younger:
“You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not possible to lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it—that is, by worshiping our gods—even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age.”
Recommended Resource: Josephus - The Complete Works
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Questions about Church History
Who was Pliny the Younger? | <urn:uuid:411a490d-d286-46ee-aa47-274c8ae67a7e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gotquestions.org/Pliny-the-Younger.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.984603 | 1,563 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.126414403... | 1 | Who was Pliny the Younger?
Question: "Who was Pliny the Younger?"
Answer: Pliny the Younger (c. 61—113), a Roman administrator, was the nephew of Pliny the Elder and a friend of the historian Tacitus. His primary historical significance is in the letters that he wrote, which provide an intimate window into the inner workings of the Roman Empire at its strongest. Some of his letters were actual letters to individuals, and some were essentially moral essays. Although he wrote thousands of letters, fewer than 250 of them survive to this day. It is assumed that Pliny the Younger died around AD 113 since his letters seem to end abruptly about that time, but specific details about what might have happened are not available.
The Roman Empire allowed its people to follow almost any religion they wanted, as long as it did not interfere with their allegiance to Rome and to the Emperor. This is where Christians ran into trouble, because they insisted that Jesus alone is Lord and that He has authority over Caesar. Christians could not embrace the central creed, “Caesar is Lord,” and this brought them into conflict with the ruling powers of the Roman Empire. Pliny the Younger is probably best known in church history for his letter to Emperor Trajan explaining how he has dealt with Christians as governor of Bithynia (in modern-day Turkey) and asking for the Emperor’s guidance in such matters.
In his letter to Trajan, Pliny the Younger asks whether Christians should be punished simply for bearing the name Christian or for acting upon their faith. He explains how he has used interrogations, torture, and threat of death to extract information from Christians. If someone was accused of being a Christian, Pliny offered him or her a chance to “repent”: worship the Roman gods and curse Christ, and all would be forgiven. Those who refused to curse the name of Christ were executed for “stubbornness.” He gives a few details of his understanding of what a Christian worship service involved, and he laments the fact that the “contagion” of Christianity is hard to stamp out. He ends on the happy note that paganism seems to be making a comeback.
Pliny the Younger’s letter is worth reproducing here in full, as it illustrates the persecution of the early church and how non-Christians viewed Christians and their practices:
Pliny the Younger’s Letter to Trajan:
“It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. I therefore do not know what offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to be punished.
“Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.
“Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents occurred. An anonymous document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ—none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do—these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.
“They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food—but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations. Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition.
“I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence it is easy to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for repentance is afforded.”
Trajan’s Response to Pliny the Younger:
“You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not possible to lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it—that is, by worshiping our gods—even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age.”
Recommended Resource: Josephus - The Complete Works
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Who was Pliny the Younger? | 1,530 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The little-known story about the man who voted for women’s suffrage
The 19th Amendment to the US Constitution granted white American women the right to vote in 1920 — a right known as women’s suffrage. While women influenced the American public with their many rallies and persuasive speeches, it actually came down to one man’s vote for women to be given the right to help elect the future leaders of the United States.
The final meeting to end all meetings
Nashville, Tennessee is a prominent city in American history. However, it’s not just Music City. In the summer of 1920, women’s suffragists met to face their male opponents for a final meeting. The two parties clashed over their opinions, but as we know, women eventually were granted the right to vote.
It wasn’t an easy fight, and many men were opposed to the idea of women voting during presidential elections. But one man broke the tie in the voting. If you’re wondering if it was President Woodrow Wilson, you’re wrong.
“This is the time to support woman suffrage”
President Wilson did play an important role in the women’s suffrage movement, however. By 1918, he had announced his support for the movement, strictly as a wartime measure. He said, “This is the time to support woman suffrage.” Wilson helped the amendment pass in the House of Representatives and Senate followed suit in June 1919. Now the states needed to ratify it — but it wasn’t that simple.
Many state representatives were skeptical about the suffragists and saw women’s suffrage as a threat to white supremacy and the traditional Southern way of life. But thanks to one man, things changed.
Reversing his vote
The suffrage movement in Tennessee was divided by roses — and became known as the “War of the Roses.” Suffragists and their supporters wore yellow roses, and the “Antis” wore red. Eventually, the resolution for ratification passed in the Tennessee Senate, but the House was divided. The final outcome was determined by the tie-breaking vote from Harry Burn, who reversed his vote after receiving an urgent plea from his mother.
The final vote determined the future for women on August 18, 1920, and the amendment became a part of the US Constitution on August 26. That day is now celebrated as Women’s Equality Day. | <urn:uuid:a3259126-d77a-4519-8d5a-179844699b63> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history101.com/story-man-voted-womens-suffrage/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.981416 | 513 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.059638451784... | 4 | The little-known story about the man who voted for women’s suffrage
The 19th Amendment to the US Constitution granted white American women the right to vote in 1920 — a right known as women’s suffrage. While women influenced the American public with their many rallies and persuasive speeches, it actually came down to one man’s vote for women to be given the right to help elect the future leaders of the United States.
The final meeting to end all meetings
Nashville, Tennessee is a prominent city in American history. However, it’s not just Music City. In the summer of 1920, women’s suffragists met to face their male opponents for a final meeting. The two parties clashed over their opinions, but as we know, women eventually were granted the right to vote.
It wasn’t an easy fight, and many men were opposed to the idea of women voting during presidential elections. But one man broke the tie in the voting. If you’re wondering if it was President Woodrow Wilson, you’re wrong.
“This is the time to support woman suffrage”
President Wilson did play an important role in the women’s suffrage movement, however. By 1918, he had announced his support for the movement, strictly as a wartime measure. He said, “This is the time to support woman suffrage.” Wilson helped the amendment pass in the House of Representatives and Senate followed suit in June 1919. Now the states needed to ratify it — but it wasn’t that simple.
Many state representatives were skeptical about the suffragists and saw women’s suffrage as a threat to white supremacy and the traditional Southern way of life. But thanks to one man, things changed.
Reversing his vote
The suffrage movement in Tennessee was divided by roses — and became known as the “War of the Roses.” Suffragists and their supporters wore yellow roses, and the “Antis” wore red. Eventually, the resolution for ratification passed in the Tennessee Senate, but the House was divided. The final outcome was determined by the tie-breaking vote from Harry Burn, who reversed his vote after receiving an urgent plea from his mother.
The final vote determined the future for women on August 18, 1920, and the amendment became a part of the US Constitution on August 26. That day is now celebrated as Women’s Equality Day. | 496 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry Tudor's claim to the English throne was tenuous to say the least, but when he defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth fields nobody was going to gainsay him, least of all Richard who had died in the battle.
When he married Elizabeth of York, uniting the Yorkist and Lancastrian houses, the war of the roses was effectively over. The people were so greatful to Elizabeth that they styled the image of the queen in the deck of cards after her. This is why to this day the average deck of cards carry four Tudor women.
Henry VII decided to strengthen his dynasty's grip on the throne by naming his eldest son Arthur. Arthur died before his father, so his younger brother Henry inherited both Arthur's throne and his wife.
Despite the fact that the Tudors were Welsh, he still persecuted Welsh for not speaking English.
In the 'Henry' line came after the 6th one, but before the 8th. | <urn:uuid:97da6f6c-00b3-4c35-addb-3aa4fb9d5b86> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://cunnan.lochac.sca.org/index.php?title=Henry_VII&direction=prev&oldid=3181 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.992575 | 198 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2052725106477... | 2 | Henry Tudor's claim to the English throne was tenuous to say the least, but when he defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth fields nobody was going to gainsay him, least of all Richard who had died in the battle.
When he married Elizabeth of York, uniting the Yorkist and Lancastrian houses, the war of the roses was effectively over. The people were so greatful to Elizabeth that they styled the image of the queen in the deck of cards after her. This is why to this day the average deck of cards carry four Tudor women.
Henry VII decided to strengthen his dynasty's grip on the throne by naming his eldest son Arthur. Arthur died before his father, so his younger brother Henry inherited both Arthur's throne and his wife.
Despite the fact that the Tudors were Welsh, he still persecuted Welsh for not speaking English.
In the 'Henry' line came after the 6th one, but before the 8th. | 196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
BOOK DESCRIPTIONThis study looks at the settlement site of Arjourne, situated on a low rise overlooking the Orontes River just South of Lake Homs in Syria. This site was first settled in the middle of the 6th millennium BC. The majority of the pottery and stone objects from this period link this site to other 'peripheral Halaf culture' sites, and this consisted of a mix of Levantine and northern Mesopotamian influences. This shows that the settlers at this site may well have come from nearby culturally-related sites, but this cannot be proved. The archaeozoological evidence shows that these settlers must have kept domesticated livestock, and they must also have been farmers judging by the various plant remains, suggesting that they were at least partly sedentary. A number of pits were excavated at this site, and these were generally filled with rubbish from the occupation of the site, but the nature of this rubbish was in horizontal layers, indicating a gradual build up on habitation floors rather than as part of rubbish-filled pits. These are interpreted as the emplacements for small shelters which served only the temporary needs of the seasonal farmers who used this site. This site was therefore very small in terms of population at any one time, although the radiocarbon evidence suggests that each 'pit' could have been in use for up to 200 to 250 years. Judging from the number of pits this means that the settlement could have been inhabited for at least 700 years or more. After abandonment the site was again inhabitedin the 5th millennium BC, and was similar in nature to before, except for a few new pottery types. However, one major difference was the effect of the secondary products revolution, increasing the amount of cattle and sheep, but reducing the amount of goats present at the site, as wool and dairy products became more important. Donkeys and Horses also became more important at this time. Arjourne seems to have been abandoned for several thousand years following this phase, and it may have been used as a burial ground during the 3rd millennium BC. However, the site was not permanently resettled until the 4th or early 3rd century BC, and this was only on a small scale and was not occupied foe very long. Much later a Muslim cemetery was placed on the highest part of the site, but this is no longer in use. The evidence from the excavations at Arjourne is presented in this book in fourteen papers, and these are as follows: (1) Synopsis; (2) The environmental setting; (3) The site and its excavation; (4) The resistivity survey; (5) The AMS radiocarbon dates: an analysis and interpretation; (6) The prehistoric pottery; (7) The lithic industries; (8) The groundstone objects; (9) Other prehistoric artefacts; (10) The prehistoric burial; (11) Animal husbandry in the Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic at Arjourne: the secondary products revolution revisited; (12) Wild and cultivated food plants and the evidence for crop processing activities; (13) The Persian-Hellenistic occupation; (14) Concluding remarks. | <urn:uuid:d5c87e30-37f6-4b95-8d13-2aca735308ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.barpublishing.com/excavations-at-arjourne-syria.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00197.warc.gz | en | 0.98034 | 656 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.367651581764... | 6 | BOOK DESCRIPTIONThis study looks at the settlement site of Arjourne, situated on a low rise overlooking the Orontes River just South of Lake Homs in Syria. This site was first settled in the middle of the 6th millennium BC. The majority of the pottery and stone objects from this period link this site to other 'peripheral Halaf culture' sites, and this consisted of a mix of Levantine and northern Mesopotamian influences. This shows that the settlers at this site may well have come from nearby culturally-related sites, but this cannot be proved. The archaeozoological evidence shows that these settlers must have kept domesticated livestock, and they must also have been farmers judging by the various plant remains, suggesting that they were at least partly sedentary. A number of pits were excavated at this site, and these were generally filled with rubbish from the occupation of the site, but the nature of this rubbish was in horizontal layers, indicating a gradual build up on habitation floors rather than as part of rubbish-filled pits. These are interpreted as the emplacements for small shelters which served only the temporary needs of the seasonal farmers who used this site. This site was therefore very small in terms of population at any one time, although the radiocarbon evidence suggests that each 'pit' could have been in use for up to 200 to 250 years. Judging from the number of pits this means that the settlement could have been inhabited for at least 700 years or more. After abandonment the site was again inhabitedin the 5th millennium BC, and was similar in nature to before, except for a few new pottery types. However, one major difference was the effect of the secondary products revolution, increasing the amount of cattle and sheep, but reducing the amount of goats present at the site, as wool and dairy products became more important. Donkeys and Horses also became more important at this time. Arjourne seems to have been abandoned for several thousand years following this phase, and it may have been used as a burial ground during the 3rd millennium BC. However, the site was not permanently resettled until the 4th or early 3rd century BC, and this was only on a small scale and was not occupied foe very long. Much later a Muslim cemetery was placed on the highest part of the site, but this is no longer in use. The evidence from the excavations at Arjourne is presented in this book in fourteen papers, and these are as follows: (1) Synopsis; (2) The environmental setting; (3) The site and its excavation; (4) The resistivity survey; (5) The AMS radiocarbon dates: an analysis and interpretation; (6) The prehistoric pottery; (7) The lithic industries; (8) The groundstone objects; (9) Other prehistoric artefacts; (10) The prehistoric burial; (11) Animal husbandry in the Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic at Arjourne: the secondary products revolution revisited; (12) Wild and cultivated food plants and the evidence for crop processing activities; (13) The Persian-Hellenistic occupation; (14) Concluding remarks. | 667 | ENGLISH | 1 |
German stamps – Germany’s first stamps were issued on 1st January 1872. They were printed in two currencies, Groschen and Dialer for the former North German Confederation. Similarly Kreuzer and gulden for the incorporated southern states. In 1874 the German Empire was one of the first 22 signatories at the establishment of the General Postal Union (Universal Postal Union from 1878). Throughout most of World War I Germany was not part of the main battle areas. This was because German troops were in occupation of allied territories. Also, special issues appeared for the East and West Military Command areas in 1916. The Weimar Republic was formed on 9 November 1918 and issued its first stamps on 1st May 1919. In 1933 Hitler became Chancellor and the Third Reich was created, the first stamps of which were issued on 12th April 1933.
During WW2 between 1940 to 1942 Germany continued to occupy territories until its control stretched from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus and Volga River, and from El Alamein to the North Cape. Gradually during the succeeding years the Allies regained territory. Many historic and rare stamps were issued in these areas, much of a highly provisional nature.
In the period following the surrender Germany was divided into four zones; Russian, American, French and British. Berlin, the former capital, was inside the Russian zone and this was divided into four sectors. The Russian zone became the German Democratic Republic on 7th October 1949, after the Allied zones had become the German Federal Republic on 21st September 1949. The period between 1945 and 1949 was complicated by the many stamp issues which appeared in different areas and it highly regarded by philatelists as one of 20th Century Europe’s most interesting periods. We recommend the English-language Michel “Germany Specialized” Volumes 1 and 2.
The Russian zone continued to issue stamps inscribed 'Deutsche Post' until the German Democratic Republic was created on 7th October 1949. The authorities released the first stamps inscribed for the new territory on 9th October 1949. Also, these were also valid for use in East Berlin.
Many grand socialist projects are illustrated on the stamps and postal history of the time. In addition, stamps from the West depicting sensitive topics such as German soldiers still held in detention were obscured by black ink. This is what is known to philatelists as ‘Postal Wars’. As a result of the constant need to patrol the boundary to prevent the escape of East German citizens to West Germany, the Berlin Wall, which separated Berlin was built by the East Germans in 1961. Soviet-based reforms in Eastern Europe during the late 1980s led to growing unrest in the German Democratic Republic. This culminated in the opening of the Wall in November 1989 and the collapse of the Communist Government.
The 'Treaty on the Final Settlement with respect to Germany' was concluded between the two Germanys and the four former occupying powers in September 1990. Unified Germany with effect from 3rd October 1990 as a fully sovereign state.
We offer German stamps and German stamp collections, complete sets, errors and varieties, proofs, essays. Also, postal history and covers including first day covers for this area. Philatelists should regularly visit this page as our auction lots constantly change. Whether you are searching for rare stamps from German, classic stamps, postmarks and cancellations, specialised collections. Similarly, estate boxes and anything related to German stamp collecting – just keep your eye on us! | <urn:uuid:66d2fe3c-f5f8-4665-949a-840feafad518> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sandafayre.com/germany-stamps/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00516.warc.gz | en | 0.985838 | 707 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.39093935489654... | 3 | German stamps – Germany’s first stamps were issued on 1st January 1872. They were printed in two currencies, Groschen and Dialer for the former North German Confederation. Similarly Kreuzer and gulden for the incorporated southern states. In 1874 the German Empire was one of the first 22 signatories at the establishment of the General Postal Union (Universal Postal Union from 1878). Throughout most of World War I Germany was not part of the main battle areas. This was because German troops were in occupation of allied territories. Also, special issues appeared for the East and West Military Command areas in 1916. The Weimar Republic was formed on 9 November 1918 and issued its first stamps on 1st May 1919. In 1933 Hitler became Chancellor and the Third Reich was created, the first stamps of which were issued on 12th April 1933.
During WW2 between 1940 to 1942 Germany continued to occupy territories until its control stretched from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus and Volga River, and from El Alamein to the North Cape. Gradually during the succeeding years the Allies regained territory. Many historic and rare stamps were issued in these areas, much of a highly provisional nature.
In the period following the surrender Germany was divided into four zones; Russian, American, French and British. Berlin, the former capital, was inside the Russian zone and this was divided into four sectors. The Russian zone became the German Democratic Republic on 7th October 1949, after the Allied zones had become the German Federal Republic on 21st September 1949. The period between 1945 and 1949 was complicated by the many stamp issues which appeared in different areas and it highly regarded by philatelists as one of 20th Century Europe’s most interesting periods. We recommend the English-language Michel “Germany Specialized” Volumes 1 and 2.
The Russian zone continued to issue stamps inscribed 'Deutsche Post' until the German Democratic Republic was created on 7th October 1949. The authorities released the first stamps inscribed for the new territory on 9th October 1949. Also, these were also valid for use in East Berlin.
Many grand socialist projects are illustrated on the stamps and postal history of the time. In addition, stamps from the West depicting sensitive topics such as German soldiers still held in detention were obscured by black ink. This is what is known to philatelists as ‘Postal Wars’. As a result of the constant need to patrol the boundary to prevent the escape of East German citizens to West Germany, the Berlin Wall, which separated Berlin was built by the East Germans in 1961. Soviet-based reforms in Eastern Europe during the late 1980s led to growing unrest in the German Democratic Republic. This culminated in the opening of the Wall in November 1989 and the collapse of the Communist Government.
The 'Treaty on the Final Settlement with respect to Germany' was concluded between the two Germanys and the four former occupying powers in September 1990. Unified Germany with effect from 3rd October 1990 as a fully sovereign state.
We offer German stamps and German stamp collections, complete sets, errors and varieties, proofs, essays. Also, postal history and covers including first day covers for this area. Philatelists should regularly visit this page as our auction lots constantly change. Whether you are searching for rare stamps from German, classic stamps, postmarks and cancellations, specialised collections. Similarly, estate boxes and anything related to German stamp collecting – just keep your eye on us! | 789 | ENGLISH | 1 |
House of Habsburg
Habsburg was a family of dukes, kings, and monarchs. They were very important in European history. They ruled Austria, later Austria-Hungary for more than 600 years. They also sometimes owned Spain, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire from about 1280 to 1806. They also ruled the Kingdom of Sardinia until the middle 19th century.
A Treaty was made in Vienna in 1515 between the king of Poland and duke of Lithuania from the Jagiellon dynasty and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, duke of Austria from the Habsburg family. It said that if the kings of Bohemia and Hungary, (Jagiellons), were to die without male heirs the Duke of Austria would take over their territory.
End of the House[change | change source]
The House of Habsburg became extinct in the 18th century. The senior branch ended when Charles II of Spain died in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. The mental and physical handicaps of Charles II were probably caused by inbreeding between relatives in the royal houses of continental Europe. Marriages of close relatives occurred for five generations before him. He was the son of Philip IV, who married his sister's daughter.
The remaining branch went extinct in the male line in 1740 with the death of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and completely in 1780 with the death of his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa of Austria. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine. The new successor house styled itself formally as House of Habsburg-Lorraine (German: Habsburg-Lothringen), although it was often referred to as simply the House of Habsburg. | <urn:uuid:d8680190-f5c8-4f33-9f1c-2a6f7f033be0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.986613 | 364 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2031174600124... | 3 | House of Habsburg
Habsburg was a family of dukes, kings, and monarchs. They were very important in European history. They ruled Austria, later Austria-Hungary for more than 600 years. They also sometimes owned Spain, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire from about 1280 to 1806. They also ruled the Kingdom of Sardinia until the middle 19th century.
A Treaty was made in Vienna in 1515 between the king of Poland and duke of Lithuania from the Jagiellon dynasty and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, duke of Austria from the Habsburg family. It said that if the kings of Bohemia and Hungary, (Jagiellons), were to die without male heirs the Duke of Austria would take over their territory.
End of the House[change | change source]
The House of Habsburg became extinct in the 18th century. The senior branch ended when Charles II of Spain died in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. The mental and physical handicaps of Charles II were probably caused by inbreeding between relatives in the royal houses of continental Europe. Marriages of close relatives occurred for five generations before him. He was the son of Philip IV, who married his sister's daughter.
The remaining branch went extinct in the male line in 1740 with the death of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and completely in 1780 with the death of his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa of Austria. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine. The new successor house styled itself formally as House of Habsburg-Lorraine (German: Habsburg-Lothringen), although it was often referred to as simply the House of Habsburg. | 383 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is believed that the first gladiators were slaves who were made to fight to the death at the funeral of Junius Brutus Pera. The spectacle was arranged by the dead man’s relatives to honour his death.
The tradition was copied at other funerals and then became staged events put on by rich locals for the benefit of their local population. Spectators to the games were charged a fee to watch an array of gladiatorial tournaments.
The majority of gladiators were slaves who were taught how to fight in special schools. They were trained to fight with daggers, swords, forks and nets. They had to fight slaves and criminals who were either unarmed, or armed only with the net.
The fight ended when one man died. If a man was wounded and unable to fight on, he make a sign for mercy. The crowd would then decide whether he should live or die by giving him thumbs up or thumbs down. Thumbs up signified that the crowd wanted the loser killed while thumbs down meant that he should be spared.
The largest and most spectacular gladiator fights were those staged in Colosseum in Rome. The huge circular amphitheatre could seat up to 50,000 people. Spectators were given tickets showing their seat place and also which of the 80 entrances they should use.
The gladiator fights took place on the huge central stage. Underneath the stage was a network of rooms and corridors used to store costumes and props used to stage the larger spectacles. Some rooms were also used by the gladiators as dressing rooms.
Lifts were used to bring the gladiators up to the main arena.
This article is part of our larger resource on the Romans culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on the Romans.
Cite This Article"The Romans – Gladiators" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-romans-gladiators>
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0.3397102952003... | 1 | It is believed that the first gladiators were slaves who were made to fight to the death at the funeral of Junius Brutus Pera. The spectacle was arranged by the dead man’s relatives to honour his death.
The tradition was copied at other funerals and then became staged events put on by rich locals for the benefit of their local population. Spectators to the games were charged a fee to watch an array of gladiatorial tournaments.
The majority of gladiators were slaves who were taught how to fight in special schools. They were trained to fight with daggers, swords, forks and nets. They had to fight slaves and criminals who were either unarmed, or armed only with the net.
The fight ended when one man died. If a man was wounded and unable to fight on, he make a sign for mercy. The crowd would then decide whether he should live or die by giving him thumbs up or thumbs down. Thumbs up signified that the crowd wanted the loser killed while thumbs down meant that he should be spared.
The largest and most spectacular gladiator fights were those staged in Colosseum in Rome. The huge circular amphitheatre could seat up to 50,000 people. Spectators were given tickets showing their seat place and also which of the 80 entrances they should use.
The gladiator fights took place on the huge central stage. Underneath the stage was a network of rooms and corridors used to store costumes and props used to stage the larger spectacles. Some rooms were also used by the gladiators as dressing rooms.
Lifts were used to bring the gladiators up to the main arena.
This article is part of our larger resource on the Romans culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on the Romans.
Cite This Article"The Romans – Gladiators" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-romans-gladiators>
More Citation Information. | 430 | ENGLISH | 1 |
November 14, at 5:
The History Learning Site, 17 Mar Charles I was the first of our monarchs to be put on trial for treason and it led to his execution. The execution of Charles, led to an eleven year gap in the rule of the Stuarts to and it witnessed the rise to supreme power of Oliver Cromwell — whose signature can be clearly seen on the death warrant of Charles.
Charles was put on trial in London on January 1st In fact only 68 turned up for the trial. Those that did not were less than happy about being associated with the trial of the king.
In fact, there were plenty of MPs in Parliament who did not want to see the king put on trial but in Decemberthese MPs had been stopped from going into Parliament by a Colonel Pride who was helped by some soldiers.
The only people allowed into Parliament were those who Cromwell thought supported the trial of the king. Therefore even among those MPs considered loyal to Cromwell, there was no clear support to try Charles.
The Chief Judge was a man called John Bradshaw.
He sat as head of the High Court of Justice. He was not one of the original judges but none of the 68 that did turn up wanted to be Chief Judge and the job was given to Bradshaw, who was a lawyer.
He knew that putting Charles on trial was not popular and he actually feared for his own life. He had made for himself a special hat which had metal inside it to protect his head against an attack.
The public was not allowed into the hall until after the charge had been read out. Why would the government do this if their case against Charles was good? At the trial, Charles refused to defend himself.
He did not recognise the legality of the court. He also refused to take off his hat as a sign of respect to the judges who did attend. This seemed to confirm in the minds of the judges that Charles, even when he was on trial for his life, remained arrogant and therefore a danger to others as he could not recognise his own faults.
Bradshaw announced the judgment of the court: He was told that his chance had gone and the king of England was bundled out of the court by the guarding soldiers. His date of execution was set for January 30th The execution of Charles I Charles was executed on a Tuesday.
It was a cold day. His last meal was bread and wine. However, there was a delay in his execution. The man who was to execute Charles refused to do it. Very quickly, another man and his assistant was found. He had asked to wear thick underclothes under his shirt as he was very concerned that if he shivered in the cold, the crowd might think that he was scared.RACE: Black = 26 Latino = 7 Native American = 1 Asian = 1 White = 28 GENDER: Males = 62 Females = 1 TOTAL = 63 Since the reinstatement of the federal death penalty in , 78 defendants have been sentenced to death of whom 3 have been executed and 12 have been finally removed from death row.
Three other defendants have had a jury recommendation for death, but no death sentence by the judge. Jul 11, · Whatever one's views on Divine Right or Charles as a king or person, neither by the standards of the day nor by modern standards did he get a fair trial, and for that, if no other reason, he shouldn't have been tranceformingnlp.com: Resolved.
Summary: Between December and September , the bodies of several men were found murdered along the highways of northern and central Florida, including Richard Mallory, Dick Humphreys, Troy Burress, David Spears, Walter Gino Antonio, Peter Siems, and Charles Carskaddon.
When Charles II returned to become king of England in , those men who had signed his father’s death warrant (and were still alive) were tried as regicides (the murderer of a king) and executed. Anyone associated with the execution of Charles was put on trial.
Should Charles I Have Been Executed Common wisdom has it that the execution of Charles I on 30 January was a desperate, aberrant act by a small and reluctant minority of English parliamentarians - opposed by the right-thinking bulk of the population.
Home» Stuart England» The Trial and Execution of Charles I. The Trial and Execution of Charles I. these MPs had been stopped from going into Parliament by a Colonel Pride who was helped by some soldiers. The only people allowed into Parliament were those who Cromwell thought supported the trial of the king.
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0.23037025332... | 2 | November 14, at 5:
The History Learning Site, 17 Mar Charles I was the first of our monarchs to be put on trial for treason and it led to his execution. The execution of Charles, led to an eleven year gap in the rule of the Stuarts to and it witnessed the rise to supreme power of Oliver Cromwell — whose signature can be clearly seen on the death warrant of Charles.
Charles was put on trial in London on January 1st In fact only 68 turned up for the trial. Those that did not were less than happy about being associated with the trial of the king.
In fact, there were plenty of MPs in Parliament who did not want to see the king put on trial but in Decemberthese MPs had been stopped from going into Parliament by a Colonel Pride who was helped by some soldiers.
The only people allowed into Parliament were those who Cromwell thought supported the trial of the king. Therefore even among those MPs considered loyal to Cromwell, there was no clear support to try Charles.
The Chief Judge was a man called John Bradshaw.
He sat as head of the High Court of Justice. He was not one of the original judges but none of the 68 that did turn up wanted to be Chief Judge and the job was given to Bradshaw, who was a lawyer.
He knew that putting Charles on trial was not popular and he actually feared for his own life. He had made for himself a special hat which had metal inside it to protect his head against an attack.
The public was not allowed into the hall until after the charge had been read out. Why would the government do this if their case against Charles was good? At the trial, Charles refused to defend himself.
He did not recognise the legality of the court. He also refused to take off his hat as a sign of respect to the judges who did attend. This seemed to confirm in the minds of the judges that Charles, even when he was on trial for his life, remained arrogant and therefore a danger to others as he could not recognise his own faults.
Bradshaw announced the judgment of the court: He was told that his chance had gone and the king of England was bundled out of the court by the guarding soldiers. His date of execution was set for January 30th The execution of Charles I Charles was executed on a Tuesday.
It was a cold day. His last meal was bread and wine. However, there was a delay in his execution. The man who was to execute Charles refused to do it. Very quickly, another man and his assistant was found. He had asked to wear thick underclothes under his shirt as he was very concerned that if he shivered in the cold, the crowd might think that he was scared.RACE: Black = 26 Latino = 7 Native American = 1 Asian = 1 White = 28 GENDER: Males = 62 Females = 1 TOTAL = 63 Since the reinstatement of the federal death penalty in , 78 defendants have been sentenced to death of whom 3 have been executed and 12 have been finally removed from death row.
Three other defendants have had a jury recommendation for death, but no death sentence by the judge. Jul 11, · Whatever one's views on Divine Right or Charles as a king or person, neither by the standards of the day nor by modern standards did he get a fair trial, and for that, if no other reason, he shouldn't have been tranceformingnlp.com: Resolved.
Summary: Between December and September , the bodies of several men were found murdered along the highways of northern and central Florida, including Richard Mallory, Dick Humphreys, Troy Burress, David Spears, Walter Gino Antonio, Peter Siems, and Charles Carskaddon.
When Charles II returned to become king of England in , those men who had signed his father’s death warrant (and were still alive) were tried as regicides (the murderer of a king) and executed. Anyone associated with the execution of Charles was put on trial.
Should Charles I Have Been Executed Common wisdom has it that the execution of Charles I on 30 January was a desperate, aberrant act by a small and reluctant minority of English parliamentarians - opposed by the right-thinking bulk of the population.
Home» Stuart England» The Trial and Execution of Charles I. The Trial and Execution of Charles I. these MPs had been stopped from going into Parliament by a Colonel Pride who was helped by some soldiers. The only people allowed into Parliament were those who Cromwell thought supported the trial of the king.
Charles was executed on a. | 952 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pablo Ruiz Picasso was born on the 25th October, 1881 in Malaga in Spain. He was the first son of Jose Ruiz y Blasco and Maria Picasso y Lopez. His father was a painter and a professor of art at the School of Crafts and the curator of a local museum. Picasso learnt the basics of art from his father. Picasso also attended the Academy of Arts in Madrid, but dropped out within a year of joining it.
He made his first trip to Paris in 1900 and loved the city. He lived with a friend who was a journalist and a poet. Those were hard times for Picasso and he burned many of his paintings to keep himself warm. In 1901, Picasso started a magazine called ‘Arte Joven’ in Madrid with his friend Soler. He completely illustrated the first edition of the magazine. It was at this point that he began to sign his paintings as simply ‘Picasso’ rather than ‘Pablo Ruiz y Picasso’. All the paintings by Pablo Picasso are usually classified into various ‘periods’ based on the moods and styles of the paintings. These, in turn, were largely affected by his personal and love life. His real work and career as a painter is said to begin around 1894 with a painting called ‘The First Communion’ which showed his sister Lola, and the more famous painting by Pablo Picasso called ‘Portrait of Aunt Pepa’. In 1897, his realistic style of painting became influenced by Symbolism and came across in a series of landscapes where he used violet and green tones in the colors. From 1899 to 1900 was a period where Picasso was creating paintings in a Modernist style which emerged due to his influence and exposure to the works of Rossetti, Edward Munch etc. 1901 to 1904 is called Picasso’s Blue Period because many of his paintings in that time were in the shades of blue and blue-green. The subjects of these paintings were prostitutes and beggars. Some of the famous paintings by Pablo Picasso during this period were ‘La Vie’, ‘The Blindman’s Meal’ and a portrait called ‘Celestina’. An etching called the ‘Frugal Repast’ also reflected his somber mood of the time. Blindness and destitution were an integral part of this theme of paintings. It was also during this time, that he began using the image of a harlequin, in checkered clothing, as his personal motif in his paintings. The 1905 to 1907 is called Picasso’s Rose Period where his paintings became cheerful with the use of orange and pink colors. There were many harlequins also featured. 1907 to 1909 is called his African Influenced Period where his drawings were inspired by African artifacts. A good example of this period is his painting titled ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon’. 1909 to 1912 is called Picasso’s Analytic Cubism Period. This style of painting was developed along with Georges Braque and was characterized by the use of monochrome brown colors. He took the objects apart and analyzed them within the medium of his paintings. 1912 to 1919 is called Picasso’s Synthetic Cubism Period where he began to use collage in his art. He would add paper fragments of wallpaper or newspaper pages and paste them into his work. During the 1930s he returned to a more neo-classical style of painting. Another major change was the use of the Minotaur as his motif, rather than the harlequin in his paintings. His famous painting called ‘Guernica’ depicted the brutalities, and the hopelessness induced by war. In the 1950s he started reinterpreting the works of great masters, including Velazquez, Goya, Manet and Delacroix. In 1967, the Chicago Picasso was unveiled. A huge 50 foot sculpture made on abstract themes defies interpretation. It could be a woman, or a bird or a horse or quite simply anything. Picasso did not take the $100,000 payment offered for it, but donated it all to the people of the city. From 1968 to 1971 he produced several paintings and copperplate etchings in the style now known as neo-expressionism. When these paintings were made, they were dismissed by critics as being the ‘pornographic fantasies of an old man’ and the ‘incoherent scribbling of a frenetic old man’. Death of Picasso Pablo Picasso died on the 8th of April, 1973 while he and his wife Jacqueline were entertaining friends for dinner. His last words were: ‘Drink to me, drink to my health, you know I can’t drink anymore.’ Cubism During the early days of cubism historians attributed the creation of cubism to one man: Pablo Picasso. Now we know that he has to share to honor with Georges Braque. Braque had studied Cézanne's method of representing three dimensions as seen from several viewpoints, in the same year (1907) that Picasso created his Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. In this painting Picasso depicts human figures by making use of several viewpoints, which became one of the characteristic features of cubism. Arriving at the concept of depicting an object as seen from different viewpoints independently, Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque soon became good friends and went on to develop the visual language of cubism in close cooperation, an alliance that Picasso would sometimes call a marriage. Les Demoiselles d'Avignon represents Picasso's époque negre which was inspired by African art and overlaps the first phase in cubism, which is called analytical cubism. Analytical cubism lasted until 1911 and is characterized by monochrome, relatively unemotional paintings that depict rather uneventful subjects, such as still lives. Many paintings of analytical cubism are faceted (see for instance Georges Braque's "Mandola", below), a technique that allows the artist to disect and reconstruct his subject in a way that depicts it's essence rather than it's appearance. Although largely abstract, the faceted technique still produces a recognizable image of the subject. It is important to fully realize the importance of cubism. It isn't just "Picasso's style" but marks the real beginning of abstract art. Picasso's predecessors, such as the impressionists, the fauvists and Cezanne were still principally tied to nature as a model to elaborate on. With Les Demoiselles d'Avignon Picasso reached a level of abstraction that was a radical enough break with the classical dominance of content over form, a hierarchy which is reversed in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon and the style which followed from it: Cubism.
Painting Title Self Portrait 1907
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0.76913380622863... | 2 | Pablo Ruiz Picasso was born on the 25th October, 1881 in Malaga in Spain. He was the first son of Jose Ruiz y Blasco and Maria Picasso y Lopez. His father was a painter and a professor of art at the School of Crafts and the curator of a local museum. Picasso learnt the basics of art from his father. Picasso also attended the Academy of Arts in Madrid, but dropped out within a year of joining it.
He made his first trip to Paris in 1900 and loved the city. He lived with a friend who was a journalist and a poet. Those were hard times for Picasso and he burned many of his paintings to keep himself warm. In 1901, Picasso started a magazine called ‘Arte Joven’ in Madrid with his friend Soler. He completely illustrated the first edition of the magazine. It was at this point that he began to sign his paintings as simply ‘Picasso’ rather than ‘Pablo Ruiz y Picasso’. All the paintings by Pablo Picasso are usually classified into various ‘periods’ based on the moods and styles of the paintings. These, in turn, were largely affected by his personal and love life. His real work and career as a painter is said to begin around 1894 with a painting called ‘The First Communion’ which showed his sister Lola, and the more famous painting by Pablo Picasso called ‘Portrait of Aunt Pepa’. In 1897, his realistic style of painting became influenced by Symbolism and came across in a series of landscapes where he used violet and green tones in the colors. From 1899 to 1900 was a period where Picasso was creating paintings in a Modernist style which emerged due to his influence and exposure to the works of Rossetti, Edward Munch etc. 1901 to 1904 is called Picasso’s Blue Period because many of his paintings in that time were in the shades of blue and blue-green. The subjects of these paintings were prostitutes and beggars. Some of the famous paintings by Pablo Picasso during this period were ‘La Vie’, ‘The Blindman’s Meal’ and a portrait called ‘Celestina’. An etching called the ‘Frugal Repast’ also reflected his somber mood of the time. Blindness and destitution were an integral part of this theme of paintings. It was also during this time, that he began using the image of a harlequin, in checkered clothing, as his personal motif in his paintings. The 1905 to 1907 is called Picasso’s Rose Period where his paintings became cheerful with the use of orange and pink colors. There were many harlequins also featured. 1907 to 1909 is called his African Influenced Period where his drawings were inspired by African artifacts. A good example of this period is his painting titled ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon’. 1909 to 1912 is called Picasso’s Analytic Cubism Period. This style of painting was developed along with Georges Braque and was characterized by the use of monochrome brown colors. He took the objects apart and analyzed them within the medium of his paintings. 1912 to 1919 is called Picasso’s Synthetic Cubism Period where he began to use collage in his art. He would add paper fragments of wallpaper or newspaper pages and paste them into his work. During the 1930s he returned to a more neo-classical style of painting. Another major change was the use of the Minotaur as his motif, rather than the harlequin in his paintings. His famous painting called ‘Guernica’ depicted the brutalities, and the hopelessness induced by war. In the 1950s he started reinterpreting the works of great masters, including Velazquez, Goya, Manet and Delacroix. In 1967, the Chicago Picasso was unveiled. A huge 50 foot sculpture made on abstract themes defies interpretation. It could be a woman, or a bird or a horse or quite simply anything. Picasso did not take the $100,000 payment offered for it, but donated it all to the people of the city. From 1968 to 1971 he produced several paintings and copperplate etchings in the style now known as neo-expressionism. When these paintings were made, they were dismissed by critics as being the ‘pornographic fantasies of an old man’ and the ‘incoherent scribbling of a frenetic old man’. Death of Picasso Pablo Picasso died on the 8th of April, 1973 while he and his wife Jacqueline were entertaining friends for dinner. His last words were: ‘Drink to me, drink to my health, you know I can’t drink anymore.’ Cubism During the early days of cubism historians attributed the creation of cubism to one man: Pablo Picasso. Now we know that he has to share to honor with Georges Braque. Braque had studied Cézanne's method of representing three dimensions as seen from several viewpoints, in the same year (1907) that Picasso created his Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. In this painting Picasso depicts human figures by making use of several viewpoints, which became one of the characteristic features of cubism. Arriving at the concept of depicting an object as seen from different viewpoints independently, Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque soon became good friends and went on to develop the visual language of cubism in close cooperation, an alliance that Picasso would sometimes call a marriage. Les Demoiselles d'Avignon represents Picasso's époque negre which was inspired by African art and overlaps the first phase in cubism, which is called analytical cubism. Analytical cubism lasted until 1911 and is characterized by monochrome, relatively unemotional paintings that depict rather uneventful subjects, such as still lives. Many paintings of analytical cubism are faceted (see for instance Georges Braque's "Mandola", below), a technique that allows the artist to disect and reconstruct his subject in a way that depicts it's essence rather than it's appearance. Although largely abstract, the faceted technique still produces a recognizable image of the subject. It is important to fully realize the importance of cubism. It isn't just "Picasso's style" but marks the real beginning of abstract art. Picasso's predecessors, such as the impressionists, the fauvists and Cezanne were still principally tied to nature as a model to elaborate on. With Les Demoiselles d'Avignon Picasso reached a level of abstraction that was a radical enough break with the classical dominance of content over form, a hierarchy which is reversed in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon and the style which followed from it: Cubism.
Painting Title Self Portrait 1907
Pablo Picasso Cubist Paintings | 1,454 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was John Ireland?
A little history behind the name
John Ireland was the 18th governor of Texas. He was a New Year baby, born on January 1, 1827 in Kentucky to Irish immigrants. At age 18, he became Hart County's deputy sheriff, encouraging him to study law.
In 1852, he moved to Seguin, Texas and began his career as a lawyer. In 1857, he married Anna Maria Penn. They had three children.
In 1858, John Ireland was elected mayor of Seguin. Through the Civil War, Ireland served as a border patrol in south Texas and along the Gulf Coast. After the Civil War, Ireland reentered politics in 1872, and was elected to the Texas House of Representatives, and chaired the executive committee of the Democratic party. In 1875, he served as an associate justice on the Texas Supreme Court, but lost his position in 1876 when the new state constitution reduced the number of associate justices, remaining a member of the Texas House of Representatives. During his time as legislator, Ireland backed the bill to begin building the University of Texas at Austin. He also selected local pink granite as the construction material for the Texas State Capital.
In 1882, John Ireland won the governor race against a strong opposition from the Independent candidate George W. Jones. As governor, Ireland accomplished many things, including reversing the Oran Roberts' policy of rapid sale of public lands, arguing instead for a minimum price and sale to the highest bidder. The proceeds from these sales went into permanent funds for public schools, the state university, and state institutions. The state constitution was amended to provide school districts with taxing power, and a state superintendent of education. John Ireland served two terms as governor of Texas.
After leaving his position as governor, he returned to Seguin to continue practicing law. He moved to San Antonio, where he later died in 1896.
Here he is pictured in front of the temporary capital, while our current State Capital was being erected. Sitting in the front from left to right: comptroller John D. McCall, House Speaker L.L. Foster, Governor Ireland, Supreme Court clerk Charles S. Morse, and Senate doorkeeper A.J. Dorn. | <urn:uuid:884a7b7b-7093-4759-a7ef-dee730afaafe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dallasisd.org/domain/7625 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00120.warc.gz | en | 0.981373 | 458 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.04495541751384735,... | 2 | Who was John Ireland?
A little history behind the name
John Ireland was the 18th governor of Texas. He was a New Year baby, born on January 1, 1827 in Kentucky to Irish immigrants. At age 18, he became Hart County's deputy sheriff, encouraging him to study law.
In 1852, he moved to Seguin, Texas and began his career as a lawyer. In 1857, he married Anna Maria Penn. They had three children.
In 1858, John Ireland was elected mayor of Seguin. Through the Civil War, Ireland served as a border patrol in south Texas and along the Gulf Coast. After the Civil War, Ireland reentered politics in 1872, and was elected to the Texas House of Representatives, and chaired the executive committee of the Democratic party. In 1875, he served as an associate justice on the Texas Supreme Court, but lost his position in 1876 when the new state constitution reduced the number of associate justices, remaining a member of the Texas House of Representatives. During his time as legislator, Ireland backed the bill to begin building the University of Texas at Austin. He also selected local pink granite as the construction material for the Texas State Capital.
In 1882, John Ireland won the governor race against a strong opposition from the Independent candidate George W. Jones. As governor, Ireland accomplished many things, including reversing the Oran Roberts' policy of rapid sale of public lands, arguing instead for a minimum price and sale to the highest bidder. The proceeds from these sales went into permanent funds for public schools, the state university, and state institutions. The state constitution was amended to provide school districts with taxing power, and a state superintendent of education. John Ireland served two terms as governor of Texas.
After leaving his position as governor, he returned to Seguin to continue practicing law. He moved to San Antonio, where he later died in 1896.
Here he is pictured in front of the temporary capital, while our current State Capital was being erected. Sitting in the front from left to right: comptroller John D. McCall, House Speaker L.L. Foster, Governor Ireland, Supreme Court clerk Charles S. Morse, and Senate doorkeeper A.J. Dorn. | 480 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of Hungarian Stamps
Along with Hungarian history comes an incredible variety of stamp and postal history collecting themes, made that little bit more challenging by the tricky language that has more in common with Japanese than with other European languages.
The use of Hungarian stamps began in 1850 following the suppression of the War of Independence of 1848/49. As this was a province of the Austrian Empire, the stamps used were those used in Austria. However the first proper Hungarian stamp was designed during this war and now takes pride of place in the Stamp Museum in Budapest. This is a tint drawing designed by Mor Than. It was intended to be put on general release but when the war was lost, this did not happen.
Thus Austrian postage stamps were used in Hungary until 1867, either carrying the eagle blazon or the portrait of the Monarch, Franz Joseph. There were five issues in all, and these stamps can be included in Hungarian collections as long as they show a clear Hungarian postmark.
Although the Hungarian Postal Service became independent on 1 May 1867, it was not allowed to produce purely Hungarian stamps, and so new stamps had to be printed in Austria, and these were used both in Hungary and Austria between 1867 and 1871.
Plans to print and issue Hungary's own stamps had already begun in 1868, but the first Hungarian postal stationery items (postcards and postal money orders) to be valid only in Hungary were issued in 1871. After several attempts, the first stamps were issued on 1 May 1871. These were printed by lithography and replaced the 1867 stamps gradually. However with the arrival of the copperplate machine it became possible to engrave these stamps, which were more attractive.
At the end of 1874, with the permission of the King, stamps showing his portrait were changed to an issue of new design showing an envelope and the inscription 'MAGYAR KIR.POSTA' (HUNGARIAN ROYAL POST) This issue is known as the 'Krajczár Issue with Coloured Numerals', and were used together with the 1871 issue for a while.
From 1881 postage stamps were printed on watermarked paper. In 1888, the letter post, stage-coach, and telegraph posts (for which special telegraph stamps had been issued) were united, necessitating the production of stamps with a much larger variation in face values. These are the 'Krajczár Issue with Black Numerals', printed by typography.
From 1900, owing to change in the monetary system, the 'Forint-Krajczár' stamps were followed by the 'Korona-Filler' issue. The Filler face values depict the mythical 'Turul' bird , while the high values show Franz Joseph's portrait again. Its various watermarks and perforations add a richness to any collection, and the series lasted until the end of World War I.
From 1918 definitive stamps were issued for postal use, and special stamps for collectors, including Air Mail issues.
Newspaper, and newspaper tax stamps had been issued from the start for the transmission of newspapers only, but Postage Due stamps were introduced in 1903.
The inflation that occurred after the two World Wars (First Inflation 1919-1926 and Second Inflation 1945-46) is reflected in the increasing face value of the stamps. Particularly interesting items of postal history were produced in the immediate years after World War II with these stamps.
Stamps issued between 1946 and 1980 are not only interesting because they reflect Hungary's post war history, but also because they are beautiful for their choice of themes. Since 1980 the Hungarian Postal Authorities have curtailed their annual output and now produce some of the best designed and printed stamps in the world.
Imperforate stamps before 1946 are usually printer's waste and were never issued as such. From 1946 to 1991 the Post Office issued a small quantity of all issues in imperforate form. These were sold only to members of the National Stamp Club at five times the face value. They are widely collected and some are in short supply. They were all valid for postage, and still are.
In the period following the First and Second World Wars several local or 'occupation' stamps were issued in the occupied areas of Hungary with overprints on Hungarian stamps.
A growing collecting area is for Revenue Stamps, both National and Municipal.
The reader can see from this short history that there is a wealth of subjects to choose to collect, and many of our members have chosen to concentrate on a specific subject, such as the first Turul issue or Second Inflation covers.
Joining the Society will enable you to find out much more about your chosen topic. | <urn:uuid:73cdfb9b-4fda-4d00-9445-bdd42f1c08fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://okapi5.co.uk/stamp-history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.982631 | 974 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.395490467... | 2 | The History of Hungarian Stamps
Along with Hungarian history comes an incredible variety of stamp and postal history collecting themes, made that little bit more challenging by the tricky language that has more in common with Japanese than with other European languages.
The use of Hungarian stamps began in 1850 following the suppression of the War of Independence of 1848/49. As this was a province of the Austrian Empire, the stamps used were those used in Austria. However the first proper Hungarian stamp was designed during this war and now takes pride of place in the Stamp Museum in Budapest. This is a tint drawing designed by Mor Than. It was intended to be put on general release but when the war was lost, this did not happen.
Thus Austrian postage stamps were used in Hungary until 1867, either carrying the eagle blazon or the portrait of the Monarch, Franz Joseph. There were five issues in all, and these stamps can be included in Hungarian collections as long as they show a clear Hungarian postmark.
Although the Hungarian Postal Service became independent on 1 May 1867, it was not allowed to produce purely Hungarian stamps, and so new stamps had to be printed in Austria, and these were used both in Hungary and Austria between 1867 and 1871.
Plans to print and issue Hungary's own stamps had already begun in 1868, but the first Hungarian postal stationery items (postcards and postal money orders) to be valid only in Hungary were issued in 1871. After several attempts, the first stamps were issued on 1 May 1871. These were printed by lithography and replaced the 1867 stamps gradually. However with the arrival of the copperplate machine it became possible to engrave these stamps, which were more attractive.
At the end of 1874, with the permission of the King, stamps showing his portrait were changed to an issue of new design showing an envelope and the inscription 'MAGYAR KIR.POSTA' (HUNGARIAN ROYAL POST) This issue is known as the 'Krajczár Issue with Coloured Numerals', and were used together with the 1871 issue for a while.
From 1881 postage stamps were printed on watermarked paper. In 1888, the letter post, stage-coach, and telegraph posts (for which special telegraph stamps had been issued) were united, necessitating the production of stamps with a much larger variation in face values. These are the 'Krajczár Issue with Black Numerals', printed by typography.
From 1900, owing to change in the monetary system, the 'Forint-Krajczár' stamps were followed by the 'Korona-Filler' issue. The Filler face values depict the mythical 'Turul' bird , while the high values show Franz Joseph's portrait again. Its various watermarks and perforations add a richness to any collection, and the series lasted until the end of World War I.
From 1918 definitive stamps were issued for postal use, and special stamps for collectors, including Air Mail issues.
Newspaper, and newspaper tax stamps had been issued from the start for the transmission of newspapers only, but Postage Due stamps were introduced in 1903.
The inflation that occurred after the two World Wars (First Inflation 1919-1926 and Second Inflation 1945-46) is reflected in the increasing face value of the stamps. Particularly interesting items of postal history were produced in the immediate years after World War II with these stamps.
Stamps issued between 1946 and 1980 are not only interesting because they reflect Hungary's post war history, but also because they are beautiful for their choice of themes. Since 1980 the Hungarian Postal Authorities have curtailed their annual output and now produce some of the best designed and printed stamps in the world.
Imperforate stamps before 1946 are usually printer's waste and were never issued as such. From 1946 to 1991 the Post Office issued a small quantity of all issues in imperforate form. These were sold only to members of the National Stamp Club at five times the face value. They are widely collected and some are in short supply. They were all valid for postage, and still are.
In the period following the First and Second World Wars several local or 'occupation' stamps were issued in the occupied areas of Hungary with overprints on Hungarian stamps.
A growing collecting area is for Revenue Stamps, both National and Municipal.
The reader can see from this short history that there is a wealth of subjects to choose to collect, and many of our members have chosen to concentrate on a specific subject, such as the first Turul issue or Second Inflation covers.
Joining the Society will enable you to find out much more about your chosen topic. | 1,038 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As technology and medicine advance, more premature children are surviving at younger and younger ages. Even at just 23 weeks gestation, doctors are able to help children win the fight for their lives. But one particular action that is helping to save lives has nothing to do with doctors or medical equipment. It’s all about a mother’s instinct and inspiration found in nature.
In recent years, what’s known as Kangaroo Care has been popping up on medical television dramas, including Grey’s Anatomy. The holding method is based on the way a mother kangaroo carries her child in her pouch for a year, her baby always close to her skin, warmed by her body. In a similar fashion, a newborn human is placed on her mother’s bare chest – belly to belly, in between the breasts with the child’s head turned so she can hear her mother’s heartbeat.
The womb is the most comfortable place for a baby, and after birth, it’s jarring to not have the warmth and familiar sounds of life before birth. When a newborn is placed directly onto the mother’s skin after birth, the mother’s warmth and the sound of her heartbeat remind the child of that comfort. In addition, that skin-to-skin contact increases attachment between mother and child, supports infant brain development, and helps with breastfeeding. However, this skin-to-skin contact has become more than an opportunity to bond with your child right after birth; it is proving to actually save lives.
Kangaroo Care was first studied in Bogota, Columbia, beginning in 1983. Because of a lack of power and medical equipment, doctors found that Kangaroo Care was a promising and inexpensive way to help premature babies survive. In fact, they found that the mortality rate dropped from 70% to 30% when Kangaroo Care was implemented.
While either parent can do this, it is usually the mother who takes that first step. What researchers in Colombia learned is that the mother’s body responds to the needs of her child. When the baby gets cold, the mother’s body temperature increases to warm her child. When her child gets too warm, her body reacts to cool them both down. The child’s heartbeat and breathing can also be regulated by the mother’s heartbeat and breathing.
Kangaroo Care has also been shown to reduce infection, including respiratory tract disease and sepsis, and it can help shorten the length of hospital stay.
It’s an amazing discovery of how nature works.
20-ounce baby girl saved by skin-to skin contact
Carolyn Isbister shared her story on DrMomma.org. Her 24-week newborn baby girl weighed just 20 ounces at birth and doctors said she wouldn’t make it. With what she thought were only minutes with her baby, Isbister instinctively put her daughter inside of her shirt. She said:
I didn’t want her to die being cold. So I lifted her out of her blanket and put her against my skin to warm her up. Her feet were so cold. It was the only cuddle I was going to have with her, so I wanted to remember that moment.
That’s when the baby girl’s heart began to regulate. She took some breaths and let out a cry. Though the doctors were still convinced she would die, she fought on. The neonatologist at the hospital said he had never seen anything like it. The baby spent a few weeks on a ventilator, and at four months old, she went home with her family.
Kangaroo Care saved premature twins
Asabe Ibrahim gave birth to twins at just 26 weeks gestation. Her husband, convinced the babies would die, abandoned her and the children at the hospital. She had no support — only people telling her to give up.
“I always told people my babies were human beings and they must survive,” she said. “So, when I got to know about the kangaroo mother care, I started practising it because my children were not adding weight. After I started it, I was surprised to see my children adding weight.”
Ibrahim’s children began improving after she began skin-to-skin contact, and she spoke about the experience at the commemoration of World Prematurity Day in 2013.
Newborn in a coma saved by Kangaroo Care
Adam Chesire contracted group B strep at birth and at just one day old he stopped breathing and began to have seizures. He fell into a coma and had to be placed on life support. His parents were told that if he did survive, he would have speech, hearing, and vision problems.
“The told me to use kangaroo care after the way kangaroos care for their young in their pouches,” said Adam’s mother Charlotte Chesire. “Skin-to-skin contact is important. Adam is our miracle. He just refused to give up.”
Her son may have been at death’s door, but the instant she held him to her, he opened his eyes. She held her son for days as he grew stronger and began breastfeeding. She had said her goodbyes to Adam, but weeks later she was able to bring him home.
Baby boy is pronounced dead, but his mother’s touch brings him back
In perhaps the most remarkable story of the benefits of Kangaroo Care, a baby boy born with his twin sister at just 26 weeks gestation died. The doctor told the parents, Kate and David Ogg, that they were unable to save him. The devastated mother took her son and placed him skin-to-skin against her chest. She and her husband began to talk to their son and say their goodbyes, but then baby boy Jamie began to move.
The doctors and midwives told the parents that it was just a reflex, but as time ticked on for two hours, Jamie lifted his head. He grabbed his father’s finger, and he opened his eyes. His mother’s instinct to place him on her chest saved his life. He and his sister are now healthy six-year-olds.
While Kangaroo Care is certainly not a cure for any health condition, it has proven repeatedly that it is a natural and beautiful way to welcome every child into the world. It has also proven that it saves the lives of babies who are born too soon.
Preterm birth is a leading cause of neonatal death in the world, but Kangaroo Care has the potential to prevent 450,000 of those deaths with a 51% reduction in mortality for newborns weighing less than 70 ounces.
Countries around the world are beginning to make it standard practice now, but parents facing the premature birth of their children should know that it isn’t all about bonding. Kangaroo Care could save their baby’s life.
Stories like the one you just read transform hearts and minds.
For example, one of our followers, Ross, messaged us and commented:
“I began to question my pro-choice views after reading articles about Live Action…Live Action is primarily responsible for my becoming Pro-Life through their well-thought-out, scientific information and the emotionally and uplifting stories of real people with real experiences in saving the lives of their children regardless of what others might say.”
Knowledge is power and CAN open eyes to SEE the truth. And, YOU can provide the spark to transform someone’s mind, just like Ross.
The DAILY publishing at Live Action News is only made possible through generous people, like you, who give $5, $10, or $25.
Your gift today will not only keep these stories coming in 2020, but also help us open more eyes and change minds to be fully pro-life and save lives.
Will you join us in creating a world where the killing of preborn children is unthinkable and support Live Action News by making your tax-deductible gift today? | <urn:uuid:ce32622e-2cf4-436a-b10a-791a5290b8ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.liveaction.org/news/kangaroo-care-saving-lives-premature-infants-around-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.982623 | 1,677 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.4298481345176... | 1 | As technology and medicine advance, more premature children are surviving at younger and younger ages. Even at just 23 weeks gestation, doctors are able to help children win the fight for their lives. But one particular action that is helping to save lives has nothing to do with doctors or medical equipment. It’s all about a mother’s instinct and inspiration found in nature.
In recent years, what’s known as Kangaroo Care has been popping up on medical television dramas, including Grey’s Anatomy. The holding method is based on the way a mother kangaroo carries her child in her pouch for a year, her baby always close to her skin, warmed by her body. In a similar fashion, a newborn human is placed on her mother’s bare chest – belly to belly, in between the breasts with the child’s head turned so she can hear her mother’s heartbeat.
The womb is the most comfortable place for a baby, and after birth, it’s jarring to not have the warmth and familiar sounds of life before birth. When a newborn is placed directly onto the mother’s skin after birth, the mother’s warmth and the sound of her heartbeat remind the child of that comfort. In addition, that skin-to-skin contact increases attachment between mother and child, supports infant brain development, and helps with breastfeeding. However, this skin-to-skin contact has become more than an opportunity to bond with your child right after birth; it is proving to actually save lives.
Kangaroo Care was first studied in Bogota, Columbia, beginning in 1983. Because of a lack of power and medical equipment, doctors found that Kangaroo Care was a promising and inexpensive way to help premature babies survive. In fact, they found that the mortality rate dropped from 70% to 30% when Kangaroo Care was implemented.
While either parent can do this, it is usually the mother who takes that first step. What researchers in Colombia learned is that the mother’s body responds to the needs of her child. When the baby gets cold, the mother’s body temperature increases to warm her child. When her child gets too warm, her body reacts to cool them both down. The child’s heartbeat and breathing can also be regulated by the mother’s heartbeat and breathing.
Kangaroo Care has also been shown to reduce infection, including respiratory tract disease and sepsis, and it can help shorten the length of hospital stay.
It’s an amazing discovery of how nature works.
20-ounce baby girl saved by skin-to skin contact
Carolyn Isbister shared her story on DrMomma.org. Her 24-week newborn baby girl weighed just 20 ounces at birth and doctors said she wouldn’t make it. With what she thought were only minutes with her baby, Isbister instinctively put her daughter inside of her shirt. She said:
I didn’t want her to die being cold. So I lifted her out of her blanket and put her against my skin to warm her up. Her feet were so cold. It was the only cuddle I was going to have with her, so I wanted to remember that moment.
That’s when the baby girl’s heart began to regulate. She took some breaths and let out a cry. Though the doctors were still convinced she would die, she fought on. The neonatologist at the hospital said he had never seen anything like it. The baby spent a few weeks on a ventilator, and at four months old, she went home with her family.
Kangaroo Care saved premature twins
Asabe Ibrahim gave birth to twins at just 26 weeks gestation. Her husband, convinced the babies would die, abandoned her and the children at the hospital. She had no support — only people telling her to give up.
“I always told people my babies were human beings and they must survive,” she said. “So, when I got to know about the kangaroo mother care, I started practising it because my children were not adding weight. After I started it, I was surprised to see my children adding weight.”
Ibrahim’s children began improving after she began skin-to-skin contact, and she spoke about the experience at the commemoration of World Prematurity Day in 2013.
Newborn in a coma saved by Kangaroo Care
Adam Chesire contracted group B strep at birth and at just one day old he stopped breathing and began to have seizures. He fell into a coma and had to be placed on life support. His parents were told that if he did survive, he would have speech, hearing, and vision problems.
“The told me to use kangaroo care after the way kangaroos care for their young in their pouches,” said Adam’s mother Charlotte Chesire. “Skin-to-skin contact is important. Adam is our miracle. He just refused to give up.”
Her son may have been at death’s door, but the instant she held him to her, he opened his eyes. She held her son for days as he grew stronger and began breastfeeding. She had said her goodbyes to Adam, but weeks later she was able to bring him home.
Baby boy is pronounced dead, but his mother’s touch brings him back
In perhaps the most remarkable story of the benefits of Kangaroo Care, a baby boy born with his twin sister at just 26 weeks gestation died. The doctor told the parents, Kate and David Ogg, that they were unable to save him. The devastated mother took her son and placed him skin-to-skin against her chest. She and her husband began to talk to their son and say their goodbyes, but then baby boy Jamie began to move.
The doctors and midwives told the parents that it was just a reflex, but as time ticked on for two hours, Jamie lifted his head. He grabbed his father’s finger, and he opened his eyes. His mother’s instinct to place him on her chest saved his life. He and his sister are now healthy six-year-olds.
While Kangaroo Care is certainly not a cure for any health condition, it has proven repeatedly that it is a natural and beautiful way to welcome every child into the world. It has also proven that it saves the lives of babies who are born too soon.
Preterm birth is a leading cause of neonatal death in the world, but Kangaroo Care has the potential to prevent 450,000 of those deaths with a 51% reduction in mortality for newborns weighing less than 70 ounces.
Countries around the world are beginning to make it standard practice now, but parents facing the premature birth of their children should know that it isn’t all about bonding. Kangaroo Care could save their baby’s life.
Stories like the one you just read transform hearts and minds.
For example, one of our followers, Ross, messaged us and commented:
“I began to question my pro-choice views after reading articles about Live Action…Live Action is primarily responsible for my becoming Pro-Life through their well-thought-out, scientific information and the emotionally and uplifting stories of real people with real experiences in saving the lives of their children regardless of what others might say.”
Knowledge is power and CAN open eyes to SEE the truth. And, YOU can provide the spark to transform someone’s mind, just like Ross.
The DAILY publishing at Live Action News is only made possible through generous people, like you, who give $5, $10, or $25.
Your gift today will not only keep these stories coming in 2020, but also help us open more eyes and change minds to be fully pro-life and save lives.
Will you join us in creating a world where the killing of preborn children is unthinkable and support Live Action News by making your tax-deductible gift today? | 1,591 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Progress tracking tools for students FREE Video Lesson Worth $20! 10,000 Math Questions From P1 to P6! Access 300 Hours of Video Explanations! Video Tutorials to Tough PSLE Questions! Step-by-step worked solutions
Your questions answered, explained
e.g. straight line,distance,algebra
showing results for "percentage increase by" difficulty: [ALL]
John always spends 20% of his monthly salary and saves the rest. After a pay increment of 10%, his monthly expenditure increases by $150. (a) What was his monthly income before the pay increment? (b) How much was his savings after the pay increment? Notes to students: ...
Gina saves exactly 60% of her salary every month. Her salary for the month of September was 20% less than her salary for the month of August. As a result, she spent $360 less in September as compared to the previous month. What was her expenditure in August?
Carol would always use 20% of her monthly salary to fund her daughter’s music classes. She received 40% less salary in May as compared to April. As a result, the amount of money that she used for music classes in May was $120 less as compared to that in April. How much money did she use to fund her daughter's music classes in April?
In a zoo, there were 1200 animals. 70% of these were herbivores and the rest were carnivores. A few days later, a certain number of carnivores and herbivores were transported to the zoo. This caused the number of herbivores to increase by 120%. As a result, 20% of all the animals in the zoo are carnivores. (a) How many carnivores were ...
In a bakery, there were a total of 900 cakes and cookies. 70% of them were cakes. After some of the items were sold, the number of cakes decreased by 20%. In the end, 10% of the items in the bakery are cookies. (a) How many cookies were sold in all? (b) If the selling price of a cookie is $1.50 a piece, how much was collected from the sale of the cookies? ...
Helena had 1500 stamps in her album. She had only Indian and Australian stamps. 30% of these were Australian stamps. She visited an exhibition and purchased some new Indian and Australian stamps. Subsequently, the number of Indian stamps that she had increased by 20%. Eventually, 40% of the total number of stamps in Helena's album are ...
80% of the passengers on a train were adults. At Tedddyham station, 510 passengers boarded the train and 90 passengers alighted. After that, the number of adults increased by 25% and the number of children increased by 200%. How many adults are on the train now?
In the morning, 70% of the butterflies in a butterfly park were yellow coloured and the rest were brown coloured. Over the next few hours, 80 more butterflies came into the park. With the addition, the number of yellow butterflies went up by 20% and the number of brown butterflies increased by 120%. Find out the number of butterflies in the butterfly park now.
On the first day of a two-day seminar, 30% of the participants were women. On the second day, there were 174 less participants as compared to day one. There were 60% less women and 24% less men on the second day. Find the number of participants on the, (a) first day of the seminar. (b) second day of the seminar. ...
John's monthly salary is $2000. He spends 10% of his salary on the household, 50% of the remainder on mortgage payments and saves the rest. Subsequently he had a pay increment. Now, the total amount of his mortgage payments and household expenditures is still the same as before but it makes up 40% of his new salary. What was the percentage increase in his salary? & ... | <urn:uuid:777b4e5f-dd6a-4c41-9e5e-03804635aa4f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.singaporemathguru.com/question_bank?key=percentage%20increase%20by | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.987845 | 823 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.186228364... | 2 | Progress tracking tools for students FREE Video Lesson Worth $20! 10,000 Math Questions From P1 to P6! Access 300 Hours of Video Explanations! Video Tutorials to Tough PSLE Questions! Step-by-step worked solutions
Your questions answered, explained
e.g. straight line,distance,algebra
showing results for "percentage increase by" difficulty: [ALL]
John always spends 20% of his monthly salary and saves the rest. After a pay increment of 10%, his monthly expenditure increases by $150. (a) What was his monthly income before the pay increment? (b) How much was his savings after the pay increment? Notes to students: ...
Gina saves exactly 60% of her salary every month. Her salary for the month of September was 20% less than her salary for the month of August. As a result, she spent $360 less in September as compared to the previous month. What was her expenditure in August?
Carol would always use 20% of her monthly salary to fund her daughter’s music classes. She received 40% less salary in May as compared to April. As a result, the amount of money that she used for music classes in May was $120 less as compared to that in April. How much money did she use to fund her daughter's music classes in April?
In a zoo, there were 1200 animals. 70% of these were herbivores and the rest were carnivores. A few days later, a certain number of carnivores and herbivores were transported to the zoo. This caused the number of herbivores to increase by 120%. As a result, 20% of all the animals in the zoo are carnivores. (a) How many carnivores were ...
In a bakery, there were a total of 900 cakes and cookies. 70% of them were cakes. After some of the items were sold, the number of cakes decreased by 20%. In the end, 10% of the items in the bakery are cookies. (a) How many cookies were sold in all? (b) If the selling price of a cookie is $1.50 a piece, how much was collected from the sale of the cookies? ...
Helena had 1500 stamps in her album. She had only Indian and Australian stamps. 30% of these were Australian stamps. She visited an exhibition and purchased some new Indian and Australian stamps. Subsequently, the number of Indian stamps that she had increased by 20%. Eventually, 40% of the total number of stamps in Helena's album are ...
80% of the passengers on a train were adults. At Tedddyham station, 510 passengers boarded the train and 90 passengers alighted. After that, the number of adults increased by 25% and the number of children increased by 200%. How many adults are on the train now?
In the morning, 70% of the butterflies in a butterfly park were yellow coloured and the rest were brown coloured. Over the next few hours, 80 more butterflies came into the park. With the addition, the number of yellow butterflies went up by 20% and the number of brown butterflies increased by 120%. Find out the number of butterflies in the butterfly park now.
On the first day of a two-day seminar, 30% of the participants were women. On the second day, there were 174 less participants as compared to day one. There were 60% less women and 24% less men on the second day. Find the number of participants on the, (a) first day of the seminar. (b) second day of the seminar. ...
John's monthly salary is $2000. He spends 10% of his salary on the household, 50% of the remainder on mortgage payments and saves the rest. Subsequently he had a pay increment. Now, the total amount of his mortgage payments and household expenditures is still the same as before but it makes up 40% of his new salary. What was the percentage increase in his salary? & ... | 898 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On January 24, 1965, Britain’s greatest war-time leader Winston Churchill died in London.
Born at Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, in 1874, Churchill joined the British Fourth Hussars, after his father’s death in 1895. He did not succeed very well at school so he was sent into the Army, where he served in a cavalry regiment.
After leaving the Army he became a Member of Parliament and began to write books. As a special correspondent for the «Morning Post» he was sent to South Africa to cover the Boer War (1899 — 1902) and was taken prisoner in 1899. Churchill managed to escape and returned to England.
In 1904, he joined the Liberals, serving in a number of important posts before being appointed Britain’s first lord of the admiralty in 1911, where he worked to bring the British navy to a readiness for the war that he foresaw.
In 1915, in the second year of World War I, Churchill was held responsible for the disastrous Dardanelles and Gallipoli campaigns, and he was excluded from the war coalition government.
Two years later, he returned to politics as a cabinet member in the Liberal government of Lloyd George.
After the outbreak of World War II in Europe, Churchill was called back to his post as first lord of the admiralty and eight months later replaced the ineffectual Neville Chamberlain as prime minister of a new coalition government.
In the first year of his administration, Britain stood alone against Nazi Germany, but Churchill promised his country and the world that the British people would «never surrender.»
He rallied the British people to a resolute resistance and expertly orchestrated Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin into an alliance that crushed the Axis. His oratory during the Second World War and determination to defeat Hitler and the Nazis is famous.
In 1951, Churchill was again elected prime minister. Two years later, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his six-volume historical study of World War II and for his political speeches; he was also knighted by Queen Elizabeth II.
In 1955, he retired as prime minister but remained in Parliament until 1964, the year before his death. | <urn:uuid:6a6991c6-523f-4aa9-9740-c2bbf7b01da7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tall-white-aliens.com/?p=10509 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.981978 | 454 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.5739465951919... | 3 | On January 24, 1965, Britain’s greatest war-time leader Winston Churchill died in London.
Born at Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, in 1874, Churchill joined the British Fourth Hussars, after his father’s death in 1895. He did not succeed very well at school so he was sent into the Army, where he served in a cavalry regiment.
After leaving the Army he became a Member of Parliament and began to write books. As a special correspondent for the «Morning Post» he was sent to South Africa to cover the Boer War (1899 — 1902) and was taken prisoner in 1899. Churchill managed to escape and returned to England.
In 1904, he joined the Liberals, serving in a number of important posts before being appointed Britain’s first lord of the admiralty in 1911, where he worked to bring the British navy to a readiness for the war that he foresaw.
In 1915, in the second year of World War I, Churchill was held responsible for the disastrous Dardanelles and Gallipoli campaigns, and he was excluded from the war coalition government.
Two years later, he returned to politics as a cabinet member in the Liberal government of Lloyd George.
After the outbreak of World War II in Europe, Churchill was called back to his post as first lord of the admiralty and eight months later replaced the ineffectual Neville Chamberlain as prime minister of a new coalition government.
In the first year of his administration, Britain stood alone against Nazi Germany, but Churchill promised his country and the world that the British people would «never surrender.»
He rallied the British people to a resolute resistance and expertly orchestrated Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin into an alliance that crushed the Axis. His oratory during the Second World War and determination to defeat Hitler and the Nazis is famous.
In 1951, Churchill was again elected prime minister. Two years later, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his six-volume historical study of World War II and for his political speeches; he was also knighted by Queen Elizabeth II.
In 1955, he retired as prime minister but remained in Parliament until 1964, the year before his death. | 481 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Among the main castle parts which had supreme importance for defence was the medieval castle tower. It was the most important structure used for defensive fortifications although it also served various other purposes. Towers were constructed in several shapes although square and circular towers were the most popular ones.
What was the Purpose of the Medieval Castle Towers
A medieval castle tower could serve several purposes. Length wise gunfire could be used on the invading enemy from the corner towers. On the other hand, flanking towers were located on the outside of the castle walls and provided effective flanking fire. Wall towers were used for archers to shower arrows on the invading armies. Finally, a medieval castle tower could also serve the purposes of storage and imprisonment.
Rihemberk Castle Tower Medieval Castle towers
Where were Medieval Castle Tower’s located
Various castle locations could be used for the construction of a medieval castle tower. It was one of those castle parts which could be constructed in various shapes and at various locations. For instance, there were wall towers construed on the walls and square gate towers constructed beside the main entrance. A flanking medieval castle tower was constructed on the outside of the defensive wall. Archer towers were usually constructed on the corners of castle walls and had vertical loops called arrow-loops for archers to shoot arrows from.
How were Medieval Castle Tower’s defended
There were various methods of defending a medieval castle tower. The usual way was to relegate the responsibility to the archers who could shoot arrows from the arrow-loops specifically designed for the same purpose. Towers constructed on the castle walls could be used to pour boiling liquids on the invading enemy. During the later medieval times, a medieval castle tower had a curved architecture which made it difficult for the enemy to mine the foundations of the castle.
How many Medieval Castle Tower’s were there
There was a wide variety of a medieval castle towers. During the early and middle medieval times, towers were generally constructed in square shapes. However, during the late medieval times, circular towers became more important among the castle parts reserved for defence as this shape provided a clear line of sight for the archers. Unlike the square shaped towers, circular towers were also not vulnerable to mining. Other less common tower types included horseshoe-shaped towers and polygonal towers.
How were Medieval Castle Tower’s built
Until 1066, the most common material used in the construction of a medieval castle tower was wood. However, this changed after the Norman Conquest in 1066 and stone towers became more popular. Wood cost less and wooden towers were easy to build. However, they provided for weaker defence compared to stone towers. Stone towers were immune to fire and were comparatively easier to defend.
Medieval Castle Tower Summary
A medieval castle tower had central importance in the castle parts used for its defence. Medieval castle towers came in various shapes and served a variety of purposes. Although the central purpose of these towers was defence, they could also be used for storage and imprisonment purposes. Square or rectangular shaped towers were common before the Normal Conquest but after that circular towers made of stone became popular. | <urn:uuid:f1c9e0da-f32e-471a-a3b2-30380c18b9bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-castles/medieval-castle-parts/medieval-castle-tower/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.98757 | 634 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.065005645155... | 6 | Among the main castle parts which had supreme importance for defence was the medieval castle tower. It was the most important structure used for defensive fortifications although it also served various other purposes. Towers were constructed in several shapes although square and circular towers were the most popular ones.
What was the Purpose of the Medieval Castle Towers
A medieval castle tower could serve several purposes. Length wise gunfire could be used on the invading enemy from the corner towers. On the other hand, flanking towers were located on the outside of the castle walls and provided effective flanking fire. Wall towers were used for archers to shower arrows on the invading armies. Finally, a medieval castle tower could also serve the purposes of storage and imprisonment.
Rihemberk Castle Tower Medieval Castle towers
Where were Medieval Castle Tower’s located
Various castle locations could be used for the construction of a medieval castle tower. It was one of those castle parts which could be constructed in various shapes and at various locations. For instance, there were wall towers construed on the walls and square gate towers constructed beside the main entrance. A flanking medieval castle tower was constructed on the outside of the defensive wall. Archer towers were usually constructed on the corners of castle walls and had vertical loops called arrow-loops for archers to shoot arrows from.
How were Medieval Castle Tower’s defended
There were various methods of defending a medieval castle tower. The usual way was to relegate the responsibility to the archers who could shoot arrows from the arrow-loops specifically designed for the same purpose. Towers constructed on the castle walls could be used to pour boiling liquids on the invading enemy. During the later medieval times, a medieval castle tower had a curved architecture which made it difficult for the enemy to mine the foundations of the castle.
How many Medieval Castle Tower’s were there
There was a wide variety of a medieval castle towers. During the early and middle medieval times, towers were generally constructed in square shapes. However, during the late medieval times, circular towers became more important among the castle parts reserved for defence as this shape provided a clear line of sight for the archers. Unlike the square shaped towers, circular towers were also not vulnerable to mining. Other less common tower types included horseshoe-shaped towers and polygonal towers.
How were Medieval Castle Tower’s built
Until 1066, the most common material used in the construction of a medieval castle tower was wood. However, this changed after the Norman Conquest in 1066 and stone towers became more popular. Wood cost less and wooden towers were easy to build. However, they provided for weaker defence compared to stone towers. Stone towers were immune to fire and were comparatively easier to defend.
Medieval Castle Tower Summary
A medieval castle tower had central importance in the castle parts used for its defence. Medieval castle towers came in various shapes and served a variety of purposes. Although the central purpose of these towers was defence, they could also be used for storage and imprisonment purposes. Square or rectangular shaped towers were common before the Normal Conquest but after that circular towers made of stone became popular. | 623 | ENGLISH | 1 |
INTRODUCTION. Æschylus, the first of the great Grecian writers of tragedy, was born at Eleusis, in 525 B.C. He was the son of Euphorion, who was probably a wealthy owner of rich vineyards. The poet's early employment was to watch the grapes and protect them from the ravages of men and other animals, and it is said that this occupation led to the development of his dramatic genius. It is more easy to believe that it was responsible for the development of certain other less admirable qualities of the poet. His first appearance as a tragic writer was in 499 B.C., and in 484 B.C. he won a prize in the tragic contests. He took part in the battle of Marathon, in 490 B.C., and also fought in the battle of Salamis, in 480 B.C. He visited Sicily twice, and probably spent some time in that country, as the use of many Sicilian words in his later plays would indicate. There is a curious story related as to his death, which took place at Gela in 456 B.C. It is said that an eagle, mistaking his bald head for a stone, dropped a tortoise upon it in order to break its shell, and that the blow quite killed Æschylus. Too much reliance should not be placed upon this story. It is not known how many plays the poet wrote, but only seven have been preserved to us. That these tragedies contain much that is undramatic is undoubtedly true, but it must be remembered that at the time he wrote, Æschylus found the drama in a very primitive state. The persons represented consisted of but a single actor, who related some narrative of mythological or legendary interest, and a chorus, who relieved the monotony of such a performance by the interspersing of a few songs and dances. To Æschylus belongs the credit of creating the dialogue in the Greek drama by the introduction of a second actor. In the following pages will be found a translation of two of the poet's greatest compositions, viz., the "Prometheus Chained" and the "Seven Against Thebes." The first of these dramas has been designated "The sublimest poem and simplest tragedy of antiquity," and the second, while probably an earlier work and containing much that is undramatic, presents such a splendid spectacle of true Grecian chivalry that it has been regarded as the equal of anything which the author ever attempted. The characters represented in the "Prometheus" are Strength, Force, Vulcan, Prometheus, Io, daughter of Inachus, Ocean and Mercury. The play opens with the appearance of Prometheus in company with Strength, Force and Vulcan, who have been bidden to bind Prometheus with adamantine fetters to the lofty cragged rocks of an untrodden Scythian desert, because he has offended Jupiter by stealing fire from heaven and bestowing it upon mortals. Vulcan is loth to obey the mandates of Jove, but urged on by Strength and Force and the fear of the consequences which disobedience will entail, with mighty force drives the wedges into the adamantine rocks and rivets the captive with galling shackles to the ruthless crags. Prometheus, being bound and left alone, bemoans his fate and relates to the chorus of nymphs the base ingratitude of Jove, who through his counsels having overwhelmed the aged Saturn beneath the murky abyss of Tartarus, now rewards his ally with indignities because he had compassion upon mortals. Ocean then comes to Prometheus, offering sympathy and counsel, urging him not to utter words thus harsh and whetted, lest Jupiter seated far aloft may hear them and inflict upon him added woes to which his present sufferings will seem but child's play. | <urn:uuid:64cbd1c9-588a-4b9e-9f42-ac6219a10b63> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://isbn.nu/authorx/aeschylus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.98085 | 783 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.286591589... | 4 | INTRODUCTION. Æschylus, the first of the great Grecian writers of tragedy, was born at Eleusis, in 525 B.C. He was the son of Euphorion, who was probably a wealthy owner of rich vineyards. The poet's early employment was to watch the grapes and protect them from the ravages of men and other animals, and it is said that this occupation led to the development of his dramatic genius. It is more easy to believe that it was responsible for the development of certain other less admirable qualities of the poet. His first appearance as a tragic writer was in 499 B.C., and in 484 B.C. he won a prize in the tragic contests. He took part in the battle of Marathon, in 490 B.C., and also fought in the battle of Salamis, in 480 B.C. He visited Sicily twice, and probably spent some time in that country, as the use of many Sicilian words in his later plays would indicate. There is a curious story related as to his death, which took place at Gela in 456 B.C. It is said that an eagle, mistaking his bald head for a stone, dropped a tortoise upon it in order to break its shell, and that the blow quite killed Æschylus. Too much reliance should not be placed upon this story. It is not known how many plays the poet wrote, but only seven have been preserved to us. That these tragedies contain much that is undramatic is undoubtedly true, but it must be remembered that at the time he wrote, Æschylus found the drama in a very primitive state. The persons represented consisted of but a single actor, who related some narrative of mythological or legendary interest, and a chorus, who relieved the monotony of such a performance by the interspersing of a few songs and dances. To Æschylus belongs the credit of creating the dialogue in the Greek drama by the introduction of a second actor. In the following pages will be found a translation of two of the poet's greatest compositions, viz., the "Prometheus Chained" and the "Seven Against Thebes." The first of these dramas has been designated "The sublimest poem and simplest tragedy of antiquity," and the second, while probably an earlier work and containing much that is undramatic, presents such a splendid spectacle of true Grecian chivalry that it has been regarded as the equal of anything which the author ever attempted. The characters represented in the "Prometheus" are Strength, Force, Vulcan, Prometheus, Io, daughter of Inachus, Ocean and Mercury. The play opens with the appearance of Prometheus in company with Strength, Force and Vulcan, who have been bidden to bind Prometheus with adamantine fetters to the lofty cragged rocks of an untrodden Scythian desert, because he has offended Jupiter by stealing fire from heaven and bestowing it upon mortals. Vulcan is loth to obey the mandates of Jove, but urged on by Strength and Force and the fear of the consequences which disobedience will entail, with mighty force drives the wedges into the adamantine rocks and rivets the captive with galling shackles to the ruthless crags. Prometheus, being bound and left alone, bemoans his fate and relates to the chorus of nymphs the base ingratitude of Jove, who through his counsels having overwhelmed the aged Saturn beneath the murky abyss of Tartarus, now rewards his ally with indignities because he had compassion upon mortals. Ocean then comes to Prometheus, offering sympathy and counsel, urging him not to utter words thus harsh and whetted, lest Jupiter seated far aloft may hear them and inflict upon him added woes to which his present sufferings will seem but child's play. | 798 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Athens, the capital of Greece, is widely-known to have been named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom. Archaeologists have found that people have lived in the area for over 7,000 years. However, not much is known about how Athens got its name in the first place.
The closest we can get to answers is by examining a myth that seeks to explain how the city was named. In this tale, the gods and goddesses participated in a competition where they bestowed gifts upon the inhabitants of the city we now know as Athens. The god or goddess with the best gift would win. Here’s more information about this story:
An Ancient Creature Ruled Over Attica
Cecrops I was a mythical being who was often depicted as having the lower half of a great serpent in place of legs. He was the king of the Attic Peninsula, also known as Attica, and he ruled for fifty years. During his reign, he founded a city that he called Cecropia and taught the citizens about reading, writing, wedding ceremonies, and other aspects of life that made them more civilized.
Quest for a New Patron Deity
The gods of Olympus were impressed by Cecropia and many of them wanted to become the new city’s patron deity. Athena and Poseidon were especially interested and argued bitterly over Cecropia. Zeus, the king of the gods, ordered them to present a gift to the city and allow Cecrops and his people to choose the gift they liked better. This new competition pitted Poseidon, the God of the Sea, against Athena, the Goddess of Wisdom.
Poseidon Gifts the City a Spring
According to many accounts, Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and produced a great spring. Some say this indicated a promise to make the city a great naval power, and others say he was promising protection from drought. Still, other versions of the myth say that Poseidon created a horse.
Athena Won the Competition
All versions of the myth state that Athena’s gift was the olive tree, which would provide Cecropia’s citizens with firewood, oil, and food. The olive tree also symbolized peace and prosperity to the ancient Greeks. Cecrops and his people preferred the olive tree, so Athena won the patronage of Cecropia which was quickly renamed Athens. Some versions of the myth also depict Poseidon as a sore loser who either caused a drought or a flood.
The New Patron Goddess is Honored
The Athenians built many temples and held many festivals to honor their new patron goddess. The owl, which was a symbol for wisdom, was sacred to Athena. After the development of money, the Athenians struck coins that depicted Athena and her owl on both sides.
The outcome of this story shows how much the Ancient Greeks relied on the olive tree. Ultimately, it was the olive oil, often referred to as liquid gold, that was the source of much of the Athenian’s eventual wealth. | <urn:uuid:0b41fbb8-3051-41bd-8eb6-f457e7cf0f28> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.myparea.com/myth-athens-name/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00323.warc.gz | en | 0.98381 | 619 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.26318293809... | 5 | Athens, the capital of Greece, is widely-known to have been named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom. Archaeologists have found that people have lived in the area for over 7,000 years. However, not much is known about how Athens got its name in the first place.
The closest we can get to answers is by examining a myth that seeks to explain how the city was named. In this tale, the gods and goddesses participated in a competition where they bestowed gifts upon the inhabitants of the city we now know as Athens. The god or goddess with the best gift would win. Here’s more information about this story:
An Ancient Creature Ruled Over Attica
Cecrops I was a mythical being who was often depicted as having the lower half of a great serpent in place of legs. He was the king of the Attic Peninsula, also known as Attica, and he ruled for fifty years. During his reign, he founded a city that he called Cecropia and taught the citizens about reading, writing, wedding ceremonies, and other aspects of life that made them more civilized.
Quest for a New Patron Deity
The gods of Olympus were impressed by Cecropia and many of them wanted to become the new city’s patron deity. Athena and Poseidon were especially interested and argued bitterly over Cecropia. Zeus, the king of the gods, ordered them to present a gift to the city and allow Cecrops and his people to choose the gift they liked better. This new competition pitted Poseidon, the God of the Sea, against Athena, the Goddess of Wisdom.
Poseidon Gifts the City a Spring
According to many accounts, Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and produced a great spring. Some say this indicated a promise to make the city a great naval power, and others say he was promising protection from drought. Still, other versions of the myth say that Poseidon created a horse.
Athena Won the Competition
All versions of the myth state that Athena’s gift was the olive tree, which would provide Cecropia’s citizens with firewood, oil, and food. The olive tree also symbolized peace and prosperity to the ancient Greeks. Cecrops and his people preferred the olive tree, so Athena won the patronage of Cecropia which was quickly renamed Athens. Some versions of the myth also depict Poseidon as a sore loser who either caused a drought or a flood.
The New Patron Goddess is Honored
The Athenians built many temples and held many festivals to honor their new patron goddess. The owl, which was a symbol for wisdom, was sacred to Athena. After the development of money, the Athenians struck coins that depicted Athena and her owl on both sides.
The outcome of this story shows how much the Ancient Greeks relied on the olive tree. Ultimately, it was the olive oil, often referred to as liquid gold, that was the source of much of the Athenian’s eventual wealth. | 603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare bases a lot of the play on conflict. Immediately, from the first scene, it is obvious there is a lot of conflict present. The conflict in Romeo and Juliet consists of two opposing families and is expressed in a number of words and ways. These include conflict such as a struggle between two characters in the play or even conflict between just one person. In his/her actions. Having this conflict has a real positive impact on a play making it exciting, fun, interesting and leaving people wanting to know more! It’s as much present as it was back in Shakespearean times as it is now. An example of modern conflict is shown in the popular soap opera, Eastenders. In this play it is clear that conflict is present, and is shown in the beginning, in the prologue. The prologue is written in a sonnet, which is 14 lines that follow certain rules. This almost prepares the reader/audience for a whole play full of conflict. It does this by saying lyrics like “from ancient grudge break to new mutiny”.
This is basically telling the audience that, from the hate between the two families, a fight breaks out. So therefore there will be conflict immediately from the start. It also reads
“Continuance of their parents rage”
This then tells us that the conflict is also in the parents and has been present for a long time. This therefore makes it seem hard for peace ever to be found. Even if you just selected a few words from this text you would be able to see how clearly conflict is present. “Grudge…civil… blood…death”
Any of these words are immediately associated and bring up images of conflict in many people’s minds.
The first example of actual conflict is shown at the start. It’s also one of the most obvious presented in the play. The “ancient” feud between the two houses. This is shown by insults being thrown at each other and also physical violence. The result of this first conflict is a key component in the play. As you later find out that, anyone next to break the peace in Verona, shall have to face consequences. This obviously proves deadly for Romeo And Juliet, shown also later in the play. This therefore shows the conflict between not only Montague’s and Capulet’s but their honour and the law.
Another way that conflict is presented is in the choice of language and words he uses. Especially when it keeps appearing repeatedly throughout the book. Such as the word (on page 9, line 86) “Cankered”
This is said many times, and is fully said as “cankered hate”. Cankered meaning like a cancer. This is very clever because when you think about cancer you can associate it a lot to the play, in the form of love and conflict. These associations including: It spreading, eating away at you, being evil and fatal and can really affect anyone.
Lastly Shakespeare also uses oxymoron’s in Romeos speech which is also echoed again by Juliet later on. An example of this is said by Romeo “O brawling Love, O loving hate”
The two lines and selection of words contradict each other and therefore conflict is then presented in the words that he uses and adds to the whole idea of it. It also helps to show the conflict inside his head and confusion which is hurting him. This is therefore also an example of conflict not just between the families, but between, one character and their actions and thoughts inside their head.
Overall, conflict is definitely evident throughout Act 1 and even whole play and is presented in a number of different ways. It’s still very interesting to see how ideas are still very similar in modern films and shows. Especially when you watch the recent film. You see how his ideas of conflict presented are still very easy to see and use when you think about it in a modern situation. | <urn:uuid:69e0e0bc-91eb-4ea2-a6d7-c2c997ae4277> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/How-Does-Shakespeare-Present-Confilct-In-63693313.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.980056 | 822 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.5570429563... | 1 | During Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare bases a lot of the play on conflict. Immediately, from the first scene, it is obvious there is a lot of conflict present. The conflict in Romeo and Juliet consists of two opposing families and is expressed in a number of words and ways. These include conflict such as a struggle between two characters in the play or even conflict between just one person. In his/her actions. Having this conflict has a real positive impact on a play making it exciting, fun, interesting and leaving people wanting to know more! It’s as much present as it was back in Shakespearean times as it is now. An example of modern conflict is shown in the popular soap opera, Eastenders. In this play it is clear that conflict is present, and is shown in the beginning, in the prologue. The prologue is written in a sonnet, which is 14 lines that follow certain rules. This almost prepares the reader/audience for a whole play full of conflict. It does this by saying lyrics like “from ancient grudge break to new mutiny”.
This is basically telling the audience that, from the hate between the two families, a fight breaks out. So therefore there will be conflict immediately from the start. It also reads
“Continuance of their parents rage”
This then tells us that the conflict is also in the parents and has been present for a long time. This therefore makes it seem hard for peace ever to be found. Even if you just selected a few words from this text you would be able to see how clearly conflict is present. “Grudge…civil… blood…death”
Any of these words are immediately associated and bring up images of conflict in many people’s minds.
The first example of actual conflict is shown at the start. It’s also one of the most obvious presented in the play. The “ancient” feud between the two houses. This is shown by insults being thrown at each other and also physical violence. The result of this first conflict is a key component in the play. As you later find out that, anyone next to break the peace in Verona, shall have to face consequences. This obviously proves deadly for Romeo And Juliet, shown also later in the play. This therefore shows the conflict between not only Montague’s and Capulet’s but their honour and the law.
Another way that conflict is presented is in the choice of language and words he uses. Especially when it keeps appearing repeatedly throughout the book. Such as the word (on page 9, line 86) “Cankered”
This is said many times, and is fully said as “cankered hate”. Cankered meaning like a cancer. This is very clever because when you think about cancer you can associate it a lot to the play, in the form of love and conflict. These associations including: It spreading, eating away at you, being evil and fatal and can really affect anyone.
Lastly Shakespeare also uses oxymoron’s in Romeos speech which is also echoed again by Juliet later on. An example of this is said by Romeo “O brawling Love, O loving hate”
The two lines and selection of words contradict each other and therefore conflict is then presented in the words that he uses and adds to the whole idea of it. It also helps to show the conflict inside his head and confusion which is hurting him. This is therefore also an example of conflict not just between the families, but between, one character and their actions and thoughts inside their head.
Overall, conflict is definitely evident throughout Act 1 and even whole play and is presented in a number of different ways. It’s still very interesting to see how ideas are still very similar in modern films and shows. Especially when you watch the recent film. You see how his ideas of conflict presented are still very easy to see and use when you think about it in a modern situation. | 793 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why did us enter ww1 essay
Watch Now Remember Belgium! Among the dead were Americans, causing widespread outrage in the US.
Additionally, the U. America insisted on staying neutral and had the Atlantic Ocean to act as a barrier to not get involved with this war.
What was the significance of the entry of the u.s. into the war
With going to war it kept the wealth wealthier and the poor dead and forgotten. Since then, he has also coauthored a book on leaders and war initiation, Leaders and International Conflict Cambridge University Press, In early April , with the toll in sunken U. This combination of factors turned public opinion around. The first American troops arrived in Europe in June. World War l was avoided by the United States because they did not want to pick sides and spend money but when benefits were being shown and encouragement was given it was unavoidable. Several key factors played a part in this change of course. The increase in US exports made America an economic powerhouse which is why they went to war Doc 2. As well as loans trading had a big effect when all ties were off with Germany.
Additionally, Germany wanted Mexico to help convince Japan to come over to its side in the conflict. But America was one of the only countries like this that entered the war.
To Goemans, World War I illustrates a modern insight into the nature of war—that it basically takes two sides to fight. In response, Wilson signed the National Defense Act in June of that year, expanding the Army and the National Guard, and in August, the president signed legislation designed to significantly strengthen the Navy.
If they defeated the British, then they could prevent Americans from coming to the mainland and they would have a victorious end to the war. It convinced America that was could not be avoided and they finally had to enter the war.
How did america help in ww1
They discuss the role that masculine insecurity played in the build up to the war and also examine the construct of and myths surrounding nationalistic feeling in the pre-war years. This isolationist view was also present pre and post-World War I. That May, Congress passed the Selective Service Act , which reinstated the draft for the first time since the Civil War and led to some 2. The other countries were demolished and had damage that would take forever to rebuild. Some Americans disagreed with this nonintervention policy, including former president Theodore Roosevelt , who criticized Wilson and advocated for going to war. With going to war it kept the wealth wealthier and the poor dead and forgotten. The first U. I am Alice Jordan reporting your evening news on the Great War of American businesses and banks made huge loans to the Allies.
The incident strained diplomatic relations between Washington and Berlin and helped turn public opinion against Germany.
based on 53 review | <urn:uuid:e18a5a53-dbe3-45c3-a4f7-8cb1d1340ebd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://penivyhozesameju.whatshanesaid.com/why-did-us-enter-ww1-essay399274266hd.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00163.warc.gz | en | 0.981749 | 572 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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Watch Now Remember Belgium! Among the dead were Americans, causing widespread outrage in the US.
Additionally, the U. America insisted on staying neutral and had the Atlantic Ocean to act as a barrier to not get involved with this war.
What was the significance of the entry of the u.s. into the war
With going to war it kept the wealth wealthier and the poor dead and forgotten. Since then, he has also coauthored a book on leaders and war initiation, Leaders and International Conflict Cambridge University Press, In early April , with the toll in sunken U. This combination of factors turned public opinion around. The first American troops arrived in Europe in June. World War l was avoided by the United States because they did not want to pick sides and spend money but when benefits were being shown and encouragement was given it was unavoidable. Several key factors played a part in this change of course. The increase in US exports made America an economic powerhouse which is why they went to war Doc 2. As well as loans trading had a big effect when all ties were off with Germany.
Additionally, Germany wanted Mexico to help convince Japan to come over to its side in the conflict. But America was one of the only countries like this that entered the war.
To Goemans, World War I illustrates a modern insight into the nature of war—that it basically takes two sides to fight. In response, Wilson signed the National Defense Act in June of that year, expanding the Army and the National Guard, and in August, the president signed legislation designed to significantly strengthen the Navy.
If they defeated the British, then they could prevent Americans from coming to the mainland and they would have a victorious end to the war. It convinced America that was could not be avoided and they finally had to enter the war.
How did america help in ww1
They discuss the role that masculine insecurity played in the build up to the war and also examine the construct of and myths surrounding nationalistic feeling in the pre-war years. This isolationist view was also present pre and post-World War I. That May, Congress passed the Selective Service Act , which reinstated the draft for the first time since the Civil War and led to some 2. The other countries were demolished and had damage that would take forever to rebuild. Some Americans disagreed with this nonintervention policy, including former president Theodore Roosevelt , who criticized Wilson and advocated for going to war. With going to war it kept the wealth wealthier and the poor dead and forgotten. The first U. I am Alice Jordan reporting your evening news on the Great War of American businesses and banks made huge loans to the Allies.
The incident strained diplomatic relations between Washington and Berlin and helped turn public opinion against Germany.
based on 53 review | 566 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Black Legend is a claim against the Spaniards by the English, because they were seen as excessively bloodthirsty, cruel, greedy,and heartless. For all of their bravado, they were also considered to be an inferior, impure race, because they were a combination of African and European. They also had Muslim and Christian roots. The Spanish Empire was considered to be the empire of darkness and barbarianism.
The Spanish came to America to gain riches and to increase their social standing. When the Spanish came here they were already a very racist people. Also, they didn't plan to stay forever, so what reason would they have for trying to make friends. They came here expecting to find what Cortez found, large cities made of gold, but except for the Incas and Aztecs that was not the case. When they discovered that there was no gold to be found, they were very upset and they took it out on the Indians that already lived here. .
When they came upon Indians that they considered to be worshiping differently than they were, they were obligated and encouraged by the church to "set them straight" using any means necessary. They seemed to overdo it. For example, when Onate was colonizing the Pueblo country, he sent some soldiers ahead to tell the Pueblo tribe that they should now consider themselves subjects of the Spanish crown. The Indians decided that they were not going to be Spanish subjects and killed 13 soldiers. Onate decided that he would punish these Indians. He killed most of the Pueblo warriors and took captive at least 500 women, children, and men that were too old and sick to fight. Of the Indians he took captive, about 80 that were over 25 were forced to serve as slaves for a period of 20 years and have one foot amputated. Personally, don't see how a one-footed slave is very useful, but I guess they can't escape that way. The women and children were also forced to be slaves, but were not mutilated like the men were. | <urn:uuid:9c65f7b2-d477-4d8c-9a98-f7a5cdbf15f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/66118.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.996628 | 418 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.33963611721... | 6 | The Black Legend is a claim against the Spaniards by the English, because they were seen as excessively bloodthirsty, cruel, greedy,and heartless. For all of their bravado, they were also considered to be an inferior, impure race, because they were a combination of African and European. They also had Muslim and Christian roots. The Spanish Empire was considered to be the empire of darkness and barbarianism.
The Spanish came to America to gain riches and to increase their social standing. When the Spanish came here they were already a very racist people. Also, they didn't plan to stay forever, so what reason would they have for trying to make friends. They came here expecting to find what Cortez found, large cities made of gold, but except for the Incas and Aztecs that was not the case. When they discovered that there was no gold to be found, they were very upset and they took it out on the Indians that already lived here. .
When they came upon Indians that they considered to be worshiping differently than they were, they were obligated and encouraged by the church to "set them straight" using any means necessary. They seemed to overdo it. For example, when Onate was colonizing the Pueblo country, he sent some soldiers ahead to tell the Pueblo tribe that they should now consider themselves subjects of the Spanish crown. The Indians decided that they were not going to be Spanish subjects and killed 13 soldiers. Onate decided that he would punish these Indians. He killed most of the Pueblo warriors and took captive at least 500 women, children, and men that were too old and sick to fight. Of the Indians he took captive, about 80 that were over 25 were forced to serve as slaves for a period of 20 years and have one foot amputated. Personally, don't see how a one-footed slave is very useful, but I guess they can't escape that way. The women and children were also forced to be slaves, but were not mutilated like the men were. | 425 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The period after the Civil War was a very difficult time in the United States’ history. This time was known as the Reconstruction period and it was a very controversial time. There were many issues that had to be addressed such as what to do with the free blacks in the south and how states would be readmitted to the Union. This era saw the rise of the Radical Republicans. The government was going through changes, southerners were going through changes, and blacks were going through changes.
Whites in the south were left without people to work their plantations. Slavery was indeed a very important topic during this time. Many of the reconstruction plans that were proposed required states to prohibit slavery in order to be readmitted to the Union.
When the Civil War ended in 1865, there was no definite plan for reconstructing the Union. This was a very serious matter. President Lincoln had begun thinking about this while he was in office.
In 1863 he proposed his Ten Percent Plan. This policy would allow seceding states to return to the Union if ten percent of their prewar voters took an oath of loyalty to the Union and if the state would prohibit slavery. Although the plan forced states to prohibit slavery it did not force them to grant equal rights to blacks. The Ten Percent Plan was a good idea but some Republicans felt that it was not strict enough. This paved the way for the Wade-Davis Bill. This bill required the majority of a state’s prewar voters to pledge loyalty to the Union and that blacks were seen as equal in the eyes of the law.
These plans led to controversy. Some people felt that because the constitution never mentioned succession, the states never actually seceded the Union so they didn’t need to be formally readmitted. Others felt that the states from the South had given up their rights once they left the Union so they must be readmitted.
Upon the close of the Civil War, Congress was not in session. They would not meet again until December. This left the burden of developing a reconstruction plan on the shoulders of President Andrew Johnson.
So in May of 1865 Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan was unveiled. Under this plan, Johnson gave pardons and restored property rights to former white landowners if they pledged loyalty to the Union and the Constitution. Southerners that held prominent positions in the Confederacy and had more than $20,000 worth of taxable land had to ask the president directly for a pardon. Johnson’s Plan had nothing to say about the rights of blacks after the war. Most Northern Democrats favored Johnson’s Plan. However Southerners were not so impressed.
Many of the southern states accepted Johnson’s plan but some of them attacked the black rights issue. Some states would not ratify the thirteenth amendment. None of the southern states would allow blacks to vote. In late 1865 the southern states revised their slave codes into what became know as the black codes. This basically stripped blacks of every right and justice that was due to them. Since Johnson’s plan did not address the rights and liberties of blacks, the southern states took it into their own hands to create their own laws regarding blacks.
When Congress met again they began to fight for the rights of blacks. They responded to the black codes by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1866. President Johnson vetoed the bill but Congress overruled his veto with a 2/3 majority vote. Congress’ view of President Johnson began to deteriorate.
The Military Reconstruction Acts did not go over well with President Johnson. He vetoed the bill, however the Radical Republicans passed it over Johnson’s veto.
These acts began in 1867 and began what was known as Radical Reconstruction. Under this plan the south was divided into five districts. Excluding Tennessee because they had already been readmitted into the Union. Each of the districts were headed by a general. The main goal of the leader was to increase voter registration of blacks and to see to it that white confederates did not get back into office as they were before. The new voters . | <urn:uuid:9a946161-31d5-4dda-95ec-9b35651c8324> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/civil-war-reconstruction-essay-2-112759/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.987689 | 831 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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0.567954421043... | 3 | The period after the Civil War was a very difficult time in the United States’ history. This time was known as the Reconstruction period and it was a very controversial time. There were many issues that had to be addressed such as what to do with the free blacks in the south and how states would be readmitted to the Union. This era saw the rise of the Radical Republicans. The government was going through changes, southerners were going through changes, and blacks were going through changes.
Whites in the south were left without people to work their plantations. Slavery was indeed a very important topic during this time. Many of the reconstruction plans that were proposed required states to prohibit slavery in order to be readmitted to the Union.
When the Civil War ended in 1865, there was no definite plan for reconstructing the Union. This was a very serious matter. President Lincoln had begun thinking about this while he was in office.
In 1863 he proposed his Ten Percent Plan. This policy would allow seceding states to return to the Union if ten percent of their prewar voters took an oath of loyalty to the Union and if the state would prohibit slavery. Although the plan forced states to prohibit slavery it did not force them to grant equal rights to blacks. The Ten Percent Plan was a good idea but some Republicans felt that it was not strict enough. This paved the way for the Wade-Davis Bill. This bill required the majority of a state’s prewar voters to pledge loyalty to the Union and that blacks were seen as equal in the eyes of the law.
These plans led to controversy. Some people felt that because the constitution never mentioned succession, the states never actually seceded the Union so they didn’t need to be formally readmitted. Others felt that the states from the South had given up their rights once they left the Union so they must be readmitted.
Upon the close of the Civil War, Congress was not in session. They would not meet again until December. This left the burden of developing a reconstruction plan on the shoulders of President Andrew Johnson.
So in May of 1865 Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan was unveiled. Under this plan, Johnson gave pardons and restored property rights to former white landowners if they pledged loyalty to the Union and the Constitution. Southerners that held prominent positions in the Confederacy and had more than $20,000 worth of taxable land had to ask the president directly for a pardon. Johnson’s Plan had nothing to say about the rights of blacks after the war. Most Northern Democrats favored Johnson’s Plan. However Southerners were not so impressed.
Many of the southern states accepted Johnson’s plan but some of them attacked the black rights issue. Some states would not ratify the thirteenth amendment. None of the southern states would allow blacks to vote. In late 1865 the southern states revised their slave codes into what became know as the black codes. This basically stripped blacks of every right and justice that was due to them. Since Johnson’s plan did not address the rights and liberties of blacks, the southern states took it into their own hands to create their own laws regarding blacks.
When Congress met again they began to fight for the rights of blacks. They responded to the black codes by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1866. President Johnson vetoed the bill but Congress overruled his veto with a 2/3 majority vote. Congress’ view of President Johnson began to deteriorate.
The Military Reconstruction Acts did not go over well with President Johnson. He vetoed the bill, however the Radical Republicans passed it over Johnson’s veto.
These acts began in 1867 and began what was known as Radical Reconstruction. Under this plan the south was divided into five districts. Excluding Tennessee because they had already been readmitted into the Union. Each of the districts were headed by a general. The main goal of the leader was to increase voter registration of blacks and to see to it that white confederates did not get back into office as they were before. The new voters . | 835 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aeneas is a great warrior who is endowed with all the right qualities. He is a brave individual and a brilliant warrior. People love him for his great fighting skills. He is a superb orator and can move the audience with his heart touching speeches. He is instilled with great family values and gives a high level of respect to his father, Anchises.
Aeneas is one of the strongest characters drawn by Homer. He is devoid of all sorts of inadequacies. Weaknesses, if any are only meant to heighten his human qualities. In one instance, we see Aeneas tempted to kill a cowering Helen, whose ill-fated beauty caused the destruction of Troy. But, Venus intervenes in between and sends off Aeneas to fend for his family. Hence, we see that Homer purposefully gave Aeneas a few weaknesses in his personality to make him more believable to the readers.
Aeneid was a troubled world. The Greeks had tricked the Trojans and entered the land of Troy creating widespread havoc. Aeneas fought is battle well and proved to be a strong opponent to the persecutors. However, he was only human and it was possible for him to stay at only one place and fight a single battle. When all around him Greeks were slaying the drunk and astounded Trojans, it was impossible for Aeneas to fight them all single-handedly. Aeneas was a human after all and as while he fought bravely and contributed largely in the battle he was unable to save the king Priam as he was being massacred before his very eyes. He was deeply disturbed and grief-struck on witnessing the murder of his king and this grief transformed to anger when the cause of all this bloodshed, Helen came visible within his sight. Filled with all-consuming anger, he moved forward to kill this creature responsible for the destruction of Troy, but the timely intervention of Venus made him realize his momentary weakness and Aeneas retraced his path. Hence, we see that Aeneas is indeed a worthy hero who is, however, a great victim of fate. It is fate that lessens his heroic qualities and not any of his personality traits.
Odysseus, Aeneas, and Achilles all were great heroes of the Trojan War. While Odysseus and Achilles fought for the Greeks, Aeneas was on the other side and fought for the Trojans. All three personalities were befitted with many heroic characteristics but also possessed some weaknesses that caused them grief and death.
Odysseus was brave and intelligent and always thought before he acted. Yet, his failing was his pride. He was very much proud of his achievements and this led him to grave trouble. Odysseus also had a lustful nature and this proved hindrance to his journey to home. However, Odysseus had the qualities of endurance, with and courage that helped him to overcome all the obstacles of his life and reach home victorious.
Aeneas was once again the bravest soldier at the side of Trojan but due to fate, he could not save his country even though he committed wholeheartedly to preserve it. However, in the case of Aeneas, we find that he is mostly governed by the commands and advice of his mother and other gods and goddesses and utilizes his own intellect and instincts to a lesser degree. Hence, we can say that Aeneas was brave but lacked the power of decision making or intellect. He was more of a family-oriented, nationalistic and god driven man.
Achilles was considered one of the greatest Greek heroes. He was blessed with an immortal body, but for his heel. And it was this heel that finally had Achilles killed by the hands of Prince Paris of Troy. Achilles is known for his bravery and also his fury. His fury is inescapable. Achilles is also quite determined and once he had made up his mind, he overcomes even the most impossible objectives. His death was a tragic incident and quite ill-fated. After his death, his armor became an object of choice given to the most befitting warrior. Hence, we can say that Achilles was the most deserving hero of the war. | <urn:uuid:3fec0727-694d-42e5-8419-8b0f95d5c716> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/essay-comparison-of-aeneas-and-odysseus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00357.warc.gz | en | 0.992023 | 869 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.3812208175659... | 2 | Aeneas is a great warrior who is endowed with all the right qualities. He is a brave individual and a brilliant warrior. People love him for his great fighting skills. He is a superb orator and can move the audience with his heart touching speeches. He is instilled with great family values and gives a high level of respect to his father, Anchises.
Aeneas is one of the strongest characters drawn by Homer. He is devoid of all sorts of inadequacies. Weaknesses, if any are only meant to heighten his human qualities. In one instance, we see Aeneas tempted to kill a cowering Helen, whose ill-fated beauty caused the destruction of Troy. But, Venus intervenes in between and sends off Aeneas to fend for his family. Hence, we see that Homer purposefully gave Aeneas a few weaknesses in his personality to make him more believable to the readers.
Aeneid was a troubled world. The Greeks had tricked the Trojans and entered the land of Troy creating widespread havoc. Aeneas fought is battle well and proved to be a strong opponent to the persecutors. However, he was only human and it was possible for him to stay at only one place and fight a single battle. When all around him Greeks were slaying the drunk and astounded Trojans, it was impossible for Aeneas to fight them all single-handedly. Aeneas was a human after all and as while he fought bravely and contributed largely in the battle he was unable to save the king Priam as he was being massacred before his very eyes. He was deeply disturbed and grief-struck on witnessing the murder of his king and this grief transformed to anger when the cause of all this bloodshed, Helen came visible within his sight. Filled with all-consuming anger, he moved forward to kill this creature responsible for the destruction of Troy, but the timely intervention of Venus made him realize his momentary weakness and Aeneas retraced his path. Hence, we see that Aeneas is indeed a worthy hero who is, however, a great victim of fate. It is fate that lessens his heroic qualities and not any of his personality traits.
Odysseus, Aeneas, and Achilles all were great heroes of the Trojan War. While Odysseus and Achilles fought for the Greeks, Aeneas was on the other side and fought for the Trojans. All three personalities were befitted with many heroic characteristics but also possessed some weaknesses that caused them grief and death.
Odysseus was brave and intelligent and always thought before he acted. Yet, his failing was his pride. He was very much proud of his achievements and this led him to grave trouble. Odysseus also had a lustful nature and this proved hindrance to his journey to home. However, Odysseus had the qualities of endurance, with and courage that helped him to overcome all the obstacles of his life and reach home victorious.
Aeneas was once again the bravest soldier at the side of Trojan but due to fate, he could not save his country even though he committed wholeheartedly to preserve it. However, in the case of Aeneas, we find that he is mostly governed by the commands and advice of his mother and other gods and goddesses and utilizes his own intellect and instincts to a lesser degree. Hence, we can say that Aeneas was brave but lacked the power of decision making or intellect. He was more of a family-oriented, nationalistic and god driven man.
Achilles was considered one of the greatest Greek heroes. He was blessed with an immortal body, but for his heel. And it was this heel that finally had Achilles killed by the hands of Prince Paris of Troy. Achilles is known for his bravery and also his fury. His fury is inescapable. Achilles is also quite determined and once he had made up his mind, he overcomes even the most impossible objectives. His death was a tragic incident and quite ill-fated. After his death, his armor became an object of choice given to the most befitting warrior. Hence, we can say that Achilles was the most deserving hero of the war. | 863 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Russell Martin, “Beethoven’s Hair: An Extraordinary Historical Odyssey and a Scientific Mystery Solved”
Broadway | 2001-10-09 | ISBN:076790351X | 288 pages | PDF | 1,2 MB
Ludwig van Beethoven lay dying in 1827, a young musician named Ferdinand Hiller came to pay his respects to the great composer. In those days, it was customary to snip a lock of hair as a keepsake, and this Hiller did a day after Beethoven’s death. By the time he was buried, Beethoven’s head had been nearly shorn by the many people who similarly had wanted a lasting memento of the great man. Such was his powerful effect on all those who had heard his music.
For a century, the lock of hair was a treasured Hiller family relic, and perhaps was destined to end up sequestered in a bank vault, until it somehow found its way to the town of Gilleleje, in Nazi-occupied Denmark, during the darkest days of the Second World War. There, it was given to a local doctor, Kay Fremming, who was deeply involved in the effort to help save hundreds of hunted and frightened Jews. Who gave him the hair, and why? And what was the fate of those refugees, holed up in the attic of Gilleleje’s church? | <urn:uuid:f3f3f484-5177-41a0-a2d2-d25ea0431153> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bookspics.com/ebooks/beethovens-hair-extraordinary-historical-odyssey-scientific-mystery-solved/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.98612 | 298 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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Broadway | 2001-10-09 | ISBN:076790351X | 288 pages | PDF | 1,2 MB
Ludwig van Beethoven lay dying in 1827, a young musician named Ferdinand Hiller came to pay his respects to the great composer. In those days, it was customary to snip a lock of hair as a keepsake, and this Hiller did a day after Beethoven’s death. By the time he was buried, Beethoven’s head had been nearly shorn by the many people who similarly had wanted a lasting memento of the great man. Such was his powerful effect on all those who had heard his music.
For a century, the lock of hair was a treasured Hiller family relic, and perhaps was destined to end up sequestered in a bank vault, until it somehow found its way to the town of Gilleleje, in Nazi-occupied Denmark, during the darkest days of the Second World War. There, it was given to a local doctor, Kay Fremming, who was deeply involved in the effort to help save hundreds of hunted and frightened Jews. Who gave him the hair, and why? And what was the fate of those refugees, holed up in the attic of Gilleleje’s church? | 301 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jainism is an ascetic and gentle religion, the source of the Hindu concept of ahimsa, which means “nonviolence”. It is one of the 4 major religions that emerged out of India, along with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. There are somewhere between 4 and 6 million Jains in the world today, the majority of which live in India. It was a cornerstone of the political philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.
Jainism comes from the word Jina, meaning “conqueror”, and emerged in India between the 7th to 5th century BCE in the Ganges basin of eastern India. It emerged near the same time, and in the same place as Buddhism, and presents an alternative version of the renunciate path. Jains believe they do not truly have a historical founder, however, commonly their image of their great historic founder is known as the Mahavira.
He, much like the Buddha, was the son of a chieftain of the Kshatriya, warrior class, and at the age of 30, he renounced his princely status to take up the ascetic life. He walked naked around India, enduring cruelty and hardship, for many years. Then later began taking disciples, and educating those who would listen about his revelations about life, and the universe.
This practice that was developed held a fundamental purpose which was the freeing of the soul from its coating of karma and becoming an enlightened being. In Jain practice, there are many ways to achieve this, however, the method by which Jainism has become known by in the world is through its practice of nonviolence. In fact, Jains are likely the most peaceful people in the world.
In contrast to the Buddha’s emphasis on meditation, the Mahavira prioritized the practice of strict self-restraint and severe austerities, particularly fasting, as well as a form of vegetarianism. This often even disallows eating roots that grow into the ground, because all forms of life have a soul, and that is not something for a man to disrupt the flow of. Even Jain Monks do not wear clothing, because clothing is made from fiber, which would inevitably come from killing plants.
Although there is no doctrine of a creator, Jains do respect God as the supreme spirit, which is the highest potential of all souls. It is immediately apparent in the Mahavira and other liberated teachers in his lineage, who, therefore, become the focus of devotion. However, unlike Hinduism, there is no multitude of deities or gods which will help human beings.
Jains vow to abstain from killing, sexual activity, lying, stealing, and becoming attached to possessions. They even carry light brooms with them, to brush aside any insects in their path, and often wear face masks to prevent the accidental inhalation of flies. | <urn:uuid:b1f76c2d-8de5-49d2-adaa-6925c3aa8c4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.spiritsciencecentral.com/blog/Minute%20Faith%20Jainism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.984436 | 594 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.45950081944465637,... | 1 | Jainism is an ascetic and gentle religion, the source of the Hindu concept of ahimsa, which means “nonviolence”. It is one of the 4 major religions that emerged out of India, along with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. There are somewhere between 4 and 6 million Jains in the world today, the majority of which live in India. It was a cornerstone of the political philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.
Jainism comes from the word Jina, meaning “conqueror”, and emerged in India between the 7th to 5th century BCE in the Ganges basin of eastern India. It emerged near the same time, and in the same place as Buddhism, and presents an alternative version of the renunciate path. Jains believe they do not truly have a historical founder, however, commonly their image of their great historic founder is known as the Mahavira.
He, much like the Buddha, was the son of a chieftain of the Kshatriya, warrior class, and at the age of 30, he renounced his princely status to take up the ascetic life. He walked naked around India, enduring cruelty and hardship, for many years. Then later began taking disciples, and educating those who would listen about his revelations about life, and the universe.
This practice that was developed held a fundamental purpose which was the freeing of the soul from its coating of karma and becoming an enlightened being. In Jain practice, there are many ways to achieve this, however, the method by which Jainism has become known by in the world is through its practice of nonviolence. In fact, Jains are likely the most peaceful people in the world.
In contrast to the Buddha’s emphasis on meditation, the Mahavira prioritized the practice of strict self-restraint and severe austerities, particularly fasting, as well as a form of vegetarianism. This often even disallows eating roots that grow into the ground, because all forms of life have a soul, and that is not something for a man to disrupt the flow of. Even Jain Monks do not wear clothing, because clothing is made from fiber, which would inevitably come from killing plants.
Although there is no doctrine of a creator, Jains do respect God as the supreme spirit, which is the highest potential of all souls. It is immediately apparent in the Mahavira and other liberated teachers in his lineage, who, therefore, become the focus of devotion. However, unlike Hinduism, there is no multitude of deities or gods which will help human beings.
Jains vow to abstain from killing, sexual activity, lying, stealing, and becoming attached to possessions. They even carry light brooms with them, to brush aside any insects in their path, and often wear face masks to prevent the accidental inhalation of flies. | 587 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Queen Elizabeth's intentions were to capitalise upon Spain's temporary weakness at sea after the successful repulsion of the Spanish Armada and to compel Philip II to sue for peace. The expedition had three objectives: to burn the Spanish Atlantic fleet, to make a landing at Lisbon and raise a revolt there against Philip II (Philip I of Portugal), and then to continue west and establish a permanent base in the Azores. A further aim was to seize the Spanish treasure fleet as it returned from America to Cádiz, although this depended largely on the success of the Azores campaign.
The strategic objective of the military expedition was to break the trade embargo imposed across the Portuguese empire, which included Brazil and the East Indies, among other areas, and trading posts in India and China. By securing an allegiance with the Portuguese crown, Elizabeth hoped to curb Spanish Habsburg power in Europe and to free up the trade routes to these possessions.
This was a difficult proposition, because the domestic aristocracy and clergy of Portugal had accepted Philip as their King in 1581 at the Cortes of Tomar. The pretender to the throne, António, Prior of Crato — last surviving heir of the House of Aviz — failed to establish an effective government in exile in the Azores, and turned to the English for support. But he was not a charismatic figure, and with his cause compromised by his illegitimacy, he faced an opponent with perhaps the better claim, in the eyes of the Portuguese nobles of the Cortes, Catherine, Duchess of Braganza.
The complex politics were not the only drawback for the enterprise. Like its Spanish predecessor, the English expedition suffered from overly optimistic planning, based on hopes of repeating Drake's successful raid on Cadiz in 1587. A contradiction lay between the separate plans, each of which was ambitious in its own right, but the most pressing need was the destruction of the Spanish Atlantic fleet lying at port in Corunna, San Sebastián and Santander along the northern coast of Spain, as directly ordered by the Queen.
The expedition was floated as a joint stock company, with capital of about £80,000 — one quarter to come from the Queen, and one eighth from the Dutch, the balance to be made up by various noblemen, merchants and guilds. Concerns over logistics and adverse weather delayed the departure of the fleet, and confusion grew as it waited in port. The Dutch failed to supply their promised warships, a third of the victuals had already been consumed, and the number of veteran soldiers was only 1,800 while the ranks of volunteers had increased the planned contingent of troops from 10,000 to 19,000. The fleet also lacked siege guns and cavalry — items that had been lavishly laid-on in the Spanish Armada expedition of the previous year — which raises serious doubts about the intentions of those in charge of the preparations.
When the fleet sailed it was made up of six royal galleons, 60 English armed merchantmen, 60 Dutch flyboats and about 20 pinnaces. In addition to the troops, there were 4,000 sailors and 1,500 officers and gentlemen adventurers. Drake assigned his vessels to five squadrons, led respectively by himself in the Revenge, Sir John Norreys in the Nonpareil, Norreys' brother Edward in the Foresight, Thomas Fenner in the Dreadnought, and Roger Williams in the Swiftsure. Also sailing with them — against the Queen's express orders — was the Earl of Essex.
Most of the ships lost in Philip II's expedition of 1588 had been armed merchantmen, while the core of the armada — the galleons of the Spanish navy's Atlantic fleet — survived their voyage home and docked in Spain's Atlantic ports for a refit, where they lay for months, vulnerable to attack.
Unforeseen delays and a fear of becoming embayed in the Bay of Biscay led Drake to bypass Santander, where most of this refitting was underway, and attack Corunna in Galicia instead. Norreys took the lower town, killed around 500 Spaniards and plundered the wine cellars located there whilst Drake destroyed 13 merchant ships in the harbour. For the next two weeks the wind blew westerly, and while waiting for a change the English occupied themselves in a siege of Corunna's fortified upper town. A pair of Spanish galleys managed to slip past the English fleet and repeatedly resupply the defenders, and at length, with a favourable wind returning, the English abandoned the siege, having lost four captains and several hundred troops in the fighting, along with 3,000 other personnel in 24 of the transports, including many of the Dutch who found reasons to return to England or put into La Rochelle. Those who remained then turned their attention, first to Puente del Burgo, where Norreys won a modest victory, then to Lisbon.
Lisbon was rumoured to be guarded by a disaffected garrison, but whilst the English were fruitlessly besieging Corunna, the Spanish had spent a fortnight shoring up Portugal's military defences. When Norreys invested Lisbon, the expected uprising was not forthcoming and little was achieved. Drake did take the opportunity on June 30th of seizing a fleet of 20 French and 60 Hanseatic ships which had broken the English blockade on trade with Spain by sailing all around the north of Scotland, only to fetch up before the English cannon in the mouth of the Tagus. This seizure, notes R. B. Wernham, 'dealt a useful blow to Spanish preparations', but later required a publicly printed justification, a Declaration of Causes, from the Queen's own printer, as, without booty, she and her fellow English investors faced considerable losses.
The English dealt a further blow to Spanish naval preparations and food supplies by destroying the Lisbon granaries, but despite the bravado of Essex, who thrust a sword in at the gates of the city with a challenge to the defenders, the English could not take the city without artillery, neither did they receive substantial support from the Portuguese. The expected uprising failed to occur, in part because of the absence of Drake, the land and naval forces having divided and lost contact after the landing at Peniche (in Portugal), and the defenders would not risk battle.
Essex received orders from Elizabeth to return to court, along with a refusal to send reinforcements or a siege train, the queen having no desire to carry the main burden of a land war in Portugal. It was therefore decided to concentrate on the third aim of the expedition - the establishment of a permanent military base in the Azores. However, by this point the campaign had taken its toll. Drake's forces had initially caught the Spanish authorities off guard, but Spain had now marshaled her defences, and the English expedition's strength was wearing down, and suffering increasingly from disease. Two armed merchantmen were caught off Lisbon by nine Spanish galleys, commanded by Alonso de Bazán. One of them, the William, was saved by HMS Revenge after being abandoned by her crew, but the ship did not have enough manpower aboard her to sail away after the battle and had to be scuttled to prevent her falling into the hands of the Spanish again. The other vessel was engulfed in flames after a fight, and sunk, her commander Captain Minshaw being lost with the ship. Further damage was sustained when one of three boats carrying William's complement was lost with all hands after being attacked by the Spanish warships.
With the aim of assailing the Azores becoming increasingly out of the question, Drake made a final attempt to retrieve the mission. At this point, most its men were out of action, with only 2000 still fit to be mustered. Stormy weather had also damaged a number of its ships. Whilst Norreys sailed for home with the sick and wounded, Drake took his pick of what was left and set out with 20 ships to hunt for the Spanish treasure fleet. Whilst laying in wait for it his naval force was struck by another heavy storm which left him unable to continue, and whilst raiding and plundering Porto Santo in Madeira in compensation his flagship the Revenge sprang a leak through storm damage and almost foundered as she led the remainder of the fleet home to Plymouth.
Without counting the 18 launches destroyed or captured at Corunna and Lisbon, the English fleet lost about 40 ships. Fourteen of these were lost directly to the actions of Spanish naval forces: three at Corunna, six were lost to actions led by Padilla, three to Bazán and two to Aramburu. The rest were lost to a stormy sea as the fleet made its return voyage to England. The outbreak of disease on board the vessels was also transmitted to the port town populations in England on its return. None of the campaign's aims had been accomplished, and for a number of years this expedition's results discouraged further joint-stock adventures on such a scale.
The English expeditionary force had sustained a heavy loss of ships, troops and resources, but only brought back 150 captured cannon and £30,000 of plunder, along with the indecisive damage that it had inflicted to the Spanish forces in the fighting. Another indirect minor strategic benefit was, perhaps, a temporary disruption to Spanish military shipping activity, and the diversion of Spanish imperial resources that might have contributed to a mutiny by troops under the command of Parma in Flanders that August.
With the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against the weakened Spanish navy lost, the failure of the expedition depleted the financial resources of England's treasury, which had been carefully restored during the long reign of Elizabeth I. The Anglo-Spanish war was financially costly to both of its protagonists, and the Spanish Empire - which was also fighting France and the United Provinces at the same time, would be compelled in financial distress to default on its debt repayments in 1596 following another raid by the English on Cadiz. In 1595 the Spanish counter-attacked the English mainland at the Battle of Cornwall. In 1596 and 1597 two more armadas, substantially weaker than the great one she had issued in 1588, were sent by Spain against England, but both were scattered by storms on route. However the failure of the English expedition of 1589 marked an ebbing point in the Anglo-Spanish war, and the conflict wound down with diminishing military actions, until a peace was agreed between the two powers on the signing of the Treaty of London in 1604. | <urn:uuid:23a31387-7a53-47a0-884b-578e251b66f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/English-Armada | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.980316 | 2,147 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.3720487... | 1 | Queen Elizabeth's intentions were to capitalise upon Spain's temporary weakness at sea after the successful repulsion of the Spanish Armada and to compel Philip II to sue for peace. The expedition had three objectives: to burn the Spanish Atlantic fleet, to make a landing at Lisbon and raise a revolt there against Philip II (Philip I of Portugal), and then to continue west and establish a permanent base in the Azores. A further aim was to seize the Spanish treasure fleet as it returned from America to Cádiz, although this depended largely on the success of the Azores campaign.
The strategic objective of the military expedition was to break the trade embargo imposed across the Portuguese empire, which included Brazil and the East Indies, among other areas, and trading posts in India and China. By securing an allegiance with the Portuguese crown, Elizabeth hoped to curb Spanish Habsburg power in Europe and to free up the trade routes to these possessions.
This was a difficult proposition, because the domestic aristocracy and clergy of Portugal had accepted Philip as their King in 1581 at the Cortes of Tomar. The pretender to the throne, António, Prior of Crato — last surviving heir of the House of Aviz — failed to establish an effective government in exile in the Azores, and turned to the English for support. But he was not a charismatic figure, and with his cause compromised by his illegitimacy, he faced an opponent with perhaps the better claim, in the eyes of the Portuguese nobles of the Cortes, Catherine, Duchess of Braganza.
The complex politics were not the only drawback for the enterprise. Like its Spanish predecessor, the English expedition suffered from overly optimistic planning, based on hopes of repeating Drake's successful raid on Cadiz in 1587. A contradiction lay between the separate plans, each of which was ambitious in its own right, but the most pressing need was the destruction of the Spanish Atlantic fleet lying at port in Corunna, San Sebastián and Santander along the northern coast of Spain, as directly ordered by the Queen.
The expedition was floated as a joint stock company, with capital of about £80,000 — one quarter to come from the Queen, and one eighth from the Dutch, the balance to be made up by various noblemen, merchants and guilds. Concerns over logistics and adverse weather delayed the departure of the fleet, and confusion grew as it waited in port. The Dutch failed to supply their promised warships, a third of the victuals had already been consumed, and the number of veteran soldiers was only 1,800 while the ranks of volunteers had increased the planned contingent of troops from 10,000 to 19,000. The fleet also lacked siege guns and cavalry — items that had been lavishly laid-on in the Spanish Armada expedition of the previous year — which raises serious doubts about the intentions of those in charge of the preparations.
When the fleet sailed it was made up of six royal galleons, 60 English armed merchantmen, 60 Dutch flyboats and about 20 pinnaces. In addition to the troops, there were 4,000 sailors and 1,500 officers and gentlemen adventurers. Drake assigned his vessels to five squadrons, led respectively by himself in the Revenge, Sir John Norreys in the Nonpareil, Norreys' brother Edward in the Foresight, Thomas Fenner in the Dreadnought, and Roger Williams in the Swiftsure. Also sailing with them — against the Queen's express orders — was the Earl of Essex.
Most of the ships lost in Philip II's expedition of 1588 had been armed merchantmen, while the core of the armada — the galleons of the Spanish navy's Atlantic fleet — survived their voyage home and docked in Spain's Atlantic ports for a refit, where they lay for months, vulnerable to attack.
Unforeseen delays and a fear of becoming embayed in the Bay of Biscay led Drake to bypass Santander, where most of this refitting was underway, and attack Corunna in Galicia instead. Norreys took the lower town, killed around 500 Spaniards and plundered the wine cellars located there whilst Drake destroyed 13 merchant ships in the harbour. For the next two weeks the wind blew westerly, and while waiting for a change the English occupied themselves in a siege of Corunna's fortified upper town. A pair of Spanish galleys managed to slip past the English fleet and repeatedly resupply the defenders, and at length, with a favourable wind returning, the English abandoned the siege, having lost four captains and several hundred troops in the fighting, along with 3,000 other personnel in 24 of the transports, including many of the Dutch who found reasons to return to England or put into La Rochelle. Those who remained then turned their attention, first to Puente del Burgo, where Norreys won a modest victory, then to Lisbon.
Lisbon was rumoured to be guarded by a disaffected garrison, but whilst the English were fruitlessly besieging Corunna, the Spanish had spent a fortnight shoring up Portugal's military defences. When Norreys invested Lisbon, the expected uprising was not forthcoming and little was achieved. Drake did take the opportunity on June 30th of seizing a fleet of 20 French and 60 Hanseatic ships which had broken the English blockade on trade with Spain by sailing all around the north of Scotland, only to fetch up before the English cannon in the mouth of the Tagus. This seizure, notes R. B. Wernham, 'dealt a useful blow to Spanish preparations', but later required a publicly printed justification, a Declaration of Causes, from the Queen's own printer, as, without booty, she and her fellow English investors faced considerable losses.
The English dealt a further blow to Spanish naval preparations and food supplies by destroying the Lisbon granaries, but despite the bravado of Essex, who thrust a sword in at the gates of the city with a challenge to the defenders, the English could not take the city without artillery, neither did they receive substantial support from the Portuguese. The expected uprising failed to occur, in part because of the absence of Drake, the land and naval forces having divided and lost contact after the landing at Peniche (in Portugal), and the defenders would not risk battle.
Essex received orders from Elizabeth to return to court, along with a refusal to send reinforcements or a siege train, the queen having no desire to carry the main burden of a land war in Portugal. It was therefore decided to concentrate on the third aim of the expedition - the establishment of a permanent military base in the Azores. However, by this point the campaign had taken its toll. Drake's forces had initially caught the Spanish authorities off guard, but Spain had now marshaled her defences, and the English expedition's strength was wearing down, and suffering increasingly from disease. Two armed merchantmen were caught off Lisbon by nine Spanish galleys, commanded by Alonso de Bazán. One of them, the William, was saved by HMS Revenge after being abandoned by her crew, but the ship did not have enough manpower aboard her to sail away after the battle and had to be scuttled to prevent her falling into the hands of the Spanish again. The other vessel was engulfed in flames after a fight, and sunk, her commander Captain Minshaw being lost with the ship. Further damage was sustained when one of three boats carrying William's complement was lost with all hands after being attacked by the Spanish warships.
With the aim of assailing the Azores becoming increasingly out of the question, Drake made a final attempt to retrieve the mission. At this point, most its men were out of action, with only 2000 still fit to be mustered. Stormy weather had also damaged a number of its ships. Whilst Norreys sailed for home with the sick and wounded, Drake took his pick of what was left and set out with 20 ships to hunt for the Spanish treasure fleet. Whilst laying in wait for it his naval force was struck by another heavy storm which left him unable to continue, and whilst raiding and plundering Porto Santo in Madeira in compensation his flagship the Revenge sprang a leak through storm damage and almost foundered as she led the remainder of the fleet home to Plymouth.
Without counting the 18 launches destroyed or captured at Corunna and Lisbon, the English fleet lost about 40 ships. Fourteen of these were lost directly to the actions of Spanish naval forces: three at Corunna, six were lost to actions led by Padilla, three to Bazán and two to Aramburu. The rest were lost to a stormy sea as the fleet made its return voyage to England. The outbreak of disease on board the vessels was also transmitted to the port town populations in England on its return. None of the campaign's aims had been accomplished, and for a number of years this expedition's results discouraged further joint-stock adventures on such a scale.
The English expeditionary force had sustained a heavy loss of ships, troops and resources, but only brought back 150 captured cannon and £30,000 of plunder, along with the indecisive damage that it had inflicted to the Spanish forces in the fighting. Another indirect minor strategic benefit was, perhaps, a temporary disruption to Spanish military shipping activity, and the diversion of Spanish imperial resources that might have contributed to a mutiny by troops under the command of Parma in Flanders that August.
With the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against the weakened Spanish navy lost, the failure of the expedition depleted the financial resources of England's treasury, which had been carefully restored during the long reign of Elizabeth I. The Anglo-Spanish war was financially costly to both of its protagonists, and the Spanish Empire - which was also fighting France and the United Provinces at the same time, would be compelled in financial distress to default on its debt repayments in 1596 following another raid by the English on Cadiz. In 1595 the Spanish counter-attacked the English mainland at the Battle of Cornwall. In 1596 and 1597 two more armadas, substantially weaker than the great one she had issued in 1588, were sent by Spain against England, but both were scattered by storms on route. However the failure of the English expedition of 1589 marked an ebbing point in the Anglo-Spanish war, and the conflict wound down with diminishing military actions, until a peace was agreed between the two powers on the signing of the Treaty of London in 1604. | 2,228 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Story of Regulus
O N the other side of the sea from Rome there was once a great city named Carthage. The Roman people were never very friendly to the people of Carthage, and at last a war began between them. For a long time it was hard to tell which would prove the stronger. First the Romans would gain a battle, and then the men of Carthage would gain a battle; and so the war went on for many years.
Among the Romans there was a brave general named Regulus,—a man of whom it was said that he never broke his word. It so happened after a while, that Regulus was taken prisoner and carried to Carthage. Ill and very lonely, he dreamed of his wife and little children so far away beyond the sea; and he had but little hope of ever seeing them again. He loved his home dearly, but he believed that his first duty was to his country; and so he had left all, to fight in this cruel war.
He had lost a battle, it is true, and had been taken prisoner. Yet he knew that the Romans were gaining ground, and the people of Carthage were afraid of being beaten in the end. They had sent into other countries to hire soldiers to help them; but even with these they would not be able to fight much longer against Rome.
One day some of the rulers of Carthage came to the prison to talk with Regulus.
"We should like to make peace with the Roman people," they said, "and we are sure, that, if your rulers at home knew how the war is going, they would be glad to make peace with us. We will set you free and let you go home, if you will agree to do as we say."
"What is that?" asked Regulus.
"In the first place," they said, "you must tell the Romans about the battles which you have lost, and you must make it plain to them that they have not gained anything by the war. In the second place, you must promise us, that, if they will not make peace, you will come back to your prison."
"Very well," said Regulus, "I promise you, that, if they will not make peace, I will come back to prison."
And so they let him go; for they knew that a great Roman would keep his word.
When he came to Rome, all the people greeted him gladly. His
wife and children were very happy, for they thought that now
they would not be parted again. The
"I was sent from Carthage to ask you to make peace," he
said. "But it will not be wise to make peace. True, we have
been beaten in a few battles, but our army is gaining ground
every day. The people of Carthage are afraid, and well they
may be. Keep on with the war a little while longer, and
Carthage shall be yours. As for me, I have come to bid my
wife and children and Rome farewell.
Then the Fathers tried to persuade him to stay.
"Let us send another man in your place," they said.
"Shall a Roman not keep his word?" answered Regulus. "I am ill, and at the best have not long to live. I will go back, as I promised."
His wife and little children wept, and his sons begged him not to leave them again.
"I have given my word," said Regulus. "The rest will be taken care of."
Then he bade them good-by, and went bravely back to the prison and the cruel death which he expected.
This was the kind of courage that made Rome the greatest city in the world. | <urn:uuid:72d73be6-4772-4a0e-a835-0755d6be5df0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=baldwin&book=fifty&story=regulus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.99359 | 780 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.2114453911781... | 5 | The Story of Regulus
O N the other side of the sea from Rome there was once a great city named Carthage. The Roman people were never very friendly to the people of Carthage, and at last a war began between them. For a long time it was hard to tell which would prove the stronger. First the Romans would gain a battle, and then the men of Carthage would gain a battle; and so the war went on for many years.
Among the Romans there was a brave general named Regulus,—a man of whom it was said that he never broke his word. It so happened after a while, that Regulus was taken prisoner and carried to Carthage. Ill and very lonely, he dreamed of his wife and little children so far away beyond the sea; and he had but little hope of ever seeing them again. He loved his home dearly, but he believed that his first duty was to his country; and so he had left all, to fight in this cruel war.
He had lost a battle, it is true, and had been taken prisoner. Yet he knew that the Romans were gaining ground, and the people of Carthage were afraid of being beaten in the end. They had sent into other countries to hire soldiers to help them; but even with these they would not be able to fight much longer against Rome.
One day some of the rulers of Carthage came to the prison to talk with Regulus.
"We should like to make peace with the Roman people," they said, "and we are sure, that, if your rulers at home knew how the war is going, they would be glad to make peace with us. We will set you free and let you go home, if you will agree to do as we say."
"What is that?" asked Regulus.
"In the first place," they said, "you must tell the Romans about the battles which you have lost, and you must make it plain to them that they have not gained anything by the war. In the second place, you must promise us, that, if they will not make peace, you will come back to your prison."
"Very well," said Regulus, "I promise you, that, if they will not make peace, I will come back to prison."
And so they let him go; for they knew that a great Roman would keep his word.
When he came to Rome, all the people greeted him gladly. His
wife and children were very happy, for they thought that now
they would not be parted again. The
"I was sent from Carthage to ask you to make peace," he
said. "But it will not be wise to make peace. True, we have
been beaten in a few battles, but our army is gaining ground
every day. The people of Carthage are afraid, and well they
may be. Keep on with the war a little while longer, and
Carthage shall be yours. As for me, I have come to bid my
wife and children and Rome farewell.
Then the Fathers tried to persuade him to stay.
"Let us send another man in your place," they said.
"Shall a Roman not keep his word?" answered Regulus. "I am ill, and at the best have not long to live. I will go back, as I promised."
His wife and little children wept, and his sons begged him not to leave them again.
"I have given my word," said Regulus. "The rest will be taken care of."
Then he bade them good-by, and went bravely back to the prison and the cruel death which he expected.
This was the kind of courage that made Rome the greatest city in the world. | 766 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How the Soviet People Were Better off in 1941 Rather Than in 1928
The Soviet Union suffered a huge amount of Russian lives through
1928-1941. However this great cost was to be outweighed to how
superior the Russian state was from 1941 and onwards, having a huge
amount of stable resources and in addition having enough food to feed
its people and to export grain. I firmly believe that Russia as a
country came out of 1941 as a superpower and it was much better off
than in 1928; however this had caused millions of Russian lives.
In the Soviet Union many people were in a better position than they
had been in 1928. However entire classes had been made extinct and
many individuals were worse off under the new communist regime than
they had been in the late 19th century, early twentieth.
In the 1920's the Soviet Union had just come out of a bloody civil war
so therefore the NEP (National Economic Policy) had been instated. The
peasants had their own bits of land and could sell the excess grain
that was left from what the government required. This way of life had
created a new class of rich pheasants called the Kulaks who had large
pieces of land and had poor pheasants working for them. The way the
countries agriculture was running the peasants were not producing
enough food so therefore there was a case of famine in the towns. The
new NEP system was seen by extreme Marxists as a capitalist idea and
not a communist thought, causing much distress within the extreme left
groups. However the amount of food being produced was higher than it
had been during the civil war.
The Soviet Union's industry in 1928 had been higher than it was during
the civil war. However, the state's industry was still backwards and
it was lower than it had been in the Tsar years, so therefore this was
not good for the Communists as conditions were better in the Tsar
years then they were in 1928.
Also the political state of Russia was not good as the Communists had
created a one party state, while in the early part of the century the
Tsarist regime had a puppet democracy.
Also the Cheka police had been put into practice, therefore causing
fear within the people. They were used to eliminate the other party's
Stalin became overall leader of the Soviet Union in 1928. His main
aims were to improve Russia as a whole, the economy, industry and
agriculture were to be improved to the stands of the Western countries
within ten years. Stalin wanted to modernise so quickly because the
security of Russia was in danger, he was extremely paranoid as to if
and when the Soviet Union was to be invaded.
Although the agriculture was efficient, Stalin did not want the
peasants in control of whether they give the grain to the government
or even grow the grain so therefore he introduced the idea of | <urn:uuid:e736f289-0d31-48d6-ab52-448cdc76257e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-way-the-soviet-everyone-was-better-off-in-1941-in-place-of-in-1928 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.992108 | 613 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.28947338461875916,... | 1 | How the Soviet People Were Better off in 1941 Rather Than in 1928
The Soviet Union suffered a huge amount of Russian lives through
1928-1941. However this great cost was to be outweighed to how
superior the Russian state was from 1941 and onwards, having a huge
amount of stable resources and in addition having enough food to feed
its people and to export grain. I firmly believe that Russia as a
country came out of 1941 as a superpower and it was much better off
than in 1928; however this had caused millions of Russian lives.
In the Soviet Union many people were in a better position than they
had been in 1928. However entire classes had been made extinct and
many individuals were worse off under the new communist regime than
they had been in the late 19th century, early twentieth.
In the 1920's the Soviet Union had just come out of a bloody civil war
so therefore the NEP (National Economic Policy) had been instated. The
peasants had their own bits of land and could sell the excess grain
that was left from what the government required. This way of life had
created a new class of rich pheasants called the Kulaks who had large
pieces of land and had poor pheasants working for them. The way the
countries agriculture was running the peasants were not producing
enough food so therefore there was a case of famine in the towns. The
new NEP system was seen by extreme Marxists as a capitalist idea and
not a communist thought, causing much distress within the extreme left
groups. However the amount of food being produced was higher than it
had been during the civil war.
The Soviet Union's industry in 1928 had been higher than it was during
the civil war. However, the state's industry was still backwards and
it was lower than it had been in the Tsar years, so therefore this was
not good for the Communists as conditions were better in the Tsar
years then they were in 1928.
Also the political state of Russia was not good as the Communists had
created a one party state, while in the early part of the century the
Tsarist regime had a puppet democracy.
Also the Cheka police had been put into practice, therefore causing
fear within the people. They were used to eliminate the other party's
Stalin became overall leader of the Soviet Union in 1928. His main
aims were to improve Russia as a whole, the economy, industry and
agriculture were to be improved to the stands of the Western countries
within ten years. Stalin wanted to modernise so quickly because the
security of Russia was in danger, he was extremely paranoid as to if
and when the Soviet Union was to be invaded.
Although the agriculture was efficient, Stalin did not want the
peasants in control of whether they give the grain to the government
or even grow the grain so therefore he introduced the idea of | 656 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How is This Dictionary Different?
Those who thought that his dictionary was going to be a mere list of Hebrew words with brief definitions were in for a great surprise. This was to be unlike any dictionary ever compiled.
Ben Yehuda spent most of his life searching for ancient Hebrew words that had been lost. He also sought to find the origin of words and examples of their usage, as well as their changes in meaning throughout the centuries. He scoured libraries all over Europe and the Middle East. And when he moved to the United States during World War I to escape Turkish persecution, he spent four years searching the great libraries of the United States.
When he fled Palestine in 1914, he had already accumulated about 450,000 notes concerning sources for Hebrew words. His wife, Hemda, packed them up and turned them over to the American consulate in Jerusalem for safe-keeping. Those notes were taken from over 40,000 books he had consulted that had been written over a period of more than two thousand years.
Those who thought that his dictionary was going to be a mere list of Hebrew words with brief definitions were in for a great surprise. This was to be unlike any dictionary ever compiled. His goal was no less than an encyclopedia of the Hebrew language. He identified the origin of each word and provided its sister words in other Semitic languages. He provided synonyms and antonyms. He traced the changes in the meaning of the word through the centuries. And he provided overwhelming examples of the use of the word in sentences to help the reader see how to use the word in conversations.
A WORK OF MULTI-LANGUAGES
After each Hebrew word would come the translation into French, German and English. This made the work unique; a multilingual dictionary in Arabic, Assyrian, Aramaic, Greek and Latin.
Moreover, it was a thesaurus as well as a book of definitions. After each word, Ben Yehuda listed all the other words which were in any way connected. The reader was given the origin of each word, an explanation of its construction, a comparison with its sister words in other Semitic languages, the changes it had undergone down through the ages, and all its nuances, shades, forms, inflections and uses.
After each word were examples of its usage, which Ben Yehuda called “witnesses” or “proofs.” With a language as old as Hebrew there were bound to be many more shadings and colorations of meaning, and even conflicting uses of a word.
He dug out and listed 335 different ways in which it was possible to use the Hebrew word lo, meaning “no” or “not.” There were 210 “witnesses” for ken (yes).
“WITNESSES” FROM EVERYWHERE
Many of his “witnesses” were quotations from the Bible and other religious books, but there were often long passages from secular literature, from the works of little-known poets, or from manuscripts he had found somewhere in a distant library. These quotations were interesting reading in themselves. They gave pictures of the life of early Jews in their homes, market places, fields and ghettos.
The little marks which Ben Yehuda sprinkled through his manuscript were marks of his honesty. These symbols appeared alongside words which he himself had created. “I put them in so the reader can see immediately that these are new words, and if he does not like them he should consider them as non-existent.”
He was the first to make a regular and systematic practice of coining Hebrew words to meet the practical demands constantly being made of the language in daily speech, journalism, science and literature.
In his later years, he co-founded and established the ruling principles for the the Language Council. The Council gave way to the Academy of the Hebrew Language, which adopted Ben Yehuda’s rules and took upon itself his life’s work. The Academy, still housed at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, approves new Hebrew words to meet the ever-evolving needs of contemporary Israeli society.
Theodore Herzl, considered the Father of modern Israel, had a famous saying still quoted by Israel’s school children today: “If you will it, it is no dream.” But Ben Yehuda simply said, “It is not a dream, period.” | <urn:uuid:0d9dd5cf-0b5a-4c2e-a8a9-fc85a647e54c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://maozisrael.org/report/2019/05/how-is-this-dictionary-different/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.987132 | 917 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.178313285112380... | 1 | How is This Dictionary Different?
Those who thought that his dictionary was going to be a mere list of Hebrew words with brief definitions were in for a great surprise. This was to be unlike any dictionary ever compiled.
Ben Yehuda spent most of his life searching for ancient Hebrew words that had been lost. He also sought to find the origin of words and examples of their usage, as well as their changes in meaning throughout the centuries. He scoured libraries all over Europe and the Middle East. And when he moved to the United States during World War I to escape Turkish persecution, he spent four years searching the great libraries of the United States.
When he fled Palestine in 1914, he had already accumulated about 450,000 notes concerning sources for Hebrew words. His wife, Hemda, packed them up and turned them over to the American consulate in Jerusalem for safe-keeping. Those notes were taken from over 40,000 books he had consulted that had been written over a period of more than two thousand years.
Those who thought that his dictionary was going to be a mere list of Hebrew words with brief definitions were in for a great surprise. This was to be unlike any dictionary ever compiled. His goal was no less than an encyclopedia of the Hebrew language. He identified the origin of each word and provided its sister words in other Semitic languages. He provided synonyms and antonyms. He traced the changes in the meaning of the word through the centuries. And he provided overwhelming examples of the use of the word in sentences to help the reader see how to use the word in conversations.
A WORK OF MULTI-LANGUAGES
After each Hebrew word would come the translation into French, German and English. This made the work unique; a multilingual dictionary in Arabic, Assyrian, Aramaic, Greek and Latin.
Moreover, it was a thesaurus as well as a book of definitions. After each word, Ben Yehuda listed all the other words which were in any way connected. The reader was given the origin of each word, an explanation of its construction, a comparison with its sister words in other Semitic languages, the changes it had undergone down through the ages, and all its nuances, shades, forms, inflections and uses.
After each word were examples of its usage, which Ben Yehuda called “witnesses” or “proofs.” With a language as old as Hebrew there were bound to be many more shadings and colorations of meaning, and even conflicting uses of a word.
He dug out and listed 335 different ways in which it was possible to use the Hebrew word lo, meaning “no” or “not.” There were 210 “witnesses” for ken (yes).
“WITNESSES” FROM EVERYWHERE
Many of his “witnesses” were quotations from the Bible and other religious books, but there were often long passages from secular literature, from the works of little-known poets, or from manuscripts he had found somewhere in a distant library. These quotations were interesting reading in themselves. They gave pictures of the life of early Jews in their homes, market places, fields and ghettos.
The little marks which Ben Yehuda sprinkled through his manuscript were marks of his honesty. These symbols appeared alongside words which he himself had created. “I put them in so the reader can see immediately that these are new words, and if he does not like them he should consider them as non-existent.”
He was the first to make a regular and systematic practice of coining Hebrew words to meet the practical demands constantly being made of the language in daily speech, journalism, science and literature.
In his later years, he co-founded and established the ruling principles for the the Language Council. The Council gave way to the Academy of the Hebrew Language, which adopted Ben Yehuda’s rules and took upon itself his life’s work. The Academy, still housed at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, approves new Hebrew words to meet the ever-evolving needs of contemporary Israeli society.
Theodore Herzl, considered the Father of modern Israel, had a famous saying still quoted by Israel’s school children today: “If you will it, it is no dream.” But Ben Yehuda simply said, “It is not a dream, period.” | 884 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the southern wall of Sydney’s historic Hyde Park Barracks is a visually simple but symbolically powerful monument to the thousands of orphan girls who came to Australia as part of a resettlement policy during the Irish famine.
These girls came to Australia as part of what was later known as the Earl Grey Scheme, a resettlement program masterminded by Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey, who was Secretary of State for the Colonies between 1846 and 1852. The scheme served two distinct purposes: it would help clear out the young female paupers from Ireland’s overcrowded workhouses, while also meeting Australia’s need for female laborers and future mothers in what, at the time, was a heavily male-dominated colony.
Between 1848 and 1850, 4,114 orphan girls, most of whom were between the ages of 14 and 19, found themselves shipped off to Australia. The resettlement was riddled with hardships, and some girls died before they had a chance to settle. For many, however, it was an opportunity to start a new life away from famine, and away from the workhouses.
The Australian Monument to the Great Irish Famine is a monument to these girls and, by extension, to all the people who died or were forced to emigrate during the famine. Designed by artists Hossein and Angela Valamanesh and inaugurated in 1999, the monument sits along and within the southern wall of the Hyde Park Barracks.
The choice of location was very deliberate. Originally built to house male convicts, the barracks later served as Sydney’s female immigration depot. Of the 4,114 Irish orphan girls who arrived in Australia between 1848 and 1850, 2,253 were housed at the barracks.
To create the monument, a section of the southern wall of the barracks was dismantled and then rebuilt on a rotated axis, like some giant unseen hand had forced the wall to open up like a secret gateway. This in itself represents the journey that the girls made from Ireland to Australia, and the disruption to which they were subjected.
A table cuts through the center of the wall, representing the famine experience on one side and the colonies on the other. On the famine side, the table is shorter and the bowl that sits upon it has no base; any food placed in it would simply fall away through the table. Further representations of the famine include a shelf holding some potatoes and a loy, a traditional spade for potato digging, leaning against the wall.
The table extends farther out on the other side of the wall. On this side there is a plate and a spoon and a three-legged stool. Some books, including a bible, sit on a shelf. And while the table represents dislocation, it also symbolizes continuity and the link between the immigrants’ lives as they passed from famine in Ireland to the opportunities of the Australian colony.
In the gaps left at either side of the wall are two glass panels. On these are the names of 420 women, sandblasted into the glass. These women all came to Australia as orphans as part of the Earl Grey Scheme, and their names were etched into the glass at the request of relatives who responded to advertisements when the memorial was being designed. The 420 names included in the memorial represent, by extension, all of the 4,114 Irish girls who were resettled during the famine.
On the memorial website, meanwhile, is a database of all of the known orphans who arrived as part of the scheme. It’s far from complete, however, as the shipping records from the 20 ships that brought the girls from Ireland were either poor or non-existent.
But the impact these girls had on the cultural heritage of Australia is unquestionable. According to an estimate by the historian and genealogist Dr. Perry McIntyre, “there would be at least 500,000 people descended from these 4,114 girls, even if they don’t know about this aspect of their genealogy.” | <urn:uuid:623e12c5-7664-48cc-9599-c1c863d852c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://assets.atlasobscura.com/places/australian-monument-to-the-great-irish-famine | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.980628 | 814 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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... | 3 | In the southern wall of Sydney’s historic Hyde Park Barracks is a visually simple but symbolically powerful monument to the thousands of orphan girls who came to Australia as part of a resettlement policy during the Irish famine.
These girls came to Australia as part of what was later known as the Earl Grey Scheme, a resettlement program masterminded by Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey, who was Secretary of State for the Colonies between 1846 and 1852. The scheme served two distinct purposes: it would help clear out the young female paupers from Ireland’s overcrowded workhouses, while also meeting Australia’s need for female laborers and future mothers in what, at the time, was a heavily male-dominated colony.
Between 1848 and 1850, 4,114 orphan girls, most of whom were between the ages of 14 and 19, found themselves shipped off to Australia. The resettlement was riddled with hardships, and some girls died before they had a chance to settle. For many, however, it was an opportunity to start a new life away from famine, and away from the workhouses.
The Australian Monument to the Great Irish Famine is a monument to these girls and, by extension, to all the people who died or were forced to emigrate during the famine. Designed by artists Hossein and Angela Valamanesh and inaugurated in 1999, the monument sits along and within the southern wall of the Hyde Park Barracks.
The choice of location was very deliberate. Originally built to house male convicts, the barracks later served as Sydney’s female immigration depot. Of the 4,114 Irish orphan girls who arrived in Australia between 1848 and 1850, 2,253 were housed at the barracks.
To create the monument, a section of the southern wall of the barracks was dismantled and then rebuilt on a rotated axis, like some giant unseen hand had forced the wall to open up like a secret gateway. This in itself represents the journey that the girls made from Ireland to Australia, and the disruption to which they were subjected.
A table cuts through the center of the wall, representing the famine experience on one side and the colonies on the other. On the famine side, the table is shorter and the bowl that sits upon it has no base; any food placed in it would simply fall away through the table. Further representations of the famine include a shelf holding some potatoes and a loy, a traditional spade for potato digging, leaning against the wall.
The table extends farther out on the other side of the wall. On this side there is a plate and a spoon and a three-legged stool. Some books, including a bible, sit on a shelf. And while the table represents dislocation, it also symbolizes continuity and the link between the immigrants’ lives as they passed from famine in Ireland to the opportunities of the Australian colony.
In the gaps left at either side of the wall are two glass panels. On these are the names of 420 women, sandblasted into the glass. These women all came to Australia as orphans as part of the Earl Grey Scheme, and their names were etched into the glass at the request of relatives who responded to advertisements when the memorial was being designed. The 420 names included in the memorial represent, by extension, all of the 4,114 Irish girls who were resettled during the famine.
On the memorial website, meanwhile, is a database of all of the known orphans who arrived as part of the scheme. It’s far from complete, however, as the shipping records from the 20 ships that brought the girls from Ireland were either poor or non-existent.
But the impact these girls had on the cultural heritage of Australia is unquestionable. According to an estimate by the historian and genealogist Dr. Perry McIntyre, “there would be at least 500,000 people descended from these 4,114 girls, even if they don’t know about this aspect of their genealogy.” | 851 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This poster shows the types of language used to recruit more men to the The First Kentucky Brigade, which was originally formed in early 1862 and was the largest Confederate unit formed from Kentucky during the war. Led by Major General John C. Breckinridge, the Brigade was used throughout the south in major battles, including the Battle of Shiloh. Because Kentucky remained formally a part of the Union during the Civil War, these CSA soldiers were often called Orphans.
The name stuck after General Braxton Bragg rode among the survivors following a particularly harrowing battle and cried out, repeatedly, "My poor Orphans! My poor Orphans!". The Brigade became run-down in the following years, as they lost commander after commander during major battles. When they were originally mustered in to service, weapons were in short supply, so they were armed with old smoothbore muskets and hunting rifles; further, some men fought with no rifles at all. Thankfully, only a week before the Battle of Shiloh, most of then men were given Enfield rifles which better prepared them for upcoming battles.
The men charge forward in to the Battle of Chickamauga. Note that each regiment that made up the Brigade carried its own flag.
Though the men would be successful in this battle, they would lose their commander, Brigadier General Benjamin Hardin Helm, who was Abraham Lincoln's brother-in-law.
The Fascinating History of Kentucky's "Orphan Brigade" (10 Photos) | <urn:uuid:5be3bfd4-3e13-47b9-895d-db5839d8b6ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://archiveproject.com/kentucky-orphan-brigade-csa-civilwar-photos-shiloh/2?ref=next-page | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.985588 | 305 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.0870744... | 1 | This poster shows the types of language used to recruit more men to the The First Kentucky Brigade, which was originally formed in early 1862 and was the largest Confederate unit formed from Kentucky during the war. Led by Major General John C. Breckinridge, the Brigade was used throughout the south in major battles, including the Battle of Shiloh. Because Kentucky remained formally a part of the Union during the Civil War, these CSA soldiers were often called Orphans.
The name stuck after General Braxton Bragg rode among the survivors following a particularly harrowing battle and cried out, repeatedly, "My poor Orphans! My poor Orphans!". The Brigade became run-down in the following years, as they lost commander after commander during major battles. When they were originally mustered in to service, weapons were in short supply, so they were armed with old smoothbore muskets and hunting rifles; further, some men fought with no rifles at all. Thankfully, only a week before the Battle of Shiloh, most of then men were given Enfield rifles which better prepared them for upcoming battles.
The men charge forward in to the Battle of Chickamauga. Note that each regiment that made up the Brigade carried its own flag.
Though the men would be successful in this battle, they would lose their commander, Brigadier General Benjamin Hardin Helm, who was Abraham Lincoln's brother-in-law.
The Fascinating History of Kentucky's "Orphan Brigade" (10 Photos) | 304 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Otto Von Bismarck
Otto Von Bismarck was a great leader in the unification of Germany. His skill as a diplomat was unrivalled during his reign as chancellor of Prussia. The mastery he showed in foreign policy was such that he was able to outwit all other powers and make their leaders appear inadequate.
Bismarck was an unrivalled diplomat during his reign. His German Reich constitution of April 1871 allowed him to dictate the government on his own terms. However, the parliament only “had the power to initiate debate upon any point of his (Bismarck’s) policy, but neither he nor any other minister was responsible to the assembly for his actions" (T. A. Morris, p116). Furthermore, the constitution was designed to give the impression that power was shared equally between the emperor and the chancellor, however Bismarck had the upper hand in all crucial decision-making, as he was adept at convincing Wilhelm of the correctness of his policy.
A further example of the extent to which he was a great chancellor is the fact that he was able to deal with the internal opposition. Bismarck was able to gain the support of the National-Liberal party as they were sympathetic to the chancellor because he had brought about national unity, the party's major policy aim, and also because many short-term goals of the two partners coincided - most notably "consolidation of that national unity and the centralisation of the administration of the Reich" (Morris, p118). His association with the National Liberals strengthened his position by giving him a strong presence in the Reichstag, and can therefore be seen as a preventive means of dealing with internal opposition. Bismarck’s political successes were remarkable, but he demonstrated an undeniably unethical way of treating internal opposition, coupled by significant opportunism. However, he was succumbing to the broad demands of the public only to be able to... | <urn:uuid:77873e03-8e37-4fbe-9bd9-1c1ccf5cd27a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/otto-von-bismarck | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00130.warc.gz | en | 0.990621 | 403 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.24097095429897308... | 1 | Otto Von Bismarck
Otto Von Bismarck was a great leader in the unification of Germany. His skill as a diplomat was unrivalled during his reign as chancellor of Prussia. The mastery he showed in foreign policy was such that he was able to outwit all other powers and make their leaders appear inadequate.
Bismarck was an unrivalled diplomat during his reign. His German Reich constitution of April 1871 allowed him to dictate the government on his own terms. However, the parliament only “had the power to initiate debate upon any point of his (Bismarck’s) policy, but neither he nor any other minister was responsible to the assembly for his actions" (T. A. Morris, p116). Furthermore, the constitution was designed to give the impression that power was shared equally between the emperor and the chancellor, however Bismarck had the upper hand in all crucial decision-making, as he was adept at convincing Wilhelm of the correctness of his policy.
A further example of the extent to which he was a great chancellor is the fact that he was able to deal with the internal opposition. Bismarck was able to gain the support of the National-Liberal party as they were sympathetic to the chancellor because he had brought about national unity, the party's major policy aim, and also because many short-term goals of the two partners coincided - most notably "consolidation of that national unity and the centralisation of the administration of the Reich" (Morris, p118). His association with the National Liberals strengthened his position by giving him a strong presence in the Reichstag, and can therefore be seen as a preventive means of dealing with internal opposition. Bismarck’s political successes were remarkable, but he demonstrated an undeniably unethical way of treating internal opposition, coupled by significant opportunism. However, he was succumbing to the broad demands of the public only to be able to... | 405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Two astronauts, that are twins, were featured in an experiment lead by NASA. For two years, in 2015 and 2016, they were part of it.
One of the brothers was in space, while the other remained on earth. What NASA wanted to see is if any changes occurred in space. The differences in terms of genetic were compared.
They both went through serious tests before one of them went to space.
The first results were recently revealed.
Scott, who has been in space, did experience a change. His telomeres grew larger. The researchers from NASA definitely didn’t expect this.
Although at the beginning the telomeres were larger, as the days on Earth passed, they returned to normal. The scientists still don’t know why.
After he returned home, Scott had some of his abilities slowed down, like accuracy and speed.
Investigation will be ran to establish the reasons they grew so long and then returned to normal.
The DNA of the brothers changed as well. Scott had less groups of methyl added to his DNA.
For many years, NASA and not only are sending people to space. For a long time, there was a need to establish the influence the flight to the space or the time spend there has over the body.
This is important for the future missions, especially the ones that take a long time.
There are huge plans for expeditions in space and knowing in advance such information is beneficial. Mars is a future target, for example. | <urn:uuid:3fcef10d-28ad-4914-86be-8531c46165aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://stocknewsusa.com/2017/02/01/results-twin-experiment-nasa/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00498.warc.gz | en | 0.987615 | 309 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1571286320686340... | 2 | Two astronauts, that are twins, were featured in an experiment lead by NASA. For two years, in 2015 and 2016, they were part of it.
One of the brothers was in space, while the other remained on earth. What NASA wanted to see is if any changes occurred in space. The differences in terms of genetic were compared.
They both went through serious tests before one of them went to space.
The first results were recently revealed.
Scott, who has been in space, did experience a change. His telomeres grew larger. The researchers from NASA definitely didn’t expect this.
Although at the beginning the telomeres were larger, as the days on Earth passed, they returned to normal. The scientists still don’t know why.
After he returned home, Scott had some of his abilities slowed down, like accuracy and speed.
Investigation will be ran to establish the reasons they grew so long and then returned to normal.
The DNA of the brothers changed as well. Scott had less groups of methyl added to his DNA.
For many years, NASA and not only are sending people to space. For a long time, there was a need to establish the influence the flight to the space or the time spend there has over the body.
This is important for the future missions, especially the ones that take a long time.
There are huge plans for expeditions in space and knowing in advance such information is beneficial. Mars is a future target, for example. | 302 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today, Elon Musk is best known for founding Tesla, Space X, and PayPal, companies that revolutionized their industries. But long before he became an entrepreneur and one of the richest men on the planet, Musk was driven by a simpler idea: he wanted to design video games. How did self-taught programmer Elon Musk go from a kid playing games to a billionaire? In this article, you will learn about Elon Musk’s education and how his interest in gaming led him to learn to program.
Elon Musk’s education began across the world from the Los Angeles home he resides in today. Born and raised in South Africa, Elon Musk became interested in computers when he was ten years old. Elon was a driven child who would sometimes spend ten hours a day reading books. He was also obsessed with video games. Musk explained that his love of video games drove him to learn programming. “I thought I could make my own games. I wanted to see how games work,” Musk explained. “That’s what led me to learn how to program computers.”
Musk started with a book on the BASIC programming language, a popular language in the 1960s which was still used by many computers in the 1980s. The book offered a six-month program to learn coding, but Musk raced through the entire thing in three days.
It wasn’t long before Musk programmed his first video game. In 1984, when he was just 12 years old, Musk created Blastar. The space-based shooter drew inspiration from Alien Invaders. In Musk’s game, players shot down spaceships carrying hydrogen bombs while dodging deadly “status beams.”
Musk pitched his game to PC and Office Technology, which offered to buy Blastar for $500. In his first programming venture, Musk already learned how to turn a profit: an important turning point in Elon Musk’s education.
Blastar taught Musk several important lessons. First, he realized that after reading a book and playing around with coding, he could create his own video game. Translating his learning into a final product also brought results: at only 12 years old, Musk was making money from his programming skills.
But Elon Musk’s education did not end there. The drive that pushed Musk to learn programming continued into his teen years. At 17 years old, Musk moved from South Africa to Canada, where he planned to live with his great-uncle in Montreal. There was just one problem: the uncle had already moved to Minnesota, which Musk only realized once he reached Canada.
Elon Musk didn’t give up. He had other relatives in Canada, so he bought a bus ticket and started tracking them down. It took a nearly 2,000 mile bus ride for Musk to find a second cousin who offered him a place to stay. Still a teenager, Musk worked on a farm in Saskatchewan, cut logs in Vancouver, and cleaned out boilers.
Musk described the experience of cleaning boilers in Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future. “You have to put on this hazmat suit and then shimmy through this little tunnel that you can barely fit in,” he explained. “Then, you have a shovel and you take the sand and goop and other residue, which is still steaming hot, and you have to shovel it through the same hole you came through. There is no escape. Someone else on the other side has to shovel it into a wheelbarrow. If you stay in there for more than thirty minutes, you get too hot and die.”
In 1989, Musk enrolled at Queen’s University in Ontario. In college, Musk told a friend, “If there was a way that I could not eat, so I could work more, I would not eat. I wish there was a way to get nutrients without sitting down for a meal.”
Musk’s drive continued to push him. He built and sold computers from his dorm room. “I could build something to suit their needs like a tricked-out gaming machine or a simple word processor that cost less than what they could get in a store,” Musk related.
He also spent hours playing games like Civilization and thought about a career in gaming. After transferring to the University of Pennsylvania, Musk began to gravitate toward business and technology. Although gaming had been his passion since he was a boy, Musk wanted to have a larger impact on the world. “I really like computer games, but then if I made really great computer games, how much effect would that have on the world,” Musk wondered. “It wouldn’t have a big effect. Even though I have an intrinsic love of video games, I couldn’t bring myself to do that as a career.”
In college, Musk knew he was a quick learner. He was already interested in solar power, space, the internet, and electric cars. After earning bachelor’s degrees in economics and physics, Musk moved to California to earn his Ph.D in energy physics at Stanford. Silicon Valley quickly drew Musk’s attention, and he dropped out of his doctoral program after only two days.
Instead, Musk launched Zip2 Corporation, which made online city guides. He sold the company in 1999 for over $300 million. Over the next four years, Musk founded PayPal, SpaceX, and Tesla Motors. The drive that pushed Musk to learn programming in three days helped Musk turn his vision of a future driven by technology into a reality.
What can we learn from Self-Taught Programmer Elon Musk?
- Identify what drives you. When Musk decided to learn programming, it took him three days to master the BASIC programming language. Within two years of owning his first computer, Musk sold his first program. Are you driven by curiosity? Do you have a specific career goal? Harness that drive to reach your goals.
- Figure out your learning style. From an early age, he wanted to learn everything. Elon Musk’s education relied heavily on self-teaching, and he quickly figured out that reading books was one of the best ways for him to learn. Musk learned programming by reading a book. And when he wanted to learn more about rocket propulsion, Musk read college textbooks. Books might not work for everyone—some people prefer webinars, videos, podcasts, or tutoring. Learning your learning style can help unlock your programming potential.
What’s driving you to learn programming? Let us know in the comments below!
Want to learn to program? Register for my free Self-Taught Coder Masterclass where I cover how I went from a novice to a software engineer at eBay in less than one year.
Latest posts by Genevieve Carlton (see all)
- The Most Important Women in Programming History - January 16, 2020
- What is the difference between HTML and CSS? - August 19, 2019
- The 13 Best Programming Books For Software Developers - March 15, 2019 | <urn:uuid:435cb674-9ed1-46be-9256-242f9b69f752> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://selftaught.blog/elon-musks-education/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00482.warc.gz | en | 0.983659 | 1,463 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.096124678850... | 1 | Today, Elon Musk is best known for founding Tesla, Space X, and PayPal, companies that revolutionized their industries. But long before he became an entrepreneur and one of the richest men on the planet, Musk was driven by a simpler idea: he wanted to design video games. How did self-taught programmer Elon Musk go from a kid playing games to a billionaire? In this article, you will learn about Elon Musk’s education and how his interest in gaming led him to learn to program.
Elon Musk’s education began across the world from the Los Angeles home he resides in today. Born and raised in South Africa, Elon Musk became interested in computers when he was ten years old. Elon was a driven child who would sometimes spend ten hours a day reading books. He was also obsessed with video games. Musk explained that his love of video games drove him to learn programming. “I thought I could make my own games. I wanted to see how games work,” Musk explained. “That’s what led me to learn how to program computers.”
Musk started with a book on the BASIC programming language, a popular language in the 1960s which was still used by many computers in the 1980s. The book offered a six-month program to learn coding, but Musk raced through the entire thing in three days.
It wasn’t long before Musk programmed his first video game. In 1984, when he was just 12 years old, Musk created Blastar. The space-based shooter drew inspiration from Alien Invaders. In Musk’s game, players shot down spaceships carrying hydrogen bombs while dodging deadly “status beams.”
Musk pitched his game to PC and Office Technology, which offered to buy Blastar for $500. In his first programming venture, Musk already learned how to turn a profit: an important turning point in Elon Musk’s education.
Blastar taught Musk several important lessons. First, he realized that after reading a book and playing around with coding, he could create his own video game. Translating his learning into a final product also brought results: at only 12 years old, Musk was making money from his programming skills.
But Elon Musk’s education did not end there. The drive that pushed Musk to learn programming continued into his teen years. At 17 years old, Musk moved from South Africa to Canada, where he planned to live with his great-uncle in Montreal. There was just one problem: the uncle had already moved to Minnesota, which Musk only realized once he reached Canada.
Elon Musk didn’t give up. He had other relatives in Canada, so he bought a bus ticket and started tracking them down. It took a nearly 2,000 mile bus ride for Musk to find a second cousin who offered him a place to stay. Still a teenager, Musk worked on a farm in Saskatchewan, cut logs in Vancouver, and cleaned out boilers.
Musk described the experience of cleaning boilers in Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future. “You have to put on this hazmat suit and then shimmy through this little tunnel that you can barely fit in,” he explained. “Then, you have a shovel and you take the sand and goop and other residue, which is still steaming hot, and you have to shovel it through the same hole you came through. There is no escape. Someone else on the other side has to shovel it into a wheelbarrow. If you stay in there for more than thirty minutes, you get too hot and die.”
In 1989, Musk enrolled at Queen’s University in Ontario. In college, Musk told a friend, “If there was a way that I could not eat, so I could work more, I would not eat. I wish there was a way to get nutrients without sitting down for a meal.”
Musk’s drive continued to push him. He built and sold computers from his dorm room. “I could build something to suit their needs like a tricked-out gaming machine or a simple word processor that cost less than what they could get in a store,” Musk related.
He also spent hours playing games like Civilization and thought about a career in gaming. After transferring to the University of Pennsylvania, Musk began to gravitate toward business and technology. Although gaming had been his passion since he was a boy, Musk wanted to have a larger impact on the world. “I really like computer games, but then if I made really great computer games, how much effect would that have on the world,” Musk wondered. “It wouldn’t have a big effect. Even though I have an intrinsic love of video games, I couldn’t bring myself to do that as a career.”
In college, Musk knew he was a quick learner. He was already interested in solar power, space, the internet, and electric cars. After earning bachelor’s degrees in economics and physics, Musk moved to California to earn his Ph.D in energy physics at Stanford. Silicon Valley quickly drew Musk’s attention, and he dropped out of his doctoral program after only two days.
Instead, Musk launched Zip2 Corporation, which made online city guides. He sold the company in 1999 for over $300 million. Over the next four years, Musk founded PayPal, SpaceX, and Tesla Motors. The drive that pushed Musk to learn programming in three days helped Musk turn his vision of a future driven by technology into a reality.
What can we learn from Self-Taught Programmer Elon Musk?
- Identify what drives you. When Musk decided to learn programming, it took him three days to master the BASIC programming language. Within two years of owning his first computer, Musk sold his first program. Are you driven by curiosity? Do you have a specific career goal? Harness that drive to reach your goals.
- Figure out your learning style. From an early age, he wanted to learn everything. Elon Musk’s education relied heavily on self-teaching, and he quickly figured out that reading books was one of the best ways for him to learn. Musk learned programming by reading a book. And when he wanted to learn more about rocket propulsion, Musk read college textbooks. Books might not work for everyone—some people prefer webinars, videos, podcasts, or tutoring. Learning your learning style can help unlock your programming potential.
What’s driving you to learn programming? Let us know in the comments below!
Want to learn to program? Register for my free Self-Taught Coder Masterclass where I cover how I went from a novice to a software engineer at eBay in less than one year.
Latest posts by Genevieve Carlton (see all)
- The Most Important Women in Programming History - January 16, 2020
- What is the difference between HTML and CSS? - August 19, 2019
- The 13 Best Programming Books For Software Developers - March 15, 2019 | 1,423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Video #1: Plato’s Theory of Forms
Plato is an ancient Greek philosopher who was born in Athens, 429BC, and spend all his life there until his death, 347BC. Not only is he known for the theory’s he was made, but for being Socrates student as well as Aristotle’s teacher. His writings focused mainly on political philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of language. Socrates was a major inspiration, his methods of dialogue and debate impressed him so much that he then closely analyzed the question of virtue and the formation of a noble character.
“Can we know what virtue is?” it is the theory of forms. After his teacher has passed away, he continued his theory, what is virtue? Plato believed that could be answered so he came up with the Theory of Forms. Metaphysics is born, it is where you can find a true meaning of virtue and justice, where the form is found. The field of philosophy concerned with the ultimate truth of reality. According to Plato, in the world we are living in, every object had a true meaning. With intelligible is what we grasp with our senses, and what’s visible is what we grasp with our senses.
Plato believed that the real world is outside from where we are living, the world we are living in right now is a material world. He describes the real world of forms as patterns for the objects, concepts from the material world, as he said, “in a world of unchanging perfection.” In order to leave the material world, he said we need to be free of our shackles and find the world of
By believing that all objects in this world are copies of the forms, the forms are the causes of what exist in the world.
I think that we are trapped in this material world, and in fact I agree that there is another world outside of here. We are visually grasping what we see, but if we think I know that there is something out there that for now we aren’t able to see it. it can be because of the same reason that we are too accustomed with how they are ruling us. | <urn:uuid:77aee608-737d-42e6-89ec-576384cb90b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://rosslandschools.com/video-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00374.warc.gz | en | 0.983218 | 452 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.3061810433864... | 2 | Video #1: Plato’s Theory of Forms
Plato is an ancient Greek philosopher who was born in Athens, 429BC, and spend all his life there until his death, 347BC. Not only is he known for the theory’s he was made, but for being Socrates student as well as Aristotle’s teacher. His writings focused mainly on political philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of language. Socrates was a major inspiration, his methods of dialogue and debate impressed him so much that he then closely analyzed the question of virtue and the formation of a noble character.
“Can we know what virtue is?” it is the theory of forms. After his teacher has passed away, he continued his theory, what is virtue? Plato believed that could be answered so he came up with the Theory of Forms. Metaphysics is born, it is where you can find a true meaning of virtue and justice, where the form is found. The field of philosophy concerned with the ultimate truth of reality. According to Plato, in the world we are living in, every object had a true meaning. With intelligible is what we grasp with our senses, and what’s visible is what we grasp with our senses.
Plato believed that the real world is outside from where we are living, the world we are living in right now is a material world. He describes the real world of forms as patterns for the objects, concepts from the material world, as he said, “in a world of unchanging perfection.” In order to leave the material world, he said we need to be free of our shackles and find the world of
By believing that all objects in this world are copies of the forms, the forms are the causes of what exist in the world.
I think that we are trapped in this material world, and in fact I agree that there is another world outside of here. We are visually grasping what we see, but if we think I know that there is something out there that for now we aren’t able to see it. it can be because of the same reason that we are too accustomed with how they are ruling us. | 442 | ENGLISH | 1 |
September 30th 1399:Richard II abdicates to save his life
Richard II became the second English King to abdicate today, the 30th September, in 1399. He had been King since his grandfather Edward III died in 1377. Both his grandfather and his father, Edward the Black Prince, had been excellent and well respected warriors. Richard, despite an auspicious beginning and his ancestors, was to prove a weak one.
He came to the throne aged ten and was happy for his uncle John of Gaunt to rule as Regent. He grew into a tall, handsome and cultured man, but did not enjoy or love more kingly pursuits, like war and jousting. His manner became almost megalomaniac, as he ignored, then closed Parliament and chose favourites to rule with him and spent extravagantly.
Henry Bolingbroke, John of Gaunt’s son and Richard’s cousin, was one of many who took umbrage. He and four others had Richard’s favourite, Robert De Vere exiled. In turn , Henry was exiled. But he was to return.
Soon after Richard foolishly visited Ireland and in his absence, Henry landed in Yorkshire and quickly gathered support everywhere. When Richard returned to his kingdom, he found he had no choice but to surrender it to his cousin. He was imprisoned in the Tower, still the King of England. He renounced his throne after repeated threats, fearing all the time for his life.
He would die months later in Pontefract castle, Yorkshire, supposedly of starvation, but more probably murdered on orders of his cousin, the new King Henry IV.
Henry never forgave himself for what he had done and died of a horrible, disfiguring disease in 1413, fearing God was punishing him.
Shakespeare’s play about Richard II does a good job of portraying him as self-absorbed, superficial, impulsive, unprincipled and lacking in good judgment. For a more modern take on the same theme, see last week’s Dilbert cartoon in which Dogbert asks the CEO, “How’s your grandiose sense of self-worth?”, to which the CEO responds, “It’s the best! I should kill you for asking!”
Constitutionally, the Richard II affair (at least as portrayed in the play) reflected a clash between two different philosophies of kingship. On one side was the “divine right of kings” principle, which argued that kings held their position by divine sanction and that, no matter how bad a king was, people had to put up with him because to unseat him amounted to a revolt against divine authority. On the other side was what could be called the “Magna Carta” principle (established 162 years prior to Richard’s abdication), which stated that a king’s power was limited by laws which were enforcible by his subjects. When Richard breaks these laws by disinheriting Bolingbrooke when Bolingbrooke’s father dies (and seizing the money to replenish the royal coffers), he is sternly warned by one of his nobles that, in doing so, he is violating the principles of inheritance and succession to which he himself owes his position as king (thus setting himself up for his overthrow later in the play).
His eldest did not of course. He won at Agincourt, only to die of dysentery in France 7 years later.
His early death led to the Wars of the Roses.
Henry IV certainly had three more sons who accompanied their brother to France. I cannot remember their names or titles. One may have been the young Henry VI’s Regent.
Perhaps Flashman can remember.
I have said before, I am fond of the Richards and no lover of the Henrys. | <urn:uuid:7fe42368-0927-4fb8-b40f-ffd61233facf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.axisandallies.org/forums/topic/21744/september-30th-1399-richard-ii-abdicates-to-save-his-life | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.989875 | 810 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.468996644020080... | 3 | September 30th 1399:Richard II abdicates to save his life
Richard II became the second English King to abdicate today, the 30th September, in 1399. He had been King since his grandfather Edward III died in 1377. Both his grandfather and his father, Edward the Black Prince, had been excellent and well respected warriors. Richard, despite an auspicious beginning and his ancestors, was to prove a weak one.
He came to the throne aged ten and was happy for his uncle John of Gaunt to rule as Regent. He grew into a tall, handsome and cultured man, but did not enjoy or love more kingly pursuits, like war and jousting. His manner became almost megalomaniac, as he ignored, then closed Parliament and chose favourites to rule with him and spent extravagantly.
Henry Bolingbroke, John of Gaunt’s son and Richard’s cousin, was one of many who took umbrage. He and four others had Richard’s favourite, Robert De Vere exiled. In turn , Henry was exiled. But he was to return.
Soon after Richard foolishly visited Ireland and in his absence, Henry landed in Yorkshire and quickly gathered support everywhere. When Richard returned to his kingdom, he found he had no choice but to surrender it to his cousin. He was imprisoned in the Tower, still the King of England. He renounced his throne after repeated threats, fearing all the time for his life.
He would die months later in Pontefract castle, Yorkshire, supposedly of starvation, but more probably murdered on orders of his cousin, the new King Henry IV.
Henry never forgave himself for what he had done and died of a horrible, disfiguring disease in 1413, fearing God was punishing him.
Shakespeare’s play about Richard II does a good job of portraying him as self-absorbed, superficial, impulsive, unprincipled and lacking in good judgment. For a more modern take on the same theme, see last week’s Dilbert cartoon in which Dogbert asks the CEO, “How’s your grandiose sense of self-worth?”, to which the CEO responds, “It’s the best! I should kill you for asking!”
Constitutionally, the Richard II affair (at least as portrayed in the play) reflected a clash between two different philosophies of kingship. On one side was the “divine right of kings” principle, which argued that kings held their position by divine sanction and that, no matter how bad a king was, people had to put up with him because to unseat him amounted to a revolt against divine authority. On the other side was what could be called the “Magna Carta” principle (established 162 years prior to Richard’s abdication), which stated that a king’s power was limited by laws which were enforcible by his subjects. When Richard breaks these laws by disinheriting Bolingbrooke when Bolingbrooke’s father dies (and seizing the money to replenish the royal coffers), he is sternly warned by one of his nobles that, in doing so, he is violating the principles of inheritance and succession to which he himself owes his position as king (thus setting himself up for his overthrow later in the play).
His eldest did not of course. He won at Agincourt, only to die of dysentery in France 7 years later.
His early death led to the Wars of the Roses.
Henry IV certainly had three more sons who accompanied their brother to France. I cannot remember their names or titles. One may have been the young Henry VI’s Regent.
Perhaps Flashman can remember.
I have said before, I am fond of the Richards and no lover of the Henrys. | 791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1957 a European silver coin dating to the eleventh century was discovered at a Native American archaeological site in the state of Maine in the United States. Many people believed the coin had been originally brought to North America by European explorers known as the Norse, who traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and came into contact with Native Americans almost a thousand years ago.
However, some archaeologists believe that the coin is not a genuine piece of historical evidence but a historical fake; they think that the coin was placed at the site recently by someone who wanted to mislead the public. There are three main reasons why some archaeologists believe that the coin is not genuine historical evidence.
Great Distance from Norse Settlements
First, the Native American site in Maine where the coin was discovered is located very far from other sites documenting a Norse presence in North America. Remains of Norse settlements have been discovered in far eastern Canada. The distance between the Maine site and the Norse settlements in Canada is more than a thousand kilometers, suggesting the coin has no real connection with the settlements.
No Other Coins Found
A second problem is that no other coins have been found at the Canadian sites that were inhabited by the Norse. This suggests that the Norse did not bring any silver coins with them to their North American settlements.
no Use and no value
Third, the Norse who traveled to North America would have understood that silver coins would most likely be useless to them. SiLver coins may have been in wide use in Europe at the time, but the Norse, as experienced explorers, would have known that native North Americans did not recognize silver coins as money. | <urn:uuid:dd7afb8f-dad9-4c3a-b8c9-a0210826fa98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.hugejiaoyu.com/2018/06/05/tpo44/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00039.warc.gz | en | 0.984864 | 324 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.156768... | 4 | In 1957 a European silver coin dating to the eleventh century was discovered at a Native American archaeological site in the state of Maine in the United States. Many people believed the coin had been originally brought to North America by European explorers known as the Norse, who traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and came into contact with Native Americans almost a thousand years ago.
However, some archaeologists believe that the coin is not a genuine piece of historical evidence but a historical fake; they think that the coin was placed at the site recently by someone who wanted to mislead the public. There are three main reasons why some archaeologists believe that the coin is not genuine historical evidence.
Great Distance from Norse Settlements
First, the Native American site in Maine where the coin was discovered is located very far from other sites documenting a Norse presence in North America. Remains of Norse settlements have been discovered in far eastern Canada. The distance between the Maine site and the Norse settlements in Canada is more than a thousand kilometers, suggesting the coin has no real connection with the settlements.
No Other Coins Found
A second problem is that no other coins have been found at the Canadian sites that were inhabited by the Norse. This suggests that the Norse did not bring any silver coins with them to their North American settlements.
no Use and no value
Third, the Norse who traveled to North America would have understood that silver coins would most likely be useless to them. SiLver coins may have been in wide use in Europe at the time, but the Norse, as experienced explorers, would have known that native North Americans did not recognize silver coins as money. | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Humanism was a movement in the Renaissance, that studied human accomplishments.
Perspective is a technique used by Renaissance painters it was the attempt to show three dimensions on a flat surface. This led to more realistic artwork. This also gives opportunities to show emotions and thoughts easier through artwork.
Johann Gutenberg was a tradesman from Germany. He invented many crucial devices, possibly the most important one being the Printing Press. This machine allowed for writing to be produced in bulk rather than one by one.
Leonardo Da Vinci was a profound sculptor, painter, inventor, and scientist. He also studied anatomy. His most famous work is the Mona Lisa. This piece is so well known that the thoughts behind her smile.
The Sistine Chapel is the large chapel built within the Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV. It was painted by Michelangelo in 1508-1512 at the commission of Pope Julius II. The chapel is the meeting place for important papal services.
Niccolò Machiavelli was a well known writer of the Renaissance period. He has often been known as “The Father of Political Science”. He wrote songs and comedies. He was also an amazing poet. His most impactful literary work is “The Prince”. This points out human flaws and mistakes and analyzes reasoning behind actions.
The 95 Theses are a list of suggestions for the Catholic Church. It was written in by Martin Luther in 1517. He started the Reformation and a schism in the Catholic Church.
When towns people started to catch wind of Luther’s teachings some of these ideas were being applied to society. This led to mobs of angry peasants on the countryside raiding monasteries and burning them. This made Luther very unhappy because this is not what he meant by his teachings. After this Luther ordered for the prince to kill 100,000 peasants.
The Council of Trent was a set of doctrines installed by the Catholic Church. These were attempts to reform parts of the church that needed fixing.
The coronation of Queen Elizabeth I as Queen regnant of the Kingdom of England took place at Westminster Abbey, London, on 15 January 1559. Queen Elizabeth I had gained the throne at age 25 due to the death of her half-sister, Queen Mary I. | <urn:uuid:89133c2f-9f7c-462b-ad1f-e7c90aca5600> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://insectsunlocked.org/humanism-the-mona-lisa-this-piece-is-so-well/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00023.warc.gz | en | 0.983803 | 482 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.138586252927780... | 2 | Humanism was a movement in the Renaissance, that studied human accomplishments.
Perspective is a technique used by Renaissance painters it was the attempt to show three dimensions on a flat surface. This led to more realistic artwork. This also gives opportunities to show emotions and thoughts easier through artwork.
Johann Gutenberg was a tradesman from Germany. He invented many crucial devices, possibly the most important one being the Printing Press. This machine allowed for writing to be produced in bulk rather than one by one.
Leonardo Da Vinci was a profound sculptor, painter, inventor, and scientist. He also studied anatomy. His most famous work is the Mona Lisa. This piece is so well known that the thoughts behind her smile.
The Sistine Chapel is the large chapel built within the Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV. It was painted by Michelangelo in 1508-1512 at the commission of Pope Julius II. The chapel is the meeting place for important papal services.
Niccolò Machiavelli was a well known writer of the Renaissance period. He has often been known as “The Father of Political Science”. He wrote songs and comedies. He was also an amazing poet. His most impactful literary work is “The Prince”. This points out human flaws and mistakes and analyzes reasoning behind actions.
The 95 Theses are a list of suggestions for the Catholic Church. It was written in by Martin Luther in 1517. He started the Reformation and a schism in the Catholic Church.
When towns people started to catch wind of Luther’s teachings some of these ideas were being applied to society. This led to mobs of angry peasants on the countryside raiding monasteries and burning them. This made Luther very unhappy because this is not what he meant by his teachings. After this Luther ordered for the prince to kill 100,000 peasants.
The Council of Trent was a set of doctrines installed by the Catholic Church. These were attempts to reform parts of the church that needed fixing.
The coronation of Queen Elizabeth I as Queen regnant of the Kingdom of England took place at Westminster Abbey, London, on 15 January 1559. Queen Elizabeth I had gained the throne at age 25 due to the death of her half-sister, Queen Mary I. | 486 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leonardo da Vinci designed a bridge for the Sultan of Istanbul. It was never built, but recent studies have shown that the bridge was an amazing piece of engineering design, so a Norwegian company has built a smaller version from the same plans in Norway and it is a sight to behold!
The Golden Horn
Istanbul, the biggest city in Turkey1, is divided into three separate regions by the sea. Running from south west to north east is the Bosporus, a kilometre-wide channel of the sea which is traditionally the divide between the continents of Europe and Asia. Up until the last century, the city was entirely on the western (European) side of this channel of water.
More interesting is the deep water inlet known as the Golden Horn. This runs in a westerly direction from the west side of the Bosporus. It divides the old city of Istanbul into two. To the south of the inlet is the original city founded by the Greeks and later expanded by the Romans. Known as both Byzantium and Constantinople, it was the possibly the greatest city in the world for nearly a thousand years. To the north of the Golden Horn is the suburb known now as Beyoglu but for most of its existence as Galata. This started out as a small village but gradually grew to be a sizable suburb of the city.
There was a narrow bridge across the inlet in the 12th century, somewhat to the west of the city, but it was destroyed during the Crusader siege of 1204 and was never rebuilt. By the time the Ottomans captured Istanbul in 1453 and made it their capital, the district of Galata was quite big, but was cut off from the rest of Istanbul by the Golden Horn. The inlet itself is only 300 metres wide, but is very deep, making it difficult to bridge.
In 1502, the Sultan Bajazet II decided he needed a bridge. He commissioned none other than Leonardo da Vinci himself to design the bridge. Leonardo's design was strange in the extreme: a stone bridge in a single graceful arch, thin at the centre and widening both horizontally and vertically at the ends to join onto the land in a series of curves; the design is organic-looking and resembles the roots of a tree. The whole style of the bridge is a triumph of minimalism, totally unlike the baroque masterpieces popular in Europe at the time.
Some details of Leonardo's design:
- Width at centre: 24m
- Height above sea at centre: 40m
- Span: 240m
- Total bridge length: 360m
We don't know the Sultan's reaction to Leonardo's plans, but the bridge was never built. The inlet remained unbridged until the 19th Century when an ugly and cumbersome floating bridge was built. This was later replaced by the present Galata Bridge.
The Bridge of Aas
The designs for Leonardo's bridge were forgotten about. They were included in an exhibition on the work of Leonardo, but nobody really looked at them until 1996, when Norwegian artist and architect Vebjørn Sand saw the plans and was bowled over by them. He analysed them using modern civil engineering knowledge and discovered that the bridge didn't just look good, it was also a miracle of clever design. The extremely narrow centre of the bridge reduces the load on the sides to such an extent that the weight is not too great, and a single 240m span of stone can cross the entire inlet; nobody has ever built a stone bridge of this size to this day, but it appears that Leonardo's Bridge would have been viable.
But whether it would have remained standing for long is not clear - Istanbul is an earthquake zone, and Leonardo may not have taken this into account in his design.
Sand was so impressed with the bridge that he was determined to build a copy of it. He approached the Norwegian National Roads Authority. They were interested and eventually found a suitable site, in the village of Ås (sometimes written as Aas), where a footbridge over a motorway was needed. The road is the E18, the main motorway from Oslo to Stockholm, so the bridge is seen by many travellers every day. Sand worked with the road engineers and Leonardo's plans, scaling them down to one third size to produce the world's first Leonardo-designed bridge. In keeping with Norway's reputation as a forested country, wood was used rather than stone. The bridge was opened at the end of 2001. You can see it today if you go to Oleghus in Norway, as well as at the bridge's official website. | <urn:uuid:94355d43-28a2-4d3a-a010-9315544255b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/dna/ptop/alabaster/A22548369 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00156.warc.gz | en | 0.983232 | 948 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.03826468437... | 1 | Leonardo da Vinci designed a bridge for the Sultan of Istanbul. It was never built, but recent studies have shown that the bridge was an amazing piece of engineering design, so a Norwegian company has built a smaller version from the same plans in Norway and it is a sight to behold!
The Golden Horn
Istanbul, the biggest city in Turkey1, is divided into three separate regions by the sea. Running from south west to north east is the Bosporus, a kilometre-wide channel of the sea which is traditionally the divide between the continents of Europe and Asia. Up until the last century, the city was entirely on the western (European) side of this channel of water.
More interesting is the deep water inlet known as the Golden Horn. This runs in a westerly direction from the west side of the Bosporus. It divides the old city of Istanbul into two. To the south of the inlet is the original city founded by the Greeks and later expanded by the Romans. Known as both Byzantium and Constantinople, it was the possibly the greatest city in the world for nearly a thousand years. To the north of the Golden Horn is the suburb known now as Beyoglu but for most of its existence as Galata. This started out as a small village but gradually grew to be a sizable suburb of the city.
There was a narrow bridge across the inlet in the 12th century, somewhat to the west of the city, but it was destroyed during the Crusader siege of 1204 and was never rebuilt. By the time the Ottomans captured Istanbul in 1453 and made it their capital, the district of Galata was quite big, but was cut off from the rest of Istanbul by the Golden Horn. The inlet itself is only 300 metres wide, but is very deep, making it difficult to bridge.
In 1502, the Sultan Bajazet II decided he needed a bridge. He commissioned none other than Leonardo da Vinci himself to design the bridge. Leonardo's design was strange in the extreme: a stone bridge in a single graceful arch, thin at the centre and widening both horizontally and vertically at the ends to join onto the land in a series of curves; the design is organic-looking and resembles the roots of a tree. The whole style of the bridge is a triumph of minimalism, totally unlike the baroque masterpieces popular in Europe at the time.
Some details of Leonardo's design:
- Width at centre: 24m
- Height above sea at centre: 40m
- Span: 240m
- Total bridge length: 360m
We don't know the Sultan's reaction to Leonardo's plans, but the bridge was never built. The inlet remained unbridged until the 19th Century when an ugly and cumbersome floating bridge was built. This was later replaced by the present Galata Bridge.
The Bridge of Aas
The designs for Leonardo's bridge were forgotten about. They were included in an exhibition on the work of Leonardo, but nobody really looked at them until 1996, when Norwegian artist and architect Vebjørn Sand saw the plans and was bowled over by them. He analysed them using modern civil engineering knowledge and discovered that the bridge didn't just look good, it was also a miracle of clever design. The extremely narrow centre of the bridge reduces the load on the sides to such an extent that the weight is not too great, and a single 240m span of stone can cross the entire inlet; nobody has ever built a stone bridge of this size to this day, but it appears that Leonardo's Bridge would have been viable.
But whether it would have remained standing for long is not clear - Istanbul is an earthquake zone, and Leonardo may not have taken this into account in his design.
Sand was so impressed with the bridge that he was determined to build a copy of it. He approached the Norwegian National Roads Authority. They were interested and eventually found a suitable site, in the village of Ås (sometimes written as Aas), where a footbridge over a motorway was needed. The road is the E18, the main motorway from Oslo to Stockholm, so the bridge is seen by many travellers every day. Sand worked with the road engineers and Leonardo's plans, scaling them down to one third size to produce the world's first Leonardo-designed bridge. In keeping with Norway's reputation as a forested country, wood was used rather than stone. The bridge was opened at the end of 2001. You can see it today if you go to Oleghus in Norway, as well as at the bridge's official website. | 965 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This and that are determiners or pronouns. The plural form of this is these. The plural form of that is those.
This entry deals with the similarities and differences between the ways in which these words are used.
This, these, that, and those are all used for referring to people, things, or events that have already been mentioned. It is more common to use this and these than that and those.
New machines are more expensive and this is something one has to consider.
So, for all these reasons, my advice is to be very, very careful.
You use that or those when you are referring to something for the second time in a sentence, using the same noun.
I know that what I say to a person is seldom what that person hears.
Students suggest books for the library, and normally we're quite happy to get those books.
You usually use that, rather than ‘this’, to refer to a statement that someone has just made.
‘She was terribly afraid of offending anyone.’ – ‘That’s right.'
‘That’s a good point,' he said in response to my question.
present and past
You can use this or that to talk about events or situations.
You use this to refer to a situation that is continuing to exist, or to an event that is continuing to take place.
‘My God,’ I said, ‘This is awful.’
This whole business has gone on too long.
You use that to refer to an event or situation that has taken place recently.
I knew that meeting would be difficult.
That was a terrible air crash last week.
You use this or these to refer to people or things that are very near to you. For example, you use this to refer to an object you are holding in your hand, or something on a desk or table in front of you.
‘What is this?’ she said, picking up the parcel on my desk.
Wait a minute. I just have to sort these books out.
You use that or those to refer to people or things that you can see or hear, but that are not very near to you, so that, for example, you cannot put out your hand and touch them.
Look at that bird!
Can you move those boots off there?
When you are comparing two things and one of them is nearer to you than the other, you can use this to refer to the one that is nearer and that to refer to the one that is further away.
This one's nice but I don't like that one much.
This and these are used in different ways when you are referring to people, things, situations, events, or periods of time. They can both be determiners or pronouns. These is the plural form of this.
You can use this or these to refer to people, things, or events that have just been mentioned.
He's from the Institute of English Language in Bangkok. This institute has been set up to serve language teachers in the area.
Tax increases may be needed next year to do this.
These particular students are extremely bright.
Don't use ‘this’ as a pronoun to refer to a person who has just been mentioned. Instead you use he or she.
He was known to everyone as Eddie.
‘Bye,’ Mary said as she drove away.
In conversation, many people use this and these as determiners even when they are mentioning people or things for the first time.
Then this guy came to the door of the class and he said, ‘Mary, you’re wanted out here in the hall.'
At school we had to wear these awful white cotton hats.
You can use this or these to refer to people or things that are very near to you. For example, if you are holding a book, you refer to it as ‘this book’.
The colonel handed him the bag. ‘This is for you,’ he said.
Get these kids out of here.
‘This’ is not usually used as a pronoun to refer to a person. You only use it when you are identifying someone or asking them about their identity. For example, you use this when you are introducing someone. Note that when you are introducing more than one person, you use this, not ‘these’.
This is Bernadette, Mr Zapp.
This is my brother Andrew and his wife Claire.
You also use this to say who you are when you phone someone.
Sally? This is Martin Brody.
You can use this to refer to a situation that exists now or to an event that is happening now.
You know a lot about this situation.
‘this’ and ‘these’ in time expressions
This is used in the following ways in time expressions:
You use it with morning, afternoon, or evening to refer to the morning, afternoon, or evening of the present day.
I was here this afternoon. Have you forgotten?
However, don't say ‘this day’. You say today.
I had a letter today from my solicitor.
Also, don't say ‘this night’. You refer to the previous night as last night. You refer to the night of the present day as tonight.
We left our bedroom window open last night.
I think I'll go to bed early tonight.
This week, month, or year means the present week, month, or year.
They're talking about going on strike this week.
You usually use this with weekend or with the name of a day, month, or season to refer to the next weekend or to the next day, month, or season with that name.
Come down there with me this weekend.
Let's fix a time. This Sunday. Four o'clock.
However, you can also use this with one of these words to refer to the previous weekend, or the previous day, month, or season with that name.
This summer they spent £15 million on emergency shelters for the homeless.
These days means ‘at the present time’.
The prices these days are absolutely ridiculous.
‘that’ and ‘those’
That and those are used in some similar ways to this and these. | <urn:uuid:da4e4bb5-166e-485e-8df1-5bef6f9b331c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www2.wordreference.com/EnglishUsage/this | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.982507 | 1,341 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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-0.0560733377... | 1 | This and that are determiners or pronouns. The plural form of this is these. The plural form of that is those.
This entry deals with the similarities and differences between the ways in which these words are used.
This, these, that, and those are all used for referring to people, things, or events that have already been mentioned. It is more common to use this and these than that and those.
New machines are more expensive and this is something one has to consider.
So, for all these reasons, my advice is to be very, very careful.
You use that or those when you are referring to something for the second time in a sentence, using the same noun.
I know that what I say to a person is seldom what that person hears.
Students suggest books for the library, and normally we're quite happy to get those books.
You usually use that, rather than ‘this’, to refer to a statement that someone has just made.
‘She was terribly afraid of offending anyone.’ – ‘That’s right.'
‘That’s a good point,' he said in response to my question.
present and past
You can use this or that to talk about events or situations.
You use this to refer to a situation that is continuing to exist, or to an event that is continuing to take place.
‘My God,’ I said, ‘This is awful.’
This whole business has gone on too long.
You use that to refer to an event or situation that has taken place recently.
I knew that meeting would be difficult.
That was a terrible air crash last week.
You use this or these to refer to people or things that are very near to you. For example, you use this to refer to an object you are holding in your hand, or something on a desk or table in front of you.
‘What is this?’ she said, picking up the parcel on my desk.
Wait a minute. I just have to sort these books out.
You use that or those to refer to people or things that you can see or hear, but that are not very near to you, so that, for example, you cannot put out your hand and touch them.
Look at that bird!
Can you move those boots off there?
When you are comparing two things and one of them is nearer to you than the other, you can use this to refer to the one that is nearer and that to refer to the one that is further away.
This one's nice but I don't like that one much.
This and these are used in different ways when you are referring to people, things, situations, events, or periods of time. They can both be determiners or pronouns. These is the plural form of this.
You can use this or these to refer to people, things, or events that have just been mentioned.
He's from the Institute of English Language in Bangkok. This institute has been set up to serve language teachers in the area.
Tax increases may be needed next year to do this.
These particular students are extremely bright.
Don't use ‘this’ as a pronoun to refer to a person who has just been mentioned. Instead you use he or she.
He was known to everyone as Eddie.
‘Bye,’ Mary said as she drove away.
In conversation, many people use this and these as determiners even when they are mentioning people or things for the first time.
Then this guy came to the door of the class and he said, ‘Mary, you’re wanted out here in the hall.'
At school we had to wear these awful white cotton hats.
You can use this or these to refer to people or things that are very near to you. For example, if you are holding a book, you refer to it as ‘this book’.
The colonel handed him the bag. ‘This is for you,’ he said.
Get these kids out of here.
‘This’ is not usually used as a pronoun to refer to a person. You only use it when you are identifying someone or asking them about their identity. For example, you use this when you are introducing someone. Note that when you are introducing more than one person, you use this, not ‘these’.
This is Bernadette, Mr Zapp.
This is my brother Andrew and his wife Claire.
You also use this to say who you are when you phone someone.
Sally? This is Martin Brody.
You can use this to refer to a situation that exists now or to an event that is happening now.
You know a lot about this situation.
‘this’ and ‘these’ in time expressions
This is used in the following ways in time expressions:
You use it with morning, afternoon, or evening to refer to the morning, afternoon, or evening of the present day.
I was here this afternoon. Have you forgotten?
However, don't say ‘this day’. You say today.
I had a letter today from my solicitor.
Also, don't say ‘this night’. You refer to the previous night as last night. You refer to the night of the present day as tonight.
We left our bedroom window open last night.
I think I'll go to bed early tonight.
This week, month, or year means the present week, month, or year.
They're talking about going on strike this week.
You usually use this with weekend or with the name of a day, month, or season to refer to the next weekend or to the next day, month, or season with that name.
Come down there with me this weekend.
Let's fix a time. This Sunday. Four o'clock.
However, you can also use this with one of these words to refer to the previous weekend, or the previous day, month, or season with that name.
This summer they spent £15 million on emergency shelters for the homeless.
These days means ‘at the present time’.
The prices these days are absolutely ridiculous.
‘that’ and ‘those’
That and those are used in some similar ways to this and these. | 1,230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The true description of Scrooge first appears about quarter way through the book, before then there are only a few minor references to his character. The description begins metaphorically as it features the words ' A tight-fisted hand at the grindstone'. Its metaphorical because it is trying to portray that Scrooge is literally as tight as the hand to the grindstone. Then soon after this seven adjectives follow, ' Squeezing, Wrenching, Grasping, Scraping, Clutching, Covetous, Old sinner'.
They are used effectively as each one has an individual meaning describing seven trates of Scrooges character, which begins to give the reader a visual picture of how the character may conduct himself. So far all qualities of Scrooge have been negative and so it continues. Then the writer brings in the object 'flint' and states all the negative quality's of flint then compares them to Scrooge.
As soon as the writer gets across the way in which Scrooge conducts himself, he moves on to how Scrooge is happy to be by himself.
Charles Dickens uses the word 'Solitary' to great effect as it portrays that not only Scrooge stays alone it also gives a second meaning. It's as if that Scrooge does not need anyone else. Then Charles Dickens attempts to compare Scrooge to the weather making him a very cold hearted character, and explains that even the worse weather can not match to how cold Scrooge is and how he cares not for anyone but himself. It mentions 'The cold within him froze his facial features', so it portrays that its not the weather affecting Scrooge its how cold he is inside.
Its even to the extent that its as if Scrooge carries around a low temperature with him where ever he goes. Its not a physical effect he has, its more of a visual effect as whenever anyone would see him they would experience chills down the back of his neck.
Scrooge is a very powerful character as whenever Charles Dickens attempts to describe him he uses words that seem to carry a visual picture giving the reader an idea of how truly nasty he is.
He clearly states there is no positive trates Scrooge which also enhances Scrooge's appearance. Charles Dickens continues with the theme of weather by finishing the paragraph with roughly, 'The heaviest rain and snow often came down' handsomely and Scrooge never did'. This means that however bad the weather conditions were they never compared to how cold Scrooge is inside, which is a very powerful statement. The next paragraph is how other people perceive Scrooge, it begins with how Scrooge barely knew anyone but everyone seemed to know him.
It mentions how no one ever approached him to see how he was or what he was doing, he had such an effect on the public that they never even thought to approach him.
Then it describes how beggars never use to 'implore' him for money. This also is a very powerful image as a beggar is always out for every penny he can collect even if he knows he is unlikely to receive any money he always attempts. For a beggar not to approach anyone would be strange, but that means that Scrooge is so predictable and mean that they never try as they already know the answer.
No stranger ever asked Scrooge the time as, although they did not know him, it was as if they knew he would not help. Then the passage gives a final visualisation stating that Scrooge even has an effect on a blind man's dog. He is so well recognised by everyone including strangers that everyone knows him. He was continually avoided because of the way he went about things but without even saying a thing his embrace gripped strangers so much they would completely avoid him. | <urn:uuid:c7518569-c6cf-4cfe-990d-08e6f81e2073> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jgdb.com/essays/a-christmas-carol-description-of-scrooge | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.98373 | 789 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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-0.01002523209... | 2 | The true description of Scrooge first appears about quarter way through the book, before then there are only a few minor references to his character. The description begins metaphorically as it features the words ' A tight-fisted hand at the grindstone'. Its metaphorical because it is trying to portray that Scrooge is literally as tight as the hand to the grindstone. Then soon after this seven adjectives follow, ' Squeezing, Wrenching, Grasping, Scraping, Clutching, Covetous, Old sinner'.
They are used effectively as each one has an individual meaning describing seven trates of Scrooges character, which begins to give the reader a visual picture of how the character may conduct himself. So far all qualities of Scrooge have been negative and so it continues. Then the writer brings in the object 'flint' and states all the negative quality's of flint then compares them to Scrooge.
As soon as the writer gets across the way in which Scrooge conducts himself, he moves on to how Scrooge is happy to be by himself.
Charles Dickens uses the word 'Solitary' to great effect as it portrays that not only Scrooge stays alone it also gives a second meaning. It's as if that Scrooge does not need anyone else. Then Charles Dickens attempts to compare Scrooge to the weather making him a very cold hearted character, and explains that even the worse weather can not match to how cold Scrooge is and how he cares not for anyone but himself. It mentions 'The cold within him froze his facial features', so it portrays that its not the weather affecting Scrooge its how cold he is inside.
Its even to the extent that its as if Scrooge carries around a low temperature with him where ever he goes. Its not a physical effect he has, its more of a visual effect as whenever anyone would see him they would experience chills down the back of his neck.
Scrooge is a very powerful character as whenever Charles Dickens attempts to describe him he uses words that seem to carry a visual picture giving the reader an idea of how truly nasty he is.
He clearly states there is no positive trates Scrooge which also enhances Scrooge's appearance. Charles Dickens continues with the theme of weather by finishing the paragraph with roughly, 'The heaviest rain and snow often came down' handsomely and Scrooge never did'. This means that however bad the weather conditions were they never compared to how cold Scrooge is inside, which is a very powerful statement. The next paragraph is how other people perceive Scrooge, it begins with how Scrooge barely knew anyone but everyone seemed to know him.
It mentions how no one ever approached him to see how he was or what he was doing, he had such an effect on the public that they never even thought to approach him.
Then it describes how beggars never use to 'implore' him for money. This also is a very powerful image as a beggar is always out for every penny he can collect even if he knows he is unlikely to receive any money he always attempts. For a beggar not to approach anyone would be strange, but that means that Scrooge is so predictable and mean that they never try as they already know the answer.
No stranger ever asked Scrooge the time as, although they did not know him, it was as if they knew he would not help. Then the passage gives a final visualisation stating that Scrooge even has an effect on a blind man's dog. He is so well recognised by everyone including strangers that everyone knows him. He was continually avoided because of the way he went about things but without even saying a thing his embrace gripped strangers so much they would completely avoid him. | 781 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (757 words)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on January 27th, 1756; in Salzburg Austria. Born with the full name Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, he quickly shortened it to Wolfgang Mozart by his early teenage years. His father, Leopold Mozart, was the assistant concert master in the Salzburg royal court. While his mother, Anna Maria Pertl, was born into a family of wealthy community leaders. His sister Maria Anna, was given the knick-name of “Nannerl”. By mimicking her playing on the harpiscord, Mozart developed a strong concept of chords, until he was also playing alongside of her.
Mozart started playing the violin when he was four years old, and was composing his own music by his fifth birthday. When Mozart became six, and when his sister was eleven, Mozart’s father started on their “tours” across Europe to showcase the duo’s young prodigal talents in 1762. They stopped in Paris, London, The Hague, as well as Zurich. When Nannerl became of age to marry, Mozart obtained the shot that kick-started his career.
When Mozart became thirteen, he was appointed assistant concertmaster with a small salary in the Salzburg court.
With this he was given the opportunity to compose symphonies, string quartets, sonatas, serenades, and a few operas. During his tours with his father, he held a meeting with Johannes Bach, who was interested with the young prodigy. They quickly became teacher and pupil. But at times, roles would switch. The lowest point of the trip was when Mozart’s mother died on July 3rd, 1778. However, the sixth year after 1784 became the most promising for Mozart, in which he appeared in 22 concerts.
During this time he composed many famous pieces including The Coranation Massand the Clarinet Concerto in A minor, as well as many minor pieces for soloists. However, this time had to come to an end. With the poor salary, he complained his troubles to the Salzburg ruler, which inferred an abrupt stripping of his title and an immediate exit of Salzburg court. He moved to Vienne and worked as a freelance Musician. After a while, money began to run out, His father pleaded for a position for his son, and after a while, Mozart was soon back in his old position, but ettled in Vienna. Mozart met Costanze in 1781, He was under suspicion to marry her by the end of the year. He denied the idea for a while, but he was asking permission of her father by December 1871. They announced the marriage in January 1782 and by August 4th, 1782, they were married in the royal court. The couple settled down in a lavish apartment in Vienna. They had six children, but only two survived past infancy, Karl Thomas and Franz Xaver. During the period from 1790 to 1791, Mozart composed many of his most famous pieces.
The opera The Magic Flute, the final piano concerto in B-flat, the Clarinet Concerto in A minor, and the unfinished Requiem to name a few were written during this time. In 1791, Mozart conducted the Prague for the premier of the opera La clemenza di Tito, Mozart recovered briefly to conduct the Prague premier of The Magic Flute, but it was not to be. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart died on December 5, 1791 at age 35. The record lists the cause as severe military fever, a mustard seed rash was mentioned to be on his body during the funeral.
Mozart, with all of his achievements, was buried in a common grave after the mundane funeral in which few mourners attended. The one song that was left behind unfinished was the famous “Requiem”. He wrote this on his death bed, with the quill in his hand as he died. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart influenced many people and social circles in which he was involved in. He influenced the musical world by introducing the Basset clarinet and the Piano into major orchestras and symphonies. Mozart was considered one of the greatest composers of all time. According to Bio. om, “His music presented a bold expression, often times complex and dissonant, and required high technical mastery from the musicians who performed it. His works remained secure and popular throughout the 19th century. ” He influenced the people around him by helping them open their minds to newer, bolder ideas. His greatest prodigy, Ludwig Van Beethoven, was a musical icon, but he gave much of his credit to his teacher, Mozart. There were other musical icons of the period who looked up to Mozart; including Bach, Beethoven, Hummels, and son Franz Xaver Sussmayr.
Cite this page
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. (2016, Oct 26). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/wolfgang-amadeus-mozart-essay | <urn:uuid:7cc41cfb-57dc-46f6-bdcc-70aba6b88b81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/wolfgang-amadeus-mozart-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.989366 | 1,096 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on January 27th, 1756; in Salzburg Austria. Born with the full name Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, he quickly shortened it to Wolfgang Mozart by his early teenage years. His father, Leopold Mozart, was the assistant concert master in the Salzburg royal court. While his mother, Anna Maria Pertl, was born into a family of wealthy community leaders. His sister Maria Anna, was given the knick-name of “Nannerl”. By mimicking her playing on the harpiscord, Mozart developed a strong concept of chords, until he was also playing alongside of her.
Mozart started playing the violin when he was four years old, and was composing his own music by his fifth birthday. When Mozart became six, and when his sister was eleven, Mozart’s father started on their “tours” across Europe to showcase the duo’s young prodigal talents in 1762. They stopped in Paris, London, The Hague, as well as Zurich. When Nannerl became of age to marry, Mozart obtained the shot that kick-started his career.
When Mozart became thirteen, he was appointed assistant concertmaster with a small salary in the Salzburg court.
With this he was given the opportunity to compose symphonies, string quartets, sonatas, serenades, and a few operas. During his tours with his father, he held a meeting with Johannes Bach, who was interested with the young prodigy. They quickly became teacher and pupil. But at times, roles would switch. The lowest point of the trip was when Mozart’s mother died on July 3rd, 1778. However, the sixth year after 1784 became the most promising for Mozart, in which he appeared in 22 concerts.
During this time he composed many famous pieces including The Coranation Massand the Clarinet Concerto in A minor, as well as many minor pieces for soloists. However, this time had to come to an end. With the poor salary, he complained his troubles to the Salzburg ruler, which inferred an abrupt stripping of his title and an immediate exit of Salzburg court. He moved to Vienne and worked as a freelance Musician. After a while, money began to run out, His father pleaded for a position for his son, and after a while, Mozart was soon back in his old position, but ettled in Vienna. Mozart met Costanze in 1781, He was under suspicion to marry her by the end of the year. He denied the idea for a while, but he was asking permission of her father by December 1871. They announced the marriage in January 1782 and by August 4th, 1782, they were married in the royal court. The couple settled down in a lavish apartment in Vienna. They had six children, but only two survived past infancy, Karl Thomas and Franz Xaver. During the period from 1790 to 1791, Mozart composed many of his most famous pieces.
The opera The Magic Flute, the final piano concerto in B-flat, the Clarinet Concerto in A minor, and the unfinished Requiem to name a few were written during this time. In 1791, Mozart conducted the Prague for the premier of the opera La clemenza di Tito, Mozart recovered briefly to conduct the Prague premier of The Magic Flute, but it was not to be. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart died on December 5, 1791 at age 35. The record lists the cause as severe military fever, a mustard seed rash was mentioned to be on his body during the funeral.
Mozart, with all of his achievements, was buried in a common grave after the mundane funeral in which few mourners attended. The one song that was left behind unfinished was the famous “Requiem”. He wrote this on his death bed, with the quill in his hand as he died. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart influenced many people and social circles in which he was involved in. He influenced the musical world by introducing the Basset clarinet and the Piano into major orchestras and symphonies. Mozart was considered one of the greatest composers of all time. According to Bio. om, “His music presented a bold expression, often times complex and dissonant, and required high technical mastery from the musicians who performed it. His works remained secure and popular throughout the 19th century. ” He influenced the people around him by helping them open their minds to newer, bolder ideas. His greatest prodigy, Ludwig Van Beethoven, was a musical icon, but he gave much of his credit to his teacher, Mozart. There were other musical icons of the period who looked up to Mozart; including Bach, Beethoven, Hummels, and son Franz Xaver Sussmayr.
Cite this page
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. (2016, Oct 26). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/wolfgang-amadeus-mozart-essay | 1,091 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War One Trench Warfare
Map Of The Western Front World War One
World War One Trench Warfare
On the 28Th of July 1914, World War One began and soldiers from both sides of the battle began diggng big holes in the ground where they would live, eat, sleep, fight and die together.
The trenches became the battle ground of The Great War and they became the final resting place for millions of young men, some as young as seventeen years old.
Most of the men who served in the trenches from 1914 untl 1918, were not really solders, they were either volunteers who gave up their everyday jobs to serve ther country in its time of need or as the war progressed subscription was introduced and if your name was called then you had to enlist in the armed services.
After six weeks of basic traning, the young men were sent to war really unprepared for the unimaginable horrors that lay ahead of them.
The Western Front WWI
The Western Front during World War 1 stretched from the North Sea at Belgium to the Swiss Frontier with France, over 240 miles long, fighting a war in the trenches would bring an end to speculation of a quick war that would be over by Christmas.
Trench warfare meant a slow long drawn out war, a stalemate; Men would be shot down in their thousands as they tried to go over the top into the enemy trenches, most before they could even get 50 yards out of their own trenches, this made it almost impossible for either side to gain ground from the other,
Holes in the ground were home to millions of soldiers throughout the war years and although many men died in battle just as many were killed by disease or infection brought on by the inhuman unsanitary conditions of life in the trenches.
Poison Gas In The Trenches Of World War One
Smells In The Trenches WWI
New recruits on their initial approach to the trenches would often be overcome by the putrid Stench that hit them, often it would be too much for some men that they were physically sick even before they reached the Front Line.
Rotting flesh from bodies in shallow graves, overflowing cesspits full of feces and urine, creosote and Chlorine used to cover up the cesspits and to try to stave off infections or disease. Adding to the smell there were also millions of sandbags rotting away through dampness from the rain, stagnant mud, cigarette smoke and even the smell of the men already in the trenches who hadn't managed to have a decent wash in weeks.
The smell of battle also filled the air stinging the nostrils of new recruits, Acrid cordite smells from the ever lasting heavy shell fire, the lingering odour of poison gasses that were sometimes used and of course the gunpowder smell from the soldiers firearms.
The soldiers never really got used to the smell but became accustomed to living with it, some soldiers even claimed that the smell never left them even years after the war was over.
World War I Trench Diagram
WW1 Trench Life
Disease And Infection In The Trenches Of WWI
The soldiers were never alone in the trenches, many creatures also made the trenches their home which was not really unexpected when you consider the abundance of food that life in the trenches created for them. These creatures were to play a big factor in the health of the fighting soldiers as they were all carriers of disease and infections.
Rats In The Trenches
Rats thrived in the trenches almost everywhere you looked rats would be running around in their thousands, eating human remains, dead insects and anything else that would fit in their mouths. The rats were beyond human control because they were in their ideal breeding ground and for every 10 rats killed another 100 would be born. some of the rats were so well fed that they grew to almost the same size as a domestic cat.
It was a widespread belief amongst the soldiers in the trenches that the rats knew in advance when the enemy was going to attack with a heavy bombardment of shells because the rats always seemed to disappear minutes before an enemy attack.
Lice In The Trenches
Lice were ever present in the trenches and they caused a lot of problems for the poor men who lived in them, even although a lot of the men shaved of every bit of hair from their heads and bodies the lice lived in their clothes and fed on their human blood.
Even when their clothes were washed and deloused some eggs still survived in the seams of the soldiers uniforms and would re-infect them.
Lice were carriers of Trench fever, a particularly painful disease that began suddenly with severe pain followed by high fever which took up to 12 weeks to recover from. It wasn't discovered until 1918 that the lice were the cause of trench fever.
Frogs in The Trenches
Millions of frogs were found in water holes made by shell fire and in the bases of the trenches, with the frogs slugs and horned beetles were lining the walls of the trench, nits were also a major problem with the men which again forced them to save their head and body hair off.
Flies And Maggots In the Trenches
With so much rotting flesh around Flies and Maggots were a constant problem with the soldiers, they were everywhere and anywhere, most soldiers wrapped scarves or towels around their mouths to avoid swallowing them, the flies were responsible for the spread of many infections and diseases in the trenches.
The Trenches were always waterlogged which meant that the soldiers living in them always had wet feet, this caused a major problem called trench foot especially if it was left untreated for a while. Trench Foot is a fungal infection of the feet which if not treated could get easily infected and turn gangrenous which in most cases would lead to amputation of part of the foot or even the whole foot. Duck board were quickly introduced into the trenches above the common waterline as a prevention in 1915 and cases of trench foot saw a rapid decline although there were still a few sufferers throughout the duration of the war.
Shell Shock In WWI
Two percent of the men serving in the trenches between 1914-1918, were the victims of Shell Shock around eighty thousand of the men who fought in the war.
The early symptoms of Shell Shock included constant tiredness, irritability, dizziness, headaches and a lack of concentration. Eventually these men would suffer from a full mental breakdown making it an impossibility for them to remain on the front line.
The constant barrage of shell fire from both sides it was concluded was to blame because they said that an exploding shell created a vacuum in the head and when the air rushed into that vacuum it disturbs the cerebro-spinal fluid upsetting the workings of the brain.
World War One in Color: Slaughter in the Trenches
Trench Warfare, Hell on Earth
Trench warfare was often said to be Hell on Earth and for good reason, there was ne real living in a world surrounded by death and the soldiers who survived were haunted by nightmares of their time served fighting in them.
They may have survived the bullets and diseases of the trenches and they may have gone on to live successful and happy lives but the memories of dead friends and family members who fought beside them never ever left their thoughts.
They sacrificed everything for their country and for that we should always remember them.
Questions & Answers
What weapon was used to force Allied troops out of trenches?
In the early days of World War One, poison gas was used to force troops out of the trenches.Helpful 8
What was the smell like while fighting in the trenches in World War I?
The smell in the trenches can only be imagined: rotting bodies, gunpowder, rats, human and other excrement and urine, as well as the damp smell of rotting clothes, oil, and many other smells mixed into one foul cesspit of a smell.Helpful 6 | <urn:uuid:f53017e2-65f8-4e12-8d01-ae3c186d8408> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/World_War_1_Trench_Warfare | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00127.warc.gz | en | 0.985636 | 1,628 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.5720723867... | 1 | World War One Trench Warfare
Map Of The Western Front World War One
World War One Trench Warfare
On the 28Th of July 1914, World War One began and soldiers from both sides of the battle began diggng big holes in the ground where they would live, eat, sleep, fight and die together.
The trenches became the battle ground of The Great War and they became the final resting place for millions of young men, some as young as seventeen years old.
Most of the men who served in the trenches from 1914 untl 1918, were not really solders, they were either volunteers who gave up their everyday jobs to serve ther country in its time of need or as the war progressed subscription was introduced and if your name was called then you had to enlist in the armed services.
After six weeks of basic traning, the young men were sent to war really unprepared for the unimaginable horrors that lay ahead of them.
The Western Front WWI
The Western Front during World War 1 stretched from the North Sea at Belgium to the Swiss Frontier with France, over 240 miles long, fighting a war in the trenches would bring an end to speculation of a quick war that would be over by Christmas.
Trench warfare meant a slow long drawn out war, a stalemate; Men would be shot down in their thousands as they tried to go over the top into the enemy trenches, most before they could even get 50 yards out of their own trenches, this made it almost impossible for either side to gain ground from the other,
Holes in the ground were home to millions of soldiers throughout the war years and although many men died in battle just as many were killed by disease or infection brought on by the inhuman unsanitary conditions of life in the trenches.
Poison Gas In The Trenches Of World War One
Smells In The Trenches WWI
New recruits on their initial approach to the trenches would often be overcome by the putrid Stench that hit them, often it would be too much for some men that they were physically sick even before they reached the Front Line.
Rotting flesh from bodies in shallow graves, overflowing cesspits full of feces and urine, creosote and Chlorine used to cover up the cesspits and to try to stave off infections or disease. Adding to the smell there were also millions of sandbags rotting away through dampness from the rain, stagnant mud, cigarette smoke and even the smell of the men already in the trenches who hadn't managed to have a decent wash in weeks.
The smell of battle also filled the air stinging the nostrils of new recruits, Acrid cordite smells from the ever lasting heavy shell fire, the lingering odour of poison gasses that were sometimes used and of course the gunpowder smell from the soldiers firearms.
The soldiers never really got used to the smell but became accustomed to living with it, some soldiers even claimed that the smell never left them even years after the war was over.
World War I Trench Diagram
WW1 Trench Life
Disease And Infection In The Trenches Of WWI
The soldiers were never alone in the trenches, many creatures also made the trenches their home which was not really unexpected when you consider the abundance of food that life in the trenches created for them. These creatures were to play a big factor in the health of the fighting soldiers as they were all carriers of disease and infections.
Rats In The Trenches
Rats thrived in the trenches almost everywhere you looked rats would be running around in their thousands, eating human remains, dead insects and anything else that would fit in their mouths. The rats were beyond human control because they were in their ideal breeding ground and for every 10 rats killed another 100 would be born. some of the rats were so well fed that they grew to almost the same size as a domestic cat.
It was a widespread belief amongst the soldiers in the trenches that the rats knew in advance when the enemy was going to attack with a heavy bombardment of shells because the rats always seemed to disappear minutes before an enemy attack.
Lice In The Trenches
Lice were ever present in the trenches and they caused a lot of problems for the poor men who lived in them, even although a lot of the men shaved of every bit of hair from their heads and bodies the lice lived in their clothes and fed on their human blood.
Even when their clothes were washed and deloused some eggs still survived in the seams of the soldiers uniforms and would re-infect them.
Lice were carriers of Trench fever, a particularly painful disease that began suddenly with severe pain followed by high fever which took up to 12 weeks to recover from. It wasn't discovered until 1918 that the lice were the cause of trench fever.
Frogs in The Trenches
Millions of frogs were found in water holes made by shell fire and in the bases of the trenches, with the frogs slugs and horned beetles were lining the walls of the trench, nits were also a major problem with the men which again forced them to save their head and body hair off.
Flies And Maggots In the Trenches
With so much rotting flesh around Flies and Maggots were a constant problem with the soldiers, they were everywhere and anywhere, most soldiers wrapped scarves or towels around their mouths to avoid swallowing them, the flies were responsible for the spread of many infections and diseases in the trenches.
The Trenches were always waterlogged which meant that the soldiers living in them always had wet feet, this caused a major problem called trench foot especially if it was left untreated for a while. Trench Foot is a fungal infection of the feet which if not treated could get easily infected and turn gangrenous which in most cases would lead to amputation of part of the foot or even the whole foot. Duck board were quickly introduced into the trenches above the common waterline as a prevention in 1915 and cases of trench foot saw a rapid decline although there were still a few sufferers throughout the duration of the war.
Shell Shock In WWI
Two percent of the men serving in the trenches between 1914-1918, were the victims of Shell Shock around eighty thousand of the men who fought in the war.
The early symptoms of Shell Shock included constant tiredness, irritability, dizziness, headaches and a lack of concentration. Eventually these men would suffer from a full mental breakdown making it an impossibility for them to remain on the front line.
The constant barrage of shell fire from both sides it was concluded was to blame because they said that an exploding shell created a vacuum in the head and when the air rushed into that vacuum it disturbs the cerebro-spinal fluid upsetting the workings of the brain.
World War One in Color: Slaughter in the Trenches
Trench Warfare, Hell on Earth
Trench warfare was often said to be Hell on Earth and for good reason, there was ne real living in a world surrounded by death and the soldiers who survived were haunted by nightmares of their time served fighting in them.
They may have survived the bullets and diseases of the trenches and they may have gone on to live successful and happy lives but the memories of dead friends and family members who fought beside them never ever left their thoughts.
They sacrificed everything for their country and for that we should always remember them.
Questions & Answers
What weapon was used to force Allied troops out of trenches?
In the early days of World War One, poison gas was used to force troops out of the trenches.Helpful 8
What was the smell like while fighting in the trenches in World War I?
The smell in the trenches can only be imagined: rotting bodies, gunpowder, rats, human and other excrement and urine, as well as the damp smell of rotting clothes, oil, and many other smells mixed into one foul cesspit of a smell.Helpful 6 | 1,656 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A THENS and Sparta were both Greek cities and their people spoke a common language. In every other respect they were different. Athens rose high from the plain. It was a city exposed to the fresh breezes from the sea, willing to look at the world with the eyes of a happy child. Sparta, on the other hand, was built at the bottom of a deep valley, and used the surrounding mountains as a barrier against foreign thought. Athens was a city of busy trade. Sparta was an armed camp where people were soldiers for the sake of being soldiers. The people of Athens loved to sit in the sun and discuss poetry or listen to the wise words of a philosopher. The Spartans, on the other hand, never wrote a single line that was considered literature, but they knew how to fight, they liked to fight, and they sacrificed all human emotions to their ideal of military preparedness.
No wonder that these sombre Spartans viewed the success of Athens with malicious hate. The energy which the defence of the common home had developed in Athens was now used for purposes of a more peaceful nature. The Acropolis was rebuilt and was made into a marble shrine to the Goddess Athena. Pericles, the leader of the Athenian democracy, sent far and wide to find famous sculptors and painters and scientists to make the city more beautiful and the young Athenians more worthy of their home. At the same time he kept a watchful eye on Sparta and built high walls which connected Athens with the sea and made her the strongest fortress of that day.
An insignificant quarrel between two little Greek cities led to the final conflict. For thirty years the war between Athens and Sparta continued. It ended in a terrible disaster for Athens.
During the third year of the war the plague had entered the city. More than half of the people and Pericles, the great leader, had been killed. The plague was followed by a period of bad and untrustworthy leadership. A brilliant young fellow by the name of Alcibiades had gained the favor of the popular assembly. He suggested a raid upon the Spartan colony of Syracuse in Sicily. An expedition was equipped and everything was ready. But Alcibiades got mixed up in a street brawl and was forced to flee. The general who succeeded him was a bungler. First he lost his ships and then he lost his army, and the few surviving Athenians were thrown into the stone-quarries of Syracuse, where they died from hunger and thirst.
The expedition had killed all the young men of Athens. The city was doomed. After a long siege the town surrendered in April of the year 404. The high walls were demolished. The navy was taken away by the Spartans. Athens ceased to exist as the center of the great colonial empire which it had conquered during the days of its prosperity. But that wonderful desire to learn and to know and to investigate which had distinguished her free citizens during the days of greatness and prosperity did not perish with the walls and the ships. It continued to live. It became even more brilliant.
Athens no longer shaped the destinies of the land of Greece. But now, as the home of the first great university the city began to influence the minds of intelligent people far beyond the narrow frontiers of Hellas. | <urn:uuid:bbe66844-5475-40c0-bf85-c296afe34aa7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/vanloon/mankind/athenssparta | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.988295 | 670 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.31630474328... | 5 | A THENS and Sparta were both Greek cities and their people spoke a common language. In every other respect they were different. Athens rose high from the plain. It was a city exposed to the fresh breezes from the sea, willing to look at the world with the eyes of a happy child. Sparta, on the other hand, was built at the bottom of a deep valley, and used the surrounding mountains as a barrier against foreign thought. Athens was a city of busy trade. Sparta was an armed camp where people were soldiers for the sake of being soldiers. The people of Athens loved to sit in the sun and discuss poetry or listen to the wise words of a philosopher. The Spartans, on the other hand, never wrote a single line that was considered literature, but they knew how to fight, they liked to fight, and they sacrificed all human emotions to their ideal of military preparedness.
No wonder that these sombre Spartans viewed the success of Athens with malicious hate. The energy which the defence of the common home had developed in Athens was now used for purposes of a more peaceful nature. The Acropolis was rebuilt and was made into a marble shrine to the Goddess Athena. Pericles, the leader of the Athenian democracy, sent far and wide to find famous sculptors and painters and scientists to make the city more beautiful and the young Athenians more worthy of their home. At the same time he kept a watchful eye on Sparta and built high walls which connected Athens with the sea and made her the strongest fortress of that day.
An insignificant quarrel between two little Greek cities led to the final conflict. For thirty years the war between Athens and Sparta continued. It ended in a terrible disaster for Athens.
During the third year of the war the plague had entered the city. More than half of the people and Pericles, the great leader, had been killed. The plague was followed by a period of bad and untrustworthy leadership. A brilliant young fellow by the name of Alcibiades had gained the favor of the popular assembly. He suggested a raid upon the Spartan colony of Syracuse in Sicily. An expedition was equipped and everything was ready. But Alcibiades got mixed up in a street brawl and was forced to flee. The general who succeeded him was a bungler. First he lost his ships and then he lost his army, and the few surviving Athenians were thrown into the stone-quarries of Syracuse, where they died from hunger and thirst.
The expedition had killed all the young men of Athens. The city was doomed. After a long siege the town surrendered in April of the year 404. The high walls were demolished. The navy was taken away by the Spartans. Athens ceased to exist as the center of the great colonial empire which it had conquered during the days of its prosperity. But that wonderful desire to learn and to know and to investigate which had distinguished her free citizens during the days of greatness and prosperity did not perish with the walls and the ships. It continued to live. It became even more brilliant.
Athens no longer shaped the destinies of the land of Greece. But now, as the home of the first great university the city began to influence the minds of intelligent people far beyond the narrow frontiers of Hellas. | 672 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What combines science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics? Robotics, of course! 7th Grade Science Teacher, Curtis Redmon found that teaching students robotics creates a perfect kind of synergy between many different school subjects. Mr. Redmon has found that students are able utilize many different tools learned in other subjects. The robotics programs also let students explore their curiosity as many of the labs allow students to work independently. After coding on their Chromebooks, students were introduced to the EV3 robot made by LEGO. Students then learned each component of the EV3. All 150 students in grades 6th and 7th had took part in building the initial robot. Eventually, the challenges got harder and students had to complete a performance task of programming the EV3 to simulate a “tight rope” roll across a beam using one wheel. In the beginning, most performance task were modeled first by Mr. Redmon and Mr. Griffin, but as the unit progressed students began to write and execute their own programs.
Bringing robotics to Hyde was the vision of Middle School Director, Lex Zain and Dean of Curriculum, Sharilyn Fletcher. Both Ms. Zain and Dr. Fletcher had studied the benefits of having robotics programming in schools and decided that it would be a perfect fit for Hyde. Hyde is among one of the few schools in the country that offers robotics as a full-time course in Middle School.
Having robotics at Hyde benefits students in many ways. The program gives students the ability and liberty to be as creative as they want and need to be in order to complete a task. “Just like a math problem, there are several different ways to the same outcome,” Mr. Redmon said. When students were assigned the “tight rope” tasks, Mr. Redmon said he was amazed at how many different ways students utilized to reach the same end result.
The unit challenged the 6th and 7th graders to think outside the box and come out of their shells. One student who has particularly thrived through the robotics program is seventh-grader Bryan Benegas. “I love how interactive the class is,” said Bryan. “This class is preparing me for life. Robots are the future. I know it will give me a head for the future.” Through the robotics unit, Bryan says he learned how technology has and will affect the economy and his career choices.
One of Mr. Redmon’s favorite memories came during a task given called “The Grip”. In the beginning, students thought this was not doable. Until curiosity set in and they began to work on it. This task was to draw a design on paper and then have the robot draw the same design using the grip they built. Students designed and built a pencil grip or claw which holds the pencil. Students then programmed on their chromebooks a program that the robot would do to draw the same exact sketch they illustrated on paper. Mr. Redmon said: “The outcome was amazing and the students were almost in disbelief that the robot they built, designed, and programmed is drawing their sketch on paper.” | <urn:uuid:e355577b-cdf1-4b53-ba79-68f495749840> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hydebronxny.org/intercurricular-synergy-teaching-robotics-in-middle-school/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.982996 | 646 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.41735440492... | 10 | What combines science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics? Robotics, of course! 7th Grade Science Teacher, Curtis Redmon found that teaching students robotics creates a perfect kind of synergy between many different school subjects. Mr. Redmon has found that students are able utilize many different tools learned in other subjects. The robotics programs also let students explore their curiosity as many of the labs allow students to work independently. After coding on their Chromebooks, students were introduced to the EV3 robot made by LEGO. Students then learned each component of the EV3. All 150 students in grades 6th and 7th had took part in building the initial robot. Eventually, the challenges got harder and students had to complete a performance task of programming the EV3 to simulate a “tight rope” roll across a beam using one wheel. In the beginning, most performance task were modeled first by Mr. Redmon and Mr. Griffin, but as the unit progressed students began to write and execute their own programs.
Bringing robotics to Hyde was the vision of Middle School Director, Lex Zain and Dean of Curriculum, Sharilyn Fletcher. Both Ms. Zain and Dr. Fletcher had studied the benefits of having robotics programming in schools and decided that it would be a perfect fit for Hyde. Hyde is among one of the few schools in the country that offers robotics as a full-time course in Middle School.
Having robotics at Hyde benefits students in many ways. The program gives students the ability and liberty to be as creative as they want and need to be in order to complete a task. “Just like a math problem, there are several different ways to the same outcome,” Mr. Redmon said. When students were assigned the “tight rope” tasks, Mr. Redmon said he was amazed at how many different ways students utilized to reach the same end result.
The unit challenged the 6th and 7th graders to think outside the box and come out of their shells. One student who has particularly thrived through the robotics program is seventh-grader Bryan Benegas. “I love how interactive the class is,” said Bryan. “This class is preparing me for life. Robots are the future. I know it will give me a head for the future.” Through the robotics unit, Bryan says he learned how technology has and will affect the economy and his career choices.
One of Mr. Redmon’s favorite memories came during a task given called “The Grip”. In the beginning, students thought this was not doable. Until curiosity set in and they began to work on it. This task was to draw a design on paper and then have the robot draw the same design using the grip they built. Students designed and built a pencil grip or claw which holds the pencil. Students then programmed on their chromebooks a program that the robot would do to draw the same exact sketch they illustrated on paper. Mr. Redmon said: “The outcome was amazing and the students were almost in disbelief that the robot they built, designed, and programmed is drawing their sketch on paper.” | 623 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In traditional Estonian society, expectant mothers were careful of a rather complicated set of taboos and dictates. It was considered bad for a pregnant woman to get angry or argue, on the assumption that her negative emotions would affect the baby. Pregnant women were also supposed to avoid laughing and working strenuously. If a child was born with any defect, the problem was blamed on something the mother did while she was pregnant. Many of these taboos are no longer observed, but some are still common beliefs. For example, many Estonians believe that if a woman touches a part of her body while looking at a fire, the baby will be born with a mole on that part of its body.
In the past it was considered bad luck to be born on certain days, and each day of the week had its own significance in bringing good and bad fortune to the child. Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday were regarded as good days, and children born on a Sunday were considered especially fortunate. Babies born in the evening were considered lucky, while those born in the morning had to work hard to earn a living.
A new baby was traditionally swaddled in a piece of clothing that belonged to a person of the opposite sex. This was supposed to ensure that child would get married when he or she grew up.
Since the Reformation movement in the sixteenth century, the Lutheran Church has played a prominent role in shaping the Estonian life cycle. Combined elements of ancient beliefs and Christianity form the basis for the modern Estonian worldview, even though many modern Estonians do not practice any religion.
Almost all women have skilled attendants assisting during childbirth. The birth of a baby is always a cause for celebration, and visiting the mother and child after birth is a significant event. In the past, the baby’s first visitors were always local married women who usually brought a present for the baby or some food for the mother. Estonians considered it important for the baby’s first visitor to be young and wealthy. An initial visitor who was poor or old meant that the child would grow up to be poor. Today, these customs may not be observed, but friends and relatives still visit a new baby and bring gifts.
Christian Estonian families usually baptize their children at two or three weeks, and the time between birth and baptism is considered an important period in a child’s life. In the past, a christening feast that lasted for several days followed a baptism. Today, family and friends are likely to be invited for a party or a meal after a baptism.
Estonians celebrate birthdays, and some very traditional Estonians may celebrate a child’s name day in church, but this is relatively unusual. At one time, it was believed that giving presents to children might bring bad luck, but today that prohibition is no longer observed.
Copyright © 1993-2020 World Trade Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:7ecb5e5e-143d-4906-9975-c25ffd586390> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.atoztheworld.com/estonia/birth.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00434.warc.gz | en | 0.98553 | 595 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.281032115221023... | 9 | In traditional Estonian society, expectant mothers were careful of a rather complicated set of taboos and dictates. It was considered bad for a pregnant woman to get angry or argue, on the assumption that her negative emotions would affect the baby. Pregnant women were also supposed to avoid laughing and working strenuously. If a child was born with any defect, the problem was blamed on something the mother did while she was pregnant. Many of these taboos are no longer observed, but some are still common beliefs. For example, many Estonians believe that if a woman touches a part of her body while looking at a fire, the baby will be born with a mole on that part of its body.
In the past it was considered bad luck to be born on certain days, and each day of the week had its own significance in bringing good and bad fortune to the child. Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday were regarded as good days, and children born on a Sunday were considered especially fortunate. Babies born in the evening were considered lucky, while those born in the morning had to work hard to earn a living.
A new baby was traditionally swaddled in a piece of clothing that belonged to a person of the opposite sex. This was supposed to ensure that child would get married when he or she grew up.
Since the Reformation movement in the sixteenth century, the Lutheran Church has played a prominent role in shaping the Estonian life cycle. Combined elements of ancient beliefs and Christianity form the basis for the modern Estonian worldview, even though many modern Estonians do not practice any religion.
Almost all women have skilled attendants assisting during childbirth. The birth of a baby is always a cause for celebration, and visiting the mother and child after birth is a significant event. In the past, the baby’s first visitors were always local married women who usually brought a present for the baby or some food for the mother. Estonians considered it important for the baby’s first visitor to be young and wealthy. An initial visitor who was poor or old meant that the child would grow up to be poor. Today, these customs may not be observed, but friends and relatives still visit a new baby and bring gifts.
Christian Estonian families usually baptize their children at two or three weeks, and the time between birth and baptism is considered an important period in a child’s life. In the past, a christening feast that lasted for several days followed a baptism. Today, family and friends are likely to be invited for a party or a meal after a baptism.
Estonians celebrate birthdays, and some very traditional Estonians may celebrate a child’s name day in church, but this is relatively unusual. At one time, it was believed that giving presents to children might bring bad luck, but today that prohibition is no longer observed.
Copyright © 1993-2020 World Trade Press. All rights reserved. | 587 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Spanish Fort, Texas facts for kids
|Spanish Fort Site|
|Location||Montague County, Texas|
|Nearest city||Nocona, Texas|
|Coordinates||Script error: The function "coordinsert" does not exist.|
|Area||100 acres (40 ha)|
Native Americans long used the fertile areas near the Red River for farming and hunting. Taovoyas, flying the French flag, established a fort here around 1750 to defend against Spanish incursions in the area. In 1759, in the Battle of the Twin Villages, a Spanish army under Col. Diego Ortiz Parrilla attacked the Taovoyas' fortified position, but were defeated by a force of both the Taovoyas and Comanche tribes. Anglo settlers later misnamed the area Spanish Fort after assuming that the Spanish forces had built a fortification there, rather than the Native Americans.
By 1859, Anglos began settling the area as the population of Native Americans dwindled. White settlement was encouraged across the newly formed Republic of Texas, and though Texas became a state in 1845, European settlers kept coming to Texas for farm land. By the early 1870s, a town called Burlington had been established near present-day Spanish Fort. The town was strategically located along the Chisholm Trail, and it became a popular cowboy town on the cattle drives from south and central Texas to Kansas. Nearby Red River Station, Texas, was the last stop before entering Indian Territory and virtually all cattle driven along the Chisolm Trail crossed at Red River Station. The town grew and citizens applied for a post office in 1876, but were rejected based on another Texas town of the same name. Two local men suggested the misnomer "Spanish Fort" after the ruins nearby. The new name was accepted, and the Spanish Fort post office opened in 1877.
At its peak, the town had numerous businesses and churches, a Masonic lodge, five physicians, four hotels, and several saloons. Spanish Fort became known as a very rough and tumble cowboy town, and at least 40 murders are said to have occurred during the cattle drive heyday.
Herman Joseph Justin founded the boot company which later grew into Justin Industries. Justin took orders from the drivers going north and had their custom-made boots ready in time for them to pick up on their way back through.
But Spanish Fort would suffer, as many small Texas towns did, by being bypassed by the railroad. When fencing and railroads put an end to the cattle drives, small towns not directly served by railways faltered.
The 20th century saw Spanish Fort almost completely vanish. The post office, school, and newspapers all had closed by 1970. Even the oil boom in Nocona's North Field could not save Spanish Fort, and the town has maintained a population of around 50 ever since.
Spanish Fort received historic markers in 1936 and 1976 recognizing the Taovayo tribe culture and the 1759 confrontation with a Spanish expedition.
The Spanish Fort site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.
Spanish Fort, Texas Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:25dc99fa-ffcd-4a9e-a5c2-2e44ca24ee2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Spanish_Fort,_Texas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.980035 | 649 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.134332790970802... | 1 | Spanish Fort, Texas facts for kids
|Spanish Fort Site|
|Location||Montague County, Texas|
|Nearest city||Nocona, Texas|
|Coordinates||Script error: The function "coordinsert" does not exist.|
|Area||100 acres (40 ha)|
Native Americans long used the fertile areas near the Red River for farming and hunting. Taovoyas, flying the French flag, established a fort here around 1750 to defend against Spanish incursions in the area. In 1759, in the Battle of the Twin Villages, a Spanish army under Col. Diego Ortiz Parrilla attacked the Taovoyas' fortified position, but were defeated by a force of both the Taovoyas and Comanche tribes. Anglo settlers later misnamed the area Spanish Fort after assuming that the Spanish forces had built a fortification there, rather than the Native Americans.
By 1859, Anglos began settling the area as the population of Native Americans dwindled. White settlement was encouraged across the newly formed Republic of Texas, and though Texas became a state in 1845, European settlers kept coming to Texas for farm land. By the early 1870s, a town called Burlington had been established near present-day Spanish Fort. The town was strategically located along the Chisholm Trail, and it became a popular cowboy town on the cattle drives from south and central Texas to Kansas. Nearby Red River Station, Texas, was the last stop before entering Indian Territory and virtually all cattle driven along the Chisolm Trail crossed at Red River Station. The town grew and citizens applied for a post office in 1876, but were rejected based on another Texas town of the same name. Two local men suggested the misnomer "Spanish Fort" after the ruins nearby. The new name was accepted, and the Spanish Fort post office opened in 1877.
At its peak, the town had numerous businesses and churches, a Masonic lodge, five physicians, four hotels, and several saloons. Spanish Fort became known as a very rough and tumble cowboy town, and at least 40 murders are said to have occurred during the cattle drive heyday.
Herman Joseph Justin founded the boot company which later grew into Justin Industries. Justin took orders from the drivers going north and had their custom-made boots ready in time for them to pick up on their way back through.
But Spanish Fort would suffer, as many small Texas towns did, by being bypassed by the railroad. When fencing and railroads put an end to the cattle drives, small towns not directly served by railways faltered.
The 20th century saw Spanish Fort almost completely vanish. The post office, school, and newspapers all had closed by 1970. Even the oil boom in Nocona's North Field could not save Spanish Fort, and the town has maintained a population of around 50 ever since.
Spanish Fort received historic markers in 1936 and 1976 recognizing the Taovayo tribe culture and the 1759 confrontation with a Spanish expedition.
The Spanish Fort site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.
Spanish Fort, Texas Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 679 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The word "right" can be appended to a statement to turn it into a question. For example, "You are going" is a declarative statement. But, "You are going, right?" is a question. This is somewhat informal. It indicates that the person asking expects a certain answer. If he had no idea whether you were going or not, he would ask, "Are you going?" Asking, "You are going, right?" indicates that he expects a "yes" answer.
What makes the example question in your post difficult is not that it ends with "right", but that it is phrased as a negative.
Suppose the question was phrased without "right". Like your first example. "You don't know that, do you?" If you say "Yes", does that mean "yes, you are correct, I don't know", or does it mean, "yes, I do know"? Such negative questions are a classic problem in English.
Suppose someone used "right" to a positively-worded question. "You are going, right?" The presence of "right" doesn't change your answer. You would still say "yes" if you are going and "no" if you are not. | <urn:uuid:babd8b11-04b4-4f48-8254-6a98d9bd9a0e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/84880/answering-questions-end-with-the-word-right | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.983779 | 258 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.151578009... | 1 | The word "right" can be appended to a statement to turn it into a question. For example, "You are going" is a declarative statement. But, "You are going, right?" is a question. This is somewhat informal. It indicates that the person asking expects a certain answer. If he had no idea whether you were going or not, he would ask, "Are you going?" Asking, "You are going, right?" indicates that he expects a "yes" answer.
What makes the example question in your post difficult is not that it ends with "right", but that it is phrased as a negative.
Suppose the question was phrased without "right". Like your first example. "You don't know that, do you?" If you say "Yes", does that mean "yes, you are correct, I don't know", or does it mean, "yes, I do know"? Such negative questions are a classic problem in English.
Suppose someone used "right" to a positively-worded question. "You are going, right?" The presence of "right" doesn't change your answer. You would still say "yes" if you are going and "no" if you are not. | 253 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but communism had taken root in China. Eastern Europe remained under Russian control and in Vietnam the American feared threat of the spread communism seemed to be real.
During the 1950’s, America had developed her Domino Theory. This was the creation of John Foster Dulles, America’s Secretary of State. He believed that if one country was allowed to fall to communism, the country next to it would be the next to tumble just as when one domino falls the rest go with it if they are connected. In view of the fear in America of communism spreading throughout the world, the thought of Vietnam starting this process of turning to communism and then it spreading was unacceptable.
America had already sent “special advisors” to South Vietnam since 1955. By 1961, there were 1,500 special advisors in the country. These were men from America’s Special Forces who were there to train the South Vietnamese Army in how to fight the Viet Cong. By 1963, there were 16,000 special advisors in South Vietnam.
Following the Tongking Incident in 1964, the US Senate essentially gave the President the power to provide assistance to any country that needed to defend its freedom. By February 1965 aerial bombing of North Vietnam had commenced and from March till December 1965, 150,000 American troops had been landed in South Vietnam.
American involvement in Vietnam was at its peak from 1965 to 1969 when a maximum of 500,000 American troops were in Vietnam. A number of the front line troops were conscripts and not professional troops. They were young, usually from lower social groups and frequently from America’s minority groups. They were trained in conventional warfare whereas the Viet Cong used guerilla tactics – hitting the enemy and then moving away, not wearing a standard uniform and merging into village life with ease, etc. It was difficult for these young American troops to know who was the enemy and who they could trust amongst the South Vietnamese population. This created a great deal of suspicion and confusion.
The Viet Cong had had years to perfect their tactics whereas the American soldiers in Vietnam had only basic training. The Viet Cong used no tanks and frequently moved by foot. US troops responded with the use of helicopter gun ships and they tended to treat all civilians alike as the potential enemy. Innocent civilians were killed by both sides, in part due to the mass suspicion of the unknown enemy that spread through the American troops. The Viet Cong killed those villagers they believed were helping the Americans while US troops killed those who they believed were helping the Viet Cong. The most infamous case of the latter was the Pinksville Massacre – better known as the My Lai massacre. The village of My Lai was considered friendly by US troops but 109 civilians were murdered here as the US troops investigating the village believed that they were conspiring with the Viet Cong.
America had total control of the air. Planes could be used to back-up ground troops by using napalm. Defoliation chemicals were also used to destroy the jungle cover given to the Viet Cong along the Ho Chi Minh trail. Agent Orange killed large areas of jungle disguising this trail but those using it simply moved further inland or further into Laos, thus avoiding the defoliated areas. To hinder the supply of US troops, the Viet Cong blew up bridges, roads and destroyed canals.
American front line troops were nicknamed ‘grunts’. This is because every time they sat down, the straps on the heavy packs they were carrying tightened into their chests thus forcing out air in the lungs causing a sound like a grunt. The average age of a ‘grunt’ was 19 and they knew that the land they operated in was littered with booby-traps and land mines. Each step they took in the jungle or in the long grass common in South Vietnam could result in serious injury. This had a devastating psychological effect on the conscripts.
The Viet Cong used mines called “bouncing bettys”. These were on springs and when tripped would spring up to waist height and explode. They were not usually fatal but the victim would need immediate medical aid and 3 to 4 men to look after him. This was a common weapon of choice for the Viet Cong because it meant that at any given time of an explosion, 3/4 men would be incapacitated; the injured and the men carrying him back to safety. The noise of the explosion would also attract the attention of the Viet Cong. Punji traps were also used by the Viet Cong – these were pits in the ground with spikes in them which were covered in grass and leaves and left all but invisible to an advancing soldier. The tips of the spikes were usually covered in poison or dirt. Punji traps were also found in rivers and streams where troops had to make crossings.
Though the Viet Cong did not fight full scale battles, in January 1968 they changed tactics with the Tet Offensive. This was a massive attack by the North Vietnamese Army which took the Americans by surprise. All the major South Vietnamese cities were attacked as were all major US military bases. However, the attack was never decisive and eventually the Americans forced the North Vietnamese back though both sides suffered serious losses. 160,000 civilians were killed and 2 million were made homeless.
By May 1968, the North Vietnamese were willing to start talks that would lead to a peace settlement. Talks started in Paris and very slow progress was made over the following 5 years. The major sticking points were that Ho Chi Minh wanted all foreigners out of Vietnam and he wanted the country to be internationally accepted as a united country. America was still hampered by her support for the domino theory but the war had become very unpopular in the US and further worldwide and politicians faced increasing pressure from the voting population to pull out of Vietnam.
In 1969, the American president Richard Nixon agreed to reduce the number of American troops in South Vietnam. He pursued a policy called “Vietnamisation” whereby the South Vietnamese would be assisted in material matters by the Americans but the fighting would be done by the South Vietnamese Army. In December 1970, there were 350,000 American troops in South Vietnam. By September 1972, there were just 40,000.
The South Vietnamese Army could not contend with the North Vietnamese forces. Once the bulk of the American troops had pulled out, the North Vietnamese changed their tactics by launching a full scale attack against the South which all but wilted under the onslaught.
In January 1973, all sides agreed to a cease fire under the condition that the remaining American troops would be withdrawn and all POW’s would be released. It was agreed that Vietnam would be “eventually reunited”.
America’s involvement in Vietnam ended in 1973. The war had cost her one billion dollars a day at its peak and she had dropped 7 million tons of bombs – more than the entire total of all participants in World War Two. The cost of the war in 1968 alone was $88,000 million while the combined spending on education, health and housing in that year was $24,000 million.
The ceasefire lasted no time at all and the North attacked what was left of the South’s army. By April 1975, Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam had fallen. It was re-named Ho Chi Minh City and a united Vietnam came into being.
- The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but…
- Vietnamisation was the term used by Richard Nixon to describe US policy towards South Vietnam in the later stages of the Vietnam War. Vietnamisation was… | <urn:uuid:b9ca31f4-b62a-4997-8f34-312f05b127c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/vietnam-war/america-and-vietnam-1965-1973/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.987938 | 1,580 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.25394901633262... | 3 | The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but communism had taken root in China. Eastern Europe remained under Russian control and in Vietnam the American feared threat of the spread communism seemed to be real.
During the 1950’s, America had developed her Domino Theory. This was the creation of John Foster Dulles, America’s Secretary of State. He believed that if one country was allowed to fall to communism, the country next to it would be the next to tumble just as when one domino falls the rest go with it if they are connected. In view of the fear in America of communism spreading throughout the world, the thought of Vietnam starting this process of turning to communism and then it spreading was unacceptable.
America had already sent “special advisors” to South Vietnam since 1955. By 1961, there were 1,500 special advisors in the country. These were men from America’s Special Forces who were there to train the South Vietnamese Army in how to fight the Viet Cong. By 1963, there were 16,000 special advisors in South Vietnam.
Following the Tongking Incident in 1964, the US Senate essentially gave the President the power to provide assistance to any country that needed to defend its freedom. By February 1965 aerial bombing of North Vietnam had commenced and from March till December 1965, 150,000 American troops had been landed in South Vietnam.
American involvement in Vietnam was at its peak from 1965 to 1969 when a maximum of 500,000 American troops were in Vietnam. A number of the front line troops were conscripts and not professional troops. They were young, usually from lower social groups and frequently from America’s minority groups. They were trained in conventional warfare whereas the Viet Cong used guerilla tactics – hitting the enemy and then moving away, not wearing a standard uniform and merging into village life with ease, etc. It was difficult for these young American troops to know who was the enemy and who they could trust amongst the South Vietnamese population. This created a great deal of suspicion and confusion.
The Viet Cong had had years to perfect their tactics whereas the American soldiers in Vietnam had only basic training. The Viet Cong used no tanks and frequently moved by foot. US troops responded with the use of helicopter gun ships and they tended to treat all civilians alike as the potential enemy. Innocent civilians were killed by both sides, in part due to the mass suspicion of the unknown enemy that spread through the American troops. The Viet Cong killed those villagers they believed were helping the Americans while US troops killed those who they believed were helping the Viet Cong. The most infamous case of the latter was the Pinksville Massacre – better known as the My Lai massacre. The village of My Lai was considered friendly by US troops but 109 civilians were murdered here as the US troops investigating the village believed that they were conspiring with the Viet Cong.
America had total control of the air. Planes could be used to back-up ground troops by using napalm. Defoliation chemicals were also used to destroy the jungle cover given to the Viet Cong along the Ho Chi Minh trail. Agent Orange killed large areas of jungle disguising this trail but those using it simply moved further inland or further into Laos, thus avoiding the defoliated areas. To hinder the supply of US troops, the Viet Cong blew up bridges, roads and destroyed canals.
American front line troops were nicknamed ‘grunts’. This is because every time they sat down, the straps on the heavy packs they were carrying tightened into their chests thus forcing out air in the lungs causing a sound like a grunt. The average age of a ‘grunt’ was 19 and they knew that the land they operated in was littered with booby-traps and land mines. Each step they took in the jungle or in the long grass common in South Vietnam could result in serious injury. This had a devastating psychological effect on the conscripts.
The Viet Cong used mines called “bouncing bettys”. These were on springs and when tripped would spring up to waist height and explode. They were not usually fatal but the victim would need immediate medical aid and 3 to 4 men to look after him. This was a common weapon of choice for the Viet Cong because it meant that at any given time of an explosion, 3/4 men would be incapacitated; the injured and the men carrying him back to safety. The noise of the explosion would also attract the attention of the Viet Cong. Punji traps were also used by the Viet Cong – these were pits in the ground with spikes in them which were covered in grass and leaves and left all but invisible to an advancing soldier. The tips of the spikes were usually covered in poison or dirt. Punji traps were also found in rivers and streams where troops had to make crossings.
Though the Viet Cong did not fight full scale battles, in January 1968 they changed tactics with the Tet Offensive. This was a massive attack by the North Vietnamese Army which took the Americans by surprise. All the major South Vietnamese cities were attacked as were all major US military bases. However, the attack was never decisive and eventually the Americans forced the North Vietnamese back though both sides suffered serious losses. 160,000 civilians were killed and 2 million were made homeless.
By May 1968, the North Vietnamese were willing to start talks that would lead to a peace settlement. Talks started in Paris and very slow progress was made over the following 5 years. The major sticking points were that Ho Chi Minh wanted all foreigners out of Vietnam and he wanted the country to be internationally accepted as a united country. America was still hampered by her support for the domino theory but the war had become very unpopular in the US and further worldwide and politicians faced increasing pressure from the voting population to pull out of Vietnam.
In 1969, the American president Richard Nixon agreed to reduce the number of American troops in South Vietnam. He pursued a policy called “Vietnamisation” whereby the South Vietnamese would be assisted in material matters by the Americans but the fighting would be done by the South Vietnamese Army. In December 1970, there were 350,000 American troops in South Vietnam. By September 1972, there were just 40,000.
The South Vietnamese Army could not contend with the North Vietnamese forces. Once the bulk of the American troops had pulled out, the North Vietnamese changed their tactics by launching a full scale attack against the South which all but wilted under the onslaught.
In January 1973, all sides agreed to a cease fire under the condition that the remaining American troops would be withdrawn and all POW’s would be released. It was agreed that Vietnam would be “eventually reunited”.
America’s involvement in Vietnam ended in 1973. The war had cost her one billion dollars a day at its peak and she had dropped 7 million tons of bombs – more than the entire total of all participants in World War Two. The cost of the war in 1968 alone was $88,000 million while the combined spending on education, health and housing in that year was $24,000 million.
The ceasefire lasted no time at all and the North attacked what was left of the South’s army. By April 1975, Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam had fallen. It was re-named Ho Chi Minh City and a united Vietnam came into being.
- The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but…
- Vietnamisation was the term used by Richard Nixon to describe US policy towards South Vietnam in the later stages of the Vietnam War. Vietnamisation was… | 1,652 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The church became dominant in Europe following the fall of the Roman Empire. The main religion that was recognized in Middle Ages was that of Christianity, specifically Catholicism. Christianity in the middle ages "dominated the lives of both peasants and the nobility"(Bornstein, p13). Religious institutors including the Church and the monasteries became wealthy and influential given the fact that the state allocated a significant budget (Medieval) for religious activities.
The Roman Catholic Church was the ultimate control during the middle Ages and it was the stabilizing force in everyday life which kept the community structure together. The laws and "rules of the land, public policies and governance of the people were all affected by religion" (Arnold, p67) during the Middle Ages. Any attempt at threatening Christianity by other religions was met with force and all measures were taken to spread the religion in other parts of the world. .
During the middle ages festivals were popular, celebrated many different things, and were meant to be a time of joy for all people during these times. Everyone from Kings, Nobles, Merchants, Peasants were included in these celebrations. Festivals were a day or period of the year when people would stop working to celebrate a special event, often a religious one. Typically, there was at least one festival in each month; "Valentine's Day during February, Halloween during October, Easter around March and April, Christmas during December" (Mirus, p121). We still celebrate these holidays in modern times. Of course, each had reasons why they were celebrated, but some holidays were valued more than others. Christmas and Easter were the most important, not only religiously, but also for measuring out the year (Mirus, p134). Up to Christmas was winter, where wheat was sown. When Easter came, it meant the arrival of spring crops to grow, such as oats and barley. | <urn:uuid:9518fba4-afe2-4064-a065-b8269b9181cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/216970.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.988939 | 384 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.01055206544697284... | 4 | The church became dominant in Europe following the fall of the Roman Empire. The main religion that was recognized in Middle Ages was that of Christianity, specifically Catholicism. Christianity in the middle ages "dominated the lives of both peasants and the nobility"(Bornstein, p13). Religious institutors including the Church and the monasteries became wealthy and influential given the fact that the state allocated a significant budget (Medieval) for religious activities.
The Roman Catholic Church was the ultimate control during the middle Ages and it was the stabilizing force in everyday life which kept the community structure together. The laws and "rules of the land, public policies and governance of the people were all affected by religion" (Arnold, p67) during the Middle Ages. Any attempt at threatening Christianity by other religions was met with force and all measures were taken to spread the religion in other parts of the world. .
During the middle ages festivals were popular, celebrated many different things, and were meant to be a time of joy for all people during these times. Everyone from Kings, Nobles, Merchants, Peasants were included in these celebrations. Festivals were a day or period of the year when people would stop working to celebrate a special event, often a religious one. Typically, there was at least one festival in each month; "Valentine's Day during February, Halloween during October, Easter around March and April, Christmas during December" (Mirus, p121). We still celebrate these holidays in modern times. Of course, each had reasons why they were celebrated, but some holidays were valued more than others. Christmas and Easter were the most important, not only religiously, but also for measuring out the year (Mirus, p134). Up to Christmas was winter, where wheat was sown. When Easter came, it meant the arrival of spring crops to grow, such as oats and barley. | 390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Phoenix is a mythical bird that was always pictured in the ancient Egyptian mythology as a handsome bird with two long legs, two feathers falling from the back of his head and a straight beak. It was known also in the ancient Greek mythology and his name was Bennu. According to Herodotus description of the phoenix, which lacks the evidence from the Egyptian texts, it was an immortal bird that comes from Arabia to the Temple of the Sin every 500 years and its color was half gilded and the other half is crimson.
The strange thing of this opinion is that he claims that the Phoenix achieves immortality through a periodical renewal which means that he dies and then return to life as an immortal creature. In the Book of the Dead, the Phoenix is a symbol for rebirth and related to the sun since it rises every morning from the water to the east like Ra and was regarded as the supervisor of all the existing creatures and the god who gives light with his body. The Phoenix was also considered as an eternal bird like Horus or Osiris and there were some spells for helping the dead person in becoming an immortal Phoenix after his death.
You can get more information here. | <urn:uuid:044ce068-557f-4022-b0ba-d51a97a25e45> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://egyptopia.com/en/articles/Egypt/The-Sun-God-and-the-Phoenix.s.29.13400/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00321.warc.gz | en | 0.980228 | 236 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.11017180234193... | 3 | The Phoenix is a mythical bird that was always pictured in the ancient Egyptian mythology as a handsome bird with two long legs, two feathers falling from the back of his head and a straight beak. It was known also in the ancient Greek mythology and his name was Bennu. According to Herodotus description of the phoenix, which lacks the evidence from the Egyptian texts, it was an immortal bird that comes from Arabia to the Temple of the Sin every 500 years and its color was half gilded and the other half is crimson.
The strange thing of this opinion is that he claims that the Phoenix achieves immortality through a periodical renewal which means that he dies and then return to life as an immortal creature. In the Book of the Dead, the Phoenix is a symbol for rebirth and related to the sun since it rises every morning from the water to the east like Ra and was regarded as the supervisor of all the existing creatures and the god who gives light with his body. The Phoenix was also considered as an eternal bird like Horus or Osiris and there were some spells for helping the dead person in becoming an immortal Phoenix after his death.
You can get more information here. | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Harriet Tubman, one of the most influential people behind the anti-slavery movement during the 1850s, is set to be honored by the U.S. Department of Treasury by placing her image on the new look $20 bill.
According to the agency, Tubman’s likeness will replace that of former president Andrew Jackson, which will be incorporated in the depiction of the White House at the back of the bill.
Aside from featuring Tubman, the Treasury Department said the redesigned bills will also include other important scenes from American history, such as depictions of leaders from the civil rights and women’s suffrage movements on the $5 and $10 bills. Ellen Feingold, a curator at the National Museum of American History (NMAH), pointed out that the last woman to have her image depicted on a major American banknote was Martha Washington, the wife of former president George Washington. Her likeness was featured on the old $1 silver certificate during the late 1800s.
In 2015, Treasury Secretary Jack Lew revealed that the department was planning on replacing Alexander Hamilton’s image on the $10 bill with that of a woman and asked the public to send in their suggestions.
Some of the names submitted to the agency included Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of former president Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Rosa Parks, who is hailed as “the first lady of civil rights.”
Following the Treasury Department’s announcement, a movement known as “Women on 20s” petitioned the government to have Andrew Jackson’s image removed from the $20 bill. A prominent slave-holder during his time, Jackson is believed to be the one who ordered the forced removal and subsequent genocide of Native Americans.
Underground Railroad Conductor
Harriet Tubman achieved prominence in American history for her efforts in helping black slaves escape the South and reach the safety of slavery-free Northern states.
Having been born a slave herself, Tubman spent the first few years of her life working as a house servant and field hand during the early 1800s. Even back then, she was already well-known among her peers as someone who would always stand up for others.
When one of her fellow field hands got into trouble with their overseer, Tubman tried to step in between them. While she was able to protect her peer, she was hit on the head with a 2-pound weight that the overseer threw at her. She later met a former slaved named John Tubman and the two of them were married in 1844. However, five years later, Tubman was forced to flee for her life after she, her family and the rest of the slaves in the plantation were threatened to be sold off to another master.
Despite not knowing where to go, Tubman kept on running until she met a white woman who helped her. She used the North Star as a guide at night in order to find her way until she was finally able to reach Pennsylvania. She soon found work in Philadelphia and was able to save up some money.
Harriet Tubman was determined to go back to Maryland and help her family achieve freedom themselves. One by one, she was able to save her siblings and even escorted a few other slaves as well. She tried to reunite with her husband, but she found out that he had already taken a new wife.
Seeing a way how she could help other slaves, Tubman kept going back to the South to escort those who wanted to be free of their masters. Harriet Tubman was able to developed clever techniques that allowed her to ensure the safety of the fugitives, including the use of a network of safe houses known as the Underground Railroad, which were managed by fellow antislavery activists.
When the U.S. Civil War erupted, Tubman helped out in the Union Army in different capacities such as a cook, nurse, scout and even as a spy.
She was also a prominent member of the women’s suffrage movement, but her failing health forced her to retire to a home for elderly African-Americans, which she had helped establish. Harriet Tubman died in 1913. | <urn:uuid:03704af4-bbbf-4142-97ad-1b45ba01c750> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.quiet-corner.com/harriet-tubman-20-bill-woman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00419.warc.gz | en | 0.989606 | 850 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.099762603640... | 7 | Harriet Tubman, one of the most influential people behind the anti-slavery movement during the 1850s, is set to be honored by the U.S. Department of Treasury by placing her image on the new look $20 bill.
According to the agency, Tubman’s likeness will replace that of former president Andrew Jackson, which will be incorporated in the depiction of the White House at the back of the bill.
Aside from featuring Tubman, the Treasury Department said the redesigned bills will also include other important scenes from American history, such as depictions of leaders from the civil rights and women’s suffrage movements on the $5 and $10 bills. Ellen Feingold, a curator at the National Museum of American History (NMAH), pointed out that the last woman to have her image depicted on a major American banknote was Martha Washington, the wife of former president George Washington. Her likeness was featured on the old $1 silver certificate during the late 1800s.
In 2015, Treasury Secretary Jack Lew revealed that the department was planning on replacing Alexander Hamilton’s image on the $10 bill with that of a woman and asked the public to send in their suggestions.
Some of the names submitted to the agency included Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of former president Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Rosa Parks, who is hailed as “the first lady of civil rights.”
Following the Treasury Department’s announcement, a movement known as “Women on 20s” petitioned the government to have Andrew Jackson’s image removed from the $20 bill. A prominent slave-holder during his time, Jackson is believed to be the one who ordered the forced removal and subsequent genocide of Native Americans.
Underground Railroad Conductor
Harriet Tubman achieved prominence in American history for her efforts in helping black slaves escape the South and reach the safety of slavery-free Northern states.
Having been born a slave herself, Tubman spent the first few years of her life working as a house servant and field hand during the early 1800s. Even back then, she was already well-known among her peers as someone who would always stand up for others.
When one of her fellow field hands got into trouble with their overseer, Tubman tried to step in between them. While she was able to protect her peer, she was hit on the head with a 2-pound weight that the overseer threw at her. She later met a former slaved named John Tubman and the two of them were married in 1844. However, five years later, Tubman was forced to flee for her life after she, her family and the rest of the slaves in the plantation were threatened to be sold off to another master.
Despite not knowing where to go, Tubman kept on running until she met a white woman who helped her. She used the North Star as a guide at night in order to find her way until she was finally able to reach Pennsylvania. She soon found work in Philadelphia and was able to save up some money.
Harriet Tubman was determined to go back to Maryland and help her family achieve freedom themselves. One by one, she was able to save her siblings and even escorted a few other slaves as well. She tried to reunite with her husband, but she found out that he had already taken a new wife.
Seeing a way how she could help other slaves, Tubman kept going back to the South to escort those who wanted to be free of their masters. Harriet Tubman was able to developed clever techniques that allowed her to ensure the safety of the fugitives, including the use of a network of safe houses known as the Underground Railroad, which were managed by fellow antislavery activists.
When the U.S. Civil War erupted, Tubman helped out in the Union Army in different capacities such as a cook, nurse, scout and even as a spy.
She was also a prominent member of the women’s suffrage movement, but her failing health forced her to retire to a home for elderly African-Americans, which she had helped establish. Harriet Tubman died in 1913. | 844 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the four years that the Khmer Rouge ruled Cambodia, it was responsible for one of the worst mass killings of the 20th Century.
The brutal regime, in power from 1975-1979, claimed the lives of up to two million people.
Under the Marxist leader Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge tried to take Cambodia back to the Middle Ages, forcing millions of people from the cities to work on communal farms in the countryside.
But this dramatic attempt at social engineering had a terrible cost.
Whole families died from execution, starvation, disease and overwork.
The Khmer Rouge had its origins in the 1960s, as the armed wing of the Communist Party of Kampuchea – the name the Communists used for Cambodia.
Based in remote jungle and mountain areas in the north-east of the country, the group initially made little headway.
But after a right-wing military coup toppled head of state Prince Norodom Sihanouk in 1970, the Khmer Rouge entered into a political coalition with him and began to attract increasing support.
In a civil war that continued for nearly five years, it gradually increased its control in the countryside.
Khmer Rouge forces finally took over the capital, Phnom Penh, and therefore the nation as a whole in 1975.
During his time in the remote north-east, Pol Pot had been influenced by the surrounding hill tribes, who were self-sufficient in their communal living, had no use for money and were “untainted” by Buddhism.
When he came to power, he and his henchmen quickly set about transforming Cambodia – now re-named Kampuchea – into what they hoped would be an agrarian utopia.
Declaring that the nation would start again at “Year Zero”, Pol Pot isolated his people from the rest of the world and set about emptying the cities, abolishing money, private property and religion, and setting up rural collectives.
Anyone thought to be an intellectual of any sort was killed. Often people were condemned for wearing glasses or knowing a foreign language.
Hundreds of thousands of the educated middle-classes were tortured and executed in special centres.
The most notorious of these centres was the S-21 jail in Phnom Penh, Tuol Sleng, where as many as 17,000 men, women and children were imprisoned during the regime’s four years in power.
Hundreds of thousands of others died from disease, starvation or exhaustion as members of the Khmer Rouge – often just teenagers themselves – forced people to do back-breaking work.
The Khmer Rouge government was finally overthrown in 1979 by invading Vietnamese troops, after a series of violent border confrontations.
The higher echelons of the party retreated to remote areas of the country, where they remained active for a while but gradually became less and less powerful.
In the years that followed, as Cambodia began the process of reopening to the international community, the full horrors of the regime became apparent.
Survivors told their stories to shocked audiences, and in the 1980s the Hollywood movie The Killing Fields brought the plight of the Khmer Rouge victims to worldwide attention.
Pol Pot was denounced by his former comrades in a show trial in July 1997, and sentenced to house arrest in his jungle home.
But less than a year later he was dead – denying the millions of people who were affected by this brutal regime the chance to bring him to justice.
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0.4426652193069458... | 4 | In the four years that the Khmer Rouge ruled Cambodia, it was responsible for one of the worst mass killings of the 20th Century.
The brutal regime, in power from 1975-1979, claimed the lives of up to two million people.
Under the Marxist leader Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge tried to take Cambodia back to the Middle Ages, forcing millions of people from the cities to work on communal farms in the countryside.
But this dramatic attempt at social engineering had a terrible cost.
Whole families died from execution, starvation, disease and overwork.
The Khmer Rouge had its origins in the 1960s, as the armed wing of the Communist Party of Kampuchea – the name the Communists used for Cambodia.
Based in remote jungle and mountain areas in the north-east of the country, the group initially made little headway.
But after a right-wing military coup toppled head of state Prince Norodom Sihanouk in 1970, the Khmer Rouge entered into a political coalition with him and began to attract increasing support.
In a civil war that continued for nearly five years, it gradually increased its control in the countryside.
Khmer Rouge forces finally took over the capital, Phnom Penh, and therefore the nation as a whole in 1975.
During his time in the remote north-east, Pol Pot had been influenced by the surrounding hill tribes, who were self-sufficient in their communal living, had no use for money and were “untainted” by Buddhism.
When he came to power, he and his henchmen quickly set about transforming Cambodia – now re-named Kampuchea – into what they hoped would be an agrarian utopia.
Declaring that the nation would start again at “Year Zero”, Pol Pot isolated his people from the rest of the world and set about emptying the cities, abolishing money, private property and religion, and setting up rural collectives.
Anyone thought to be an intellectual of any sort was killed. Often people were condemned for wearing glasses or knowing a foreign language.
Hundreds of thousands of the educated middle-classes were tortured and executed in special centres.
The most notorious of these centres was the S-21 jail in Phnom Penh, Tuol Sleng, where as many as 17,000 men, women and children were imprisoned during the regime’s four years in power.
Hundreds of thousands of others died from disease, starvation or exhaustion as members of the Khmer Rouge – often just teenagers themselves – forced people to do back-breaking work.
The Khmer Rouge government was finally overthrown in 1979 by invading Vietnamese troops, after a series of violent border confrontations.
The higher echelons of the party retreated to remote areas of the country, where they remained active for a while but gradually became less and less powerful.
In the years that followed, as Cambodia began the process of reopening to the international community, the full horrors of the regime became apparent.
Survivors told their stories to shocked audiences, and in the 1980s the Hollywood movie The Killing Fields brought the plight of the Khmer Rouge victims to worldwide attention.
Pol Pot was denounced by his former comrades in a show trial in July 1997, and sentenced to house arrest in his jungle home.
But less than a year later he was dead – denying the millions of people who were affected by this brutal regime the chance to bring him to justice.
Source: Read Full Article | 719 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is not a stretch to say that women around the world are still given less respect, opportunities, and value than their male counterparts. The sexism around the world has led to feminism, but feminism itself has not led to equal women’s rights.
This is because many women still have not joined the feminist movement — not because they do not support women’s rights but because they believe feminism forgets its true purpose.
Although the movement stands up for women, we sometimes exclude certain types of women in the fight for equal rights. Many women have been neglected because we forget that when we speak of women’s rights, we are inescapably including Black rights, Muslim rights, LGBTQ rights, and rights of every classification of a female because there is so much more that defines a woman than just her gender.
Take for instance, how we as Americans call our nation the home of the brave but become terrified of something as fragile as a scarf wrapped around a woman’s head. Some people like to pretend that she’s been brainwashed into wearing it and as if it’s egregious to do so.
And at other times, women who walk out of their homes wearing revealing clothing are objectified, as if the clothes they wear determine their self-worth. Some also assume that women who choose to stay at home come from cultures that oppress their freedom, but we are not liberating someone by removing their identity.
This form of hate comes from both men and women alike who call themselves feminists. Women and men should not only protect women of their kind but women of all kinds if they want to label themselves as a feminist. We need to accept the differences between women in order to truly make a difference for women.
Modern-day feminism also doesn’t pay attention to the idea that different types of women may also have different interpretations of what it means to be a feminist. Some women try to push their own ideas of feminism upon other women and this causes people of the movement to be labeled as “feminazis.”
Each woman can face and fight against sexism in her own way because ultimately each woman has her own view of the movement. You can be a feminist by simply wearing the Venus symbol or you can be adventurous and fight it by chaining yourself to the fence of the White House as Alice Paul did in the 1900s.
That means that women who choose to stay at home and bake bread for their families get the same amount of respect as the women who choose to become breadwinners for their families. That means a woman can walk out of her house wearing whatever she chooses to wear without facing any judgment from other men or women.
The epitome of becoming a feminist is simply understanding other women and accepting their choices. In order to make feminism more respected as a movement, we must start respecting all types of women. Once each and every female feels that she is included, the movement will be able to succeed in granting women the same rights as men. Then hopefully, we will have a world where they are able to achieve their fullest potential. | <urn:uuid:e674a1d0-c6cc-487e-ad6c-e288afe87a7f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://highschool.latimes.com/west-torrance-high-school/opinion-feminism-fails-without-intersectionality/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.980497 | 630 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.150364667... | 6 | It is not a stretch to say that women around the world are still given less respect, opportunities, and value than their male counterparts. The sexism around the world has led to feminism, but feminism itself has not led to equal women’s rights.
This is because many women still have not joined the feminist movement — not because they do not support women’s rights but because they believe feminism forgets its true purpose.
Although the movement stands up for women, we sometimes exclude certain types of women in the fight for equal rights. Many women have been neglected because we forget that when we speak of women’s rights, we are inescapably including Black rights, Muslim rights, LGBTQ rights, and rights of every classification of a female because there is so much more that defines a woman than just her gender.
Take for instance, how we as Americans call our nation the home of the brave but become terrified of something as fragile as a scarf wrapped around a woman’s head. Some people like to pretend that she’s been brainwashed into wearing it and as if it’s egregious to do so.
And at other times, women who walk out of their homes wearing revealing clothing are objectified, as if the clothes they wear determine their self-worth. Some also assume that women who choose to stay at home come from cultures that oppress their freedom, but we are not liberating someone by removing their identity.
This form of hate comes from both men and women alike who call themselves feminists. Women and men should not only protect women of their kind but women of all kinds if they want to label themselves as a feminist. We need to accept the differences between women in order to truly make a difference for women.
Modern-day feminism also doesn’t pay attention to the idea that different types of women may also have different interpretations of what it means to be a feminist. Some women try to push their own ideas of feminism upon other women and this causes people of the movement to be labeled as “feminazis.”
Each woman can face and fight against sexism in her own way because ultimately each woman has her own view of the movement. You can be a feminist by simply wearing the Venus symbol or you can be adventurous and fight it by chaining yourself to the fence of the White House as Alice Paul did in the 1900s.
That means that women who choose to stay at home and bake bread for their families get the same amount of respect as the women who choose to become breadwinners for their families. That means a woman can walk out of her house wearing whatever she chooses to wear without facing any judgment from other men or women.
The epitome of becoming a feminist is simply understanding other women and accepting their choices. In order to make feminism more respected as a movement, we must start respecting all types of women. Once each and every female feels that she is included, the movement will be able to succeed in granting women the same rights as men. Then hopefully, we will have a world where they are able to achieve their fullest potential. | 610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ever wondered about the area about politics that makes it so ideal and pristine, Ethics. As it turns out, the very first philosopher to ever suggest the relationship between politics and ethics was the famous Chinese philosopher Confucius who emphasized personal and governmental morality. As we all know, most governments are founded on a set of rules or laws that have been refined and revised throughout that specific country’s history. The great civilizations of the ancient times such as the Egyptians and the Maya’s have their forms of governance patterned after nature and that in nature there is a supreme being that makes all things happen. This supreme being (which is embodied by a king or other form of ruler) can and has the right to revise and formulate laws as they see fit based on either personal preferences and historical facts (which is the written or oral history of the race or tribe which states or defines the role of the leader) however long the said culture might have existed. These cultures may have come and gone but their influence and views on how the world, life and self-governance happens is history. The English, French and other major civilizations of Medieval times went through several upheavals in government because of corruption and other related matters. The Greeks began the study of philosophy as part of their quest in understanding the why, what, where and who’s of life. Why did the sun set at night, why do the flowers bloom during spring and many other questions people might ponder about were thought of an explanation collectively by scholars and philosophers of the day.
Confucius is recognized worldwide as a philosopher whose works and theories have shaped the lives and governments of many Asian civilizations. His work in linking ethics (which is the study of how one should behave in relation to others) and Politics (which is the institution of governance) and how these two should begin at the personal level. The Romans have recognized the principle and was said to be one of the reasons why people got to the Senate. To be a good responsible citizen who is part of society, one must become part of the senate to show he has nothing to hide. This is true but man has a way of twisting and turning history and faith using it for personal benefit which can be seen as far back as recorded history can remember. Much of the works of the great philosophical fathers such as Socrates is known only through the writings of his student Plato who is also a philosopher who might have changed a few thoughts as he reviews and records them in writing. History is written memory of people and cultures that have long gone and much of our lives today will become the history of tomorrow. As the great Confucius would have put it, how have you lived today and what have you contributed to society. The good of the many, greatly outweighs the good of the one. | <urn:uuid:a5b072e5-1699-4910-a016-88567cc27090> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.definitionofphilosophy.com/author/avatar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00395.warc.gz | en | 0.985301 | 569 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.5922591686248... | 3 | Ever wondered about the area about politics that makes it so ideal and pristine, Ethics. As it turns out, the very first philosopher to ever suggest the relationship between politics and ethics was the famous Chinese philosopher Confucius who emphasized personal and governmental morality. As we all know, most governments are founded on a set of rules or laws that have been refined and revised throughout that specific country’s history. The great civilizations of the ancient times such as the Egyptians and the Maya’s have their forms of governance patterned after nature and that in nature there is a supreme being that makes all things happen. This supreme being (which is embodied by a king or other form of ruler) can and has the right to revise and formulate laws as they see fit based on either personal preferences and historical facts (which is the written or oral history of the race or tribe which states or defines the role of the leader) however long the said culture might have existed. These cultures may have come and gone but their influence and views on how the world, life and self-governance happens is history. The English, French and other major civilizations of Medieval times went through several upheavals in government because of corruption and other related matters. The Greeks began the study of philosophy as part of their quest in understanding the why, what, where and who’s of life. Why did the sun set at night, why do the flowers bloom during spring and many other questions people might ponder about were thought of an explanation collectively by scholars and philosophers of the day.
Confucius is recognized worldwide as a philosopher whose works and theories have shaped the lives and governments of many Asian civilizations. His work in linking ethics (which is the study of how one should behave in relation to others) and Politics (which is the institution of governance) and how these two should begin at the personal level. The Romans have recognized the principle and was said to be one of the reasons why people got to the Senate. To be a good responsible citizen who is part of society, one must become part of the senate to show he has nothing to hide. This is true but man has a way of twisting and turning history and faith using it for personal benefit which can be seen as far back as recorded history can remember. Much of the works of the great philosophical fathers such as Socrates is known only through the writings of his student Plato who is also a philosopher who might have changed a few thoughts as he reviews and records them in writing. History is written memory of people and cultures that have long gone and much of our lives today will become the history of tomorrow. As the great Confucius would have put it, how have you lived today and what have you contributed to society. The good of the many, greatly outweighs the good of the one. | 566 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ada Lovelace: The first computer programmer
These days, almost every home has a computer, laptop, or related device that is liberally used and often taken for granted. Although many of us common folk don’t know exactly what makes our devices tick, the programming and coding that goes into our computers date back to the Victorian Era. Who is the remarkable young woman who broke era-based gender barriers and worked her butt off to become the first computer programmer in the field?
The early life of Ada
Ada Lovelace has become a legend in her own right, yet her childhood status also put her on the map. She was born in England in 1815, the daughter of the esteemed poet and revolutionary Romanticist, Lord Byron, and his wife, Anne Byron. Unfortunately, despite being a popular poet, Lord Byron wasn’t exactly “father of the year.” After his wife called it splits due to his volatile moods and extreme emotional fits, he hit the road and left Ada behind to grow up without a father. Fortunately, the young woman didn’t take the setback as an excuse to throw out her life. Instead, both she and her mother ensured that she developed a strict focus on her studies. Rather than sticking to the typical female curriculum of the era, Anne decided to hire tutors to stimulate Ada’s mind in ways that would be rewarding to her intellect.
Although it was atypical for women and girls to study subjects such as math and science during the era of Ada’s childhood, Anne encouraged her tutors to drill her on these topics. Why? She wanted to make sure Ada avoided ending up becoming a carefree writer like her whimsical, impulsive father. It may not have been a conventional method of training a young woman’s behavior, yet it certainly did the trick. Ada excelled in the subjects she was taught, be it science, English, literature, or mathematics. Working with family friends and skilled tutors, Ada grew from a bright child into a brilliant young woman, both talented and knowledgeable of what she was capable of. She was eager to put her skills and knowledge to use…and a chance run-in with a future mentor would give her just that opportunity.
Ada and Babbage: A match made in Heaven
When Ada met Charles Babbage, a mathematics professor at Cambridge (now known as the “father of the computer”), he seemed to be the solution to one of Ada’s biggest problems: getting her foot in the door. During their first interaction, they began to kindle what would become a highly unusual friendship for the pre-Victorian era. They were both living in London in a society dictated by law and economics rather than science, and Ada was facing negative pressure as both a woman and an aspiring inventor. Fortunately, Babbage took Ada under his wing, recognizing her brilliance just as her tutors and mother had before. Rather than casting her away for her gender, Babbage began to mentor Ada, revealing his vast knowledge, his scientific plans, and his grand invention goals to a young and inspired Ada.
From that point onward, Ada and Babbage often engaged in deep intellectual conversation and heated scientific debates, stimulating one another’s knowledge about the field. During this time, Ada got a glimpse into a fascinating new project that Babbage was working on. It was a follow-up to a previously drafted invention, a calculating device called the Difference Engine, which he had designed but never fully completed. However, he had a new task on his mind: producing a second, better-developed machine called the Analytical Engine. Although his pals in the Parliament weren’t up to support his new invention until the first one was completed, Babbage was able to get others around Europe hyped up for his design, including an Italian intellectual with a major passion for Babbage’s project. But how does a random Italian man tie into the scientific fame of Ada Lovelace?
Ada’s incredible “notes” on coding
Louis Menebrea, an Italian mathematician, was a major fan of Babbage’s work. He was so fond of Babbage’s concepts that he wrote an entire memoir dedicated to the subject of the Analytical Engine and published the text in a Swiss journal. That’s a pretty big compliment, huh? There was a teensy little problem with the publication…the entire text was written in French. Those in Europe who didn’t speak French would be unable to appreciate the hard work of either man, including poor Babbage himself. Fortunately for both of them, Ada spoke perfect French (thanks, years of tutoring!) and was able to translate the text so that Babbage could comprehend Menebrea’s thoughts on his work. However, while Ada did translate the words of Menebrea, she also added in some of her own thoughts. And by “some,” we mean “a ton.”
Across the course of nine months, Ada reviewed and translated the memoir by Menebrea, all while adding in her own thoughts in a section she entitled, “Notes.” Not only did her comments suggest ways to improve the machine, but they also predicted the future of what technology such as the Analytical Engine could accomplish. When all was said and done, her “Notes” section ended up being three times the length of Menebrea’s memoir. Recognized as the incredible stand-alone work that they were, her comments eventually got published in a scientific journal, sharing her concepts of computer functioning with the world. Ada’s research suggested that there may be ways to code information into a computer so that it could handle multiple symbols, letters, and numbers, as well as introducing the popular and widespread concept of “looping” information that is practiced on most modern computers today. Although her era made her an unlikely candidate to become the epic computer scientist that she is respected as today, Ada’s contributions to technology have earned her the title as the world’s first genuine computer programmer. | <urn:uuid:a673bcbd-4ad1-481f-8c23-8ec8ff8caa14> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history101.com/ada-lovelace-the-first-computer-programmer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.983265 | 1,270 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.0863791853... | 4 | Ada Lovelace: The first computer programmer
These days, almost every home has a computer, laptop, or related device that is liberally used and often taken for granted. Although many of us common folk don’t know exactly what makes our devices tick, the programming and coding that goes into our computers date back to the Victorian Era. Who is the remarkable young woman who broke era-based gender barriers and worked her butt off to become the first computer programmer in the field?
The early life of Ada
Ada Lovelace has become a legend in her own right, yet her childhood status also put her on the map. She was born in England in 1815, the daughter of the esteemed poet and revolutionary Romanticist, Lord Byron, and his wife, Anne Byron. Unfortunately, despite being a popular poet, Lord Byron wasn’t exactly “father of the year.” After his wife called it splits due to his volatile moods and extreme emotional fits, he hit the road and left Ada behind to grow up without a father. Fortunately, the young woman didn’t take the setback as an excuse to throw out her life. Instead, both she and her mother ensured that she developed a strict focus on her studies. Rather than sticking to the typical female curriculum of the era, Anne decided to hire tutors to stimulate Ada’s mind in ways that would be rewarding to her intellect.
Although it was atypical for women and girls to study subjects such as math and science during the era of Ada’s childhood, Anne encouraged her tutors to drill her on these topics. Why? She wanted to make sure Ada avoided ending up becoming a carefree writer like her whimsical, impulsive father. It may not have been a conventional method of training a young woman’s behavior, yet it certainly did the trick. Ada excelled in the subjects she was taught, be it science, English, literature, or mathematics. Working with family friends and skilled tutors, Ada grew from a bright child into a brilliant young woman, both talented and knowledgeable of what she was capable of. She was eager to put her skills and knowledge to use…and a chance run-in with a future mentor would give her just that opportunity.
Ada and Babbage: A match made in Heaven
When Ada met Charles Babbage, a mathematics professor at Cambridge (now known as the “father of the computer”), he seemed to be the solution to one of Ada’s biggest problems: getting her foot in the door. During their first interaction, they began to kindle what would become a highly unusual friendship for the pre-Victorian era. They were both living in London in a society dictated by law and economics rather than science, and Ada was facing negative pressure as both a woman and an aspiring inventor. Fortunately, Babbage took Ada under his wing, recognizing her brilliance just as her tutors and mother had before. Rather than casting her away for her gender, Babbage began to mentor Ada, revealing his vast knowledge, his scientific plans, and his grand invention goals to a young and inspired Ada.
From that point onward, Ada and Babbage often engaged in deep intellectual conversation and heated scientific debates, stimulating one another’s knowledge about the field. During this time, Ada got a glimpse into a fascinating new project that Babbage was working on. It was a follow-up to a previously drafted invention, a calculating device called the Difference Engine, which he had designed but never fully completed. However, he had a new task on his mind: producing a second, better-developed machine called the Analytical Engine. Although his pals in the Parliament weren’t up to support his new invention until the first one was completed, Babbage was able to get others around Europe hyped up for his design, including an Italian intellectual with a major passion for Babbage’s project. But how does a random Italian man tie into the scientific fame of Ada Lovelace?
Ada’s incredible “notes” on coding
Louis Menebrea, an Italian mathematician, was a major fan of Babbage’s work. He was so fond of Babbage’s concepts that he wrote an entire memoir dedicated to the subject of the Analytical Engine and published the text in a Swiss journal. That’s a pretty big compliment, huh? There was a teensy little problem with the publication…the entire text was written in French. Those in Europe who didn’t speak French would be unable to appreciate the hard work of either man, including poor Babbage himself. Fortunately for both of them, Ada spoke perfect French (thanks, years of tutoring!) and was able to translate the text so that Babbage could comprehend Menebrea’s thoughts on his work. However, while Ada did translate the words of Menebrea, she also added in some of her own thoughts. And by “some,” we mean “a ton.”
Across the course of nine months, Ada reviewed and translated the memoir by Menebrea, all while adding in her own thoughts in a section she entitled, “Notes.” Not only did her comments suggest ways to improve the machine, but they also predicted the future of what technology such as the Analytical Engine could accomplish. When all was said and done, her “Notes” section ended up being three times the length of Menebrea’s memoir. Recognized as the incredible stand-alone work that they were, her comments eventually got published in a scientific journal, sharing her concepts of computer functioning with the world. Ada’s research suggested that there may be ways to code information into a computer so that it could handle multiple symbols, letters, and numbers, as well as introducing the popular and widespread concept of “looping” information that is practiced on most modern computers today. Although her era made her an unlikely candidate to become the epic computer scientist that she is respected as today, Ada’s contributions to technology have earned her the title as the world’s first genuine computer programmer. | 1,191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scientists have long known that sleep plays an important role in memory formation, but how this physically happens hasn't been understood.
But now, using advanced microscopy, a team from the US and China have witnessed the formation of new connections between synapses during sleep, proving the role sleep plays in creating memories.
Professor Wen-Biao Gan from New York University told the BBC: "Finding out sleep promotes new connections between neurons is new; nobody knew this before."
"We thought sleep helped, but it could have been other causes, and we show it really helps to make connections and that in sleep the brain is not quiet, it is replaying what happened during the day and it seems quite important for making the connections."
The mice were engineered to express a glowing fluorescent protein in their brain cells, which could be studied by the scientists.
To study the process, scientists taught mice to walk on a rotating rod, a new skill, and then afterwards compared the growth of neuronal connections as they either slept or stayed awake.
The results were published in Science, and showed that the most new neuron connections formed during deep sleep.
The researchers also found that the same brain cells activated during training were reactivated during this slow-wave deep sleep, and the connections that grew changed depending on what skill was learnt.
So now the only question left is, how do we find enough hours in the day to sleep the ideal amount? | <urn:uuid:39800cfe-5a6b-4bae-b43d-85000c3eb8c2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sciencealert.com/news/20140906-25643.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00181.warc.gz | en | 0.981193 | 290 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.696848869323730... | 1 | Scientists have long known that sleep plays an important role in memory formation, but how this physically happens hasn't been understood.
But now, using advanced microscopy, a team from the US and China have witnessed the formation of new connections between synapses during sleep, proving the role sleep plays in creating memories.
Professor Wen-Biao Gan from New York University told the BBC: "Finding out sleep promotes new connections between neurons is new; nobody knew this before."
"We thought sleep helped, but it could have been other causes, and we show it really helps to make connections and that in sleep the brain is not quiet, it is replaying what happened during the day and it seems quite important for making the connections."
The mice were engineered to express a glowing fluorescent protein in their brain cells, which could be studied by the scientists.
To study the process, scientists taught mice to walk on a rotating rod, a new skill, and then afterwards compared the growth of neuronal connections as they either slept or stayed awake.
The results were published in Science, and showed that the most new neuron connections formed during deep sleep.
The researchers also found that the same brain cells activated during training were reactivated during this slow-wave deep sleep, and the connections that grew changed depending on what skill was learnt.
So now the only question left is, how do we find enough hours in the day to sleep the ideal amount? | 278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Ethan Allen?
Ethan Allen fought in the French and Indian War and the American Revolution. With Benedict Arnold, he led the Green Mountain Boys to capture Fort Ticonderoga from the British in 1775. After the war, he petitioned to have Vermont become a state. When that failed, he tried to have Vermont become part of Canada.
Allen was born on January 21, 1738, in Litchfield, Connecticut. He was the first child of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen. Joseph and Mary went on to have five more sons and two daughters. Allen, who developed a reputation as a firebrand and rabble-rouser, married Mary Brownson in 1762, and they had five children. Mary died in 1783. Allen married again in 1784; he and his second wife, Fanny, had three children.
Explorer and Military Leader
Although Allen was born in Connecticut, he and his family explored land in the New Hampshire Grants. After serving in the French and Indian War, Allen purchased land and settled in what is now the state of Vermont. However, a dispute over the land in the Champlain Valley soon arose, with both New York and New Hampshire claiming it as their own.
In 1770, the New York Supreme Court ruled that the New Hampshire Grants were invalid. In response, a group that called itself the Green Mountain Boys came together to stop the “Yorkers” from interfering in land that they had claimed for themselves. They named Allen their leader and set out on a campaign of intimidation to get the Yorkers to leave, sometimes using violence to do so.
In 1775, the Green Mountain Boys shifted their focus to the American Revolution, fighting for the American colonies against Great Britain. Along with Benedict Arnold, Allen led the Green Mountain Boys to capture Fort Ticonderoga, which they did easily. (The fort was staffed by only a small number of British soldiers.) Arnold, Allen and their men went on to capture Crown Point, north of Ticonderoga, just as easily. With those successes in mind, Allen and his men tried to seize Montreal as well. They failed, however, and Allen was captured and sent to prison in Cornwall, England, for two years.
When he returned to North America, Allen settled in Vermont, which had declared its independence from both Britain and the United States. He tried to persuade the Continental Congress to accept Vermont as the fourteenth state, but because of disputes among Massachusetts, New Hampshire and New York over the territory, the Congress refused.
Rebuffed, Allen became involved in negotiations with the Canadian governor Frederick Haldimand to have Vermont become part of Canada. Had that happened, Vermont would have become part of the British Empire once again. Allen’s support of these negotiations contributed to his reputation as a rash and untrustworthy man.
With his military service completed and his political and diplomatic skills in question, in 1787, Allen retired to his home in what is now Burlington, Vermont. There he revived a book he had begun years earlier with a philosopher friend, Dr. Thomas Young. In 1785, he published Reason the Only Oracle of Man, a book of Deist philosophy. It was largely condemned by Christian clergymen. Allen died in Burlington, Vermont on February 12, 1789. Two years later, Vermont joined the United States.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | <urn:uuid:a9f58250-76a6-4ac2-ba0d-8fe43f81d51a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/political-figure/ethan-allen | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.982976 | 708 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.3354364037513... | 11 | Who Was Ethan Allen?
Ethan Allen fought in the French and Indian War and the American Revolution. With Benedict Arnold, he led the Green Mountain Boys to capture Fort Ticonderoga from the British in 1775. After the war, he petitioned to have Vermont become a state. When that failed, he tried to have Vermont become part of Canada.
Allen was born on January 21, 1738, in Litchfield, Connecticut. He was the first child of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen. Joseph and Mary went on to have five more sons and two daughters. Allen, who developed a reputation as a firebrand and rabble-rouser, married Mary Brownson in 1762, and they had five children. Mary died in 1783. Allen married again in 1784; he and his second wife, Fanny, had three children.
Explorer and Military Leader
Although Allen was born in Connecticut, he and his family explored land in the New Hampshire Grants. After serving in the French and Indian War, Allen purchased land and settled in what is now the state of Vermont. However, a dispute over the land in the Champlain Valley soon arose, with both New York and New Hampshire claiming it as their own.
In 1770, the New York Supreme Court ruled that the New Hampshire Grants were invalid. In response, a group that called itself the Green Mountain Boys came together to stop the “Yorkers” from interfering in land that they had claimed for themselves. They named Allen their leader and set out on a campaign of intimidation to get the Yorkers to leave, sometimes using violence to do so.
In 1775, the Green Mountain Boys shifted their focus to the American Revolution, fighting for the American colonies against Great Britain. Along with Benedict Arnold, Allen led the Green Mountain Boys to capture Fort Ticonderoga, which they did easily. (The fort was staffed by only a small number of British soldiers.) Arnold, Allen and their men went on to capture Crown Point, north of Ticonderoga, just as easily. With those successes in mind, Allen and his men tried to seize Montreal as well. They failed, however, and Allen was captured and sent to prison in Cornwall, England, for two years.
When he returned to North America, Allen settled in Vermont, which had declared its independence from both Britain and the United States. He tried to persuade the Continental Congress to accept Vermont as the fourteenth state, but because of disputes among Massachusetts, New Hampshire and New York over the territory, the Congress refused.
Rebuffed, Allen became involved in negotiations with the Canadian governor Frederick Haldimand to have Vermont become part of Canada. Had that happened, Vermont would have become part of the British Empire once again. Allen’s support of these negotiations contributed to his reputation as a rash and untrustworthy man.
With his military service completed and his political and diplomatic skills in question, in 1787, Allen retired to his home in what is now Burlington, Vermont. There he revived a book he had begun years earlier with a philosopher friend, Dr. Thomas Young. In 1785, he published Reason the Only Oracle of Man, a book of Deist philosophy. It was largely condemned by Christian clergymen. Allen died in Burlington, Vermont on February 12, 1789. Two years later, Vermont joined the United States.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 732 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Cuneiform and Hieroglyphics Do you know how the earliest writing started thousands of years ago? In about 3,000 BC, two types of writing were developed. They were called Cuneiform and Hieroglyphics. In some ways they are different, yet they are also similar. Cuneiform writing was developed in Mesopotamia to keep track of records. It consisted of wedged-shaped symbols. They also produced works of stories. The oldest form of literature is the story called Epic of Gilgamesh. An epic is a long poem that talks about heroes; Cuneiform was written on clay tablets. To write in the clay, they had to use a reed that grew on the side of the Nile River to make the symbols. On the other hand, hieroglyphics were created in Egypt, not Mesopotamia. Hieroglyphics were usually written on papyrus and stone. These symbols are pictures of objects that represent words and sounds. For an example, to communicate the idea of a boat then a scribe would draw a boat. Other objects stood for sounds, like letters in the American alphabet. They both represent thousands of words about things about trade, and rules. They’re two of the most important earliest types of writing. They were both developed thousands of years ago by scribes who both men and boys. Finally, these ancient forms of writing from long ago are similar and different in ways. | <urn:uuid:ada251a2-3d20-4f62-835f-34c04a7fca2a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studyres.com/doc/9157990/cuneiform-and-hieroglyphics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.986966 | 315 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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Cuneiform and Hieroglyphics Do you know how the earliest writing started thousands of years ago? In about 3,000 BC, two types of writing were developed. They were called Cuneiform and Hieroglyphics. In some ways they are different, yet they are also similar. Cuneiform writing was developed in Mesopotamia to keep track of records. It consisted of wedged-shaped symbols. They also produced works of stories. The oldest form of literature is the story called Epic of Gilgamesh. An epic is a long poem that talks about heroes; Cuneiform was written on clay tablets. To write in the clay, they had to use a reed that grew on the side of the Nile River to make the symbols. On the other hand, hieroglyphics were created in Egypt, not Mesopotamia. Hieroglyphics were usually written on papyrus and stone. These symbols are pictures of objects that represent words and sounds. For an example, to communicate the idea of a boat then a scribe would draw a boat. Other objects stood for sounds, like letters in the American alphabet. They both represent thousands of words about things about trade, and rules. They’re two of the most important earliest types of writing. They were both developed thousands of years ago by scribes who both men and boys. Finally, these ancient forms of writing from long ago are similar and different in ways. | 317 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Helike was an ancient Greek city-state (polis) that was submerged and destroyed by a tsunami in 373 BC. The city was located in the Northern Peloponnesus, within the regional unit of Achaea, approximately 1.2 mi from the Gulf of Corinth, near the city of Boura. Both Helike and Boura were members of the Achaean League, which was a confederation of Greek city-states during the Hellenistic-era. According to modern research, the catastrophe that destroyed Helike was the result of an earthquake, which triggered a tsunami. In an attempt to preserve the city's ruins, the site was included in the World Monuments Fund's (WMF) List of 100 Most Endangered Sites.
History Of Helike
Helike was established during the Bronze Age and became the primary city in Achaea. According to the Greek poet Homer, Helike fought with Agamemnon's forces during the Trojan War. The city was later captured by the Achaeans and eventually became the leader of the Achaean League, an association of twelve cities in the region, including Aigo, which still exists today. Helike was also known as Dodekapolis, which combined the Greek words dodeka, which means "twelve," and polis, meaning "city." Helike became a religious and cultural center and had its coins. Some of the ancient coins recovered from Helike include two 5th century coins made of copper, which are now held in the Bode Museum in Berlin, Germany. The obverse side of the coin features the head of Poseidon, who was the city's patron, while the reverse side features his trident. A temple in the city was also dedicated to Poseidon. The city-state established colonies, which included Sybaris, located in southern Italy, and Priene in Asia Minor. The panhellenic temple and sanctuary of Helekonian Poseidon were widely known across the classical world. In terms of religious significance, the temple was second only to Delphi.
The Disaster That Razed Down Helike
In the year 373 BC, Helike was destroyed on a winter night, two years after the Battle of Leuctra. It is said that several events warned of the disaster, including the fleeing of animals to Keryneia. The city and an area of about 1.2 sq mi were submerged by water from the sea, killing all residents and covering most buildings, with only a few structures projecting out of the sea. The disaster was blamed on the vengeance of Poseidon after the residents of Helike refused to give their state of Poseidon to the Ionian colonizers from Asia. Other historians suggest the residents of Helike and Bura had murdered deputies from Ionia. On August 23, 1817, a similar earthquake and tsunami occurred in the same place.
Rediscovery Of Helike
In 1994, researchers from the University of Patras conducted a magnetometer survey that revealed outlines of buildings buried near a delta. The region, which is now known as the Klonis site, has been excavated and large buildings with walls have been discovered. A preserved settlement from the early Bronze Age was also uncovered on the site. In 2001, the city of Helike was discovered buried under an ancient lagoon close to the village of Rizomylos. Each summer further excavations are conducted on the Helike delta, and several archaeological findings have been made that date back to the prehistoric times when Helike was established.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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0.390527784824... | 3 | Helike was an ancient Greek city-state (polis) that was submerged and destroyed by a tsunami in 373 BC. The city was located in the Northern Peloponnesus, within the regional unit of Achaea, approximately 1.2 mi from the Gulf of Corinth, near the city of Boura. Both Helike and Boura were members of the Achaean League, which was a confederation of Greek city-states during the Hellenistic-era. According to modern research, the catastrophe that destroyed Helike was the result of an earthquake, which triggered a tsunami. In an attempt to preserve the city's ruins, the site was included in the World Monuments Fund's (WMF) List of 100 Most Endangered Sites.
History Of Helike
Helike was established during the Bronze Age and became the primary city in Achaea. According to the Greek poet Homer, Helike fought with Agamemnon's forces during the Trojan War. The city was later captured by the Achaeans and eventually became the leader of the Achaean League, an association of twelve cities in the region, including Aigo, which still exists today. Helike was also known as Dodekapolis, which combined the Greek words dodeka, which means "twelve," and polis, meaning "city." Helike became a religious and cultural center and had its coins. Some of the ancient coins recovered from Helike include two 5th century coins made of copper, which are now held in the Bode Museum in Berlin, Germany. The obverse side of the coin features the head of Poseidon, who was the city's patron, while the reverse side features his trident. A temple in the city was also dedicated to Poseidon. The city-state established colonies, which included Sybaris, located in southern Italy, and Priene in Asia Minor. The panhellenic temple and sanctuary of Helekonian Poseidon were widely known across the classical world. In terms of religious significance, the temple was second only to Delphi.
The Disaster That Razed Down Helike
In the year 373 BC, Helike was destroyed on a winter night, two years after the Battle of Leuctra. It is said that several events warned of the disaster, including the fleeing of animals to Keryneia. The city and an area of about 1.2 sq mi were submerged by water from the sea, killing all residents and covering most buildings, with only a few structures projecting out of the sea. The disaster was blamed on the vengeance of Poseidon after the residents of Helike refused to give their state of Poseidon to the Ionian colonizers from Asia. Other historians suggest the residents of Helike and Bura had murdered deputies from Ionia. On August 23, 1817, a similar earthquake and tsunami occurred in the same place.
Rediscovery Of Helike
In 1994, researchers from the University of Patras conducted a magnetometer survey that revealed outlines of buildings buried near a delta. The region, which is now known as the Klonis site, has been excavated and large buildings with walls have been discovered. A preserved settlement from the early Bronze Age was also uncovered on the site. In 2001, the city of Helike was discovered buried under an ancient lagoon close to the village of Rizomylos. Each summer further excavations are conducted on the Helike delta, and several archaeological findings have been made that date back to the prehistoric times when Helike was established.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 804 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chanakya lived in India during the 4th century BC. He was a teacher, economist, philosopher, and royal advisor. His literary works are thought to be the root of political science and economics in India. He is also credited with contributing to the theory of classical economics, which is the idea that governments should not control the market. Historical accounts suggest that Chanakya played a significant part in founding the Maurya Empire by helping Emperor Chandragupta gain power. He became the political advisor for Emperor Chandragupta and later served the same role for Chandragupta's son Bindusara.
Sources Of Information About Chanakya
Little is known for certain about Chanakya because few historical documents exist from his lifetime. Most of the information about his life and influence over India has been obtained from four primary sources. These sources are considered semi-legends and can be found in the Buddhist text, Mahavamsa; the Jain text, Parishishtaparvan; the Kashmiri text, Kathasaritsagara; and the Vishakhadatta text, Mudrarakshasa. Each legend shares a common theme that Chanakya was disappointed by King Nanda and sought revenge by promoting the rule of Emperor Chandragupta.
There is some confusion over his exact name. In his book, the Arthashastra, Chanakya refers to himself as Kautilya. This name is thought to come from his family. Once, the same book refers to his name as Vishnugupt. Some academics believe Kautilya and Vishnugupta could be different people, however.
The Buddhist Version Of Chanakya’s Biography
Chanakya grew up as a Brahmin in Takshashila under the rule of the Nanda Kings. According to the Buddhist account of his life, he grew canine teeth, a sign of royalty. His mother worried that his teeth would lead to him to become King and that afterward, he would forget about her. To show his mother that she had no reason to worry, he broke off his canine teeth. Later in his life, King Dhana Nanda held a ceremony for Brahmins. Chanakya attended, and when the king saw him with his broken teeth and misaligned feet, he threw Chanakya out of the event.
Chanakya’s Search for Revenge
Embarrassed and outraged, Chanakya cursed the King. The King demanded his arrest, but Chanakya escaped with the help of Prince Pabbatha, King Dhana Nanda’s son. He ran to live in the Vindhya Forest where he spent his time turning one gold coin into more with the help of his keen knowledge of economics. He used this trick until he had 800,000,000 gold coins. Chanakya hid all of his money and set out to search for a person worthy of ruling the land. During his search, he came upon a group of children playing a game of king and robbers. One of these children, Chandragupta, was pretending to be a king and cut off the arms and legs of the robbers. Chanakya watched as he reattached the limbs. Witnessing this, Chanakya wanted to learn more about the boy. Chandragupta had been born into a royal family; his father was killed, and his mother forced to run away. The boy grew up with a foster father. Chanakya paid the foster father 1,000 gold coins and took Chandragupta away.
Choosing A Successor
Chanakya had to decide who would become Emperor: Prince Pabbatha or Chandragupta. He gave both boys a necklace made of woolen thread. To test their skills, Chanakya asked Pabbatha to take the necklace off of Chandragupta’s neck without breaking it or waking him up. The boy was unsuccessful. On a different night, Chandragupta attempted the same challenge. He was successful by cutting off Pabbatha’s head. Chanakya began a 7-year training program with Chandragupta to teach him about royal responsibilities.
Chanakya’s Revenge Accomplished
When Chandragupta was grown, Chanakya unburied his treasure of golden coins and hired an army. The army was unsuccessful in overthrowing King Dhana Nanda. By chance, the two were walking around when they heard a mother reprimanding her son for throwing away the edges of a piece of cake. She criticized him and said he was like Chandragupta who had tried to overthrow the kingdom from the center instead of first attacking the outskirts. Armed with a new plan, Chandragupta and Chanakya once again gathered an army and began attacking the outer parts of the city, working their way to the center. They assassinated the King, took his treasure, and Chandragupta assumed the throne.
Chandragupta’s son was Bindusara. When Chandragupta’s wife was pregnant, she ate some poisoned food that Chanakya had left for Chandragupta in an attempt to strengthen his immunity against poison. When Chanakya saw that she had eaten the poisoned food, he killed her to save the baby.
Chanakya’s Books and Legacy
Two of Chanakya’s known books are the Chanakya Niti and the Arthashastra. The Chanakya Niti is a collection of proverbs, also known as aphorisms. Some scholars believe that these verses and phrases were compiled from previous works. The Arthashastra defines the responsibilities and duties of a political leader. It also concerns political issues, including financial, war, welfare, and international relations policies.
The legacy of Chanakya lives on through depictions of his character in theater, television, movie, literary, and academic publications and productions. Some of these have been created as recently as 2015, which shows his continued importance in Indian culture. Additionally, the Arthashastra was recommended by the country’s former National Security Advisor, who believed it was a clear explanation of pertinent strategies.
Several places have been named in his honor as well. These places include 3 institutions: Training Ship Chanakya, Chanakya National Law University, and Chanakya Institute of Public Leadership. Other places with his name include the New Delhi neighborhood Chanakyapuri and the Chanakya Circle in the city of Mysore.
Chanakya In Modern India
As previously mentioned, the literary works of Chanakya continue to be relevant in modern-day India. He is credited as having been one of the first people to have the vision of a united Indian subcontinent and is often referred to as the architect of the first Empire of India. His ideas behind police duties, judicial systems, charitable donations, prevention of war, and elimination of enemy kings have provided a framework for the India of today. These theories have also earned him the nickname of the Indian Machiavelli. One of his most well-known quotes is: “Never share your secrets with anybody. It will destroy you.”
Who Was Chanakya?
Chanakya lived in India during the 4th century BC. He was a teacher, economist, philosopher, and royal advisor. His literary works are thought to be the root of political science and economics in India. He is also credited with contributing to the theory of classical economics, the idea that governments should not control the market. Historical accounts suggest that Chanakya played a significant part in founding the Maurya Empire by helping Emperor Chandragupta gain power. He became the political advisor for Emperor Chandragupta and later served the same role for Chandragupta's son Bindusara.
About the Author
Amber is a freelance writer, English as a foreign language teacher, and Spanish-English translator. She lives with her husband and 3 cats.
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... | 2 | Chanakya lived in India during the 4th century BC. He was a teacher, economist, philosopher, and royal advisor. His literary works are thought to be the root of political science and economics in India. He is also credited with contributing to the theory of classical economics, which is the idea that governments should not control the market. Historical accounts suggest that Chanakya played a significant part in founding the Maurya Empire by helping Emperor Chandragupta gain power. He became the political advisor for Emperor Chandragupta and later served the same role for Chandragupta's son Bindusara.
Sources Of Information About Chanakya
Little is known for certain about Chanakya because few historical documents exist from his lifetime. Most of the information about his life and influence over India has been obtained from four primary sources. These sources are considered semi-legends and can be found in the Buddhist text, Mahavamsa; the Jain text, Parishishtaparvan; the Kashmiri text, Kathasaritsagara; and the Vishakhadatta text, Mudrarakshasa. Each legend shares a common theme that Chanakya was disappointed by King Nanda and sought revenge by promoting the rule of Emperor Chandragupta.
There is some confusion over his exact name. In his book, the Arthashastra, Chanakya refers to himself as Kautilya. This name is thought to come from his family. Once, the same book refers to his name as Vishnugupt. Some academics believe Kautilya and Vishnugupta could be different people, however.
The Buddhist Version Of Chanakya’s Biography
Chanakya grew up as a Brahmin in Takshashila under the rule of the Nanda Kings. According to the Buddhist account of his life, he grew canine teeth, a sign of royalty. His mother worried that his teeth would lead to him to become King and that afterward, he would forget about her. To show his mother that she had no reason to worry, he broke off his canine teeth. Later in his life, King Dhana Nanda held a ceremony for Brahmins. Chanakya attended, and when the king saw him with his broken teeth and misaligned feet, he threw Chanakya out of the event.
Chanakya’s Search for Revenge
Embarrassed and outraged, Chanakya cursed the King. The King demanded his arrest, but Chanakya escaped with the help of Prince Pabbatha, King Dhana Nanda’s son. He ran to live in the Vindhya Forest where he spent his time turning one gold coin into more with the help of his keen knowledge of economics. He used this trick until he had 800,000,000 gold coins. Chanakya hid all of his money and set out to search for a person worthy of ruling the land. During his search, he came upon a group of children playing a game of king and robbers. One of these children, Chandragupta, was pretending to be a king and cut off the arms and legs of the robbers. Chanakya watched as he reattached the limbs. Witnessing this, Chanakya wanted to learn more about the boy. Chandragupta had been born into a royal family; his father was killed, and his mother forced to run away. The boy grew up with a foster father. Chanakya paid the foster father 1,000 gold coins and took Chandragupta away.
Choosing A Successor
Chanakya had to decide who would become Emperor: Prince Pabbatha or Chandragupta. He gave both boys a necklace made of woolen thread. To test their skills, Chanakya asked Pabbatha to take the necklace off of Chandragupta’s neck without breaking it or waking him up. The boy was unsuccessful. On a different night, Chandragupta attempted the same challenge. He was successful by cutting off Pabbatha’s head. Chanakya began a 7-year training program with Chandragupta to teach him about royal responsibilities.
Chanakya’s Revenge Accomplished
When Chandragupta was grown, Chanakya unburied his treasure of golden coins and hired an army. The army was unsuccessful in overthrowing King Dhana Nanda. By chance, the two were walking around when they heard a mother reprimanding her son for throwing away the edges of a piece of cake. She criticized him and said he was like Chandragupta who had tried to overthrow the kingdom from the center instead of first attacking the outskirts. Armed with a new plan, Chandragupta and Chanakya once again gathered an army and began attacking the outer parts of the city, working their way to the center. They assassinated the King, took his treasure, and Chandragupta assumed the throne.
Chandragupta’s son was Bindusara. When Chandragupta’s wife was pregnant, she ate some poisoned food that Chanakya had left for Chandragupta in an attempt to strengthen his immunity against poison. When Chanakya saw that she had eaten the poisoned food, he killed her to save the baby.
Chanakya’s Books and Legacy
Two of Chanakya’s known books are the Chanakya Niti and the Arthashastra. The Chanakya Niti is a collection of proverbs, also known as aphorisms. Some scholars believe that these verses and phrases were compiled from previous works. The Arthashastra defines the responsibilities and duties of a political leader. It also concerns political issues, including financial, war, welfare, and international relations policies.
The legacy of Chanakya lives on through depictions of his character in theater, television, movie, literary, and academic publications and productions. Some of these have been created as recently as 2015, which shows his continued importance in Indian culture. Additionally, the Arthashastra was recommended by the country’s former National Security Advisor, who believed it was a clear explanation of pertinent strategies.
Several places have been named in his honor as well. These places include 3 institutions: Training Ship Chanakya, Chanakya National Law University, and Chanakya Institute of Public Leadership. Other places with his name include the New Delhi neighborhood Chanakyapuri and the Chanakya Circle in the city of Mysore.
Chanakya In Modern India
As previously mentioned, the literary works of Chanakya continue to be relevant in modern-day India. He is credited as having been one of the first people to have the vision of a united Indian subcontinent and is often referred to as the architect of the first Empire of India. His ideas behind police duties, judicial systems, charitable donations, prevention of war, and elimination of enemy kings have provided a framework for the India of today. These theories have also earned him the nickname of the Indian Machiavelli. One of his most well-known quotes is: “Never share your secrets with anybody. It will destroy you.”
Who Was Chanakya?
Chanakya lived in India during the 4th century BC. He was a teacher, economist, philosopher, and royal advisor. His literary works are thought to be the root of political science and economics in India. He is also credited with contributing to the theory of classical economics, the idea that governments should not control the market. Historical accounts suggest that Chanakya played a significant part in founding the Maurya Empire by helping Emperor Chandragupta gain power. He became the political advisor for Emperor Chandragupta and later served the same role for Chandragupta's son Bindusara.
About the Author
Amber is a freelance writer, English as a foreign language teacher, and Spanish-English translator. She lives with her husband and 3 cats.
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,648 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the Civil Rights Movement, James Baldwin wrote many articles and essays on racial issues. His unique and powerful style invoked the thoughts of many people. What also made Baldwin stand out from others was his homosexuality. Baldwin wrote several essays and novels that had a homosexual theme rooted within the story. It was through this method that Baldwin was able to express his homosexuality and at the same time present a view of black culture that was highly unacceptable during that time period. His works gave him much widespread attention but essentially he was not recognized as a prominent leader of the movement. This was a result of stereotyped images of homosexuals and the desire for African American men to align themselves with the image of being powerful and very masculine. Because African Americans were in the struggle for equality and power here in America, to have a homosexual, who is stereotyped to have effeminate features, might prove detrimental in the drive for equality.
There were a lot of things going on during the 1960s. The Civil Rights Movement was in full steam and the push for African American quality was greater than ever. The mass of appeal for protest was overwhelming and it spread to other causes as well. Movement could be found in other minority groups, women, and homosexuals as well. This period in time was unique because change was being encouraged and many people took advantage of it. James Baldwin was no exception to this motion of change. During this time period he produced many essays and novels, some of which contained a homosexual theme. He was bold in his move because he was one of a few among many who dealt with the topic. It was only until r...
... middle of paper ...
...among other writers in the literary circle and in a sense became a leader that way. In more recent times, Baldwin has been given much praise for his work, he fueled other writers to follow suit and write about issues like race and sexuality. Hopefully his works will continue to be passed on to others and will open the minds and hearts of many.
Boykin, Keith. One More River to Cross New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday, 1996.
Holland, Sharon P. “(Pro)Creating Imaginative Spaces and Other Queer Acts: Randall Kenan’s A Visitation of Spirits and Its Revival of James Bladwin’s Absent Black Gay Man in Giovanni’s Room.” McBride 265-87.
McBride, Dwight A., ed. James Baldwin Now. New York: New York U P, 1999.
Spurlin, William J. “Culture, Rhetoric, and Queer Identity: James Baldwin and the Identity Politics of Race and Sexuality.” McBride 103-21.
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- Throughout most of the 1950’s and 60’s there was a strong push by Black Americans to end their unfair treatment in America. Two main groups during this time were working on this problem. The NAACP and the Nation of Islam were two main groups working on and poised to solve this very dilemma. Despite trying to solve the same crisis their ideas on a solution were very different. Since their views were varied, people in turn had different views on which group they would become associated with. This inspired many writers to publicly display their beliefs on the issue.... [tags: NAACP Nation of Islam]
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- Within the Civil Rights Movement, many great people come to mind, Martin Luther King, Rosa Parks, Thurgood Marshall, and many others; but what about the president. President John F. Kennedy had played a large role in civil rights when he was in office, and had aided in a multitude of different programs and actions such as, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, helping with desegregation in schools and universities, and Affirmative Action within the workplace; even other family members made contributions.... [tags: Civil Rights Movements, American, President]
1002 words (2.9 pages)
- The Civil Rights Movement “I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.” This was a speech by Martin Luther King Jr. Even one hundred years after slavery was banned, African Americans were still being treated unfairly. Martin Luther King Jr. was one of the most famous leaders of the Civil Rights movement in the 1960’s. The Civil Rights movement was a movement of African Americans who felt that they were not being treated equally.... [tags: Black Civil Rights in America]
1595 words (4.6 pages)
- The Civil Rights Movement had a lot going on between 1954 and 1964. While there were some successful aspects of the movement, there were some failures as well. The mixture of successes and failures led to the extension of the movement and eventually a more equal American society. Success was a big part of the Civil Rights Movement. Starting with the year 1954, there were some major victories in favor of African Americans. In 1954, the landmark trial Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka Kansas ruled that segregation in public education was unfair.... [tags: Black Civil Rights in America]
1574 words (4.5 pages)
- Diane Nash was a civil rights activist during the 60’s. She was one of the protestors during sit-ins that were arrested. She coordinated the Freedom Rides after they were temporarily stopped. She stood up to the mayor and dared him to tell her that discrimination based on color was okay. She said no to Dr. Martin Luther King. Nash is an important figure in the movement, and in history, not only because of her dedication to the cause but also as a black female student in Tennessee she made her voice known.... [tags: Nonviolence, Civil disobedience, Direct action]
1021 words (2.9 pages)
- In the 1950s and 1960s there were non-violent civil rights movements happening. Non-violent civil rights movement is the act of protesting equal rights without the use of violence. The civil rights movement was tested down south mostly because that is where most of the discrimination took place. The civil rights movement was led by Dr. Martin Luther King and he influenced other people to join in. King led millions of African Americans to protest as an act of civil disobedience and economic boycott.... [tags: White people, Black people, Civil disobedience]
1285 words (3.7 pages)
- The 1960's was a decade of tremendous social and political upheaval. In the United States, many movements occurred by groups of people seeking to make positive changes in society. During this decade, the Civil Rights movement continued to gain momentum. The black community was continually persecuted and discriminated against by prejudice white individuals and figures of authority. Blacks everywhere struggled to end discrimination. They demanded the right to vote, to receive quality education, and to become respected individuals in the community which shunned them.... [tags: History Discrimination Civil Rights Essays]
1033 words (3 pages) | <urn:uuid:bb982154-dc79-44f8-9a48-44865afb9ec4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.123helpme.com/homosexuals-and-james-baldwins-role-in-the-civil-rights-movement-preview.asp?id=154746 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00074.warc.gz | en | 0.981159 | 1,843 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.23982208967208... | 1 | During the Civil Rights Movement, James Baldwin wrote many articles and essays on racial issues. His unique and powerful style invoked the thoughts of many people. What also made Baldwin stand out from others was his homosexuality. Baldwin wrote several essays and novels that had a homosexual theme rooted within the story. It was through this method that Baldwin was able to express his homosexuality and at the same time present a view of black culture that was highly unacceptable during that time period. His works gave him much widespread attention but essentially he was not recognized as a prominent leader of the movement. This was a result of stereotyped images of homosexuals and the desire for African American men to align themselves with the image of being powerful and very masculine. Because African Americans were in the struggle for equality and power here in America, to have a homosexual, who is stereotyped to have effeminate features, might prove detrimental in the drive for equality.
There were a lot of things going on during the 1960s. The Civil Rights Movement was in full steam and the push for African American quality was greater than ever. The mass of appeal for protest was overwhelming and it spread to other causes as well. Movement could be found in other minority groups, women, and homosexuals as well. This period in time was unique because change was being encouraged and many people took advantage of it. James Baldwin was no exception to this motion of change. During this time period he produced many essays and novels, some of which contained a homosexual theme. He was bold in his move because he was one of a few among many who dealt with the topic. It was only until r...
... middle of paper ...
...among other writers in the literary circle and in a sense became a leader that way. In more recent times, Baldwin has been given much praise for his work, he fueled other writers to follow suit and write about issues like race and sexuality. Hopefully his works will continue to be passed on to others and will open the minds and hearts of many.
Boykin, Keith. One More River to Cross New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday, 1996.
Holland, Sharon P. “(Pro)Creating Imaginative Spaces and Other Queer Acts: Randall Kenan’s A Visitation of Spirits and Its Revival of James Bladwin’s Absent Black Gay Man in Giovanni’s Room.” McBride 265-87.
McBride, Dwight A., ed. James Baldwin Now. New York: New York U P, 1999.
Spurlin, William J. “Culture, Rhetoric, and Queer Identity: James Baldwin and the Identity Politics of Race and Sexuality.” McBride 103-21.
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- Throughout most of the 1950’s and 60’s there was a strong push by Black Americans to end their unfair treatment in America. Two main groups during this time were working on this problem. The NAACP and the Nation of Islam were two main groups working on and poised to solve this very dilemma. Despite trying to solve the same crisis their ideas on a solution were very different. Since their views were varied, people in turn had different views on which group they would become associated with. This inspired many writers to publicly display their beliefs on the issue.... [tags: NAACP Nation of Islam]
1614 words (4.6 pages)
- Music has always inspired people to think for themselves and find meanings within deep and confusing lyrics, giving them new perspective. Back during the times when the fight for civil rights was in full swing, music played an even bigger role. Some musicians used personal experience as inspiration for their work; it made their songs more relatable to the listeners and added a bit of personality to the music. The songs they wrote stimulated people to gather together and demand change. The bravery of the artists who spoke out against the way the country was headed allowed them to create these songs and get people together.... [tags: lyrics, troubled country, civil rights movement]
1169 words (3.3 pages)
- The Supreme Court was important in both suppressing and aiding the Civil Rights Movement. However, decisions taken by the President, the continued white opposition and improvements in media communications also had an effect. Although all were important, the Civil Rights movement alone would have reached the same end without the help of the Supreme Court, and the devotion of its many members and leaders is the major factor in advancing Civil Rights. The Supreme Court is perhaps most well known for the Brown vs.... [tags: The US Supreme Court and Civil Rights]
1964 words (5.6 pages)
- America is a young country and has already developed a rich and multi faceted history. Its history is both bright and ominous as we as a nation have been openly discriminating against African-Americans for many years. For nearly as many years as Americans have been discriminating against African-Americans, people have been fighting for some form of equal rights for everyone, especially the African-Americans. History has shown that African-Americans have had some of the most valuable personal contributions that invariably led to the balancing of the tides of the American population.... [tags: Black Civil Rights in America]
1523 words (4.4 pages)
- Within the Civil Rights Movement, many great people come to mind, Martin Luther King, Rosa Parks, Thurgood Marshall, and many others; but what about the president. President John F. Kennedy had played a large role in civil rights when he was in office, and had aided in a multitude of different programs and actions such as, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, helping with desegregation in schools and universities, and Affirmative Action within the workplace; even other family members made contributions.... [tags: Civil Rights Movements, American, President]
1002 words (2.9 pages)
- The Civil Rights Movement “I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.” This was a speech by Martin Luther King Jr. Even one hundred years after slavery was banned, African Americans were still being treated unfairly. Martin Luther King Jr. was one of the most famous leaders of the Civil Rights movement in the 1960’s. The Civil Rights movement was a movement of African Americans who felt that they were not being treated equally.... [tags: Black Civil Rights in America]
1595 words (4.6 pages)
- The Civil Rights Movement had a lot going on between 1954 and 1964. While there were some successful aspects of the movement, there were some failures as well. The mixture of successes and failures led to the extension of the movement and eventually a more equal American society. Success was a big part of the Civil Rights Movement. Starting with the year 1954, there were some major victories in favor of African Americans. In 1954, the landmark trial Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka Kansas ruled that segregation in public education was unfair.... [tags: Black Civil Rights in America]
1574 words (4.5 pages)
- Diane Nash was a civil rights activist during the 60’s. She was one of the protestors during sit-ins that were arrested. She coordinated the Freedom Rides after they were temporarily stopped. She stood up to the mayor and dared him to tell her that discrimination based on color was okay. She said no to Dr. Martin Luther King. Nash is an important figure in the movement, and in history, not only because of her dedication to the cause but also as a black female student in Tennessee she made her voice known.... [tags: Nonviolence, Civil disobedience, Direct action]
1021 words (2.9 pages)
- In the 1950s and 1960s there were non-violent civil rights movements happening. Non-violent civil rights movement is the act of protesting equal rights without the use of violence. The civil rights movement was tested down south mostly because that is where most of the discrimination took place. The civil rights movement was led by Dr. Martin Luther King and he influenced other people to join in. King led millions of African Americans to protest as an act of civil disobedience and economic boycott.... [tags: White people, Black people, Civil disobedience]
1285 words (3.7 pages)
- The 1960's was a decade of tremendous social and political upheaval. In the United States, many movements occurred by groups of people seeking to make positive changes in society. During this decade, the Civil Rights movement continued to gain momentum. The black community was continually persecuted and discriminated against by prejudice white individuals and figures of authority. Blacks everywhere struggled to end discrimination. They demanded the right to vote, to receive quality education, and to become respected individuals in the community which shunned them.... [tags: History Discrimination Civil Rights Essays]
1033 words (3 pages) | 1,885 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The rebellion of Sri Lanka in 1848
In July 1848, a large crowd of people gathered before the government agent of Kandy to protest against the newly formed gun-tax. Emerson Tennent, the colonial secretary, arrived at Kandy and addressed a concourse of chiefs and headmen on the subject of taxes, after which the people dispersed. A few days later a still larger crowd assembled in Colombo and was marching to the Fort to remonstrate with the governor, when Dr Christopher Elliot of the observer appealed to them to disperse, promising to make representations in the proper form.
They dispersed, but disturbances of a similar nature took place all over the country in the low lands as well as in the highlands. At Matale, the crowds became unruly and burnt and sacked some houses and proclaimed a low-country man, Purang Appo, king of Kandy. Another pretender, named Gongalgoda Banda, appeared at Dambulla and was likewise acclaimed. Viscount Torrinton thereupon lost his head, called out the military, summoned aid from India and placed the whole of Matale, Kandy, Dambulla and Kurunegala under martial law.
The troops marching from Kandy to Matale encountered some armed men at Variapola and forty were shot down without any loss to the troops. The military then occupied Matale, issued proclamation, seized alleged rebels, confiscated property and shot men without ceremony after a drum-head court-martial. It was apparent to all that the movement was not a dangerous one.
Beyond the gatherings of one or two hundred men at a time and the robbing of one or two planters’ bungalows, nothing of importance had occurred. No chief was concerned, not a single European life was lost; yet Torrinton, listening to his panicky councillors, continued martial law for a long period, and from first to last about hundred alleged ‘rebels’ were shot or hanged while others were publicly flogged and imprisoned. The governor looked at Dr Elliot and A.M Ferguson as the instigator and the former even received a hint not to show himself within the martial law.
There was, however, such a current opinion against the proceedings of the governor that he thought it best invokes the action of the civil tribunals and a few acres of Kandy were exempted from martial law to enable the chief justice to try some of the rebels for high treason. This was a confession of weakness either the country was too disturbed for civil courts to sit or it was sufficiently peaceable to render courts-martial unnecessary. As it was, while the judge was sitting in one part of Kandy, from another part were heard the reverberations of a volley which terminated the existence of a man who had been tried the same day for the crime by a court-martial.
Thirty-four men stood their trial before the Supreme Court, ad seventeen were convicted. At a second eighteen more received sentence. But the chief justice, Sir Anthony Oliphant, recommended the prisoners as fit subjects for the governor’s clemency, adding “when it is considered that no European has been put to death, that only one soldier has been wounded by the rebels that no persons have appeared in warlike array against the troops since the outbreak at Matale and Kurunegala, the blood which has been already spilt is sufficient for all purposes, whether of vindication of the law or for example.” This rebuff irritated the governor, in the chief justice’s opinion was public and the governor dared not go against the expressed recommendation of the head of the judiciary.
A monk shot
Meanwhile, Purang Appu and Gongallagoda Banda were taken and shot and a monk Kudapoilla Unnanse was tried by the court-martial for failing to give information which might lead to the arrest of a rebel. On this curious charge, he was and sentenced to be shot. The queen’s advocate, H.C Selby, considered the evidence insufficient for a conviction, let alone for the sentence, and begged the governor for a reprieve; but Torrington refused it in strong language, which he afterwards regretted, and the monk was shot. The indignation aroused by these severities of the governor was intense. It was reported that the chief justice threatened to resign if one man more were shot.
Dr Elliot, A. M. Ferguson, Richard Morgen, Lawrence Oliphant, son and private of the chief justice, led an agitation in the island and communicated with friends in England who placed the matter before members of parliament. T. J. McChristie, an English barrister, who had been in Ceylon, became the London agent of the agitation, and Joseph Hume and Henry Baillie championed the cause appointed to inquire, and Baillie, Sir Robert Peel, Gladstone and Disraeli were among the committeemen. They requested the House to order home for examination some of the principal complaints, the queen’s advocate, Selby, his brother, John Selby, the chief justice, Colonel Braybrook and Lieutenant Henderson, along with the principal offenders, Captain Watson, who enforced martial-law in Matale and Lt. Col. Drought, commandant of Kandy. Tennent and Woodhouse also went to represent the case for the government, and in order to clear themselves, they produced some private letters of Torrington.
The chief charge and the blackest was that a Buddhist monk had been shot in robes of the intercession of the chief law officer of the crown. Captain Watson endeavoured to deny the authenticity of certain proclamations issued by him and now produced before the committee. The latter thereupon sent two commissioners, Morehead and Rhode. To Ceylon to investigate on the spot, and they declared for the genuineness of the proclamations. McChristie was now bent on procuring the impeachment of Torrington and the trial of Col. Drought. But Torrington was the cousin of the premier, and great effort was made to save him. In fact, it was not he who was to blame, but his councillors. Unfortunately, the committee could not conclude its labours before the end of the session, and the motion praying for the appointment of a royal commission was defeated by a narrow majority, the government undertaking to recall Torrington if the matter were not pressed. The unpopularity of these measures led to the fall of the cabinet of Lord Russel.
Recall of Torrington
Meanwhile, Torrington sent in his resignation as soon as he learnt from the newspapers that his private letters had been produced before the committee. But before his resignation reached London, Earl Grey communicated to the governor that her Majesty had been pleased to direct him to be relieved of the government of Ceylon and that Sir George Anderson of Mauritius was appointed to the same. Tennent and Woodhouse also were informed that their services were not required in Ceylon. Captain Watson was afterwards tried by order of the Duke of Wellington but acquitted. The suppression of the rebellion cost a good sum of the money which the government had to raise from a local bank. And an ordinance was quickly passed indemnifying the governor and all persons for acts done during the existence of the martial law. Thus ended the last and least of the rebellion. | <urn:uuid:5701ffd2-62fe-42f0-8a85-064b458e04a8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.urlaub-sr-lanka.info/rebellion-of-sri-lanka-in-1848/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.981872 | 1,507 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.609741508960... | 1 | The rebellion of Sri Lanka in 1848
In July 1848, a large crowd of people gathered before the government agent of Kandy to protest against the newly formed gun-tax. Emerson Tennent, the colonial secretary, arrived at Kandy and addressed a concourse of chiefs and headmen on the subject of taxes, after which the people dispersed. A few days later a still larger crowd assembled in Colombo and was marching to the Fort to remonstrate with the governor, when Dr Christopher Elliot of the observer appealed to them to disperse, promising to make representations in the proper form.
They dispersed, but disturbances of a similar nature took place all over the country in the low lands as well as in the highlands. At Matale, the crowds became unruly and burnt and sacked some houses and proclaimed a low-country man, Purang Appo, king of Kandy. Another pretender, named Gongalgoda Banda, appeared at Dambulla and was likewise acclaimed. Viscount Torrinton thereupon lost his head, called out the military, summoned aid from India and placed the whole of Matale, Kandy, Dambulla and Kurunegala under martial law.
The troops marching from Kandy to Matale encountered some armed men at Variapola and forty were shot down without any loss to the troops. The military then occupied Matale, issued proclamation, seized alleged rebels, confiscated property and shot men without ceremony after a drum-head court-martial. It was apparent to all that the movement was not a dangerous one.
Beyond the gatherings of one or two hundred men at a time and the robbing of one or two planters’ bungalows, nothing of importance had occurred. No chief was concerned, not a single European life was lost; yet Torrinton, listening to his panicky councillors, continued martial law for a long period, and from first to last about hundred alleged ‘rebels’ were shot or hanged while others were publicly flogged and imprisoned. The governor looked at Dr Elliot and A.M Ferguson as the instigator and the former even received a hint not to show himself within the martial law.
There was, however, such a current opinion against the proceedings of the governor that he thought it best invokes the action of the civil tribunals and a few acres of Kandy were exempted from martial law to enable the chief justice to try some of the rebels for high treason. This was a confession of weakness either the country was too disturbed for civil courts to sit or it was sufficiently peaceable to render courts-martial unnecessary. As it was, while the judge was sitting in one part of Kandy, from another part were heard the reverberations of a volley which terminated the existence of a man who had been tried the same day for the crime by a court-martial.
Thirty-four men stood their trial before the Supreme Court, ad seventeen were convicted. At a second eighteen more received sentence. But the chief justice, Sir Anthony Oliphant, recommended the prisoners as fit subjects for the governor’s clemency, adding “when it is considered that no European has been put to death, that only one soldier has been wounded by the rebels that no persons have appeared in warlike array against the troops since the outbreak at Matale and Kurunegala, the blood which has been already spilt is sufficient for all purposes, whether of vindication of the law or for example.” This rebuff irritated the governor, in the chief justice’s opinion was public and the governor dared not go against the expressed recommendation of the head of the judiciary.
A monk shot
Meanwhile, Purang Appu and Gongallagoda Banda were taken and shot and a monk Kudapoilla Unnanse was tried by the court-martial for failing to give information which might lead to the arrest of a rebel. On this curious charge, he was and sentenced to be shot. The queen’s advocate, H.C Selby, considered the evidence insufficient for a conviction, let alone for the sentence, and begged the governor for a reprieve; but Torrington refused it in strong language, which he afterwards regretted, and the monk was shot. The indignation aroused by these severities of the governor was intense. It was reported that the chief justice threatened to resign if one man more were shot.
Dr Elliot, A. M. Ferguson, Richard Morgen, Lawrence Oliphant, son and private of the chief justice, led an agitation in the island and communicated with friends in England who placed the matter before members of parliament. T. J. McChristie, an English barrister, who had been in Ceylon, became the London agent of the agitation, and Joseph Hume and Henry Baillie championed the cause appointed to inquire, and Baillie, Sir Robert Peel, Gladstone and Disraeli were among the committeemen. They requested the House to order home for examination some of the principal complaints, the queen’s advocate, Selby, his brother, John Selby, the chief justice, Colonel Braybrook and Lieutenant Henderson, along with the principal offenders, Captain Watson, who enforced martial-law in Matale and Lt. Col. Drought, commandant of Kandy. Tennent and Woodhouse also went to represent the case for the government, and in order to clear themselves, they produced some private letters of Torrington.
The chief charge and the blackest was that a Buddhist monk had been shot in robes of the intercession of the chief law officer of the crown. Captain Watson endeavoured to deny the authenticity of certain proclamations issued by him and now produced before the committee. The latter thereupon sent two commissioners, Morehead and Rhode. To Ceylon to investigate on the spot, and they declared for the genuineness of the proclamations. McChristie was now bent on procuring the impeachment of Torrington and the trial of Col. Drought. But Torrington was the cousin of the premier, and great effort was made to save him. In fact, it was not he who was to blame, but his councillors. Unfortunately, the committee could not conclude its labours before the end of the session, and the motion praying for the appointment of a royal commission was defeated by a narrow majority, the government undertaking to recall Torrington if the matter were not pressed. The unpopularity of these measures led to the fall of the cabinet of Lord Russel.
Recall of Torrington
Meanwhile, Torrington sent in his resignation as soon as he learnt from the newspapers that his private letters had been produced before the committee. But before his resignation reached London, Earl Grey communicated to the governor that her Majesty had been pleased to direct him to be relieved of the government of Ceylon and that Sir George Anderson of Mauritius was appointed to the same. Tennent and Woodhouse also were informed that their services were not required in Ceylon. Captain Watson was afterwards tried by order of the Duke of Wellington but acquitted. The suppression of the rebellion cost a good sum of the money which the government had to raise from a local bank. And an ordinance was quickly passed indemnifying the governor and all persons for acts done during the existence of the martial law. Thus ended the last and least of the rebellion. | 1,499 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first native South American to learn and master the game of chess was the Inca Atahualpa — taught by his Spanish executioners.
As you’ll recall, after being taken hostage in one of history’s most brazen ambushes, the Inca ruler offered his kidnappers “a room filled with gold as high as their arms could reach” in exchange for his life.
Over the months, as tons of the precious metal was ripped from temple walls and shrines across the four corners of the empire and melted down, Atahualpa was allowed to reestablish his court in prison, as long as he ordered his people to accept Spanish rule. Once the treasure was delivered, he was garroted to death.
Atahualpa’s match of wits over the chess board with his Spanish captors was poignantly portrayed as fable in the 2005 short film “Atahualpa,” directed by Jimmy Entraigües and Ivan Garcia.
The most famous account of Atahualpa’s education of the game comes from Ricardo Palma (1833-1919), the 19th century Peruvian author and scholar.
Palma took advantage of his position as director of Peru’s National Library to develop a literary genre known as “tradiciones,” short stories mixing history, fiction and hearsay to chronicle life in Peru across several centuries:
The Inca Chess Master
Tradition has it that the captains Hernando de Soto, Juan de Rada, Francisco de Chavez, Blas de Atienza, and the treasurer Riquelme gathered every afternoon in Cajamarca in the room that served as a prison for the Inca Atahualpa from November 15, 1532, when the emperor was captured, until two days before his unjustifiable execution on August 29, 1533.
In the room, the five men named and three or four others not mentioned in succinct and curious notes (that we had at hand, set down in an old manuscript preserved in the former National Library) had the use of two crudely painted chess boards, set on a wooden chess table.
The pieces were made of the same clay that the natives used for fashioning little idols and other objects of native pottery, which nowadays are dug up in huacas. Until the first years of the Republic the only pieces known in Peru were those made of ivory, sent by Philippine tradesmen for sale here.
The mind of the Inca must have been deeply preoccupied during the first two or three months of his captivity, for even though he seated himself every afternoon alongside Hernando de Soto, his friend and protector, he gave no sign of having realized how the pieces moved or how fortunes changed during a game.
But one afternoon, in the final moves of a match between Soto and Riquelme, Hernando made a move toward putting the knight into play, and the Inca, touching him lightly on the arm, said to him in a low voice:
“No, captain, no… the rook!”
Everyone was surprised. After a few brief seconds of reflection, Hernando played the castle, as Atahualpa had advised him, and a few moves later, Riquelme experienced the inevitable checkmate.
After that afternoon, and always giving him the white pieces to play as a sign of respect and courtesy, Captain Hernando de Soto invited the Inca to play just one match with him, and after a couple of months the disciple was already a credit to his teacher, playing as his equal.
The notes that I have mentioned tell how the other Spanish chess players, with the exception of Riquelme, also invited the Inca to play, but he always excused himself for not accepting, telling each of them through the interpreter Felipillo:
“I play very little, and Your Grace plays a great deal!”
Popular tradition assures us that the Inca would not have been condemned to death had he remained untutored in chess. The people say that Atahualpa paid with his life for the checkmate that Riquelme suffered because of his advice on that memorable afternoon. In the famous council of 24 judges called together by Pizarro, Atahualpa was sentenced to the death penalty by 13 votes for and 2 against. Riquelme was one of the 13 who signed the death sentence. | <urn:uuid:0d58612a-1207-477c-a45e-e585691c8c21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fertur-travel.com/blog/2016/the-chequered-origins-of-chess-in-peru/6206/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.985596 | 934 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.47090703248... | 1 | The first native South American to learn and master the game of chess was the Inca Atahualpa — taught by his Spanish executioners.
As you’ll recall, after being taken hostage in one of history’s most brazen ambushes, the Inca ruler offered his kidnappers “a room filled with gold as high as their arms could reach” in exchange for his life.
Over the months, as tons of the precious metal was ripped from temple walls and shrines across the four corners of the empire and melted down, Atahualpa was allowed to reestablish his court in prison, as long as he ordered his people to accept Spanish rule. Once the treasure was delivered, he was garroted to death.
Atahualpa’s match of wits over the chess board with his Spanish captors was poignantly portrayed as fable in the 2005 short film “Atahualpa,” directed by Jimmy Entraigües and Ivan Garcia.
The most famous account of Atahualpa’s education of the game comes from Ricardo Palma (1833-1919), the 19th century Peruvian author and scholar.
Palma took advantage of his position as director of Peru’s National Library to develop a literary genre known as “tradiciones,” short stories mixing history, fiction and hearsay to chronicle life in Peru across several centuries:
The Inca Chess Master
Tradition has it that the captains Hernando de Soto, Juan de Rada, Francisco de Chavez, Blas de Atienza, and the treasurer Riquelme gathered every afternoon in Cajamarca in the room that served as a prison for the Inca Atahualpa from November 15, 1532, when the emperor was captured, until two days before his unjustifiable execution on August 29, 1533.
In the room, the five men named and three or four others not mentioned in succinct and curious notes (that we had at hand, set down in an old manuscript preserved in the former National Library) had the use of two crudely painted chess boards, set on a wooden chess table.
The pieces were made of the same clay that the natives used for fashioning little idols and other objects of native pottery, which nowadays are dug up in huacas. Until the first years of the Republic the only pieces known in Peru were those made of ivory, sent by Philippine tradesmen for sale here.
The mind of the Inca must have been deeply preoccupied during the first two or three months of his captivity, for even though he seated himself every afternoon alongside Hernando de Soto, his friend and protector, he gave no sign of having realized how the pieces moved or how fortunes changed during a game.
But one afternoon, in the final moves of a match between Soto and Riquelme, Hernando made a move toward putting the knight into play, and the Inca, touching him lightly on the arm, said to him in a low voice:
“No, captain, no… the rook!”
Everyone was surprised. After a few brief seconds of reflection, Hernando played the castle, as Atahualpa had advised him, and a few moves later, Riquelme experienced the inevitable checkmate.
After that afternoon, and always giving him the white pieces to play as a sign of respect and courtesy, Captain Hernando de Soto invited the Inca to play just one match with him, and after a couple of months the disciple was already a credit to his teacher, playing as his equal.
The notes that I have mentioned tell how the other Spanish chess players, with the exception of Riquelme, also invited the Inca to play, but he always excused himself for not accepting, telling each of them through the interpreter Felipillo:
“I play very little, and Your Grace plays a great deal!”
Popular tradition assures us that the Inca would not have been condemned to death had he remained untutored in chess. The people say that Atahualpa paid with his life for the checkmate that Riquelme suffered because of his advice on that memorable afternoon. In the famous council of 24 judges called together by Pizarro, Atahualpa was sentenced to the death penalty by 13 votes for and 2 against. Riquelme was one of the 13 who signed the death sentence. | 910 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This page tells about the history of the New Jersey Colony.
New Jersey’s early colonial history is similar to New York’s. Like New York, the area was first colonized by Dutch settlers around 1613. The colony was called New Netherland, and included parts of modern-day New York and New Jersey. In 1660, the town of Bergen became the first established town in the New Jersey portion of New Netherland. Today, it is a large city named Jersey City.
By 1664, the British had claimed the entire region and had driven the Dutch out. New Netherland was renamed New Jersey and New Amsterdam was renamed New York. Although King Charles originally gave the region to his brother, the Duke of York, eventually, he decided to divide the region and gave the land between the Hudson and Delaware River (New Jersey) to two of his friends, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton.
Carteret and Berkeley began attracting people to the area by offering land and guaranteeing religious freedom. In return for the land, the settlers were supposed to pay a yearly tax called a quitrent. The quitrents proved hard to collect, which prompted the sale of the land to the Quakers in 1673. Upon the sale, New Jersey was divided in West Jersey and East Jersey. However, by 1702, the two divisions were united as the royal colony of New Jersey. | <urn:uuid:ced8d6c5-9828-49d7-b16c-75b1411afab7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/new-jersey-colony | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00369.warc.gz | en | 0.982166 | 289 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.51000195741... | 1 | This page tells about the history of the New Jersey Colony.
New Jersey’s early colonial history is similar to New York’s. Like New York, the area was first colonized by Dutch settlers around 1613. The colony was called New Netherland, and included parts of modern-day New York and New Jersey. In 1660, the town of Bergen became the first established town in the New Jersey portion of New Netherland. Today, it is a large city named Jersey City.
By 1664, the British had claimed the entire region and had driven the Dutch out. New Netherland was renamed New Jersey and New Amsterdam was renamed New York. Although King Charles originally gave the region to his brother, the Duke of York, eventually, he decided to divide the region and gave the land between the Hudson and Delaware River (New Jersey) to two of his friends, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton.
Carteret and Berkeley began attracting people to the area by offering land and guaranteeing religious freedom. In return for the land, the settlers were supposed to pay a yearly tax called a quitrent. The quitrents proved hard to collect, which prompted the sale of the land to the Quakers in 1673. Upon the sale, New Jersey was divided in West Jersey and East Jersey. However, by 1702, the two divisions were united as the royal colony of New Jersey. | 300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fokker A.1 (M.8)
The Fokker M.8 was designed just before World War I as a two seat scout. It had not flown yet when orders were made because of the outbreak of the war. Production start just after war has started. The first order was for more than forty aircraft. because of lack of production capacity this was a problem.
The first M.8 was delivers in October 1914. In December 1914 ten aircraft were operational. In June 1915 fifteen aircraft of this type were operational. At that time this time was withdrawn from front and used as training aircraft.
Because Fokker was not able to produce enough aircraft, so at the Halberstadt Flugzeugwerke Gmbh. a series of Fokkers M.8 were built under license. These aircraft were designated Halberstadt F.14; the German army designated these aircraft as Halberstadt A.II.
The fuselage of the Halberstadt version was of a wooden construction, whereas the Fokker machines had a fuselage of welded steel tube, covered with linen.
Further no wind screens were applied and a small hole in the sides of the fuselage was made, whereas the Fokker machines had a stirrup made from steel tube.
Compared with the former M.5L, which was still in production, the M.8 was a larger aircraft. Wing span was enlarged and the wings were broader. Fuselage was about 40 % broader. The fuel tank was situated between the engine and the pilot, a second tank was just behind the cockpit.
One of the general German demands was that aircraft must be simply to dismantle. This was because the aircraft were transported by train to the front.
|Length:||7,01 m||Wingspan:||9,57 m|
|Height:||2,75 m||Wing area:||- m2|
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|Max. speed:||135 km/hr||Climbing speed:||- m/min|
|Cruising speed:||- km/hr|
|Range:||- km||Service ceiling:||- m|
|Engine type:||One Oberursel Ur-I rated 80 hp|
- Next >> | <urn:uuid:6771f141-76e0-4915-b747-9cbda9dbc478> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kw.jonkerweb.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=697:fokker-a-1-m-8-uk&catid=87&lang=en&Itemid=549 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00101.warc.gz | en | 0.981138 | 484 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.10957952588... | 1 | Fokker A.1 (M.8)
The Fokker M.8 was designed just before World War I as a two seat scout. It had not flown yet when orders were made because of the outbreak of the war. Production start just after war has started. The first order was for more than forty aircraft. because of lack of production capacity this was a problem.
The first M.8 was delivers in October 1914. In December 1914 ten aircraft were operational. In June 1915 fifteen aircraft of this type were operational. At that time this time was withdrawn from front and used as training aircraft.
Because Fokker was not able to produce enough aircraft, so at the Halberstadt Flugzeugwerke Gmbh. a series of Fokkers M.8 were built under license. These aircraft were designated Halberstadt F.14; the German army designated these aircraft as Halberstadt A.II.
The fuselage of the Halberstadt version was of a wooden construction, whereas the Fokker machines had a fuselage of welded steel tube, covered with linen.
Further no wind screens were applied and a small hole in the sides of the fuselage was made, whereas the Fokker machines had a stirrup made from steel tube.
Compared with the former M.5L, which was still in production, the M.8 was a larger aircraft. Wing span was enlarged and the wings were broader. Fuselage was about 40 % broader. The fuel tank was situated between the engine and the pilot, a second tank was just behind the cockpit.
One of the general German demands was that aircraft must be simply to dismantle. This was because the aircraft were transported by train to the front.
|Length:||7,01 m||Wingspan:||9,57 m|
|Height:||2,75 m||Wing area:||- m2|
|Empty weight:||- kg||Max. start weight:||- kg|
|Max. speed:||135 km/hr||Climbing speed:||- m/min|
|Cruising speed:||- km/hr|
|Range:||- km||Service ceiling:||- m|
|Engine type:||One Oberursel Ur-I rated 80 hp|
- Next >> | 488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Even though King Creon is thought of as someone who knows how to control a nation, he contains a tragic flaw noticed by others and himself, which results in an unpleasant death. In the story “Antigone” by Sophocles, King Creon’s pride and stubborn actions leads his son, Haemon to be disappointed and loose his trust towards his father. Through his ways of being unable to admit his mistakes, his anger brought him to a stage where he became associated with civil law rather than believing in his morals.
While Sentry is talking to King Creon about “the man” who buried someone, Choragus asks Creon if the gods have done this and he quickly rejects his question. “The gods favor this corpse? Why? How had he served them? Tried to loot their temples, burn their images, yes, and the whole state, and its laws with it! (947) Creon assumes that he knows how the gods think and feels as if he wants something more out of anyone who disobeys the law. He also believes that he’s above god and overpowers everyone with the thought of being able to control the country any way that he pleases.
His lack of being considerate proves him to be a selfish character and does not show himself as a true king. King Creon speaks in anger and decides to arrest Ismene and accuse her equally with Antigone. “Her mind’s a traitor: crimes kept in the dark cry for light, and the guardian brain shudders; but how much worse than this is brazen boasting of barefaced anarchy! ” (954) This illustrates that Creon is blaming an innocent person for the crime and thinks that his perception is always correct. No matter the consequences, he doesn’t care for others and punishes those for a small mistake which didn’t cause any harm to the nation.
He doesn’t understand the true meaning of believing his morals and instead, blames other people for what he thinks is a crime so he does not bring shame to himself. Teiresias proclaims to Creon about how people make mistakes and he should rethink his decisions. “Our hearths and altars are stained with the corruption of dogs and carrion birds that glut themselves on the corpse of Oedipus’ son” (971). Teiresias is pointing out that other parts of nature can make the gods angry and punish those who make mistakes also.
He sees Creon as someone who doesn’t let anyone disregard his rules and feels that he can give him wise opinions on this penalty. Without his clever judgment on this situation, Creon wouldn’t be able to see the good in himself and express his true feelings. After having a conversation with Teiresias about his beliefs, King Creon made a bold statement to Choragus. “Oh it is hard to give in! But it is worse to risk everything for a stubborn pride” (973). He admits that he got so caught up with being king that he forgot what it means to see things in your own perspective and find that true self within.
The king realizes that nothing is worse than loosing the ones you love over a futile situation and believing in a law which brings Antigone to suffer for her selfless actions. Creon is demonstrating his sensitive side by declaring that it’s too difficult to resign, but being able to become a different person, and that conceited people recognize their imperfections which have caused them suffering. While King Creon expresses a tragic flaw of excessive pride, he finds that his son doesn’t appreciate his decision and later, decides to overcome his stubborn actions and put aside civil law to believe in his own principles. | <urn:uuid:522c43ac-ccd7-4467-9913-b6316710f708> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tbf-sa.co.za/an-analysis-of-antigone-by-sophocles/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.982743 | 785 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.09108354896306... | 3 | Even though King Creon is thought of as someone who knows how to control a nation, he contains a tragic flaw noticed by others and himself, which results in an unpleasant death. In the story “Antigone” by Sophocles, King Creon’s pride and stubborn actions leads his son, Haemon to be disappointed and loose his trust towards his father. Through his ways of being unable to admit his mistakes, his anger brought him to a stage where he became associated with civil law rather than believing in his morals.
While Sentry is talking to King Creon about “the man” who buried someone, Choragus asks Creon if the gods have done this and he quickly rejects his question. “The gods favor this corpse? Why? How had he served them? Tried to loot their temples, burn their images, yes, and the whole state, and its laws with it! (947) Creon assumes that he knows how the gods think and feels as if he wants something more out of anyone who disobeys the law. He also believes that he’s above god and overpowers everyone with the thought of being able to control the country any way that he pleases.
His lack of being considerate proves him to be a selfish character and does not show himself as a true king. King Creon speaks in anger and decides to arrest Ismene and accuse her equally with Antigone. “Her mind’s a traitor: crimes kept in the dark cry for light, and the guardian brain shudders; but how much worse than this is brazen boasting of barefaced anarchy! ” (954) This illustrates that Creon is blaming an innocent person for the crime and thinks that his perception is always correct. No matter the consequences, he doesn’t care for others and punishes those for a small mistake which didn’t cause any harm to the nation.
He doesn’t understand the true meaning of believing his morals and instead, blames other people for what he thinks is a crime so he does not bring shame to himself. Teiresias proclaims to Creon about how people make mistakes and he should rethink his decisions. “Our hearths and altars are stained with the corruption of dogs and carrion birds that glut themselves on the corpse of Oedipus’ son” (971). Teiresias is pointing out that other parts of nature can make the gods angry and punish those who make mistakes also.
He sees Creon as someone who doesn’t let anyone disregard his rules and feels that he can give him wise opinions on this penalty. Without his clever judgment on this situation, Creon wouldn’t be able to see the good in himself and express his true feelings. After having a conversation with Teiresias about his beliefs, King Creon made a bold statement to Choragus. “Oh it is hard to give in! But it is worse to risk everything for a stubborn pride” (973). He admits that he got so caught up with being king that he forgot what it means to see things in your own perspective and find that true self within.
The king realizes that nothing is worse than loosing the ones you love over a futile situation and believing in a law which brings Antigone to suffer for her selfless actions. Creon is demonstrating his sensitive side by declaring that it’s too difficult to resign, but being able to become a different person, and that conceited people recognize their imperfections which have caused them suffering. While King Creon expresses a tragic flaw of excessive pride, he finds that his son doesn’t appreciate his decision and later, decides to overcome his stubborn actions and put aside civil law to believe in his own principles. | 754 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. Although autism can be diagnosed at any age, it is said to be a “developmental disorder” because symptoms generally appear in the first two years of life. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), a guide created by the American Psychiatric Association used to diagnose mental disorders, people with ASD have:
Difficulty with communication and interaction with other people.
Restricted interests and repetitive behaviors.
Symptoms that hurt the person’s ability to function properly in school, work, and other areas of life.
Autism is known as a “spectrum” disorder because there is wide variation in the type and severity of symptoms people experience. ASD occurs in all ethnic, racial, and economic groups. Although ASD can be a lifelong disorder, treatments and services can improve a person’s symptoms and ability to function. (“NIMH » Autism Spectrum Disorder,” Last Revised - March 2018) Treatment for ASD is uniquely tailored to each child or adult meaning that each, each intervention should be planned to address the individual’s specific needs.
Intervention can involve behavioral treatments, medicines or both. Many persons with autism have additional medical conditions such as sleep disturbance, seizures, and gastrointestinal (GI) distress. Addressing these conditions can improve attention, learning and related behaviors. (Learn more about Treatment of Autism’s Core Symptoms and Treatment of Associated Medical Conditions.)
Early intensive behavioral intervention involves a child's entire family, working closely with a team of professionals. In some early intervention programs, therapists come into the home to deliver services. This can include parent training with the parent leading therapy sessions under the supervision of the therapist. Other programs deliver therapy in a specialized center, classroom or preschool. (“How Is Autism Treated?,” 2012)
A novel treatment approach referred to as Reconsolidation Enhancement by Stimulation of Emotional Triggers (RESET Therapy), was utilized with a six-year-old boy (Ty) whose mounting anxiety and depression interfered with his adjustment to his new kindergarten setting. The rationale behind the decision to utilize this intervention was that it was a non-verbally based treatment that elicited calmness at a subconscious level through the use of binaural sound. The hypothesis was that if Ty’s fear reaction to new circumstances could be checked, his innate curiosity would permit him to adjust to his new circumstances.
Case Study – ‘His Own Little World’
Ty is a bright boy who had been in a public pre-school and reportedly had progressed normally. There had been no prior suggestion that Ty was on the Autism Spectrum (ASD) scale. This youngster eagerly looked forward to the first day of kindergarten, but following this monumental day, Ty told his parents that he did not want to go back to school. Consequently, this child was seen for psychotherapy after about three weeks of continued school distress. His teacher reported that Ty seemed to be “in his own little world” and would not interact with other children or respond to her. He was not learning!
Due to the severity of the child’s anxiety and depressed mood, he was placed in the one-half day homebound program and referred for a brief psychological evaluation. Diagnostically, he easily met criteria for ASD and ADHD. A teacher consequently worked with him at his home after school twice weekly, as he could handle the kindergarten setting only until after lunch. His involvement in therapy was designed to improve socialization abilities as well as to stay on task and follow instructions. He attended a socialization program for children on the Autism Spectrum on a weekly basis. Following 5-months of intervention, Ty had not shown significant progress and appeared more anxious and depressed. Even more crucial, he was not learning in the classroom! He refused to respond to his teacher, and he would not play with the other children. The school administrator questioned whether he could continue to remain in the classroom.
Due to his lack of progress, the use of an experimental treatment was discussed with his mother. The intervention referred to as RESET Therapy was described which utilized a bio-acoustical utilization device (BAUD). I had previously and successfully used this intervention with adults, teens, and children who had PTSD, anxiety disorders, and depression. Based on my prior success, I asked Ty’s mother, “Why not try to use this treatment to calm Ty’s fiery brain?” Ty’s desperate mother wholeheartedly agreed to the suggestion. A session was scheduled immediately after his next school experience and then again, the following morning before school.
Consequent to his first RESET treatment, his teacher noticed an immediate and major difference. Three additional sessions were completed with the first two on a weekly basis followed by a two-week lapse. Shortly after the first two sessions, the homebound instruction was discontinued, and Ty was able to attend school all-day. In the interim, his mother underwent major surgery in another city. His teacher consequently noticed some regression, primarily manifested in increased anxiety and again “making noises” in the classroom. (Due to mother’s inability to drive and Ty’s improvement, he was not seen in therapy after the five RESET sessions until the semester ended). Amazingly he made honor roll the next 6 weeks. From the first treatment session to the end of the school year was only 14 weeks.
Impressively, it was only six weeks after receiving his first two treatments that Ty made kindergarten “honor roll” for that grading period. He was learning! He was reported by his teacher to be more sociable with peers and relational with his teacher. When we met for his fifth RESET session, Ty wanted to tell me the good news, that he would be promoted to first grade! Three months following the first two treatment sessions, Ty also received three certificates at his school’s Awards Ceremony: “Most Improved,” “Good Citizenship,” and “Promotion to First Grade.”
Both his teacher and mother reported that Ty’s academic, interpersonal, and behavioral improvements, “were the difference between night and day.” Ty now looks forward to regular playdates at his cousin’s house. He has so much fun playing while there; he wants his parents to allow him to stay longer! Only four months ago he stood by and watched other children play, and if offered a toy, he took it to another room to play with it alone. He goes fishing with his father, and when he returns home he does not just say, “I caught a fish,” but he tells his mother every detail of the fishing expedition. He follows directions and, without being asked, he helps his mother fold clothes, and he uses a small broom to sweep.
He reportedly told his father, “I’m the man. I have one hundred girlfriends. You ain’t the man because you only have one (Mom)!” Ty went to a skating party, and his Dad observed that he seemed to be talking to “all the girls.” Mother reports Ty has matured so much. Now he is animated and shows expression.
Recent psychological testing shows that Ty still meets the criteria for ASD, but now he has a new “lease on life.” His anxiety no longer blocks his ability to learn. What an amazing transformation for this child. From my perspective, I have another tool in my kit to assist these children in their adjustment efforts. Even better, I get to hear the good news of their successes rather than their previous failures.
Susan Parcell Bindewald PMHCNS-BC
Psychiatric Clinical Nurse Specialist | <urn:uuid:5eaf6585-d42c-4368-87f8-2c4684c40221> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.drlindenfeldresettherapy.com/single-post/2018/06/22/Autism-Spectrum-Disorder | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.982542 | 1,610 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.464750617742... | 4 | Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. Although autism can be diagnosed at any age, it is said to be a “developmental disorder” because symptoms generally appear in the first two years of life. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), a guide created by the American Psychiatric Association used to diagnose mental disorders, people with ASD have:
Difficulty with communication and interaction with other people.
Restricted interests and repetitive behaviors.
Symptoms that hurt the person’s ability to function properly in school, work, and other areas of life.
Autism is known as a “spectrum” disorder because there is wide variation in the type and severity of symptoms people experience. ASD occurs in all ethnic, racial, and economic groups. Although ASD can be a lifelong disorder, treatments and services can improve a person’s symptoms and ability to function. (“NIMH » Autism Spectrum Disorder,” Last Revised - March 2018) Treatment for ASD is uniquely tailored to each child or adult meaning that each, each intervention should be planned to address the individual’s specific needs.
Intervention can involve behavioral treatments, medicines or both. Many persons with autism have additional medical conditions such as sleep disturbance, seizures, and gastrointestinal (GI) distress. Addressing these conditions can improve attention, learning and related behaviors. (Learn more about Treatment of Autism’s Core Symptoms and Treatment of Associated Medical Conditions.)
Early intensive behavioral intervention involves a child's entire family, working closely with a team of professionals. In some early intervention programs, therapists come into the home to deliver services. This can include parent training with the parent leading therapy sessions under the supervision of the therapist. Other programs deliver therapy in a specialized center, classroom or preschool. (“How Is Autism Treated?,” 2012)
A novel treatment approach referred to as Reconsolidation Enhancement by Stimulation of Emotional Triggers (RESET Therapy), was utilized with a six-year-old boy (Ty) whose mounting anxiety and depression interfered with his adjustment to his new kindergarten setting. The rationale behind the decision to utilize this intervention was that it was a non-verbally based treatment that elicited calmness at a subconscious level through the use of binaural sound. The hypothesis was that if Ty’s fear reaction to new circumstances could be checked, his innate curiosity would permit him to adjust to his new circumstances.
Case Study – ‘His Own Little World’
Ty is a bright boy who had been in a public pre-school and reportedly had progressed normally. There had been no prior suggestion that Ty was on the Autism Spectrum (ASD) scale. This youngster eagerly looked forward to the first day of kindergarten, but following this monumental day, Ty told his parents that he did not want to go back to school. Consequently, this child was seen for psychotherapy after about three weeks of continued school distress. His teacher reported that Ty seemed to be “in his own little world” and would not interact with other children or respond to her. He was not learning!
Due to the severity of the child’s anxiety and depressed mood, he was placed in the one-half day homebound program and referred for a brief psychological evaluation. Diagnostically, he easily met criteria for ASD and ADHD. A teacher consequently worked with him at his home after school twice weekly, as he could handle the kindergarten setting only until after lunch. His involvement in therapy was designed to improve socialization abilities as well as to stay on task and follow instructions. He attended a socialization program for children on the Autism Spectrum on a weekly basis. Following 5-months of intervention, Ty had not shown significant progress and appeared more anxious and depressed. Even more crucial, he was not learning in the classroom! He refused to respond to his teacher, and he would not play with the other children. The school administrator questioned whether he could continue to remain in the classroom.
Due to his lack of progress, the use of an experimental treatment was discussed with his mother. The intervention referred to as RESET Therapy was described which utilized a bio-acoustical utilization device (BAUD). I had previously and successfully used this intervention with adults, teens, and children who had PTSD, anxiety disorders, and depression. Based on my prior success, I asked Ty’s mother, “Why not try to use this treatment to calm Ty’s fiery brain?” Ty’s desperate mother wholeheartedly agreed to the suggestion. A session was scheduled immediately after his next school experience and then again, the following morning before school.
Consequent to his first RESET treatment, his teacher noticed an immediate and major difference. Three additional sessions were completed with the first two on a weekly basis followed by a two-week lapse. Shortly after the first two sessions, the homebound instruction was discontinued, and Ty was able to attend school all-day. In the interim, his mother underwent major surgery in another city. His teacher consequently noticed some regression, primarily manifested in increased anxiety and again “making noises” in the classroom. (Due to mother’s inability to drive and Ty’s improvement, he was not seen in therapy after the five RESET sessions until the semester ended). Amazingly he made honor roll the next 6 weeks. From the first treatment session to the end of the school year was only 14 weeks.
Impressively, it was only six weeks after receiving his first two treatments that Ty made kindergarten “honor roll” for that grading period. He was learning! He was reported by his teacher to be more sociable with peers and relational with his teacher. When we met for his fifth RESET session, Ty wanted to tell me the good news, that he would be promoted to first grade! Three months following the first two treatment sessions, Ty also received three certificates at his school’s Awards Ceremony: “Most Improved,” “Good Citizenship,” and “Promotion to First Grade.”
Both his teacher and mother reported that Ty’s academic, interpersonal, and behavioral improvements, “were the difference between night and day.” Ty now looks forward to regular playdates at his cousin’s house. He has so much fun playing while there; he wants his parents to allow him to stay longer! Only four months ago he stood by and watched other children play, and if offered a toy, he took it to another room to play with it alone. He goes fishing with his father, and when he returns home he does not just say, “I caught a fish,” but he tells his mother every detail of the fishing expedition. He follows directions and, without being asked, he helps his mother fold clothes, and he uses a small broom to sweep.
He reportedly told his father, “I’m the man. I have one hundred girlfriends. You ain’t the man because you only have one (Mom)!” Ty went to a skating party, and his Dad observed that he seemed to be talking to “all the girls.” Mother reports Ty has matured so much. Now he is animated and shows expression.
Recent psychological testing shows that Ty still meets the criteria for ASD, but now he has a new “lease on life.” His anxiety no longer blocks his ability to learn. What an amazing transformation for this child. From my perspective, I have another tool in my kit to assist these children in their adjustment efforts. Even better, I get to hear the good news of their successes rather than their previous failures.
Susan Parcell Bindewald PMHCNS-BC
Psychiatric Clinical Nurse Specialist | 1,515 | ENGLISH | 1 |
HISTORY OF THE OFFICE OF THE CONSTABLE
The offices of Constable and Sheriff were imported to the United States during colonial times. In 1651, the colony of Virginia had an appointed/elected Sheriff which included a volunteer posse. The American colonies also had Constables and most were volunteer peace officers appointed by the village leaders. Like their British counterparts, they were responsible for keeping the peace and arresting law breakers who were brought before the justice of the peace. Some of the other duties of the Plymouth, Massachusetts Constable in 1634 were weights and measures, surveyor and announcing marriages. During the war of 1812, a Maryland posse of volunteer citizen Peace Officers arrested several British soldiers for disorderly conduct and placed them in the custody of the sheriff. The leader of the posse was captured and imprisoned by the British on a warship. One of the negotiators for his release was Francis Scott Key. The first Peace Officer to be killed in
the line of duty was Constable Darius Quimby of New York. Constable Quimby was gunned down in 1791.
He was most likely an unpaid Peace Officer.
As America moved West, so did reserve Peace Officers. There were posses of volunteer Peace Officers that worked for the Sheriff. There were per diem (per day) part-time Deputies, Constables and Marshals. It was not unusual for a person to get a one-day appointment as a Deputy Sheriff, Constable or Marshal to find a lawbreaker and bring him to justice. Teddy Roosevelt was a part-time Deputy Sheriff. There were special US Deputy Marshals, appointed by the U.S. Marshal. Special Deputy Marshals worked for a pittance and sometimes for nothing to protect the citizens in the territories (which were not yet states) from roving bands of outlaws and to administer justice for the US courts and judges. Many of these volunteer and part time lawmen died in the line of duty. | <urn:uuid:c1e2de87-762d-4809-b1be-3543a67cf83e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.massachusettsconstablesoffice.org/history-of-the-constable | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.988894 | 395 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.2453954815864563,
0.19194073975086212,
-0.07784426212310791,
0.341319292783... | 2 | HISTORY OF THE OFFICE OF THE CONSTABLE
The offices of Constable and Sheriff were imported to the United States during colonial times. In 1651, the colony of Virginia had an appointed/elected Sheriff which included a volunteer posse. The American colonies also had Constables and most were volunteer peace officers appointed by the village leaders. Like their British counterparts, they were responsible for keeping the peace and arresting law breakers who were brought before the justice of the peace. Some of the other duties of the Plymouth, Massachusetts Constable in 1634 were weights and measures, surveyor and announcing marriages. During the war of 1812, a Maryland posse of volunteer citizen Peace Officers arrested several British soldiers for disorderly conduct and placed them in the custody of the sheriff. The leader of the posse was captured and imprisoned by the British on a warship. One of the negotiators for his release was Francis Scott Key. The first Peace Officer to be killed in
the line of duty was Constable Darius Quimby of New York. Constable Quimby was gunned down in 1791.
He was most likely an unpaid Peace Officer.
As America moved West, so did reserve Peace Officers. There were posses of volunteer Peace Officers that worked for the Sheriff. There were per diem (per day) part-time Deputies, Constables and Marshals. It was not unusual for a person to get a one-day appointment as a Deputy Sheriff, Constable or Marshal to find a lawbreaker and bring him to justice. Teddy Roosevelt was a part-time Deputy Sheriff. There were special US Deputy Marshals, appointed by the U.S. Marshal. Special Deputy Marshals worked for a pittance and sometimes for nothing to protect the citizens in the territories (which were not yet states) from roving bands of outlaws and to administer justice for the US courts and judges. Many of these volunteer and part time lawmen died in the line of duty. | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the beginning of the 20th
century, Tesla became famous for his work on ac power, but he had other great ideas. Nikola Tesla has built a huge tower for wireless transmission of electricity around the world. However, things did not go according to his plan.
The tower was 57 meters high. The base was framed with wood, and at the top there was a giant ball 20 meters in diameter, made of steel. Underneath the tower, underground, there were tunnels and a system of iron “roots” that penetrated deep into the ground. Tesla believed that the tower was just the beginning of an entire system that could wirelessly supply electricity worldwide.
In his lab in Colorado, he worked on a wireless transmission experiment, trying to send electricity across the country. It is difficult to draw conclusions from his notes on this work, but it seems that at least one occasion the experiment was successful. Eventually he returned to the East, convinced that this idea could translate into reality on a much larger scale.
Tesla secured $ 150,000 support from JP Morgan. The investor was most interested in the idea of wireless communication. At that time, the Italian inventor Marconi introduced a system of wireless telegraphy, sending messages from ships to the mainland. But Nikola Tesla had bigger ideas.
Construction of the tower began in 1901 on Long Island, what would later be known as the Wardencliffe Tower. Tesla imagined it would be the start of a network of at least 30 towers around the world. He believed those towers would allow him to send electricity through the atmosphere so anyone with equipment could plug in and electricity would be present everywhere.
However, this idea never worked out: the scientific theories on which Tesla’s dream was based were later split. Electricity can be transmitted through the air, but the amount of force needed to send significant energy makes the system impractical.
Even to try, Tesla needed more money, which Morgan did not want to provide. There were reports of sparks flying from the tower, but the metal sphere remained in place for mysterious reasons.
As finances dried up, Tesla pledged property and eventually lost everything he had as financial problems worsened. In 1917, the new owner decided to destroy the tower with dynamite and turn it into metal scrap. After the first explosion, the tower bent to the ground, and then the workers tore it down to the ground. | <urn:uuid:ac7ac011-3d56-4a2a-bd0a-7525680f6666> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sciencefunfacts.com/wireless-power-for-the-whole-world-how-did-the-great-experiment-teslas-tower-fail/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.986407 | 482 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.60367190837... | 1 | At the beginning of the 20th
century, Tesla became famous for his work on ac power, but he had other great ideas. Nikola Tesla has built a huge tower for wireless transmission of electricity around the world. However, things did not go according to his plan.
The tower was 57 meters high. The base was framed with wood, and at the top there was a giant ball 20 meters in diameter, made of steel. Underneath the tower, underground, there were tunnels and a system of iron “roots” that penetrated deep into the ground. Tesla believed that the tower was just the beginning of an entire system that could wirelessly supply electricity worldwide.
In his lab in Colorado, he worked on a wireless transmission experiment, trying to send electricity across the country. It is difficult to draw conclusions from his notes on this work, but it seems that at least one occasion the experiment was successful. Eventually he returned to the East, convinced that this idea could translate into reality on a much larger scale.
Tesla secured $ 150,000 support from JP Morgan. The investor was most interested in the idea of wireless communication. At that time, the Italian inventor Marconi introduced a system of wireless telegraphy, sending messages from ships to the mainland. But Nikola Tesla had bigger ideas.
Construction of the tower began in 1901 on Long Island, what would later be known as the Wardencliffe Tower. Tesla imagined it would be the start of a network of at least 30 towers around the world. He believed those towers would allow him to send electricity through the atmosphere so anyone with equipment could plug in and electricity would be present everywhere.
However, this idea never worked out: the scientific theories on which Tesla’s dream was based were later split. Electricity can be transmitted through the air, but the amount of force needed to send significant energy makes the system impractical.
Even to try, Tesla needed more money, which Morgan did not want to provide. There were reports of sparks flying from the tower, but the metal sphere remained in place for mysterious reasons.
As finances dried up, Tesla pledged property and eventually lost everything he had as financial problems worsened. In 1917, the new owner decided to destroy the tower with dynamite and turn it into metal scrap. After the first explosion, the tower bent to the ground, and then the workers tore it down to the ground. | 496 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Curbed a CHamoru uprising
Not all CHamorus fought valiantly against Spanish occupation. There were some who chose to side with the Spanish for a variety of reasons. Hineti, a clan leader from Sinajana, chose to protect the Spanish in hopes of improving their personal status and gaining power. Hineti defended the Spanish against CHamoru revolts, and is most known for curbing a CHamoru uprising in Hagåtña in 1684.
Because he was from a mountainous area, it is assumed that Hineti was of the lower caste manachang, as the higher caste matua lived near the ocean. Christianity afforded the lower class a new status in society that they would have had to otherwise be born into. Like their leader, Hineti’s soldiers were no doubt lower class manachang.
Hineti was willingly baptized and given the name Ignacio by the Spanish. In 1678 he was appointed sergeant-general and assigned as the commander of the CHamoru branch of the Spanish militia. During this time, the Spanish military rule was at its peak, and many CHamorus had begun serving the Spanish as soldiers and full-time missionaries. Hineti became one of the most loyal of these soldiers, earning his place in countless Spanish historical accounts of this era. In several accounts, the Spanish admit that if it had not been for Hineti and his troops, the CHamorus would have overthrown the Spanish government in 1684.
In July of that year, Jose de Quiroga, Spain’s most relentless military ruler that was sent to the Mariana Islands to fight CHamoru resistance, and his troops were in Saipan fighting CHamoru armies there. The Spanish CHamoru wars had been going on for ten years on Guam by then and most of the defiant CHamorus were thought to be killed, ran off island or subdued. Quiroga was so confident of this that he left Hagåtña nearly defenseless. He took all the best soldiers and weapons to Saipan. It was the perfect time to strike against Spain. A bold chief named Yula (also spelled Yura) quickly seized the opportunity and organized a group of CHamorus to attack the Spanish garrison and churches in Hagåtña.
On July 23, 1684, about forty men from three villages attacked the Spanish after Mass. They had precisely chosen a day when the Vice-Provincial Father Gerardo Bouwens had invited some priests to a meeting at his residence in Hagåtña. Yula and his army managed to get into the garrison by attending the mass with other parishioners. After mass, the warriors split into two groups – one went to the governor’s palace, the other went to the house of the priests. At the governor’s house, Yura’s forces killed a sentry and wounded a servant. A Filipino soldier killed Yula, but his army continued to fight.
Four youth from Yula’s army went straight to the Spanish governor’s palace to look for him. They didn’t find him there, but ran into him alone and unarmed on the street. They attacked him, threw him down to the ground, cut him on the face and stabbed him repeatedly, jeering and scoffing all the while. They would have killed him, but two soldiers ran up on them and killed the main attacker, causing the other three to flee.
Yula’s army also took over a guardhouse and killed a soldier who did not have a weapon, and another who was sleeping. They killed a third soldier that day along the road as they were retreating. A fourth soldier died the next day and seventeen more were wounded. They also attacked the churches, harming several priests and killing two. At that point Yula’s forces made a fatal mistake. Instead of capitalizing on their position and finishing off the unprotected priests and government officials, Yula’s warriors retreated and Hineti stepped in.
When Hineti saw what was happening, he ran to the church and told a priest:
Do not come out, dear Father, because they will kill you. Stay inside. We will defend you.
He noticed that the rebels had set fire to the offices attached to the church and went immediately back to the church to remove two devotional statues, St. Michael and of the Guardian Angel, so they would not burn. He then went into the house and arranged for the priests to withdraw to the fort. He personally helped to carry those who were wounded. Once he saw that they were all safe, he returned to his village and gathered fifty men with weapons. They marched to Hagåtña and surrounded the fort.
To prove that he was there to fight for the Spanish, Hineti stepped aside from his squadron and began to cry for the havoc that had been wreaked on the church and governor. He went to the fort with his sword hanging from his belt, and staff in hand, to apologize to the governor and priests for the attack. Hineti then offered his life to defend them.
In Spanish reports Hineti was to have said with tears and sighs:
Here I am to prevent the enemies of God to set fire to His house and that of His ministers, and I am ready to give my life for this, and for all those who are in this fort. So I ask you, O Governor, to give me permission to go now with my men to fight with those forty traitors, and burn their town, and to bloody our weapons on them, the same way that they have bloodied their weapons on your persons, killing those who are the Fathers of their souls.
At one in the morning on July 27, the CHamoru army returned accompanied by men from two other districts. They came from among a wooded area toward the church guarded by Hineti’s army. Hineti went out to meet them with spears. The CHamorus responded in kind, and Hineti signaled to the fort to ask for firearms, but the governor did no grant him even one man, although he had seventy-five with him. Thus, two of Hineti’s men were wounded and eventually killed. But Hineti did not retreat until he won the battle.
Hineti and his troops were initially charged with the protection of the school, church and missionaries’ homes. Convinced that he could kill the remaining fighters, Hineti pleaded for Spanish troops to follow him into battle. But Hineti was called back to the fort by Governor Esplana, where his soldiers received cover from the musket’s fire. Noticing that the CHamorus threw themselves to the ground when they expected gunfire, Hineti timed his attacks from the fort accordingly.
On August 19, CHamoru fighters from across the island came at the Spanish, attacking from all four sides, but they were met by Hineti and the artillery of the Spanish. They could not break through. They eventually retreated and resorted to pleading with Hineti. They told him he had offended his people by siding with the Spanish. They asked him to consider that the Spanish could not maintain themselves in the islands, and that it would not be long before they would all have to die, on the one hand for lack of sustenance and on the other because the neighboring islands were in readiness to join in the revolt and finish the Spanish off once and for all. Hineti was also asked to kill the governor and deliver them his head. He responded that he was a Catholic and proud of it, and that even if he had to lose his life one thousand times he would do so to protect the Spanish.
Eventually Quiroga and his army returned to the island, stifling all remaining resistance. Hineti continued to fight for the Spanish for the rest of his life.
For further reading
Aguon. Katherine B. Commentary. “Ancient Chamorro Leaders of Guahan.” Guahan Magazine (June 2007).
Benavente, Eddie L.G. I Manmaga’lahi yan I Manma’gas – Geran Chamoru yan Espanot, 1668-1695. Mangilao, GU: Eddie L.G. Benavente, 2007.
Hezel, Francis. “From Conversion to Conquest: The Early Spanish Mission in the Marianas.” Journal of Pacific History 17 (1982): 3-4; 115-37. Also available online at Micronesian Seminar (accessed 22 April 2013).
Le Gobien, Charles. Histories des Isles Marianes. Paris: 1700. A manuscript translated into English is available at the University of Guam Richard F. Taitano Micronesian Area Research Center.
Political Status Education Coordinating Commission. Hale-ta – I Manfåyi: Who’s Who in Chamorro History. Vol. 1. Hagåtña: Political Status Education Coordinating Commission, 1995.
Rogers, Robert. Destiny’s Landfall: A History of Guam. Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1995. | <urn:uuid:3bb12154-81ae-498c-b24b-fd14daaf1ed1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.guampedia.com/hineti-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.987149 | 1,914 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.46216610074... | 4 | Curbed a CHamoru uprising
Not all CHamorus fought valiantly against Spanish occupation. There were some who chose to side with the Spanish for a variety of reasons. Hineti, a clan leader from Sinajana, chose to protect the Spanish in hopes of improving their personal status and gaining power. Hineti defended the Spanish against CHamoru revolts, and is most known for curbing a CHamoru uprising in Hagåtña in 1684.
Because he was from a mountainous area, it is assumed that Hineti was of the lower caste manachang, as the higher caste matua lived near the ocean. Christianity afforded the lower class a new status in society that they would have had to otherwise be born into. Like their leader, Hineti’s soldiers were no doubt lower class manachang.
Hineti was willingly baptized and given the name Ignacio by the Spanish. In 1678 he was appointed sergeant-general and assigned as the commander of the CHamoru branch of the Spanish militia. During this time, the Spanish military rule was at its peak, and many CHamorus had begun serving the Spanish as soldiers and full-time missionaries. Hineti became one of the most loyal of these soldiers, earning his place in countless Spanish historical accounts of this era. In several accounts, the Spanish admit that if it had not been for Hineti and his troops, the CHamorus would have overthrown the Spanish government in 1684.
In July of that year, Jose de Quiroga, Spain’s most relentless military ruler that was sent to the Mariana Islands to fight CHamoru resistance, and his troops were in Saipan fighting CHamoru armies there. The Spanish CHamoru wars had been going on for ten years on Guam by then and most of the defiant CHamorus were thought to be killed, ran off island or subdued. Quiroga was so confident of this that he left Hagåtña nearly defenseless. He took all the best soldiers and weapons to Saipan. It was the perfect time to strike against Spain. A bold chief named Yula (also spelled Yura) quickly seized the opportunity and organized a group of CHamorus to attack the Spanish garrison and churches in Hagåtña.
On July 23, 1684, about forty men from three villages attacked the Spanish after Mass. They had precisely chosen a day when the Vice-Provincial Father Gerardo Bouwens had invited some priests to a meeting at his residence in Hagåtña. Yula and his army managed to get into the garrison by attending the mass with other parishioners. After mass, the warriors split into two groups – one went to the governor’s palace, the other went to the house of the priests. At the governor’s house, Yura’s forces killed a sentry and wounded a servant. A Filipino soldier killed Yula, but his army continued to fight.
Four youth from Yula’s army went straight to the Spanish governor’s palace to look for him. They didn’t find him there, but ran into him alone and unarmed on the street. They attacked him, threw him down to the ground, cut him on the face and stabbed him repeatedly, jeering and scoffing all the while. They would have killed him, but two soldiers ran up on them and killed the main attacker, causing the other three to flee.
Yula’s army also took over a guardhouse and killed a soldier who did not have a weapon, and another who was sleeping. They killed a third soldier that day along the road as they were retreating. A fourth soldier died the next day and seventeen more were wounded. They also attacked the churches, harming several priests and killing two. At that point Yula’s forces made a fatal mistake. Instead of capitalizing on their position and finishing off the unprotected priests and government officials, Yula’s warriors retreated and Hineti stepped in.
When Hineti saw what was happening, he ran to the church and told a priest:
Do not come out, dear Father, because they will kill you. Stay inside. We will defend you.
He noticed that the rebels had set fire to the offices attached to the church and went immediately back to the church to remove two devotional statues, St. Michael and of the Guardian Angel, so they would not burn. He then went into the house and arranged for the priests to withdraw to the fort. He personally helped to carry those who were wounded. Once he saw that they were all safe, he returned to his village and gathered fifty men with weapons. They marched to Hagåtña and surrounded the fort.
To prove that he was there to fight for the Spanish, Hineti stepped aside from his squadron and began to cry for the havoc that had been wreaked on the church and governor. He went to the fort with his sword hanging from his belt, and staff in hand, to apologize to the governor and priests for the attack. Hineti then offered his life to defend them.
In Spanish reports Hineti was to have said with tears and sighs:
Here I am to prevent the enemies of God to set fire to His house and that of His ministers, and I am ready to give my life for this, and for all those who are in this fort. So I ask you, O Governor, to give me permission to go now with my men to fight with those forty traitors, and burn their town, and to bloody our weapons on them, the same way that they have bloodied their weapons on your persons, killing those who are the Fathers of their souls.
At one in the morning on July 27, the CHamoru army returned accompanied by men from two other districts. They came from among a wooded area toward the church guarded by Hineti’s army. Hineti went out to meet them with spears. The CHamorus responded in kind, and Hineti signaled to the fort to ask for firearms, but the governor did no grant him even one man, although he had seventy-five with him. Thus, two of Hineti’s men were wounded and eventually killed. But Hineti did not retreat until he won the battle.
Hineti and his troops were initially charged with the protection of the school, church and missionaries’ homes. Convinced that he could kill the remaining fighters, Hineti pleaded for Spanish troops to follow him into battle. But Hineti was called back to the fort by Governor Esplana, where his soldiers received cover from the musket’s fire. Noticing that the CHamorus threw themselves to the ground when they expected gunfire, Hineti timed his attacks from the fort accordingly.
On August 19, CHamoru fighters from across the island came at the Spanish, attacking from all four sides, but they were met by Hineti and the artillery of the Spanish. They could not break through. They eventually retreated and resorted to pleading with Hineti. They told him he had offended his people by siding with the Spanish. They asked him to consider that the Spanish could not maintain themselves in the islands, and that it would not be long before they would all have to die, on the one hand for lack of sustenance and on the other because the neighboring islands were in readiness to join in the revolt and finish the Spanish off once and for all. Hineti was also asked to kill the governor and deliver them his head. He responded that he was a Catholic and proud of it, and that even if he had to lose his life one thousand times he would do so to protect the Spanish.
Eventually Quiroga and his army returned to the island, stifling all remaining resistance. Hineti continued to fight for the Spanish for the rest of his life.
For further reading
Aguon. Katherine B. Commentary. “Ancient Chamorro Leaders of Guahan.” Guahan Magazine (June 2007).
Benavente, Eddie L.G. I Manmaga’lahi yan I Manma’gas – Geran Chamoru yan Espanot, 1668-1695. Mangilao, GU: Eddie L.G. Benavente, 2007.
Hezel, Francis. “From Conversion to Conquest: The Early Spanish Mission in the Marianas.” Journal of Pacific History 17 (1982): 3-4; 115-37. Also available online at Micronesian Seminar (accessed 22 April 2013).
Le Gobien, Charles. Histories des Isles Marianes. Paris: 1700. A manuscript translated into English is available at the University of Guam Richard F. Taitano Micronesian Area Research Center.
Political Status Education Coordinating Commission. Hale-ta – I Manfåyi: Who’s Who in Chamorro History. Vol. 1. Hagåtña: Political Status Education Coordinating Commission, 1995.
Rogers, Robert. Destiny’s Landfall: A History of Guam. Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1995. | 1,908 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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